THE PHYSICAL LIFE OF WOMAN:

ADVICE TO THE MAIDEN, WIFE AND MOTHER. 

PUBLISHERS' NOTICE. 

The extraordinary popularity achieved and maintained by Dr. GEO. H. NAPHEYS' _Physical Life of Woman_, places it beyond question among theclassics of the English language. Convinced of its high literary as wellas medical value, the present publishers have spared no pains or expenseto place it before the public in the most attractive style. 

The _text_ has been most carefully revised and rewritten by the eminentauthor himself; extensive additions of important matter the fruit ofthree more years devoted to the study of the subject and the wants ofreaders, have been incorporated. In type, paper and binding, the mostappropriate materials have been selected. And, to satisfy the repeatedrequests of purchasers, permission has been obtained from the author toinsert his portrait, engraved on steel by one of the most skilful Londonartists. 

With these additions, the _Physical Life of Woman_ comes before thepublic with all the novelty and freshness of a new book, and also withthe solid and substantial reputation for practical worth which its salesof nearly _fifty thousand_ copies a year for _three_ years guarantee toit. 

We add a

SYNOPSIS OF THE BOOK. 

It treats of woman in her three great positions in life, as the MAIDEN, the WIFE, and the MOTHER. 

Under the first of these is discussed the mysterious change sheundergoes when ripening from the indifferent girl to the tender andsensitive virgin. The dangers she runs at this critical epoch arecarefully noted, and the rules to prevent and remedy them clearly setforth. The all-absorbing topic of _Love_, is next treated of in a pureand elevated style, but strictly from the physician's point of view, andmany salutary hints are given to direct the passion to noble ends and inproper channels, and to teach the youthful reader how to shununfortunate unions. 

In the part addressed to _Wives_ the health of the married couple isfirst considered as being essential to their happiness. Plainly, yetdelicately, the rules that should govern them are laid down; the absenceof children and their excessive numbers are both mentioned, as requiringappropriate correction, and an unsparing hand is laid upon certainprevalent social vices. A full discussion of the important topic of theinheritance of physical and mental traits will be found, and two mostthorough and practical chapters on Pregnancy and Confinement are added, most invaluable to every young wife. 

The duties of the _Mother_ are next set forth, in nursing her child, andtaking proper care of it, in training its budding powers, and also ingiving her own attention to it in some of the more common diseases towhich children are subject. 

The sections devoted to _Health in Marriage_ will be peculiarly welcometo many women suffering in health from they know not what exact cause, but really from some of those inward or local weaknesses which are heredescribed. While to very many others who are approaching or aboutpassing through the critical epoch of the _Change of Life_, the full andwell-considered views of the author in the part devoted to that periodwill be read with benefit and gratitude. 

A carefully prepared Index and a copious list of authorities close thevolume. 

THEPHYSICAL LIFE OF WOMAN:ADVICE TO THEMAIDEN, WIFE AND MOTHER. 

byGEORGE H. NAPHEYS, A. M. , M. D. 

MEMBER OF THE PHILADELPHIA COUNTY MEDICAL SOCIETY; CORRESPONDING MEMBEROF THE GYNECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BOSTON; LATE CHIEF OF MEDICAL CLINIC OFTHE JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE; AUTHOR OF "THE TRANSMISSION OF LIFE, ""THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASE, " "MODERN MEDICAL THERAPEUTICS, ""LETTERS FROM EUROPE, " ETC. 

"Je veux qu'une femme ait des clartes de tout. "--Molière. 

New Edition. 

WITH THE FINAL CORRECTIONS OF THE AUTHOR, AND A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 

PHILADELPHIA:DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER, 23 SOUTH NINTH STREET. 1889. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, BY D. G. BRINTON, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Allrights reserved. 

EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

In presenting a third edition of this work to the public, with the finalchanges and improvements of the author, the publishers have felt it aduty to attach to it a brief sketch of his life, which drew to so earlyand lamented a termination. The whole has also been submitted to acareful revision, in order that it might be brought down to the latestadvances in the department of science of which it treats, and also toinclude in it the final suggestions of the author. 

While Dr. Napheys evidently considered the second edition of the presentwork as meeting closely the requirements of readers, and therefore leftbehind him no notes which would alter the general plan, a number ofcorrections and minor changes have been made in the text, variousparagraphs have been materially modified, and the Appendix referring toauthorities more or less altered. 

The continued popularity of the work has been shown, not only by thesteady demand for it, but by the efforts of various authors to writeimitations of it, and various publishers to issue mutilated andimperfect editions. Against these the present publishers would warninnocent purchasers. The present is the only edition containing theimportant additions and corrections made by the author during the latteryears of his life; and none other was authorized by him. 

In its present form, _The Physical Life of Woman_ may justly claim tocount among the classics of American literature. Its popularityincreases with time, and none of the many similar works which haveappeared have approached it in public estimation. It is believed that inthe present edition no important scientific fact bearing upon thesubject has been omitted, and the most recent developments of hygienewill be found discussed. 

1878. 

PREFACE TO THE SECOND STEREOTYPE EDITION. 

Three years have passed since the author of the present work ventured tolay it before the public, not without unusual anxiety as to the mannerin which he had fulfilled a task he knew to be so fruitful of goodresults if well done. Those years of trial are over, and they havebrought a recognition of his labors beyond his most sanguine dreams. Nearly _one hundred and fifty thousand copies_ of the work have beensold in that period; it has been separately republished both in Canadaand England; it has been honored by a translation into German; theimitations of it which have been written form almost a small library;and, more to the satisfaction of the author than all this, it hasreceived the highest praise both at home and abroad, from both themedical profession and the general learned world. 

The present new stereotype edition contains the result of three moreyears of study and experience, enlightened and aided by very manyletters from readers, which served to point out wherein the previousedition fell short of their wants. The text has been carefully revised, and in large part wholly rewritten; nearly one hundred and fifty pagesof selected new matter have been added; and the latest steps of medicalscience in this direction have been followed. 

Of the parts which are quite new, and which from the inquiries ofnumerous readers will add greatly to the value of the work, are thesections on the disturbances of the monthly function in girls, the careof the child, the management of diseases of children, the diseasesincident to pregnancy, childbed, and nursing, etc. 

Indeed, in the present edition the author has aimed to omit nothingwhich can aid Woman in performing her full duty to herself and others, so far as that duty lies in the sphere of her Physical Life, whether sheis called upon to act as Wife, Mother, Teacher, or Guide. His mostardent desire continues to be that the work will be found a sure andsafe monitor amid the difficult duties of Maidenhood and Maternity. 

LONDON, ENGLAND, October, 1872. 

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 

It seems well to offer, at the outset, a few words explanatory of thenature and object of this book. The author feels that its aim is novel, is daring, and will perhaps subject him to criticism. He therefore makehis plea, _pro domo sua_, in advance. 

The researches of scientific men within the last few years have broughtto light very many facts relating to the physiology of woman, thediseases to which she is subject, and the proper means to prevent thosediseases. Such information, if universally possessed, cannot but resultin great benefit to the individual and the commonwealth. The difficultyis to express one's self clearly and popularly on topics never referredto in ordinary social intercourse. But as the physician is obliged dailyto speak in plain yet decorous language of such matters, the author feltthat the difficulty was not unsurmountable. 

He is aware that a respectable though diminishing class in the communitymaintain that nothing which relates exclusively to either sex shouldbecome the subject of popular medical instruction. With everyinclination to do this class justice, he feels sure that such an opinionis radically erroneous. Ignorance is no more the mother of purity thanshe is of religion. The men and women who study and practise medicineare not the worse, but the better, for their knowledge of such matters. So it would be with the community. Had every person a soundunderstanding of the relations of the sexes, one of the most fertilesources of crime would be removed. 

A brief appendix has been added, directed more especially to theprofessional reader, who may desire to consult some of the originalauthorities upon whom the author has drawn. And here he would ask fromhis fellow-members of the medical profession their countenance andassistance in his attempt to distribute sound information of thischaracter among the people. None but physicians can know what sadconsequences are constantly occurring from the want of it. * * *

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF GEORGE HENRY NAPHEYS, M. D. 

Were man's life measured by his deeds, as the poet suggests, how briefwould be the long years of many an octogenarian, and how extended theshort span which has been allotted to not a few of the world's famousheroes!

This oft-repeated thought strikes us forcibly in considering thebiography of the subject of this sketch. Closing his life at an age whenmost professional men are but beginning theirs, he had already studiedbroadly, had traveled widely over two continents, had gained credit andfame by the sword and the pen, and had amassed a fund of erudition andexperience which the more lethargic lives of most men fail to approachafter twice his length of days. It is eminently appropriate that arecord of his busy career should be attached to the works on which hiscelebrity is chiefly bound, and in which he most conspicuously displaysthat command of language and happy facility of imparting instructionfor which he was so remarkable. 

GEORGE HENRY NAPHEYS (pronounced Nā'feez, the ā as in _fate_) wasborn in the city of Philadelphia, March 5th, 1842. His parents diedwhile he was still at a tender age, and he was placed with somerelatives who resided in the city. From early years he was characterizedby quick perceptions and a retentive memory. In the Philadelphia HighSchool, from which he received the academic degree of Master of Arts, hewas considered the best scholar in his class, a marked distinction inview of the large numbers which attend that institution. Besidesacquiring the usual studies of the High School, he gave considerabletime to phonography, in which he became so skilled that he could reportany ordinary speaker with entire accuracy. This subsequently proved agreat advantage to him in his medical career. 

After his graduation he repaired to Hartford, Conn. , where he wasoffered and accepted the position of private secretary to a gentleman ofprominence in the literary and religious world. 

Thus he was engaged when the civil war broke out. With his naturalwarmth of feeling and strong emotions, he entered the fray among thefirst, and went out as Lieutenant, and subsequently as Captain, CompanyF, 10th Connecticut State Volunteers. The regiment was enlisted for ninemonths, and was dispatched to Louisiana, General Banks then commandingthe Department. It participated in engagements near Baton Rouge and onthe Red River, in which Captain Napheys always acquitted himself withbravery and credit. 

At the time the regiment was disbanded, an early preference for medicalsubjects led him to devote a year to the preliminary studies of thatprofession, but not waiting the full period required for a degree, hewas appointed assistant medical officer on the U. S. Steamer Mingo, ofthe South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. On her he passed a number ofmonths, cruising off the coast of the Carolinas and Georgia, andascended the St. John river. 

These active duties prevented him from receiving his degree of Doctor ofMedicine until after the close of the war, when, in 1866, his diplomawas conferred upon him by the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia, one of the most renowned institutions of our country. 

After graduation, he opened an office in Philadelphia, and connectedhimself with the clinics which are held at the College for the purposeof supplying medicine and medical advice to the poor gratuitously, aswell as for giving students an opportunity of witnessing various formsof disease. The practical experience he gained in this manner wasconsiderable, and his natural ability soon recommended him to theauthorities of the institution, who appointed him Chief of MedicalClinic of the College, a position he held for several years. 

One of the advantages of this post was that it brought him into constantcommunion with many eminent medical men, and rendered him practicallyacquainted with their treatment of disease. His skill in phonographyenabled him to take abundant notes of their lectures, and this led tohis early connection with the periodical literature of the profession. Most of the reports he drew up were published in the _Medical andSurgical Reporter_, a weekly journal, devoted to medical science, published in Philadelphia. The series of reports commenced in April, 1866, and continued, with slight interruptions, until June, 1870. Theyare characterized by a clear and correct style, and a manifestlythorough grasp of the numerous topics treated. 

The success which these ephemeral writings obtained turned his thoughtsin the direction of authorship. His tastes and associations led him toemploy his powers in two directions: first, in preparing for the generalpublic a series of works which would acquaint them with anatomy, physiology, hygiene, sanitary science, nursing, and the management ofdisease, to the extent that intelligent general readers can and ought toknow about these subjects; and secondly, in writing for professional menseveral treatises on the means of alleviating and curing diseases. 

In the prosecution of the first mentioned of these plans, he was earlyimpressed with the utter absence of any treatise on the hygiene of thesexual life in either sex, written in the proper spirit by a scientificman. The field had been left to quacks or worse, who, to serve theirown base ends, scattered inflammatory and often indecent pamphlets overthe land; or else, had one or more of the points been handled byreputable writers, it was in such a vague and imperfect manner that thereader gained little benefit from the perusal. While all agreed that asound treatise on these topics was most desirable, it had been openlyaverred that it could not be written in a proper style for the generalpublic. 

Strong in the conviction that pure motives, literary tact, and therequisite scientific knowledge qualified him to undertake this difficulttask, Dr. Napheys prepared, in the early months of 1869, his work on"The Physical Life of Woman. " Proceeding with caution, he firstsubmitted the MSS. To some professional friends, and profited by theirsuggestions. After the work was in type, and before publication, he sentcomplete copies to a number of gentlemen, eminent as medical teachers, clergymen, educators, and literateurs. Their replies left him in nodoubt but that he had succeeded even beyond his anticipations. Almostunanimously the opinions were complimentary in the highest degree, andevidently written after a close examination of the book. As many ofthese have been printed to accompany the work, in the last and previouseditions, it is needless to do more in this connection than to say thatthey were penned by such judges as Dr. W. A. Hammond, lateSurgeon-General U. S. Army; Dr. Harvey L. Byrd, Professor in the MedicalDepartment of Washington University, Md. ; Dr. Edwin M. Snow, HealthOfficer of the City of Providence, R. I. ; Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, Rev. Horace Bushnell, D. D. , Rev. George A. Crooke, D. D. , D. C. L. , and others. 

On its appearance, the work was received with enthusiasm by both themedical press and the public. While a few journals and individuals wereinclined to condemn it and censure the author, the intelligent and thepure-minded, on all sides, recognized in him the only writer who had yetappeared able to treat these delicate subjects with the dignity ofscience and the straightforwardness necessary for popular instruction. 

Satisfied that he had chosen the proper exercise for his talents, hecomposed and placed in the hands of his publisher, the following year, his not less extraordinary work, "The Transmission of Life, " a treatiseaddressed to the male, as his previous one had been to the female sex. It was dedicated to the late Rev. John Todd, so well known for hisinterest in young men, and his "Student's Manual" and other worksaddressed to them. He accepted the dedication and addressed the author aletter, in which occurs the following high compliment to his work: "I amsurprised at the extent and accuracy of your reading; the judiciousnessof your positions and results; the clear, unequivocal, yet delicate andappropriate language used; and the amount of valuable informationconveyed. " Similar expressions poured in from many other distinguishedcritics, as, for instance, Dr. Noah Porter, President of Yale College;the Rev. Henry Clay Trumbull, the Rev. Abner Jackson, President ofTrinity College, Hartford, etc. 

In the same year (1870) he brought out the first edition of his "ModernTherapeutics, " a technical work, addressed to physicians. This wasenlarged in successive editions, until in its present form, as continuedby other hands in its latest editions, it comprises two parts of 600pages each. Although the author claimed little other originality in thiswork than the selection and arrangement of known facts, yet in theserespects he displayed the strongly practical and original turn of hismind. As a student of the art of Therapeutics in large hospitals, clinics, and dispensaries, he had convinced himself that it is not byexperiments on lower animals, nor yet on the human body in health, thatthe physician can attain the glorious power of alleviating pain andcuring disease; it is only through the daily combat with sickness, bythe bedside and in the consulting room. Chemistry and physiology, hebelieved, could teach but little in this branch; observation andexperience everything. Hence, in his work on Therapeutics he announcedhimself as "aiming at a systematic analysis of all current and approvedmeans of combating disease, " selecting his formulæ and therapeuticaldirections from the most eminent living physicians of all nations. 

This work was most favorably received by medical men; and, edited andrevised by competent hands, continues to be regarded as one of the mostvaluable works in American medical literature. The unanimous opinion ofthe leading medical journals, as well as of its numerous purchasers, have testified to its real and great worth to the practitioner ofmedicine. 

Having thus established a wide, popular and professional reputation, onewhich would have guaranteed him a lucrative practice, it would havetempted another, no doubt, to make the most of this opportunity, sorarely granted a young physician. Not so was it with Dr. Napheys. Nosooner had the three works mentioned been completed than he sailed forEurope, in order to familiarize himself with the famed schools oflearning of the Old World and its rich stores of material for culture. The summer was that of the Franco-German war; and spending most of it inParis, he was witness of several of the most exciting scenes whichattended the dethronement of the Emperor. These he would describeafterwards with a vividness and power of language rarely excelled. 

The excitement of the period did not, however, withdraw his attentionfrom the studies he had in view. These were partially indicated in aseries of letters he contributed to various periodicals during hisabsence. While these letters were principally of a scientific character, it is noteworthy how the relations of medicine to the welfare of manalways occupied his attention. Thus we find, in one sent from England, June, 1870, a description of the Liverpool Medical Missionary Society, a charity which combines religious instruction with medical advice; andagain, he comments on the popular instruction in hygiene which wassupplied at that period to the English workingmen by a committee ofcompetent physicians, organized for that purpose. It was the author'spurpose to collect and expand these letters into a volume, but theproject was not carried out. 

The siege of Paris, which city he left in one of the last trains beforethe blockade commenced, and the prolongation of the war, induced him toreturn home. In the United States he found offers from severalpublishers awaiting him, which would more than occupy him for a fullyear. There was a new edition of his "Therapeutics" demanded, and arevision of both "The Physical Life of Woman" and "The Transmission ofLife. " A New England firm urgently pressed him to superintend theproduction of several hygienic works, and secured him as literaryadviser to their house. He assumed the editorship of the "Half-YearlyCompendium of Medical Science, " and also of a "Physician's Annual, "besides undertaking a number of articles for the periodical press, bothscientific and popular. 

To this active literary life he devoted the year 1871; but at its closefelt more strongly than ever that he must give himself several years ofstudious quiet, in order to accomplish his best. Refusing, therefore, any further engagements, he sailed for Europe again, late in 1871, anddid not return this time until the spring of 1875. In this period, ofmore than three years, he visited almost all the principal cities ofEurope, and enjoyed the friendship of many eminent men at London, St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Paris. Reading, visiting hospitals, andattending clinics, he accumulated a mass of material which he designedto work up into future literary enterprises. 

With these collected stores he returned to the United States early in1875, and set to work with his wonted energy. A new and much enlargededition of the "Therapeutics" was sent to press; a "Handbook of PopularMedicine, " designed to give, in simple language, the domestic treatmentof disease, the rules for nursing the sick, selected receipts for dietand medicinal purposes, and the outlines of anatomy and physiology, wasput in the hands of a publisher; a Synopsis of Pharmacy and MateriaMedica, a work of enormous labor, was well under way; and other literaryprojects were actively planned; when, suddenly, the summons came which, in an instant, with the shears of fate, slit the strand of thisactivity. The rest of the story may be told in the words of thebiographer appointed by the Medical Society of the County ofPhiladelphia to prepare a memoir of his life:--

"While earnestly laboring to prepare for the press his literarycollections, he suffered a severe blow by the sudden death of a personto whom he was deeply attached. Over-work and this emotional shockproduced a result likely enough to occur in one of his ardenttemperament. One afternoon, while engaged in writing, he fell, unconscious, from his chair, and for several days lay in a very criticalcondition. On recovering his powers, it was evident his brain hadsuffered a serious lesion. The old energy and love of labor hadcompletely gone; even the capacity for work seemed absent. Markedmelancholy followed, characterized before long by avoidance of friendsand the loss of a desire of life. This occurred with increasing forceuntil it led to his death, on July 1, 1876, through some toxic agent, the nature of which was not ascertained. 

"Thus early, and thus sadly, terminated a career of unusual brilliancyand promise. 

"It is probable that much that he has written will be read with pleasureand instruction by future generations; and the memory of his genialdisposition, his entertaining conversation, and earnest sense ofprofessional honor, will long be cherished by those of hiscontemporaries who enjoyed his friendship. "--_Transactions of theMedical Society of the State of Pennsylvania_, vol. Xi, p. 720. 

Various tributes were paid to his memory by the societies with which hewas connected, and by the scientific journals to which he had been acontributor. One of these, after narrating some of the circumstancesattending his decease, spoke as follows:--

"Thus did our unfortunate associate close his short but brilliantcareer. The emotions, the tender sentiments he has described with such amagical pen, he felt himself with an unmatched keenness. They masteredhis whole frame with an intensity surpassing all romance. Hisdescriptions of the passions, descriptions which have been the wonder ofthousands, such is their fire and temper, were not rhetorical studies, but the ebullition of a soul sensitive to their lightest breath, and notshunning their wildest tempests. 

"The genius which dictated the lines he has left us is not to be judgedby the conventionalities which suit the cold temperaments of ordinarymen; there is a strong vein of egotism in most devotion; but here wasone who felt, 'all is lost, when love is lost. '"

This extract well sets forth the extraordinary depth of his sentiments, and the fervor of his feelings. It may be added that these mental traitswere not generally ascribed to him by casual or ordinary associates. Hewas, in manners and bearing, evidently not one who sought friendships ordisplayed to the general gaze the current of his thoughts. Consequently, of intimates he had but few, and was considered by those whoseintercourse with him was superficial, to be much more of an intellectualthan of an emotional type of character. 

This impression was doubtless increased by the strongly practical turnof his mind, which is conspicuous in all his works. He was the reverseof a dreamer and had little patience with theorists. In his professionalstudy he always aimed at bringing into the strongest light theutilitarian aspect of medicine, its ameliorating power on humanity, itsreal efficacy in preserving or restoring health and limiting humanmisery. On this his theory of therapeutics was based, and, inspired bythe same opinions, he was one of the most earnest advocates of the dayof popularizing medical science in all its branches among the masses. Inthis effort he was at times severely criticized by that class ofphysicians--and they are by no means extinct--who think that medicineshould be wrapped in mystery, and that the people should be kept inignorance of themselves and of their own physical frailties, to theutmost possible extent. With these learned obscurantists Dr. Napheys hadno patience, and naturally found but slight favor. Fortunately, theywere in the decided minority, and, we are happy to add, even thatminority is daily decreasing. 

Of the various learned societies to which he was attached may bementioned the Philadelphia County Medical Society, the FranklinInstitute of Philadelphia, and the Gynecological Society of Boston. Hiselection as Corresponding Member to the latter body (which is anassociation of scientific men who make an especial study of the hygieneand diseases of women) took place shortly after the first publication ofthe _Physical Life of Woman_, and was meant as a direct tribute ofrespect to him as the author of that work, thus obtaining for it thetestimony of the highest body in that specialty then existing in ourland. 

The general plan on which Dr. Napheys prepared his sanitary writings wasone eminently calculated to reconcile those who were most opposed toinstructing the general public in such branches. While he confidentlybelieved that vastly more harm than good is done by a prudishconcealment of the physiology of sex and its relations to health, healso clearly recognized that such instruction should be imparted at theproper age and under certain limitations; while the general facts commonto the species cannot be taught too generally, or made too familiar. Hence, he projected three books, one to be placed in the hands of youngwomen, a second for youths, and a third for a general household book ofreading and reference on medicine and hygiene. These three he completedin "The Physical Life of Woman, " "The Transmission of Life, " and the"Handbook of Popular Medicine. "

This plan, he believed, met all the objections to popular medicalinstruction, at least all well-grounded objections, while at the sametime it did away with any necessity for concealing truths important tobe known, for fear they should come to the knowledge of those for whomthey were not designed, and on whose minds they might have a disturbingtendency. 

There can be no doubt but that both the plan and its execution weresuccessful. The many letters he received, filled with thanks fromprivate parties who had gained inestimable knowledge from these works, made rich compensation for the occasional severe strictures he receivedfrom those wedded to ancient ways, and who often condemned without evenreading his works. 

The intelligent reading public, on whom, after all, the writer mustdepend for a verdict on his works, were unanimous in his favor. Theybought them in quantities, and the writer of his life in the_Transactions of the Pennsylvania State Medical Society_, above quoted, who wrote in 1877, estimates that by that time over _a quarter of amillion_ copies had been printed and sold. Translations were made intothe German, and several editions pirated and printed in Canada andEngland. In fact, the works may now be considered to rank as classics inthe language, and many years must go by before another such series canbe written, on topics of this nature, with equal delicacy of touch andaccuracy of knowledge. 

CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTORY. PAGE

Knowledge is safety--The peculiarities of sex--Examples ofindividuals belonging to both sexes and to neither sex--Thesphere of woman 15-22

Part I. THE MAIDEN. 

PUBERTY 22-52

What it means--Age when it arrives--Causes that hasten it--Causesthat delay it--Brunettes mature early--The signs of puberty--Itsdangers--Spinal disease--Green sickness--Hysterics--Secret badhabits--Hygiene of puberty--Diet--Exercise--Clothing--Precautionsduring the monthly changes--Between the monthly changes--What todo when the changes are delayed--When they are painful--The ageof nubility. 

LOVE 52-89

Its power in life--What it is--It is necessary and it iseternal--Of second marriages and of divorce--Courtship--Love atfirst sight--How to choose a husband--Shall cousins marry?--Marriagebetween different races and different nations--The proper age of ahusband--His temperament--His moral and mental character--Words ofwarning--Signs of character on the body--The engagement--Concerninglong engagements--The right time of year to marry--The right timein the month to marry--The wedding tour. 

Part II. THE WIFE. 

HINTS TO YOUNG WIVES 90-132

The wedding night--Should husband and wife sleep together orapart?--The most healthful bed--The dignity and propriety of thesexual instinct--The proper indulgence and the restraintof sexual desire--Marital relations, when they should besuspended--When they are painful--Barrenness, its causes and itscures--Advice to wives who desire children--The limitation ofoffspring--When it is proper--Justifiable means--Injuriousmeans--The crime of abortion--The nature of conception--Signs ofconception--How to retain the affections of a husband. 

INHERITANCE 132-166

The varieties of inheritance--The legacy of beauty--Thecomplexion--What physical qualities each parent bestows--Theinheritance of fertility and longevity--Even deformitiessometimes transmitted--How to have beautiful children--Talent andgenius may be transmitted--The physical traits of fathers indaughters, and of mothers in sons--Examples--Influence ofeducation on inherited qualities--Transmission of disease--Ofmutilations--How to avoid inherited ill tendencies--The excess ofwomen--How to have boys or girls at will--Twins and triplets. 

PREGNANCY 167-218

Veneration of the pregnant woman--Signs of pregnancy--Quickening--Mental changes--Miscarriage, its causes, symptoms, and prevention--Mother'smarks--What makes them?--How to avoid them--Education of the child inthe womb--Are double pregnancies possible?--Instances of doublechildren--Can a child cry in the womb?--Is it a son or a daughter?--Arethere twins present?--The duration of pregnancy--How to calculatewhen the confinement will come--Care of health during pregnancy--Thefood, clothing, exercise, bathing, ventilation, and sleep--Effect onhealth of body and mind--Relations of husband and wife during pregnancy. 

THE CONFINEMENT 219-242

Preparations for childbirth--The signs of approaching labor--Thesymptoms of actual labor--Attention is required during labor--Tothe mother--To the child--To have labor without pain--The risksof childbed--Weight and length of new-born children--The durationof labor--Stillborn children--Imprudence after childbirth--Topreserve the form after childbirth. 

Part III. THE MOTHER. 

NURSING 243-270

The duties and privileges of a mother--Hindrances to nursing, andwhen it is improper--Rules for nursing--Influence of diet on themother's milk--Influence of pregnancy on the milk--The mother'smind and her infant--Striking examples--Position of the motherwhile nursing--Qualities of a good nursing mother--Excess anddeficiency of the milk--Wet-nursing by virgins, aged women, andmen--Rules for care of health while nursing--Relations ofhusband and wife at this time--Over-nursing and the signsof it--Directions for mothers who cannot nurse their ownchildren--How to select a wet-nurse. 

Part IV. THE CHILD. 

THE CARE OF INFANCY 271-324

The causes of infant mortality--Bringing up by hand--Weaning, when and how to do it--Teething--Vaccination and re-vaccination--The food of infants and children--Concerning sleep inearly life--The clothing of children, its pattern, amount, and quality--Bathing, ventilation, and exercise in earlychildhood--On learning to walk--The advantages of games andplays--On training the sight and hearing. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF SOME DISEASES OF CHILDHOOD 325-350

How to recognize and treat croup--Head colds--Fits--Nose-bleed--Worms--Bed-wetting--Looseness of the bowels--Indigestion--Hintson home government--Is the race physically weaker?

Part V. HEALTH IN MARRIAGE. 

DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY 352-360

Morning sickness--Pain in the abdomen--Varicose veins--Piles--Diarrhœa--Constipation--Cough--Wakefulness. 

DISEASES INCIDENT TO CHILDBED AND NURSING 361-385

Puerperal mania--White-flowing--Milk-leg--Inward weakness--Various causes of weakness--Tight lacing one of them--Theirtreatment--Gathered breasts--Cracked nipples. 

Part VI. THE SINGLE LIFE. 

ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF 386-388

Part VII. THE CHANGE OF LIFE. 

DISEASES AND HYGIENE OF 389-404

What it is--Age when it comes--Signs and symptoms--Effects on thecharacter--Those who suffer most--Diseases and discomfortsattending--Precautions and remedies. 

NOTES 405-420

INDEX 420-426

THE PHYSICAL LIFE OF WOMAN. 

_KNOWLEDGE IS SAFETY. _

'Knowledge is power, ' said the philosopher. The maxim is true; but hereis a greater truth: 'Knowledge is safety, '--safety amid the physicalills that beset us, --safety amid the moral pitfalls that environ us. 

Filled with this thought, we write this book. It is the Revelation ofScience to Woman. It tells her, in language which aims at nothing butsimplicity, the results which the study of her nature, as distinct fromthat of man, has attained. We may call it her physical biography. 

It is high time that such a book were written. The most absorbingquestion of the day is the 'Woman Question. ' The social problems ofchiefest interest concern her. And nowhere are those problems morezealously studied than in America, which has thrown aside the trammelsof tradition, and is training its free muscles with intent to grapplethe untried possibilities of social life. Who can guide us in theseexperiments? What master, speaking as one having authority, can adviseus? There is such a guide, such a master. The laws of woman's physicallife shape her destiny and reveal her future. Within these laws allthings are possible; beyond them, nothing is of avail. 

Especially should woman herself understand her own nature. How manywomen are there, with health, beauty, merriment, ay, morality too, allgone, lost for ever, through ignorance of themselves! What spuriousdelicacy is this which would hide from woman that which beyond all elseit behooves her to know? We repudiate it; and in plain, but decorouslanguage, --truth is always decorous, --we purpose to divulge thosesecrets hidden hitherto under the technical jargon of science. 

THE DISTINCTION OF THE SEXES. 

The distinction of the sexes belongs neither to the highest nor to thelowest forms of existence. Animals and vegetables of the humblestcharacter have no sex. So it is with spirits. Revelation implies thatbeyond this life sexual characteristics cease. On one occasion theSadducees put this question to Christ: There was a woman who lawfullyhad seven husbands, one after the other; now, at the resurrection, whichof these shall be her husband? or shall they all have her to wife? Hereplied that hereafter there shall be neither marrying nor giving inmarriage, but that all shall be 'as the angels which are in heaven. 'Sexuality implies reproduction, and that is something we do notassociate with spiritual life. 

It further implies imperfection, which is equally far from our hopes ofhappiness beyond the grave. The polyp, which reproduces by a division ofitself, is in one sense more complete than we are. The man is in somerespects inferior to the woman; the woman in others is subordinate toman. A happy marriage, a perfect union, they twain one flesh, is thetype of the independent, completed being. Without the other, either isdefective. 'Marriage, ' said Napoléon, 'is strictly indispensable tohappiness. '

There is, in fact, a less difference between the sexes than is generallybelieved. They are but slight variations from one original plan. Anatomists maintain, with plausible arguments, that there is no part ororgan in the one sex but has an analogous part or organ in the other, similar in structure, similar in position. Just as the right sideresembles the left, so does man resemble woman. 

Let us see what differences there really are:

The frame of woman is shorter and slighter. In the United States the menaverage five feet eight inches in height, and one hundred and forty-fivepounds in weight; the women, five feet two and a half inches in height, and one hundred and twenty-five pounds in weight. Man has broadshoulders and narrow hips; woman has narrow shoulders and broad hips. Her skull is formed of thinner bones, and is in shape more like that ofa child. Its capacity, in proportion to her height, is very little lessthan in man, --about one-fiftieth, it is said, --which, so far asbrain-power is concerned, may readily be made up by its finer texture. Her shoulders are set farther back than in the other sex, giving hergreater breadth of chest in front. This is brought about by theincreased length of her collar-bone; and this is the reason why she cannever throw a ball or stone with the accuracy of a man. Graceful inother exercises, here she is awkward. 

Her contour is more rounded, her neck is longer, her skin smoother, hervoice softer, her hair less generally distributed over the body, butstronger in growth than in man. She breathes with the muscles of herchest--he with those of his abdomen. He has greater muscular force--shemore power of endurance. Beyond all else she has the attributes ofmaternity, --she is provided with organs to nourish and protect the childbefore and after birth. 

PERSONS OF BOTH SEXES AND OF NEITHER SEX. 

Nature is very sedulous in maintaining these differences. It is therarest thing in the world to find a human being of doubtful sex. Many aphysician disbelieves that there ever has been a person of both sexes--atrue hermaphrodite. They are very scarce, but they do exist. There isone now living in Germany. It bears a female name, Catherine Hohmann. She was baptised and brought up a female; but Catherine is as much manas woman. The learned professor of anatomy, Rokitansky, of Vienna, asserts most positively that this is a real hermaphrodite. Her historyis sad. Born in humble circumstances, when of marriageable age she loveda man, who wished her to emigrate with him to America. But when shedisclosed to him her deformity, he broke off the engagement and desertedher. Then her affection became fixed on a young girl; but how could shemake her suit to one apparently of her own sex? With passions thatprompt her to seek both sexes, she belongs to neither. 'What shall I dohere on earth?' she exclaimed, in tears, to a man of science whorecently visited her. 'What am I? In my life an object of scientificexperiment, and after my death an anatomical curiosity. '

There are also persons--very few indeed--who have no sex at all. Theyare without organs and without passions. Such creatures seem to havebeen formed merely to show us that this much-talked-of difference of sexis, after all, nothing inherent in the constitution of things, and thatindividuals may be born, live and thrive, of both sexes, or of neither. 

THE SPHERE OF WOMAN. 

Our province lies within the physical sphere of woman. But we will hereallow ourselves a momentary digression. It will be seen that while thesedifferences are not radical, yet they are peculiarly permanent. Theyhint to us the mental and intellectual character of woman. What opinionshould we hold on this much-vexed question?

To this effect: The mental faculties of man and woman are unlike, butnot unequal. Any argument to the contrary, drawn from the somewhat lessweight of the brain of woman, is met by the fact that the most able menare often undersized, with small heads. The subordinate place whichwoman occupies in most states, arises partly from the fact that the partshe plays in reproduction prevents her from devoting her whole time andenergies to the acquisition of power, and partly from the fact thatthose faculties in which she is superior to man have been obscured andoppressed by the animal vigor and selfishness of the male. Ascivilisation advances, the natural rights of woman will be more and morefreely conceded, until the sexes become absolutely equal before the law;and, finally, her superiority in many respects will be granted, and shewill reap the benefits of all the advantages it brings, without desiringto encroach on those avocations for which masculine energy and strengthare imperatively needed. 

The most peculiar features of woman's life are hers for a limited periodonly. Man is man for a longer time than woman is woman. With him it is alifetime matter; with her it is but for a score of years or so. Herchild-bearing period is less than half her life. Within this time shepasses through all the phases of that experience which is peculiarly herown. 

And these phases, what are they? Nature herself defines them. They arethree in number, --the Maiden, the Wife, and the Mother. In one and thenanother of this triad, her life passes. Each has its own duties anddangers; each demands its own precautions; each must be studied byitself. 

Let us at once commence this important study, and proceed in the orderof time. 

THE MAIDEN. 

_PUBERTY. _

At a certain period in the life of the female, she ceases to be a girl, and becomes a _woman_. Hitherto she has felt no distinction betweenherself and the boys, her playmates. But now a crisis takes place, whichis for ever after to hedge her round with a mysterious, invisible, butmost real barrier from all _man_kind. 

This period is called _the age of puberty_. Its sign is a flow of bloodrecurring every month; its meaning, that the female has entered uponthat portion of her life whose peculiar obligations are to the wholerace--no longer to herself alone. The second part of her twofold natureis opened. Why is it that on her, the weaker sex, this extra burden islaid? Why this weakness, these pains, this recurring loss of vitalfluid?

Perhaps, as has been observed, it is a wise provision that she is thusreminded of her lowly duty, lest man should make her the sole object ofhis worship, or lest the pride of beauty should obscure the sense ofshame. But this question concerns rather the moralist than thephysician, and we cease asking _why_ it is, and shall only inquire_what_ it is. 

To this science returns a clear reply. In the anatomy of woman there aretwo small bodies, in shape and size like large almonds, called theovaries. They lie one on each side of the womb, and are connected withit by tubes about four inches in length. These bodies are solid, butcontain a great number of diminutive vesicles, which, by some mysteriouslaw of nature, mature one at a time, every thirty days, for thirty yearsof woman's life. When mature, the vesicle separates from the ovary, traverses the tube into the womb, and is thence expelled and lost, orbecomes, by contact with the other sex, the germ of a living being. Thisprocess is accompanied by a disturbance of the whole system. Wanderingpains are felt; a sense of languor steals over the mind; the bloodrushes with increased violence through the vessels, and more or less ofit escapes from the veins, causing that change which we term_menstruation. _

The ancients had a tradition that in the beginning of things the worldwas made from an egg; the naturalists of past generations had thismaxim: Everything living comes from an egg; and science to-day says thesame. For this vesicle we have mentioned is in fact an _egg_, similar instructure to those which birds, fish, and turtles deposit. The onlydifferences are, that the one is developed out of the body, the otherwithin; the one has a shell, the other has none. 

Therefore physiologists give this definition: Menstruation isovulation, --it is the laying of an egg. 

WHAT IS THE AGE OF PUBERTY?

This has been a matter of careful study by physicians. They havecollected great numbers of observations, and have reached thisconclusion: In the middle portion of the temperate zone, the average agewhen the first period appears in healthy girls is fourteen years and sixmonths. If it occurs more than six months later or earlier than this, then it is likely something is wrong, or, at least, the case isexceptional. 

Exceptional cases, where this average is widely departed from inapparently perfect health, are rare. But they do occur. We have knowninstances where the solicitude of parents has been excited by the longdelay of this constitutional change, and others in which it has takenplace at an almost tender age, without causing any perceptible injury tothe general health. 

There is an instance recorded, on good authority, where a French childbut three years old underwent all the physical changes incident topuberty, and grew to be a healthy woman. But what children can surpassthe American in precocity? This French child-woman is quite left in theshade by one described in a recent number of a western medical journal, who _from her birth_ had regular monthly changes, and the full physicaldevelopment which marks the perfect woman!

Thus, sometimes, a wide deviation from the average age we have statedoccurs, without having any serious meaning. Yet at no time is such adeviation to be neglected. In nine out of ten instances it is owing tosome fault in the constitution, the health, or formation, which shouldbe ascertained and corrected. Otherwise years of broken health andmental misery may be the sad results. Mothers, teachers, it is with youthis responsibility rests. The thousands of wretched wives, who owetheir wretchedness to a neglect of proper attention at thisturning-point of their lives, warn you how serious is thisresponsibility. 

The foundation of old age, says a distinguished author, is laid inchildhood; but the health of middle-life depends upon puberty. Never wasthere a truer maxim. The two years which change the girl to the womanoften seal for ever the happiness or the hopeless misery of her wholelife. They decide whether she is to become a healthy, helpful, cheerfulwife and mother, or a languid, complaining invalid, to whom marriage isa curse, children an affliction, and life itself a burden. 

We reiterate our warning: Mothers, teachers, you to whom children areconfided at this crisis of their lives, look well to it that youappreciate, understand, and observe the duties you have assumed. Let nofalse modesty prevent you from learning and enforcing those precautions, so necessary at this period of life. 

WHAT HASTENS AND WHAT RETARDS PUBERTY?

As a rule, we find that those who develope early, fade early. A shortchildhood portends a premature old age. It often foreshadows, also, afeeble middle-life. 

Having ascertained, therefore, what is the average age at which pubertytakes place with us, let us see what conditions anticipate or retardthis age. 

The most important is _climate. _

In hot climates, man, like the vegetation, has a surprising rapidity ofgrowth. Marriages are usual at twelve or fourteen years of age. Pubertycomes to both sexes as early as at ten and eleven years. We even read inthe life of Mohammed, that one of his wives, when but ten years of age, bore him a son. Let another dozen years pass, and these blooming maidenshave been metamorphosed into wrinkled, faded old women. The beauty oftheir precocious youth has withered almost literally like a flower whichis plucked. 

Very different is it in the cold and barren regions of the far north. There man, once more partaking of the nature of his surroundings, yieldsas slowly to the impulses of his passions as does the ice-bound earth tothe slanting rays of the summer sun. Maturity, so quick to come, soswift to leave in the torrid heats, arrives, chilled by the longwinters, to the girls of Lapland, Norway, and Siberia, only when theyare eighteen and nineteen years of age. But, in return for this, theyretain their vigor and good looks to a green old age. 

Between these extremes, including as they do the whole second decade ofexistence, this important change takes place normally in differentlatitudes. We have said that in the middle temperate zone the proper ageis fourteen years and six months. Let us now see what conditions lead todeviations from this age in our climate. 

First on the list is that sacred fire handed down to us from ourancestors, which we call, in our material language, the _constitution. _

The females of certain races, certain families, it is often noticed, mature earlier than their neighbours. Jewesses, for example, are alwaysprecocious, earlier by one or two years. So are colored girls, and thoseof creole lineage. We can guess the reasons here. No doubt thesechildren still retain in their blood the tropic fire which, atcomparatively recent periods, their forefathers felt under the verticalrays of the torrid zone. 

Nor is this all. It is well ascertained, from numerous observations, that brunettes develope sooner than their blonde sisters; that those whowill grow to be large women are slower than those whose stature will besmall; that the dark-haired and black-eyed are more precocious in thisrespect than the light-haired and blue-eyed; that the fat, sluggish girlis more tardy than the slender, active one; that, in general, what isknown as the nervo-bilious temperament is ever ahead of that called thelymphatic or phlegmatic. 

It is a familiar fact, that it is not a good sign to see this changebefore the usual average time. It betokens a weakly, excitable, diminutive frame. Hard labor, vigorous, regular muscular exertion--primehealth, in other words--never tends to anticipate this epoch, but ratherto retard it. 

With this warning fresh in our ears, let us now rehearse what causesconstantly incline unduly to hasten puberty, and thus to forestall wiseNature in her plans for health and beauty. They are of twokinds, --physical and mental. 

Idleness of body, highly-seasoned food, stimulating beverages, such asbeer, wine, liqueurs, and, in a less degree, coffee and tea, irregularhabits of sleep, --these are the physical causes of prematuredevelopment. But the mental causes are still more potent. 

Whatever _stimulates the emotions_ leads to an unnaturally early sexuallife. Late hours, children's parties, sensational novels, 'flashy'papers, love stories, the drama, the ball-room, talk of beaux, love, andmarriage, --that atmosphere of riper years which is so often and soinjudiciously thrown around childhood, --all hasten the event whichtransforms the girl into the woman. A particular emphasis has been laidby some physicians on the power of music to awaken the dormantsusceptibilities to passion, and on this account its too general orearnest cultivation by children has been objected to. Educators would dowell to bear this caution in mind. 

How powerfully these causes work is evident when we compare the averageage of puberty in large cities and in country districts. The females inthe former mature from six to eight months sooner than those in thelatter. This is unquestionably owing to their mode of life, --physicallyindolent, mentally over-stimulated. The result, too, is seen withpainful plainness in comparing the sturdy, well-preserved farm-wife ofthirty, with the languid, pale, faded city lady of the same age. 

THE CHANGES IT WORKS. 

Two short years change the awkward and angular girl of fourteen into thetrim and graceful maiden of sweet sixteen. Wonderful metamorphosis! Themagic wand of the fairy has touched her, and she comes forth a newbeing, a vision of beauty to bewitch the world. 

Let us analyze this change. 

The earliest sign of approaching puberty is a deposit of fat in theloose cellular tissue under the skin. This gives roundness to the form, and grace to the movements. According to a distinguished naturalist(Buffon), it is first observable by a slight swelling of the groins. Thence it extends over the whole body. The breasts especially receiveadditions, and develope to form the perfect bust. 

Parts of the body previously free from hair become covered with a softgrowth, and that which covers the head acquires more vigor and gloss, usually becoming one or two shades darker. The eyes brighten, andacquire unwonted significance. These windows of the soul betray to theclose observer the novel emotions which are arising in the mind within. 

The voice, too, shares in the transformation. The piping, slenderarticulation of the child gives way to the rich, melodious, soft voiceof woman--the sweetest music man ever hears. To the student of humanity, to the observant physician, nothing is more symbolical of the wholenature than the voice. Would you witness a proof of its power? Watchhow a person born blind unerringly discriminates the character of thosehe meets by this alone. 

Beyond all external modifications, we find others, which indicate howprofound is the alteration now taking place. The internal organs of thebody assume new functions and new powers. The taste for food changes, hinting that the system has demands hitherto unknown. Those organs wehave adverted to, called the ovaries, increase in size, as also does theuterus. The very framework of the structure does not escape. The bonesincrease in weight, and those around the hips expand, and give thefemale her distinctive form, upon the perfection of which her life andthat of her children depend. 

MENTAL CHANGES. 

Such are the changes which strike the eye. But there are others whichare not less significant, and which demand far more urgently ourwatchful heed. New thoughts, strange desires, are invading the soul. Anovel relation is assumed to the world. It is vague, misunderstood, butdisturbing all the same. 

The once light-hearted girl inclines to reveries; she seeks solitude;her mother surprises her in causeless tears; her teacher discovers anunwonted inattention to her studies, a less retentive memory, adisinclination to mental labor; her father misses her accustomedplayfulness; he, perhaps, is annoyed by her listlessness and inertia. What does it all mean? What is the matter with the girl?

Mother, teacher, father, it is for you to know the answers to thesequestions. You have guarded this girl through years of helpless infancyand thoughtless childhood. At the peril of her life, and of what is ofmore value than life, do not now relax your vigilance. Every day thereaper Death reaps with his keen sickle the flowers of our land. Themothers weep, indeed; but little do they realize that it is because theyhave neglected to cherish them as was their duty, that the Lord ofParadise has taken them back unto Himself. 

THE COMPLETION OF PUBERTY. 

The symptoms increase until at length the system has acquired thenecessary strength, and furnished itself with reserve forces enough tocomplete its transformation. Then the monthly flow commences. 

In thoroughly healthy girls it continues to recur at regular intervals, from twenty-five to thirty days apart. This is true of about three outof four. In others, a long interval, sometimes six months, occursbetween the first and second sickness. If the general health be not _inthe least_ impaired, this need cause no anxiety. Irregularities arefound in the first year or two, which often right themselves afterwards. But whenever they are associated with the _slightest_ signs of mental orbodily disorder, they demand instant and intelligent attention. 

It used to be supposed that the periods of the monthly sickness were insome way connected with the phases of the moon. So general is thisbelief even yet in France, that a learned Academician not long sincethought it worth while carefully to compare over four thousandobservations, to see whether they did bear any relations to the lunarphases. It is hardly worth while to add that he found none. 

We have known perfectly healthy young women who were ill every sixteendays, and others in whom a period of thirty-five or thirty-six dayswould elapse. The reasons of such differences are not clear. Someinherited peculiarity of constitution is doubtless at work. Climate isof primary importance. Travellers in Lapland, and other countries in thefar north, say that the women there are not regulated more frequentlythan three or four times a year. Hard labor and a phlegmatic temperamentusually prolong the interval between the periodical illnesses. 

An equal diversity prevails in reference to the _length of time_ thedischarge continues. The average of a large number of cases observed inhealthy women, between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five, is four daysand a fraction. In a more general way, we may say from two to six daysis the proper duration. Should it diverge widely from this, then it islikely some mischief is at work. 

In relation to the _amount_ of the discharge, every woman is a law untoherself. Usually, it is four or five ounces in all. Habits of life areapt to modify it materially. Here, again, those exposed to prolongedcold and inured to severe labor escape more easily than their sisterspetted in the lap of luxury. Delicate, feeble, nervous women--those, inother words, who can least afford the loss of blood--are precisely thosewho lose the most. Nature, who is no tender mother, but a sternstep-mother, thus punishes them for disregarding her laws. Softcouches, indolent ease, highly spiced food; warm rooms, weakmuscles, --these are the infractions of her rules which she revenges withvigorous, ay, merciless severity. 

It is well known, too, that excitement of the emotions, whether ofanger, joy, grief, hatred, or love increases the discharge. Even thevulgar are aware of this, and, misinterpreting it as half-knowledgealways does, suppose it a sign of stronger animal passions. It bears nosuch meaning. But the fact reads us a lesson how important it is tocultivate a placid mind, free from strong desire or fear, and to holdall our emotions in the firm leash of reason. 

Physicians attach great importance to the _character_ of the discharge. It should be thin, watery, dark-coloured, and never clot. If it clots, it is an indication that something is wrong. 

THE DANGERS OF PUBERTY. 

We have shown that there are constantly individual deviations, quiteconsistent with health, from any given standard. They only becomesignificant of disease when they depart decidedly from the average, either in the frequency of the illness, its duration, the amount of thedischarge, or the character. More or less pain, more or less prostrationand general disturbances at these epochs, are universal and inevitable. They are part of the sentence which at the outset He pronounced upon thewoman, when He said unto her, 'I will greatly multiply thy sorrow andthy conception. ' Yet with merciful kindness He has provided means bywhich the pain may be greatly lessened, and the sorrow avoided; andthat we may learn and observe these means, their neglect often increasesa hundred-fold the natural suffering. 

At this critical period, the seeds of hereditary and constitutionaldiseases manifest themselves. They draw fresh malignancy from the newactivity of the system. The first symptoms of tubercular consumption, ofscrofula, of obstinate and disfiguring skin diseases, of hereditaryinsanity, of congenital epilepsy, of a hundred terrible maladies, whichfrom birth have lurked in the child, biding the opportunity of attack, suddenly spring from their lairs, and hurry her to the grave or themadhouse. If we ask why so many fair girls of eighteen or twenty arefollowed by weeping friends to an early tomb, the answer is, chieflyfrom diseases which had their origin at the period of puberty. 

It is impossible for us here to rehearse all the minute symptoms, eachalmost trifling in itself, which warn the practised physician of theapproach of one of these fearful foes in time to allow him to make adefence. We can do little more than iterate the warning, that whenever, at this momentous epoch, any disquieting change appears, be it physicalor mental, let not a day be lost in summoning _skilled_, _competent_medical advice. 

There is, however, a train of symptoms so frequent, so insidious, sofruitful with agony of mind and body, that we shall mention themparticularly. They illustrate, at once, how all-important is closeobservation, and how significant to the wise physician are triflesseemingly light as air. 

If you notice a girl of fourteen or sixteen, who, in walking, alwaysgives one arm in preference to the other to her companion; if, insleeping, she mostly lies on the same side; if, in sitting, she is aptto prefer a chair with a low back, and throws one arm over its back; ifyou perceive that she always sits with one foot a little in advance ofthe other; if she, on inquiry, confesses to slight, wandering pains inone side of her chest, --do not chide her for awkwardness. These areominous portents. They mean _spinal disease_, than which a more fearfulmalady is hardly known to medicine. 

Not less stealthy is the approach of disease of the hip-joint, of whiteswelling of the knee, of consumption, --all curable if taken in hand atthe very first, all well-nigh hopeless when they have once unmaskedtheir real features. 

Apart from these general dangers, to which those of thoroughly soundconstitutions are not exposed, there are disorders called functional, towhich all are subject. 

GREEN SICKNESS. 

When we speak of the 'green sickness, ' we mention perhaps the mostcommon of all, and one of which every mother has heard. Doctors call it_chlorosis_, which also means _greenness_; for one of its most commonand peculiar symptoms is a pale complexion with a greenish tinge. 

It never occurs except at or near the age of puberty, and was longsupposed to be merely an impoverishment of the blood. Now, however, wehave learned that it is a disease of the nervous system, and one veryoften confounded by physicians with other complaints. 

Its attack is insidious. A distaste for exertion and society, a fitfulappetite, low spirits, --these are all the symptoms noticed at first. Then, one by one, come palpitation of the heart, an unhealthycomplexion, irregularity, dyspepsia, depraved tastes, --such as a desireto eat slate-pencil dust, chalk, or clay, --vague pains in body andlimbs, a bad temper; until the girl, after several months, is a peevish, wretched, troublesome invalid. 

Then, if a physician is called in, and gives her iron, and tells hernothing is the matter, or is himself alarmed, and imagines she has heartdisease or consumption, it is a chance if she does not rapidly sink, outof mere fright and over-much dosing, into some fatal complaint. Let itbe well understood that chlorosis, though often obstinate and obscure, is always curable if properly and promptly treated. The remedies must beaddressed to the nervous system, and can be administered withintelligence only by a competent medical adviser. It can be prevented bya hygienic mode of life, and, as its most common causes are anxiety, home-sickness, want of exercise, or overwork at school, nothing is sosalutary in its early stages as a change of air and scene, cheerfulcompany, a tour to the mountains or some watering-place, and regularexercise. 

Many young women suffer considerable pain during their monthly illness. This may arise from many different causes, such as, congestion, inflammation, malformation, or a wrong position of the parts, orover-sensitive nerves. They can only be successfully treated when thecause is known; and they may rest assured that this suffering, in nearlyevery case, can be removed. 

Sometimes a girl grows to the age of eighteen or twenty without havingher periodical changes. We have already said that this is not unusual insome climates and in some families; so, as long as the general health isgood and the spirits cheerful, --always an important point, --it needcause no anxiety. But if the health grow poor, and especially if therebe pains and weakness recurring monthly without discharge, thensomething is wrong, and the doctor should be consulted. 

HYSTERICS. 

There is a disease of the nerves to which girls about the age of pubertyare very subject, particularly in the higher circles of society, wheretheir emotions are over-educated and their organization delicate. It iscalled hysteria, and more commonly _hysterics_. Frequently it deceivesboth doctor and friends, and is supposed to be some dangerous complaint. Often it puts on the symptoms of epilepsy, or heart disease, orconsumption. We have witnessed the most frightful convulsions in girlsof fourteen or fifteen, which were brought on by this complaint. Sometimes it injures the mind; and it should always receive prompt andefficient attention, as it is always curable. 

This disease is apt to produce a similar affection in other girls of thesame age who see the attacks. For this reason, hysterical girls shouldnot be sent to large schools, but cured at home. Often a strong mentalimpression restores them. The anecdote is told of a celebrated surgeon(Boerhaave) who was called to a female seminary where there was a numberof hysterical girls. He summoned them together, heated a number of ironinstruments before their eyes, and told them that the first one who hada fit should be cauterized down the spine. They all recoveredimmediately. 

SECRET BAD HABITS. 

We now approach a part of our subject which we would gladly omit, didnot constant experience admonish us of our duty to speak of it in nouncertain tone. We refer to the disastrous consequences on soul and bodyto which young girls expose themselves by exciting and indulging morbidpassions. Years ago, Miss Catherine E. Beecher sounded a note of warningto the mothers of America on this secret vice, which leads theirdaughters to the grave, the madhouse, or, worse yet, the brothel. 

Gladly would we believe that her timely admonition had done away withthe necessity for its repetition. But though we believe such a habit ismore rare than many physicians suppose, it certainly exists to a degreethat demands attention. Surgeons have recently been forced to devisepainful operations to hinder young girls from thus ruining themselves;and we must confess that, in its worst form, it is absolutely incurable. 

The results of the constant nervous excitement which this habit producesare bodily weakness, loss of memory, low spirits, distressingnervousness, a capricious appetite, dislike of company and of study, and finally, paralysis, imbecility, or insanity. Let it not be supposedthat there are many who suffer thus severely; but, on the other hand, let it be clearly understood that any indulgence whatever in these evilcourses is attended with bad effects, especially because they createimpure desires and thoughts, which will prepare the girl to be a willingvictim to the arts of profligacy. There is no more solemn duty restingon those who have the charge of young females than to protect themagainst this vice. 

But, it is exclaimed, is it not dangerous to tell them anything aboutit? Such a course is unnecessary. Teach them that any handling of theparts, any indecent language, any impure thought, is degrading andhurtful. See that the servants, nurses, and companions with whom theyassociate are not debased; and recommend scrupulous cleanliness. 

If the habit is discovered, do not scold nor whip the child. It is_often_ a result of disease, and induced by a disagreeable localitching. Sometimes this is connected with a disorder of the womb, andvery frequently with worms in the bowels. Let the case be submitted to ajudicious, skilful medical adviser, and the girl will yet be saved. Butdo not shut your eyes, and refuse to see this fact when it exists. Mothers are too often unwilling to entertain for a moment the thoughtthat their daughters are addicted to such a vice, when it is only tooplain to the physician. 

THE HYGIENE OF PUBERTY. 

Concerning the maladies of puberty, we may broadly say, that if we areobliged to have recourse to medicine, it is because we have neglectedhygiene. That the period requires assiduous care, we grant; but giventhat care, drugs will be needless. 

In a general way, we have already emphasized the danger of indolence andthe benefits of exercise or labor; the perils of exciting the emotions, and the advantages of a placid disposition; the impropriety of prematuredevelopment, and the wisdom of simplicity and moderation. This is an oldstory--a thrice-told tale. Let us go more into minutiæ. 

One of the most frequent causes of disease, about the age of puberty, is_starvation_. Many a girl is starved to death. Food is given her, butnot of the right quality, or in insufficient quantity, or at improperhours. The system is not nourished, and, becoming feeble, it is laidopen to the attacks of disease, and to no form of disease more readilythan to consumption. 

To correct this, let the food be varied, simply prepared, and abundant. Good fresh milk should be used daily, while tea and coffee should bewithheld. Fat meats and vegetable oils, generally disliked by girls atthis age, are exactly what they need; and were they partaken of morefreely, there would be less inquiry at the druggists for cod-liver oil. 

A modern writer of eminence lays it down as one of the most commoncauses of consumption in young people, that just at the age when theirphysical system is undergoing such important changes, that invaluablearticle of diet, _milk_, is generally dropped, and nothing equally richin nitrogen substituted in its place. 

_Exercise_, whether as games, the skipping rope, croquet, walking, dancing, riding, and calisthenics, or as regular labor, is highlybeneficial, especially when it leads one into the fresh air, thesunshine, and the country. A particular kind of exercise is to berecommended for those whose chests are narrow, whose shoulders stoop, and who have a hereditary predisposition to consumption. If it issystematically practised along with other means of health, we wouldguarantee any child, no matter how many relatives have died of thisdisease, against its invasion. It is voluntary inspiration. Nothing ismore simple. Let her stand erect, throw the shoulders well back, and thehands behind; then let her slowly inhale pure air to the full capacityof the lungs, and retain it a few seconds _by an increased effort_; thenit may be slowly exhaled. After one or two natural inspirations, let herrepeat the act, and so on for ten or fifteen minutes, twice daily. Notonly is this simple procedure a safeguard against consumption, but, inthe opinion of some learned physicians, it can even cure it when it hasalready commenced. 

At first the monthly loss of blood exhausts the system. Therefore, plenty of food, plenty of rest, plenty of sleep, are required. Thatancient prejudice in favour of early rising should be discarded now, andthe girl should retire early, and if she will, should sleep late. Hardstudy, care, or anxiety should be spared her. This is not the time forrigid discipline. 

_Clothing_ is a matter of importance, and, if we were at all sure ofattention, there is much we would say of it. The thought seriouslytroubles us, that so long as women consent to deform themselves andsacrifice their health to false ideas of beauty, it is almost hopelessto urge their fitness for, and their right to a higher life than theynow enjoy. No educated painter or sculptor is ignorant of what the modelof female beauty is; no fashionable woman is content unless she departsfrom it as far as possible. 

Now beauty implies health, and ugliness of form is attained not only atthe expense of æsthetics, but of comfort. The custom of fasteninggrowing girls in tight corsets, of flattening their breasts with pads, of distorting their feet in small high-heeled shoes, and of teachingthem to stoop and mince in gait, is calculated to disgust every observerof good sense and taste, and, what is of more consequence, to renderthese girls, when they become women, more liable to every species ofsuffering connected with child-bearing. 

The monthly change is the prelude to maternity. On its healthfulrecurrence depends present comfort and future health; and not thesealone, but also happiness in marriage, easy child-beds, and theconstitution of children to a degree the thoughtless girl and even themature woman rarely understand. She, therefore, who neglects the duecare of her own condition, violates a duty owed to others as well asherself. We would have mothers impress this on their daughters. Let nomistaken modesty prevent them. 

Especially at their commencement should the monthly changes be carefullywatched. The mother should prepare her daughter's mind betimes for suchan expected incident in her life, thus preventing a useless fright, orthe employment of injurious means to stop what the child may look uponas an accident. 

Nor should the maternal care cease here. Such tender sympathy shouldexist on the one side, such trusting confidence on the other, that themother should acquaint herself with every detail of each recurringperiod until the function is thoroughly established. She should inquireinto the duration of each epoch, the abundance of the discharge, thepresence of pain, and its effects on the general health. She shouldconvince herself that all these do not vary from the standards of healthwe have previously laid down. Or should they do so, she should not delayto use the proper means to bring them to that standard. 

Long observation proves that if, during the first two or three yearswhich follow the attainment of puberty, the health of the girl issuccessfully guarded, and this, her most important physical distinction, meets with no derangement, her life-long health is well-nigh secured;but, on the contrary, if she commences her sexual life with pain anddisorder, she is likely to be a life-long sufferer. 

We are about to approach a topic of vital importance, therefore, insumming up as briefly as may be, the precautions necessary to attainthis end. They can most conveniently be divided into those to beobserved during the monthly changes, and those more general rules ofhealth to be obeyed in the intervals of the periods. 

PRECAUTIONS DURING THE MONTHLY CHANGES. 

At the head of all cautions and warnings which we could give about thecare of the health at these monthly periods, we put _rest_, _rest_, bodily and mental. _Do less than usual_, we say to all, whether thenecessity for it is manifest or not. Over-exertion is a most fruitfulcause of disease. Long walks, shopping, dancing, riding, hard workwhether for pleasure or profit, should be avoided to the utmost. 

The advantages of rest cannot be over-estimated. A striking example ofit occurs to our mind. Most readers are aware how toilsome are the livesof the Indian women among our Western tribes, and also how singularlyeasy and almost painless is their child-bearing. The pangs of travailare almost unknown to them. The cause of this has puzzled evenphysicians. We can tell them. It is because it is an inviolable, asacred rule among all those tribes, for the woman, when having hermonthly sickness, to drop all work, absent herself from the lodge, andremain in perfect rest as long as the discharge continues. 

Traces of this wide-spread custom among primitive people, extendedthemselves, are discoverable among civilized lands. The famous generalcouncil of the Christian Church held at Nice in the fourth century, passed a rule disapproving of women coming to church at the times oftheir menstrual sickness. The cold and dampness of large edifices, themental excitement and its unfavourable effects and the exertionrequisite for long walks to and fro, would justify this rule on purelyhygienic grounds, and such may have caused its adoption. 

A moderate and uniform temperature favors health at such epochs; whileexposure to heat or cold, and the drinking freely of iced water orstimulants should be shunned. 

The popular belief that bathing is hurtful, is correct so far as eithercold or hot baths are concerned; but it is well to know, in theinterests of comfort and cleanliness, that a moderately warm-bath, about80° Fahr. , _will do no injury_. Such a bath can be taken without anyhesitation. 

We sanction, also, another well-known rule, and that is, that nopurgative medicine should be taken immediately before or during thechange. If called for by some other disorder, a mild laxative is allthat should be administered, unless by the direction of a physician. 

PRECAUTIONS IN THE INTERVALS OF THE MONTHLY CHANGES. 

If girls suffer from irregularities in this respect, the causes cangenerally be found either in some affection threatening the generalhealth, such as scrofula, consumption, green sickness, etc. , or else intheir mode of life. For the former, the family physician must beconsulted; but if it is the latter which is at fault, the remedy is inthe hands of the parents. 

Boarding-school life, city life, mental troubles--these are the threefertile sources of disturbances in the sexual functions of girlhood. 

No one rates at higher value than ourselves the training of the mind;but we do not hesitate a moment to urge that if perturbations of thefunctions become at all marked in a girl at school, she should be _takenaway_. Better live at home in seeming idleness a year at that time oflife, than become a dead-weight, through constant ill health, on herhusband in after life. 

So of the unwholesome excitement of a city life. There is a poison incrowds, and it acts in a thousand unseen ways. With the ceaseless noise, the broken sleep, the late hours, the impure air, and the nervoustension which all these produce, it requires no strength of imaginationto perceive that the city is not the best place for the delicate girl. 

We have mentioned _mental troubles_. Perhaps there are, among those whoread this, some superficial enough to smile at the possibility ofserious mental troubles in girlhood. There are, we know, many unfeelingenough to give them no attention when they do see them. But we have anunfailing witness in the sympathetic heart of the mother. She has notforgotten how bitter were the crosses of her own younger years; sheknows that the sensitive soul of woman wakes early to the keenestappreciation of grief as well as joy. If anything, years blunt us, andthe sorrows of youth are often the bitterest of our lives. 

Let the mother, therefore, read with her wondrous maternal instinct thetrials of her daughter; let her become her most intimate confidant, andpour upon the wounded spirit that balm which none but a woman, and thatwoman a mother, knows how to apply. Such a relationship of mother anddaughter is no less natural and wholesome than it is beautiful. 

WHEN THE CHANGES ARE DELAYED. 

In health an equal interval, or one nearly equal, elapses between themonthly illnesses. Often in the spring, however, their appearanceanticipates the expected date of their occurrence, and in the autumnthey are frequently a day or two late. These variations are owing to thetemperature, heat accelerating and cold retarding the process ofovulation. 

Such slight irregularities need not give rise to anxiety; but if thereis an unwonted delay, combined with other symptoms of ill-health, asheadache, pain in the side and back, a sense of languor and exhaustion, loss of appetite, and nausea, and fitful sleep, then it is importantthat some steps be taken to bring on the courses. For this purpose, soaking the feet in hot-mustard water, a tumbler of hot ginger orcamomile-tea, a brisk walk, or a gentle laxative will generally be foundsufficient. Gently kneading the lower abdomen and loins is a familiar, and if intelligently done, a safe means for the same purpose. 

More violent means than these should be eschewed. Whichever are usedsubsequent to their employment, rest, in a recumbent position, in awarm room should be secured. 

WHEN THE CHANGES ARE PAINFUL. 

There are wide individual differences in this respect. Some young womensuffer much from local pains, headache and languor at such epochs, without apparently losing anything in general health; others experienceno distress whatever. 

The causes of painful periods are various. Sometimes they depend on atendency to rheumatism or to ague. Over-work, or excessive devotion tosocial duties and pleasures, is often their source. Cold and damp arecommon incidental causes. Green sickness and general debility aresometimes to blame. 

Of course the treatment must depend on which one of these is present. Itis a good rule, however, always to wear flannel next the skin; also, toavoid exposure to the weather for several days before the change isexpected. A large, hot, linseed-meal poultice, over which adessert-spoonful of laudanum has been sprinkled, or a largemustard-plaster, spread on the lower abdomen, will afford much relief. Ahot brick or bottle of hot water wrapped in flannel, and applied to thesmall of the back, is often of great service. Rest in bed is always tobe recommended. A tea-spoonful of sweet spirits of nitre will sometimesbring early relief. 

But if these simple means are not sufficient, it would be better toconsult a physician. 

A common belief is that such troubles are cured by marriage. Sometimesthey are, but we do not approve the remedy. The state of marriageshould be entered upon in perfect health and full vigor. Upon itdepends the health of future generations, and it were better for themdid only those assume its bonds who are able to endow their childrenwith sound physical frames. 

THE AGE OF NUBILITY. 

It does not follow, because a girl is capable of marriage, that she isfit for it. Science teaches us many valid objections to too earlyunions. It goes farther, and fixes a certain age at which it is wisestfor woman to marry. This age is between twenty and twenty-five years. 

Anatomists have learned that after puberty the bones of a woman's bodyundergo important modifications to fit her for child-bearing. Thisrequires time, and before twenty the process is not completed. Until thewoman is perfect herself, until her full stature and completed form areattained, she is not properly qualified to assist in perpetuating thespecies. 

We might urge that up to this moment neither does her self-knowledgequalify her to choose a life-companion, nor can her education befinished, nor is her experience sufficient for her to enter on theduties of a matron. But we do not appeal to these arguments. There areothers still more forcible. If her own health, life, and good looks areof value to her, if she has any wish for healthy, sound minded children, she will refrain from premature nuptials. 

A too youthful wife finds marriage not a pleasure but a pain. Hernervous system is prostrated by it; she is more liable to weakness anddiseases of the womb; and if of a consumptive family, she runs greatrisk of finding that fatal malady manifest itself after a year or two ofwedded life. It is very common for those who marry young to die young. 

From statistics which have been carefully compiled, it is proven thatthe first labors of very young mothers are much more painful, tedious, and dangerous to life, than others. As wives, they are frequentlyvisited either with absolute sterility, and all their lives must bearthe reproach of barren women, or, what to many is hardly lessdistasteful, they have an excessively numerous family. 

What adds to their sufferings in the latter event, is that the childrenof such marriages are rarely healthy. They are feeble, sickly, undersized, often with some fault of mind or body, which is a cross tothem and their parents all their lives. They inherit more readily thedefects of their ancestors, and, as a rule, die at earlier years thanthe progeny of better-timed unions. 

These considerations are formidable enough, it would seem, to preventyoung girls from marrying, without the need of a law, as exists in somecountries. Moreover, they are not imaginary, but real, as many a womanfinds out to her cost. 

The objections to marriage after the age of twenty-five are less cogent. They extend only to the woman herself. She should know that the firstlabors of wives over thirty are nearly _twice_ as fatal as those betweentwenty and twenty-five. Undoubtedly nature points to the period betweenthe twentieth and twenty-fifth year as the fittest one for marriage inthe woman. 

_LOVE. _

ITS POWER ON HUMANITY. 

Love, pure love, true love, what can we say of it? The dream of youth;the cherished reminiscence of age; celebrated in the songs of poets;that which impels the warrior to his most daring deeds; which theinspired prophet chooses to typify the holiest sentiments, --what newthing is it possible to say about this theme?

Think for a moment on the history or the literature of the world. Askthe naturalist to reveal the mysteries of life; let the mythologistexplain the origin and meaning of all unrevealed religions; look withinat the promptings of your own spirit, and this whole life of ours willappear to you as one grand epithalamium. 

The profoundest of English poets has said--

 'All thoughts, all passions, all delights, Whatever stirs this mortal frame, All are but ministers of Love, And feed his sacred flame. '

That life which is devoid of love is incomplete, sterile, unsatisfactory. It fails of its chiefest end. Nature, in anger, blots itout sooner, and it passes like the shadow of a cloud, leaving no tracebehind. Admirable as it may be in other respects, to the eye of thestatesman, the physician, the lover of his species, it remains but afragment, a torso. 

Love is one thing to a woman, another to a man. To him, said Madame deStaël, it is an episode; to her, it is the whole history of life. Athousand distractions divert man. Fame, riches, power, pleasure, allstruggle in his bosom to displace the sentiment of love. They are itsrivals, not rarely its masters. But woman knows no such distractions. One passion only sits enthroned in her bosom; one only idol is enshrinedin her heart, knowing no rival, no successor. This passion is love! Thisidol is its object. 

This is not fancy, not rhetoric; it is the language of cold and exactscience, pronounced from the chair of history, from the bureau of thestatistician, from the dissecting table of the anatomist. We shallgather up their well-weighed words, and present them, not as fancysketches, but as facts. 

This deep, all-absorbing, single, wondrous love of woman, is somethingthat man cannot understand. This sea of unfathomed depth is to him amystery. The shallow mind sees of it nothing but the rippling waves, theunstable foam-crests dashing hither and thither, the playful ripples ofthe surface, and, blind to the still and measureless waters beneath, calls woman capricious, uncertain, --_varium et mutabile_. But thethinker and seer, undeceived by such externals, knows that beneath thisseeming change is stability unequaled in the stronger sex, a power ofwill to which man is a stranger, a devotion and purpose which strike himwith undefined awe. 

Therefore, in the myths and legends which the early races framed toexpress their notions of divine things, --the Fates, who spin and snipthe thread of life; the Norns, who

 Lay down laws, And select life For the children of time-- The destinies of men, --

are always females. The seeresses and interpreters of oracles--thosewho, like the witch of Endor, could summon from the grave the shades ofthe departed--were women. 

Therefore, also, modern infidelity, going back, as it ever does, to theignorance of the past, and holding it up as something new, makes womanthe only deity. Comte and his disciples, having reasoned away all gods, angels, and spirits, and unable to still the craving for something toadore, agree to meet once a week to worship--woman. The Frenchrevolutionists, having shut up the churches and abolished God by adecree of the Convention, set up in His stead--a woman. 

We could never exhaust this phase of world-history. Everywhere we seethe unexpected hand of Love moulding, fashioning all things. Thefortunes of the individual, the fate of nations, the destinies of races, are guided by this invisible thread. Let us push our inquiries as to thenature of this all-powerful agent. 

WHAT IS LOVE?

It has a divided nature. As we have an immortal soul, but a body ofclay; as the plant roots itself in decaying earth, but spreads itsflowers in glorious sunlight, --so love has a physiological and a moralnature. It is rooted in that unconscious law of life which bids usperpetuate our kind; which guards over the conservation of life; whichenforces, with ceaseless admonition, that first precept which God gaveto man before the gates of Eden had been closed upon him: 'Be thoufruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth. ' Nothing but a spuriousdelicacy, or an ignorance of facts, can prevent our full recognitionthat love looks to marriage, and marriage to offspring, as a naturalsequence. 

Do we ask proofs of this? We have them in abundance. Those unfortunatebeings who are chosen by Oriental custom to guard the seraglios undergoa mutilation which disqualifies them from becoming parents. Soon alltraces of passion, all regard for the other sex, all sentiments of love, totally disappear. The records of medicine contain not a few cases wheredisease had rendered it necessary to remove the ovaries from women. Atonce a change took place in voice, appearance, and mind. They spoke likemen, a slender beard commenced on their faces, a masculine manner wasconspicuous in all their motions, and every thought of sexual lovepassed away for ever. These are the results in every case. What do theysignify? Undoubtedly that the passion of love is dependent upon thecapacity of having offspring, and that such was the intention of Naturein implanting in our bosom this all-powerful sentiment. 

But this is not all. Nature, as beneficent to those who obey herprecepts as she is merciless to those who disregard them, has added tothis sentiment of love a physical pleasure in its gratification, --anhonourable and proper pleasure, which none but the hypocrite or theascetic will affect to condemn, none but the coarse or the lewd willregard as the object of love. There is, indeed, a passion which is thelove of the body. We call it by its proper name of _lust_. There isanother emotion, for which the rich tongue of the ancient Greeks had aword, to which we have nothing to correspond. Call it, if you will, Platonic love, and define it to be an exalted friendship. But understandthat neither the one nor the other is _love_, in the true sense of theword, and that _both_ are inferior to it. 

Does the father, watching, with moistened eyes, his child at itsmother's breast; does the husband, bending with solicitude over thesick-bed of his wife; does the wife, clinging to her husband throughevil report and good report, through broken fortunes and failing health, indicate no loftier emotion than _lust_, no warmer sentiment than_friendship_? What ignorance, what perversity is so gross as not toperceive something here nobler than either? Do you say that such scenesare, alas, rare? We deny it. We see them daily in the streets; we meetthem daily in our rounds. Admitted, by our calling, to the sacredprecincts of many houses in the trying hours of sickness and death, wespeak advisedly, and know that this is the prevailing meaning of love indomestic life. 

A warm, rich affection blesses the one who gives and the one whoreceives. Character developes under it as the plant beneath thesunlight. Happiness is an unknown word without it. Love and marriage arethe only normal conditions of life. Without them, both man and woman forever miss the best part of themselves. They suffer more, they sin more, they perish sooner. These are not hasty assertions. As a social law, letit be well understood that science pronounces that

LOVE IS A NECESSITY. 

The single life is forced upon many of both sexes, in our present socialcondition. Many choose it from motives of economy, from timidity, or asa religious step, pleasing to God. The latter is a notion which probablyarose from a belief that, somehow, celibacy, strictly observed, meanschastity. It simply means continence. The chastest persons have been, and are, not the virgins and celibates, but the married. When this truthis known better, we shall have fewer sects and more religion. 

We know women who refrain from marrying to keep out of trouble. The oldsaying is, that every sigh drives a nail in one's coffin. They are notgoing to worry themselves to death bearing children and nursing them! Itis too great a risk, too much suffering. How often have we been toldthis! Yet how false the reasoning is! Very carefully prepared statisticsshow that between the ages of twenty and forty-five years, moreunmarried women die than married, and few instances of remarkablelongevity in an old maid are known. The celebrated Dr. Hufeland, therefore, in his treatise on the _Art_ _of Prolonging Life_, lays itdown as a rule, that to attain a great age, one must be married. 

As for happiness, those who think they can best attain it outside thegentle yoke of matrimony are quite as wide of the mark. Their selfishand solitary pleasures do not gratify them. With all the resources ofclubs, billiard-rooms, saloons, narcotics, and stimulants, single menmake but a mock show of satisfaction. At heart every one of them envieshis married friends. How much more monotonous and more readily exhaustedare the resources of woman's single life! No matter what 'sphere' she isin, no matter in what 'circle' she moves, no matter what 'mission' sheinvents, it will soon pall on her. Would you see the result? We invokeonce more those dry volumes, full of lines and figures, on vitalstatistics. Stupid as they look, they are full of the strangest stories;and what is more, the stories are all true. Some of them are sadstories, and this is one of the saddest: Of those unfortunates who, outof despair and disgust of the world, jump from bridges, or take arsenic, or hang themselves, or in other ways rush unbidden and unprepared beforethe great Judge of all, _nearly two-thirds_ are unmarried, and in someyears nearly _three-fourths_. And of those other sad cases--dead, yetliving--who people the madhouses and asylums, what of them? Driven crazyby their brutal husbands, do you suggest? Not at all! In France, Bavaria, Prussia, Hanover, four out of every five are unmarried; andthroughout the civilised world there are everywhere three or four singleto one married woman in the establishments for the insane, inproportion to the whole number of the two classes above twenty-one yearsof age. 

Other women decline to marry because they have, forsooth, a 'life work'to accomplish. Some great project fills their mind. Perchance theyemulate Madame de Staël, and would electrify the country by their novelviews in politics; or they have a literary vein they fain would exploit;or they feel called upon to teach the freedmen, or to keep theirposition as leaders of fashion. A husband would trammel them. If theydid marry, they would take the very foolish advice of a contemporary, and go through life with an indignant protest at its littleness. Letsuch women know that they underrate the married state, its powers andits opportunities. There are no loftier missions than can there becarried out, no nobler games than can there be played. When we think ofthese objections, coming, as they have to us, from high-spirited, earnest girls, the queens of their sex, our memory runs back to thefamous women of history, the brightest jewels in the coronet of time, and we find as many, ay, more, married women than single who pursued totheir ends mighty achievements. 

If you speak of Judith and Joan of Arc, who delivered their fatherlandsfrom the enemy by a daring no man can equal, we shall recall thepeaceful victories of her, wife of the barbarian Chlodwig, who taughtthe rude Franks the mild religion of Nazareth, and of her who extendedfrom Byzantium the holy symbol of the cross over the wilds of Russia. The really great women of this age, are they mostly married or single?They are mostly married, and they are good wives and tender mothers. 

What we have just written, we read to an amiable woman. 

'But, ' she exclaimed, 'what have you to say to her whom high duties or ahard fate condemns to a single life, and to the name of the old maid?'

Alas! what can we say to such? We feel that

 'Earthlier happy is the rose distilled, Than that which, withering on the virgin thorn, Grows, lives, and dies in single blessedness. '

Yet there is ever a blessing in store for those who suffer here, and thehope of the future must teach them to bear the present. 

LOVE IS ETERNAL. 

We have said love is a necessity in the life of either man or woman tocomplete their nature. Its effects, therefore, are eternal. We do notintend this as a figure of speech. It is a sober statement ofphysiology. 

From the day of marriage the woman undergoes a change in her wholestructure. She is similar to her former self, but not the same. It isoften noticed that the children of a woman in her second marriage bear amarked resemblance to her first husband. In the inferior races and loweranimals this obscure metamorphosis is still more apparent. A negress whohas borne her first child to a white man, will ever after have childrenof a color lighter than her own. Count Strzelewski, in his Travels inAustralia, narrates this curious circumstance: A native woman who hasonce had offspring by a white man, can never more have children by amale of her own race. Dr. Darwin relates that a male zebra was oncebrought to England, and a hybrid race, marked by the zebra's stripes, was produced from certain mares. Always after, the colts of those maresbore the marks of the zebra on their skins. In some way the female isprofoundly altered throughout her whole formation, and entirelyindependent of her will, by the act of marriage, and the alteration isnever effaced. 

If the body is thus influenced, shall not the far more susceptible mindand spirit be equally impressed?

Another common observation supports what we say, and extends it farther. Not the woman alone, --the man also undergoes a change, and loses aportion of his personality in his mate. They two are one, not merely ina moral sense. We constantly notice a decided resemblance in old coupleswho have passed, say, two score years together. They have grown to lookalike in form, feature, and expression. That for so long a time theyhave breathed the same air, eaten the same fare, and been subjected tothe same surroundings, explains this to some extent. But the greaterpart of the change flows from mental sources. They have laughed and wepttogether; they have shared the same joys and pleasures; a smile or atear on the face of one has evoked a corresponding emotion andexpression on the face of the other. Their co-partnership has become aunity. Even without speaking, they sympathize. Their souls areconstantly _en rapport_. The man is as different as the woman from hisformer self. 

OF SECOND MARRIAGES. 

Science, therefore, seems to say to woman, 'Your first husband is youreternal husband. ' How, then, about second marriages? Are we to say thatthey are not advisable?

Let us not answer hastily. It is yet to be seen whether ill-assortedmarriages produce those impressions we have mentioned. They may, indeed, on the body, while the mind is free. One must remember, also, that theexigencies of social life must be consulted. If a woman cannot love twomen equally, --and she cannot, --other motives, worthy of all respect, justify her in entering the marriage life a second time. Then, thehigher refinements of the emotions are not given to all alike, nor dothey come at the same age to all. True love may first dawn upon a womanafter one or two husbands have left her a widow. Orphan children, widow-hood, want of property, or the care of property, --these are sadafflictions to the lonely woman. Do not blame her if she accepts ahusband as a guardian, a protector, whom she can no longer receive toher arms as a lover. She is right. 

We cherish the memory of a lady of strong character, who died pasteighty. She had survived three husbands. 'The first, ' she said, 'Imarried for love, the second for position, the third for friendship. Iwas happy with them all. ' But when, in her mortal illness, thisvenerable friend sank into the delirium which preceded death, sheconstantly called out the name of her first husband only. More thanhalf a century had not effaced the memory of those few years of earlylove. This is fidelity indeed. 

OF DIVORCE. 

He of Nazareth laid down the law that whoever puts away his wife for anycause except adultery, and marries again, commits adultery; and thatwhatever woman puts away her husband for any cause save adultery, andmarries again, herself commits adultery. 

This has been found a hard saying. 

John Milton wrote a book to show that the Lawgiver did not mean what Hesaid, but something quite different. Modern sects, calling themselves_Christians_, after this Lawgiver, dodge the difficulty, and refer it toState legislatures. State legislatures, not troubling themselves at allabout any previous law or lawgiver, allow dozens of causes--scores ofthem--as perfectly valid to put asunder those whom God has joinedtogether. 

Science, which never finds occasion to disagree with that Lawgiver ofNazareth, here makes His words her own. 

Whether we look at it as a question in social life, in morals, or inphysiology, the American plan of granting absolute divorces isdangerous, and destructive to what is best in life. It leads to hasty, ill-assorted matches, to an unwillingness to yield to each other'speculiarities, to a weakening of the family ties, to a lax morality. Carry it a trifle farther than it now is in some of the Western States, and marriage will lose all its sacredness, and degenerate into aphysical union, not nobler than the crossing of flies in the air. 

Separation of bed and board should always be provided for by law; andwhether single, married, or separated, the woman should retain entirecontrol of her own property. But in the eyes of God and nature, a womanor a man with two faithful spouses living, to each of whom an eternalfidelity has been plighted, is a monster. 

OF A PLURALITY OF WIVES OR HUSBANDS. 

What has been said of divorce applies with tenfold force to the customof a woman living as wife to several men, or of a man as husband toseveral women. We should not speak of these customs, but that we knowboth exist in America, not among the notoriously wicked, but among thosewho claim to be the peculiarly good--the very elect of God. Theyprevail, not as lustful excesses, but as religious observances. 

It is worth while to say that such practices lead to physicaldegradation. The woman who acknowledges more than one husband isgenerally sterile; the man who has several wives has usually a weaklyoffspring, principally males. Nature attempts to check polygamy byreducing the number of females, and failing in this, by enervating thewhole stock. The Mormons of Utah would soon sink into a state of Asiaticeffeminacy were they left to themselves. 

COURTSHIP. 

A wise provision of nature ordains that _woman shall be sought_. Sheflees, and man pursues. The folly of modern reformers, who would annulthis provision, is evident. Were it done away with, man, ever prone toyield to woman's solicitations, and then most prone when yielding ismost dangerous, would fritter away his powers at an early age, and thosevery impulses which nature has given to perpetuate the race would bringabout its destruction. 

To prevent such a disaster, woman is endowed with a sense of shame, aninvincible modesty, her greatest protection, and her greatest charm. Lether never forget it, never disregard it; for without it she becomes thescorn of her own sex and the jest of the other. 

The urgency of man and the timidity of woman are tempered by the periodof courtship. 

This, as it exists in the United States, is something almost peculiar toAmericans. On the continent of Europe, girls are shut up in convents orin seminaries, or are kept strictly under the eyes of their parentsuntil marriage, or, at any rate, betrothal. The liberty usual in Americais something unheard-of and inconceivable there. In Spain a duenna, inFrance some aunt or elderly cousin, in Germany some similar person, makes it her business to be present at every interview which a younglady has with an admirer. He never dreams of walking, driving, or goingout of an evening with her alone. It is taken for granted that, shouldhe invite her for such a purpose, the mother or aunt is included in theparty. They would look on the innocent freedom of American girls assimply scandalous. 

We have had opportunities to see society in these various countries, andhave failed to perceive that the morality of either sex is at allsuperior to what it is with us, while the effect of cloister-likeeducation on young women is to weaken their self-reliance, and oftenprepare them for greater extravagances when marriage gives them liberty. 

With us, the young woman is free until her wedding day. After thatepoch, she looks forward to withdrawing more or less from society, andconfining her thoughts to family matters. In France, Spain, or Italy, inthe wealthier classes, precisely the contrary is the rule. Marriagebrings deliverance from an irksome espionage and numberless fetters; itis the avenue to a life in public and independent action. How injuriousto domestic happiness this is, can readily be imagined. 

It is true that the liberty of American girls occasionally leads toimproprieties. But, except in certain great cities, such instances arerare. The safeguards of virtue are knowledge and self-command, notduennas and _jalousies_. Let mothers properly instruct their daughters, and they need have no apprehension about their conduct. 

The period of courtship is one full of importance. A young woman ofunripe experience must decide from what she can see of a man during theintercourse of a few months, whether he will suit her for alife-companion. She has no knowledge of human nature; and what would itavail her if she had, when at such a time a suitor is careful only toshow his eligible traits? 'Go a-courting, ' said old Dr Franklin, in hishomely language, 'in your everyday clothes. ' Not one man out of athousand is honest enough to take his advice. 

It is useless for her to ask aid of another. She must judge for herself. What, then, is she to do?

There is a mysterious instinct in a pure-minded woman which is beyondall analysis, --a tact which men do not possess, and do not readilybelieve in. At such a crisis this instinct saves her. She feels in amoment the presence of a base, unworthy nature. An unconscious repulsionis manifest in her eye, her voice. Where a suitor is not a man of lowmotive, but merely quite incongruous in temper and disposition, thissame instinct acts, and the man, without being able to say just why, feels that he is laboring in vain. If he blindly insists in his wooing, he has no one to chide but himself when he is finally discarded. 

But if the man is worthy, and suitable, does this blessed instinctwhisper the happy news with like promptness to the maiden's soul? Ah!that raises another issue. It brings us face to face with that difficultquestion of

LOVE AT FIRST SIGHT. 

Jung Stilling, a German author of note, a religious enthusiast, and fullof queer fancies, was, when young, a tutor in a private family. On oneoccasion his employer took him to a strange house, and introduced himto a roomful of company. Stilling had not contemplated marriage; but, inthe company, he saw, for the first time, a young woman who he felt washis destined wife. Walking across the room, he addressed her with theutmost simplicity, telling her that an inward monitor advised him thatshe, of all womankind, was his predestined helpmeet. She blushed, wasconfused, but presently confessed that she had experienced the sameconviction on first beholding him. They married, and the most curiouspart of the tale remains to tell, --it is, that they proved a happy, well-matched couple. 

We do not advise others to follow their example. Not many souls arecapable of such reciprocity. Choosing an associate for life is tooserious a business to be made the affair of a moment. Reason, reflection, thought, prayer, --these are aids in such a momentousquestion not to be lightly thrown aside. Many a passing fancy, many anevanescent preference, catches for a moment the new-fledged affections. But for the long and tedious journey of life we want a love rooted inknowledge. 

We are not blind to the fact, that often from the first interview themaiden feels an undefined spell thrown around her by him who will becomeher husband. She feels differently in his presence; she watches him withother eyes than she has for the rest of men. She renders no account toherself of this emotion; she attempts no analysis of it; she does notacknowledge to herself that it exists. No matter. Sooner or later, iftrue to herself, she will learn what it is, and it will be a guide inthat moment, looked forward to with mingled hopes and fears, when sheis asked to decide on the destiny, the temporal and eternal destiny, oftwo human lives. 

That she may then decide aright, and live free from the regrets of afalse step at this crisis of life, we shall now rehearse what medicalscience has to say about

HOW TO CHOOSE A HUSBAND. 

 'Choose well. Your choice is Brief, and yet endless. '

Woman holds as an inalienable right, in this country, the privilege ofchoice. It is not left to notaries, or parents, to select for her, as isthe custom in some other parts of the world. 

First comes the question of relationship. A school-girl is apt to seemore of her cousins than of other young men. Often some of them seek atan early hour to institute a far closer tie than that of blood. Is shewise to accept it?

SHALL COUSINS MARRY?

Hardly any point has been more warmly debated by medical men. It hasbeen said that in such marriages the woman is more apt to be sterile;that if she have children, they are peculiarly liable to be born withsome defect of body or mind, --deafness, blindness, idiocy, or lameness;that they die early; and that they are subject, beyond others, to fatalhereditary diseases, as cancer, consumption, scrofula, etc. 

An ardent physician persuaded himself so thoroughly of these evilsresulting from marriage of relatives, that he induced the Legislatureof Kentucky to pass a law prohibiting it within certain degrees ofconsanguinity. Many a married couple have been rendered miserable by theinformation that they had unwittingly violated one of nature's mostpositive laws. Though their children may be numerous and blooming, theylive in constant dread of some terrible outbreak of disease. Many ayoung and loving couple have sadly severed an engagement, which wouldhave been a prelude to a happy marriage, when they were informed ofthese disastrous results. 

For all such we have a word of consolation. We speak it authoritatively, and not without a full knowledge of the responsibility we assume. 

The risk of marrying a cousin, even a first cousin, is greatlydiminished, provided there is no decided hereditary taint in the family. And when such hereditary taint does exist, the danger is little morethan in marrying into any other family where it is also found. Indeed, acertain German author has urged the propriety of such unions, where thefamily has traits of mental or physical excellence, as a means ofpreserving and developing them!

So far as sterility is concerned, an examination of records shows, thatwhereas in the average of unions one women in _eight_ is barren, inthose between relatives but one in _ten_ is so. And as for the earlydeaths of children, while, on an average, fifteen children in a hundreddie under seven years, in the families of nearly-related parents buttwelve in a hundred is the mortality as shown by French statistics. 

The investigations about idiotic and defective children are by no meanssatisfactory, and are considered by some of the most careful writers asnot at all proving a greater tendency to such misfortunes in theoffspring of cousins. Among a thousand idiotic children recentlyexamined in Paris, not one was descended from a healthy consanguinity. 

But as few families are wholly without some lurking predisposition todisease, it is not well, as a rule, to run the risk of developing thisby too repeated unions. Stock-breeders find that the best specimens ofthe lower animals are produced by crossing nearly-related individuals acertain number of times; but that, carried beyond this, such unions leadto degeneracy and sterility. Such, also, has been the experience of manyhuman families. 

How slight a cause even of that most insidious disease, consumption, such marriages are, may be judged from the fact, that of a thousandcases inquired into by Dr. Edward Smith, in only six was thereconsanguinity of parents. 

THE MIXTURE OF RACES. 

Mankind, say the school geographies, is divided into five races, eachdistinguished by its own color. They are the white, the black, the red, the yellow, and the brown races. In this country, practically, we haveto do with but the white and black races; and the question is constantlyasked, Shall we approve of marriages between them? Shall a white womanchoose a black man to be her husband?

We are at the more pains to answer this, because recently a writer--andthis writer a woman, and this woman one of the most widely known in ourland--has written a novel intended to advocate the affirmative of thisquestion. Moreover, it is constantly mooted in certain politicalcircles, and is one of the social problems of the day. 

The very fact that it is so much discussed, shows that such a union runscounter to a strong prejudice. Such aversions are often voices ofnature, acting as warnings against acts injurious to the species. Inthis instance it is not of modern origin, created by peculiarinstitutions. Three centuries ago, Shakspeare, who had probably neverseen a score of negroes in his life, with the divination of genius, feltthe repugnance which a refined woman would feel to accepting one as herhusband. The plot of one of his plays turns on it. He makes Iago say ofDesdemona:

 'Not to affect many proposed matches Of her own clime, complexion, and degree; Whereto, we see, in all things nature tends: Foh! one may smell in such a will most rank, Foul disproportions, thoughts unnatural. '

It is, indeed, 'nature erring from itself' which prompts to thesemarriages. They are not sterile, but the children are sickly andshort-lived. Very few mulattoes reach an old age. 

Then it is well known that the black race cannot survive a northernclimate. Dr. Snow, of Providence, Rhode Island, who has given greatattention to the study of statistics, says emphatically that, in NewEngland, the colored population inevitably perish in a few generations, if left to themselves. This debility no woman should wish to give toher children. 

A mental inferiority is likewise apparent. Friends of the negro areready to confess this, but attribute it to his long and recent period ofservitude. We deal with facts only. The inferiority is there, whateverbe its cause; and she who would willingly curse her offspring with it, manifests indeed 'thoughts unnatural. '

The children born of a union of the black and red race, negroes andIndians, are on the contrary, remarkable for their physical vigor andmental acuteness; though, of course, the latter is limited to thedemands of a semi-barbarous life. 

SHOULD NATIVE WOMEN MARRY FOREIGNERS?

When we narrow the question of race to that of nationality, entirely newelements come in. 

In speaking of the intermarriage of relatives, we showed that a certainnumber of such unions in healthy stocks was advantageous rather thanotherwise, but that too many of them lead to deterioration. This law canbe applied to nations. Historians have often observed that the mostpowerful states of the world arose from an amalgamation of differenttribes. Rome, Greece, England, are examples of this. On the other hand, France, Russia, Spain, China, Persia, which have suffered no suchcrosses of blood, are either stationary, or depend for their progress onforeigners. 

Physicians have contributed other curious testimony on this point, thebearing of which they themselves have not understood. Marriages betweennationalities of the same race are more fertile, and the children morevigorous, than those between descendants of the same nation. Forinstance, it has been proved that if two descendants of the PilgrimFathers in Massachusetts marry, they will probably have but threechildren; while, if one of them marries a foreigner, the children willnumber five or six. 

So it is well ascertained that in the old and stationary communes ofFrance, where the same families have possessed their small farms forgeneration after generation, the marriages have become gradually lessand less productive, until it has seriously interfered with the quotathose districts send to the army. 

American women have suffered many hard words because they do not havemore children. Several New England writers have accused them of very badpractices, which we shall mention hereafter. But the effect of the lawof production just now laid down has been quite overlooked. 

As it is best that there should be four or five children in a family inordinary circumstances, the union of American and foreign blood is verydesirable. We need to fuse in one the diverse colonies of the white raceannually reaching our shores. A century should efface every trace of theGerman, the Irish, the Frenchman, the English, the Norwegian, and leavenothing but the American. To bring about this happy result, freeintermarriage should be furthered in every possible way. 

THE AGE OF THE HUSBAND. 

The epoch of puberty comes to a boy at about the same age as it does toa girl, --fourteen or fifteen years. And an even greater period passesbetween this epoch and the age it is proper for a man to marry, --his ageof nubility. 

Not only has he a more complete education to obtain, not only aprofession or trade to learn, and some property to accumulate, someposition to acquire, ere he is ready to take a wife, but his physicalpowers ripen more slowly than those of woman. He is more tardy incompleting his growth, and early indulgence more readily saps hisconstitution. 

We have placed the best age for woman to marry between twenty andtwenty-five years; for similar reasons, man is best qualified to becomea husband between twenty-three and thirty-three years. 

Previous to the twenty-third year, many a man is incapable of producinghealthy children. If he does not destroy his health by prematureindulgence, he may destroy his happiness by witnessing his children aprey to debility and deformity. An old German proverb says, 'Give a boya wife, and a child a bird, and death will soon knock at the door. ' Evenan author so old as Aristotle warns young men against early marriage, under penalty of disease and puny offspring. 

From the age of thirty-three to fifty years, men who carefully observethe laws of health do not feel any weight of years. Nevertheless, theyare past their prime. Then, also, with advancing years, the chances oflife diminish, and the probability increases that they will leave ayoung family with no natural protector. The half-century once turned, their vigor rapidly diminishes. The marriages they then contract areeither sterile, or yield but few and sickly children. Many an old manhas shortened his life by late nuptials; and the records of medicinecontain accounts of several who perished on the very night of marriage. 

The relative age of man and wife is next to be considered. Nature fitswoman earlier for marriage, and hints thereby that she should, as arule, be younger than her husband. So, too, the bard of nature speaks:

 'Let still the woman take An elder than herself; so wears she to him, So sways she level in her husband's heart. '

The woman who risks her happiness with a man many years younger thanherself, violates a precept of life; and when her husband growsindifferent, or taunts her with her years, or seeks companions of moresuitable age, she is reaping a harvest sown by her own hand. 

So commonly do such matches turn out badly, that in 1828 the kingdom ofWürtemberg prohibited unions where the woman was more than twelve yearsthe senior, except by special dispensation. 

After forty-five years, most women cannot hope for children. A marriagesubsequent to this period can at best be regarded as a close friendship. Marriage in its full meaning has no longer an existence. 

The relative age of man and wife has another influence, and quite acurious one. It influences the sex of the children. But this point wereserve for discussion on a later page. 

The folly of joining a young girl to an old man is happily not so commonin America as in Europe. It would be hard to devise any step morecertain to bring the laws of nature and morality into conflict. 

 'What can a young lassie do wi' an auld man?'

What advice can we give to a woman who barters her youthful charms forthe fortune of an aged husband? Shall we be cynical enough to agree with'auld Auntie Katie?'

 'My auld Auntie Katie upon me takes pity; I'll do my endeavor to follow her plan: I'll cross him, and rack him, until I heart-break him, And then his auld brass will buy me a new pan. '

No! She has willingly accepted a responsibility. It is her duty to bearit loyally, faithfully, uncomplainingly to the end. 

Let us sum up with the maxim, that the husband should be the senior, butthat the difference of age should not be more than ten years. 

WHAT SHOULD BE HIS TEMPERAMENT?

It is often hard to make out what doctors mean by _temperaments_. It issupposed that our mental and physical characters depend somehow on thepredominance of some organ or system which controls the rest. Thus aperson who is nervous, quick, sensitive to impressions, is said to havea _nervous_ temperament; one who is stout, full-blooded, red-faced, hasa _sanguine_ temperament; a thin, dark-featured, reticent person, is ofa _bilious_ temperament; while a pale, fat, sluggish nature, is called_phlegmatic_, or _lymphatic. _

In a general way these distinctions are valuable, but they will not bearvery exact applications. They reveal in outline the constitution of mindand body; and what is to our present purpose, they are of more thanusual importance in the question of selecting a husband. 

Nature, hating incongruity, yet loves variety. She preserves the limitsof species, but within those limits she seeks fidelity to one type. Therefore it is that in marriage a person inclines strongly to one of adifferent temperament--to a person quite unlike himself. 

So true is this, that a Frenchman of genius, Bernardin de St. Pierre, vouches for this anecdote of himself. He was in a strange city, visitinga friend whom he had not seen for years. The friend's sister was of thatage when women are most susceptible. She was tall, a blonde, deliberatein motion, with blue eyes and fair hair. In a jesting way, St. Pierre, who had never seen her before, and knew nothing of her personal life, said, --

'Mademoiselle, you have many admirers. Shall I describe him on whom youlook with most favor?'

The lady challenged him to do so. 

'He is short in stature, of dark complexion, dark hair and eyes, slightin figure, active and nervous in all his movements. '

The lady blushed to her eyes, and cast a glance of anger at her brother, who, she thought, had betrayed her secret. But no! St. Pierre's onlyinformant was his deep knowledge of the human heart. 

This instinct is founded upon the truth that the perfect temperament isthat happily balanced one which holds all the organs in equilibrium, --inwhich no one rules, where all are developed in proportion. Nature everstrives to realize this ideal. She instills in the nervous temperament apreference for the lymphatic; in the sanguine, a liking for the biliousconstitution. The offspring should combine the excellencies of both, thedefects of neither. We do well to heed her admonitions here, and to bearin mind that those matches which combine opposite temperaments, are, asa rule, the most fortunate. 

THE MORAL AND MENTAL CHARACTER. 

Very few words are necessary here. We have already said we speak asphysicians, not as moralists. But there are some false and dangerousideas abroad, which it is our duty as physicians to combat. 

None is more false, none more dangerous, than that embodied in theproverb, 'A reformed rake makes the best husband. ' What is a rake? A manwho has deceived and destroyed trusting virtue, --a man who has enteredthe service of the devil to undermine and poison that happiness inmarriage, which all religion and science are at such pains to cultivate. We know him well in our capacity as physicians. He comes to usconstantly the prey to loathsome diseases, the results of his viciouslife; which diseases he will communicate to his wife, for they arecontagious, and to his children, for they are hereditary; and which noreform can purge from his system, for they are ineradicable. 

Is this the man a pure woman should take to her arms? Here repentanceavails nothing. We have witnessed the agony unspeakable whichoverwhelmed a father when he saw his children suffering under horribleand disgusting diseases, the penalty of his early sins. 

Very few men of profligate lives escape these diseases. They arealarmingly prevalent among the 'fast' youths of our cities. And someforms of them are incurable by any effort of skill. Even the approach ofsuch men should be shunned, --their company avoided. 

A physician in central Pennsylvania lately had this experience: A younglady of unblemished character asked his advice for a troublesomeaffection of the skin. He examined it, and to his horror recognised aform of one of the loathsome diseases which curse only the vilest or themost unfortunate of her sex. Yet he could not suspect this girl. Oninquiry, he found that she had a small but painful sore on her lip, which she first noticed a few days after being at a picnic with a youngman. Just as he was bidding her good-night, he had kissed her on thelips. 

At once everything was clear. This young man was a patient of thephysician. He was a victim to this vile disease, and even his kiss wasenough to convey it. 

The history of the sixteenth century contains the account of an Italianduke, who on one occasion was forced by his ruler to reconcile himselfwith an enemy. Knowing he could not escape obedience, he protested themost cheerful willingness, and in the presence of the king embraced hisenemy, and even kissed him on the lips. It was but another means ofsatisfying his hatred. For he well knew that his kiss would taint hisenemy's blood with the same poison that was undermining his own life. 

How cautious, therefore, should a woman be in granting the most innocentliberties! How solicitous should she be to associate with the purestmen!

Would that we could say that these dangerous and loathsome diseases arerare! But, alas! daily professional experience forbids us to offer thisconsolation. Every physician in our large cities, and even in smallertowns, knows that they are fearfully prevalent. 

We have been consulted by wives, pure, innocent women, for complaintswhich they themselves, and sometimes their children, suffered from, thenature of which we dared not tell them, but which pointed with fatalfinger to the unfaithfulness of the husband. How utterly was theirdomestic happiness wrecked when they discovered the cause of theirconstant ill-health!

Nor are such occurrences confined to the humbler walks of life. There, perhaps, less than in any other do they occur. It is in the wealthy, theluxurious, the self-indulgent class that they are found. 

Are we asked how such a dreadful fate can be averted?

There are, indeed, certain signs and marks which such diseases leavewith which physicians are conversant. As if nature intended them aswarnings, they are imprinted on the most visible and public parts of thebody. The skin, the hair, the nose, the voice, the lines on the face, often divulge to the trained observer, more indubitably than theconfessional, a lewd and sensual life. 

Such signs, however, can only be properly estimated by the medicalcounselor, and it would be useless to rehearse them here. Those womenwho would have a sure guide in choosing a man to be their husband, havethey not Moses and the prophets? What is more, have they not Christ andthe apostles? Rest assured that the man who scoffs at Christianity, whoneglects its precepts and violates its laws, runs a terrible risk ofbringing upon himself, his wife, and his children, the vengeance ofnature, which knows justice but not mercy. Rest assured that the man whorespects the maxims of that religion, and abstains from all uncleanness, is the only man who is worthy the full and confiding love of anhonorable woman. 

THE SYMBOLISM OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

Philosophers say that every idle word which is spoken continues tovibrate in the air through all infinity. So it is with the passions andthe thoughts. Each impresses on the body some indelible mark, and a longcontinuance of similar thoughts leaves a visible imprint. 

Under the names of phrenology, physiognomy, palmistry, and others, attempts have been made at divers times to lay down fixed principles bywhich we could judge of men by their outsides; but only vague resultshave been obtained. A learned German author, of high repute in exactscience, has gone a different way to work. He has studied the body as awhole, and sought with the eye of an anatomist how different avocations, passions, temperaments, habits, mould and fashion the external parts ofman. His results are embraced in a curious volume which he entitles _TheSymbolism of the Human Body_. We shall borrow some hints from it, germane to our present theme. 

As to size, large-bodied and large-boned men possess greater energy, amore masculine character, but often less persistence, and are usuallydevoid of the more delicate emotions. Fat people are good-tempered, butindolent; thin people, full of life, but irascible. 

The neck is a significant part of the body. View it from in front, andit discloses the physical constitution. There are the conduits of thefood and the air; there, the great blood-vessels pass to the head, andits base is modified by their form as they pass from the heart. Whenbroad and full, it denotes a vigorous physical life, --a plethoricconstitution. A distinguished teacher of midwifery, Professor Pajot ofParis, says that when he sees one of those necks full in front, likethat of Marie Antoinette, as shown in her portraits, he prepares himselfto combat childbed convulsions. That queen, it is well-known, nearlyperished with them. 

The back of the neck contains the vertebral column, and is close to thebrain. It reveals the mental constitution. The short round neck of theprize-fighter betrays his craft. The slender, arched, and graceful neckof the well-proportioned woman is the symbol of health and awell-controlled mind. Burke, in his _Essay on the Beautiful_, calls itthe most beauteous object in nature. It is a common observation, that asensual character is shown by the thick and coarse development of thisportion of the body. 

The hair, also, has a significance. Fine whitish hair, like that of achild, goes with a simple, child-like disposition; black hair denotes acertain hardness of character; red hair has long been supposed to beassociated with a sensual constitution, but it rather indicates aphysical weakness, --a tendency to scrofula. This is, however, a tendencymerely. Thin hair is often the result of protracted mental labor, thoughmany other causes produce it. 

Every great man, says Herder, has a glance which no one can imitate. Wemay go farther, and say that every man of decided character reveals itin his eyes. They are the most difficult organs for the hypocrite tocontrol. Beware of the man who cannot look you in the eyes, and of himin whose eyes there lurks an expression which allures yet makes youshudder. The one has something he dares not tell you, the othersomething you dare not listen to. 

Symmetry, strength, grace, health, --these are admirable qualities in aman. From the remotest ages they have been the marks of heroes. Secondary though they are to moral and mental qualities, they should beever highly valued. A _manly_ man! Nature designs such to be the siresof future generations. No danger that we shall fall to worshipingphysical beauty again. The only fear is that in this lank, puny, scrawnygeneration of ours, we shall, out of vanity, underrate such beauty. Letit be ever remembered that this is the ideal, from which any departureis deterioration. 

THE ENGAGEMENT. 

When our grandmothers were engaged, the minister rose in his pulpit onSunday morning, before the assembled congregation, and proclaimed the'banns, ' stating that if any one knew just cause or lawful impedimentwhy the lovers should not be married, he should state it there and then. Sometimes a great hubbub was created when some discarded suitor rose, forbidding the banns, and claimed that the capricious maiden hadpreviously promised herself to him. Perhaps it was to avoid such anuncomfortable check on the freedom of flirtation that the ancient customwas dropped. 

Certain it is, that to be 'engaged' sits very lightly on the minds ofboth young men and maidens now-a-days. We know some of either sex whomake it a boast how often they have made and unmade this slender tie. Itis a dangerous pastime. 'The hand of little use hath the daintiertouch, ' and they who thus trifle with their affections will end bylosing the capacity to feel any real affection at all. 

Undoubtedly there occur instances where a woman has pledged herself inall seriousness, and afterwards sees her affianced in a light whichwarns her that she cannot be happy with him, --that the vows she will becalled upon to pronounce at the altar will be hollow and false. What isshe to do?

We are not inditing the decrees of the Court of Love. Here is the adviceof another to her hand:

 'First to thine own self be true, And then it follows, as the night the day, That thou canst ne'er be false to any man. '

CONCERNING LONG ENGAGEMENTS. 

They are hurtful, and they are unnecessary. Is love so vagrant that itmust be tied by such a chain? Better let it go. True love asks no oath;it casteth out fear, and believes without a promise. 

There are other reasons, sound physiological reasons, which we couldadduce, if need were, to show that the close personal relations whicharise between persons who are engaged should not be continued too long atime. They lead to excitement and debility, sometimes to danger anddisease. Especially is this true of nervous, excitable, sympatheticdispositions. 

If we are asked to be definite, and give figures, we should say that aperiod not longer than a year, nor shorter than three months, shouldintervene between the engagement and the marriage. 

THE RIGHT TIME OF YEAR TO MARRY. 

Woman, when she marries, enters upon a new life, and a trying one. Everyadvantage should be in her favour. The season is one of thoseadvantages. Extreme heat and extreme cold both wear severely on thehuman frame. Mid-winter and mid-summer are, therefore, alikeobjectionable, especially the latter. 

Spring and fall are usually chosen, as statistics show, and thepreference is just. On the whole, the spring is rather to be recommendedthan the autumn. In case of a birth within the year, the child will haveattained sufficient age to weather its period of teething more easilyere the next summer. 

THE RIGHT TIME IN THE MONTH TO MARRY. 

We mean the woman's own month, that which spans the time between herperiodical sicknesses, be it two or five weeks. Let her choose a dayabout equidistant from two periods. The reasons for this we shallspecify hereafter. 

THE WEDDING TOUR. 

Custom prescribes a journey immediately after marriage, of a week or amonth or two. It is an unwise provision. The event itself is disturbanceenough for the system; and to be hurried hither and thither, stowed innarrow berths and inconvenient carriages, troubled with baggage, andannoyed by the importunities of cabmen, waiters, and hangers-on of everydescription, is enough, in ordinary times, to test the temper of asaint. 

The foundation of many an unhappy future is laid on the wedding tour. Not only is the young wife tried beyond all her experience, and hernervous system harassed, but the husband, too, partakes of her weakness. Many men, who really love the women they marry, are subject to a slightrevulsion of feeling for a few days after marriage. 'When the veilfalls, and the girdle is loosened, ' says the German poet Schiller, 'thefair illusion vanishes. ' A half regret crosses their minds for the jollybachelorhood they have renounced. The mysterious charms which gave theirloved one the air of something more than human, disappear in the prosaicsunlight of familiarity. 

Let neither be alarmed, nor lose their self-control. Each requiresindulgence, and management, from the other; both should demand fromthemselves patience and self-command. A few weeks, and this danger isover; but a mistake now is the mistake of a lifetime. More than onewoman has confessed to us that her unhappiness commenced from herwedding tour; and when we inquired more minutely, we have found that itarose from an ignorance and disregard of just such little precautions aswe have been referring to. 

Yet it is every way advisable that the young pair should escape theprying eyes of friends and relatives at such a moment. Let them choosesome quiet resort, not too long a journey from home, where they canpass a few weeks in acquiring that more intimate knowledge of eachother's character as essential to their future happiness. 

THE WIFE. 

_THE WEDDING NIGHT. _

We now enter upon the consideration of the second great period in thelife of Woman. The maiden becomes a Wife. She is born into a new world. She assumes new relationships, --the sweetest, and, at the same time, themost natural of which she is capable. 

The great object of the conjugal union is the transmission of life, --aduty necessary in order to repair the constant ravages of death, andthus perpetuate the race. In the fulfilment of this sublime obligation, woman plays the more prominent part, as she is the source and depositaryof the future being. It is of moment, therefore, that she should not bealtogether ignorant of the nature and responsibilities of her position. Ignorance here means suffering, disease, and sometimes death. Let usthen interrogate science in regard to these matters, among the mostinteresting of all human concerns. 

The initiation into marriage, like its full fruition, maternity, isattended with more or less suffering. Much, however, may be done toavert and to lessen the pain which waits upon the first step in this newlife. For this purpose, regard must be had to the selection of the day. We have said that a time about midway between the monthly recurringperiods is best fitted for the consummation of marriage. As this is aseason of sterility, it recommends itself on this account, in theinterest of both the mother and offspring. The first nuptial relationsshould be fruitless, in order that the indispositions possibly arisingfrom them shall have time to subside before the appearance of thedisturbances incident to pregnancy. One profound change should not tooquickly succeed the other. About the tenth day after menstruation shouldtherefore be chosen for the marriage ceremony. 

It sometimes happens that marriage is consummated with difficulty. Toovercome this, care, management, and forbearance should always beemployed, and anything like precipitation and violence avoided. Only theconsequences of unrestrained impetuosity are to be feared. In those rarecases in which greater resistance is experienced than can be overcome bygentle means, the existence of a condition contrary to nature may besuspected. Violence can then only be productive of injury, and is notwithout danger. Medical art should be appealed to, as it alone canafford assistance in such an emergency. 

Although the first conjugal approaches are ordinarily accompanied byslight flooding, a loss of blood does not always occur. Its absenceproves nothing. The appearance of blood was formerly regarded as a testof virginity. The Israelites, Arabs, and others carefully preserved andtriumphantly exhibited the evidence of it as an infallible sign of thevirtue of the bride. They were in error. Its presence is as destitute ofsignification as its absence; for it is now well known that widows, andwives long separated from their husbands, often have a like experience. The temperament is not without its influence. In those of lymphatictemperament, pale blondes, who often suffer from local discharge andweakness, the parts being relaxed, there is less pain and little or nohæmorrhage. In brunettes, who have never had any such troubles, the caseis reversed. The use of baths, unguents, etc. , by the young wife, however serviceable they might prove, is obviously impracticable. Thisgreat change sometimes also produces swelling and inflammation of theglands of the neck. 

Marital relations ordinarily continue during the first few weeks to bemore or less painful. General constitutional disturbance and disordersof the nervous system often result. These troubles are all increased bythe stupid custom of hurrying the bride from place to place, at a timewhen the bodily quiet and the mental calmness and serenity so desirableto her should be the only objects in view. Too frequent indulgence atthis period is a fruitful source of various inflammatory diseases, andoften occasions temporary sterility and ill-health. The old customrequiring a three days' separation after the first nuptial approach wasa wise one, securing to the young wife the soothing and restoringinfluence of rest. Nothing was lost by it, and much gained. 

In a little while, however, all irritation should subside, and nosuffering or distress of any kind, whether general or local, shouldattend upon the performance of this important function. The presence ofsuffering now becomes indicative of disease. Of this we will speakhereafter. 

SHALL HUSBAND AND WIFE OCCUPY THE SAME ROOM AND BED?

One-third of life is passed in sleep. This period of unconsciousness andrest is necessary for the renewal of vital strength, and upon its propermanagement depends much of the health not merely of the husband andwife, but of their offspring. A great deal has been written upon theeffect on health and happiness of occupying separate apartments, separate beds in the same apartment, or the same bed. This vexedquestion it is impossible to settle by absolute rules, suitable to allcases. In general, it may be asserted that there are no validphysiological reasons for desiring to change the custom which nowprevails in this and most other countries. When both parties are in goodhealth, and of nearly the same age, one bed-chamber, if sufficientlyroomy, may be used without any disadvantage to either. Such anarrangement is also to be commended, because it secures closercompanionship, and thus developes and sustains mutual affection. 

It is said that in Zurich, in the olden time, when a quarrelsome coupleapplied for a divorce, the magistrate refused to listen to them atfirst. He ordered that they should be shut up together in one room forthree days, with one bed, one table, one plate, and one cup. Their foodwas passed in by attendants, who neither saw nor spoke to them. On theexpiration of the three days, it was usual to find that neither of themwanted a separation. 

As before stated, there are conditions under which sleeping together isprejudicial to the health. A certain amount of fresh air during thenight is required by every one. Re-breathed air is poisonous. Duringsleep constant exhalations take place from the lungs and from the skin, which are injurious if absorbed. A room twelve feet square is too smallfor two persons, unless it is so thoroughly ventilated that there is aconstant change of air. In fact, a sleeping apartment for two personsshould contain an air-space of at least twenty-four hundred cubic feet, and the facilities for ventilation should be such that the whole amountwill be changed in an hour, --that is, at the rate of forty cubic feetper minute; for it has been ascertained that twenty cubic feet of freshair a minute are required for every healthy adult. 

Very young and very old people should never occupy the same bed. Whenthe married couple hold the relation to each other, in regard to age, ofgrandfather and granddaughter, separate apartments should be insistedupon. 

Certain diseases can be produced by sleeping together. The bed of aconsumptive, it is well known, is a powerful source of contagion. InItaly it is the custom, after death, to destroy the bed-clothes ofconsumptive patients. Tubercular disease has, within the past few years, been transferred from men to animals by inoculation. Authentic cases areupon record of young robust girls of healthy parentage, marrying menaffected with consumption, acquiring the disease in a short time, anddying, in some instances, before their husbands. In these significantcases, the sickly emanations have apparently been communicated duringsleep. When, therefore, either husband or wife is known to haveconsumption, it would be highly imprudent for them to pass the longhours of the night either in the same bed or in the same room. 

WHAT KIND OF BED IS MOST HEALTHFUL?

Feather-beds are not conducive to the health of either sex. Mattressesmade of wool, or of wool and horsehair, are much better. The bed shouldbe opened, and its contents exposed to the air and sunlight, once everyyear. Beds long saturated with the night exhalations of their occupantsare not wholesome. A number of ancient writers have alleged--and it hasbeen reasserted by modern authorities--that sleeping on sponge is ofservice to those who desire to increase their families. The mattressesof compressed sponge recently introduced, therefore, commend themselvesto married people thus situated. Hemlock boughs make a bed which has awell-established reputation for similar virtues. 

The odor of cone-bearing trees has a well-known influence upon thefruitfulness of wedlock. Those who live in pine forests have ordinarilylarge families of children. 

Excessive clothing at night is highly injurious. So also is a fire inthe bed-room, except in case of sickness. If the body be too much heatedduring sleep, perspiration occurs, or the action of the heart isincreased, and the whole economy becomes excited. Either conditionprevents sound sleep and reinvigoration of the body. Wives in feeblehealth, and those liable to attacks of flooding, should therefore have aparticular regard to the quantity of clothing on their beds. 

THE DIGNITY AND PROPRIETY OF THE SEXUAL INSTINCT. 

A distinguished medical writer has divided women into three classes inregard to the intensity of the sexual instinct. He asserts that a largernumber than is generally supposed have little or no sexual feeling. Asecond class of women, more numerous than these, but still small ascompared with the whole of their sex, are more or less subject to strongpassion. Those of the first class can no more form an idea of thestrength of the impulse in other women, than the blind can of colors. They therefore often err in their judgments. The third class comprisesthe vast majority of women, in whom the sexual appetite is as moderateas all other appetites. 

It is a false notion, and contrary to nature, that this passion in awoman is a derogation to her sex. The science of physiology indicatesmost clearly its propriety and dignity. There are wives who plumethemselves on their repugnance or their distaste for their conjugalobligations. They speak of their coldness and of the calmness of theirsenses, as if these were not defects. Excepting those afflicted withvices of conformation, or with disorders of sensibility, --which amountto the same thing, --all wives are called upon to receive and pay theimposts of love; and those who can withdraw themselves from theoperation of this mysterious law without suffering and withsatisfaction, show themselves by that fact to be incomplete in theirorganization, and deficient in the special function of their being. There should be no passion for one which is not shared by both. Generation is a duty. The feeling which excites to the preservation ofthe species is as proper as that which induces the preservation of theindividual. Passionate, exclusive, and durable love for a particularindividual of the opposite sex, it has been well said, is characteristicof the human race, and is a mark of distinction from other animals. Theinstinct of reproduction in mankind is thus joined to an affectionatesentiment, which adds to its sweetness and prolongs infinitely itsduration. 

Many physiologists have assigned to the feelings an important _rôle_ inconception, the possibility of which has even been doubted if there beno passion on the side of the woman. Although this extreme view is nottenable in the light of modern research, yet all recent authoritiesagree that conception is more assured when the two individuals whoco-operate in it participate at the same time in the transports of whichit is the fruit. It is also without doubt true that the disposition ofthe woman at that time has much power in the formation of the fœtus, both in modifying its physical constitution and in determining thecharacter and temperament of its mind. The influence, long agoattributed by Shakspeare to 'a dull, stale, tired bed' in creating a'tribe of fops, ' is not a mere poet's fancy. 

In this manner also may be explained the results of prolonged continenceupon the offspring, for desires are usually vivid in proportion to theprevious period of rest. The father of Montaigne, returning after anabsence of thirty-two years, during which he was engaged in the wars ofItaly, begot his son, so justly celebrated in French literature. Thefather of J. J. Rousseau, after a considerable absence inConstantinople, brought to his wife the reward of a long fidelity. 

Sexual passion exerts, therefore, a marked influence upon the futurebeing before conception, by the impression made upon the elements whichcome together to form it. The question now occurs; What effect does itspresence and gratification produce upon the parents? We answer; It is anatural and healthful impulse. Its influence is salutary. A markedimprovement in the physical condition of delicate women often follows ahappy marriage. This sometimes occurs even in those cases where, fromthe nature of the disorder, the reverse might be expected. The utilityof the passions, well directed, has become a maxim in medicine as inmorality. And what passion is more important and fervent than that ofwhich we write? The fathers in medicine, and their modern followers, agree in ascribing to the pleasures of love, indulged in withmoderation, activity and lightness of the body, vigor and vivacity ofthe mind. 

Music, apart from its immense influence on the nervous system ingeneral, seems sometimes to exercise a special action on the sexualinstinct. Science possesses at the present day some facts beyonddispute, which prove the great power of music in this respect. 

ON THE INDULGENCE AND THE RESTRAINT OF SEXUAL DESIRE. 

The act of generation is a voluntary one. But nature has so placed itunder the empire of pleasure, that the voice of discretion is no longerheard, and the will is often led captive. Hence it is well, for hygienicreasons, to consider its laws. 

The too frequent repetition of the reproductive act is known to befollowed by consequences injurious to the general health. Too rigidcontinence is not unattended, in many constitutions, with danger, forthe victory over passion may be dearly bought. Science recommends theadoption of a wise mean between two extremes equally destructive. Byfollowing her counsel, women may escape from the hysterical and otherdisorders which often wait as well upon excess as upon too great denialof that passion, which claims satisfaction as a natural right. 

As men have made laws upon all subjects, we need not be surprised tolearn that they have legislated upon this. History informs us that thelegislators of ancient times have not failed to occupy themselves withthis grave question of conjugal economy. The ordinances of Solonrequired that the married should acquit themselves of their duties atleast three times a month; those of Zoroaster prescribed once a week. Mohammed ordered that any wife neglected by her husband longer than aweek could demand and obtain a divorce. It is not, however, in these, and other enactments which might be quoted, that guidance is to besought. The principles derived from nature and experience are morevaluable than human laws, however venerable; for these too often serveonly to reflect the profound ignorance of their makers. 

Moderation should here prevail. Health is thus preserved andstrengthened, and the gratification doubled. The art of seasoningpleasures in general, consists in being avaricious with them. To abstainfrom enjoyment, is the philosophy of the sage, the epicurism of reason. 

Proper self-denial in the gratification of the wants of physical love isa source of good, not only to the individual practising it, but to thecommunity, as we shall show hereafter. It may be observed for one's ownprofit only, or for the benefit of another. The latter is in the endmore conducive to self-interest than the former. A double advantage isderived therefrom, --gratitude and sympathy returned, and increase ofappetite and of power for future enjoyment. Excess of indulgence resultsin the pain of surfeit and the extinction of affection. Earnest love, satisfying itself with small gratifications, is a more copious source ofhappiness than that frequently quenched by full gratification. 

What, then, is this moderation which both Hygeia and Venus command?Here, again, invariable rules are not possible. Science rarely lays downlaws so inflexible as those of the Medes and Persians. She designateslimits. The passage between Scylla and Charybdis is often a wide one. The folly of the ancient statutes which have been referred to, consistsmainly in their failure to recognise the diverse influence of age, temperament, seasons, etc. 

It almost appears as if there were but one _season_ for generation, thatin which the sun re-warms and vivifies the earth, trees dress inverdure, and animals respire the soft breath of spring. Then everyliving thing reanimates itself. The impulse of reproduction is excited. Now, also, its gratification is most beneficial to the individual and tothe species. Children conceived in the spring time have greatervitality, are less apt to die during infancy, than those conceived atany other time of the year. The statistics of many thousand cases, recently carefully collated in England, prove this beyond peradventure. It is well known that a late calf, or one born at the end of the summer, is not likely to become a well-developed and healthy animal. This hasbeen attributed to the chilling influence of approaching winter; but itis capable of another and, perhaps, a truer explanation. Nature'simpulses, therefore, in the spring of the year are for the good of therace, and may then be more frequently indulged without prejudice to theindividual. Summer is the season which agrees the least with theexercise of the generative functions. The autumn months are the mostunfruitful. Then, also, derangements of the economy are readily excitedby marital intemperance. 

The _temperaments_ exert over reproduction, as over all the otherfunctions of the body, a powerful influence. Love is said to be theruling passion in the sanguine temperament, as ambition is in thebilious. There is also in some cases a peculiar condition of the nervoussystem which impels to, or diverts from, sexual indulgence. In somewomen, even in moderation, it acts as a poison, being followed byheadache and prostration, lasting for days. 

With advancing years, the fading of sexual desire calls attention to thegeneral law, that animals and plants, when they become old, are dead toreproduction. What in early life is followed by temporary languor, inmatured years is succeeded by a train of symptoms much graver and moredurable. 

Those who are in feeble health, and particularly those who have delicatechests, ought to be sober in the gratification of love. Sexualintercourse has proved mortal after severe hæmorrhages. 

All organized beings are powerfully affected by propagation. Animalsbecome depressed and dejected after it. The flower which shines sobrilliantly at the moment of its amours, after the consummation of thatact, withers and falls. It is wise, therefore, in imparting life, tohave a care not to shorten one's own existence. Nothing is more certainthan that animals and plants lessen the duration of their lives bymultiplied sexual enjoyments. The abuse of these pleasures produceslassitude and weakness. Beauty of feature and grace of movement aresacrificed. When the excess is long continued, it occasions spasmodicand convulsive affections, enfeeblement of the senses, particularly thatof sight, deprivation of the mental functions, loss of memory, pulmonary consumption and death. One of the most eminent of livingphysiologists has asserted that 'development of the individual and thereproduction of the species stand in a reverse ratio to each other, ' andthat 'the highest degree of bodily rigor is inconsistent with more thana very modest indulgence in sexual intercourse. '

The general principles we have just enunciated are of great importancein the regulation of the health. They are more suggestive and usefulthan the precise rules which have from time to time been laid down onthis subject. 

TIMES WHEN MARITAL RELATIONS SHOULD BE SUSPENDED. 

There are times at which marital relations are eminently improper. Weare told, I Cor. Vii. 3, 4, that neither husband nor wife has the powerto refuse the conjugal obligation when the debt is demanded. But thereare certain legitimate causes for denial by the wife. 

A condition of intoxication in the husband is a proper ground forrefusal. Fecundation taking place while either parent has been in thisstate has produced idiots and epileptics. This has happened again andagain. The cases on record are so numerous and well-authenticated, as toadmit of no doubt in regard to the fatal effect upon the mind of theoffspring of conception under such circumstances. 

Physical degeneracy is also often a consequence of procreation duringthe alcoholic intoxication of one or both parents. A peculiar arrest ofgrowth and development of body and mind takes place, and, in someinstances, the unfortunate children, although living to years ofmanhood, remain permanent infants, just able to stand by the side of achair, to utter a few simple sounds, and to be amused with childishtoys. 

During convalescence from a severe sickness, or when there is any localor constitutional disease which would be aggravated by sexualintercourse, it should be abstained from. There is reason for believingthat a being procreated at a period of ill-humour, bodily indisposition, or nervous debility, may carry with it, during its whole existence, somesmall particles of these evils. When there exists any contagiousdisease, refusals are of course valid, and often a duty to the unborn. Poverty, or the wish to have no more children, can only be exceptionallyallowed as a reason for the denial of all conjugal privileges. 

The opinion that sexual relations practised during the time of themenses engender children liable to scrofulous disease, is a mere popularprejudice. But there are other and better-founded reasons for continenceduring these periods. 

The question of intercourse during pregnancy and suckling will come upfor consideration when speaking of these conditions hereafter. 

CONDITIONS WHEN MARITAL RELATIONS ARE PAINFUL. 

Nature has not designed that a function of great moment to the humanrace--one involving its very existence--should be attended with pain. The presence of pleasure is indicative of health, its absence ofdisease. But to a woman who has systematically displaced her womb byyears of imprudence in conduct or dress, this act, which should be aphysiological one, and free from any hurtful tendencies becomes a sourceof distress and even of illness. The diseases of the womb whichsometimes follow matrimony are not to be traced to excessive indulgencein many cases, but to indulgence _to any extent_ by those who havealtered the natural relation of the parts before marriage. A prominentphysician, Prof. T. Gaillard Thomas, of New York, has said that 'upon awoman who has enfeebled her system by habits of indulgence and luxury, pressed her uterus entirely out of its normal place, and who perhapscomes to the nuptial bed with some marked uterine disorder, the resultof imprudence at menstrual epochs, sexual intercourse has a _poisonous_influence. The taking of food into the stomach exerts no hurtfulinfluence on the digestive system; but the taking of food by adyspeptic, who has abused and injured that organ, does so. '

When excessive pain exists, and every attempt occasions nervoustrepidation and apprehension, it is absolutely certain that there issome diseased condition present, for which proper advice should besecured at once. Delay in doing so will not remove the necessity formedical interference in the end, while it will assuredly aggravate thetrouble. Prompt intelligent aid, on the contrary, is usually followed bythe happiest results in such cases. 

STERILITY. 

Wives who never become mothers are said to be sterile or barren. Thiscondition is frequently a cause of much unhappiness. Fortune may favorthe married couple in every other respect, yet if she refuse to accordthe boon of even a single heir to heart and home, her smiles will bearthe aspect of frowns. It is then of some interest to inquire into thecauses of this condition, and how to prevent or remedy their operation. 

Dr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, has shown, by elaborate research, that inthose wives who are destined to have children, there intervenes, on theaverage, about seventeen months between the marriage ceremony and thebirth of the first child, and that the question whether a woman will besterile is decided in the first three years of married life. If she haveno children in that time, the chances are thirteen to one against herever having any. In those cases, therefore, in which the first threeyears of married life are fruitless, it is highly desirable for thosewishing a family to ascertain whether or not the barrenness is dependentupon any defective condition capable of relief. 

The age of a wife at the time of marriage has much to do with theexpectation of children. As the age increases over twenty-five years, the interval between the marriage and the birth of the first child islengthened. For it has been ascertained that not only are women mostfecund from twenty to twenty-four, but that they begin their career ofchild-bearing sooner after marriage than their younger or elder sisters. Early marriages (those before the age of twenty) are sometimes morefruitful than late ones (those after twenty-four). The interestingresult has further been arrived at in England, that about one infourteen of all marriages of women between fifteen and nineteen arewithout offspring; that wives married at ages from twenty to twenty-fourinclusive, are almost all fertile; and that after that age the chancesof having no children gradually increases with the greater age at thetime of marriage. 

There are two kinds of sterility which are physiological, natural to allwomen, --that of young girls before puberty, and that of women who arepast the epoch of the cessation of the menses. In some very rare cases, conception takes place after cessation. In one published case, itoccurred nine months afterwards, and in another eighteen months. In somevery rare cases, also, conception has taken place before the firstmenstruation. 

The older a woman is at the time of her marriage, the longer deferred isthe age at which she naturally becomes sterile. She bears children laterin life, in order to compensate, as it were, for her late commencement. But although she continues to have children until a more advanced agethan the earlier married, yet her actual child-bearing period isshorter. Nature does not entirely make up at the end of life for thetime lost from the duties of maternity in early womanhood; for theyounger married have really a longer era of fertility than the older, though it terminates at an earlier age. 

A wife who, having had children, has ceased for three years to conceive, will probably bear no more, and the probability increases as timeelapses. After the first, births take place with an average interval, inthose who continue to be fertile, of about twenty months. 

Nursing women are generally sterile, above all, during the first monthswhich follow accouchement, because the vital forces are thenconcentrated on the secretion of the milk. In a majority of instances, when suckling is prolonged to even nineteen or twenty months, pregnancydoes not take place at all until after weaning. 

Climate has also an influence upon the fertility of marriages. Insouthern regions more children are born, fewer in northern. The numberof children is in inverse proportion to the amount of food in a countryand in a season. In Belgium, the higher the price of bread the greaterthe number of children, and the greater the number of infant deaths. 

The seasons exert a power over the increase of population. The spring ofthe year, as has already been stated, is the most favourable tofecundity. It is not known whether day and night have any effect uponconception. 

The worldly condition seems to have much to do with the size of afamily. Rich and fashionable women have fewer children than their poorand hard-worked neighbours. Wealth and pleasure seem to be often gladlyexchanged for the title of mother. 

But it is our more particular object now to inquire into the _causes ofabsolute sterility_ in individual cases, rather than to discuss theoperation of general laws upon the fertility of the community at large, however inviting such a discussion may be. When marriages are fruitless, the wife is almost always blamed. It is not to be supposed that she isalways in fault. Many husbands are absolutely sterile; for it is amistake to consider that every man must be prolific who is vigorous andenjoys good health. Neither does it follow, because a woman has nevergiven birth to a living child, that she has not conceived. About onemarriage in eight is unproductive of living children, and thereforefails to add to the population. The seeds of life have, however, beenmore extensively sown among women than these figures would seem toindicate. If the life of an infant for a long time after birth is afrail one, before birth its existence is precarious in the extreme. Itoften perishes soon after conception. A sickness, unusually long andprofuse, occurring in a young married woman a few days beyond theregular time, is often the only evidence she will ever have that a lifeshe has communicated has been ended almost as soon as begun. A tendencyto miscarriage may therefore be all that stands in the way of a family. This is generally remediable. 

It is a well-known fact that frigidity is a frequent cause ofbarrenness, as well as a barrier to matrimonial happiness. Its removal, so desirable, is in many cases possible by detecting and doing away withthe cause. The causes are so various, that their enumeration here wouldbe tedious and unprofitable, for most of them can only be discoveredand remedied by a practical physician who has studied the particularcase under consideration. So also in regard to the various displacementsand diseases of the womb preventing conception. Proper medical treatmentis usually followed by the best results. 

While the fact that pleasure is found in the marital relation is afavourable augury for impregnation, it has been long noticed thatMessalinas are sterile. It was observed in Paris, that out of onethousand only six bore children in the course of a year, whereas theordinary proportion in that city for that time is three and a halfbirths for every one hundred of the population. 

In some women, nothing seems amiss but too intense passion. Such casesare much more rare than instances of the opposite extreme producing thesame effect. 

A condition of debility, or the presence of certain special poisons inthe blood, may prevent conception, or, what is to all intents the samething, cause miscarriage. Many apparently feeble women have largefamilies. But in numerous instances a tonic and sometimes an alternativeconstitutional treatment is required before pregnancy will take place. On the contrary, there are well-authenticated cases of women who werestout and barren in opulence becoming thin and prolific in poverty. 

The stimulus of novelty to matrimonial intercourse imparted by a shortseparation of husband and wife, is often salutary in its influence uponfertility. 

To show upon what slight constitutional differences infertility oftendepends, it is merely necessary to allude to the fact, known to everyone, that women who have not had children with one husband often havethem with another. This condition of physiological incompatibility isevidently not altogether one of the emotional nature, for it is observedin animals, among whom it is by no means rare to find certain males andfemales who will not breed together, although both are known to beperfectly fruitful with other females and males. The ancients, believingthat sterility was more common with couples of the same temperament andcondition, advised, with Hippocrates, that blonde women should unitewith dark men, thin women with stout men, and _vice versâ. _

Barren women should not despair. They sometimes become fecund after along lapse of years. In other words, they are sterile only during acertain period of their lives, and then, a change occurring in theirtemperament with age, they become fruitful. History affords a strikingexample of this eccentricity of generation, in the birth of Louis XIV. , whom Anne of Austria, Queen of France brought into the world after asterility of twenty-two years. Catherine de Medicis, wife of Henry II. , became the mother of ten children after a sterility of ten years. Dr. Tilt, of London, mentions the case of a woman who was married ateighteen, but although both herself and her husband enjoyed habitualgood health, conception did not take place until she was forty-eight, when she bore a child. Another case is reported where a well-formedfemale married at nineteen, and did not bear a child until she hadreached her fiftieth year. 

Families often suffer from the effects of sterility. Civilised nationsnever do. Recent researches have been carefully instituted in severalcountries to determine the exact power of the human race to preserve itsnumbers against the ravages of death. It has been ascertained thatduring periods of peace the population can be maintained to the samepoint by the additions made to it through the procreating capacity ofonly one-half of the women in the community. Nature, therefore, has madeample provision for preventing a decrease of population through failureof reproduction. 

She has also instituted laws to prevent its undue increase. It wouldseem as if the extension of material mental and social comfort andculture has a tendency to render marriage less prolific, and populationstationary or nearly so. So evident is this tendency, that it has beenlaid down as a maxim in sociology by Sismondi, that 'where the number ofmarriages is proportionally the greatest, where the greatest number ofpersons participate in the duties and the virtues and the happiness ofmarriage, the smaller number of children does each marriage produce. 'Thus, to a certain extent, does nature endorse the opinions of thosepolitical economists who assert that increase of population beyondcertain limits is an evil happily averted by wars, famines, andpestilences, which hence become national blessings in disguise. She, however, points to the extension of mental and moral education andrefinement as gentler and surer means of reducing plethoric populationthan those suggested by Malthus and Mill. 

Many causes of sterility, it will therefore be seen, are beyond thepower of man to control. They operate on a large scale for the good ofthe whole. With these we have little concern. But there are others whichmay be influenced by intelligent endeavor. Some have been alreadyalluded to, and the remedy suggested; but we will proceed to give morespecific

ADVICE TO WIVES WHO DESIRE TO HAVE CHILDREN. 

It has long been known that menstruation presents a group of phenomenaclosely allied to fecundity. The first eruption of the menses is anunequivocal sign of the awakening of the faculty of reproduction. Thecessation of the menstrual epochs is a sign equally certain of the lossof the faculty of reproduction. When conception has taken place, theperiodical flow is interrupted. Labor occurs at about the time in whichthe menses would have appeared. In short, it is a fact, now completelyestablished, that the time immediately before, and particularly thatafter the monthly sickness, is the period the most favorable tofecundation. It is said that, by following the counsel to this effectgiven him by the celebrated Fernel, Henry II. , the King of France, secured to himself offspring after the long sterility of his wife beforereferred to. Professor Bedford, of New York, says that he can point tomore than one instance in which, by this advice, he has succeeded inadding to the happiness of parties who for years had been vainly hopingfor the accomplishment of their wishes. 

Repose of the woman, and, above all, sojourn on the bed after the act ofgeneration, also facilitates conception. Hippocrates, the great fatherof medicine, was aware of this, and laid stress upon it in his advice tosterile wives. 

The womb and the breasts are bound together by very strong sympathies:that which excites the one will stimulate the other. Dr. Charles Loudonmentions that four out of seven patients, by acting on this hint, becamemothers. A similar idea occurred to the illustrious Marshall Hall, whoadvised the application of a strong infant to the breast. Fomentationsof warm milk to the breasts and the corresponding portion of the spinalcolumn, and the use of the breast-pump two or three times a day, justbefore the menstrual period, have also been recommended by good medicalauthorities. Horseback exercise, carried to fatigue, seems occasionallyto have conduced to pregnancy. 

The greatest hope of success against sterility is to change the dominantstate of the constitution. But this can only be effected under suitablemedical advice. The treatment of sterility--thanks to the recentresearches of Dr. Marion Sims--is much more certain than formerly; andthe intelligent physician is now able to ascertain the cause, and pointout the remedy, where before all was conjecture and experiment. Thesterile wife should, herefore, be slow in abandoning all hope of everbecoming a mother. 

ON THE LIMITATION OF OFFSPRING. 

No part of our subject is more delicate than this. Very few people arewilling to listen to a dispassionate discussion of the propriety orimpropriety of limiting within certain bounds the number of children ina family. On the one side are many worthy physicians and piousclergymen, who, without listening to any arguments, condemn every effortto avoid large families; on the other, are numberless wives andhusbands, who turn a deaf ear to the warnings of doctors and thethunders of divines, and, eager to escape a responsibility they haveassumed, hesitate not to resort to the most dangerous and immoral meansto accomplish this end. 

We ask both parties to lay aside prejudice and prepossession, andexamine with us this most important social question in all its bearings. 

Let us first inquire whether there is such a thing as_over-production_--having _too many_ children. Unquestionably there is. Its disastrous effects on both mother and children are known to everyintelligent physician. Two-thirds of all cases of womb disease, says Dr. Tilt, are traceable to child-bearing in feeble women. Hardly a daypasses that a physician in large practice does not see instances ofdebility and disease resulting from over-much child-bearing. Even thelower animals illustrate this. Every farmer is aware of the necessity oflimiting the offspring of his mares and cows. How much more severe arethe injuries inflicted on the delicate organization of woman! A verygreat mortality, says Dr. Duncan of Edinburgh, attends uponconfinements when they become too frequent. 

The evils of a too rapid succession of pregnancies are likewiseconspicuous in the children. There is no more frequent cause, says Dr. Hillier, --whose authority in such matters none will dispute, --of ricketsthan this. Puny, sickly, short-lived offspring follows over-production. Worse than this, the carefully compiled statistics of Scotland show thatsuch children are peculiarly liable to idiocy. Adding to an alreadyexcessive number, they come to over-burden a mother already overwhelmedwith progeny. They cannot receive at her hands the attention theyrequire. Weakly herself, she brings forth weakly infants. 'Thus, 'concludes Dr. Duncan, 'are the accumulated evils of an excessive familymanifest. '

Apart from these considerations, there are certain social relationswhich have been thought by some to advise small families. When eitherparent suffers from a disease which is transmissible, and wishes toavoid inflicting misery on an unborn generation, it has been urged thatthey should avoid children. Such diseases not unfrequently manifestthemselves after marriage, which is answer enough to the objection thatif they did not wish children they should not marry. There are alsowomen to whom pregnancy is a nine months' torture, and others to whom itis nearly certain to prove fatal. Such a condition cannot be discoveredbefore marriage, and therefore cannot be provided against by a singlelife. Can such women be asked to immolate themselves?

It is strange, says that distinguished writer, John Stuart Mill, thatintemperance in drink, or in any other appetite, should be condemned soreadily, but that incontinence in this respect should always meet notonly with indulgence but praise. 'Little improvement' he adds, 'can beexpected in morality until the producing too large families is regardedwith the same feeling as drunkenness, or any other physical excess. ' Awell-known medical writer, Dr. Drysdale, in commenting on these words, adds: 'In this error, if error it be, I also humbly share. '

'When dangerous prejudices, ' says Sismondi, the learned historian ofsouthern Europe, 'have not become accredited, when our true dutiestowards those to whom we give life are not obscured in the name of asacred authority, no married man will have more children than he canbring up properly. '

Such is the language of physicians and statesmen; but a stronger appealhas been made for the sake of morality itself. The detestable crime of_abortion_ is appallingly rife in our day; it is abroad in our land toan extent which would have shocked the dissolute women of pagan Rome. Testimony from all quarters, especially from New England, hasaccumulated within the past few years to sap our faith in the moralityand religion of American women. This wholesale, fashionable murder, howare we to stop it? Hundreds of vile men and women in our large citiessubsist by this slaughter of the innocents, and flaunt their ill-gottengains--the price of blood--in our public thoroughfares. Theiradvertisements are seen in the newspapers; their soul and bodydestroying means are hawked in every town. With such temptation strewnin her path, what will the woman threatened with an excessive familydo? Will she not yield to evil, and sear her conscience with therepetition of her wickedness? Alas! daily experience in the heart of agreat city discloses to us only too frequently the fatal ease of such acourse. 

In view of the injuries of excessive child-bearing on the one hand, andof this prevalent crime on the other, a man of genius and sympathy, Dr. Raciborski of Paris, took the position that the avoidance of offspringto a certain extent is not only legitimate, but should be recommended asa measure of public good. 'We know how bitterly we shall be attacked, 'he says, 'for promulgating this doctrine; but if our ideas only renderto society the services we expect of them, we shall have effaced fromthe list of crimes the one most atrocious without exception, that ofchild-murder, before or after birth, and we shall have poured a littlehappiness into the bosoms of despairing families, where poverty isallied to the knowledge that offspring can be born only to prostitutionor mendicity. The realization of such hopes will console us under theattacks upon our doctrines. '

It has been eagerly repeated by some, that the wish to limit offspringarises most frequently from an inordinate desire of indulgence. We replyto such, that they do not know the human heart, and that they do itdiscredit. More frequently the wish springs from a love of children. Theparents seek to avoid having more than they can properly nourish andeducate. They do not wish to leave their sons and daughters in want. 'This, ' says a writer in _The Nation_ (of New York), in an article onthis interesting subject, --'this is not the noblest motive of action, ofcourse, but there is something finely human about it. '

'Very much indeed is it to be wished, ' says Dr. Edward Reich, afterreviewing the multitudinous evils which result to individuals andsociety from a too rapid increase in families, 'that the function ofreproduction be placed under the dominion of the will. '

Men are very ready to find an excuse for self-indulgence; and if theycannot get one anywhere else, they seek it in religion. They tell thewoman it is her duty to bear all the children she can. They refer her tothe sturdy, strong-limbed women of early times, to the peasant women ofnorthern Europe, who emigrate to America, and ask and expect their wivesto rival them in fecundity. Such do not reflect that they have beenbrought up to light indoor employment, that their organization is morenervous and frail, that they absolutely have not the stamina requiredfor many confinements. 

Moreover, they presume too much in asking her to bear them. 'If a womanhas a right to decide on any question, ' said a genial physician in theMassachusetts Medical Society a few years since, 'it certainly is as tohow many children she shall bear. ' 'Certainly, ' say the editors of aprominent medical journal, 'wives have a right to demand of theirhusbands at least the same consideration which a breeder extends to hisstock. ' 'Whenever it becomes unwise that the family should beincreased, ' says Sismondi again, '_justice_ and _humanity_ require thatthe husband should impose on himself the same restraint which issubmitted to by the unmarried. '

An eminent writer on medical statistics, Dr. Henry MacCormac, says: 'Thebrute yields to the generative impulse when it is experienced. He istroubled by no compunction about the matter. Now, a man ought not to actlike a brute. He has reason to guide and control his appetites. Toomany, however, forget, and act like brutes instead of as men. It would, in effect, prove very greatly conducive to man's interests were thegenerative impulses placed absolutely under the sway of right reason, chastity, forecast, and justice. '

There is no lack of authorities, medical and non-medical, on this point. Few who weigh them well will deny that there is such a thing as toolarge a family; that there does come a time when a mother can rightfullydemand rest from her labours, in the interest of herself, her children, and society. When is this time? Here again the impossibility meets us ofstating a definite number of children, and saying, 'This many and nomore. ' As in every other department of medicine, averages are of noavail in guiding individuals. There are women who require no limitationwhatever. They can bear healthy children with rapidity, and suffer noill results. There are others--and they are the majority--who should usetemperance in this as in every other function; and there are a few whoshould bear no children at all. It is absurd for physicians ortheologians to insist that it is either the physical or moral duty ofthe female to have as many children as she possibly can have. It istime that such an injurious prejudice was discarded, and the truthrecognised, that while marriage looks to offspring as its naturalsequence, there should be inculcated such a thing as marital continence, and that excess here as elsewhere is repugnant to morality, and isvisited by the laws of physiology with certain and severe punishment onparent and child. 

Continence, self-control, a willingness to deny himself, --that is whatis required from the husband. But a thousand voices reach us fromsuffering women in all parts of our land that this will not suffice;that men refuse thus to restrain themselves; that it leads to a loss ofdomestic happiness and to illegal amours, or that it is injuriousphysically and mentally, --that, in short, such advice is useless, because impracticable. 

To such sufferers we reply that Nature herself has provided to someextent against over-production, and that it is well to avail ourselvesof her provisions. It is well known that women when nursing rarelybecome pregnant, and for this reason, if for no other, women shouldnurse their own children, and continue the period until the child is atleast a year old. Be it remembered, however, that nursing, continued toolong, weakens both mother and child, and, moreover, ceases to accomplishthe end for which we now recommend it. 

Another provision of nature is, that for a certain period between hermonthly illnesses every woman is sterile. The vesicle which matures inher ovaries, and is discharged from them by menstruation, remains somedays in the womb before it is passed forth and lost. How long its stayis we do not definitely know, and probably it differs in individuals. From ten to twelve days at most are supposed to elapse after the_cessation_ of the flow before the final ejection of the vesicle. Forsome days after this the female is incapable of reproduction. But forsome days _before_ her monthly illness she is liable to conception, asfor that length of time the male element can survive. This period, therefore, becomes a variable and an undetermined one, and even whenknown, its observation demands a large amount of self-control. 

There is one method widely in use in this country for the limitation ofoffspring which deserves only the most unqualified condemnation, whichis certain to bring upon the perpetrators swift and terribleretribution, and which is opposed to every sentiment of nature andmorality. We mean

THE CRIME OF ABORTION. 

_From the moment of conception_ a new life commences; a new individualexists; another child is added to the family. The mother whodeliberately sets about to destroy this life, either by want of care, orby taking drugs, or using instruments, commits as great a crime, is justas guilty, as if she strangled her new-born infant, or as if shesnatched from her own breast her six-months' darling and dashed out itsbrains against the wall. Its blood is upon her head, and as sure asthere is a God and a judgment, that blood will be required of her. Thecrime she commits is _murder_, _child-murder_, --the slaughter of aspeechless, helpless being, whom it is her duty, beyond all things else, to cherish and preserve. 

This crime is common; it is fearfully prevalent. Hundreds of persons aredevoted to its perpetration. It is their trade. In nearly every villageits ministers stretch out their bloody hands to lead the weak woman tosuffering, remorse, and death. Those who submit to their treatment arenot generally unmarried women who have lost their virtue, but themothers of families, respectable _Christian_ matrons, members ofchurches, and walking in the better classes of society. 

We appeal to all such with earnest and with threatening words. If theyhave no feeling for the fruit of their womb, if maternal sentiment is socallous in their breasts, let them know that such produced abortions arethe constant cause of violent and dangerous womb diseases, andfrequently of early death; that they bring on mental weakness, and ofteninsanity; that they are the most certain means to destroy domestichappiness which can be adopted. Better, far better, to bear a childevery year for twenty years than to resort to such a wicked andinjurious step; better to die, if needs be, in the pangs of childbirth, than to live with such a weight of sin on the conscience. 

There is no need of either. By the moderation we have mentioned, it isin the power of any woman to avoid the evils of an excessive family, without injury and without criminality. 

We feel obliged to speak in plain language of this hidden sin, becauseso many are ignorant that it is a sin. Only within a few years havethose who take in charge the public morals spoken of it in such termsthat this excuse of ignorance is no longer admissible. 

Bishop Coxe, of New York, in a pastoral letter, the late ArchbishopSpaulding, Catholic Primate of the United States, in an address at theclose of a recent Provincial Council at Baltimore, the Old and NewSchool Presbyterian Churches, at a meeting in Philadelphia, have allpronounced the severest judgments against those guilty of antenatalinfanticide. Appeals through the press have been made by physicians ofhigh standing, and by eminent divines, which should be in the hands ofevery one. 

The chiefest difficulty hitherto has been, that while women were warnedagainst the evils of abortion, they were offered no escape from theexhaustion and dangers of excessive child-bearing. This difficulty wehave fully recognised and fairly met, and, we believe, in such a mannerthat neither the accuracy of our statements nor the purity of ourmotives can be doubted. Should our position be attacked, however, themedical man must know that in opposing our views, he opposes those ofthe most distinguished physicians in Europe and in America; and thetheologian should be warned that, when a neglect of physical laws leadsto moral evil, the only way to correct this evil is to remedy theneglect. In this case the neglect is over-production; the evil isabortion. 

NATURE OF CONCEPTION. 

The theories which have been advanced to explain the manner in which thehuman species is continued and reproduced are very numerous. Includingthe hypotheses of the ancient philosophers, some two hundred and fiftyhave been promulgated by the greatest thinkers of all times. The olderones do not deserve mention, as they are replete with absurdities. Such, for instance, is that of Pythagoras, which supposed that a vapordescended from the brain and formed the embryo. The Scythians thereforetook blood from the veins behind the ears to produce impotence andsterility. Modern science has shown the total error of this and manyother views formerly entertained on this subject. Has galvanism orelectricity any share in the mysterious function? Some among the modernphysiologists have supposed that there is an electrical or magneticinfluence which effects generation. Even within a few months, Dr. HarveyL. Byrd, Professor of Obstetrics in the Medical Department of WashingtonUniversity of Baltimore, has asserted that he has 'every reason forbelieving that fecundation or impregnation is always an electricalphenomenon; . . . It results from the completion of an electriccircle, --the union of positive and negative electricities. ' This, however, is not accepted by all as the dictum of modern science. Physiology has clearly established that the new being is the result ofcontact between the male element, an independent, living animal, on theone part, and the female element, a matured egg, on the other, involvingthe union of the contents of two peculiar cells. Without such contact, fecundation cannot take place. 

The only matter of practical moment in connection with this mostinteresting function which we have to announce, is the influence of themind on the offspring at the time of generation. This influence has longbeen remarked in regard to animals as well as men. Jacob was aware of itwhen he made his shrewd bargain with Laban for 'all the speckled andspotted cattle' as his hire. For we are told that then 'Jacob took himrods of green poplar, and of the hazel and chestnut tree, and pilledwhite strakes in them, and made the white appear which was in the rods. And he set the rods which he had pilled before the flocks in the guttersin the watering-troughs, when the flocks came to drink, that they shouldconceive when they came to drink. And the flocks conceived before therods, and brought forth cattle ringstraked, speckled, and spotted. AndJacob did separate the lambs, and set the faces of the flocks towardsthe ringstraked and all the brown in the flock of Laban; and he put hisown flocks by themselves, and put them not unto Laban's cattle. And itcame to pass, whenever the stronger cattle did conceive, that Jacob laidthe rods before the eyes of the cattle in the gutters, that they mightconceive among the rods. But when the cattle were feeble, he put themnot in: so the feebler were Laban's, and the stronger Jacob's. '

The impressions conveyed to the brain through the sense of sight arehere asserted by the writer of Genesis to have influenced the system ofthe ewes so that they brought forth young marked in the same manner asthe rods placed before their eyes. It is not said that there was anymiraculous interposition; but the whole account is given as if it werean everyday, natural, and well-known occurrence. 

The Greeks, a people renowned for their physical beauty, seemed to beaware of the value of mental impressions; for in their apartments theywere lavish of statues and paintings representing the gods andgoddesses, delineated in accordance with the best models of art. 

Dionysus, tyrant of Syracuse, caused the portrait of the beautiful Jasonto be suspended before the nuptial bed, in order to obtain a handsomechild. 

The following is related of the celebrated Galen:--A Roman magistrate, little, ugly, and hunch-backed, had by his wife a child exactlyresembling the statue of Æsop. Frightened at the sight of this littlemonster, and fearful of becoming the father of a posterity so deformed, he went to consult Galen, the most distinguished physician of his time, who counseled him to place three statues of love around the conjugalbed, one at the foot, the others, one on each side, in order that theeyes of his young spouse might be constantly feasted on these charmingfigures. The magistrate followed strictly the advice of the physician, and it is recorded that his wife bore him a child surpassing in beautyall his hopes. 

The fact that the attributes of the child are determined to an importantextent by the bodily and mental condition of the parents at the time ofconception, explains the marked difference almost constantly observedbetween children born to the same parents, however strong the familylikeness may be among them. The changes constantly going on in thephysical, intellectual, and emotional states of the parents, produce acorresponding alteration in offspring conceived at successive intervals. Twins generally resemble each other very closely in every respect. 

Inasmuch, therefore, as the moment of generation is of much moreimportance than is commonly believed in its effect upon the moral andphysical life of the future being, it is to be wished that parents wouldpay some attention to this subject. It is the moment of creation, --thatin which the first vital power is communicated to the new creature. Notwithout reason has nature associated with it the highest sensualexaltation of our existence. Dr. Hufeland, the author of _The Art ofProlonging Life_, has said, 'In my opinion it is of the utmostimportance that this moment should be confined to a period when thesensation of collected powers, ardent passion, and a mind cheerful andfree from care, invite to it on both sides. '

SIGNS OF FRUITFUL CONJUNCTION. 

There are some women in whom the act of conception is attended withcertain sympathetic affections, such as faintness, vertigo, etc. , bywhich they know that it has taken place. 

Swelling of the neck was regarded in ancient times as a sign ofconception. Its truthfulness has been reaffirmed by modern authorities. 

It has also been asserted that impregnation generally excites auniversal tremor in all parts of the body, and that it is associatedwith more than an ordinary degree of pleasure. 

It must not be supposed, however, that enjoyment and impregnation bearnecessarily to each other the relation of cause and effect, althoughthis is the popular opinion. From too implicit a reliance upon thiscurrent belief, wives are often incredulous as to their true condition. 

It is a fact that in some cases sickness at the stomach manifests itselfalmost simultaneously with the act of fecundation. Authentic instancesare on record of wives reckoning their confinement nine months from thefirst feeling of nausea, without ever making a mistake. 

In conclusion, it may be said that peculiar sensations are oftenexperienced, frequently of a character difficult to explain; and manymodern authors attach to them a marked value. In this manner it ispossible for a woman to be satisfied at the moment as to the changewhich has taken place; yet the evidence is often deceptive, andsometimes nothing peculiar is noticed. 

From the period of conception the mother has no direct knowledge of theprocess that is going on within, excepting by the effects of theincreasing pressure upon other parts, until 'quickening' takes place, which belongs to another part of our subject. 

The signs and symptoms of pregnancy will be explained in full when wecome to treat of the pregnant condition in a future chapter. 

HOW TO RETAIN THE AFFECTIONS OF A HUSBAND. 

Ah! this is a secret indeed!--worth the wand of the magician, the lampof Aladdin, or the wishing-cap of the fairy. What could any of thesegive in exchange for the love of a husband? Yet this pearl of greatprice, how often is it treated as lightly and carelessly as if it wasany bauble of Brummagem!

'My husband, ' we have heard young wives say, 'why, it is his duty tolove me. Why did he marry me if he is not going to love me, love mefondly, love me ever?'

Yes, we all know

 Love the gift, is love the debt. 

But in this world of ours it is often hard to get one's own; and whengot, our care must never cease, lest it be wrested from us. The plantyou bought at the greenhouse, and that now blossoms on your window-sill, became yours by purchase, but it has required your daily care to keep italive and persuade it to unfold its blossoms. Infinitely more delicateis this plant of love. It, too, you purchased. You gave in exchange forit your own heart. It too, you must daily tend with constant solicitude, lest it wither and die. 

In this country, some women think that anything is good enough to wearat home. They go about in slatternly morning dresses, unkempt hair, andslippers down at heel. 'Nobody will see me, ' they say 'but my husband. 'Let them learn a lesson from the wives of the Orient. 

In those countries a married woman never goes abroad except in longsombre robes and thick veil. An English lady visiting the wife of one ofthe wealthy merchants, found her always in full dress, with toilet ascarefully arranged as if she were going to a ball. 

'Why!' exclaimed the visitor, at length, 'is it possible that you takeall this trouble to dress for nobody but your husband?'

'Do, then, ' asked the lady in reply, 'the wives of Englishmen dress forthe sake of pleasing other men?'

The visitor was mute. 

Not that we would wish our women to be for ever in full costume at home. That would be alarming. But she who neglects neatness in attire, and, above all, cleanliness of person, runs a great danger of creating asentiment of disgust in those around her. Nothing is more repugnant tothe husband's senses than bad odors, and, for reasons which every womanknows, women who neglect cleanliness are peculiarly liable to them. Whensimple means do not remove them, recourse should be promptly had to amedical adviser. 

So it is with bad breath. This sometimes arises from neglect of theteeth, sometimes from diseases of the stomach, lungs, etc. A man ofdelicate olfactories is almost forced to hold at arm's length a wifewith a fetid breath. 

There are some women--we have treated several--who are plagued with amost disagreeable perspiration, especially about the feet, the arms, etc. Such should not marry until this is cured. It is a rule among armysurgeons, to be chary about giving men their discharge from militaryservice on surgeon's certificate. But fetid feet are at times sohorribly offensive, that they are considered an allowable cause fordischarge. No doubt, in some of our States they would be received as avalid ground for divorce!--certainly with quite as much reason as manyof the grounds usually alleged. 

In short, the judicious employment of all the harmless arts of thetoilet, and of those numerous and effective means which modern scienceoffers, to acquire, to preserve, and to embellish beauty, is a dutywhich woman, whether married or single, should never neglect. With verylittle trouble, the good looks and freshness of youth can be guardedalmost to old age; and, even when hopelessly gone, simple and harmlessmeans are at hand to repair the injuries of years, or at least toconceal them. But this is an art which would require a whole volume totreat of, and which we cannot here touch upon. 

INHERITANCE. 

We now come to the consideration of a very wonderful subject, --that ofinheritance. It is one of absorbing interest, both because of thecurious facts it presents, and of the great practical bearing it hasupon the welfare of every individual. 

In order to the better understanding of this matter, it is necessary atthe outset to make a distinction between four kinds or varieties ofinheritance. The most generally recognised is _direct inheritance_, --thatin which the children partake of the qualities of the father and mother. But a child may not resemble either parent, while it bears a strikinglikeness to an uncle or aunt. This constitutes _indirect_ inheritance. Again, a child may be more like one of its grandparents than either itsfather or mother. Or, what is still more astonishing, it may displaysome of the characteristics possessed only by a remote ancestor. Thisform of inheritance is known by the scientific term _atavism_, derivedfrom the Latin word _atavus_, meaning an ancestor. It is curious to notein this connection that sometimes a son resembles more closely hismaternal than his paternal grandsire in some male attribute, --as apeculiarity of beard, or certain diseases confined to the male sex. Though the mother cannot possess or exhibit such male qualities, shehas transmitted them through her blood, from her father to her son. 

The fourth variety of inheritance is that in which the child resemblesneither parent, but the first husband of its mother. A woman contractinga second marriage, transmits to the offspring of that marriage thepeculiarities she has received through the first union. Breeders ofstock know this tendency, and prevent their brood-mares, cows, or sheepfrom running with males of an inferior stock. Thus the diseases of a manmay be transmitted to children which are not his own. Even though dead, he continues to exert an influence over the future offspring of hiswife, by means of the ineffaceable impress he had made in the conjugalrelation upon her whole system, as we have previously mentioned. Themother finds in the children of her second marriage

 '. . . The touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still. '

A child may therefore suffer through the operation of this mysteriousand inexorable law, for sins committed not by its own father, but by thefirst husband of its mother. What a serious matter, then, is thatrelation between the sexes called marriage! How far-reaching are itsresponsibilities!

A distinction must here be drawn between hereditary transmission and thepossession of qualities at birth, which have not been the result of anyimpression received from the system of father or mother, but due tomental influences or accidents operating through the mother. A child maybe born idiotic or deformed, not because either parent or one of itsancestors was thus affected, but from the influence of some severemental shock received by the mother during her pregnancy. This subjectof maternal impressions will come up for separate consideration in thediscussion of pregnancy. Again, a child may be epileptic, although thereis no epilepsy in the family, simply because of the intoxication of thefather or mother at the time of the intercourse resulting in conception. Such cases are not due to hereditary transmission, for that cannot behereditary which has been possessed by neither the parents nor any otherrelatives. 

In considering the effects of inheritance, we will first pass in reviewthose connected with the physical constitution. These are exceedinglycommon and universally known. Fortunately, not merely are evil qualitiesinherited, but beauty, health, vigor, and longevity also. 

BEAUTY. 

Good looks are characteristic of certain families. Alcibiades, thehandsomest among the Grecians of his time, descended from ancestorsremarkable for their beauty. So well and long has the desirableinfluence of inheritance in this respect been recognised, that thereexisted in Crete an ancient law which ordained that each year the mostbeautiful among the young men and women should be chosen and forced tomarry, in order to perpetuate the type of their beauty. Irregularitiesof feature are transmitted from parent to child through manygenerations. The aquiline nose has existed some centuries, and is yethereditary in the Bourbon family. The hereditary under-lip of the Houseof Hapsburg is another example. When the poet Savage speaks of

 'The tenth transmitter of a foolish face, '

he scarcely exaggerates what is often seen in families where somestrongly-marked feature or expression is long predominant or reappearsin successive generations. 

NECK AND LIMBS. 

The form and length of the neck and limbs are frequently hereditary, asis also the height of the body. The union of two tall persons engenderstall children. The father of Frederick the Great secured for himself aregiment of men of gigantic stature, by permitting the marriage of hisguards only with women of similar height. A tendency to obesity oftenappears in generation after generation of a family. Yet such cases arewithin the reach of medical art. 

COMPLEXION. 

Even the complexion is not exempt from this influence. Blondesordinarily procreate blondes, and dark parents have dark-skinnedchildren. An union in marriage of fair and dark complexions results inan intermediate shade in the offspring. Not always, however; for it hasbeen asserted that the complexion chiefly follows that of the father. The offspring of a black father and a white mother is much darker thanthe progeny of a white father and a dark mother. In explanation of thisfact, it has been said that the mother is not impressed by her owncolor, because she does not look upon herself, while the father'scomplexion attracts her attention, and thus gives a darker tinge to theoffspring. Black hens frequently lay dark eggs; but the reverse is moregenerally found to be the case. 

PHYSICAL QUALITIES TRANSMITTED BY EACH PARENT. 

In general, it may be said that there exists a tendency on the part ofthe father to transmit the external appearance, the configuration of thehead and limbs, the peculiarities of the senses and of the skin and themuscular condition; while the size of the body, and the generaltemperament or constitution of the child, are derived from the mother. Among animals, the mule, which is the produce of the male ass and themare, is essentially a modified ass having the general configuration ofits sire, but the rounded trunk and larger size of its dam. On the otherhand, the hinny, which is the offspring of the stallion and the she-ass, is essentially a modified horse, having the general configuration of thehorse, but being a much smaller animal than its sire, and thereforeapproaching the dam in size as well as in the comparative narrowness ofits trunk. The operation of this principle, though general, is notuniversal. Exceptions may easily be cited. In almost every large familyit will be observed that the likeness to the father predominates in somechildren, while others most resemble the mother. It is rare to meet withinstances in which some distinctive traits of both parents may not betraced in the offspring. 

HAIR. 

Peculiarities in the colour and structure of the hair are transmitted. Darwin mentions a family in which, for many generations, some of themembers had a single lock differently coloured from the rest of thehair. 

TEMPERAMENT. 

The law of inheritance rules in regard to the production of thetemperament. The crossing of one temperament with another in marriage, produces a modification in the offspring generally advantageous. 

FERTILITY. 

A peculiar aptitude for procreation is sometimes hereditary. Thechildren of prolific parents are themselves prolific. It is related thata French peasant woman was confined ten times in fifteen years. Herpregnancies, always multiple, produced twenty-eight children. At herlast confinement she had three daughters, who all lived, married, andgave birth to children, --the first to twenty-six, the second tothirty-one, and the third to twenty-seven. On the contrary, sometimes atendency to sterility is found fixed upon certain families, from whichthey can only escape by the most assiduous care. 

LONGEVITY. 

In the vegetable kingdom, the oak inherits the power to live many years, while the peach-tree must die in a short time. In the animal kingdom, the robin becomes grey and old at ten years of age; the rook cawslustily until a hundred. The ass is much longer-lived than the horse. The mule illustrates in a striking manner the hereditary tendency oflongevity. It has the size of the horse, the long life of the ass. Theweaker the ass, the larger, the stronger, and the shorter-lived and morehorse-like the mule. It is also a curious and instructive fact, thatthis animal is the toughest after it has passed the age of the horse:the inherited influence of the horse having been expended, the vitalityand hardiness of the ass remain. 

It is universally conceded, that longevity is the privileged possessionof some lineages. That famous instance of old age, Thomas Parr, thebest authenticated on record, may be mentioned in illustration. It isvouched for by Harvey, the distinguished discoverer of the circulationof the blood. Parr died in the reign of Charles the First, at the age of152, after having lived under nine sovereigns of England. He left adaughter aged 127. His father had attained to a great age, and hisgreat-grandson died at Cork at the age of 103. 

DEFORMITIES. 

Deformities are undoubtedly sometimes transmitted to the progeny. It isby no means rare to find that the immediate ancestors of those afflictedwith superfluous fingers and toes, club-feet, or hare-lips, were alsothe subjects of these malformations. There are one or two families inGermany whose members pride themselves upon the possession of an extrathumb; and there is an Arab chieftain whose ancestors have from timeimmemorial been distinguished by a double thumb upon the right hand. Darwin gives many similar instances. A case of curious displacement ofthe knee-pans is recorded, in which the father, sister, son, and the sonof the half-brother by the same father, had all the same malformation. 

PERSONAL PECULIARITIES. 

Gait, gestures, voice, general bearing, are all inherited. Peculiarmanners, passing into tricks, are often transmitted, as in the case, often quoted, of the father who generally slept on his back with hisright leg crossed over the left, and whose daughter, whilst an infantin the cradle, followed exactly the same habit, though an attempt wasmade to cure her. Left-handedness is not unfrequently hereditary. Itwould be very easy to go on multiplying instances, but we forbear. 

HOW TO HAVE BEAUTIFUL CHILDREN. 

A practical question now naturally suggests itself. How can the vices ofconformation be avoided, and beauty secured? The art of having handsomechildren, known under the name of _callipædia_, has received muchattention, more, perhaps, in years gone by than of late. The noted AbbotQuillet wrote a book in Latin on the subject. Many other works, in whichastrology plays a prominent part, were written on this art in thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 

We have already stated that well-formed parents will transmit thesequalities to their children, with scarcely an exception. Like begetslike. Unfortunately, all parents are not beautiful. Yet all desirebeautiful offspring. The body of the child can be influenced by the mindof the parent, particularly of the mother. A mind habitually filled withpleasant fancies and charming images is not without its effect upon theoffspring. 

The statues of Apollo, Castor and Pollux, Venus, Hebe, and the othergods and goddesses which were so numerous in the gardens and publicplaces in Greece, reproduced themselves in the sons and daughters of thepassers-by. We know also that marriages contracted at an age too earlyor too late, are apt to give imperfectly-developed children. Thecrossing of temperaments and of nationalities beautifies the offspring. The custom which has prevailed, in many countries, among the nobility, of purchasing the handsomest girls they could find for their wives, haslaid the foundation of a higher type of features among the rulingclasses. To obtain this desired end, conception should take place onlywhen both parents are in the best physical condition, at the properseason of the year, and with mutual passion. (We have already hinted howthis can be regulated. ) During pregnancy the mother should often havesome painting or engraving representing cheerful and beautiful figuresbefore her eyes, or often contemplate some graceful statue. She shouldavoid looking at, or thinking of ugly people, or those marked withdisfiguring diseases. She should take every precaution to escape injury, fright, and disease of any kind, especially chicken-pox, erysipelas, orsuch disorders as leave marks on the person. She should keep herselfwell nourished, as want of food nearly always injures the child. Sheshould avoid ungraceful positions and awkward attitudes, as by somemysterious sympathy these are impressed on the child she carries. Lether cultivate grace and beauty in herself at such a time, and she willendow her child with them. As anger and irritability leave imprints onthe features, she should maintain serenity and calmness. 

INHERITANCE OF TALENT AND GENIUS. 

The effects of inheritance are perhaps more marked upon the mind thanupon the body. This need not surprise us. If the peculiar form of thebrain can be transmitted, the mental attributes, the result of itsorganization, must necessarily also be transmitted. 

It is a matter of daily observation, that parents gifted with brightminds, cultivated by education, generally engender intelligent children;while the offspring of those steeped in ignorance are stupid from birth. It may be objected, that men the most remarkable in ancient or moderntimes, as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Shakspeare, Milton, Buffon, Cuvier, etc. , have not transmitted their vast intellectual powers totheir progeny. In explanation, it has been stated that what is known asgenius is not transmissible. The creation of a man of genius seems torequire a special effort of Nature, after which, as if fatigued, shereposes a long time before again making a similar effort. But it maywell be doubted whether even those complex mental attributes on whichgenius and talent depend are not inheritable, particularly when bothparents are thus endowed. That distinguished men do not more frequentlyhave distinguished sons, may readily be accounted for when it isrecollected that the inherited character is due to the combinedinfluence of both parents. The desirable qualities of the father maytherefore be neutralized in the offspring by the opposite or defectivequalities of the mother. That contrasts in the disposition of parentsare rather the rule than the exception, we have already shown. Every onetends to unite himself in friendship or love with a different characterfrom his own, seeking thereby to supplement the qualities in which hefeels his own nature to be deficient. The mother, therefore, may weaken, and perhaps obliterate, the qualities transmitted by the father. Again, the influence of some remote ancestors may make itself felt upon theoffspring through the operation of the law of atavism, before alludedto, and thus prevent the children from equaling their parents in theirnatural endowments. Notwithstanding the workings of these opposingforces, and others which might be mentioned, we find abundantillustration of the hereditary nature of talent and character. 

Of six hundred and five names occurring in a biographical dictionarydevoted to men distinguished as great founders and originators, betweenthe years 1453 and 1853, there were, as has been pointed out by Mr. Galton, no less than one hundred and two relationships, or one in six. Walford's _Men of the Time_ contains an account of the distinguished menin England, the Continent, and America, then living. Under the letter Athere are eighty-five names, and no less than twenty-five of these, orone in three and a half, have relatives also in the list; twelve of themare brothers, and eleven fathers and sons. In Bryan's _Dictionary ofPainters_, the letter A contains three hundred and ninety-one names ofmen, of whom sixty-five are near relatives, or one in six; thirty-threeof them are fathers and sons, and thirty are brothers. In Fétis's_Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, the letter A contains fivehundred and fifteen names, of which fifty are near relatives, or one inten. Confining ourselves to literature alone, it has been found that itis one to six and a half that a very distinguished literary man has avery distinguished literary relative; and it is one to twenty-eight thatthe relation is father and son, or brother and brother, respectively. Among the thirty-nine Chancellors of England, sixteen had kinsmen ofeminence; thirteen of them had kinsmen of great eminence. These thirteenout of thirty-nine, or one in three, are certainly remarkable instancesof the influence of inheritance. A similar examination has beeninstituted in regard to the judges of the Supreme Court ofMassachusetts, and other American States, with like results. The Greekpoet Æschylus counted eight poets and four musicians among hisancestors. The greater part of the celebrated sculptors of ancientGreece descended from a family of sculptors. The same is true of thegreat painters. The sister of Mozart shared the musical talent of herbrother. As there are reasons, to be detailed hereafter, for believingthat the influence of the mother is even greater than that of thefather, how vastly would the offspring be improved if distinguished menunited themselves in marriage to distinguished women for generationafter generation!

INFLUENCE OF FATHERS OVER DAUGHTERS; OF MOTHERS OVER SONS. 

We have already called attention to the parts of the physicalorganization transmitted by the father and by the mother. It would seem, moreover, that each parent exercises a special influence over the childaccording to its sex. The father transmits to the daughters the form ofthe head, the framework of the chest and of the superior extremities, while the conformation of the lower portion of the body and the inferiorextremities is transmitted by the mother. With the sons this isreversed. They derive from the mother the shape of the head and of thesuperior extremities, and resemble the father in the trunk and inferiorextremities. From this it therefore results, that boys procreated byintelligent women will be intelligent, and that girls procreated byfathers of talent will inherit their mental capacity. The mothers of anation, though unseen and unacknowledged in the halls of legislation, determine in this subtle manner the character of the laws. 

History informs us that the greater part of the women who have beencelebrated for their intelligence, reflected the genius of theirfathers. Arete, the most celebrated woman of her time, on account of theextent of her knowledge, was the daughter of the distinguishedphilosopher Aristippus, disciple of Socrates. Cornelia, the mother ofthe Gracchi, was a daughter of Scipio. The daughter of the Roman emperorCaligula was as cruel as her father. Marcus Aurelius inherited thevirtues of his mother, and Commodus the vices of his. Charlemagne shuthis eyes upon the faults of his daughters, because they recalled hisown. Genghis-Khan, the renowned Asiatic conqueror, had for his mother awarlike woman. Tamerlane, the greatest warrior of the fourteenthcentury, was descended from Genghis-Khan by the female side. Catherinede Medicis was as crafty and deceitful as her father, and moresuperstitious and cruel. She had two sons worthy of herself, --CharlesIX. , who shot the Protestants, and Henry III. , who assassinated theGuises. Her daughter, Margaret of Valois, recalled her father by hergentle manners. The cruel deeds of Alexander VI. , the dark records ofwhich will for ever stain the pages of history, are only rivaled inatrocity by those of his children, the infamous Borgias. Arete, Hypatia, Madame de Staël, and George Sand, --all four had philosophers for theirfathers. The mother of Bernardo Tasso had the gift of poetry. Buffonoften speaks of the rich imagination of his mother. The poet Burns, 'Rare Ben Jonson, ' Goethe, Walter Scott, Byron, and Lamartine, --all wereborn of women remarkable for their vivacity and brilliancy of language. Byron, in his journal, attributes his hypochondria to a hereditary taintderived from his mother, who was its victim in its most furious form;and her father 'was strongly suspected of suicide. ' He was said to haveresembled more his maternal grandfather than any of his father's family. The daughter of Molière was like her father in her wit and humor. Beethoven had for a maternal grandmother an excellent musician. Themother of Mozart gave the first lessons to her son. A crowd of composershave descended from John Sebastian Bach, who long stood unrivaled as aperformer on the organ, and composer for that instrument. It may beremarked here, that it is almost invariably true that the ability orinability to acquire a knowledge of music is derived from the ancestry. Parents who cannot turn a tune or tell one note from another, bringforth children equally unmoved 'with concord of sweet sounds. ' Examplescould easily be adduced at still greater length, illustrating the directinfluence of the father over the daughter, and of the mother over theson. Those given will suffice. 

INFLUENCE Of EDUCATION OVER INHERITED QUALITIES. 

In correcting the evil effects of inheritance on the mind, educationplays a very important part. A child born with a tendency to some viceor intellectual trait, may have this tendency entirely overcome, or atleast modified, by training. So, also, virtues implanted by nature maybe lost during the plastic days of youth, in consequence of badassociations and bad habits. 

Education can therefore do much to alter inherited mental and moralqualities. Can it be invoked to prevent the transmission of undesirabletraits, and secure the good? Everything that we have at birth is aheritage from our ancestors. Can virtuous habits be transmitted? Can wesecure virtues in our children by possessing them ourselves? Sciencesadly says, through her latest votaries, that we are scarcely more thanpassive transmitters of a nature we have received, and which we have nopower to modify. It is only after exposure during several generations tochanged conditions or habits, that any modification in the offspringensues. The son of an old soldier learns his drill no more quickly thanthe son of an artisan. We must therefore come to the conclusion with Mr. Galton, that to a great extent our own embryos have sprung immediatelyfrom the embryos whence our parents were developed, and these from theembryos of their parents, and so on for ever. Hence we are stillbarbarians in our nature. We show it in a thousand ways. Children, wholove to dig and play in the dirt, have inherited that instinct fromuntold generations of ancestors. Our remote forefathers were barbarians, who dug with their nails to get at the roots on which they lived. Thedelicately-reared child reverts to primeval habits. In like manner, thesilk-haired, parlor-nurtured spaniel springs from the caressing arms ofits mistress, to revel in the filth of the roadside. It is the breakingout of inherited instinct. 

TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE. 

Perhaps the most important part of the subject of inheritance, is thatwhich remains for us to consider in relation to the transmission ofdisease, or of a predisposition to it. 

Consumption, --that dread foe of modern life, --is the most frequentlyencountered of all affections as the result of inherited predisposition. Indeed some of the most eminent physicians have believed it is neverproduced in any other way. Heart disease, disease of the throat, excessive obesity, affections of the skin, asthma, disorders of thebrain and nervous system, gout, rheumatism, and cancer, are allhereditary. A tendency to bleed frequently, profusely anduncontrollably, from trifling wounds, is often met with as a familyaffection. 

The inheritance of diseased conditions is also _influenced by the sex_. A parent may transmit disease exclusively to children of the same sex, or exclusively to those of the opposite sex. Thus, a horn-likeprojection on the skin peculiar to the Lambert family was transmittedfrom the father to his sons and grandsons alone. So mothers have throughseveral generations transmitted to their daughters alone supernumeraryfingers, color-blindness, and other deformities and diseases. As ageneral rule, any disease acquired during the life of either parent, strongly tends to be inherited by the offspring of the same sex ratherthan the opposite. We have spoken of the apparently reverse tendency inregard to the transmission of genius and talent. 

ARE MUTILATIONS INHERITABLE?

How, it may be inquired, is it in regard to the inheritance of partsmutilated and altered by injuries and disease during the life of eitherparent? In some cases mutilations have been practised for manygenerations, without any inherited result. Different races of men haveknocked out their upper teeth, cut off the joints of their fingers, madeimmense holes through their ears and nostrils, and deep gashes invarious parts of their bodies, and yet there is no reason for supposingthat these mutilations have been inherited. The _Comprachicos_, ahideous and strange association of men and women, existed in theseventeenth century, whose business it was to buy children and make ofthem monsters. Victor Hugo, in a recent work, has graphically told howthey took a face and made of it a snout, how they bent down growth, kneaded the physiognomy, distorted the eyes, and in other waysdisfigured 'the human form divine, ' in order to make fantasticplaythings for the amusement of the noble-born. But history does notstate that these deformities were inherited; certainly no race ofmonsters has resulted. The pits from small-pox are not inherited, thoughmany successive generations must have been thus pitted by that diseasebefore the beneficent discovery of the immortal Jenner. Children bornwith scars left by pustules have had small-pox in the womb, acquiredthrough the system of the mother. On the other hand, the lower animals, cats, dogs, and horses, which have had their tails and legs artificiallyaltered or injured, have produced offspring with the same condition ofparts. A man who had his little finger on the right hand almost cut off, and which in consequence grew crooked, had sons with the same finger onthe same hand similarly crooked. The eminent physiologist Dr. Brown-Séquard mentions, that many young guinea-pigs inherited anepileptic tendency from parents which had been subjected to an operationat his hands resulting in the artificial production of fits; while alarge number of guinea-pigs bred from animals which had not beenoperated on were not thus affected. At any rate, it cannot but beadmitted that injuries and mutilations which cause disease, areoccasionally inherited. But many cases of deformities existing at birth, as hare-lip, are not due to inheritance, although present in the father. They arise from a change effected in the child while in the womb, through an impression made upon the mind of the mother, as will be shownhereafter. 

LATE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF INHERITANCE. 

Not only are diseases inherited which make their appearance at birth, but those which defer their exhibition until a certain period of lifecorresponding with that at which they showed themselves in the parents. Thus in the Lambert family, before referred to, the porcupineexcrescence on the skin began to grow in the father and sons at the sameage, namely, about nine weeks after birth. In an extraordinary hairyfamily, which has been described, children were produced during threegenerations with hairy ears: in the father, the hair began to grow overhis body at six years old; in his daughter somewhat earlier, namely, atone year; and in both generations the milk teeth appeared late in life, the permanent teeth being deficient. Greyness of hair at an unusuallyearly age has been transmitted in some families. So, also, has thepremature appearance of baldness. 

HOW TO AVOID THE TENDENCY OF INHERITANCE. 

These facts suggest the practical consideration, that in those diseasesthe predisposition to which alone is inherited, and which break out onlyafter a lapse of time, it is often altogether possible to prevent thepredisposition being developed into positive disease. Thus, forinstance, the inherited tendency to _consumption_ remains asleep in thesystem until about the age of puberty, or later. Therefore, by the useof a diet in which animal food forms a large portion, properlyregulated, and systematic exercise in the open air, the practice of thelong inhalations before recommended, warm, comfortable clothing, together with a residence, if practicable, during the changeable andinclement seasons of the year, in an equable climate, we can oftenentirely arrest the development of the disease. Prevention here is notonly better than cure, but often all that is possible. Those in whom thedisease has become active, must too often, like those who enteredDante's infernal regions, 'abandon hope. ' Let our words of cautiontherefore be heeded. 

When there is reason to believe that an individual possesses an inherenttendency to any disease, it is the duty of the medical adviser to studythe constitution of the patient thoroughly, and after such study torecommend those measures of prevention best suited to avert thethreatened disorder. Above all, let the physician look closely to thechild at the period of life when any grave constitutional inheritabledisease attacked the parent. This supervision should be carried intoadult years, for there are instances on record of inherited diseasescoming on at an advanced age, as in that of a grandfather, father, andson, who all became insane and committed suicide near their fiftiethyear. Gout, apoplexy, insanity, chronic disease of the heart, epilepsy, consumption, asthma, and other diseases, are all more or less under thecontrol of preventive measures. Some hereditary diseases, such as idiocyand cancer, we are impotent to prevent, in the present state of ourknowledge. 

A singular fact in connection with the transmission of disease is thereadiness with which a whole generation is passed over, the affectionappearing in the next. A father or mother with consumption may in someinstances have healthy children, but the grandchildren will die of thedisease. Nature kindly favors one generation, but only at the expense ofthe next. 

Some diseases require, in addition to the general means of prevention tobe found in a strict observance of the laws of health, some specialmeasures in order to effectually ward off their appearance. But theextent of this work will not admit of their discussion. Already, indeed, have we unduly, perhaps, extended our remarks upon inheritance. Theinterest and importance of the facts must be our justification. 

WHY ARE WOMEN REDUNDANT?

It cannot be without interest to look into the relative proportion ofmen and women now living. It will interest us still more to inquire intothe reason why one sex preponderates over the other in numbers. Thisdone, we will answer the question; Is the production of sex at all underthe influence of the human will?

The female sex is the more numerous in all thickly populated parts ofthe world where we have trustworthy statistics. In Austria, England, andWales, there are nearly one hundred and five women for every one hundredmen. In Sweden they are as one hundred and nine to one hundred. In allcities the disproportion is greater than in the country. In London thereare one hundred and thirteen women to every one hundred men; and in thelarge towns of Sweden they stand as one hundred and sixteen to onehundred. 

This is not true, however, of newly-populated regions. The relativedifference is reversed in recent and thinly-settled localities. In ourWestern States, for instance, the number of the men exceeds that of thewomen. In California they are as three to one; in Nevada as eight toone; in Colorado, twenty to one. In the State of Illinois there were, according to a recent United States census, ninety-three thousand moremen than women. In Massachusetts, on the contrary, there are betweenfifty and sixty thousand more women than men. 

The disproportion of men to women in new countries is due to thedisinclination of women to emigrate. They are also unfitted for thehardships of pioneer life. 

How is this general preponderance in the number of women produced? Is itbecause there are more girls born than boys? Not at all. The statisticsof over fifty-eight millions of persons show that there are one hundredand six living boys born to every one hundred girls. In the state ofRhode Island, for instance, the proportion for three years, from 1853 to1855, was one thousand and sixty-four boys born to one thousand girls. But now we meet with the wonderful arrangement of nature, that a largerproportional number of male infants die during the first year of theirlives than of females. In the second year, the mortality, though lessexcessive, still remains far greater on the male side. It subsequentlydecreases, and at the age of four or five years is nearly equal for bothsexes. In after life, from the age of fifteen to forty, the mortality issomething greater among women, but not sufficiently so to make thenumber of the two sexes equal. The greater tendency of male offspring todie early is seen even before birth, for more male children arestill-born than female, --namely, as three to two. For this reason, theterm 'the stronger sex, ' applied to men, has been regarded by someauthors as a misnomer. They are physically weaker in early life, andsuccumb more readily to noxious influences. 

Having thus pointed out that there are more women actually living in theworld than men, although a larger number of boys are born than girls, wewill consider for a moment some of the laws of nature which determinethe number of the sexes. Without giving the figures, --which would makedry reading, --we will state in brief the conclusions derived from manyobservations, extending over many years and many nationalities. Therelative age of the parents has an especial influence upon the sex ofthe children. Seniority on the father's side gives excess of maleoffspring. Equality in the parents' age gives a slight preponderance offemale offspring. Seniority on the mother's side gives excess of femaleoffspring. This tallies with the fact that in all civilized countries, as has been stated, the proportion of male births is greater than thatof females; for, in accordance with the customs of society, the husbandis generally older than the wife. A curious instance, in confirmationof this law, has recently come under our observation. A patient, marriedfor the second time, is ten years older than her husband. She has twochildren by him, both girls. Singular to relate, her former husband wasten years older than herself, and by him she had four children, of whomthree were boys, the fourth (a girl) having a twin brother. 

Still, the relative age is not the sole cause which fixes the sex of thechild. Its operation is sometimes overruled by conflicting agencies. Insome districts of Norway, for example, there has been a constantdeficiency in boys, while in others the reverse has been the case. Thecircumstance is well known, that after great wars, and sometimesepidemics, in which a disproportionate number of men have died, moreboys are born than usual. Men who pass a sedentary life, and especiallyscholars who exhaust their nervous force to a great extent, beget moregirls than boys. So, also, a very advanced age on the man's sidediminishes the number of males among the offspring. The quantity and thequality of the food; the elevation of the abode; the conditions oftemperature; the parents' mode of life, rank, religious belief, frequency of sexual intercourse, --have all been shown to be causescontributing to the disproportion of the sexes, besides the relativeages of the parents. 

Some writers have stated that a southerly or warm and humid constitutionof the year is most favorable to the birth of female infants, while incold and dry years most males are produced. This statement has not beensupported by trustworthy statistics in regard to the human race, but inrespect of domestic animals the agriculturists of France have longobserved that the season has much to do with the sex. When the weatheris dry and cold, and the wind northerly, mares, ewes, and heifersproduce more males than when the opposite meteorological conditionprevails. 

The saying among nurses, that 'This is the year for sons or daughters, 'is based upon the erroneous supposition that mothers bring forth moremale infants in one year than in another. 

That, however, which concerns us the most in this connection, is thequestion:

CAN THE SEXES BE PRODUCED AT WILL?

This question was asked many centuries ago. It was a hard one, andremained without a satisfactory answer until quite recently. Science hasat last replied to it with authority. M. Thury, Professor in the Academyof Geneva, has shown how males and females may be produced in accordancewith our wishes. 

Some families are most anxious for male offspring, others ardentlydesire daughters. And would it not often be a matter of national concernto control the percentage of sexes in the population? Is it not a'consummation most devoutly to be wished, ' to bring about that Utopiancondition when there would be no sighing maids at home, nor want ofwarriors in the field? The discussion of this subject is thereforeimportant and allowable. 

It has been observed that queen-bees lay female eggs first, and maleeggs afterwards. So with hens: the first-laid eggs give female, thelast male products. Mares shown the stallion late in their periods, drophorse-colts rather than fillies. 

Professor Thury, from the consideration of these and other like facts, formed this law for stock-raisers: 'If you wish to produce females, givethe male at the first signs of heat; if you wish males, give him at theend of the heat. ' But it is easy to form a theory. How was this lawsustained in practice? We have now in our possession the certificate ofa Swiss stock-grower, son of the President of the Swiss AgriculturalSociety, Canton de Vaud, under date of February 1867, which says:

'In the first place, on twenty-two successive occasions I desired tohave heifers. My cows were of Schurtz breed, and my bull a pure Durham. I succeeded in these cases. Having bought a pure Durham cow, it was veryimportant for me to have a new bull, to supersede the one I had boughtat great expense, without leaving to chance the production of a male. SoI followed accordingly the prescription of Professor Thury, and thesuccess has proved once more the truth of the law. I have obtained frommy Durham bull six more bulls (Schurtz-Durham cross) for fieldwork; andhaving chosen cows of the same color and height, I obtained perfectmatches of oxen. My herd amounted to forty cows of every age. 

'In short, I have made in all twenty-nine experiments after the newmethod, and in every one I succeeded in the production of what I waslooking for--male and female. I had not one single failure. All theexperiments have been made by myself, without any other person'sintervention; consequently, I do declare that I consider as real andcertainly perfect the method of Professor Thury. '

A perfectly trustworthy observer communicates by the _Medical andSurgical Reporter_ of Philadelphia for May 2, 1868, the results ofsimilar experiments on animals, with like conclusions. 

The plan of M. Thury was also tried on the farms of the late Emperor ofthe French, with, it is asserted, the most unvarying success. 

What is the result of the application of this law to the human race? Dr. F. J. W. Packman, of Wimborne, has stated in the _Lancet_, that, 'in thehuman female, conception in the first half of the time between menstrualperiods produces female offspring, and male in the latter. When a femalehas gone beyond the time she calculated upon, it will generally turn outto be a boy. '

In the Philadelphia _Medical and Surgical Reporter_ for February 8, 1868, a respectable physician writes that, in numerous instances thathave come under his observation, Professor Thury's theory has provedcorrect, 'Whenever intercourse has taken place in from two to six daysafter the cessation of the menses, girls have been produced; andwhenever intercourse has taken place in from nine to twelve days afterthe cessation of the menses, boys have been produced. In every case Ihave ascertained not only the date at which the mother placedconception, but also the time when the menses ceased, the date of thefirst and subsequent intercourse for a month or more after thecessation of the menses, ' etc. 

Again, a physician writes to the same journal for June 20, 1868, recording the result of his own experience. 

A farmer in Louisiana states, in the _Turf, Field, and Farm_, in supportof this law, that 'I have already been able in many cases to guess withcertainty the sex of a future infant. More than thirty times, among myfriends, I have predicted the sex of a child before its birth, and theevent proved nearly every time that I was right. '

The wife, therefore, who would wish, as Macbeth desired of his, to

 'Bring forth men-children only, '

should avoid exposing herself to conception during the early part of thetime between her menstrual periods. 

The prediction of the sex of the child before birth can now be with someaccuracy made by the intelligent and skilful physician. The method ofdoing so will be mentioned in treating of pregnancy. 

TWIN-BEARING. 

As a rule, a woman has one child at a time. Twins, when they occur, arelooked upon with disfavor by most people. There is a popular notion thatthey are apt to be wanting in physical and mental vigor. This opinion isnot without foundation. A careful scientific examination of the subjecthas shown, that of imbeciles and idiots a much larger proportion isactually found among the twins born than in the general community. Infamilies where twinning is frequent, bodily deformities likewise occurwith frequency. Among the relatives of imbeciles and idiots, twin-bearing is common. In fact, the whole history of twin-births is ofan exceptional character, indicating imperfect development and feebleorganization in the product, and leading us to regard twins in the humanspecies as a departure from the physiological rule, and thereforeinjurious to all concerned. Monsters born without brains have rarelyoccurred except among twins. 

The birth of twins occurs once in about eighty deliveries. A woman ismore apt to have no children than to have more than one at a time. Inview of the increased danger to both mother and child, this rarity of aplural birth is fortunate. 

WHY ARE TWINS BORN?

What are the causes or favouring circumstances bringing about thisabnormal child-bearing? For it is brought about by the operation oflaws. It is not an accident. There are no accidents in nature. By someit is supposed to be due to the mother, by some to the father. There arefacts in favour of both opinions. Certain women married successively toseveral men have always had twins, while their husbands with other wiveshave determined single births. Certain men have presented the samephenomenon. We can scarcely cite an example more astonishing than thatof a countryman who was presented to the Empress of Russia in 1755. Hehad had two wives. The first had fifty-seven children in twenty-oneconfinements; the second, thirty-three in thirteen. All the confinementshad been quadruple, triple, or double. A case has come under our ownobservation in which the bearing of twins has seemed to be due to aconstitutional cause. The wife has nine children. The first was a singlebirth, a girl; the others were all twin-births, and boys. 

It has been asserted that compound pregnancies are more frequent incertain years than in others. But that which seems to exert the greatestactual influence over the production of twins is the age of the mother. Very extensive statistics have demonstrated that, from the earliestchild-bearing period until the age of forty is reached, the fertility ofmothers in twins gradually increases. Between the ages of twenty andthirty, fewest wives have twins. The average age of the twin-bearer isolder than the general run of bearers. It is well known that by far thegreater number of twins are born of elderly women. While three-fifths ofall births occur among women under thirty years of age, three-fifths ofall the twins are born to those over thirty years of age. Newly-marriedwomen are more likely to have twins at the first labour the older theyare. The chance that a young wife from fifteen to nineteen shall beartwins is only as one to one hundred and eighty-nine; from thirty-five tothirty-nine the chance is as one to forty-five, --that is, the wivesmarried youngest have fewest twins; and there is an increase as ageadvances, until forty is reached. 

Race seems to have some influence over plural births. They occurrelatively oftener among the Irish than among the English. 

INFLUENCE OF TWIN-BEARING ON SIZE OF FAMILIES. 

Do women bearing twins have in the end larger families than those neverhaving but one at a time? Popular belief would answer this question inthe affirmative. Such a reply would also seem to receive support fromthe fact, well established, that twins are more frequently additions toan already considerable family than they are either the first of afamily or additional to a small family. But statistics have not answeredthis question as yet positively. They seem, however, in favour of thesupposition that twin-bearing women have larger families than theirneighbors. 

Women are more apt to have twins in their first pregnancy than anyother, but after the second confinement the bearing of twins increasesin frequency with the number of the pregnancy. It becomes, therefore, anindication of an excessive family, and is to be deplored. 

MORE THAN TWO CHILDREN AT A BIRTH. 

Cases of the birth of more than two children at a time are still lessfrequently met with than twins. They are scarcely ever encountered, excepting in women who have passed their thirtieth year. Such cases areall more or less unfortunate both for the mother and the children. 

THREE AT A BIRTH. 

The births of triplets are not exclusively confined to women abovethirty years, but in those younger they are so rare as to be greatcuriosities. Neither are they apt to occur in the first pregnancy. Inthis respect they differ from twins, who, as has just been said, arepeculiarly prone to make their appearance at the first childbirth. Onlyfour cases of treble births occurred among the 36, 000 accouchementswhich have taken place in the Hospice de Maternité of Paris in adetermined time. Out of 48, 000 cases of labor in the Royal MaternityCharity in London, only three triplets occurred. History informs us thatthe three Roman brothers, the Horatii, were triplets. They fought andconquered the three Curiatii of Alba (667 B. C. ) who were likewisetriplets. 

As an interesting fact in connection with this subject, we may mentionthat in the St. Petersburg Midwives' Institute, between 1845-59, therewere three women admitted, who, in their fifteenth pregnancies, hadtriplets, and each had triplets three times in succession. Happily, thefifteenth pregnancy is not reached by most women. 

FOUR AT A BIRTH. 

Instances of quadruplets are fewer than triplets. But four vigorousinfants have been born at one birth. 

FIVE AT A BIRTH. 

The birth of _five_ living children at a time is very exceptional, andis usually fatal to the offspring. A remarkable case of this kind isreported in a late medical journal. A woman aged thirty, the wife of alaborer, and the mother of six children, was taken in labor about theseventh month of her pregnancy. Five children, and all alive, were givenbirth to, --three boys and two girls. Four of the children survived anhour, and died within a few moments of each other. The fifth, a female, and the last born, lived six hours, and was so vigorous that, notwithstanding its diminutive size, hopes were entertained of itssurviving. 

Another case is reported in a recent French medical journal. The womanwas forty years old. She had had twins once, and single children fivetimes. On her seventh pregnancy, when five months gone, she was as largeas women usually are at the end of their full term. At the close of themonth she was delivered of five children. They were all born alive, andlived from four to seven minutes. All five children were males, wellbuilt and as well developed as fœtuses of five and one-half monthsusually are in a single birth. The woman made a good recovery. Othercases of five at a birth might be quoted. They are known to medicalscience as very singular and noteworthy occurrences. 

INCREDIBLE NUMBERS. 

Some books speak of seven, eight, nine, ten, and more, children at abirth. But these statements are so marvelous, so incredible, andunsupported by proper testimony, that they do not merit any degree ofconfidence. The climax of such extraordinary assertions is reached, anda good illustration of the credulity of the seventeenth centuryfurnished, by a writer named Goftr. This traveller, in 1630, saw atablet in a church at Leusdown (Lausdunum), about five miles from theHague, with an inscription stating that a certain illustrious countess, whose name and family he records, brought forth at one birth, in thefortieth year of her age, in the year 1276, 365 infants. They were allbaptized by Guido, the Suffragan. The males were called John, and thefemales Elizabeth. They all, with their mother, died on the same day, and were buried in the above-mentioned church. This monstrous birth wassaid to have been caused by the sin of the countess in insulting a poorwoman with twins in her arms, who prayed that her insulter might have atone birth the same number of children as there were days in the year. Ofcourse, notwithstanding the story being attested by a tablet in achurch, it must be placed among the many other instances of superstitionafforded by an ignorant and credulous era. 

We may remark, in closing this subject, that fewer plural births come tomaturity than pregnancies with single children. Miscarriages arecomparatively more frequent in such pregnancies than in ordinary ones. 

PREGNANCY

_VENERATION FOR THE PREGNANT. _

We have been considering woman hitherto as maiden and wife. She nowapproaches the sacred threshold of maternity. She is with child. In noperiod of her life is she the subject of an interest so profound andgeneral. The young virgin and the new wife have pleased by their grace, spirit, and beauty. The pregnant wife is an object of active benevolenceand religious respect. It is interesting to note how, at all times andin all countries, she has been treated with considerate kindness andgreat deference. She has been made the subject of public veneration, andsometimes even of religious worship. At Athens and at Carthage themurderer escaped from the sword of justice if he sought refuge in thehouse of a pregnant woman. The Jews allowed her to eat forbidden meats. The laws of Moses pronounced the penalty of death against all those whoby bad treatment or any act of violence caused a woman to abort. Lycurgus compared women who died in pregnancy to the brave dead on thefield of honour, and accorded to them sepulchral inscriptions. Inancient Rome, where all citizens were obliged to rise and stand duringthe passage of a magistrate, wives were excused from rendering this markof respect, for the reason that the exertion and hurry of the movementmight be injurious to them in the state in which they were supposed tobe. In the kingdom of Pannonia all enceinte women were in suchveneration, that a man meeting one on the road was obliged, underpenalty of a fine, to turn back and accompany and protect her to herplace of destination. The Catholic Church has in all times exemptedpregnant wives from fasts. The Egyptians decreed, and in most Christiancountries the law at the present time obtains, that if a woman shall beconvicted of an offence the punishment of which is death, the sentenceshall not be executed if it be proved that she is pregnant. 

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PREGNANCY. 

1. The sign most commonly relied upon is the _cessation of the monthlysickness_. The wife who misses the expected return of her illness, isapt to conclude that conception has taken place. This sign is far frombeing an infallible one. 

It should be borne in mind that young married women sometimes have aslight show for two or three periods after their first impregnation. Ignorance of this fact has very frequently led to a miscalculation ofthe time of confinement. On the other hand, the menses will sometimesbecome arrested soon after marriage, and continue so for one or twomonths, without there existing any pregnancy. The temporarydisappearance of the monthly sickness in such cases is due to theprofound impression made upon the system by the new relations of theindividual. 

It not unfrequently happens that menstruation continues with regularityduring the whole period of pregnancy. Exceptional cases are given bydistinguished writers on midwifery, of women menstruating during theirpregnancy, and at no other time. 

As a general rule, when a healthy wife misses her monthly sickness, sheis pregnant. But this symptom, though a strong one, must be supported byothers before it can be regarded as establishing anything. 

2. _Morning sickness_ is a very common, a very early, and, in theopinion of most mothers, a very conclusive symptom of pregnancy. We havealready had occasion to remark that it sometimes makes its appearancealmost simultaneously with conception. It usually comes on in the firstfew weeks, and continues until the third or fourth month or untilquickening. This symptom is apt to be a troublesome one. Often thevomiting is slight, and immediately followed by relief. But it mayproduce violent and ineffectual straining for some time. It is, however, not to be called a disease: unless it proceeds to an exhausting degree, it must be looked upon as favorable and salutary. There is an old andtrue proverb, that 'a sick pregnancy is a safe one. ' The absence ofnausea and vomiting is a source of danger to the mother and child. Womenwho habitually fail to experience them, are exceedingly apt to miscarry. In such cases medical skill should be invoked to bring about the returnof these symptoms, of such importance to healthful pregnancy. 

Morning sickness is therefore a very general, almost constant, accompaniment of the pregnant condition; and great dependence may beplaced upon it as a sign. 

3. _Changes in the breasts_ are valuable as symptoms. They become largerand firmer, and the seat of a pricking or stinging sensation. Thenipples are swollen, prominent, and sometimes sore or painful. The veinsbeneath the skin appear more conspicuous, and of a deeper blue thanordinary. The peculiar circles of rose-coloured skin which surround thenipples increase in extent, change to a darker color, and become coveredwith a number of little elevations. Subsequently, numerous mottledpatches, or round spots of a whitish hue, scatter themselves over theouter part of this circle. 

The time at which these changes make their appearance is variable. Theymay begin to develope themselves in two or three weeks, oftener notuntil the second or third month, and in women of a delicate build, sometimes not until the latter end of pregnancy. Occasionally noalteration whatever occurs in the breasts until after confinement, inwhich cases the secretion of milk is delayed for several days after thebirth of the child. In some rare instances the breasts never assumematernal proportions, and the mother is debarred from the pleasure andduty of nursing her own child. 

4. _Quickening_ is the next symptom we will consider. By this term ismeant the arrival of that time when the mother first becomes consciousby the movements of the child of its presence. The ancients thought thatthen life was imparted to the new being. Modern physiology emphaticallycondemns this absurdity. The embryo is as much alive in the veryearliest moments of pregnancy as at any future stage of its existence. Let every woman therefore remember that she who produces abortion isequally guilty in the eyes of science and of Heaven, whether the act becommitted before or after the period of quickening. 

How is quickening produced? Undoubtedly by the movements of the child. So soon as its nervous and muscular systems become sufficientlydeveloped to enable it to move its limbs, the mother, if the movementsbe sufficiently active, is rendered sensible of her situation. But themuscular contractions may not be strong enough to impart any sensationto the mother. In many cases in which they are too feeble to be noticedby herself, the skilled accoucheur is capable of recognizing them. Andthe movements of the fœtus may be excited in various ways known tophysicians. 

_Time of quickening. _--This symptom usually occurs about the middle ofpregnancy, near the eighteenth week. Some women feel the movements ofthe fœtus as early as the third month of pregnancy, others not till thesixth month. Cases occur in which no movement whatever is felt until theeighth or ninth month, or even not at all. It has been suggested that afœtus which does not indicate its presence in this way is a kind of'Lazy Lawrence, ' too indolent to move. Certainly, many of both sexesexhibit after birth such indomitable love of repose, that it can readilybe supposed they were equally passive in fœtal life. 

The non-occurrence of this sign may, however, be due to the debility ofthe young child, or to a want of sensibility in the walls of the wombitself. 

A woman may be deceived, and suppose she has quickened, when hersensations are to be traced to flatulence of the bowels, or perhaps adropsical effusion. Many ludicrous instances of self-deception are onrecord. The historian Hume states that Queen Mary, in her extreme desireto have issue, so confidently asserted that she felt the movements ofthe child, that public proclamation was made of the interesting event. Despatches were sent to foreign courts; national rejoicings were had;the sex of the child was settled, for everybody was certain it was goingto be a male; and Bonner, Bishop of London, made public prayers, sayingthat Heaven would pledge to make him beautiful, vigorous, and witty. Butall those high hopes and eager expectations were destined never to berealized. The future disclosed that the supposed quickening was merely aconsequence of disordered health, and commencing dropsy. 

Some women possess the power of imitating the movements of a fœtus, byvoluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles. A well-known coloredwoman of Charleston, 'Aunt Betty, ' had a great reputation as having'been pregnant for fifteen years. ' She made a good deal of money, byexhibiting to physicians and medical students who were curious, thepretended movements of her unborn child. She was repeatedly presented tothe medical classes in the city. No pregnancy existed, as was revealedby a _post-mortem_ examination. She imposed upon the credulous by thehabit she had acquired of jerking her muscles at pleasure, and thusclosely simulating the movements of an embryo. 

5. _Changes in the abdomen. _--In the first two months of pregnancy theabdomen is _less_ prominent than usual: it recedes, and presents a flatappearance. The navel is also drawn in and depressed. About the thirdmonth a swelling frequently shows itself in the lower part of theabdomen, and then diminishes, thus leading the wife to suppose that shewas mistaken in her condition, for she finds herself at the fourth monthsmaller than at the third. After this, however, there is a gradualincrease in the size and hardness of the abdomen. What is of more value, is the peculiar form of the swelling. It is pear-shaped, and is thusdistinguished from the swelling of dropsy and other affections. Thenavel begins to come forward, and finally protrudes. The poutingappearance it then presents is very characteristic. 

In this connection it may be remarked that, towards the change of life, childless married women often think they perceive that 'hope deferred'is about to be gratified. An enlargement of the abdomen takes place atthis time, from a deposit of fatty matter. The nervous perturbations andthe cessation of the menses, which are natural to this period, arelooked upon as confirmations of the opinion that pregnancy exists. Butthe day of generation with them has passed. These symptoms herald theapproach of the winter of life, which brings with it death to thereproductive system. 

6. _Changes in the skin. _--The alterations occurring in the skin areworth observing. Those women who have a delicate complexion and arenaturally pale take a high color, and vice versâ. In some cases aconsiderable quantity of hair appears on those parts of the faceoccupied by the beard in men; it disappears after labor, and returns onevery subsequent pregnancy. Oftentimes the skin becomes loose andwrinkled, giving a haggard, aged air to the face, and spoiling goodlooks. Women who ordinarily perspire freely, have now a dry, rough skin;whereas those whose skin is not naturally moist, have copiousperspiration, which may be of a peculiarly strong odor. Copper-coloredor yellow blotches sometimes appear upon the skin, mole spots becomedarker and larger, and a dark ring developes itself beneath the eyes. The whole appearance is thus in many cases altered. On the other hand, obstinate, long-existing skin affections sometimes take their departureduring pregnancy, perhaps never to return. These alterations do notoccur in all women, nor in all pregnancies of the same woman. 

7. We may now group together a number of less important and lessconstant signs, such as _depraved appetite_, _longings for unnaturalfood_, _excessive formation of saliva in the mouth_, _heartburn, loss ofappetite_ in the first two or three months, succeeded by a voraciousdesire for food, which sometimes compels the woman to rise at night inorder to eat, _toothache_, _sleepiness_, _diarrhœa_, _palpitation of theheart_, _pain in the right side_, etc. These, when they occur singly, are of little value as evidence. 

Among these, that of _depraved appetite_ is by far the most important, and may be regarded as quite significant. A married woman in herordinary health, suddenly feeling this morbid taste for chalk, charcoal, slate pencil, and other unusual articles of food, may look upon it as astrong presumptive evidence of impregnation. 

When any or all of this group of symptoms accompany the ceasing to be'regular, ' the morning sickness, the changes in the breasts and theother signs which have been enumerated, the wife may be quite sure thatshe is pregnant. 

8. _Changes in the mind. _--The most wonderful of all the changes whichattend pregnancy are those in the nervous system. The woman is renderedmore susceptible, more impressible. Her character is transformed. She isno longer pleasant, confiding, gentle, and gay. She becomes hasty, passionate, jealous, and bitter. But in those who are naturally fretfuland bad-tempered a change for the better is sometimes observed, so thatthe members of the household learn from experience to hail with delightthe mother's pregnancy as a period when clouds and storms give place tosunshine and quietness. In some rare cases, also, pregnancy confersincreased force and elevation to the ideas, and augmented power to theintellect. 

As this book is written for women only, we do not mention any of thesigns or symptoms of pregnancy which medical men alone can recognize. Wewill merely state that there are many other signs besides these referredto, of great value to the doctor. One, the sound of the heart of thechild, which the practised ear can detect at about the fifth month, ispositive and conclusive. 

MISCARRIAGE. 

Miscarriage is a fruitful source of disease, and often of danger, towives. It also causes a frightful waste of human life. Unborn thousandsannually die in this manner. 

_Frequency. _--Miscarriage is by no means a rare occurrence. Statisticsshow that thirty-seven out of one hundred mothers miscarry before theyattain the age of thirty years. But this accident is much more apt tooccur during the latter than during the first half of the child-bearingperiod; and therefore it is estimated that ninety out of one hundred ofall women who continue in matrimony until the change of life, miscarry. 

_Influence of age of mother. _--A woman who marries at forty is very muchdisposed to miscarry; whereas, had she married at thirty, she might haveborne children when older than forty. As a mother approaches the end ofher child-bearing period, it is likely that she will terminate hercareer of fertility with a premature birth. The last pregnancies are notonly most commonly unsuccessful, but there is also reason to believethat the occurrence of idiocy in a child may be associated with thecircumstance of its being the last-born of its mother. It has beenasserted, in this connection, that men of genius are frequently thefirst-born. First pregnancies are also fraught with the danger ofmiscarriage, which occurs more often in them than in others, exceptingthe latest. A woman is particularly apt to miscarry with her firstchild, if she be either exceedingly nervous or full-blooded. 

_Influence of period of pregnancy. _--Miscarriage is most frequent in theearlier months of pregnancy--from the first to the third. It is alsovery prone to happen about the sixth month. Habit makes itself felthere; for women who have many times experienced this sad accident, encounter it nearly always at the same epoch of their pregnancy. 

_How early can the child live?_--The infant is incapable, as a rule, ofan independent existence, if brought into the world before the end ofthe sixth month. The law of France regards a child born one hundred andeighty days after wedlock as not only capable of living, but aslegitimate and worthy of all legal and civil rights. There are manycases mentioned, by the older medical writers, of children born previousto this period living. One of the most curious is that recorded by VanSwieten. The boy Fortunio Liceti was brought into the world before thesixth month, in consequence of a fright his mother had at sea. Whenborn, it is said, he was the size of a hand, and his father placed himin an oven, for the purpose, probably, it has been suggested, of makinghim _rise_. Although born prematurely, he died late, for we are toldthat he attained his seventy-ninth year. Professor Gunning S. Bedford ofNew York records the case of a woman in her fourth confinement, who, before she had completed her sixth month, was delivered of a femaleinfant weighing two pounds nine ounces. The surface of the body was of ascarlet hue. It breathed, and in a short time after birth cried freely. After being wrapped in soft cotton, well lubricated with warm sweet-oil, it was fed with the mother's milk, by having a few drops at a time putinto its mouth. At first it had great difficulty in swallowing, butgradually it succeeded in taking sufficient nourishment, and is now avigorous, healthy young woman. 

_Dangers to mother. _--Wives are too much in the habit of making light ofmiscarriages. They are much more frequently followed by disease of thewomb than are confinements at full terms. There is a greater amount ofinjury done to the parts than in natural labor. While after confinementample time is afforded by a long period of repose for the bruised andlacerated parts to heal, after a miscarriage no such rest is obtained. Menstruation soon returns; conception may quickly follow. Unhappily, there is no custom requiring husband and wife to sleep apart for a monthafter a miscarriage, as there is after a confinement. Hence, especiallyif there be any pre-existing uterine disease, or a predispositionthereto, miscarriage is a serious thing. 

_Causes. _--The irritation of hemorrhoids or straining at stool willsometimes provoke an early expulsion of a child. Excessive intercourseby the newly married is a very frequent cause. Bathing in the ocean hasbeen known to produce it. Nursing is exceedingly apt to do so. It hasbeen shown by a distinguished medical writer, that, in a given number ofinstances, miscarriage occurred in seventeen per cent. Of cases in whichthe woman conceived while nursing, and in only ten per cent. Whereconception occurred at some other time. A wife, therefore, who suspectsherself to be pregnant, should wean her child. The extraction of atooth, over-exertion and over-excitement, a fall, a blow, any violentemotion, such as anger, sudden and excessive joy, or fright, running, dancing, horseback exercise, or riding in a badly-built carriage over arough road, great fatigue, lifting heavy weights, the abuse of purgativemedicines, disease or displacement of the womb, small-pox, or a generalcondition of ill-health, are all fruitful and well-known exciting causesof this unfortunate mishap, in addition to those which have been beforementioned. 

_Prevention. _--The eminent practitioner, Dr. Tilt, says, 'The way toprevent miscarriage is to lead a quiet life, particularly during thosedays of each successive month when, under other circumstances, the womanwould menstruate; and to abstain during those days not only from longwalks and parties, but also from sexual intercourse. '

It is especially desirable to avoid a miscarriage in the firstpregnancy, for fear that the habit of miscarrying shall then be set up, which it will be very difficult to eradicate. Therefore newly-marriedwomen should carefully avoid all causes which are known to induce thepremature expulsion of the child. If it should take place in spite ofall precautions, extraordinary care should be exercised in thesubsequent pregnancy, to prevent its recurrence. Professor Bedford ofNew York has said he has found that an excellent expedient in such casesis, as soon as pregnancy is known to exist, 'to interdict sexualintercourse until after the fifth month; for if the pregnancy passbeyond this period, the chances of miscarriage will be much diminished. '

If the _symptoms of miscarriage_, which may be expressed in the twowords _pain_ and _flooding_, should make their appearance, the doctorought at once to be sent for, the wife awaiting his arrival in arecumbent position. He may even then be able to avert the impendingdanger. At any rate, his services are as necessary, and often even moreso, as in a labor at full term. 

MOTHER'S MARKS. 

It is a popular belief that the imagination of the mother affects thechild in the womb. It is asserted that infants are often born withvarious marks and deformities corresponding in character with objectswhich had made a vivid impression on the maternal mind during pregnancy. This is a subject of great practical interest. We shall therefore giveit the careful attention which it deserves. 

We have already discussed the operation of the laws of inheritance. Itwas then stated that the whole story of maternal influence had not beentold--that the mother could communicate qualities she never possessed. The potency of imagination at the time of conception over the child hasbeen mentioned. It is now our design to consider its effects, during theperiod of pregnancy, upon the physical structure and the mentalattributes of the offspring. We shall have occasion hereafter, inspeaking of nursing, to illustrate the manner in which the child may beaffected by maternal impressions acting through the mother's milk. Whatcan be more wonderful than this intimate union between the mother andher child? It is only equaled by that mysterious influence of thehusband over the wife, by which he so impresses her system that sheoften comes in time to resemble him both in mental and physicalcharacteristics, and even transmits his peculiarities to her children bya second marriage. Father, mother, and child are one. 

We wish here to premise that our remarks will be based upon theconclusions of skilled and scientific observers only, whose position andexperience no medical man will question. All the instances to be relatedare given upon unimpeachable authority. They are not the narrations ofignorant, credulous people; they are all fully vouched for. We recordhere, as elsewhere, only the sober utterances of science. The greatimportance and utility of an acquaintance with them will be patent toevery intelligent man and woman. 

The effect of the mind upon the body is well known. Strong, long-continued mental emotion may induce or cure disease. Heart diseasemay be produced by a morbid direction of the thoughts to that organ. Warts disappear under the operation of a strong belief in the efficacyof some nonsensical application. In olden time, scrofula, or the 'king'sevil', was cured by the touch of the king. The mind of the patient, ofcourse, accomplished the cure. Under the influence of profound mentalemotion, the hair of the beautiful Marie Antoinette became white in ashort time. During the solitary voyage of Madame Condamine down the wildand lonely Amazon, a similar change took place. Many other instancesmight be adduced; but those given are sufficient to show that strong andpersistent mental impressions will exert a mysterious transforming powerover the body. These facts will pave the way to the consideration ofcorresponding effects, through the mother's mind, upon the developmentof the unborn child, forming a part of herself _in utero. _

_Influence of mind of mother on form and color of infant. _--There arenumerous facts on record which prove that _habitual_, long-continuedmental conditions of the mother at an early period of pregnancy, inducedeformity or other abnormal development of the infant. 

Professor William A. Hammond of New York relates the following strikingcase, which occurred in his own experience, and which scarcely admits ofa doubt as to the influence of the maternal mind over the physicalstructure of the fœtus. 

A lady in the third month of her pregnancy was very much horrified byher husband being brought home one evening with a severe wound of theface, from which the blood was streaming. The shock to her was so greatthat she fainted, and subsequently had a hysterical attack, during whichshe was under Dr. Hammond's care. Soon after her recovery she told himthat she was afraid her child would be affected in some way, and thateven then she could not get rid of the impression the sight of herhusband's bloody face had made upon her. In due time the child, a girl, was born. She had a dark red mark upon the face, corresponding insituation and extent with that which had been upon her father's face. She also proved to be idiotic. 

Professor Dalton of New York states that the wife of the janitor of theCollege of Physicians and Surgeons of that city, during her pregnancy, dreamed that she saw a man who had lost a part of the ear. The dreammade a great impression upon her mind, and she mentioned it to herhusband. When her child was born, a portion of one ear was deficient, and the organ was exactly like the defective ear she had seen in herdream. When Professor Dalton was lecturing upon the development of thefœtus as affected by the mind of the mother, the janitor called hisattention to the foregoing instance. The ear looks exactly as if aportion had been cut off with a sharp knife. 

Professor J. Lewis Smith of Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York, has met with the following cases:--An Irishwoman, of strong emotions andsuperstitions, was passing along a street, in the first months of herpregnancy, when she was accosted by a beggar, who raised her hand, destitute of thumb and fingers, and in 'God's name' asked for alms. Thewoman passed on, but, reflecting in whose name money was asked, feltthat she had committed a great sin in refusing assistance. She returnedto the place where she had met the beggar, and on different days, butnever afterwards saw her. Harassed by the thought of her imaginary sin, so that for weeks, according to her statement, she was distressed by it, she approached her confinement. A female infant was born, otherwiseperfect, but lacking the fingers and thumb of one hand. The deformedlimb was on the same side, and it seemed to the mother to resembleprecisely that of the beggar. In another case which Professor Smith met, a very similar malformation was attributed by the mother of the child toan accident occurring, during the time of her pregnancy, to a nearrelative, which necessitated amputation. He examined both of thesechildren with defective limbs, and has no doubt of the truthfulness ofthe parents. In May, 1868, he removed a supernumerary thumb from aninfant, whose mother, a baker's wife, gave the following history:--Noone of the family, and no ancestor, to her knowledge, presented thisdeformity. In the early months of her pregnancy she sold bread from thecounter, and nearly every day a child with a double thumb came in for apenny roll, presenting the penny between the thumb and the finger. Afterthe third month she left the bakery, but the malformation was soimpressed upon her mind, that she was not surprised to see it reproducedin her infant. 

In all these cases the impression was produced in the early months ofpregnancy; but many have been recorded in which malformations in theinfant appeared distinctly traceable to strong mental emotions of themother only a few months previous to confinement, these impressionshaving been persistent during the remaining period of the pregnancy, andgiving rise to a full expectation on the part of the mother that thechild would be affected in the particular manner which actuallyoccurred. Professor Carpenter, the distinguished physiologist, ispersonally cognisant of a very striking case of the kind which occurredin the family of a near connection of his own. 

All the above instances have been those of the effects of persistentmental emotion. But it is also true that _violent and sudden emotion_ inthe mother leaves sometimes its impress upon the unborn infant, althoughit may be quickly forgotten. 

It is related on good authority that a lady, who during her pregnancywas struck with the unpleasant view of leeches applied to a relative'sfoot, gave birth to a child with the mark of a leech coiled up in theact of suction on the intended spot. 

Dr. Delacoux of Paris says that, in the month of January 1825, he wascalled to attend a woman in the village of Batignoles, near Paris, whothe evening before had been delivered of a six months' fœtus, horriblydeformed. The upper lip was in a confused mass with the jaw and thegums, and the right leg was amputated at the middle, the stump havingthe form of a cone. The mother of this being, who was a cook, onemorning, about the third month of her pregnancy, on entering the housewhere she was employed, was seized with horror at the sight of a porterwith a hare-lip and an amputated leg. 

At a meeting of the Society of Physicians at Berlin, in August 1868, Herr Dupré stated that a woman saw, in the first weeks of her thirdpregnancy, a boy with a hare-lip; and not only was the child she thencarried born with a frightful hare-lip, but also three childrensubsequently. Another one, a woman in the fifth week of pregnancy, saw asheep wounded, and with its bowels protruding. She was greatly shocked, and did not recover her composure for several days. She was delivered atterm of a child, in other respects well developed, but lacking the wallsof the abdomen. 

Many remarkable instances have been collected of the power of_imagination_ over the unborn offspring. 

Ambrose Paré, the illustrious French surgeon of the sixteenth century, in one of his treatises devotes a chapter to the subject of 'monsterswhich take their cause and shape from imagination, ' and was evidently astrong believer in this influence. 

A black child is generally believed to have been born to Marie Thérèse, the wife of Louis XIV. , in consequence of a little negro page in herservice having started from a hiding-place and stumbled over her dressearly in her pregnancy. This child was educated at the convent of Moret, near Fontainebleau, where she took the veil, and where, till the shockof the Revolution, her portrait was shown. 

Examples are given by authors of the force of _desires_ in causingdeformities in infants, and the formation upon them of fruits, such asapples, pears, grapes, and others, which the mother may have longed for. 

The following is related upon excellent medical authority:--A woman gavebirth to a child with a large cluster of globular tumours growing fromthe tongue, and preventing the closure of the mouth, in color, shape, and size exactly resembling our common grapes; and with a redexcrescence from the chest, as exactly resembling in figure andappearance a turkey's wattles. On being questioned before the child wasshown to her, she answered, that while pregnant she had seen somegrapes, longed intensely for them, and constantly thought of them; andthat she was also once attacked and much alarmed by a turkey-cock. 

Dr. Demangeon of Paris quotes, in his work on the Imagination, the_Journal de Verdun_, as mentioning the case of a child, born at Blois, in the eyes of which the face of a watch was distinctly seen. The imagewas situated around the pupil, and the figures representing the hourswere plainly perceived. The mother had experienced a strong desire tosee a watch while she was pregnant with this child. 

Professor Dalton says, in his _Human Physiology_, that 'there is nowlittle room for doubt that various deformities and deficiencies of thefœtus, conformably to the popular belief, do really originate in certaincases from nervous impressions, such as disgust, fear, or anger, experienced by the mother. ' We will now consider the

_Influence of the mind of the mother on the mind of the infant_; whichsubject we have not yet touched upon, having confined ourselves to theinfluence of the maternal mind over the form and color of the unbornchild. It will not be necessary to illustrate at length this branch ofour topic. Instances are sufficiently common and well known. Dr. Seguinof New York, in his work on Idiocy, gives several cases in which therewas reason to believe that fright, anxiety, or other emotions in themother, had produced idiocy in the offspring. As he remarks, 'Impressions will sometimes reach the fœtus in its recess, cut off itslegs or arms, or inflict large flesh wounds before birth, --inexplicableas well as indisputable facts, from which we surmise that idiocy holdsunknown though certain relations to maternal impressions. '

We have given many strong cases and most excellent authority for thedoctrine that the _purely mental_ influence of the mother may producebodily and mental changes in the unborn infant. But the child is alsoaffected by _physical impressions_ made upon the mother. 

Dr. Russegger reports that a woman, who had already borne four healthychildren, was, in the seventh month of her pregnancy, bitten in theright calf by a dog. The author saw the wound made by the animal'steeth, which wound consisted of three small triangular depressions, bytwo of which the skin was only slightly ruffled; a slight appearance ofblood was perceptible in the third. The woman was at the moment of theaccident somewhat alarmed, but neither then nor afterwards had any fearthat her fœtus would be affected by the occurrence. Ten weeks after shewas bitten, the woman bore a healthy child, which, however, to thesurprise of every person, had three marks corresponding in size andappearance to those caused by the dog's teeth in the mother's leg, andconsisting, like those, of one large and two smaller impressions. Thetwo latter, which were pale, disappeared in five weeks; the larger onehad also become less, and was not so deep colored as it was at birth. Atthe time of writing, the child was four months old. 

Dr. S. P. Crawford of Greenville, Tennessee, reports in a recent numberof the _Nashville Journal of Medicine_, the following sad case:--A lady, in the last stage of pregnancy, was burned by the explosion of akerosene-oil can. She lived twelve hours after the accident. The face, legs, arms, and abdomen were badly burned. The movements of the childwere felt three or four hours after the accident. A short time beforethe death of the mother she gave birth to the child at full maturity, but still-born. It bore the mark of the fire corresponding to that ofthe mother. Its legs, arms, and abdomen were completely blistered, having all the appearance of a recent burn. 

These instances of a decided influence exerted upon the body and mind ofthe child in the womb, by physical and mental impressions made upon themother, might be doubled or trebled. They are as numerous as they arewonderful. Physiologists of the present day do not hesitate to admit theexistence of the influence we have been discussing. Reason also comes tothe support of facts, to demonstrate and establish its reality. For, ifa sudden and powerful emotion of the mind can so disturb the stomach andheart as to cause vomiting and fainting, is it not probable that it canaffect the womb and the impressible being within it? Pregnancy is afunction of the woman as much as digestion or pulsation of the heart;and if the latter are controlled by moral and mental impressions, whyshould not the former be also?

_In what manner does this influence of the maternal mind act?_--Throughthe blood of the mother. Only a very delicate membrane separates thevital fluid of the mother from that of the infant in her womb. There isa constant interchange of the blood in its body with that in hersthrough this exceedingly thin membrane; and thus all nervous impressionswhich have produced an alteration of either a temporary or permanentcharacter in the circulating fluid of the mother, are communicated tothe child. Since the mother, as has been shown, can transmit through herblood certain characteristics of mind and body not her own, --forinstance, a disease peculiar to a male from her father to her son, orthe physical and mental traits of her first husband to the children byher second, --it does not seem at all strange that she should throughthis same medium, her blood, impart other peculiarities which have madea strong impression upon her mind. Anatomy and physiology thereforefully explain and account for this seemingly mysterious influence. 

The view here stated, and indorsed by modern science, is one which oughtto have great weight with the mother, her relatives and friends. The_practical conclusion_ which it suggests is, that as during pregnancythere is unusual susceptibility to mental impressions, and as theseimpressions may operate on the fragile structure of the unborn being, this tendency should be well considered and constantly remembered, notonly by the woman herself, but by all those who associate or are thrownin contact with her. Upon the care displayed in the management of thecorporeal and mental health of the mother during the whole period ofpregnancy, the ultimate constitution of the offspring greatly depends. All the surroundings and employments of the pregnant woman should besuch as conduce to cheerfulness and equanimity. Above all, she shouldavoid the presence of disagreeable and unsightly objects. Vivid andunpleasant impressions should be removed as soon as possible by quietdiversion of the mind. All causes of excitement should be carefullyguarded against. 

In leaving the subject of maternal impressions, we will call attentionto the manifest difference in extent and degree between the influence ofthe father and that of the mother over the offspring. That of the fatherceases with impregnation. That of the mother continues during the wholeterm of pregnancy, and, as we shall shortly see, even during that ofnursing. 

EDUCATION OF THE CHILD IN THE WOMB. 

The outlines drawn by the artist Flaxman are esteemed the most perfectand graceful in existence. From earliest childhood he manifested adelight in drawing. His mother, a woman of refined and artistic tastes, used to relate that for months previous to his birth she spent hoursdaily studying engravings, and fixing in her memory the most beautifulproportions of the human figure as portrayed by masters. She wasconvinced that the genius of her son was the fruit of her ownself-culture. What a charming idea is this! What an incentive to thoseabout to become mothers, to cultivate refinement, high thoughts, pureemotions, elevated sentiments! Thus they endow their children with whatno after education can give them. 

The plastic brain of the fœtus is prompt to receive all impressions. Itretains them, and they become the characteristics of the child and theman. Low spirits, violent passions, irritability, frivolity, in thepregnant woman, leave indelible marks on the unborn child. So do theircontraries; and thus it becomes of the utmost moment that during thisperiod all that is cheerful, inspiring, and elevating should surroundthe woman. Such emotions educate the child: they form its disposition, they shape its faculties, they create its mental and intellectualtraits. Of all education, this is the most momentous. 

CAN A WOMAN BECOME AGAIN PREGNANT DURING PREGNANCY?

Can a woman during pregnancy conceive, and add a second and youngerchild to that already in the womb?

It is not uncommon in the canine race for a mother to give birth at thesame time to dogs of different species, showing conclusively thepossibility, in these animals, of one conception closely followinganother. So a mare has been known to produce within a quarter of anhour, first a horse, and then a mule. And in the human race cases areon record in which women have had twins, of which the one was white andthe other colored, in consequence of intercourse on the same day withmen of those two races. Dr. Henry relates that in Brazil a Creole woman, a native, brought into the world at one birth three children of threedifferent colors, --white, brown, and black, --each child exhibiting thefeatures peculiar to the respective races. 

In all such instances the two conceptions followed each other veryrapidly, the offspring arriving at maturity together, and being born atthe same accouchement. But more curious and wonderful examples of secondand concurrent pregnancies have been published than these--as, forinstance, those in which a child bearing all the attributes of a fœtusat full term is born two, three, four, and even five, months after thefirst, which appeared also to have been born at full term. Marie AnneBigaud, aged thirty-seven, gave birth, April 30, 1748, to a living boyat full term, and on the ensuing September 16, to a living girl, whichwas recognised, by the size and well-developed condition of its body andlimbs, to have been also carried until full term. This fact was observedby Professor Eisenman, and by Leriche, surgeon-major of the militaryhospital of Strasbourg. It will be noticed that there was an interval offour and a half months between the two accouchements. The first childlived two and a half months, and the second a year. In this instancethere was not a double womb, as might perhaps be supposed, for afterthe mother's death an examination proved that the uterus was single. 

Another case of this kind is the following:--Benoite Franquet of Lyonsbrought into the world a girl on January 20, 1780, and five months andsix days afterwards a second girl, also apparently at term, and wellnourished. Two years later these two children were presented, with theircertificates of baptism, to two notaries of Lyons, MM. Caillot andDesurgey, in order that the fact might be placed on record and vouchedfor, because of its value in legal medicine. 

The number of the entirely authenticated cases now known of the birth offully developed children within from two to five months of each other, can leave no doubt as to the possibility of such an occurrence. The onlyquestion which remains is in regard to the periods of conception. Arethe two children in such cases twins, conceived at the same time, butthe growth of the last-born so retarded that it did not arrive atmaturity until a number of months after its fellow? or, Has a secondconception taken place at an interval of several months after the first?If this latter view be true, then, in the instance of Marie Anne Bigaud, above related, the second child must have been conceived after the firsthad quickened. Then, also, two children of different ages, the offspringof different fathers, may exist in the womb at the same time. The weightof scientific observation and authority has now established the factthat, in very rare instances, a second conception may take place duringpregnancy. It must not be understood as necessarily following from thisstatement, that when two children are born at the same time, --one fullydeveloped, and the other small and apparently prematurely born, --the twowere conceived at different times. The smaller may have been blightedand its growth hindered by the same causes which bring about sucheffects in cases of single births of incompletely developed children. Asimilar supposition may account for the birth of a second child within amonth or two after the first, for the first may have been prematurelyborn, and the second carried to full term. But no such supposition canexplain the cases referred to, and others which might be mentioned, inwhich the interval has been five or six months, each child presentingevery indication of perfect maturity. The only explanation possible insuch instances, which, as has been said, are well authenticated, although few in number, is, that a second pregnancy has occurred duringthe first. 

The above facts would seem sufficiently wonderful. There are others, however, of the same nature still more so. In some instances, theproduct of the second conception, instead of developing independently ofthe first, has become attached to it, and the phenomenon has beenpresented of the growth of a child within a child--a fœtus within afœtus. Such a singular occurrence has been lately recorded in a Germanjournal. A correspondent of the _Dantzic Gazette_ states that on Sunday, February 1, 1869, at Schliewen, near Dirschau, 'a young and bloomingshepherd's wife was delivered of a girl, otherwise sound, but having onthe lower part of her back, between the hips, a swelling as big as twogood-sized fists, through the walls of which a well-developed fœtus maybe felt. Its limbs indicate a growth of from five to six months, and itsmovements are very lively. The father called in the health commissioner, Dr. Preuss, from Dirschau, and begged him to remove the swellingtogether with the fœtus. The doctor, however, after a carefulexamination, declared that there was a possibility in this extraordinarycase of the child within the swelling coming to fruition. Its existenceand active motions were palpable to all present. No physician could bejustified in destroying this marvelous being. It ought rather to beprotected and cherished. The new-born girl, notwithstanding her strangeburden, is of unusual strength and beauty, and takes the breast verycheerfully. '

We find something further in regard to this singular birth in the _WeserZeitung_ of February 20, 1869. It quotes from the _Dantzic Gazette_ someremarks by the health commissioner, Dr. Preuss of Dirschau, in which thedoctor declares the facts contained in the report given above to becorrect. He was summoned on the 1st of February to the child, and sawthe vigorous movements, and felt the members of a fœtus within theswelling, as described. It was evidently a double creation. The casethus far, though rare, is not unique. 'But what is novel, and hithertoperfectly unnoticed in medical literature, is the fact that not only thegirl, which has been carried its full term, is alive to-day, but thefœtus within the swelling has also, in the eleven days after birth, further developed, and palpably increased in size. The swelling is nowfour and a half inches long, three and a half inches wide, and high andpear-shaped; the head lies underneath on the left, the body towards theright. '

Further particulars and the latest intelligence we have concerning theprogress of this case are to the effect that the child was brought byspecial request before the Natural History Society of Dantzic, andthence the mother went to Berlin for medical advice. 

MORAL ASPECTS OF THIS QUESTION. 

Upon proper judgment and discrimination in the application of the factswe have just been dwelling upon, may depend a wife's honor, and thehappiness of the dearest social relations. We will suppose an example. Ahusband, immediately after the impregnation of his wife, is obliged toquit her, and remains absent a year. In the meanwhile she gives birth totwo children, at an interval of a number of weeks. The question willthen come up, Whether, under such circumstances, it is possible for herto do so consistently with conjugal purity. 

It will be recollected that, in speaking of twins, we remarked that itwas not very uncommon for an interval of days or weeks to elapse betweenthe births, and it has just been stated that impregnation duringpregnancy is extremely rare. The presumption, therefore, in the casesupposed, is as very many to one that the two births were the result ofa twin pregnancy. In the absence of any other evidence against thewife's chastity, it should not even be called in question. This decisionreceives the support of the maxim in law that a reasonable doubt is theproperty of the accused, and of the Christian principle that it isbetter that ninety-nine guilty should escape than that one innocentshould be condemned. Hence the teachings of science and of human anddivine law all coincide to protect the sacred rights and the preciousinterests at stake against an unjust suspicion, which even the doctrineof chances would render untenable. 

CAN A CHILD CRY IN THE WOMB?

There are some cases, recorded on undoubted authority, in which thechild has been heard to cry while in the womb. These are veryexceptional. Under ordinary circumstances, it is impossible for thechild either to breathe or cry, because of the absence of air. It isonly when the bag of membranes has been torn, and the mouth of the childis applied at or near the neck of the uterus, that this can take place. The infant is not unfrequently heard to cry just before birth, afterlabor has commenced, but before the extrusion of the head from the womb, in consequence of the penetration of air into the uterine cavity. 

IS IT A SON OR DAUGHTER?

It is a common saying among nurses, that there is a difference in thesize and form of the pregnant woman, according to the sex she carries. This may well be doubted. Neither is it true that one sex is moreactive in its 'movements' than the other. It is quite possible, however, for a wife to know the sex of the fœtus, if she can tell about what timein her month conception took place. If it occurred directly after amonthly sickness, the child is a girl; if directly before, it is a boy. When a woman is 'out' in her reckoning, and goes beyond the period ofher expected confinement, it will ordinarily turn out to be a boy. Theskilful doctor can, in the later months of pregnancy, settle thequestion of sex in some cases. The beats of the fœtal heart are morefrequent in females than in males. The average frequency of pulsationsof twenty-eight female fœtuses has been found to be one hundred andforty-four in the minute, the lowest figure being one hundred andthirty-eight; of twenty-two male fœtuses, one hundred and twenty, thelowest figure being one hundred and twelve. Therefore, when thepulsations of the heart of the child in the womb are counted, --as caneasily be done by a practised medical ear during the last months ofpregnancy, --and are found to be over one hundred and thirty in a minute, it is a daughter; if under one hundred and thirty, a son. In thismanner, the sex of an unborn child can be predicted with tolerableaccuracy, excepting only when illness of the fœtus has deranged theaction of its heart. 

ARE THERE TWINS PRESENT?

Certain signs lead to the suspicion of twins, such as being unusuallylarge, and the fact that the increase in size has been more thanordinarily rapid. Sometimes also the abdomen is divided into twodistinct portions by a perpendicular fissure. In other cases themovements of a child can be felt on each side at the same time. And intwin pregnancies the morning sickness is apt to be more distressing, andall the other discomforts incident to this condition increased. Butthese signs and symptoms, when present in any given case, are notconclusive, for they may be noticed when there is only one child. Thedoctor has one characteristic and infallible sign by which he canascertain whether the woman be pregnant with twins. It is furnished tohim again by the art of listening, --or auscultation, as it istechnically called, --the same that, as we have already seen, may enablehim to determine the sex of the child. When the beatings of two fœtalhearts are heard on opposite portions of the abdomen, the nature of thepregnancy is apparent. 

LENGTH OF PREGNANCY. 

What is the ordinary duration of pregnancy? Almost every woman considersherself competent to make the answer--nine months. She may be surprisedto learn, however, that such an answer is wanting in scientificprecision. It is too indefinite, and is erroneous. There is a greatdifference between the calendar and the lunar month. Each lunar monthhaving twenty-eight days, the period of nine lunar months is two hundredand fifty-two days. Nine calendar months, including February, represent, on the contrary, two hundred and seventy-three days. Now the averageduration of pregnancy is two hundred and eighty days, that is fortyweeks, or ten lunar months. 

While most extended observations have shown that as a general rule, forty weeks, or two hundred and eighty days, is the true period ofpregnancy, are we justified in the conclusion that this is itsinvariable duration? This important question, upon the answer to whichso often depend the honor of families, the rights of individuals, andsometimes the interests of nationalities, has been in all times thesubject of careful research by physicians, philosophers, andlegislators. On the one side, have been those who contend that the lawsof nature are invariable, and that the term of pregnancy is fixed andimmutable. On the other side, have been those who assert that the epochof accouchement can be greatly advanced or retarded by various causes, some of which are known, and others not yet appreciated. Abundant andsatisfactory testimony has proved that the prolongation of pregnancybeyond the ordinary period of two hundred and eighty days, or fortyweeks, is possible. Nor is this contrary to what is observed in regardto other functions of the human body. There is no process depending uponthe laws of life which is absolutely invariable either as to the periodof its appearance or duration. It is known, as we have already pointedout, that puberty may be advanced or retarded; the time at which thechange of life occurs in women, as we shall have occasion hereafter toshow, is also subject to variation; and it is a matter of commonobservation with mothers, that the period of teething is sometimesstrangely hurried or delayed. A certain degree of variability, therefore, being frequently observed, and entirely compatible withhealth, in the various other natural processes, why should that ofpregnancy form an exception, and be invariably fixed in its duration?And observation upon the lower animals affords most convincing evidencethat nature is not controlled by any uniform law in reference to thelength of pregnancy. In the cow, the usual period of whose pregnancy isthe same as in the human female, instances of calving six weeks beyondthe ordinary term are not at all uncommon. 

As an illustration of the great interest sometimes attaching to theinquiry under discussion, we may cite the celebrated Gardner PeerageCase, tried by the House of Lords in 1825. Allen Legge Gardnerpetitioned to have his name inscribed as a peer on the Parliament Roll. He was the son of Lord Gardner by his second wife. There was anotherclaimant for the peerage, however, --Henry Fenton Iadis, --on the ground, as alleged, that he was the son of Lord Gardner by his first andsubsequently divorced wife. Medical and moral evidence was adduced toestablish that the latter was illegitimate. Lady Gardner, the mother ofthe alleged illegitimate child, parted from her husband on the 30th ofJanuary, 1802, he going to the West Indies, and not again seeing hiswife until the 11th of July following. The child whose legitimacy wascalled in question was born on the 8th of December of that year. Theplain medical query therefore arose, Whether this child born eitherthree hundred and eleven days after intercourse (from January 30th toDecember 8th), or one hundred and fifty days (from July 11th to December8th), could be the son of Lord Gardner. As there was no pretence thatthere was a premature birth, the child having been well developed whenborn, the conception must have dated from January 30th. The medicalquestion was therefore narrowed down to this: Was the alleged protractedpregnancy (three hundred and eleven days) consistent with experience?Sixteen of the principal obstetric practitioners of Great Britain wereexamined on this point. Eleven concurred in the opinion that naturalpregnancy might be protracted to a period which would cover the birth ofthe alleged illegitimate child. Because, however, of the moral evidencealone, which proved the adulterous intercourse of Lady Gardner with aMr. Iadis, the House decided that the title should descend to the son ofthe second Lady Gardner. 

There is on record one fact, well observed, which establishes beyondcavil the possibility of the protraction of pregnancy beyond two hundredand eighty days, or forty weeks. The case is reported by the learned Dr. Desormeaux of Paris, and occurred under his own notice in the Hôpital deMaternité of that city. A woman, the mother of three children, becameinsane. Her physician thought that a new pregnancy might re-establishher intellectual faculties. Her husband consented to enter on theregister of the hospital each visit he was allowed to make her, whichtook place only every three months. So soon as evidence of pregnancyshowed itself, the visits were discontinued. The woman was confined twohundred and ninety days after conception. 

The late distinguished Professor Charles D. Meigs of Philadelphiapublished a case, which he deems entirely trustworthy, of theprolongation of pregnancy to four hundred and twenty days, or sixtyweeks. Dr. Atlee reports two cases, which nearly equaled three hundredand fifty-six days each. Professor Simpson of Edinburgh records, ashaving occurred in his own practice, cases in which the period reachedthree hundred and thirty-six, three hundred and thirty-two, threehundred and twenty-four, and three hundred and nineteen days. In theDublin _Quarterly Journal of Medical Science_ a case of protractedpregnancy is related by Dr. Joynt. The evidence is positive that theminimum duration must have been three hundred and seventeen days, orabout six weeks more than the average. Dr. Elsässer found, in onehundred and sixty cases of pregnancy, eleven protracted to periodsvarying from three hundred to three hundred and eighteen days. 

In treating of the subject of miscarriage, we mentioned instances, recorded by physicians of skill and probity, proving beyond a shade ofdoubt that a woman may give birth to a living child long before theexpiration of the forty weeks. The Presbytery of Edinburgh, Scotland, some time since decided in favor of the legitimacy of an infant bornalive, within twenty-five weeks after marriage, to the Rev. FergusJardine. 

One of the most enlightened countries in Europe has, in view of thefacts in reference to the extreme limits of pregnancy, enacted, in theCode Napoléon, that a child born within three hundred days after thedeparture or death of the husband, or one hundred and eighty days aftermarriage, shall be considered legitimate. The law further states that achild born after more than three hundred days shall not be necessarilydeclared a bastard, but its legitimacy may be contested. The Scotchlegislation on this subject is very similar to the French. 

CAUSES OF PROTRACTED PREGNANCY. 

It has been asserted by some that an infant is born at ten or elevenmonths because at nine months it has not acquired the growth whichis necessary in order to induce the womb to dislodge it. The popularnotion is, that a child carried beyond the usual term must necessarilybe a large one. Rabelais has reflected this common opinion in hiscelebrated romance entitled 'Gargantua, ' in which he represents theroyal giant of that name as having been carried by his mother, Gargamelle, eleven months. When born, the child was so vigorous that hesucked the milk from ten nurses. He lived for several centuries, and atlast begot a son, Pantagruel, as wonderful as himself. Such reasoningcannot, however, be seriously maintained, as many children carriedlonger than nine months have not been more fully developed than someborn a few weeks prematurely; and the size of the child has nothing todo with the bringing on of labor, as we shall show hereafter. Protractedpregnancies are caused by a defect in the energy of the womb, inducedby moral as well as physical influences. As a rule, a woman who leads aregular life, and observes the physiological laws of her being, whichlaws it has been our aim to point out, will be confined at the term thatnature usually marks out, that is, at the expiration of two hundred andeighty days, or forty weeks, from conception. 

This brings us to the consideration of the question, HOW TO CALCULATE THE TIME OF EXPECTED LABOR. 

Many rules for this purpose have been laid down. We shall merely giveone, the most satisfactory and the most easily applied. It was suggestedby the celebrated Professor Naëgelè of Heidelberg, and is now generallyrecommended and employed by physicians. The point of departure in makingthe calculation is _the day of the disappearance of the last monthlysickness_; three months are subtracted, and seven days added. The resultcorresponds to the day on which labor will commence, and will be foundto be two hundred and eighty days from the time of conception, if thatevent has occurred, as ordinarily, immediately after the last menstrualperiod. Suppose, for instance, the cessation of the last monthlysickness happened on the 14th day of January; subtract three months, andwe have October 14; then add seven days, and we obtain the 21st day ofthe ensuing October (two hundred and eighty days from January 14) as thetime of the expected confinement. This method of making the 'count' maybe relied upon with confidence, and only fails, by a few days, in thoseexceptional cases in which conception takes place just before themonthly period, or during the menstrual flow. 

CARE OF HEALTH DURING PREGNANCY. 

This subject, the proper management of the health from conception tochildbirth, is worthy of careful consideration. The condition ofpregnancy, though not one of disease, calls for peculiar solicitude, lest it should lead to some affection in the mother or in the child. Forit ought to be remembered that the welfare of a new being is now in thebalance. The woman has no longer an independent existence. She hasentered upon the circle of her maternal duties. She became a mother whenshe conceived. The child, though unborn, lives within her; its life is apart of her own, and so frail, that any indiscretion on her part maydestroy it. The danger to the child is not imaginary, as the largenumber of miscarriages and still-births proves. 

All mothers desire to have healthy, well-formed, intelligent children. How few conduct themselves in such a manner as to secure a happydevelopment of their offspring! Puny, deformed, and feeble-mindedinfants are daily ushered into the world because of a want of knowledge, or a sinful neglect of those special measures imperatively demanded inthe ordering of the daily life, by the changed state of the systemconsequent upon pregnancy. We shall therefore point out those laws whichcannot be infringed with impunity, and indicate the diet, exercise, dress, and, in general, the conduct most favorable to the mother andchild during this critical period, in which the wife occupies, as itwere, an intermediate state between health and sickness. 

FOOD. 

The nourishment taken during pregnancy should be abundant, but not, inthe early months, larger in quantity than usual. Excess in eating ordrinking ought to be most carefully avoided. The food is to be taken atshorter intervals than is common, and it should be plain, simple, andnutritious. Fatty articles, the coarser vegetables, highly salted andsweet food, if found to disagree, as is often the case, should beabstained from. The flesh of young animals--as lamb, veal, chicken, andfresh fish--is wholesome, and generally agrees with the stomach. Ripefruits are beneficial. The diet should be varied as much as possiblefrom day to day. The craving which some women have in the night or earlymorning may be relieved by a biscuit, a little milk, or a cup of coffee. When taken a few hours before rising, this will generally be retained, and prove very grateful, even though the morning sickness betroublesome. Any food or medicine that will confine or derange thebowels is to be forbidden. The taste is, as a rule, a safe guide, and itmay be reasonably indulged. But inordinate, capricious desires forimproper, noxious articles, should of course, be opposed. Such longings, however, are not often experienced by those properly brought up. It is acurious fact, that the modification in the digestive system duringpregnancy is sometimes so great that substances ordinarily the mostindigestible are eaten, without any inconvenience, and even withbenefit, while the most healthful articles become hurtful, and act likepoison. 

As pregnancy advances, particularly after the sixth month, a largeramount of food, and that of a more substantial character, will berequired. The number of meals in the day should then be increased, rather than the quantity taken at each meal. 

CLOTHING. 

The dress during pregnancy should be loose and comfortable, nowherepressing tightly or unequally. The word _enceinte_, by which a pregnantwoman is designated, meant, originally, without a cincture, --that is, unbound. The Roman matrons, so soon as they conceived, were obliged toremove their girdles. Lycurgus caused the enactment of the Spartan law, that pregnant women should wear large dresses, so as not to prejudicethe free development of the precious charges of which nature hadrendered them the momentary depositaries. Stays or corsets may be used, in a proper manner, during the first five or six months of pregnancy, but after that they should either be laid aside, or worn very loosely. Any attempt at concealing pregnancy, by tight lacing and the applicationof a stronger busk, cannot be too severely condemned. By this falsedelicacy the mother is subjected to great suffering, and the childplaced in jeopardy. The shape of the stays should be moulded to that ofthe changing figure, and great care should be taken that they do notdepress the nipple or irritate the enlarging breasts. 

The amount of clothing should be suited to the season, but ratherincreased than diminished, owing to the great susceptibility of thesystem to the vicissitudes of the weather. It is especially importantthat flannel drawers should be worn during advanced pregnancy, as theloose dress favors the admission of cold air to the unprotected parts ofthe body. A neglect of this precaution sometimes leads to theestablishment of the painful disease known as rheumatism of the womb. 

Pressure upon the lower limbs, in the neighborhood of the knee or theankle joint, should be avoided, more particularly towards the lastmonths. It is apt to produce enlargement and knotting of the vein, swelling and ulcers of the legs, by which many women are crippled duringtheir pregnancies, and sometimes through life. Therefore the gartersshould not be tightly drawn, and gaiters should not be too closelyfitted, while yet they should firmly support the ankle. 

EXERCISE. 

Moderate exercise in the open air is proper and conducive to healthduring the whole period of pregnancy. It should never be so active norso prolonged as to induce fatigue. Walking is the best form of exercise. Riding in a badly-constructed carriage, or over a rough road, or uponhorseback, as well as running, dancing, and the lifting or carrying ofheavy weights, should be scrupulously avoided, as liable to causerupture, severe flooding, and miscarriage. During the early months, inparticular, extraordinarily long walks and dancing ought not to beindulged in. Journeys are not to be taken while in the pregnant state. Railway travelling is decidedly objectionable. The vibratory motion ofthe cars is apt to produce headache, sickness at the stomach, faintness, and premature labor. All these precautions are especially to be observedin the first pregnancy. 

We must not be understood as condemning exercise and fresh air. They areof the greatest importance to mother and child. But the amount ofexercise should be regulated by the dictates of common sense and thewoman's own sensations. If she can only walk a short distance each daywith comfort, let that suffice. She should not force herself to go to acertain place nor to promenade during a certain time in the twenty-fourhours. So soon as fatigue is felt, the walk should cease. Let the walksbe frequent and short, rather than few and long. They should also bemade as pleasant as possible, by companionship and surroundings thatwill occupy the feelings and imagination in an agreeable manner with newand cheerful impressions. A tendency to indolence is to be combated. Agently active life is best calculated to preserve the health of themother and her unborn child. But with even the most robust a moderationof the ordinary pursuits and avocations is called for. The nervous anddelicate cannot make with safety their customary daily exertions in theperformance of their household or social duties and pleasures. 

Towards the end of pregnancy the wife should economize her forces. Sheshould not remain long standing or kneeling, nor sing in either of thesepostures. 

BATHING. 

Those who have not been accustomed to bathing should not begin thepractice during pregnancy, and in any case great care should beexercised during the latter months. It is better to preserve cleanlinessby sponging with tepid water than by entire baths. Foot-baths are alwaysdangerous. Sea-bathing sometimes causes miscarriage, but sea air and thesponging of the body with salt water are beneficial. The shower-bath isof course too great a shock to the system, and a very warm bath is toorelaxing. In some women of a nervous temperament, a lukewarm bath takenoccasionally at night during pregnancy has a calming influence. This isespecially the case in the first and last month. But women of alymphatic temperament and of a relaxed habit of body are always injuredby the bath. 

VENTILATION. 

We have spoken of the benefits of outdoor air during pregnancy. Attention should also be directed to keeping the atmosphere in thesitting and sleeping rooms of the house fresh. This can only beaccomplished by constantly changing it. The doors and windows of everyroom, while unoccupied, should be kept thrown open in the summer-time, and opened sufficiently often in the winter to wash out the apartmentsseveral times a day with fresh air. The extremes of heat and cold areto be, with equal care, avoided. The house should be kept light. Youngplants will not grow well in the dark. Neither will the young child norits mother flourish without sunlight. The ancients were so well aware ofthis, that they constructed on the top of each house a solarium, orsolar air-bath, where they basked daily, in thin attire, in the directrays of the sun. 

SLEEP. 

During pregnancy a large amount of sleep is required. It has a sedativeinfluence upon the disturbed nervous system of the mother. It favors, bythe calmness of all the functions which attends it, the growth of thefœtus. Neither the pursuit of pleasure in the evening, nor theobservance of any trite maxims in regard to early rising in the morning, should be allowed to curtail the hours devoted to slumber. Pregnantwomen have an instinctive desire to lie abed late, which, like the otherpromptings of nature during this period, should not be disregarded. Atleast eight hours out of the twenty-four can be profitably spent in bed. No night-watching ought ever to be undertaken during pregnancy. 

Feather beds should be avoided. The heat which they maintain about thebody is inconvenient and dangerous, predisposing to flooding andexhausting perspirations. The hair or sponge mattress is to bepreferred. The bed-clothing should not be too heavy. Blankets are to beemployed rather than coverlids, as they are lighter and more permeableto perspiration. The mattress and cover should be well aired during theday. The sleeping-room should be capacious and well ventilated, and nocurtains permitted about the bed. 

Occasional rest is also necessary in the daytime. A nap of an hour ortwo upon a sofa or lounge will then prove very refreshing. In theearlier months of pregnancy it will tend to prevent miscarriage, and inthe latter months to relieve the distress consequent upon the increasedsize of the womb. It is not unusual, as the close of pregnancyapproaches, for a feeling of suffocation to ensue when the womanattempts to lie down. This may be overcome by supporting the back andshoulders with cushions and pillows. Or a bed-chair may be employed. This, if well constructed and covered, will often be found very gratefulat night, in the last few weeks of pregnancy. 

THE MIND. 

A tranquil mind is of the first importance to the pregnant woman. Gloomyforebodings should not be encouraged. Pregnancy and labor are not, werepeat, diseased conditions. They are healthful processes, and should belooked upon as such by every woman. Bad labors are very infrequent. Itis as foolish to dread them, as it is for the railway traveller to giveway to misgivings in regard to his safety. Instead of desponding, science bids the woman to look forward with cheerfulness and hope to thejoys of maternity. 

The bad effects of fear upon the mother's mind are illustrated byPlutarch, who, in his Life of Publicola, mentions that, 'at a time whena superstitious fear overran the city of Rome, all the women thenpregnant brought forth imperfect children, and were prematurelydelivered. ' But we have already spoken, in treating of mothers' marks, of the influence of mental emotions over the unborn child, and thenecessity of avoiding their exciting causes. 

Because of their deleterious tendency, severe study as well as arduousand protracted manual labor ought to be avoided. The nervous systems ofmany women are also injuriously affected during pregnancy by perfumes, which at other times are agreeable and innocuous. It is thereforeprudent not only to exclude all offensive scents, but also to abstainfrom the strong odors of various strong perfumes, eau-de-cologne, and offlowers. Large bouquets often cause feelings of faintness, and sometimestemporary loss of consciousness. The extreme liability of the nervoussystem of the pregnant woman to be affected injuriously to herself andchild by scenes of suffering or distress, and by disgusting or frightfulobjects, cannot be too strongly impressed upon every one. She should beprotected from all that will disturb her, and should be constantlytreated with soothing and encouraging kindness. Her manifestations ofirritability, her caprices, her melancholy anticipations, are not to bescoffed at, but combated with a mixture of reasoning and patientforbearance. On her part, she should endeavour to co-operate with thosearound her, in sedulously shunning all injurious influences, and inbanishing as quickly as possible all improper longings. She shouldremember that, although she herself may escape mischief from them, herchild may suffer. She is the custodian of interests dearer to her thanher own. 

RELATION OF HUSBAND AND WIFE DURING PREGNANCY. 

During those days when the wife, if she were not pregnant, would havebeen 'unwell, ' marital intercourse should be abstained from. It is theninjurious to the mother, and dangerous to the life of the child, as itis liable to excite miscarriage. But if this habitual epoch of themonthly sickness be avoided, there is no reason why passion should notbe gratified in moderation and with caution during the whole period ofpregnancy. There is one exception to be made to this general course ofconduct. In those cases in which a miscarriage has occurred in the firstpregnancy, every precaution should be employed--for reasons which havebeen dwelt upon in a previous article--to prevent its happening againafter the second conception. Under such exceptional circumstances, therefore, the husband and wife should sleep apart during the first fivemonths of pregnancy. After that period their ordinary relations may beresumed. When a miscarriage has taken place, intercourse should not bepermitted within a month of the accident. The observance of thisdirection is of the utmost importance. Its neglect is the frequent causeof severe and intractable diseases of the womb. 

EFFECT OF PREGNANCY ON HEALTH. 

We have had occasion to remark that pregnancy is not a condition ofdisease. It is not only an evidence of health, but during itscontinuance it confers increased physical vigor. As a rule, a womanenjoys _better health_ during her pregnancy than at any other time; sheis less liable to contagious and other maladies; she is less apt to diethan at any other period of her life; and her general constitution seemsalso then to receive a favorable impress, for wives and mothers livelonger than celibates. It is wisely decreed that when woman is engagedin this, to her, anxious stage of reproduction, she shall not be exposedto the pains and dangers of disease, and that those great covenants ofnature--marriage and child-bearing--shall be rewarded by added strengthand length of days. 

There are certain disorders incident, in exceptional cases, topregnancy, of which we shall shortly speak. In general, however, werepeat that this condition is one of extraordinary health. More thanthis, in numerous instances it exerts an ameliorating influence uponpre-existing diseases, suspending their march, or bringing about adecidedly curative effect. Thus, various obstinate chronic affections ofthe skin, of the womb and ovaries, and of the brain and nervous system, frequently get well during pregnancy; and it is well known to everyphysician, that by the judicious management of this state, and of thelying-in period, troublesome displacements of the womb may be arrested. 

It should nevertheless ever be recollected that the condition ofpregnancy is one of excitement and enhanced susceptibility toimpressions of all kinds. For this reason a change in the habits oflife is necessary; and the importance of the directions laid down forthe care of the health during this period, cannot be too stronglyinsisted upon. 

The diseases to which the wife is exposed during pregnancy will betreated of in the chapter on 'Health in Marriage. '

CONFINEMENT. 

_PREPARATIONS FOR CHILDBIRTH. _

Certain foolish preparations are sometimes made by wives, with the bestintentions. Perhaps one of the most common and absurd of these is thelocal use of sweet oil, in order to facilitate the dilatation of theparts, for which purpose it is perfectly inert. There are, however, somewise and even necessary precautions which every wife should know andemploy, to guard against unpleasant and dangerous complications inchildbirth. 

In particular, _the condition of the breasts_ towards the close ofpregnancy demands attention. Scarcely any pain in the lying-in chamberis greater or more difficult to bear than that which the young mothersuffers from excoriated nipples. This troublesome and often veryintractable affection is nearly always the consequence of the want ofcare previous to confinement. During the latter part of pregnancy thenipples sometimes become sunken or flat, being retracted as the breastsincrease in size, because of the want of elasticity on the part of themilk tubes. In order to remedy this fault, we have known a breast-pumpor puppy to be applied. Such treatment is dangerous, as it may excitepremature contraction of the womb, and miscarriage. Nipple-shields, with broad bases and openings, should always be obtained. They are safe, and effectually secure the prominence of the nipples, when wornconstantly, day and night, during the last month or so of pregnancy. Wives who have never had children ought to take special care toascertain before labor whether this depressed condition of the nipplesexists, and to correct it in the manner indicated. 

In the first pregnancy it is also important to _harden the nipples_. This may be done by occasionally gently rubbing them between the thumband finger, and by bathing them twice a day during the last six weekswith tincture of myrrh, or with a mixture of equal parts of brandy andwater, to which a little alum has been added. This procedure will renderthe surfaces less sensitive to the friction of the child's mouth, andthus avert the distress so often occasioned in the first confinement bytenderness of the nipples. 

If the nipples be rough or nodulated in appearance, like a strawberry ora raspberry, they are more apt to become excoriated or fissured than ifthey present a smooth surface. Under such circumstances, make a solutionof the sulphate of zinc, of the strength of one grain to the ounce ofrose water, in a wide-mouthed bottle, then tilt the bottle upon thenipple, and allow it to remain there for a few minutes several times aday. Simple tenderness of the nipples and slight fissures may be avertedby the application either of a lotion of borax (two scruples of borax inthree ounces of water, and an ounce of glycerine), of the honey ofborax, or of the tincture of catechu, and by protecting the parts fromthe pressure of the stays and the friction of the flannel vest. 

It is of the greatest moment to the comfort of the mother, that allaffections of the nipples should be prevented or remedied before labor;for the treatment of sore nipples when the child is at the breast isoften unsatisfactory, while the suffering they occasion is very great, even sometimes giving rise to mammary abscess. 

There are certain _articles of clothing_ and _dressings for the bed_which should be cared for in advance, in order that they may be readywhen required. 

The mother should be provided with short-gowns, to be worn over thechemise instead of the ordinary night-gowns. It is of consequence toprocure a proper _bandage_. It should be made of heavy muslin, neithertoo coarse nor too fine; an ordinarily good quality of unbleached muslinis the best. The material is to be cut bias, about one and a quarteryard in length, and from twelve to eighteen inches in breadth, varying, of course, with the size of the person. It should be just large enoughto encircle the body after confinement, with a margin of a couple ofinches, and to extend down below the fulness of the hips. Themeasurement should be taken, and the bandage made to fit, when four anda half months advanced. It should be narrow above, wider below, andgored in such a manner that it will be a little narrower at the lowerextremity than a few inches above, so as to prevent it, when adjusted, from sliding upwards. A bandage constructed in this manner will be verycomfortable; and is not apt to become displaced, after application, asis invariably the case when a towel or a straight piece of muslin isused. The way in which it is to be applied will be detailed hereafter. 

The _child's clothing_ should consist first of a piece of flannel orsome woollen material for a binder. This should be from four to sixinches in width, and from twelve to sixteen inches in length; that is tosay, wide enough to extend from the armpits to the lower part of theabdomen, and long enough to go once and a half times around the child, having the double fold to come over the abdomen. There should be noembroidery about this. A shirt, which it is desirable should be woollen, is to be provided to place over the binder. It should be made to come uptolerably high in the neck, and to extend down the arm. Neither it norany other portion of the child's clothing should be starched. Thepetticoat, which may be open its whole length behind, is to be put overthe shirt; two may be used--a short and a long one. Next comes thechild's ordinary frock or slip, and above this an apron to protect thedress from the frequent discharges from the stomach. Then a shawl, offlannel or any other warm material, is to be provided, to throw over theshoulders if the weather be cold. Socks, and pieces of old soft linen, free from stiffening, for napkins or diapers, complete the child'soutfit. 

For the _permanent and temporary dressing of the bed_ there should beprovided a piece of impervious cloth (oiled silk is the neatest) about ayard square; a piece of ordinary table oil-cloth or rubber-cloth; anumber of old sheets and comfortables, and a piece of thick carpet. Themanner in which these are to be used will be explained shortly. 

A pair of small rounded scissors; a package of large pins, one and ahalf inches in length, for the bandage of the mother, and smaller onesfor that of the child; some good linen bobbin for the doctor to tie thenavel-string; good toilet soap and fine surgical sponge for washing thechild; a piece of soft linen or muslin for dressing the navel; a box ofunirritating powder; and a pile of towels, --should all be had and laidaside many weeks before they are wanted. These, together with thematerial for dressing the bed, the child's clothing, and the mother'sbandage, ought to be placed together in a basket got for the purpose, inorder that they may all be easily and certainly found at a time whenperhaps the hurry and excitement of the moment would render it difficultotherwise to collect them all immediately. 

SIGNS OF APPROACHING LABOR. 

One of the earliest of the preliminary signs of the coming on ofconfinement occurs about two weeks before that event. It is a droppingor subsidence of the womb. The summit of that organ then descends, inmost cases, from above to below the umbilicus, and the abdomen becomessmaller. The stomach and lungs are relieved from pressure, the womanbreathes more freely, the sense of oppression which troubled herpreviously is lost, and she says she feels 'very comfortable. ' Thissensation of lightness and buoyancy increases, and a few days before thesetting in of labor she feels so much better that she thinks she willtake an extra amount of exercise. The mother of a number of children isacquainted with this sign, but the wife with her first child may exertherself unduly in the house or outdoors, and induce labor when in thestreet or away from home. Hence the importance of a knowledge of thispremonitory symptom. 

A second precursory sign of labor is found in the increased fulness ofthe external parts, and an augmented mucous secretion, which may amounteven to a discharge resembling whites, and requiring the wearing of anapkin. This symptom is a good one, indicating a disposition torelaxation, and promising an easy time. 

The third preliminary sign which we shall mention, is the change in themental state of the pregnant woman. She has a feeling of anxiety and offidgetiness, sometimes accompanied with depression of spirits. Thiscondition of emotional distress, modified in particular cases by reason, self-control, and religion, may continue for several days, perhaps, when

THE SYMPTOMS OF ACTUAL LABOR

make their appearance. The first of these is generally the 'show. ' It isthe discharge of the plug of mucus which has occupied the neck of thewomb up to this time, and is ordinarily accompanied by a little blood. Perhaps before this, or perhaps not for some hours after, the 'pains'will develope themselves. These recur periodically, at intervals of anhour or half an hour at the outset, and are 'grinding' in character. _True_ labor pains are distinguished from _false_ by the fact that theyare felt in the back, passing on to the thighs, while false pains arereferred to the abdomen; by their intermittent character, the spuriouspains being more or less continuous; and by the steady increase in theirfrequency and severity. In case of doubt as to their exact nature, thedoctor should be summoned, who will be able to determine positivelywhether labor has begun. 

The other symptoms which point to the actual commencement of labor are afrequent desire to empty the bowels and bladder, nausea and vomiting, which, in the early part of confinement, is a good sign; shiverings, unattended with any sensation of cold; and, finally, the rupture anddischarge of the contents of the 'bag of waters. '

Before passing on to the consideration of the management of theconfinement into which the wife has now entered, a few words may beappropriately said upon the

CAUSE OF LABOR. 

Neither the size nor the vigor of the child has any influence inbringing about delivery at full term. The ancient theory--which receivedthe support of the distinguished naturalist Buffon--that the infant wasthe active agent in causing its own expulsion, is an exploded one. Itwas asserted by some that hunger excited the fœtus to struggle to freeitself from the womb; others were disposed to attribute its efforts toaccomplish its entrance into the world, to the need of respiration whichit experienced. But all these ingenious theories, which presupposed theembryo to be actuated by the same feelings which would influence a grownperson if shut up in such a confined abode, are unsatisfactory, and nottenable. It is well known that the child may die in the womb, withoutretarding or interfering in any way with the coming on of the process oflabor. This fact alone shows that the fœtus is, or at any rate may be, absolutely passive either in regard to the induction or advancement ofdelivery. The determining cause of labor is seated in the womb itself. The contractions of this organ occasion the 'pains' and expel the child, assisted by the muscles of the abdomen and the diaphragm. That theassistance of the latter forces is not necessary, is conclusively provedby the occurrence of childbirth after the decease of the mother. Forinstance, a case is on record in which labor commenced and twins wereborn after the mother had been dead for three days. 

CARE DURING LABOR. 

We will suppose labor to have commenced. The _preparation of the bed_for the occupancy of the mother is now to be attended to. As she is tolie on the _left side_ of the bed, this is the side, and the only one, which is to be dressed for the occasion. In order to do so, remove theouter bed-clothes one at a time, folding them neatly on the right sideof the bed so that they can easily be drawn over when desired. The_permanent dressing_ is to be placed beneath the lower sheet and uponthe mattress. A soft impervious cloth--which, in speaking of thepreparation for confinement, we directed to be procured--is placed nextto the surface of the bed. The upper edge should be nearly as high asthe margin of the bolster, and it should extend down to a distance atleast a foot below the level of the hips, so as to certainly protect thebed from the discharges. Upon the top of this a blanket or sheet islaid, and the whole fastened by pins. The lower sheet of the bed, whichhad been turned over to the right side, to permit the application of thedressing, is now to be replaced. Over the position of this permanentdressing, on the top of the bed-sheet, a neatly-folded sheet, with thefolded edge down, is adjusted and pinned in its place. It is upon thissheet that the patient is to be drawn up after her confinement, whichwill take place upon the _temporary dressing_ of the bed now to bearranged. It consists of an oil-cloth, which should extend up beyond thelower edge of the permanent dressing, overlapping the folded sheet whichhas been placed above it, and should fall over the side and bottom ofthe bed. A comfortable or any soft absorbent material is placed overthis impervious cloth and covered with a folded sheet, completing thetemporary dressing. The bed-clothes may now be adjusted, concealing thedressings from view until they are wanted. The valances at the foot ofthe bed should be raised, and a piece of carpet placed on the floor. Thebed should have no foot-board, or a very low one. 

_The dress of the mother. _--Either a folded sheet should be adjustedaround the waist as the only skirt, so as not to interfere with thewalking, or a second chemise should be put on, with the arms outside thesleeves, to extend from the waist to the feet. Then the chemise next thebody should be drawn up and folded high up around the breast. It shouldbe plaited neatly along the back, and brought forward and fastened bypins. This should be thoroughly done, so that the linen may not be foundwet nor soiled when it is drawn down after confinement. A wrapper ordressing-gown may be worn during the first stage of labor, before it isnecessary to go to bed. When, however, that time comes, the wife willtake her place on her left side on the temporary dressing, with a sheetthrown over her, her head on a pillow so situated that her body will bebent well forward, and her feet against the bed-post. A sheet should betwisted into a cord and fastened to the foot of the bed, for her toseize with her hands during the accession of the 'bearing-down pains. 'Care should be taken to have a number of napkins, a pot of fresh lard, and the basket containing the scissors, ligature, bandage, etc. --whichhave been previously enumerated in the remarks on preparations forchildbirth--at hand, for the use of the doctor. 

We have now noted all that it is useful for the wife to know in regardto the preparation for and management of confinement, when a physicianis in attendance, as, for obvious reasons, he should always be. In someinstances, however, the absence of the doctor is unavoidable, or thelabor is completed before his arrival. As a guide to the performance ofthe necessary duties of the lying-in room under such circumstances, wegive some

HINTS TO ATTENDANTS. 

The room during confinement should be kept quiet. Too many persons mustnot be allowed in it, as they contaminate the air, and are apt by theirconversation to disturb the patient, either exciting or depressing her. So soon as the head is born, it should be immediately ascertainedwhether the neck is encircled by the cord; if so, it should be removedor loosened. The neglect of this precaution may result fatally to theinfant, as happened a short time since in our own practice; the infant, born a few minutes before our arrival, being found strangled with thecord about its neck. It is also of importance at once to allow of theentrance of air to the face, to put the finger in the mouth to removeany obstruction which may interfere with respiration, and to lay thebabe on its right side, with the head removed from the discharges. Thecord should not be tied until the infant is heard to cry. The ligatureis to be applied in the following manner:--A piece of bobbin is thrownaround the navel-string, and tied with a double knot at the distance ofthree fingers' breadth from the umbilicus; a second piece is tied aninch beyond the first, and the cord divided with the scissors betweenthe two, care being taken not to clip off a finger or otherwise injurethe unsuspecting little infant, as has occurred in careless hands morethan once. When the child is separated from the mother, a warm blanketor a piece of flannel should be ready to receive it. In taking hold ofthe little stranger, it may slip out of the hands and be injured. Toguard against this accident, which is very apt to occur with awkward orinexperienced persons, always seize the back portion of the neck in thespace bounded by the thumb and first finger of one hand, and grasp thethighs with the other. In this way it may be safely carried. It shouldbe transferred, wrapped up in its blanket, to some _secure_ place, andnever put in an arm-chair, where it may be crushed by some one who doesnot observe that the chair is already occupied. The head of the childshould not be so covered as to incur any danger of suffocation. 

ATTENTION TO THE MOTHER. 

When the after-birth has come away, the mother should be drawn up ashort distance--six or eight inches--in bed, and the sheet which hasbeen pinned around her, together with the temporary dressing of the bedremoved, a clean folded sheet being introduced under the hips. The partsshould be gently washed with warm water and a soft sponge or a cloth, after which an application of equal parts of claret wine and water willprove pleasant and beneficial. We have also found the anointing of theexternal and internal parts with goose grease, which has been thoroughlywashed in several hot waters, to be very soothing and efficient inspeedily allaying all irritation. This ought all to be done under cover, to guard against the taking of cold. The chemise pinned up around thebreast should now be loosened, and the woman is ready for theapplication of the bandage, which is to be put on next the skin. Ifproperly and nicely adjusted, it will prove very grateful. Thedirections for making it have already been given. In order to apply it, one half of its length should be folded up into plaits, and the mothershould lie on her left side; lay the plaited end of the bandageunderneath the left side of the patient, carrying it as far under aspossible, and draw the loose end over the abdomen; then let the motherroll over on her back upon the bandage, and draw out the plaited end. Ifthe abdominal muscles are much relaxed and the hip-bones prominent, acompress of two or three towels will be wanted. The bandage should befirst tightened in the middle by a pin applied laterally, for stringsshould never be employed. The pins should be placed at intervals ofabout an inch. The lower portion of the bandage should be made quitetight, to prevent it slipping up. The mother is now ready to be drawn upin bed upon the permanent dressing: this should be done without anyexertion on her part. A napkin should be laid smoothly _under_ the hips(never folded up), to receive the discharges. If she prefer to lie onher left side, place a pillow behind her back. 

ATTENTION TO THE CHILD. 

The baby may now be washed and dressed. Before beginning, everythingthat is wanted should be close at hand, namely a basin of warm water, alarge quantity of lard or some other unctuous material, soap, finesponge, and a basket containing the binder, shirt, and other articles ofclothing. First rub the child's body thoroughly with lard. The coveringcan only be removed in this way; the use of soap alone will have noeffect unless the friction be so great as to take off also the skin. Thenurse should take a handful of lard and rub it in with the palm of thehand, particularly in the flexures of the joints. In anointing one part, the others should be covered, to prevent the child from taking cold. Ifthe child is thus made perfectly clean, do not use any soap and water, because the skin is left in a more healthful condition by the lard, andthere is risk of the child's taking cold from the evaporation of thewater. But the face may be washed with soap and water, great care beingtaken not to let the soap get into the child's eyes, which is one of themost frequent causes of sore eyes in infants. The navel-string is now tobe dressed. This is done by wrapping it up in a circular piece of softmuslin, well oiled, with a hole in its centre. The bandage is next to beapplied. The object of its use is to protect the child's abdomen againstcold, and to keep the dressing of the cord in its position. The nature, shape, and size of the binder have been described. It should be pinnedin front, three pins being generally sufficient. The rest of theclothing before enumerated is then put on. 

The child is now to be _applied to the breast at once_. This is to bedone, for three reasons. First, it very often prevents flooding, whichis apt otherwise to occur. Secondly, it tends to prevent milk fever, byaverting the violent rush of the milk on the third day, and theconsequent engorgement of the breast and constitutional disturbance. The third reason is, that there is always a secretion in the breast fromthe first, which it is desirable for the child to have; for it acts as acathartic, stimulating the liver, and cleansing the bowels from thesecretions which fill them at the time of birth. There is generallysufficient nourishment in the breasts for the child for the first fewdays. The mother may lie on the one side or the other, and receive thechild upon the arm of that upon which she is lying. If the nipple be notperfectly drawn out so that the child can grasp it in its mouth, thedifficulty may be overcome by filling a porter-bottle with hot water, emptying it, and then placing the mouth of the bottle immediately overthe nipple. This will cause, as the bottle cools, a sufficient amount ofsuction to elevate the sunken nipple. The bottle should then be removedand the child substituted, --a little sugar and water or sweetened milkbeing applied, if necessary, to tempt the child to take the breast. 

FURTHER ATTENTION TO THE MOTHER. 

The patient should be cleansed every _four or five hours_. A softnapkin, wet with warm soap and water, should for this purpose be passedunderneath the bed-clothing, without exposing the surface to a draft ofair. After using the soap and water, apply again the dilute claret wineand the goose grease. Much of the safety of the mother depends upon theobservation of cleanliness. The napkin should not be allowed to remainso long as to become saturated with the discharges. 

The mother should maintain rigidly the recumbent position for the firstfew days, not raising her shoulders from the pillow for any purpose, andshould abstain from receiving visitors, and from any social conversationfor the first twenty-four hours. 

For the first three or four days, until the milk has come and the milkfever passed, the mother should live upon light food, --oatmeal gruel, tea and toast, panada, or anything else of little bulk and unstimulatingcharacter. Afterwards the diet may be increased by the addition ofchicken, lamb, mutton or oyster broth, buttered toast, and eggs. Theobject of light nourishment at first is to prevent the too rapidsecretion of milk, which might be attended with evil local andconstitutional effects. If, however, the mother be in feeble health, itwill be necessary from the outset that she shall be supported withnourishing concentrated food. _Beef-tea_ will then be found veryserviceable, particularly if made according to the followingrecipe:--Take a pound of fresh beef from the loins or neck. Free itcarefully from all fat. Cut it up into fine pieces, and add a verylittle salt and five grains of unbroken black pepper. Pour on it a pintof cold water, and _simmer_ for forty minutes. Then pour off the liquor, place the meat in a cloth, and, after squeezing the juice from it intothe tea, throw it aside. Return to the fire, and boil for ten minutes. 

After the first week, the diet of the lying-in woman should always benutritious, though plain and simple. The development of the mammaryglands, the production of the mammary secretion, and the reduction whichtakes place in the size of the womb, all require increased nourishment, that they may be properly performed. 

After the third or fourth day _the dress should be changed_. The dressworn during labor, if our directions have been carried out, will nothave been soiled. The clothing should be changed without uncovering theperson, and without raising the head from the pillow. Pull the bed-gownfrom over each arm, and draw it out from under the body. Then unfastenthe chemise in front and draw it down underneath her so that it can beremoved from below, as it should not be carried over the head. Place herarms in the sleeves of the clean chemise, throw its body over her head, and, without lifting her shoulders from the bed, draw it down. Thenchange the bed-gown in the same manner. 

In changing the upper sheet, it should be pulled off from below, and theclean one carried down in its place from above, underneath the otherclothing, which can be readily accomplished by plaiting the lower half. In introducing a clean under-sheet, one side of it should be plaited andplaced under the patient, lying on her left side; when she turns on herback, the plaits can then be readily drawn out. These directions, thoughapparently trivial, are important. The object is to guard against thegreat danger to which the mother is exposed by sitting up in bed foreven a few minutes during the first week. 

_Cathartic medicine_ should not be administered the first, the third, orany other day after confinement, unless it is needed. If the patient isperfectly comfortable, has no pain in the abdomen, no headache, and iswell in every respect, she should be let alone, even if her bowels havenot been moved. If a laxative be called for, citrate of magnesia is muchpleasanter and equally as efficacious as the castor-oil so frequentlyadministered on this occasion. 

TO HAVE LABOR WITHOUT PAIN. 

Is it possible to avoid the throes of labor, and have children withoutsuffering? This is a question which science answers in the affirmative. Medical art brings the waters of Lethe to the bedside of woman in herhour of trial. Of late years chloroform and ether have been employed tolessen or annul the pains of childbirth, with the same success that hasattended their use in surgery. Their administration is never pushed soas to produce complete unconsciousness, unless some operation isnecessary, but merely so as to diminish sensibility and render the painsendurable. These agents are thus given without injury to the child, andwithout retarding the labor or exposing the mother to any danger. Whenproperly employed, they induce refreshing sleep, revive the droopingnervous system, and expedite the delivery. 

They should never be used in the absence of the doctor. He alone iscompetent to give them with safety. In natural, easy, and short labor, where the pains are readily borne, they are not required. But in thoselingering cases in which the suffering is extreme, and, above all, inthose instances where instruments have to be employed, ether andchloroform have a value beyond all price. 

MORTALITY OF CHILDBED. 

_The number of the pregnancy_ affects the danger to be expected fromlying-in. It has been declared by excellent authority, that themortality of first labors, and of childbed fever following first laborsis about twice the mortality attending all subsequent laborscollectively. After the ninth labor the mortality increases with thenumber. A woman having a large family, therefore, comes into greater andincreasing risk as she bears her ninth and successive children. 

_The age of the woman_ also affects the mortality accompanyingconfinement. The age of least mortality is near twenty-five years. Oneither side of this, mortality increases with the diminution or increaseof age. The age of the greatest safety in confinement thereforecorresponds to the age of greatest fecundity. And during the whole ofchild-bearing life, safety in labor is directly as fecundity, and _viceversâ_. Hence modern statistics prove the correctness of the saying ofAristotle, that 'to the female sex premature wedlock is peculiarlydangerous, since, in consequence of anticipating the demands of nature, many of them suffer greatly in childbirth, and many of them die. ' As theperiod from twenty to twenty-five is the least dangerous for childbirth, and as first labors are more hazardous than all others before the ninth, it is important that this term of least mortality be chosen for enteringupon the duties of matrimony. This we have already pointed out inspeaking of the age of nubility. 

_The sex of the child_ is another circumstance affecting the mortalityof labor. Professor Simpson of Edinburgh has shown that a greaterproportion of deaths occurs in women who have brought forth malechildren. 

_The duration of labor_ also influences the mortality of lying-in. Thefatality increases with the length of the labor. It must be recollected, however, that the duration of labor is only an inconsiderable part ofthe many causes of mortality in childbirth. 

WEIGHT AND LENGTH OF NEW-BORN CHILDREN

The average weight of infants of both sexes at the time of birth isabout seven pounds. The average of male children is seven and one-thirdpounds; of female, six and two-thirds pounds. Children which at fullterm weigh less than five pounds are not apt to thrive, and usually diein a short time. 

The average length at birth, without regard to sex, is about twentyinches, the male being about half an inch longer than the female. 

In regard to the relation between the size of the child and the age ofthe mother, the interesting conclusion has been arrived at, that theaverage weight and length of the mature child gradually increases withthe age of the mother up to the twenty-fifth year. Mothers between theages of twenty-five and twenty-nine have the largest children. From thethirtieth year they gradually diminish. The first child of a woman is ofcomparatively light weight. The first egg of a fowl is smaller thanthose which follow. 

The new-born children in our Western States seem to be larger than thestatistics show them to be in the various States of Europe, andapparently even than in our Eastern States. In the Report on Obstetricsof the Illinois State Medical Society for 1868, it is stated thatQuincy, Ill. , produced during the year six male children whose averageweight at birth was thirteen and a quarter pounds, the smallest weighingtwelve pounds, and the largest seventeen and a half, which was born atthe end of four hours' labor, without instrumental or otherinterference. A recent number of a Western medical journal reports thebirth at Detroit, in February last, of a well-formed male infanttwenty-four and a-half inches long, weighing sixteen pounds. The woman'sweight, _after labor_, is stated as only ninety-two pounds. An Englishphysician delivered a child by the forceps which weighed seventeenpounds twelve ounces, and measured twenty-four inches. These are thelargest well-authenticated new-born infants on record. 

DURATION OF LABOR. 

The length of a natural labor may be said to vary between two andeighteen hours. The intervals between the pains are such, however, thatthe actual duration of suffering, even in the longest labor, iscomparatively very short. The first confinement is much longer thansubsequent ones. 

The _sex_ of the child has some influence on the duration of labor. According to Dr. Collins of the Lying-in Hospital of Dublin, the averagewith _male_ births is one hour and four minutes longer than with_female_. The _weight_ of the child also affects the time of labor. Children weighing over eight pounds average four hours and eight minuteslonger in birth than those of less than eight pounds weight. 

STILL-BIRTHS. 

The statistics of nearly fifty thousand deliveries which occurred at theRoyal Maternity Charity, London, show a percentage of nearly fivestill-born, or one in twenty-seven. 

There are more boys still-born than girls. We have already spoken of thefact that male births are more tedious, and that a larger number ofmales die in the first few years of life than females. This series ofmisfortunes has been attributed to the large size which the male fœtusat birth possesses over the female. 

IMPRUDENCE AFTER CHILDBIRTH. 

After the birth of the child at full term, or at any other period ofpregnancy, the womb, which had attained such wonderful proportions in afew months, begins to resume its former size. This process requires atleast six weeks after labor for its full accomplishment. Rest isessential during this period. A too early return to the ordinary activeduties of life retards or checks this restoration to normal size, andthe womb being heavier, exposes the woman to great danger of uterinedisplacements. Nor are these the only risks incurred by a too hastyrenewal of active movements. The surface, the substance, and the liningmembrane of the womb are all very liable, while this change from itsincreased to its ordinary bulk is occurring, to take on inflammationafter slight exposure. The worst cases of uterine inflammation andulceration are thus caused. A 'bad getting-up, ' prolonged debility, pain, and excessive discharge, are among the least penalties consequentupon imprudence after confinement. It is a mistake to suppose thathard-working women in the lower walks of life attend with impunity totheir ordinary duties a few days after confinement. Those who suffermost from falling of the womb and other displacements are the poor, whoare obliged to get up on the ninth day and remain upright, standing orwalking for many hours with an over-weighted womb. Every physician whohas practised much among the poor, has remarked upon the great frequencyof diseases of the womb, which is to be attributed to the neglect ofrest, so common among them, after childbirth. If this be true ofvigorous women accustomed to a hardy life, how much more apt to sufferfrom this cause are the delicately nurtured, whose systems are already, perhaps, deteriorated, and little able to resist any deleteriousinfluences!

A mother should remain in bed for at least two weeks after the birth ofthe child, and should not return to her household duties under a month;she should also take great pains to protect herself from cold, so as toescape the rheumatic affections to which at this time she isparticularly subject. If these directions were generally observed, therewould be less employment for physicians with diseases peculiar towomen, and fewer invalids in our homes. 

TO PRESERVE THE FORM AFTER CHILDBIRTH. 

This is a matter of great anxiety with many women; and it is proper thatit should be, for a flabby, pendulous abdomen is not only destructive tograce of movement and harmony of outline, but is a positiveinconvenience. 

To avoid it, be careful not to leave the bed too early. If the walls ofthe abdomen are much relaxed, the bed should be kept from two to threeweeks. Gentle frictions daily with spirits and water will give tone tothe muscles. But the most important point is to wear for several monthsa _well-fitting_ bandage--not a towel pinned around the person, but abody-case of strong linen, cut bias, setting snugly to the form, but notexerting unpleasant pressure. The pattern for this has already beengiven. 

THE MOTHER. 

_MATERNAL DUTIES AND PRIVILEGES. _

It has been well said by Madame Sirey, that women who comprehend welltheir rights and duties as mothers of families, certainly cannotcomplain of their destiny. If there exists any inequality in the meansof pleasure accorded to the two sexes, it is in favor of the woman. Themother who lives in her children and her grandchildren has the peculiarprivilege of not knowing the grief of becoming old. 

'So low down in the scale of creation as we can go, ' says ProfessorLaycock of Edinburgh, 'wherever there is a discoverable distinction ofsex, we find that maternity is the first and most fundamental duty ofthe female. The male never in a single instance, in any organism, whether plant or animal, contributes nutrient material. '

Among the Romans, it was enacted that married women who had borne threechildren, or if freed-women, four, had special privileges of their ownin cases of inheritance, and were exempted from tutelage. Juvenal hasrecorded the reverence paid in Rome to the newly-made mother, and thesign by which her house was designated and protected from rudeintruders, namely, by the suspension of wreaths over the door. 

At various times, and in different countries, legislators have made lawsdiscriminating in favor of matrons, justly regarding the family as thesource of the wealth and prosperity of the State. 

Louis XIV. Granted, by the edict of 1666, certain pensions to parents often children, with an increase for those who had twelve or more. 

NURSING. 

So soon as the infant is born, it ought to be placed at the breast. Fromthis source it should receive its _only_ nourishment during the firstfour or six months, and in many cases the first year, of its life. Thechild which the mother has carried for nine months and brought withsuffering into the world, still depends upon her for its existence. Atthe moment of its birth her duties to the infant, instead of ceasing, augment in importance. The obligation is imposed upon her of nourishingit with _her own_ milk, unless there are present physical conditionsrendering nursing improper, of which we are about to speak. It is wellknown that the artificial feeding of infants is a prominent cause ofmortality in early life. The foundlings of large cities furnish the moststriking and convincing proof of the great advantages of nursing overthe use of artificially-prepared food. On the continent of Europe, inLyons and Parthenay, where foundlings are wet-nursed from the time theyare received, the deaths are 33. 7 and 35 per cent. In Paris, Rheims, andAix, where they are wholly dry-nursed, their deaths are 50. 3, 63. 9, and80 per cent. In New York city, the foundlings, numbering several hundreda year, were, until recently, dry-nursed, with the fearful and almostincredible mortality of nearly one hundred per cent. The employment ofwet-nurses has produced a much more favorable result. Therefore, if forany reason the mother cannot nurse her own child, a hired wet-nurseshould be procured. This brings us to the consideration of

HINDRANCES TO NURSING, AND WHEN IT IS IMPROPER. 

Women who have never suckled often experience difficulty in nursing, onaccount of the sunken and flat condition of the nipple. We have pointedout the causes of this depression, and how by early attention before thebirth of the infant it may be prevented. If, however, these precautionshave been neglected, and it is found that the nipple is not sufficientlyprominent to be grasped by the child's mouth, it may be drawn out by acommon breast-pump, by suction with a tobacco-pipe, by the use of thehot-water bottle in the manner described, or by the application of aninfant a little older. Neither the child nor the mother should beconstantly fretted in such cases by frequent ineffectual attempts atnursing. Such unremitting attention and continual efforts producenervousness and loss of sleep, and result in a diminution of thequantity of the milk. The child should not be put to the breast oftenerthan once in an hour and a half or two hours. By the use of theexpedients mentioned, the whole difficulty will be overcome in a fewdays. 

_Delay in applying the child to the breast_ is a common cause oftrouble. After it has been fed for several days with the spoon orbottle, it will often refuse to suck. When nursing is deferred, thenipple also becomes tender. For these reasons, as well as the othersdetailed in our directions for the care of the new-born infant, thechild should always, in say from two to three hours after labor, beplaced at the breast. 

_Ulcerated and fissured nipples_ should be treated by the doctor inattendance. As it is highly desirable, and nearly always possible, toavoid them, we would again call attention to the manner of doing so, indicated in a previous article. Fissured nipples sometimes do harm tothe infant, by causing it to swallow blood, disturbing in this way thedigestion. But all these local interferences with nursing can generallybe obviated in the course of a few weeks, and rarely entirely preventthe exercise of this maternal pleasure and duty. 

But there are certain _physical conditions which necessitate theemployment of a hired wet-nurse_, or weaning. If the mother belongs to aconsumptive family, and is herself pale, emaciated, harassed by a cough, and exhausted by suckling, wet-nursing is eminently improper. Atemporary loss of strength under other circumstances should not induce amother at once to wean her child; for it is often possible, by thejudicious use of tonics, nourishing food, and stimulants, to entirelyrestore the health with the child at the breast. It should always berecollected, however, that the milk of those in decidedly infirm healthis incapable of properly nourishing the child. Professor J. Lewis Smithof New York quotes, in his recent work on Diseases of Children, severalinstructive cases which show the danger sometimes attending suckling, and which may imperatively demand its discontinuance. 'A verylight-complexioned young mother, in very good health, and of a goodconstitution, though somewhat delicate, was nursing for the third time, and, as regarded the child, successfully. All at once this young womanexperienced a feeling of exhaustion. Her skin became constantly hot;there were cough, oppression, night-sweats; her strength visiblydeclined, and in less than a fortnight she presented the ordinarysymptoms of consumption. The nursing was immediately abandoned, and fromthe moment the secretion of milk had ceased, all the troublesdisappeared. ' Again: 'A woman of forty years of age having lost, oneafter another, several children, all of which she had put out to nurse, determined to nurse the last one herself. This woman being vigorous andwell built, was eager for the work, and, filled with devotion andspirit, she gave herself up to the nursing of her child with a sort offury. At nine months she still nursed him from fifteen to twenty times aday. Having become extremely emaciated, she fell all at once into astate of weakness, from which nothing could raise her, and two daysafter the poor woman died of exhaustion. '

It does not always follow, that because the mother is sick the childshould be taken from the breast. It is only necessary in thoseaffections in which there is great depression of the vital powers, orin which there is danger of communicating the disease to the child. Inthe city, where artificially-fed infants run great risks, extremecaution should be exercised in early weaning. 

_Inflammation of either of the breasts_ necessitates the removal of theinfant from the affected side, and its restriction to the other. As theinflammation gets well and the milk reappears, the first of it shouldalways be rejected, as it is apt to be thick and stringy, after whichnursing may be resumed. 

RULES FOR NURSING. 

The new-born child should be nursed about every second hour during theday, and not more than once or twice at night. Too much ardor may bedisplayed by the young mother in the performance of her duties. Notknowing the fact that an infant quite as frequently cries from beingoverfed as from want of nourishment, she is apt to give it the breast atevery cry, day and night. In this manner her health is broken down, andshe is compelled perhaps to wean her child, which, with more prudenceand knowledge, she might have continued to nurse without detriment toherself. It is particularly important that the child shall acquire thehabit of not requiring the breast more than once or twice at night. This, with a little perseverance, can readily be accomplished, so thatthe hours for rest at night, so much needed by the mother, may not beinterfered with. Indeed, if the mother does not enjoy good health, it isbetter for her not to nurse at all at night, but to have the child fedonce or twice with a little cow's milk. For this purpose, take theupper third of the milk which has stood for several hours and dilute itwith water, in the proportion of one part of milk to two of water. 

In those cases in which the milk of the mother habitually disagrees withthe infant, the attention of the doctor should at once be called to thecircumstance. A microscopic examination will reveal to the intelligentpractitioner the cause of the difficulty, and suggest the remedy. 

It may be well here to mention--as, judging from the practice of manynurses and mothers, it seems to be a fact not generally known orattended to--that human milk contains _all that is required_ for thegrowth and repair of the various parts of the child's body. It shouldtherefore be the sole food in early infancy. 

INFLUENCE OF DIET ON THE MOTHER'S MILK. 

Certain articles of food render the milk acid, and thus induce colickypains and bowel complaints in the child. Such, therefore, as are found, in each individual case, to produce indigestion and an acid stomach inthe mother, should be carefully avoided by her. 

_Retention of the milk in the breasts_ alters its character. The longerit is retained, the weaker and more watery it becomes. An acquaintancewith this fact is of practical importance to every mother; for itfollows from it, that the milk is richer the oftener it is removed fromthe breast. Therefore, if the digestion of the child is disordered bythe milk being too rich, as sometimes happens, the remedy is to give itthe breast less frequently by which not only is less taken, but thequality is also rendered poorer. On the contrary, in those instances inwhich the child is badly nourished and the milk is insufficient inquantity, it should be applied oftener, and the milk thus renderedricher. 

The milk which last flows is always the richest. Hence, when twochildren are nursed, the first is the worse served. 

INFLUENCE OF PREGNANCY ON THE MILK. 

Menstruation is ordinarily absent, and pregnancy therefore impossible, during the whole course of nursing, at least during the first ninemonths. Sometimes, however, mothers become unwell at the expiration ofthe sixth or seventh month; in rare instances, within the first five orsix weeks after confinement. When the monthly sickness makes itsappearance without any constitutional or local disturbance, it is notapt to interfere with the welfare of the infant. When, on the contrary, the discharge is profuse, and attended with much pain, it may producecolic, vomiting, and diarrhœa in the nursling. The disturbance in thesystem of the child ordinarily resulting from pregnancy in the mother issuch that, as a rule, it should be at once weaned so soon as it iscertain that pregnancy exists. The only exceptions to this rule arethose cases in the city, during the hot months, in which it isimpossible either to procure a wet-nurse or to take the child to thecountry to be weaned. In cold weather an infant should certainly beweaned, if it has attained its fifth or sixth month, and the mother hasbecome pregnant. 

INFLUENCE OF THE MOTHER'S MIND OVER THE NURSING CHILD. 

We have spoken, in treating of mothers' marks, of the influence of themother's mind upon her unborn offspring. The influence of the maternalmind does not cease with the birth of the child. The mother continuesduring the whole period of nursing powerfully to impress, through hermilk, the babe at her breast. It is well established, that mentalemotions are capable of changing the quantity and quality of the milk, and of thus rendering it hurtful, and even dangerous, to the infant. 

_The secretion of milk may be entirely stopped_ by the action of thenervous system. Fear, excited on account of the child which is sick orexposed to accident, will check the flow of milk, which will not returnuntil the little one is restored in safety to the mother's arms. Apprehension felt in regard to a drunken husband, has been known toarrest the supply of this fluid. On the other hand, the secretion isoften augmented, as every mother knows, by the _sight_ of the child, nay, even by the _thought_ of him, causing a sudden rush of blood to thebreast known to nurses as the _draught_. Indeed a strong desire tofurnish milk, together with the application of the child to the breast, has been effectual in bringing about its secretion in young girls, oldwomen, and even men. 

Sir Astley Cooper states that 'those passions which are generallysources of pleasure, and which when moderately indulged are conducive tohealth, will, when carried to excess, alter, and even entirely check thesecretion of milk. '

But the fact which it is most important to know is, that _nervousagitation may so alter the quality of the milk as to make it poisonous_. A fretful temper, fits of anger, grief, anxiety of mind, fear, andsudden terror, not only lessen the quantity of the milk, but render itthin and unhealthful, inducing disturbances of the child's bowels, diarrhœa, griping, and fever. Intense mental emotion may even so alterthe milk as to cause the death of the child. A physician states, in the_Lancet_, that, having removed a small tumour from behind the ear of amother, all went on well until she fell into a violent passion. Thechild being suckled soon afterwards, it died in convulsions. ProfessorCarpenter records in his Physiology two other fatal instances: in one, the infant put to the breast immediately after the receipt ofdistressing news by the mother, died in her arms in the presence of themessenger of the ill-tidings; in the other, the infant was seized withconvulsions on the right side and paralysis on the left, on suckingdirectly after the mother had met with an agitating occurrence. Anothercase of similar character may be mentioned. A woman while nursing becameviolently excited on account of a loss she had just met with from atheft. She gave her child the breast while in an intense passion. Thechild first refused, but ultimately took it, when severe vomitingoccurred. In the course of some hours the child took the other breast, was attacked at once with violent convulsions, and died in spite of allthat could be done for it. 

The following cases are related by Professor Carpenter as occurringwithin his own knowledge. They are valuable as a warning to nursingmothers to avoid all exciting or depressing passions. A mother ofseveral healthy children, of whom the youngest was a vigorous infant afew months old, heard of the death from convulsions of the infant childof an intimate friend at a distance, whose family had increased in thesame manner as her own. The unfortunate circumstance made a strongimpression on her mind, and being alone with her babe, separated fromthe rest of her family, she dwelt upon it more than she otherwise wouldhave done. With her mind thus occupied, one morning, shortly afternursing her infant, she laid it in its cradle, asleep and apparently inperfect health. Her attention was soon attracted to it by a noise. Ongoing to the cradle she found it in a convulsion, which lasted only afew moments, and left it dead. In the other case, the mother had lostseveral children in early infancy, from fits. One infant alone survivedthe usually fatal period. While nursing him, one morning she dweltstrongly upon the fear of losing him also, although he appeared to be avery healthy child. The infant was transferred to the arms of the nurse. While the nurse was endeavouring to cheer the mother by calling herattention to the thriving appearance of her child, he was seized with aconvulsion, and died almost instantly in her arms. Under similarcircumstances, a child should not be nursed by its mother, but by onewho has reared healthy children of her own and has a tranquil mind. 

An interesting illustration of the powerful sedative action of themother's milk--changed in consequence of great mental distress--upon theimpressible nervous system of the infant, is furnished by a Germanphysician. 'A carpenter fell into a quarrel with a soldier billeted inhis house, and was set upon by the latter with his drawn sword. The wifeof the carpenter at first trembled from fear and terror, and thensuddenly threw herself furiously between the combatants, wrested thesword from the soldier's hand, broke it in pieces, and threw it away. During the tumult, some neighbors came in and separated the men. Whilein this state of strong excitement, the mother took up her child fromthe cradle, where it lay playing and in the most perfect health, neverhaving had a moment's illness. She gave it the breast, and in so doingsealed its fate. In a few minutes the infant left off sucking, becamerestless, panted, and sank dead upon its mother's bosom. The physician, who was instantly called in, found the child lying in the cradle as ifasleep, and with its features undisturbed; but all his resources werefruitless. It was irrevocably gone. '

Professor William A. Hammond of New York mentions, in a recent number ofthe _Journal of Psychological Medicine_, several instances, from his ownpractice, of affections in the child caused by the mother's milk. 'Asoldier's wife, whilst nursing her child, was very much terrified by asudden thunderstorm, during which the house where she was then quarteredwas struck by lightning. The infant, which had always been in excellenthealth, was immediately attacked with vomiting and convulsions, fromwhich it recovered with difficulty. ' 'A lady, three weeks afterdelivery, was attacked with puerperal insanity. She nursed her child butonce after the accession of the disease, and in two hours subsequentlyit was affected with general convulsions, from which it died during thenight. Previous to this event it had been in robust health. '

Again, Dr. Seguin of New York relates, in his work on Idiocy, a numberof cases of _loss of mind_ produced by the altered state of the mother'smilk. 'Mrs. B. Came out from a ball-room, gave the breast to her baby, three months old: he was taken with spasms two hours after, and since isa confirmed idiot and epileptic. '

'In a moment of great anxiety Mrs. C. Jumped into a carriage with hersuckling, a girl of fifteen months, so far very intelligent andattractive. The child took the breast only once in a journey of twentymiles, but before arriving at destination she vomited several times, with no interruption but that of stupor, and after an acute fever thelittle girl settled down into the condition of a cripple and idiot. '

The celebrated physician Boerhaave mentions the milk of an angry nurseas among the causes of _epilepsy. _

These facts show the importance of a placid mind and cheerful temper inthe mother while nursing. 

POSITION OF THE MOTHER WHILE NURSING. 

The habit of nursing a child while sitting up in bed or half recliningupon a lounge is a wrong one. Such a position is injurious to thebreasts, hurtful to the woman's figure, and apt to cause backache. Whenin bed, the mother ought always to be recumbent while the child is atthe breast, held upon the arm of the side upon which she lies. When outof bed, she should sit upright while nursing. 

QUANTITY OF MILK REQUIRED BY THE INFANT. 

The amount of milk furnished every day by a healthy woman has beenestimated at from a quart to three pints. An infant one or two months ofage takes about two wine-glassfuls, or three ounces, every meal; thatis, as it sucks every two hours, excepting when asleep, about fivehalf-pints during the twenty-four hours. When it attains the age ofthree months, it thrives well on five meals a day, the quantity taken ateach meal then, the stomach being more capacious, amounting to abouthalf a pint. A child above three months of age ordinarily requires threepints daily. 

A healthy mother is fully capable of furnishing this quantity of milkper day, and of affording the child all the nourishment it needs untilfour or six months after birth. 

The quantity of the mother's milk varies according to manycircumstances. It is most abundant and also most nutritious in nursingwomen between the ages of fifteen and thirty; least so, in those fromthirty-five to forty. There is likewise a great difference in differentwomen in this respect; and in the same woman varying conditions ofhealth influence the amount of milk secreted. 

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD NURSING MOTHER

are well described by Professor J. Lewis Smith. 'The best wet-nurses areusually robust, without being corpulent. Their appetite is good, andtheir breasts are distended, from the number and large size of theblood-vessels and milk-ducts. There is but a moderate amount of fataround the gland, and tortuous veins are observed passing over it. Suchnurses do not experience a feeling of exhaustion, and do not suffer fromlactation. The nutriment which they consume is equally expended on theirown sustenance and the supply of milk. There are other good wet-nurseswho have the physical condition described, but whose breasts are small. Still the infant continues to suck till it is satisfied, and it thrives. The milk is of good quality, and it appears to be secreted mainly duringthe time of suckling. Other mothers evidently decline in health duringthe time of nursing. They furnish milk of good quality and in abundance, and their infants thrive; but it is at their own expense. Theythemselves say, and with truth, that what they eat goes to milk. Theybecome thinner and paler, are perhaps troubled with palpitation, and areeasily exhausted. They often find it necessary to wean before the end ofthe usual period of lactation. There is another class whose health ishabitually poor, but who furnish the usual quantity of milk without theexhaustion experienced by the class just described. The milk of thesewomen is of poor quality. It is abundant, but watery. Their infants arepallid having soft and flabby fibre. '

OVER-ABUNDANCE OF MILK. 

An excessive amount of milk often distends the breasts of those womenwho are prone to have long and profuse monthly sickness. It is also aptto occur in those subject to bleeding piles. It may be produced by anyexcitement of the womb or ovaries, and by over-nursing. In these casesthere is usually a constant oozing away and consequent loss of milk. Themother is troubled by this over-flow, because it keeps her clothing wet;and the child suffers because of the unnutritious, watery character ofthe milk under such circumstances. 

This over-abundant supply may be moderated and the quality improved bydiminishing the quantity of drink, and by the use of preparations ofiron. Fifteen drops of the muriatic tincture of iron, taken three timesa day in a little sweetened water, through a glass tube, will be useful. It will lessen the amount of the milk, and make it richer. So soon asthese objects are accomplished, the medicine should be discontinued; as, if taken too long, it may so much diminish the milk as to necessitateweaning. The application of a cloth, wrung out in cold water, around thenipples is also of value. It is to be removed so soon as it becomeswarm, and reapplied. In those cases in which the trouble seems to be notso much an over-supply as an inability to retain the milk, theadministration of tonics addressed to the nervous system, and the localuse of astringents and of collodion around the nipples, will overcomethe difficulty; but these remedies can only be employed successfully bythe physician. And to him alone should be entrusted the use of thosemedicines which directly diminish the amount of milk secreted within thebreasts. The expedients we have mentioned are the only ones which can besafely employed by the mother herself in this annoying affection. 

SCANTINESS OF MILK. 

Some mothers have habitually an insufficiency of milk. They are mostnumerous in large cities, and among working women whose dailyoccupations require a separation from the infant. Indigestion, and thewant of a proper amount of nourishing food, cause a diminution in thequantity of milk. So also do over-feeding and gormandizing. Age lessensthe secretion of milk, as has been already mentioned. Those who firstbear children late in life, have less milk for them than they who beginearlier. In some cases want of milk in the breasts seems to be due toits reabsorption. In such instances it may make its appearance atdistant parts. Thus, a case has been recorded of the coughing up of milkfollowing sudden arrest of the secretion, and others in which itpresented itself as an exudation in the groins. 

In the treatment of a scanty formation of milk, one of the best measureswhich can be resorted to is the frequent application of the child to thebreast. In addition, the flow may be increased by milking the breasts bymeans of the thumb and finger, suction through a tobacco-pipe, or thebreast-pump, or by the use of another infant. Friction of the breasts, and forcible drawing upon the nipples, will make them sore, and soirritate them as to defeat the object in view. A change of scene, freshair, and outdoor exercise, attention to personal cleanliness, and theimprovement of the general health, all increase the quantity, andproduce a favourable effect upon the quality, of the milk. A sojourn atthe sea-side often promotes an abundant secretion of milk. The dietshould be regulated by the condition of the constitution. By those whoare weak and pale, a large proportion of meat is required. On thecontrary, those who are full-blooded and corpulent should restrict theamount of their animal food, and take more exercise in the open air. Oatmeal gruel enjoys a reputation for increasing the flow of milk. Abasin of it sometimes produces an immediate effect. The same is true ofcow's milk. Porter or ale once or twice a day, in those with reducedsystems and impaired digestion and appetite, will be found useful. Anise, fennel, and caraway-seeds, given in soup, act sometimes asstimulants upon the secretion of milk. The application of a poulticemade from the pulverized leaves of the castor-oil plant is a mostefficient remedy when milk fails to make its appearance in the breast insufficient quantity after confinement. 

WET-NURSING BY VIRGINS, AGED WOMEN, AND MEN. 

As a rule, the secretion of milk is limited to one sex, and in that isconfined to a short period after childbirth. But there are many cases onrecord of the flowing of milk in women not recently mothers, in girlsbefore the age of puberty, in aged women, and even in individuals of themale sex. In such instances, the secretion is induced by the combinedinfluence, acting through the nervous system, of a strong desire for itsoccurrence, of a fixed attention towards the mammary glands, and ofsuction from the nipples. 

Travellers among savage nations report many examples of such unnaturalnursing. Dr. Livingstone says he has frequently seen in Africa agrandchild suckled by a grandmother. Dr. Wm. A. Gillespie, of Virginiarecords, in the _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, the case of awidow, aged about sixty, whose daughter having died, leaving a child twomonths old, took the child and tried to raise it by feeding. The child'sbowels became deranged, and being unable to procure a nurse, and herbreasts being large and full, he advised her to apply the child, in hopesmilk would come. She followed his advice perseveringly, and, to herastonishment, a plentiful secretion of milk was the result, with whichshe nourished the child, which afterwards became strong and healthy. Asimilar instance, still more remarkable, is recorded of a woman atseventy years, who twenty years wet-nursed a grandchild after her lastconfinement. 

Cases of nursing in the opposite extreme of life are also wellauthenticated. The distinguished French physician Baudelocque hasrelated that of a deaf and dumb girl, eight years old, who, by therepeated application to her breast of a young infant, which her motherwas suckling, had sufficient milk to nourish the child for a month, while the mother was unable to nurse it on account of sore nipples. Thelittle girl was shown to the Royal Academy of Surgery on the 16th ofFebruary, 1783. The quantity of milk was such, that by simply pressingthe breast it was made to flow out in the presence of the Academy, andon the same day, at the house of Baudelocque, before a large class ofpupils. Again, an interesting case is known of a young woman, who, inconsequence of the habit of applying the infant of her mistress to herbreast in order to quiet it, caused a free secretion of milk. In theCape de Verde Islands, it is stated that virgins, old women, and evenmen, are frequently employed as wet-nurses. Humboldt speaks of a man, thirty-two years old, who gave the breast to his child for five months. Captain Franklin saw a similar case in the Arctic regions. ProfessorHall presented to his class in Baltimore a negro, fifty-five years old, who had been the wet-nurse of all the children of his mistress. 

Instances of powers of _prolonged nursing_ in mothers are not uncommon. Indeed it is the habit among some nations to suckle children until theyare three or four years of age, even though another pregnancy mayintervene, so that immediately one child is succeeded at the breast byanother. In those who have thus unnaturally excited the mammary glands, an irrepressible flow sometimes continues after the demand for it hasceased. Dr. Green published, some years ago, in the _New York Journal ofMedicine and Surgery_, the case of a woman, aged forty-seven, themother of five children, who had had an abundant supply of milk for_twenty-seven years_ consecutively. A period of exactly four years and ahalf occurred between each birth, and the children were permitted totake the breast until they were running about at play. At the time whenDr. G. Wrote, she had been nine years a widow, and was obliged to haveher breasts drawn daily, the secretion of milk being so copious. When, therefore, it is desirable, on account of the feebleness of the child, to protract the period of nursing, a wet-nurse should relieve the motherat the end of twelve or fifteen months. 

RULES FOR CARE OF HEALTH WHILE NURSING. 

From what we have previously said of the influence of the nervous systemover the quantity and quality of the milk, and the instances we haveadduced of the danger to the infant of all violent passions--such asanger, terror, anxiety, and grief--on the part of the mother, it will beapparent that it is of the greatest moment, during the whole course ofnursing, to maintain a tranquil state of mind. Pleasing and peacefulemotions favor the normal secretion of milk, and go far towards securingthe health of the child. When strongly affected by any powerfulfeelings, mothers should not give the breast, but should wait until theyhave calmed down to their usual tenor of temper. A case is related of awoman who was always excited by a highly electrical state of theatmosphere, and particularly during stormy weather. If when thusinfluenced she nursed her child he was sure to fall into convulsions;while, if she delayed doing so until this nervous excitement had passed, no unpleasant symptoms occurred. But we have already dwelt at lengthupon this subject in speaking of the influence of the mind of the motherover the child at her breast, and need not therefore recur to it. The_food_ while nursing must be nutritious and varied, though simple andunstimulating; and should consist both of meat and vegetables, soups, fish, flesh, and fowl, either in combination or succession. When thedigestion requires stimulation and aid, a glass of mild ale twice a daywill be useful. Wines, brandy, and whisky should not be taken withoutthe advice of a physician. Moderate exercise in the open air and regularhabits are necessary. A defective or excessive diet, fatigue, loss ofrest at night, and irregularities and excesses of all kinds areunfavorable to mother and child. The proper methods of combating atendency to over-abundance or to scantiness of milk have been alludedto. Medicines, unless prescribed by the medical attendant, should rarelyor never be taken during this period, as many of them enter the milk andmay thus affect the child. 

RELATIONS OF HUSBAND AND WIFE DURING NURSING. 

After a natural and healthful confinement, the nurse usually remainswith the mother for a period of four weeks. During the whole of thistime the husband should occupy a separate apartment, and, according tosome physicians, this separation should be protracted during the entireperiod of nursing. But this is unusual, and in most cases unnecessary. Only those women who are warned by the recurrence of their monthlyillness that they are liable to another pregnancy immediately, shouldinsist on such an ascetic rule as this. 

Unquestionably the quality of the milk is much deteriorated by aconception; and therefore, both in the interest of the mother and child, the husband should renounce his usual privileges at such times. 

Most women do not have their periodical illness, and consequently arenot liable to a second pregnancy, before seven months have elapsed afterchildbirth. There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule, and itis impossible to foretell who will and who will not be the exception. 

Moreover, as any excitement of the passions alters to some extent thesecretion of the breasts, often to the injury of the child, it is everyway advisable that great temperance be exercised in all cases in themarital relations at these epochs. 

SIGNS OF OVER-NURSING. 

The symptoms of over-nursing may be enumerated as follows:--Aching painin the back; often, pain across the shoulders, and on the top of thehead or forehead; marked paleness of the face; inability to sleep;frightful dreams when sleep does come; great debility; extremedepression of the spirits; disorders of the sight, and mentaldisturbances, which take on the form of melancholia, the delusionsrelating mostly to subjects of a religious character, to the effect thatthe unpardonable sin has been committed, and the like. The headache issituated on the top of the head, and this spot may be noticed to beperceptibly hotter to the touch than other parts of the head. Thesesymptoms indicate that the process of nursing is making too great adrain upon the system. 

A woman in ordinary health will generally be able to suckle her childfor twelve months without experiencing any bad effects. When the childis kept at the breast much beyond this time, most mothers renderthemselves liable to the injurious consequences we have mentioned. Some, indeed, cannot furnish the child all the nourishment it needs longerthan three or four months, without detriment to themselves. In suchcases, by feeding the child two or three times a day, the mother may berelieved of the burden of its entire support, and may thus be enabled tocontinue nursing. The proper food for infants, under thesecircumstances, will be shortly mentioned. The prostrating effects ofnursing upon the body and mind of the mother are in some, thoughcomparatively rare, instances so marked, as to render it altogetherimproper from the commencement. 

The treatment of the condition of system described as resulting fromover-nursing is, if it cannot be remedied by partially feeding theinfant and the use of tonics, to remove the child from the breastaltogether, and either procure a wet-nurse for it, or wean it. Thewet-nurse is greatly to be preferred; and the preference is thestronger, the younger the child. We have already alluded to the greatdifficulty of rearing children from birth by the hand. But after theinfant has attained the age of several months, the danger of artificialfeeding is much lessened, provided that the weaning does not take placeduring hot weather. This brings us to the consideration of the regimenof the mother who cannot nurse her own child, of the rules for theselection of a wet-nurse, of the directions for bringing up by hand, andof the proper method of weaning. These subjects we will now take up inthe order mentioned. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MOTHERS WHO CANNOT NURSE THEIR OWN CHILDREN. 

There are many reasons why a mother should, if possible, nurse her ownchild. 'One of the principal is, ' says the distinguished Dr. Tilt, 'thatas nursing, generally speaking, prevents conception up to the tenthmonth, so it prevents the ruin of the mother's constitution by the toorapid bringing forth of children, and, we might even add, prevents adeterioration of the race, by the imperfect bringing up of thistoo-fast-got family. '

The same author appropriately adds: 'But while advocating maternalnursing, we must not forget that woman is not now the Eve of a primevalworld; that human nature, wherever it is now met, in barbarous tribes orin civilised communities, is frequently so deteriorated, so diseased orprone to disease, that, by nursing, a mother may sometimes undermine herown frail constitution for the sake of giving an imperfect sustenance, and perhaps a poisonous heritage, to her babe. '

Some mothers, however anxiously they may wish to do so, cannot nursetheir children. They are shut out from this charming and tenderexperience in the life of a woman. The milk that comes is notsufficient, and quickly disappears. Because of the influence of the mindof the mother over the child at her breast, to which we have beforecalled attention, women who are very hysterical and nervous, subject toviolent perturbations of the mind, should not, particularly if there beany family tendency to insanity, expose the child to the mischievouseffects latent in their milk. So, also, the presence of certain diseasesforbids wet-nursing. Thus it is ordinarily prohibited by consumption, scrofula, skin affections of long standing, and cancer. In consumption, all efforts to suckle are frequently equally fatal to the mother andchild. Even a strong hereditary predisposition to this disease mayrender it advisable, in the opinion of the family physician, --who shouldalways be consulted in such a case, --to counteract the family taint bygiving the milk of the healthiest nurse that can be procured. Thecondition of the nipples and of the breast may not permit of nursing. Wehave pointed out how best to guard against such an occurrence, intreating of the care of the nipples during pregnancy. 

She who is to be debarred from nursing her own child should take carethat it is not allowed to approach her breasts, as sometimes the mentaland physical excitement caused by such an approach is of an injuriousand lasting character. 

Ordinarily, if this direction be followed out, the mother will havelittle trouble in regard to herself. Under such circumstances, thechief danger is to the child. Hence the importance of knowing

HOW TO SELECT A WET-NURSE. 

The choosing of a wet-nurse is a matter of great moment andresponsibility. She should not be over thirty years of age, and should, if possible, be one who has previously suckled and had charge ofchildren. Her own infant should be under the age of six months, for whenabove that age the milk sometimes disagrees with her new-born charge. One who has had several children should be preferred, because her milkis richer than after the first confinement. 

The doctor should always examine carefully into the condition of thenurse's health, and into the quality and quantity of her milk. Variousdiseases and taints of the system are so hidden, while yet communicableto the child, that the knowledge and skill of a professional expert arerequired for their detection, and the protection of the nursling. Intesting the quality of the milk, the experienced physician allows alittle to rest on his finger nail, and by its examination readilydecides as to its richness and fitness to nourish the little applicantfor food. It is not necessary that the breasts should be large, as thoseof moderate size often furnish a sufficient amount of milk. But it isimportant that the nipples should be well developed. Those wet-nursesshould be preferred in whom large blood-vessels are seen prominentlypassing in blue lines over the surface of the breasts. The possession ofa vigorous, healthful infant is a good recommendation for a nurse, butcare should be taken to ascertain that it is her _own_, as nurses havebeen known to borrow for such an occasion and so obtain credit notjustly their due. 

The moral and mental as well as physical characteristics should beconsidered. Temperance and cleanliness are indispensable in a wet-nurse, and the want of either should be an imperative reason for rejection. Equanimity of temper, cheerfulness, and an open, frank, affectionatedisposition, are of course greatly to be desired. 

If the nurse becomes 'unwell, ' shall the child be taken from her? Shouldthe monthly sickness reappear early, and both nurse and child be in goodhealth, suckling may be continued. But when the return happens about theninth or tenth month, the child should be weaned or the nurse changed. There is no physiological reason for preventing the nurse from livingmatrimonially; but if pregnancy occurs, the child should be taken fromher. 

The same rules that we have laid down for the mother for the care of herhealth while nursing, are of course applicable to the hired wet-nurse, and should be insisted upon and enforced. 

_Changing a nurse. _--When it becomes necessary to change a nurse, forany of the reasons above mentioned, it may be done without injury to thechild. For fear of the effect of the unwelcome tidings upon the mind ofthe nurse, and the possible influence upon the milk, she should not beinformed of the projected change until a successor has been secured totake her place at once. In choosing the second nurse, the sameprecautions should be had as in the selection of the first. 

THE CHILD. 

_THE CARE OF INFANCY. _

By infancy we mean that portion of the life of the child between birthand the completion of the teething--about two and a half years. The careof this period of human life is entrusted to the mother. It forms animportant era in the physical life of woman. Its discussion is thereforegermane to our subject. In order that the young mother may fullyappreciate the responsibilities of her position, she should knowsomething of the liability of infants to sickness and death. 

Out of one thousand children born, one hundred and fifty die within thefirst year, and one hundred and thirteen during the next four years. Thus two hundred and sixty-three, or _more than one-fourth, die withinfive years after birth_. Between the ages of five and ten, thirty-fivedie. During the next five years eighteen more are recorded on thedeath-list. Hence, at fifteen years of age only six hundred andeighty-five remain out of the one thousand born. When these figures areconsidered, and the additional fact that out of those who survive verymany bear permanent marks of imperfect nourishment or of actual disease, the consequence of maladies contracted in early life, the importance ofour present inquiry--the care of infancy--will be apparent to allmothers. 

The younger the infant, the greater the danger of death. _One-tenth ofall children born die within the first month after birth_, and fourtimes as many as during the second month. 

The mortality is much larger in cities than in the country. In Dublin, during 1867, very nearly one-third of all the persons who died wereunder five years of age. In the same year forty-three per cent. Of thosewho died in the eight principal towns of Scotland were children belowthe age of five. In Philadelphia, during the same year, forty-five percent. Of all the deaths were of children under five years of age. In NewYork fifty-three per cent. Of the total number of deaths occur under theage of five years, and twenty-six per cent. Under the age of one year. 

The danger of death lessens as the period of puberty approaches. Yet, even in the last years of childhood there is a greater liability todisease and a larger proportionate loss of life than during youth ormiddle age. 

CAUSES OF INFANT MORTALITY. 

What are the causes of this startling mortality of infant life? Why doesone child out of ten die in the first month, and only three out of fourlive to be five years old? And what are the means of prevention?

Some of the causes which are active in producing this mortality amongthe little ones cannot be successfully opposed after birth. Such, forinstance, are imperfect and vicious developments of internal organsexisting when born. These malformations often result from inflammationwhile in the womb, excited by some taint of the mother's blood, or bysome agitation of her nervous system. Means of prevention in those casesare therefore to be directed to the mother, in the manner indicated intreating of pregnancy. But other causes of death begin to act only afterbirth, and are to a greater or less extent avoidable. These are largelytraceable to ignorance, negligence, and vice. 

One cause of death to which infants are peculiarly liable, and whichalone is said to have destroyed forty thousand children in Englandbetween the years 1686 and 1799, is being _overlain_ by the parents. Forthis reason, some physicians caution the mother against having theinfant in bed with her while she sleeps. 

The frightful waste of life caused by bringing children up by hand hasbeen mentioned, and the importance of avoiding it when possible. 

The natural feebleness of the system of infants is the reason why theysuccumb so easily to any malady. Deaths from any given disease are morenumerous among infants than children, and among children than adults. Hence the importance of timely corrective measures in infantileaffections; hence, also, the need that mothers should know and practisethe means best adapted to preserve the health of their frail charges. 

These means we shall proceed to give in detail, commencing withdirections for

BRINGING UP BY HAND. 

We have already alluded to the great danger to the child, particularlyin a city, that is artificially fed from birth. But as there are manymothers who are unable, on account of the expense, to have a wet-nursefor the child they cannot suckle themselves, we will give suchdirections in regard to the diet as are best calculated to lessen therisk invariably incurred under such circumstances. 

The child's food should be of the best quality, and prepared with themost scrupulous attention to cleanliness. The milk of the cow ispreferable to that of the ass or of the goat, the former of which it isdifficult to procure, and the latter having a disagreeable odour. For achild under three months of age, cow's milk should be used as the onlyfood. It should be fresh, and if possible from one cow. When of theordinary richness, it is to be diluted with an equal quantity of wateror thin barley-water. If, however, the first milking can be obtained, which is more watery, and bears a closer resemblance in its chemicalcomposition to human milk, but little dilution will be required. Ifgreen and acrid stools make their appearance, accompanied by emaciationand vomiting, the milk must be more diluted, and given less frequently. If the symptoms of indigestion do not yield, milk containing an excessof cream should be used. To procure it, allow fresh milk to stand fortwo or three hours, and remove the upper third, to which add two orthree parts of warm water or barley-water, after having dissolved in ita little sugar of milk. Should this food also disagree, any of thepreparations we are about to mention may be prepared and tried. 

Professor Falkland recommends the following method of preparing milk forinfants, as affording a product more nearly like the naturalsecretion:--'One third of a pint of pure milk is allowed to stand untilthe cream has risen. The latter is removed, and to the blue milk thusobtained about a square inch of rennet is to be added, and themilk-vessel placed in warm water. In about five minutes the curd willhave separated, and the rennet, which may again be repeatedly used, being removed, the whey is carefully poured off, and immediately heatedto boiling, to prevent it becoming sour. A further quantity of curdseparates, and must be removed by straining through calico. Inone-quarter of a pint of this hot whey three-eighths of an ounce of milksugar are to be dissolved; and this solution, along with the creamremoved from the one-third of a pint of milk, must be added to half apint of new milk. This will constitute the food for an infant from fiveto eight months old for twelve hours; or, more correctly speaking, itwill be one-half of the quantity required for twenty-four hours. It isabsolutely necessary that a fresh quantity should be prepared everytwelve hours; and it is scarcely necessary to add, that the strictestcleanliness in all the vessels used is indispensable. '

Dr. J. Forsyth Meigs directs the following article of diet as one whichhe has found to agree better with the digestive system of the infantthan any other kind of food:--'A scruple of gelatine (or a piece twoinches square of the flat cake in which it is sold) is soaked for ashort time in cold water, and then boiled in half a pint of water, untilit dissolves--about ten or fifteen minutes. To this is added, withconstant stirring, and just at the termination of the boiling, the milkand arrowroot, the latter being previously mixed into a paste with alittle cold water. After the addition of the milk and arrowroot, andjust before the removal from the fire, the cream is poured in, and amoderate quantity of loaf sugar added. The proportions of milk, cream, and arrowroot must depend on the age and digestive powers of the child. For a healthy infant, within the month, I usually direct from three tofour ounces of milk, half an ounce to an ounce of cream, and atea-spoonful of arrowroot to half a pint of water. For older children, the quantity of milk and cream should be gradually increased to a halfor two-thirds milk, and from one to two ounces of cream. I seldomincrease the quantity of gelatine or arrowroot. '

The egg is a valuable article of food for infants and young children, especially in conditions of debility. It should be given nearly raw, andis best prepared by placing it in boiling water for two minutes. It isthen easily digested. 

Beef-tea, prepared in the manner described on page 234, is highlynutritious and useful as a food for infants: if it produce a laxativeeffect, it should be discontinued. When the child shows signs ofweakness or of a scrofulous condition its nutrition will be improved bymingling with its food a small piece of butter or mutton suet. 

During the first four or five months the food should be thin, and takenthrough a teat, thus preventing the stuffing of the infant. 

On attaining the age of twelve or fifteen months, infants are usuallyable to digest ordinary wholesome solid food, neatly and well cooked, when mashed or cut into fine pieces. 

An article of food employed for the diarrhœa of infants is prepared asfollows:--'A pound of dry wheat flour of the best quality is packedsnugly in a bag and boiled three or four hours. When it is taken fromthe bag it is hard, resembling a piece of chalk, with the exception ofthe exterior, which is wet, and should be removed. The flour grated fromthe mass should be used the same as arrowroot or rice. '

Infants nourished by prepared food thrive well enough during coolweather, but during the warm months of the year they are exceedinglyliable to bowel complaint, of which large numbers of the spoon-fedinfants of cities die each summer season. Hence the importance of takingthem into the country; and keeping them there until the return of coolweather lessens the danger of city life. 

WEANING. 

This should take place when the child is about twelve months ofage--sometimes a few months earlier, often a few later. If the mother'shealth be good, and her milk abundant, it may be deferred until thecanine teeth appear--between the fifteenth and twentieth month. Thechild will then have sixteen teeth with which it can properly masticatesoft solid food. 

_Time of the year for. _--The infant should not be taken from the breastduring or immediately preceding warm weather. If the mother, either onaccount of sickness or failure in her breast-milk, is obliged during thesummer to give up nursing, she should at once procure a wet-nurse. Ifshe cannot, the child must be sent into the country. To wean an infantin the city in hot weather, is to expose it to almost certain death. 

_Proper method. _--The process of weaning should be a very slow one. Nodefinite day should be fixed for it. Little by little, from week toweek, the amount of spoon-food is to be increased and the nursinglessened--being first given up at night. The breast should never besuddenly denied to a child unaccustomed to artificial food, but bedisplaced by degrees, by the bottle and the spoon. This gradual changewill neither fret the child nor annoy the mother, as sudden weaningalways does. 

The infant may begin to be accustomed to artificial food at the age offour months. At first, only diluted cow's milk should be given itoccasionally between the times of nursing. In a tumbler one-third fullof water dissolve a tea-spoonful of sugar of milk; add to the sweetenedwater an equal quantity of fresh cow's milk; then, if the child's stoolsare at all green, mix with this two tea-spoonfuls of lime water. Insteadof pure water, barley-water made in the usual way, and boiled to theconsistency of milk, may be employed in this preparation--being added, while still warm, to an equal amount of milk. Or, toast-water may besubstituted as a diluter of the milk. Cow's milk should not be boiled, if it can be preserved in any other way. As the infant advances inmonths, some solid food may be allowed. After six months, pap, made withstale bread and tops and bottoms, is proper once or twice a day. Beef-tea, made according to the recipe we have given, and chicken, lamb, or mutton broth, may now also be occasionally taken. As the quantity ofmilk diminishes towards the close of the first year, the spoon-foodshould be resorted to more frequently to supply the want. Solid foodought not to be given before the child is a year old. 

The breasts usually cause little trouble when the weaning is performedin the gradual manner which has been recommended. The mother shouldduring this time drink as little as possible, refrain from stimulatingfood, and take occasionally a little cream of tartar, citrate ofmagnesia, or a seidlitz powder. If the breasts continue to fill withmilk, _they should not be drawn_. The 'drying up of the milk' may befacilitated by gently rubbing the breasts several times a day withcamphorated oil, made by dissolving over the fire, in a saucer of sweetoil, as much camphor as it will take up. Tea made from the marshmallowhas also been recommended for this purpose. 

TEETHING. 

The period at which the teeth first make their appearance is not a fixedone. It varies considerably even within the limits of perfect health. It may be said, as a rule, that the babe begins to cut its teeth at theage of six or seven months. Quite frequently, however, the first teethappear as early as the fourth month, or are delayed until the eighth. Insome instances children come into the world with their teeth alreadycut. This is said to have been the case with Louis XIV. And withMirabeau. King Richard the Third is another example. Shakspeare makesthe Duke of York refer to this circumstance in these words:

 'Marry, they say my uncle grew so fast, That he could gnaw a crust at two hours old: 'Twas two full years ere I could get a tooth. '

It does not follow that children whose teeth show themselves early, willhave, therefore, a quicker general development. Such cases are merelyinstances of irregularity in the time of dentition, and carry with themno particular significance. Irregularities in regard to the order inwhich the teeth are cut are also of frequent occurrence. 

While, therefore, it cannot be maintained that all healthy children cuttheir teeth in a certain regular order and time, yet it is certain thatthose children who follow the general rule which prevails in thisrespect, suffer least from the difficulties and effects of dentition. Asall mothers desire to know at what time they may expect the teeth, wewill state the rule of their development in the great majority of cases. 

The lower teeth generally precede those of the upper jaw by two to threemonths. 

The twenty milk-teeth usually appear in the five following groups:--

_First_, Between the fourth and eighth months of life the two lowerfront middle teeth appear almost simultaneously; then a pause of fromthree to nine weeks ensues. 

_Second_, Between the eighth and tenth months of life the five upperfront teeth appear, following shortly upon each other, the two centralpreceding the two on each side of them. Another pause of from six totwelve weeks succeeds. 

_Third_, Between the twelfth and sixteenth months of life six teethappear nearly at once. They are first the two front grinding teeth inthe upper jaw, leaving a space between them and the front teeth whichbefore appeared; next the two lower front teeth, situated one on eachside of the central ones, which were the first to appear; and, lastly, the two front grinders of the lower jaw. A pause until the eighteenthmonth now ensues. 

_Fourth_, Between the eighteenth and twenty-fourth months of life thecanine teeth cut through (the upper ones are called eye-teeth). Again apause until the thirtieth month. 

_Fifth_, Between the thirtieth and thirty-sixth months the second fourgrinders finally make their appearance. 

This concludes the first teething. The child has now twenty milk-teeth. 

We have mentioned that children are sometimes born with teeth. It isalso true that sometimes they never acquire any. Instances are on recordof adults who have never cut any teeth. Dentition has been known totake place very late in life. A case is related, on excellent authority, of an old lady aged eighty-five, who cut several teeth after attainingthat age. 

APPEARANCE OF THE PERMANENT TEETH. 

Between the fifth and sixth years of life the second dentition begins. The front grinders are the ones first cut through. Between the sixth andtenth years all the front teeth appear, followed by the canines beforethe twelfth year. At this time the second grinders show themselves; andfinally, between the sixteenth and twenty-fourth year, the wisdom-teethcomplete the dental furniture of the mouth. 

VACCINATION. 

This operation, to which every infant should be subjected, is one ofgreat practical importance. The attempt has been made of late to shakethe public faith in its efficacy, and to revive the old fabulous storiesand foolish notions as to the production of serious affections of theblood and skin in this manner. At the same time, the increasingfrequency and virulence of small-pox are becoming only too evident. Wetherefore consider it our duty, in treating of the maternal managementof infancy, to lay some stress upon the necessity for vaccination as apreservative of life and health. If observation and experience evertaught anything, they have taught the protective power of this operationagainst the most loathsome and one of the most fatal diseases that everafflicted the human race. And that mother who is careless andindifferent in this matter neglects for her children a means ofpreventing disfigurement and saving life, compared with which all othermeans are scarcely worthy of mention. 

In order to appreciate the value of vaccination, it is only necessary toconsider what small-pox was before its discovery, --to look at thatdisease through the eyes of our fathers and grandfathers. Until theclose of the last century it was the most terrible of all the ministersof death. It filled the churchyards with corpses. When Jenner publishedhis great discovery, about seventy years ago, the annual death-rate fromsmall-pox in England was estimated at three thousand in the million ofpopulation. In other countries of Europe the rate reached as high asfour thousand in the million. And these fatal cases must be multipliedby five or six, to give the entire number of persons annually attackedby the disease. It spared neither high nor low. Macaulay informs us thatQueen Mary, the wife of William III. , fell a victim to it. Those in whomthe disease did not prove fatal, carried about with them the hideoustraces of its malignity; for it 'turned the babe into a changeling atwhich the mother shuddered, ' and made 'the eyes and cheeks of thebetrothed maiden objects of horror to the lover. ' Few escaped beingattacked by this fell disease. Nearly one-tenth of all the persons whodied in London during the last century died of this one cause. Childrenwere peculiarly its victims. In some of the great cities of England morethan one-third of all the deaths among children under ten years of agearose from small-pox. Two-thirds of all the applicants for relief atthe Hospital for the Indigent Blind had lost their sight by small-pox. The number of hopeless deafened ears, crippled joints, and broken-downconstitutions from the same cause cannot be accurately computed, but wascertainly very large. Vaccination is all that now stands between us andall these horrors of the last century. 

Is the strength of this barrier doubted?--Its efficacy is readilyproved. In England, during the twelve years (1854-1865) in whichvaccination has been to a certain extent compulsory, the average annualrate of deaths by small-pox has been two hundred and two in the millionof population. Contrast this with the annual death-rate of threethousand to the million, which was the average of thirty years previousto the introduction of vaccination. Mr. John Simon, medical officer ofHer Majesty's Privy Council, one of the best statisticians in England, has collected a formidable array of figures, 'to doubt which would be tofly in the face of the multiplication-table. ' From his mountain-heightof statistics Mr. Simon says: 'Wheresoever vaccination falls intoneglect, small-pox tends to become again the same frightful pestilenceit was in the days before Jenner's discovery; and wherever it isuniversally and properly performed, small-pox tends to be of as littleeffect as any extinct epidemic of the Middle Ages. '

Are other diseases ever produced by vaccination?--The popular beliefwould answer this question in the affirmative. All affections of theskin and swelling's of the glands noticed in children soon aftervaccination, are attributed by parents in many cases to this operation. They forget that such diseases are met with constantly in infancy andchildhood, as often among the unvaccinated as the vaccinated. Observation does not show that they occur with greater frequency amongthe vaccinated. An English physician has been at the trouble to examineand record a thousand cases of skin disease in children: he found noevidence whatever that vaccination disposes the constitution to suchaffections. It has been stated with apparent justness, that parentalcomplaints of this kind frequently arise from their unwillingness tobelieve there is anything wrong in their offspring. Hence, when otherdiseases follow, vaccination gets blamed for what is really and trulydue to other causes. So far from doing any harm to the system, it hasbeen observed in those countries where vaccination has been mostthoroughly practised, that, leaving small-pox out of the question, therehave been fewer deaths from other maladies. This is especially true oftwo of the most important classes of diseases, namely, scrofulousaffections and low fever. For this reason, some medical statisticianshave attributed to vaccination an indirect protective influence againstthese disorders. 

At what _age_ should the child be vaccinated?--If the health permit, theoperation should always be performed in very early infancy. The chiefsufferers from small-pox are young children. One-fourth of all who diefrom this fatal disease in England are children under the age of oneyear. In Scotland, where until recently vaccination has been much moreneglected than in England, the proportion even amounted to nearlyone-third; and of these, one-fourth were under the age of three months. The great risk, particularly in large towns, where small-pox is seldomabsent, of delaying vaccination is obvious. City children, if hearty, should be vaccinated when a month or six weeks old. Rarely or neverought it to be delayed beyond two or three months. This early period oflife is also particularly suitable to vaccination, because theaccompanying fever will then be over before the disturbing influence ofteething begins. 

RE-VACCINATION. 

If the first vaccination be found imperfect in character, that is, if ithas not properly 'taken, ' the operation should be repeated at theearliest opportunity. It has been recommended, in all cases, to performa second vaccination not later than the sixth or eighth year. Ifsmall-pox be prevailing, it is proper to vaccinate all who have not beenvaccinated within three or four years. In any event, re-vaccination ator after the period of puberty is of extreme importance. It will giveadditional security even to those whose original vaccination wasperfect. In some cases, the susceptibility to small-pox is not whollyexhausted by one vaccination. Inasmuch as it is desirable for every oneto escape this disease, even in its most modified form, re-vaccinationshould always be performed, as it affords a very sure and trustworthymeans of such escape. After successful re-vaccination, small-pox, evenin its mildest shape, is rarely met with. In girls especially, in whomthe changes which occur at puberty are most marked, re-vaccinationshould be performed about the age of fourteen. 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. 

During infancy the body grows with great rapidity. About the end of thethird year one-half of the adult height of the body is attained. Afterthis period growth is more gradual; for in order to reach the remaininghalf, about eighteen years more are required. At twenty years of age theheight is somewhat more than three and a half times that at birth, andthe weight about twenty times. Development does not go on at an equalrate in all parts of the body. The lower limbs, small at birth, increaseproportionally more rapidly, while the head, relatively large at birth, developes more slowly. The muscular system is gradually strengthened. Atthe end of the third month the infant is able, if in good health, readily to support its head; at the fourth month it can be held upright;at the ninth month it crawls about the floor; by the end of the year itis able with assistance to step; and between one and two years, atdifferent times, according to its vigor and activity, it acquires thepower of standing and walking alone. The periods of greatest and leastgrowth of the child are, on the one hand, spring and summer; on theother, autumn and winter. It has long been known that animals grow morerapidly in the spring than at any other season of the year. This hasbeen attributed to the abundance of herbage they are then able toobtain. It has been ascertained by actual measurement, that childrengrow chiefly in the spring. 

At six months of age the child begins to lisp, and at twelve months itis usually able to utter distinct and intelligible sounds of one or twosyllables. The development of the senses and of the mind proceedsgradually. The sense of hearing is more active and further advanced thanthat of sight. Sounds are appreciated sooner than light or brightcolored objects. The next sense which is developed is perhaps that oftaste; then follow smell and touch. 

THE FOOD OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN. 

The diet of children is frequently improper either in regard toquantity, quality, or variety. In 1867, a committee, of which ProfessorAustin Flint, Jr. , was chairman, was appointed in New York city torevise the 'Dietary Table of the Children's Nurseries on Randall'sIsland. ' In the report rendered, attention was forcibly called to thefact that in childhood 'the demands of the system for nourishment are inexcess of the waste, the extra quantity being required for growth anddevelopment. If the proper quantity and variety of food be not provided, full development cannot take place, and the children grow up, if theysurvive, into young men and women, incapable of the ordinary amount oflabor, and liable to diseases of various kinds. This is frequentlyillustrated in the higher walks of life, particularly in females; formany suffer through life from improper diet in boarding schools, due tofalse and artificial notions of delicacy or refinement. After a certainperiod of improper and deficient diet in children, the appetite becomespermanently impaired, and the system is rendered incapable ofappropriating the amount of matter necessary to proper development andgrowth. '

Charlotte Bronté has drawn, in _Jane Eyre_, a graphic andphysiologically true picture of the effects upon young girls oflong-continued insufficiency of food. Let mothers bear in mind thatproper food cannot be too abundantly eaten by children, and that thegreatest danger to which they are exposed arises from defectivenutrition. We would again urge the value of a large amount of _milk_ inthe dietary of young people. The disorders of the bowels, which are notuncommon in infancy and childhood, are due to errors in diet by whichimproper food is supplied, and not to an excess of simple and propernourishment. 

We have already given some directions for the preparation of infants'food in treating of 'bringing-up by hand. ' In addition to the varioussubstitutes for the mother's milk there mentioned, we wish to note thatknown as _Liebig's soup_. This great chemist thus describes the methodof making it:

'Half an ounce of wheat flour, half an ounce of malt meal, and seven anda half grains of bicarbonate of potass, are weighed off. They are firstmixed by themselves, then with the addition of one ounce of water, andlastly, of five ounces of milk. This mixture is then heated upon a slowfire, being constantly stirred until it begins to get thick. At thisperiod the vessel is removed from the fire, and the mixture is stirredfor five minutes, is again heated and again removed when it gets thick, and, lastly, it is heated till it boils. This soup is purified from branby passing it through a fine sieve (a piece of fine muslin), and now itis ready for use. '

Barley-malt can be obtained at any brewery. First, it is separated fromthe impurities, and then ground in an ordinary coffee-mill to a coarsemeal. Care should be taken to get the common fresh wheat-flour, _not thefinest_, because the former is richest in starch. 

In practice, the troublesome weighing of the materials may be dispensedwith, as a heaped table-spoonful of wheat-flour weighs pretty nearlyhalf an ounce, and a like table-spoonful of malt-meal, not quite asheaped, weighs also half an ounce. The bicarbonate of potass can beobtained from the druggist put up in powders of seven and a half grains, each ready for use. The amount of water and of milk prescribed can beattained with sufficient accuracy by means of the table-spoon; twotable-spoonfuls will give the quantity of water (one ounce), and tentable-spoonfuls the quantity of milk (five ounces). These directionswill enable any sensible mother to make the preparation withoutdifficulty. The soup tastes tolerably sweet, and, when diluted withwater, may be given to very young infants. 

Although the method of preparing Liebig's soup is a somewhat tediousone, yet, as it is a combination which has long been so highlyrecommended by physicians of the largest experience for having visiblysaved the lives of many wasting children, it deserves a trial in allcases in which the ordinary kinds of food disagree. 

On page 276 are recorded the directions given by Dr. J. Forsyth Meigsfor an article of diet, consisting of gelatine and arrowroot, which heprefers to all other kinds of artificial infant food. Another method ofpreparing a useful arrowroot mixture is as follows:--

Place a tea-spoonful of arrowroot in a porcelain vessel, with as muchcold water as will make it into a fine dough; then add a cupful ofboiling milk or of beef-tea; stir the mixture a little, and allow it toboil for a few minutes until the whole acquires the consistency of afine light jelly. 

The _manner_ in which nutriment is administered to infants is notimmaterial. The custom of feeding them from a small spoon, or from a cupwith a snout, is objectionable. The use of a sucking-bottle most nearlyimitates the way in which nature designed the nursling to obtain itsnourishment. By the act of sucking, the muscles of the face areexercised in an equal manner, and the saliva is mixed with the food toan extent which is not possible if any other mode of feeding be resortedto. Children drink very readily out of the perforated rubber nipples, which are now so popular for this purpose: they are made to fit over themouth of the bottle, and are especially to be recommended on account oftheir cleanliness. The bottle should never be refilled until both it andthe rubber cap have been thoroughly cleansed in warm water. A whiteglass bottle only should be employed in order that any want ofcleanliness may readily be detected. It should be recollected that milkvery quickly sours when kept in this way in a warm room; it is thereforebetter always to empty the bottle and fill it afresh each time it isgiven to the child, rather than to wait until its contents are exhaustedbefore replenishing it. 

We have hitherto been treating mainly of the diet proper for the firstyear of life. In the second year children may be permitted to have soft, finely-cut meat. Fresh ripe fruit in season ordinarily agreesexcellently well. But boiled green vegetables and husk fruits are veryapt to cause indigestion and diarrhœa. Fruit for children should befreed from the stones and skins; which latter are indigestible, andoften do harm. 

As an example of a diet suitable for a child two years of age we appendthe following:--In the mornings, between six and seven o'clock insummer, or between seven and eight in winter, milk-gruel; between nineand ten o'clock, a piece of wheat bread with a little butter on it; attwelve o'clock, well-prepared beef-tea, or chicken, lamb, mutton broth, or meat with a little gravy; or in place of the meat, a meal-brothprepared with eggs, but with very little fat; green vegetables to beallowed very rarely, and in very small quantities. At this noon meal amealy well-mashed potato is unobjectionable; so also is rice pudding fora change. In the afternoon, between three and four, bread and milk, withthe addition in summer of fresh ripe fruit; in the evening, at seven, bread and milk. 

It will be observed that this dietetic table calls for five meals a day. Should the child eat so frequently? We answer yes. But the meals shouldbe at regular intervals. A child, in order to replace the waste of thesystem, and to furnish over and above sufficient material to build upthe growing body, requires a much larger proportionate amount of foodthan an adult. It also requires its food at shorter intervals. Byobserving the hours for meals stated above, _regularity_, which is of somuch importance to the health of the digestive organs, will be secured. If a young child be allowed only the three ordinary meals of the family, it will crave for something between times, and too often have itscraving met with a piece of cake or other improper food. Its appetitefor dinner or supper will in this manner be destroyed, and the stomachand the general health suffer. 

After the third or fourth year children are able to eat all kinds ofvegetables. They may then very appropriately be allowed to eat at thetable with the family. It is only necessary to refuse them very salt, sour, and highly-spiced victuals. Of all others they may partake inmoderation. Neither wine nor any malt liquor should be given them. Teaand coffee are also, to say the least, unnecessary. They should have aregular luncheon between the meals which are furthest apart. This mustbe at a regular hour, and consist of bread and butter, with milk orwater. 

Pains should be taken to see that children do not fall into the habitof eating rapidly. Too often this pernicious habit, so destructive tohealthy digestion, is formed in early life, and becomes the source ofthat dyspepsia which is the bane of so many lives. Food that is gulpeddown enters the stomach unmasticated, and unmixed with the secretions ofthe mouth. A dog may bolt his food without injury, but a human beingcannot. 

A child should be taught to eat everything that is wholesome, and not bepermitted to become finical or fastidious in its appetite. It ought not, however, to be forced to eat any particular article for which it isfound that there is an invincible dislike. Variety of diet is good for achild, after the second or third year. 

THE POSITION OF THE CHILD WHEN FED. 

An infant, no matter how young, should not receive its meals when lying. Its head should always be raised in the nurse's arm, if it be too youngto support it itself. The practice of _jolting_ and _dandling_ theinfant after eating is a wrong one. Rest of the body should be securedby placing the child on a bed, or holding it on the mother's knee, for ahalf hour or so. Observe the inclination which all animals show forrepose and sleep after a full repast, and respect the same inclinationin the infant. 

In our remarks upon bathing we pointed out the importance of the motherherself performing for her child this office. So again, in connectionwith children's food, we must notice the necessity of the mother beingalways present at their meals, in order that they may be taught to takethem quietly, with cleanliness and without hurry. Such advice is notneeded by the poor nor by women of moderate fortune, who ordinarily havetheir children constantly under their eyes. But affluence brings with itmany occupations which are frequently deemed of more moment thanpresiding over a child's dinner. 

CONCERNING SLEEP IN EARLY LIFE. 

There is a natural desire for much sleep during infancy, childhood, andyouth; and there is reason for its free indulgence. Infants pass thegreater portion of both day and night in sleep. Children up to the ageof six years require, as a rule, twelve hours of repose at night, besides an hour or more in the middle of the day. About the sixth yearthe noon nap may be discontinued, but the night sleep ought not to beabridged before the tenth year, and then only to a moderate extent untilthe age of puberty. From this time the period of slumber may begradually reduced to nine or ten hours. No further diminution should beattempted until the completion of growth, when another hour or two maybe taken away, leaving about eight hours of daily sleep as the properamount during middle life. 

It is wrong, therefore, to wake a young child in the morning. It shouldbe allowed to sleep as long as it will, which will be until the wants ofthe system are satisfied, if it be not aroused by noise or light. 

When after a few months the infant is awake a considerable portion ofthe day, it should be brought into the habit of taking its second sleepnear the middle of the day, say from eleven to one o'clock, and again, from half an hour to an hour, about three o'clock. It should not bepermitted a nap later than this in the afternoon, as it would be veryapt to cause a disturbed night. Although some physicians recommend thatthe sleep during the day be discontinued after the infant has attainedthe age of fifteen months, the wisdom of such advice may well bedoubted. As soon as the child begins to walk, not only are its movementsvery constant and active, but its mind is busily employed and itsnervous system excited. It therefore thrives better if its day bedivided into two by sleep for an hour or two. 

_Should the infant sleep alone?_--We have mentioned the danger of beingoverlain to which it is exposed when in bed with its mother or nurse. Onthe other hand, it must be remembered that an infant keeps warm withdifficulty even when well covered, and that contact with the mother'sbody is the best way of securing its own warmth. Hence, during the firstmonths the child had better be allowed to sleep with its mother. How, then, can the risk of being suffocated, which is no imaginary one, belessened? The following rules are those given by a physician ofreputation, to prevent an infant from being accidentally overlain. 

'Let the baby while asleep have plenty of room in the bed. Do not allowhim to be too near, or, if this be unavoidable from the small size ofthe bed, let his face be turned to the opposite side. Let him liefairly, either on his side or on his back. Be careful to ascertain thathis mouth be not covered with the bed-clothes. Do not smother his facewith clothes, as a plentiful supply of pure air is as necessary as whenhe is awake. Never let him lie low in the bed. Let there be no pillownear the one his head is resting on, lest he roll to it and bury hishead in it. Remember a young child has neither the strength nor thesense to get out of danger; and if he unfortunately either turn on hisface or bury his head in a pillow that is near, the chances are that hewill be suffocated, more especially as these accidents usually occur atnight, when the mother or the nurse is fast asleep. Never entrust him atnight to a young, giddy, and thoughtless servant. A foolish mothersometimes goes to sleep while allowing her child to continue sucking. The unconscious babe, after a time, loses the nipple, and buries hishead in the bed-clothes. She awakes in the morning, finding, to herhorror, a corpse by her side! A mother ought therefore never to go tosleep until her child has ceased sucking. '

When a couple of months have elapsed, the child, if a healthy one, maysleep alone. What the child sleeps in is not a matter of great moment, provided it has a sufficiency of clothing, and be not exposed tocurrents of air. A large clothes-basket will serve all the purposes of acrib. The mistake is often made of burying the child under too heavy amass of bed-clothes in a warm room when asleep. And this inconsistencyis committed by the very mothers who scantily clad the child during theday in order to inure it to the cold. The great transition from itswrappings by night to those by day is injurious to the health andcomfort of the infant. 

'In arranging night coverings, the soft feather-bed is very oftenestimated as nothing; or, in other words, the same provision of blanketsis considered indispensable, whether we lie upon a hard mattress orimmersed in down. The mother, looking only to the covering laid over thechild, forgets those on which it lies, although in reality the lattermay be the warmer of the two. An infant deposited in a downy bed has atleast two-thirds of its body in contact with the feathers, and may thusbe perspiring at every pore, when, from its having only a singlecovering thrown over it, the mother may imagine it to be enjoying therestorative influence of agreeable slumber. In hot weather much mischiefmight be done by an oversight of this kind. '

It is of course essential to the health and comfort of the infant thatits bed and bed-clothing be kept perfectly dry and sweet. They shouldfrequently be taken out and exposed to the air. 

A child should be accustomed early to sleep in a darkened room. Plutarchpraises the women of Sparta for, among other things, teaching theirchildren not to be afraid in the dark. He says they 'were so careful andexpert, that without swaddling-bands their children were all straightand well proportioned; and they brought them up not to be afraid in thedark or of being alone, and never indulged them in crying, fretfulness, and ill-humour; upon which account Spartan nurses were often bought bypeople of other countries. '

_Position in sleeping. _--It has long been a popular opinion that theposition of our bodies at night, with reference to the cardinal pointsof the compass, has some influence on the health. This belief hasrecently been corroborated by some observations made by a prominentphysician, Dr. Henry Kennedy. In an essay on the 'Acute Affections ofChildren, ' published in the Dublin _Quarterly Journal of MedicalScience_, he states that for several years he has put in force in hispractice a plan of treatment by means of the position of the patient, and often with very marked results. He asserts that, in order to ensurethe soundest sleep, the head should lie to the north. Strange as thisidea may at first sight appear, it has more in it than might besupposed. There are known to be great electrical currents alwayscoursing in one direction around the globe. In the opinion of Dr. Kennedy there is no doubt that our nervous systems are in somemysterious way connected with this universal agent, as it may be called, electricity. He relates several cases of acute diseases in children, inwhich, by altering the position of the body so that the patient shouldlie from north to south instead of from east to west, quiet sleep wasinduced. This plan of invoking sleep is often successful; but not alwaysso, for all are not equally susceptible. It applies likewise to adults. It is not so striking in its effects on the poorer as on the richerclasses of society. This is what might be expected, for it cannot bedoubted that the nervous system in the middle and upper ranks is alwaysin a much more sensitive state than with their poorer brethren. It isworth noting, that even in healthy persons sleep will often be absent orof a broken kind, from the cause of which we are now speaking. It isvery common to hear people saying they can never sleep in a strange bed. Although many causes may conspire to this, Dr. Kennedy cannot doubt thatamongst these ought to be placed the one to which we are now drawingattention. 

THE CLOTHING OF INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN. 

A fertile cause of disease and death is to be found in the negligence orignorance displayed in regard to the dress of children. And it is notthe poorly attired, but nearly always the fashionably robed child, whichsuffers the most. To parental vanity can be traced many a catarrh on thechest or the inflammation of the bowels which has resulted in death. Most mothers appear to be ignorant of the fact that children areexceedingly susceptible to the influence of cold. The returns of theRegistrar-General of England show that a very cold week always greatlyincreases the mortality of the very young. While adults carefullyprotect themselves against every change of the weather, and againstcurrents of air, children, who most need such protection, are too oftenneglected. 

The warmth of the infant's body is best secured by that of the nurse, and by warm clothing. It is more effectually and healthfully providedfor in this manner than by confining the child to a warm atmosphere. Young children should never be dressed _décolleté_--in low necks andshort sleeves. That fashion is a dangerous one which leaves the neck, shoulders, and arms uncovered. To this irrational custom may be traced avast amount of the suffering and many of the deaths of early life;doubtless, also, in many cases it lays the foundation of consumption, which manifests itself a little later. But, it is said, the child willbe 'hardened' by having its chest and limbs thus exposed. The surest andsafest way to harden the child is to so care for it that it shall passthrough its first months and years of life without any ailment. Everymother should see to it, that her charge is so clothed that every partof the body is effectually protected from dampness and cold. She canthen best secure for it a hardened constitution by carrying it dailyinto the sunlight of the open air. 

_The material_ of the clothing should be such as will unite lightnesswith warmth. Flannel and calico are therefore to be preferred. At first, as the skin of the child is very delicate, a shirt of fine linen may beinterposed between it and the flannel. But, after the first few months, the gentle friction of fine soft flannel next the skin is desirable, asit stimulates the circulation of the blood on the surface of the body, and promotes health. Flannel under-clothing should be continued all theyear, during the summer months a very light texture being used. When thedress of the child is shortened, care must be taken that the feet arewell covered with soft stockings of cotton or woollen (which in wintershould extend up above the knees), and with light leather shoes. 

The _night-dress_, at least during cold weather, is best made offlannel, thin or thick according to the climate. It has been recommendedthat, after the child is somewhat advanced, the night-clothes beconstructed in the form of night-pants, so that it may not be exposed ifthe bed-clothing be thrown off. Every article of dress worn during theday ought to be removed at night. 

The rule in regard to the _quantity of clothing_ is, that it should bein sufficient amount to preserve due warmth. It must therefore beregulated by the season of the year and the state of the weather. Wehave mentioned the fatal practice of leaving bare at all seasons of theyear the upper part of the chest and arms of the little one, while therest of the body is warmly clad. We can scarcely speak too emphaticallynor too often of the danger to which the mother thus exposes that life, which it is her duty to wisely and safely conduct through the period ofdependent infancy and childhood. It is of course possible for the childto be too closely enveloped, and the skin thus rendered highlysusceptible to the impressions of cold. The prevalent error, however, atthe present time, is in the direction of too scanty clothing. 

_The make of the dress_ should be loose and easy, so as to permit of thefree movement of all portions of the body; it should be cut high in theneck, and with sleeves to the wrists; its construction should be simple, so that it may be quickly put off and on; and the fastenings employedshould, as far as possible, be tapes, not pins. In the clothing ofchildren the laws of hygiene, and not the code of fashion, should directthe shape and style. 

THE BATHING OF INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN. 

Many advantages attach to the daily use of the bath for infants. Itsecures cleanliness, strengthens the nervous system, and preserves fromcolds and coughs. 

We have already endeavoured to impress upon the mind of the reader thegreat susceptibility to cold which exists in early life. On this accountthe water for the bath should be warm (96° or 98°) for the first fewweeks of infancy, especially during the winter season. Gradually thetemperature may be reduced to that of the apartment, never to actualcoldness. It is as foolish and hazardous to attempt to 'harden' infantsby plunging them into cold water, as it is by carrying them withuncovered necks, chests, and limbs into the keen and damp air. Knowledgeof these facts would bring safety to many children who now suffer, because of the dangerous ignorance of mothers in regard to thesusceptibility of the infant organisation. 

An infant should be immersed in its tub every morning. Besides theregular morning bath, it is often advisable to put the child for a fewminutes in tepid water in the evening. This will quiet the nervoussystem, and induce sleep. The bath should not be too long a one, forfear of exciting perspiration; nor, for the same reason, should thewater be too warm. If the child be of a delicate constitution, theevening bath will be especially useful, and can be made more so by theaddition of two table-spoonfuls of salt to the water necessary for thebath. 

The time immediately after nursing or feeding is not proper for bathing. An hour or two after a meal should be allowed to elapse. Neither shoulda bath ever be given in a cold room. Even in a warm atmosphere, careshould be taken, both after and during the ablution, that the wet skinof the infant be not exposed to the air. Its body should be completelyimmersed; it should not be held up out of the water, nor, if it be oldenough, allowed to stand or sit in the tub. It is well also to have awarm blanket in which to receive the child as it comes dripping from thebath. It should be wrapped up in this for a few minutes, to absorb apart of the moisture. Then a portion of the body should be uncovered ata time, and dried before exposing the rest. 

_Drying the skin. _--For this purpose a piece of soft flannel will befound serviceable. By gently rubbing the surface of the body with it theskin will be warmed and stimulated, and the resulting glow will be asagreeable to the child as is that in the adult which follows the Turkishbath. The actual grooming of the human body is very useful to improvethe health of scrofulous children. 

At first from three to five minutes will be a sufficiently longimmersion. In a little while, however, this period may be lengthened, all the precautions mentioned against injurious exposure being observed. 

The lukewarm daily bath, taken either in the morning or evening, oughtto be continued until at least the age of four years. If, after thefourth or fifth year, ablutions of the entire body be resorted to onlyevery second or third day, the practice should be commenced of spongingthe chest every morning with cold, or alternately with cold and hotwater, followed by brisk frictions. 

Soap is to be used but sparingly in the bath of young children. It mustbe of the blandest and purest quality. Various eruptions are caused bythe employment of impure soaps, and even by the excessive application ofthe best kind. 

In illustration of the importance of our present subject, we may statethat Dr. Hufeland, to whose admirable work on the art of prolonging lifewe have before alluded, lays down, as one of the means which lengthenlife, the care of the skin. He dwells upon the benefit of paying suchattention to it from infancy that it may be kept in a lively, active, and useful condition. 

The power of the bath to ward off disease in childhood is notsufficiently appreciated by parents. Properly managed, it soothes, butnever increases, any internal irritation which may exist, and often doesaway with the necessity of resorting to the administration of drugs. Ifdue attention were paid to the condition of the skin in early life, manyof the most common ailments of childhood would be averted. The dailyemployment of the bath, and scrupulous attention to cleanliness of theperson and clothing, would materially lessen the demand both forpurgative medicines and for soothing syrups. 

One word more in regard to the washing of the infant. The motherherself, if she be in health, should always perform this office, and notentrust it to the child's nurse. Plutarch awards high praise to Catothe censor, for his invariable custom of being present when his childwas washed. Every mother, at least, would do well to follow the exampleof this old Roman. It will give her the opportunity to detect manyincipient affections which would for a long while escape her attentionif she saw the child only when dressed. The mother will also take painsto engage the mind of the little one, and render the bath a source ofamusement to it. 

After the fourth or fifth year, two or three baths a week during thecolder seasons of the year will be sufficient to keep the skin clean, and properly active. During the summer, however, a daily bath is ofgreat advantage to children, and ought not to be neglected. 

Swimming is very useful and very invigorating to the health of bothsexes. It is desirable that children be taught this art. 

The importance of the _culture of the skin_ to the well-being of infancyand childhood cannot be brought too prominently to the notice of allmothers. We have therefore endeavoured to give some useful hints inregard both to the preservation of its cleanliness, and to theprevention, by means of garments and warming, of its exposure to toogreat changes of temperature. 

By proper attention to the skin in the manner pointed out, many of theeruptions with which children are afflicted might be prevented. Theappearance of these the mother ought to regard as a great calamity, forthey are often difficult of cure, and render the child an object ofdisgust. She ought also to look upon them as the mischievousconsequences of the neglect of those laws of health which it is her dutyto learn and observe. 

AIR AND VENTILATION IN CHILDHOOD. 

Fresh air is necessary for the robust development of infancy andchildhood. Infants born in the summer season should be carried out dailywhen the weather is pleasant, from the second or third day after birth. Those born in the winter should be kept in the house for two or threemonths before being introduced to the outer world on some sunny noonday. Older children can scarcely pass too much time in the open air. 

A change in the dress must, of course, be made before exposing the childto the outdoor air. The head should be covered, and the chest and limbswell protected from the cold. 

As a rule, a child ought to be carried out, or permitted, when oldenough, to walk out, at least once every pleasant day during the year. The time of the day is to be varied with the season. In the winter, themiddle of the day is to be chosen; in summer, the early portion of theforenoon, a few hours after sunrise. 

Children show very quickly, even when in ill-health, the beneficialresults of a ride or walk. It quiets the irritability to which they areliable, more effectually than any other procedure. For a delicate child, or one recovering from sickness, fresh air and sunshine are the besttonics which can be administered. A fretful, peevish child will soonlearn to look forward to its daily jaunt on the street or road, and willbe quieted by it for the rest of the day. 

At all times of the year regard must be had to the state of the weather. The infant ought never to be taken out on a wet day. Exposure to a dampatmosphere is one of the most powerful causes of catarrh on the chestand inflammation of the lungs, to which young children are so subject. Avery high wind, even though the day be bright and dry, is injurious to ayoung infant, as it has been known to suspend its breathing for a time, which accident might, if not at once observed, bring about a fatalresult. 

Besides fresh air, _light_ is an indispensable requisite to the healthof children. Nothing can compensate for the absence of its beneficialeffects. It is to be remembered, however, that during the first week ortwo the eyes of the new-born babe are not strong enough to bear the fullglare of light. The first eight days of its existence should be spent ina half-darkened room. Gradually the apartment may be brightened, untilfinally, after about two weeks, the young eyes become entirelyaccustomed to the light, and may be exposed to it without injury. Aneglect of this precaution is one of the most common causes of the badinflammation of the eyes so frequently met with among young infants. After the sight has become quite strong, a bright room will strengthenthe eyes, not weaken them; for light is the natural stimulant of theeye, as exercise is of the muscles, or food of the stomach. 

Scrofulous diseases are the heritage of those children who are deprivedof a plentiful supply of pure air and light. A distinguished writer uponthe laws of health ascribes to the careful avoidance of the salutaryinfluence of air and light by so many young girls, who are fearful ofwalking out while the sun is powerful, much of their sickly appearance, the loss of consistency of their bones, and their being able to affordbut a deformed temple to the immortal soul. 

Humboldt states that, during a five years' residence in South America, he never saw any national deformity amongst the men or women belongingto the Carif, Muyscas, Indian, Mexican, or Peruvian races. If parents inour own country were to accustom their daughters from an early age todaily exercise in the open air and sunlight, there would be fewer weakbacks requiring the support of apparatus from the surgical-instrumentmaker, and less pallor in lips and cheeks to be remedied by iron fromthe shop of the apothecary. 

EXERCISE IN CHILDHOOD. 

The first exercise which a child obtains, is had of course in itsnurse's arms. Are there any directions, then, to be noticed in regard tothe _manner of carrying an infant_?--Dr. Eberle gives the followinguseful advice upon this subject:--'The spine and its muscles seldomacquire sufficient strength and firmness before the end of the thirdmonth to enable the child to support its body in an upright positionwithout inconvenience or risk of injury. Until this power is manifestlyacquired, the infant should not be carried or suffered to sit with itsbody erect, without supporting it in such a manner as to lighten thepressure made on the spine, and aid it in maintaining the uprightposture of its head and trunk; therefore, at first (a few days afterbirth), the infant should be taken from its cradle or bed two or threetimes daily and laid on its back upon a pillow, and carried gently aboutthe chamber. After the third or fourth week, the child may be carried ina reclining posture on the arms of a careful nurse, in such a manner asto afford entire support both to body and head. This may be done byreclining the infant upon the forearm, the hand embracing the upper andposterior part of the thighs, whilst its body and head are supported byresting against the breast and arm of the nurse. When held in this way, it may be gently moved from side to side, or up and down, while it iscarefully carried through a well-ventilated room. '

After the child is three months old, it will probably have become strongenough to maintain itself in a sitting position. It may then be carriedabout in this upright posture, with the spine and head carefullysupported by the nurse, which aid ought not to be withdrawn until theage of six or seven months. 

'In _lifting_ young children, ' as has been well observed by Dr. Barlow, 'the nurse should be very careful never to lay hold of them by the arms, as is sometimes thoughtlessly done; but always to place the hands, oneon each side of the chest, immediately below the armpits. In infancy thesockets of the joints are so shallow, and the bones so feebly bounddown and connected with each other, that dislocation and even fractureof the collar-bone may easily be produced by neglecting this rule. Forthe same reason, it is a bad custom to support a child by one or even byboth arms, when he makes his first attempt to walk. The grand aim whichthe child has in view, is to preserve his equilibrium. If he ispartially supported by one arm, the body inclines to one side, and theattitude is rendered most unfavorable to the preservation of his naturalbalance; and consequently, the moment the support is in the leastrelaxed, the child falls over and is caught up with a jerk. Even whenheld by both arms, the attitude is unnatural and unfavorable to thespeedy attainment of the object. To assist the child, we ought to placeone hand on each side of the chest in such a way as to give theslightest possible support, and to be ready instantly to give more if helose his balance. When this plan is followed, all the attitudes andefforts of the child are in a natural direction; and success is attainednot only sooner, but more gracefully, than by any ill-judged supportgiven to one side. 

'There is one very common mode of exercising infants, which we thinkdeserves particular notice: we mean the practice of hoisting or raisingthem aloft in the air. This practice is of such venerable antiquity, andso universal, that it would be vain to impugn it. The pleasure, too, which most children evince under it, seems to show that it cannot be soobjectionable as a cursory observer would be disposed to consider it. Still there are hazards which ought not to be overlooked. The risk ofaccident is one of some amount: children have slipped from the hands, and sustained serious injury. Some people are so energetic as to throwup children and catch them in descending. This rashness there can be nohesitation in reprobating; for, however confident the person may be ofnot missing his hold, there must ever be risks of injury from theconcussion suffered in the descent, and even from the firmness of thegrasp necessary for recovering and maintaining the hold. The motion ofthe body, too, has a direct tendency to induce vertigo; and when theliability of the infant brain to congestion and its consequences isconsidered, when the frequency of hydrocephalus in infants is borne inmind, an exercise which impels blood to the brain will not be regardedas wholly insignificant. There is one more objection which seems not tohave attracted attention. The hold taken of the child in the act ofhoisting him is by the hand grasping the chest. The fingers and thumb, placed on each side of the breast-bone, compress the ribs; and any onewith the hand so placed will at once perceive that if the pressure werestrong, and the resistance from the elasticity of the ribs weak, theimpression on the chest resulting would correspond exactly with thedeformity named chicken-breast. That any force is ever used capable ofinducing speedily such a change, is in the highest degree improbable;but that reiterated pressure of this kind, however slight, would in aweakly child have power to impress and distort the chest, few, weimagine, will doubt. '

LEARNING TO WALK. 

When two or three months old, the infant may be placed on a softmattress upon the floor or on the carpet. He can then toss his limbsabout without danger, and develope the powers of his muscular system. 

'The best mode of teaching a child how to walk, ' says Dr. Bull, 'is tolet it teach itself; and this it will do readily enough. It will firstlearn to crawl: this exercises every muscle in the body, does notfatigue the child, throws no weight upon the bones, but imparts vigorand strength, and is thus highly useful. After a while, having thepower, it will wish to do more. It will endeavor to lift itself upon itsfeet by the aid of a chair; and though it fail again and again in itsattempts, it will still persevere until it accomplish it. By this, itlearns first to raise itself from the floor; and secondly, to stand, butnot without keeping hold of the object on which it has seized. Next itwill balance itself without holding, and will proudly and laughinglyshow that it can stand alone. Fearful, however, as yet of moving itslimbs without support, it will seize a chair or anything else near it, when it will dare to advance as far as the limits of its support willpermit. This little adventure will be repeated day after day withincreased exultation; when, after numerous trials, he will feelconfident of his power to balance himself, and he will run alone. Nowtime is required for this gradual self-teaching, during which themuscles and bones become strengthened; and when at last called upon tosustain the weight of the body, are fully capable of doing so. '

It is not merely want of strength which prevents an infant from walkingat first. The natural shape of the legs renders it impossible. The feetare turned in so that the inner sides look upwards. When placed upon itsfeet, therefore, the soles will not rest upon the ground. In a shorttime the position of the feet changes, and they become fitted for thepurposes of support and locomotion. When he begins to walk, the childshould have shoes with tolerably broad soles, which ought to be at leasthalf an inch longer than the foot. 

The first efforts of the little one to support and propel itself are tobe carefully watched, but not unnecessarily interfered with; neitherfrightened by expressions of fear, nor rendered timid by too frequentwarnings. 

ADVANTAGES OF GAMES AND PLAYS. 

The first seven years of life should be one grand holiday for all sportsand amusements which will bring into play the muscles, and divert at thesame time the mind. Time cannot be more usefully employed than in thuslaying the foundation of health, upon which alone can rest the physical, mental, and moral well-being of after-life. 

No greater mistake can be made by parents than to deprive the young ofthe innocent pleasures of childhood. Yet there are persons occasionallymet with who think it their duty to check the natural lightness andgaiety of heart of their children for fear that they shall become toofond of pleasure. In this way great harm is done to both mind and body, and the very fault created which it is desired to avoid. 

The wise parent sees in the games and plays of childhood not onlynecessary recreation and exercise, but a valuable means of education--ofmoral, mental, and physical training. He also seeks to impress earlyupon the young mind that play is most enjoyed when it has been earned bywork, and that pleasure flies from those who continually pursue it. 

The faculties of _memory_ and _attention_ can be called upon anddeveloped by proper games in a most satisfactory manner. These exercisesare all the more effective because the pleasure conceals, as it were, the mental labor, and the intellectual efforts are made, in a sense, unconsciously, though none the less efficiently. 

Certain plays form a valuable means of educating the eyes and othersenses. Such, for instance, are the toys which represent objects ofnatural history or of different trades and arts; the pictures whichteach through the quick eye of the child what no dry descriptions couldever convey; and the games which develope closeness of observation andhabits of order. A genial French physician has happily said, 'Every timeI see a toy based on the reproduction of a scientific fact or of anindustrial process, and which pleases while it enlightens, I feel asentiment of real gratitude to him who has designed it. '

We are glad to see that each year more and more attention is being paidto the utilization, as it were, of the games of infancy. Although alleducation can never be made a play, all play can be made an effectiveeducation. Do not therefore, reader, restrict the games of yourchildren, but direct them; do not render them less amusing, but seek tomake them more instructive. 

The schooling afforded by instructive plays should be the only schoolingof the first seven years of life. Late springs produce the most abundantharvests in the mind as in the field. Precocious and delicate childrenespecially should be kept from a too early and close application tobooks. By means of healthful and instructive games and sports; by visitsto workshops and factories where familiar objects are made; and by acultivation of the sense of the beautiful in nature and art, more can bedone towards securing a sound mind in a sound body than by the easierand more common method of sending the child to school almost as soon asit can walk. 

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING CHILDREN HYGIENIC HABITS. 

The force of habits should never be lost sight of by those having thecharge of children. They constitute a power of which parents shouldearly avail themselves. J. J. Rousseau has said, 'The only habit whichone ought to permit the child, is of not contracting any. ' But this isimpossible and undesirable. When it is remembered that _a good habit isjust as hard to break as a bad one_, the importance of seeking from thevery cradle to frame good habits is evident. It is easy to create, butdifficult to reform. What then are some of the principal hygienic habitswhich it is desirable to teach children?

First we will mention, _a liking for proper food at regular times_. Theindigestion, or weakness of digestion, from which many children suffer, is in some cases hereditary or the result of feeble health. But mostfrequently it is the effect of bad management. The giving to the childof pastry and cakes at meals instead of simple and nutritious food, theencouragement of capriciousness of appetite instead of teaching it tolike everything that is healthful, and the neglect to inculcate thehabit of eating at regular hours, these are the principal causes of manycases of diarrhœa, vomitings, weak appetite, colicky pains, andindigestion among children. 

The daily use of at least a sponge-bath of the entire person is anexcellent habit. Cold water should be employed after the fifth or sixthyear. This simple practice of a cold sponge-bath every morning, if moregenerally taught children, would avert many a cold and rheumatic attackin after life. 

The habit of quenching the thirst with only simple drinks, milk andwater, should be early and thoroughly formed. No American mother wouldthink of giving spirits to her child, excepting under medical advice;but many permit almost from infancy the use of tea and coffee. Thesedrinks are not only unnecessary in childhood, but to a certain extentinjurious. They excite the nervous system and disorder the digestion. Before the age of puberty, neither tea nor coffee should be allowed. 

ON THE TRAINING OF THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

The special senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, have beencalled the windows of the soul, by which it observes what passeswithout. The most noble and intellectual of these are the sight andhearing. Neither of them receives the attention at the hands of parentsand educators which it should. Indeed, the Indians who yet inhabit ourwestern plains, have better eyes and ears than we. The reason of this isevident. The savage is obliged to make other use of his eyes than todreamily admire the beautiful landscape, and other use of his ears thanto listen to the singing of birds and the murmuring of wind and stream. These senses are the defenders of his life. He depends upon them forfood, clothing, and protection against his enemies. Hence, urged bynecessity, he trains them from infancy, and brings them to a perfectionwhich astonishes us. It will be said, however, that we in our civilizedlife, have no need of any such acuteness of sense. True, but we cannotavoid the consciousness that our organs of sight and hearing do notafford us the service they ought, and that they commence to fail us tooearly. The remedy is to be sought in the training of the special sensesin early life. These senses, which are the first of our faculties toform and develope, should be the first to be educated; yet, as has beenwell said, they are nearly the only ones which are forgotten, or atleast they are the most neglected. 

The education of a sense has been compared to the education of achild, --it has its physical, its intellectual, and its moral side. It isnecessary to maintain the organ in a condition of health in order thatit may perform its work well; this is the physical education of thesense. The mind must learn to properly elaborate the impressions thusconveyed to it, this is the intellectual education of the sense. Finally, in the service of morality and justice, these impressions oughtto be turned to the advantage of the good and the beautiful, this is themoral education of the sense. The subject of the training of the specialsenses is therefore, when properly viewed, a serious and most importantone. It might well demand more attention at our hands than we have spaceto give it here. We will make our remarks as concise and practical aspossible commencing first with

THE TRAINING OF THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 

A recent French writer on the hygiene of the sight has brought forwardstriking evidence in support of his statement, that in our time thesense of sight is growing markedly weaker. The number of thenear-sighted is augmenting, as is also the number of those who become'far-sighted' before old age. Cases of debility and disease of the eyesseem to be multiplying at a rate which should awaken general attentionto this matter. The causes are to be found in the neglect, often thehurtful management, of the eyesight of children; in the influence ofimproperly regulating artificial light; and in the injury done by badprinter's ink and paper. 

In the education of the child's eyesight, _acuteness_ of vision is oneof the first objects to be sought for. That this is largely a matter oftraining is apparent from the fact that persons in certain professionscan readily distinguish objects too small or too distant for ordinaryeyes. Children brought up in the country or at the sea-side, have apower of vision unknown to city children, with their limited range ofobservation. But it is not only necessary that the eyes should be ableto make out the forms of distant or small objects, but that they shouldbe quick to detect shades of color and delicacies of outline. The childshould be stimulated and encouraged to make efforts in this direction. Here, also, there is room for the skill of the intelligent toy-maker, for toys can be made very useful educators. 

One of the forms of sensorial _memory_ which it is most desirable todevelope is that of objects seen, that is to say, the fixing in thethoughts, to be brought up before the mind's eye when wanted, therecollection of visual impressions. This embraces the memory of forms, of dimensions, of the relations between various objects and betweendifferent parts of the same object, and of colors. When applied toplaces it is what is known as _local_ memory, applied to the human face, it is the memory of _physiognomy_; applied to objects, it is _graphic_or _descriptive_ memory; applied to colors, it is _chromatic_ memory. 

_Local_ memory is sometimes developed to an extraordinary degree. It isonly necessary for some persons to have once traversed a locality, astreet, a city, in order to preserve of it a most minute and vividrecollection. This topographical memory is enjoyed by a number of theinferior animals; the elephant, the dog, and the horse, for instance, are well-known as being capable of noticing a road taken and ofreturning by it, of recognising readily a place once seen, and ofshowing a tendency to stop of their own accord at places where they havebeen arrested or kept. This local memory, useful as it is to every one, is necessary to the painter who draws upon it for the elements of hisartistic creations. 

The faculty of recollecting faces is a peculiar one, and possessed bydifferent persons in vastly different degrees. There are those whorecognise invariably every face they have once seen, and who by a simpleeffort can at any time recall with the utmost distinctness the featuresof the absent. On the other hand, there are those so wanting in thisspecial form of memory that they are constantly exposed to serioussocial inconveniences, and, for fear of failing in politeness, oftensalute perfect strangers. The ancient Greeks possessed to anextraordinary degree the power of seizing and retaining types of faceand form; it is to this, doubtless, that they owe, to a great extent, their unapproached excellence in sculpture and painting. 

_Graphic_ or _descriptive_ memory is that which photographs, as it were, upon the brain the visual impressions that objects have made upon theretina, in such a manner that the thought can reconstruct them ideally. This, in particular, is the form of memory required by designers of allkinds, and, like the other forms of visual memory, is susceptible ofeducation. The child is first taught to copy with his pencil and produceexact _imitations_ of the objects about him. Then, little by little, heis to be taught in closing his eyes to reconstruct mentally the contoursof objects, at first simple, then more complicated, and finally topenetrate into their details and give to the fictitious mental image allthe relief of reality. This exercise not merely trains the child incorrect observation, but quickly leads to the conquest of descriptivememory. 

_Chromatic_ memory, or the memory of colors, is a form of visual memorydifferent from those we have enumerated. It is more difficult, perhaps, and technical than the others. The attention of the child should earlybe directed to the colors of natural and artificial objects, and heshould be encouraged to imitate them. 

But it is not our intention to go further into this important subject, the education of the sense of sight. Our space will not permit it. Bythese few elementary remarks, we have merely wished to remind parentsthat they can do much towards the development of this important facultyin their children. 

TO PREVENT NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS. 

Near-sightedness is, as we have said, greatly increasing. In Germany, this is particularly the case, and has led there to a careful study ofthe subject within the last few years. 

Near-sightedness, like most of the disorders of the eyesight, is to betraced to causes which act during childhood, _and which causes are allentirely preventable_. Imperfect lighting of rooms in which childrenstudy or play is one of the chief among these preventable causes. Whenthe windows are improperly constructed or placed, or when the artificiallight is faulty in school-rooms, the book is naturally brought close tothe eyes in order that it may be more easily read. The consequence ofthis is either that near-sightedness is quickly produced, or that theeyes soon become fatigued and permanently weakened. No less injurious isthe effort to read 'between the lights' or before the fire. School-bookswith too small type, and school-desks which are too low or too far fromthe seats, are the direct cause of much mischief to many young eyes. Letparents, therefore, see to it that the school-rooms to which they sendtheir children are clearly and properly lighted, that the books whichthey study are printed in a bold, clear type, and that no reading orstudy is permitted by a flickering or a dim light, nor before a desk ortable which forbids a tolerably erect position of the head andshoulders. 

THE EDUCATION OF THE SENSE OF HEARING. 

The education of this sense is second only in importance to that of thesight. First of all, attention should be directed to the preservation ofthe _health_ of the organ. 

Many cases of deafness among children originate in long standingdiseases of the nose and throat; others in obstinate skin affections;while not a few are caused by a want of cleanliness, which permits ofthe accumulation of wax in the passage of the ear. 

The sensibility of the nerve which conveys impressions of sound from theear to the brain can be greatly increased by exercise and training, whenthe organ is in a condition of health. It can be so highly developedthat the ear will readily catch very feeble sounds. 

A learned physician has recently pointed out with some force thatsufficient attention is not paid to the conformation of the pavilion ofthe ear. Upon this conformation much of the delicacy of hearing depends. The hats which children wear, usually compress and deform the pavilion. Physiologists have shown that it ought to make an angle of about thirtydegrees with the skull, in order to best collect sonorous vibrations. This angle is very much diminished by our artificial head-dresses, andto the detriment of acuteness of hearing. 

Can education do much for the improvement of hearing? Everydayexperience answers in the affirmative. There is an exercise which cannotbe too highly commended to parents, which consists in inducing in playtheir children, even those very young, to detect from as far as they canfaint and fading sounds. It is a game which amuses them much, and it isa pleasing sight to see the rivalry of several young children, each ofwhom with head bent forward, is earnestly trying to distinguish areceding sound longer than its fellows. A little ingenuity will readilydevise amusing and useful plays with this object in view. 

The training of the remaining special senses is of comparatively minorimportance to that of those we have been considering, and need notdetain us. We will only remind the reader of the wonderful adroitnessand delicacy of touch possessed by the blind as an example of what thissense is capable of when educated. 

HOME MANAGEMENT OF SOME COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN. 

CROUP. 

Although this disease is said to be more severe in Europe than in ourown country, and more frequent in our northern than in our southernStates, most American mothers, in all parts of the country, know anddread its alarming and often fatal attacks. It is a disease ofchildhood, but not of early infancy, being rarely met with under thefirst or after the tenth year of life. 

Children who have once had this affection are very liable to anotherattack upon exposure to any of the causes which excite it. It has beennoticed also that croup runs in certain families, and not unfrequently, children of a ruddy complexion and of a fleshy and apparently vigorousappearance are those most subject to it. 

Among the _causes of croup_, which should be specially guarded againstby mothers of croupy children, are checking of the perspiration, suddenalterations in the dress, change of climate, and even in some cases aresidence at the sea-side. Croup also often follows measles, and attimes is epidemic. 

The unmistakable _symptoms of croup_ quickly show themselves at theoutset of the disease. Sometimes a sore throat, a short, dry cough, anda slight harshness of breathing, usher in the affection; in otherinstances, that which first attracts attention is hoarseness in the cryor tone of the voice, attended with, or quickly followed by, feverishness, thirst, and dulness, or fretfulness; while in anotherclass of cases the disease suddenly developes itself without anynoticeable premonitory signs. In all these cases the characteristicsymptoms of the disease commonly make their appearance at night. Thechild's sleep is disturbed by a peculiar clanging cough, which, whenonce heard, will ever afterwards be remembered and easily recognised. The skin becomes hot and dry, the breathing difficult, the cough morefrequent, and the child is soon awakened, frightened, and struggling forbreath. With flushed face and staring eyes, the little sufferer startsup, grasping the throat with the hand as if seeking to remove someencircling pressure which is choking it. Each drawing in of the breathis attended with a hissing sound, the redness of the face and neckincreases, and speech becomes impossible. This attack may pass off in afew minutes, or be prolonged, with varying degrees of intensity, for anhour. Almost invariably, however, it is followed by a period of relief, in some instances so complete as to deceive the anxious relatives intothe belief that the disease is over and the child safe. This falseconfidence is, unfortunately, generally soon rudely dissipated by areturn of the attack in all its first violence. 

The disease attains its height by the end of the second, or at thelatest the close of the third day. The fever is now the hottest, thetongue becomes white, the face and forehead red and covered withperspiration, the lips at times purple, the veins of the neck andtemples distended, the countenance distressed, and the voice whisperedor suppressed. The cough is now also most frequent and noisy; itspeculiar sound has been compared to that made by a fowl when caught inthe hand. The thirst is great, but swallowing difficult. The child ofteninserts its fingers in the mouth as if trying to clutch something whichcloses the air passages. These symptoms may either increase to the rapidexhaustion of the patient or take a favorable turn. One of the firstevidences of the latter is a change in the character of the cough, which, although it may not lessen in force or frequency, becomes lowerin tone, less dry, and finally moist. 

The _treatment_ should be most prompt, active, and energetic. Fewdiseases require, for the safety of the patient, such quick andefficient aid at the outset. Prepare at once sufficient hot water for abath, and make a fire in the room. In the meanwhile, immerse the child'sarms in some hot water, and apply cloths, wrung thoroughly dry from it, to the throat. Give the child a tea-spoonful of powdered alum in alittle syrup, molasses and water, or honey. Repeat the dose in a quarterof an hour if full vomiting be not excited by the first tea-spoonful. Sosoon as the warm bath is ready (the water should have the temperatureof 98° Fahrenheit), place the child in it, and keep up the heat of thebath by the occasional addition of hot water. Have hot towels inreadiness to dry the skin completely, and a warm blanket in which towrap the patient. See that the temperature of the room is raised toabout 66° Fahrenheit, and that it does not fall below this. Moisten theair by putting a kettle of boiling water on the fire and diffusing thesteam from it by means of a long roll of paper fixed to the spout. 

The warm bath and the emetic will usually relieve the breathing; but nomatter how complete this relief may appear to be, nor how quietly thelittle one may sleep, it must be carefully watched all night, so thatthe first return of unfavorable symptoms may be promptly treated. In allinstances also, however favorably the case may progress, the patientmust be confined to bed for several days, and the temperature of theroom, and the moisture of the air, carefully maintained, as directed forthe first treatment of the attack. If the child has had previousattacks, or if the weather be cold and inclement, it should be kept inthis warm moist atmosphere for two weeks. Were these precautions knownand heeded we should have to lament fewer fatal cases of croup. 

Of course in this, as in all other serious diseases, skilled medicaladvice should be secured as quickly as possible. We have given the abovedirections, not only for those so situated that they cannot securemedical aid, but also for all others, in order that no valuable time maybe lost in commencing the treatment, that the efforts of the physicianmay be intelligently seconded and carried out, and that the importanceof _promptness_ at the outset, and _prolonged care_ duringconvalescence, maybe impressed upon every mother who consults thesepages. 

HEAD COLDS. 

Young infants are very liable to take cold when being washed, or carriedabout the house into rooms and passages of different temperatures. Thiscold often shows itself by sneezing and "snuffles" in the nose. In ashort time a discharge from the nostrils appears, the eyes becomewatery, and the voice sounds "through the nose. " The skin is hotter thannatural, and the infant cross. If the child be able to talk, it willcomplain of headache, some soreness in the limbs and back, and of aburning, uncomfortable feeling in the nose. These symptoms last forthree or four days, when in mild ordinary cases they begin to disappear. After one or more attacks of this kind the child is very liable to areturn on every slight exposure to cold. 

The _treatment_ required in these cases is mild and simple, but must notbe neglected. A warm bath should be taken at bed-time for a number ofdays; the patient should be kept in an even temperature and out ofdraughts. The best relief to the distress in the nose, from which thechild suffers, is afforded by dipping a hollow sponge in hot water, squeezing it nearly dry, and applying it over the nose and forehead. Thecommon domestic practice of greasing the nose is also beneficial. Thewearing of a flannel cap until the disease is cured is a remedystrongly recommended by the late Dr. Meigs. A flannel cap will alsooften prevent the recurrence of the complaint in those very subject toit. 

FITS. 

Infants and young children are much more liable to fits and convulsionsthan adults. The causes which excite them are numerous, and should begenerally known, that they may be as far as possible avoided. 

Many infants are born with a tendency to fits. The children of feebleparents, or of those who have married very early or very late in life, are apt to be afflicted with a predisposition to them. Great fright orsevere shock received by the mother during the latter months of herpregnancy may give rise to convulsions in the child soon after birth. 

Pale, badly nourished, soft, flabby children, and those of a sensitive, nervous temperament, are more liable to fits than those who are ruddyand hardy. Hence we find convulsions more common and fatal among thepoor and miserable than among the 'well-to-do' and comfortable. Citychildren are more subject to the complaint than the country born andbred. 

Fits are very frequent among infants while teething. In such caseslancing the gum secures immediate relief. Another cause of fits, and onewhich every mother should know, is the giving of meat to the childbefore its teeth are cut. In such cases the attack is sudden, and oftenvery severe. Children most affected in this way by animal food are thosewith water on the brain, and those of a very delicate constitution. Thejuice or broth of meat is in some such instances sufficient to producefits. The remedy consists in the institution of a milk diet. In alldoubtful cases avoid a meat diet in any form, and watch the result. 

Strong mental emotions, such as fright, shame, or anger, may cause a fitin a child. A nurse in England threatened to throw a child out of thewindow if he did not stop crying; the little boy fell at once intoconvulsions, from which he died. 

Among other known causes of fits are confinement to heated, badlyventilated rooms, tight bandaging, and sudden exposure to severe cold orheat. 

In treating of the influence of the mother's mind over the nursing child(p. 251), we mentioned a number of instances of children thrown intoconvulsions by changes in the quality of the milk caused by the mentalemotion of the mother. The importance of the subject induces us to quotehere the corroborating remarks of Dr. Churchill, in the last edition ofhis standard work on diseases of children. 'During the first year oflife, convulsions may not unfrequently be traced to the milk of themother or nurse disagreeing with the infant, or having been disorderedtemporarily by fright, passion, or suffering. Sœmmering mentions acurious case of a woman whose milk agreed with her own child, but causedconvulsions in all others. M. Guersant relates the instance of a womandeserted by her husband, and in her distress her infant had an attackeach time it took the breast. Dr. Underwood mentions a mother who nursedher child immediately after witnessing a sudden death; the child wasattacked by convulsions, after which it remained comatose for thirty-sixhours, but ultimately recovered. Numerous cases are on record ofconvulsions supervening upon violent passion in the nurse. I havewitnessed more than one case resulting from the mother suckling herchild during a time of severe affliction and distress. '

We deem it useless to describe a fit. Almost every one has seen it, andat once recognises it. We shall proceed, therefore, at once to the_treatment. _

When a child is attacked with a fit the dress should be loosened, alltight bandages and pins removed, and plenty of fresh air admitted intothe room. It should not be held upright in the arms, but placed in alying position. A warm bath (that most useful remedy in so many of theailments of children) should be speedily prepared, and the childimmersed for a few minutes, then removed, dried, and wrapped in ablanket. A hot mustard foot-bath is also of service. The cause of thefit should be at once sought, for upon it will of course depend to agreat extent the treatment required. If the child be teething, and thegums be found to be red and swollen, they should be lanced. If the childhas eaten too much, or of improper food, an emetic should be given. Alittle mustard and salt mixed in a tumbler of warm water affords aready, safe, and effectual emetic. 

The dashing of cold water upon the face will sometimes promptly end thefit. The application of powdered ice in a bladder, or of cold watercloths to the head, is of service where the face is much flushed and themovements very violent. 

Children subject to fits should live in a well warmed house. By this wedo not mean that the rooms and hall ways should be kept hot, still lessthat they should be close and improperly ventilated. The temperature ofthe bed-room should not be lower than 70 degrees, and great care shouldbe taken during cold weather to avoid chilling the child outdoors. 

Rubbing of the child's body once a day with good salad oil is anexcellent and readily applied remedy in these cases. The little patientsdo not ordinarily object to it. As it is a procedure calculated toimprove the general health, we strongly recommend every mother whosechild has frequent fits, to try it. 

The dress of the child should be warm, loose, and comfortable. Perfectquietness is important for a time after attacks. Do not excite the childby seeking to amuse it. Let it sleep as much as it will. 

In those cases in which a fit has been followed by weakness of thelimbs, medical assistance will of course be procured. As a rule, recovery in such instances is slow, but, when properly directed, perfect. Change of scene, country air, and exercise, friction of thebody with a flesh-brush or salt towel, salt water baths, andelectricity, are all valuable agents towards cure. 

NOSE-BLEED. 

Bleeding from the nose may be produced by a blow or by over-exercise ofthe child at play. In either case the trouble is usually a triflingone. Some children, however, are liable to attacks of nose-bleed comingon without any assignable causes. One of the consequences of scarletfever and whooping cough is sometimes a tendency to repeated and seriousspells of bleeding from the nose. 

The _treatment_ in these cases consists in quieting the alarm of thechild if it be frightened, and in applying cold water or pounded ice tothe nose and forehead and to the back of the neck. It is because of itscoldness that the key placed down the back, as so commonly advised indomestic practice, does good. 

An exaggerated idea of the amount of blood lost is often a cause ofdistress to parents. They forget that the child has been bleeding in avessel of water, and that a very little blood darkly colors a largequantity of water. 

Bleeding from the nose is sometimes a favorable symptom, as when itoccurs during a fever, or when in girls approaching womanhood itprecedes the expected signs of puberty. It is an unfavorable symptom, however, in scrofulous children and in girls affected withgreen-sickness, as in these instances it aggravates the existingdisorders. 

In those rare cases of protracted bleeding which resist the remedies wehave mentioned, it may be necessary for the surgeon to plug thenostrils, both in front and at their opening into the throat. 

This extreme measure is fortunately scarcely ever called for, and canonly be carried out by the physician. 

WORMS. 

Children are often thought to have worms when entirely free from them. There is hardly a symptom of any disease which has not been supposed bysome to be a sign of the presence of worms. A child suffering from someother complaint is, therefore, not unfrequently dosed with vermifuges toits injury. We can give the mother one symptom of worms which isinfallible. It is the only one upon which she can rely, namely, thedetection of worms in the stools of the child. Until these expelledintruders are actually found she should be slow to believe that thechild is thus affected, and still slower to give worm medicine. Beforebeginning treatment, let the mother wait until the need of it is madeout by the result of the examination we have mentioned. 

The _treatment_ of the ordinary worms to which children are subject issimple and usually speedily efficacious. Commence with a dose of Epsomsalts, of magnesia, or of cream of tartar, as may be preferred. The nextday administer a vermifuge, of which the best and pleasantest is_santonine_. Obtain from the druggist three or four three-grain powdersof this medicine. Give the half or the whole of one of these powders, according to the age of the child, at bed-time. The next morningadminister a purgative dose of oil or salts. Repeat this treatment everyother day until three doses of santonine have been taken. Or, from twoto six grains, according to the age of the patient, may be dissolved intwo table-spoonsful of castor-oil, and a tea-spoonful given every houruntil it operates. 

An excellent domestic remedy for worms, one which was a great favoritewith the celebrated Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, is common salt. For achild two or three years old, the proper dose is a tea-spoonful mixed ina wine-glassful of water. When the child can be got to take it insufficient quantity, this remedy is a very efficient one. 

Most cases of supposed worms in children are best treated by regulatingthe diet, by attention to the air and exercise of the child, by warmbaths, and by endeavoring to improve the appetite, the digestion, andthe strength. The food should be plain and unirritating (bread, milk, rice, arrowroot, chicken, lamb or mutton broth, beef-tea, mutton chop, young chicken); the meals should be taken in smaller quantities thanusual, and at regular intervals. Sweets and confectionery should beforbidden, and but few vegetables permitted for awhile. A perseverancein this regimen for a short time will usually cure the little patientwithout the necessity of resorting to any vermifuge. 

Worms are most frequent between the ages of three and ten years. Girlsare oftener affected than boys. A tendency to worms is hereditary. Casesoccur more frequently during the spring and autumn than during the otherseasons. A residence in cold, damp, unhealthy situations leads to theirproduction in many instances. 

BED-WETTING. 

This troublesome disorder is not unfrequently met with in children--moreespecially boys--under twelve years of age. It is a mistake to suppose, as is done by some parents, that slothfulness or negligence is theinvariable and only cause of this infirmity; on this point Dr. Vogelsays:--'In most cases which I have observed, the children through theirown sense of honor or on account of repeated punishments, had a livelyinterest in avoiding the accident, and yet were unable to do thiswithout appropriate treatment pursued for months, and even years. ' Dr. Tanner states:--'Very frequently this affection is the consequence ofbad habits; being favored by the free use of fluids during the afterpart of the day, by exposure to cold in the night, and by lying on theback. '

The presence of worms in the bowels is one of the causes of thisannoying ailment, and they should be sought for in all cases. Stone inthe bladder sometimes occasions the affection, but in such instancesother symptoms will soon point to the true nature of the trouble. 

This subject is one of an importance which demands some attention fromus in a work for parents. In the language of Dr. Vogel, 'the effects ofthis malady are unpleasant, for the psychical development in particularsuffers. The repeated punishments which these children undergo blunttheir sense of honor considerably; they become cowardly and deceitful, and have no personal spirit. If great and expensive cleanliness is notpractised, the bed, and even the whole room, acquires a urinous odor, which contaminates the atmosphere and begets conditions by no meansfavorable to healthy growth. Such children may be ultimately attacked byindolent ulcers on the nates and lower extremities, the results ofurinous excoriations. '

The only _symptom_ ordinarily present is that the child towards morningor in the middle of the night wets the bed without waking. This mayhappen several times during the sleep, and recur every night. In somecases the act takes place only every other night, but it is rare thatthere is an interval of more than one night. 

The _cause_ of this failing is sometimes very simple and one easilyremedied; for it is often the result of neglecting to take youngchildren up once during the many hours they require for sleep. Byattention to this matter and to the diet, the habit may be speedilybroken. Unfortunately most cases are not so quickly amenable totreatment. 

In the _treatment_ of this infirmity, corporal punishment should not bethought of. It is useless, cruel, and unnatural. The child might as wellbe punished because it squints or has club-foot. 

Care must be taken to see that the little patient eats or drinks nothingfor several hours before bed-time. The child should also be awakened alittle before midnight, and at a very early hour in the morning, andmade to empty its bladder. It is of great importance to get the child tosleep upon its side or face, as lying upon the back is sure to increasethe trouble. Indeed, it is frequently observed that the child alwaysremains clean when it is prevented from turning upon its back duringsleep. The difficulty lies in the prevention. The plan of tying a clothor towel around the child with a knot over the spinal column, to awakenit by the pain when it rolls over upon the back, so often proposed, seems good advice easily followed. But practically it fails, as it isimpossible, without making the bandage too tight, to keep it in place. The benefit which, in some instances, has followed the employment of asuccession of small blisters directly over the lower part of the spinalcolumn, is doubtless due to their forcing the child to sleep upon theface or side. The remedy is somewhat a painful one, but should be triedin obstinate cases. 

The child's general health, if enfeebled, should be improved by coldbaths, bitter tonics, and if possible a change of air. In no case shouldany mechanical means be employed to arrest the infirmity. Serious andeven fatal results have followed such attempts. 

If the precautions and simple remedies we have mentioned fail, recoursemust be had to the family physician. The drugs which are of benefit aretoo powerful to be entrusted to any other hands. The hygienic method ofcure we have pointed out will, if instituted early, be effectual in allexcepting very obstinate cases, which latter indeed sometimes resist fora long time the best efforts of medical skill. 

LOOSENESS OF THE BOWELS. 

Children under one year of age should have two movements of the bowelsin the twenty-four hours, and those from one to three years at leastone stool a day. 

A slight attack of looseness is often beneficial if it passes awaywithin a day or two. It is easy, however, for such an attack to becomehurtful, especially if the food be improper, or the weather warm. Alooseness which is of no consequence in the winter may well exciteuneasiness during the summer months. 

Diarrhœa in a healthy child is ordinarily preceded by vomiting. If thediarrhœa persist long, the little patient is much prostrated by it, andrapidly reduced in flesh. Such an attack should never, therefore, beneglected. 

In the case of an infant not weaned, it should be removed from thebreast for half a day or more, that the stomach may have little ornothing to do. Barley or rice water, or ordinary water, may be given insmall quantities at a time to relieve the thirst. This in many caseswill be all the treatment required. 

In the case of an elder child, all meat and vegetables should be at onceforbidden, and the only food allowed for a day or two must be rice andmilk, arrowroot, or milk and water. 

The dose of castor oil which is so frequently given by nurses in thesecases under the impression that the oil is 'healing, ' is only of servicewhen the diarrhœa has been caused by food of improper quality orquantity. It then aids nature in her efforts to get rid of the offendingmatter, which by its irritation is doing the mischief. In such instancesone dose of the oil is quite sufficient. It has no 'healing' virtues, and should not be repeated from day to day. 

Children who are teething are frequently affected with looseness. A warmbath every evening, and attention to the gums, will be ordinarily allthat is required in these cases, at least during the cold months. It isof the utmost importance, however, during the summer that such patients, if living in the city, should be at once removed into the country;otherwise their lives are in danger. 

Looseness of the bowels in children is usually best treated by carefulmanagement of the clothing and diet, by attention to all that affectsthe health, and by avoiding as much as possible the administration ofmedicines. No case should be allowed, however, to run on without seekingcompetent medical advice. 

An excellent remedy for the diarrhœa of children is the subnitrate ofbismuth. 

This medicine may be disguised in the food, as in a case narrated by Dr. Inmann. A lad about ten years old was brought to him by an aunt, whostated that the boy suffered much from diarrhœa, and was emaciatingvisibly; that he would not try any domestic remedy, was an obstinatefellow, and determined to take no medicine. After sending the lad toanother room the doctor recommended the lady to get some white bismuthand give it to the cook, telling her to mix a large pinch of it withsome butter, and to send in the bread and butter so arranged that thelady would know which was for the boy. This was done. The lad was dulydrugged without his knowledge, and the diarrhœa stopped in two days. 

INDIGESTION. 

Infants and young children suffer often from indigestion, or_dyspepsia_, as well as adults. One of the most frequent signs of thisdisorder is vomiting. But every infant which throws up its milk is notsuffering from indigestion. Vomiting is sometimes a sign of health, andshows that the stomach is vigorous enough to free itself promptly fromexcess of food. The child is thus saved from the effects ofover-feeding. The obvious remedy is to diminish the quantity of milktaken at each nursing or meal. 

But vomiting from over-feeding is very different from that caused byirritation of the stomach, which causes it to reject proper food. Thecommon sense of the mother will enable her easily to distinguish betweenthe two sorts. In the former, the child remains cheerful, happy, andwell nourished, scarcely changing countenance even while thesuperabundant milk is being returned from its stomach. In the latter, the child soon becomes pale, feeble, and distressed looking. Over-feeding, if persisted in, may occasion indigestion. 

Indigestion during the first year of life shows itself by languor, pallor, and evident discomfort. The child wishes to be constantly at thebreast, and suckles eagerly, but vomits the milk shortly after, usuallycurdled. The bowels are either constipated or too loose. The mostprominent and often the only symptoms are this alternation of vomitingand an eager desire to take the breast, associated with loss of fleshand strength. The child is evidently not nourished by the food it takes, and if relief be not afforded it sinks, and dies from starvation in thecourse of a month or two. 

Children who are _weaned abruptly, and at a very early period_, areliable to a serious form of indigestion, which may come on in a few daysafter weaning, or not for several weeks. 

Older children are liable to slight attacks of indigestion, which areattended with vomiting or purging, or both, for a few days, when thestomach recovers its health. In some cases, however, the derangementcontinues longer, the child then losing its appetite, and suffering fromcolic, and becoming fretful, pale, and weak. The breath becomes sour, and the passages green. Such cases require careful watching andtreatment, especially during the hot weather of the summer. 

In infants at the breast indigestion is usually caused by giving thebreast too often or by an excess or change in the quality of the milk. Errors in diet on the part of the mother, and other faults which we havepointed out in our chapter on nursing, are the most frequent causes ofthis ailment. In children who are weaned the causes are almostinvariably improper food or food taken too frequently, or in too largequantities. The hint should be taken when a child rejects its food, tochange it, or give it less. Instead of this, too frequently the child isurged to take more, and thus derange the stomach. 

The _treatment_ of indigestion in childhood is usually easy andsatisfactory. The first thing is to look to and regulate the quantityand quality of the food. If it be due to excess of food, this is easilyremedied. If due to improper quality, change it promptly. When themother's health is such that her milk is found to frequently orconstantly disagree with her child, a suitable wet-nurse must beprocured. 

In most cases the attack is mild, and readily yields to a few hours'abstinence from food. As it often happens, especially inartificially-fed infants, that the gastric juice is more acid than itshould be, great benefit is derived from the use of _precipitated chalkor carbonate of soda_. A few grains of either of these, given severaltimes a day for a few days, will be found to effect a surprising changeand alone restore the appetite and digestion. 

In older children an attack of indigestion should be the signal forputting them upon a simpler and more restricted diet for a time. Milk, eggs, arrowroot, tapioca, sago, panada, &c. , are better than animalfood. If the child becomes much weakened, jellies, chicken, lamb, mutton, or oyster broth, beef tea, or wine whey, should be given tocheck the tendency to exhaustion. 

We repeat, that most cases of indigestion in infants and children yieldpromptly to an immediate change in the diet, without medicine. 

HINTS ON HOME GOVERNMENT. 

On this subject, as it may be regarded as outside of our domain ofhygiene, we have but few words to say. We wish, however, in theinterests of medicine and hygiene, to insist upon the necessity oftraining children to prompt, implicit obedience to the parental voice. As physicians, we have seen the spoilt, undisciplined child, when sick, rebellious alike to persuasion and command, refusing food and medicine, revolting against the slightest examination, and by its violence andcapriciousness, converting a slight illness into a dangerous one. For achild unaccustomed to obedience there is no proper treatment possiblewhen sick; nor when well is there any proper care possible for thepreservation of the health. What it wants, and not what it ought tohave, is given it, and every one knows that a child's instincts are noguide to health. With health, happiness is sacrificed also. There is nosurer way of making a child miserable than by accustoming it to obtainall it wishes, and to encounter no will but its own. Its desires grow bywhat they feed upon. As a French writer on education has well expressedit: 'At first it will want the cane you hold in your hand, then yourwatch, then the bird it sees flying in the air, and then the startwinkling overhead. How, short of omnipotence, is it possible to gratifyits ever-growing wants?' Accustom the child to hear 'no' and 'must, ' butlet these hard words be softened by voice and manner--an art in whichevery true mother excels. 

But, on the other hand, do not harass the child by needlessrestrictions, nor worry it by excess of management. We desire to callattention here to the words of an eminent English divine and learnedwriter, Archbishop Whately:--

'Most carefully should we avoid the error which some parents, not(otherwise) deficient in good sense commit, of imposing gratuitousrestrictions and privations, and purposely inflicting needlessdisappointments, for the purpose of inuring children to the pains andtroubles they will meet with in after life. Yes; be assured they _will_meet with quite _enough_ in every portion of life, including childhood, without your strewing their paths with thorns of your own providing. Andoften enough you will have to limit their amusements for the sake ofneedful study, to restrain their appetites for the sake of health, tochastise them for faults, and in various ways to inflict pain orprivations for the sake of avoiding some greater evils. Let this alwaysbe explained to them whenever it is possible to do so; and endeavor inall cases to make them look on the parent as never the _voluntary_ giverof anything but good. To any hardships which they are convinced youinflict reluctantly, and to those which occur through the dispensationof the All-wise, they will more easily be trained to submit with a goodgrace, than to any gratuitous sufferings devised for them by fallibleman. To raise hopes on purpose to produce disappointment, to giveprovocation merely to exercise the temper, and, in short, to inflictpain of any kind, merely as a training for patience and fortitude--thisis a kind of discipline which man should not presume to attempt. If suchtrials prove a discipline not so much of cheerful fortitude as ofresentful aversion and suspicious distrust of the parent as a capricioustyrant, you will have only yourself to thank for the result. ' It is amatter of common observation that those who complain of their fortuneand lot in life have often to complain only of their own conduct. Thesame is true of those who complain of their children. They havethemselves only to blame in each case. 

Parents who do not appreciate the responsibilities of their positionusually err on the side of over-indulgence to their children; on thecontrary, those fully alive to the importance of home discipline oftenerr on the side of over-regulation. To the latter, we commend the replyof an old lady to the anxious inquiry made by the mother of a toorigorously disciplined child as to what course should be pursued, 'Irecommend, my dear, a little wholesome neglect. '

Lessons of truthfulness; of fortitude in bearing pain anddisappointment; of the duty of right doing, because it is right and notbecause it is the best policy; of frugality and industry; ofself-denial, contentment, and charity, should be early impressed uponthe plastic mind of infancy. We wish also, in this connection, to quotethe words of a wise physician and observer of men, that 'the littlechild who is brought up to repeat short and simple prayers at hismother's knees, has a rule of conduct thereby instilled into him whichwill probably never be forgotten; and, in after life he may not onlylook back to these beginnings with feelings of reverence and love, butthe recollection of them may serve to strengthen him in some goodresolution, and help him to resist many a powerful temptation. '

We have had occasion frequently in various parts of this work to pointout the intimate relations which exist between the physical and mentalnature of parents and their offspring. Like parent, like child. The sameclose connection and sympathy extends to the moral and religiouscharacter; hence that direction and training which relies largely uponthe _force of parental example_ is the most effective method of homegovernment. Virtuous precepts, or rigidly enforced rules of conduct, avail little unless the parent keeps the path to which he points thechild. 

'Well, upon my word, Mrs. Primrose, you have the handsomest children inthe whole country. ' 'Ah! neighbor, ' replied the wife of the Vicar ofWakefield, 'they are as heaven made them--handsome enough if they begood enough--handsome is that handsome does. '

IS THE RACE DEGENERATING?

This is a question which perplexes some minds in our times. A Germanauthor of note has recently written a volume to prove that eachgeneration is feebler than the preceding. Old physicians say that intheir youth diseases of exhaustion were rarer than now-a-days. For thisour habits of life, the pressure on our nervous systems, the prevalenceof hereditary diseases, and the excessive use of narcotics andstimulants, are held responsible. 'The fathers, ' say these croakers, 'have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge. '

We attach little weight to these gloomy views. There are plenty of factson the other side. The suits of old armour still preserved in ourmuseums prove that, as a rule, we have slightly gained in weight andsize. Tables of life insurance companies and reports of statistics showthat the average length of human life is greater than it ever was. Dr. Charles D. Meigs used to state in his lectures that the size of the headof American infants at birth is somewhat greater than in the Old World. 

That there are more numerous diseases than formerly, is not true; but itis true that we know more, for we have learned to detect them morereadily and to examine them more minutely. This is especially true ofsuch as are peculiar to women. Within the last ten or twenty years somuch that is of sovereign importance has been contributed to thisdepartment of medical science, that it is hardly possible for one tobecome an expert in it unless he gives it his whole attention. 

To avoid the tendency to debilitated frames and chronic diseases, womanshould therefore learn not only the laws of her own physical life, butthe relations in which she stands to the other sex. Thus she can guardher own health, and preserve her offspring from degeneracy. It is onlyby enlightenment, and the extension of knowledge on the topics relatingto soundness of body and mind, that we can found rational hopes of apermanent and wide-spread improvement of the race. 

Some have maintained, not understanding the bearing of the facts, thatsuch degeneracy is more conspicuous in the frame of woman than anywhereelse. They quote the narratives of travellers, who describe with whatfortitude--we might almost say with what indifference--the Indian women, and those of other savage races, bear the pangs of childbirth, and howlittle the ordeal weakens them. A squaw will turn aside for an hour ortwo when on the march, bear a child, wash it in some stream, bind it onthe top of her load, and shouldering both, quietly rejoin the vagranttroop. Our artificial life seems indeed, in this respect, to be toblame; but if we look closer, we can learn that these wild women oftenperish alone, that they are rarely fertile, that unnatural labors arenot unknown, and that the average duration of their life is decidedlyless than among the females in civilised States. 

HEALTH IN MARRIAGE. 

_THE PERILS OF MATERNITY. _

In the early part of this work we quoted some authorities to show thatthose women who choose single life as their portion do not escape theills of existence, nor do they protract their days, but, on thecontrary, as shown by extensive statistics, are more prone to affectionsof the mind, and die earlier. While, therefore, nature thus rewardsthose who fulfil the functions of their being, by taking part in themysterious processes of reproduction, and perpetuating the drama ofexistence, it is true also that she associates these privileges withcertain deprivations and suffering. We do not wish to throw around themarried state any charms which are not its own. Rather is it our aim toportray with absolute, and therefore instructive, fidelity all that thiscondition offers of unfavorable as well as favorable aspects. 

Let us say at once, maternity has its perils, --perils as peculiar and asinevitable as those which pertain to single life. Our present purpose isto mention these, and by stating their nature and what are their causes, so far as known, to put married women on their guard against them. Someare almost trifling, at least not involving danger to life; others mostharassing to the sufferer and to her friends. 

We shall now consider the principal diseases to which married women areexposed from pregnancy, from childbirth, and from nursing. 

DISEASES OF PREGNANCY. 

In treating of pregnancy we have pointed out that it was a healthy andhappy condition to most women. The exceptional cases are mainly those inwhich the health is injured by mental trouble or anxiety. Thus the youngand delicate girl newly married is full of vague alarms in regard to thepains and dangers of her untried path to maternity. She frets herselfand embitters her life during those months in which tranquility is ofthe utmost importance. Is it surprising, then, that her health should bedisordered, and that she should suffer from some of the diseasesincident to the pregnant state?

Again, the mother of a large family, but the mistress of a small income, is distressed by the thought of additional expense, which it seems toher, particularly in her nervous state, impossible to meet. Thiscondition of protracted anxiety is ill fitted to enable her to resistany tendency to disease to which she may be exposed. Indeed, prolongedvexation from these and other causes not unfrequently tend to _puerperalmania_ (a disease of which we shall shortly have something to say), orto some other nervous affection. 

The wife during pregnancy should therefore be treated with unusualkindness by those about her, and every attempt made to soften her lot. The erroneous impression prevails among some that the pregnant wifeshould enure herself to toil and hardship. This notion is doubtless dueto the observation that domestic animals that are subjected to a life oflabor bring forth their young with little suffering. 'The cow in thecountry farm living unfettered in the meadow until the day of calving, has in general a safe and easy labor. The poor beast, on the contrary, which is kept in a town dairy, has a time so incredibly dangerous thatthe proprietor generally sells off his stock every year, and replaces itwith cows in calf; such cows not being put into the stalls till withinsix or eight days of the expected period of labor. The deduction fromthis is that an artificial mode of life--a life maintained by improperfood, and without a sufficient supply of pure air, or a due amount ofexercise--has a most deleterious influence upon the process of labor;and not that a toilsome existence, embittered with all the pains andanxieties of poverty, gives comparative immunity from danger in the hourof childbirth. ' One of the discomforts of pregnancy is--

MORNING SICKNESS. 

This affection, when confined, as is usually the case, to the morningand early part of the day, rarely requires much medical care. Itsabsence, which, as we have said, is a frequent cause of miscarriage, ismore to be regretted than its presence especially as it is apt to bereplaced by more serious troubles. 

Relief will be afforded by washing the face and hands in cold water, andtaking a cup of milk or a little coffee and a biscuit or sandwich, _before raising the head from the pillow_ in the morning, remaining inbed about a quarter of an hour after this early meal; then dressingquickly, and immediately going out for a half-hour's walk. Rest in ahalf-recumbent posture during the day, particularly after meals, isbeneficial. The affection is mostly a nervous one, and is best combatedby eating. The food should be plain and unirritating, but nutritious, and should be taken frequently, in small quantities at a time. 

When the nausea and vomiting are excessive, and continue during the day, there is generally some disordered condition of the digestive apparatus. 

This may be corrected by taking at night a tea-spoonful of theconfection of senna, a pleasant preparation of this ordinarilydisagreeable medicine, and by drinking three times a day, before eachmeal, a wine-glassful of a tea made with columbo. Half an ounce ofpowdered columbo should be added, for this purpose, to a pint of boilingwater. 

Dr. John H. Griscom of New York recommends the bromide of potassium, which is a harmless medicine for domestic practice, as affording themost useful means of arresting the nausea attendant on pregnancy. 

The following prescription may be compounded by any druggist, and willoften be found very effective:

 Take of Bromide of Potassium, two drachms, Cinnamon water, three fluid ounces. 

Of this a dessert spoonful may be taken two or three times a day. It maybe used with confidence as an entirely safe and harmless remedy in thistroublesome affection. 

A prescription frequently ordered for the nausea of pregnancy by thelate distinguished Dr. Meigs, consisted of equal parts of sweet tinctureof rhubarb and compound tincture of gentian--a dessert spoonful to betaken after meals. 

_Pain in the abdomen_, caused by the distension of its walls, may berelieved by the application of equal parts of sweet oil and laudanum. 

Another common and annoying, but rarely dangerous, trouble duringpregnancy is--

VARICOSE VEINS. 

The veins of the legs become distended, knotted, and painful. Women whohave borne a number of children suffer most from this affection. Itseldom attacks those passing through their first pregnancies. Itordinarily first shows itself during the second pregnancy, and becomesrapidly worse during the third or fourth. 

Although it is difficult to cure this disease during the continuance ofthe pregnancy, much can be done to prevent its occurrence, and torelieve it when present. Tight garters worn below the knee, and closelylaced corsets, tend to cause and increase this swollen condition of theveins. Neither should be used during pregnancy. 

Relief is best afforded to the suffering parts by means of a well-madeand adjusted _elastic stocking_, which may be readily procured from adruggist or surgical instrument maker. In severe cases it may benecessary for the patient to keep herself as much as possible in therecumbent position on the bed or sofa. In all cases the feet should besupported when seated, so as to keep the blood from further distendingthe already swollen veins. 

PILES. 

That painful condition of the veins of the lower bowel known ashæmorrhoids, or piles, is a not unfrequent annoyance to pregnant women. Sometimes it is caused by prolonged constipation. During the period ofpregnancy, therefore, constipation should be guarded against. 

Ordinarily the piles are small, and of little consequence beyond theslight uneasiness they occasion. The trifling loss of blood from them isof no account, and often beneficial. The case is different, however, when the piles are large and painful, and give rise to much pain andcopious bleeding. They then require prompt treatment. 

In the _treatment_ of piles the first point to be aimed at is to keepthe bowels moderately open. It must not be forgotten, however, thatduring pregnancy only the mildest of purgatives are ever to be given. Castor oil, although a disagreeable, is a most excellent prescription inthese cases. A small dose, repeated when necessary, will be found toact most kindly. If this remedy be too repugnant to the patient, smallquantities of citrate of magnesia, or of cream of tartar, or of some ofthe natural mineral waters, may be employed. Small injections oflukewarm water are also of great service, and may be tried instead oflaxatives. 

After every movement the parts should be well sponged with cold water, and an ointment of galls and opium, procured from the druggist, applied. 

If the parts become very much inflamed, warm poultices or hot chamomilesolutions should be used, and the patient kept in bed until theinflammation subsides. 

No attempt is to be made to effect the radical cure of piles duringpregnancy. Any such attempt, besides being dangerous, is unnecessary, for the piles usually disappear of their own accord after theconfinement. Every effort to make the sufferer more comfortable in themanner we have suggested is, however, right and safe. 

DIARRHŒA. 

Some women always suffer from looseness of the bowels during pregnancy;others are very liable to attacks of it during this period, eithercoming on without any assignable cause or easily excited by any slightindiscretion in eating. In many instances these attacks alternate withconstipation or with morning sickness. 

The diarrhœa, if at all severe or prolonged, should not be allowed to goon unchecked, for it quickly weakens the patient and predisposes her toabortion. The fœtus is especially endangered when the passages areattended with much bearing-down pain. In some exceptional cases, however, a slight diarrhœa seems to be beneficial, for every attempt toremove it appears to do harm; but these instances are very rare. 

The _treatment_ required is a simple, and must be a cautious one. Ordinarily no medicine will be needed. If the patient will merelyconfine herself to milk and arrowroot and rice for twenty-four hours acure will be effected in mild cases. When it is apparent that the attackhas been caused by improper food, a table-spoonful of castor-oil or atea-spoonful or two of tincture of rhubarb will remove the offendingmaterial in the bowels, upon the presence of which the diarrhœa depends. A small injection of a tea-spoonful of rice water and thirty or fortydrops of laudanum will often speedily arrest the excessive discharges, and relieve the pain. 

CONSTIPATION. 

No woman while pregnant should allow several days to elapse without amovement from the bowels. The symptoms of constipation, slight at theoutset, soon cause great inconvenience. Among the effects, which, sooneror later, show themselves, may be feverishness, sleeplessness, headache, distressing dreams, sickness at the stomach, severe bearing-down pains, and piles. 

Medicines are rarely required in the treatment of constipation, and thepregnant woman should never take an active purgative, excepting undermedical advice. Outdoor exercise and regularity in soliciting nature'scalls, together with a change in the diet, will usually have the desiredeffect. Brown bread, wheaten grits, oatmeal gruel, ripe fruits, freshvegetables, stewed prunes, or prunes soaked in olive oil, baked apples, figs, tamarinds, honey, and currant jelly, are all laxative articleswhich should be tried. 

In some instances a tumbler of cold water drunk the last thing at night, and another the first thing in the morning, will act in a mostsatisfactory manner. If the constipation should resist these safe andhomely remedies, which will rarely be found the case, then medicalassistance should be called in. On no account should the wife herself, or in accordance with the counsel of any non-medical friend, resort topurgative drugs. 

COUGH. 

A troublesome cough sometimes affects delicate, nervous women during theearly months of pregnancy. If it be not very frequent nor severe, itrequires no attention, as it will pass away of itself in a short time. When, however, it disturbs the sleep at night, renders the patientanxious, and causes headache and weariness, it is time to do somethingfor it. It may, indeed, be so violent as to threaten abortion on accountof the forcible concussion of the abdomen it produces. 

A tea-spoonful of paregoric occasionally repeated during the day will befound a most efficient soothing remedy. 

WAKEFULNESS. 

Sleeplessness, always distressing, is particularly so to pregnant women. If prolonged, it leads to serious consequences. It should receive, therefore, the most prompt attention. 

The _causes_ of sleeplessness during pregnancy are numerous. Dyspepsiais one of them. Whenever indigestion is present the diet should be plainand simple, and everything avoided which produces heartburn, sourness, or flatulency. It is important also not to take tea or coffee late inthe afternoon or evening--a late cup of either being a frequent cause initself of sleeplessness. 

Sometimes the reason for the wakefulness will be found in a want ofexercise or too constant confinement to closely-heated rooms. Or, it maybe that exciting novels are read late in the evening. Perhaps theevening meal is too heavy and taken too late. 

The _treatment_ of sleeplessness consists first, of course in theremoval of the apparent cause. The patient should have a regular hourfor retiring, which should be an early one. The bed-room should bequiet, well ventilated, and slightly warmed. The bed coverings must notbe too heavy nor the pillows too high. 

A warm bath of the temperature of 90 to 96 degrees Fahrenheit, takenjust before going to bed, often invites sleep. A rapid sponging of thebody with warm water may have the same effect. A tumbler of cold water, when the skin is hot and dry, swallowed at bed-time, sometimes affordsrelief. If the bowels are constipated relief should be sought in themanner we have just mentioned in speaking of constipation. 

When there is nervous excitement at night, and the means we have advisedfail to propitiate 'nature's soft nurse, ' there is a sedative medicinewhich may be used with safety and effect--it is bromide of potassium. The same proportion which we have given for the treatment of morningsickness (see page 355) may be now used. Have the three-ounce mixtureput up by the druggist, and take a dessert-spoonful or a table-spoonfuljust before bed-time. It frequently acts almost as if by magic. On noaccount should recourse be had to opiates or dangerous sedative drugs. 

DISEASES OF CHILDBED. 

Childbirth being a healthful physiological condition, is usually neitherattended nor followed by mischievous results. Occasionally, however, themother suffers in consequence of the prolonged or difficult character ofher labor. The longer the labor the greater the danger to both motherand child. Thus childbirth pangs prolonged beyond twenty-four orthirty-six hours are much more apt to be attended with danger orfollowed by disease than those terminated within a few hours. 

The following aphorisms were laid down by the late distinguishedProfessor James Y. Simpson, namely:--

The mother is more liable to suffer under diseases of the womb afterlong than after short labors. The child for some time after birth ismore liable to disease and death, in proportion as the labor has beenlonger in its duration. First labors are longer in duration thansubsequent ones, and in a proportionate degree more complicated anddangerous to mother and child. Male births are longer in duration thanfemale births, and in a proportionate degree more complicated anddangerous to mother and child. 

Many tedious confinements, however, are happily terminated without theslightest injury to mother or child. Whenever the labor has beenunusually prolonged, unusual care and caution should be exercised in thetreatment of the mother and infant for many weeks after the event. 

One of the most distressing affections to which women are exposed fromchildbirth is

PUERPERAL MANIA. 

This is a variety of insanity which attacks some women shortly afterchildbirth, or at the period of weaning a child. The period of attack isuncertain, as it may manifest itself first in a very few days, or notfor some months after the confinement. Its duration is likewise veryvariable. In most instances a few weeks restore the patient to herself;but there are many cases where judicious treatment for months isrequired, and there are a few where the mental alienation is permanent, and the wife and mother is never restored to her sanity. 

The question has been much discussed, Whether such a condition is to beimputed to a hereditary tendency to insanity in the family, and alsowhether a mother who has had such an attack is liable to transmit toher children, male or female, any greater liability to mental disease. We are well aware what deep importance the answers to these inquirieshave to many a parent; and in forming our replies, we are guided notonly by our own experience, but by the recorded opinion of those membersof our profession who have given the subject close and earnestattention. To the first query, the reply must be made that in one-half, or nearly one-half, of the cases of this variety of insanity there istraceable a hereditary tendency to aberration of mind. Usually one ormore of the direct progenitors, or of the near relatives of the patient, will be found to have manifested unmistakable marks of unsoundness ofmind. In the remaining one-half cases no such tendency can be traced, and in these it must be presumed that the mania is a purely local andtemporary disorder of the brain. The incurable cases are usually foundin the first class of patients, as we might naturally expect. 

The likelihood of the children, in turn, inheriting any suchpredisposition, depends on the answer to the inquiry we first put. Ifthe mania itself is the appearance of a family malady, then the chancesare that it will pass downward with other transmissible qualities. Butif the mania arise from causes which are transitory, then there is noground for alarm. 

An inquiry still more frequently put to the physician by the husband andby the patient herself after recovery, is, Whether an attack at oneconfinement predisposes her to a similar attack at a subsequent similarperiod. There is considerable divergence of opinion on this point. Dr. Gooch, an English physician of wide experience, is very strenuous indenying any such increased likelihood, while an American obstetrician ofnote is quite as positive in taking the opposite view. The truth of thematter undoubtedly is, that where the mania is the exhibition ofhereditary tendency, it is apt to recur; but where it arises fromtransient causes, then it will only occur again if such causes exist. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF PREVENTION. 

Here, therefore, we perceive the importance of every woman, who has had, or who fears to have, one of these distressing experiences, being put onher guard against disregarding those rules of health the neglect ofwhich may result so disastrously. One of the most powerful of thesecauses is _exhaustion_. We mean this in its widest sense, mental orphysical. In those instances where mania appears at weaning, it isinvariably where the child has been nursed too long, or where the motherhas not had sufficient strength to nourish it without prostratingherself. It should be observed as a hygienic law, that no mother shouldnurse her children after she has had one attack of mania. The merenervous excitement is altogether too much for her. She must once and forever renounce this tender pleasure. We even go so far as to recommendthat no woman in whose family a mental taint is hereditary shall nurseher children. 

Anxiety, low spirits, unusual weakness from any cause, are powerfulpredisposing causes; and therefore in all cases, especially in thosewhere the family or personal history leads one to fear such an attack, they should be avoided. The diet should be nourishing and abundant, butnot stimulating. Cheerful society and surroundings should be courted, and indulgences in any single train of ideas avoided. As for directionsduring the attack, they are unnecessary, as to combat it successfullyoften tasks the utmost skill of the physician; and it will be for him togive these directions. 

WHITE-FLOWING. 

This affection, though not confined to married women, is quite commonduring pregnancy and after confinement. There are few married women whopass through their lives without at some time or other having sufferedfrom it. 

We will consider first that _form of white discharge which affectspregnant women_. It ordinarily comes on during the latter half ofpregnancy. Not only does it occasion much inconvenience, but it may, when copious, seriously weaken the system and impair the health. 

The best treatment consists in a regulated, but supporting, diet withoutstimulants, the avoidance of all marital relations, plenty of rest inbed or on a sofa, a warm hip bath every morning, and the use ofinjections. One of the best injections for this purpose is made byadding a table-spoonful of lead-water to a pint of water, and injectingthe whole twice a day, by means of a rubber, hard-ball syringe. As thissolution will stain the body-linen, due precautions should be taken. Instead of this injection, a small tea-spoonful of alum dissolved in apint of water and injected once a day may be used. 

We will now say a few words upon the _form of white-flowing whichaffects women after childbirth_. It is a common result of too frequentconfinements or of successive abortions. In women of a tendency toconsumption it has been observed that white-flowing is more apt to arisein connection with child-bearing. Prolonged nursing, resulting in greatdebility of the mother, often produces very profuse white discharges. 

In warm countries this affection is much more frequent than elsewhere. Moist and damp climates are said also to render women particularly proneto it. 

The _treatment_ must have regard to the general health of the patient. The mode of life must be regulated. A change of scene, if it can beprocured, is often of the greatest benefit. Baths are also very useful. They may be taken in the form of a 'sponge bath, ' or 'hip bath. ' If theformer be preferred, the patient should every morning, in a warm room, sponge the whole body, at first with tepid water and, after a time, withcold, the skin being well dried and rubbed with a coarse towel. Thehip-bath may be employed either of simple, or of salt, or of medicatedwater. It should be at first warm, and afterwards cold. The skin is tobe well rubbed after the hip as after the sponge-bath. The hip-bath maybe medicated with three or four table-spoonfuls of alum, or with aquarter of a pound of common household soda. 

In connection with this treatment, injections should be employed in themanner just directed for the white-flowing of pregnancy. 

MILK-LEG. 

This affection usually appears about ten days or two weeks afterconfinement. The first symptoms which show themselves are generaluneasiness, chills, headache, and a quickened pulse. Then pains in thegroin, extending down the thigh and leg of that side are complained of. Soon the whole limb becomes enlarged, hot, white, and shining. Feverishness and sleeplessness now naturally show themselves. 

The disease rarely lasts more than two or three weeks, although the limbremains stiff, perhaps, for a number of weeks longer. It is painful, butnot dangerous--rarely proving fatal. 

When one leg is recovering, the disease sometimes attacks the other, andruns through the same course. 

The treatment consists in enveloping the limb in turpentine stupes, followed by the application of poultices to the groin and a light dietat first. So soon as the severity of the attack is over, tonics and agenerous diet should be given. The limb is then to be painted withtincture of iodine, or rather a mixture of one part of the tincture ofiodine with two parts of alcohol, and afterwards wrapped in a flannelbandage. 

The term 'milk-leg' has been applied to this inflammation, for such itis, from the notion that in some way the milk was diverted from thebreasts to the limb causing the white swelling. It is scarcelynecessary to say this theory is entirely erroneous. 

INWARD WEAKNESS. 

Many, we may say most, married women whose health is broken down by somedisease peculiar to their sex, refer the commencement of their sufferingto some confinement or premature birth. Perhaps, in four cases out offive, this breaking down is one of the symptoms of a displacement of theinternal organs, --a malposition, in other words, of the uterus. This isfamiliarly known as an 'inward weakness;' and many a woman drags throughyears of misery caused by a trouble of this sort. 

It is true that these malpositions occur in unmarried women, andoccasionally in young girls. But it is also true that their mostfrequent causes are associated with the condition of maternity. Therelaxation of the ligaments or bands which hold the uterus in its place, which takes place during pregnancy and parturition, predisposes to suchtroubles. It requires time and care for these ligaments to resume theirnatural strength and elasticity after childbirth. Then, too, the wallsof the abdomen are one of the supports provided by nature to keep allthe organs they contain in proper place by a constant elastic pressure. When, as in pregnancy, these walls are distended and put on the strain, suddenly to be relaxed after confinement, the organs miss their support, and are liable to take positions which interfere with the performance oftheir natural functions. Therefore we may rightly place the greatertendency of married women to this class of diseases among the perils ofmaternity. 

Within the last fifteen years, probably no one branch of medical sciencehas received greater attention at the hands of physicians than this ofdiseases of women. Many hitherto inexplicable cases of disease, muchsuffering referred to other parts of the system, have been traced tolocal misfortunes of the character we have just described. Medical worksare replete with cases of the highest interest illustrative of this. Weare afraid to state some of the estimates which have been given of thenumber of women in this country who suffer from these maladies; nor dowe intend to give in detail the long train of symptoms whichcharacterize them. Such a sad rehearsal would avail little or nothing tothe non-medical reader. It is enough to say, that the woman who findsherself afflicted by manifold aches and pains, without obvious cause;who suffers with her head and her stomach and her nerves; who discoversthat, in spite of the precepts of religion and the efforts of will, sheis becoming irritable, impatient, dissatisfied with her friends, herfamily, and herself; who is, in short, unable any longer to perceiveanything of beauty and of pleasure in this world, and hardly anything tohope for in the next, --this woman, in all probability, is suffering froma displacement or an ulceration of the uterus. Let this be relieved, andher sufferings are ended. Often a very simple procedure can do this. Werecall to mind a case described in touching language by a distinguishedteacher of medicine. It is of an interesting young married lady, whocame from the Southern States to consult him on her condition. She couldnot walk across the room without support, and was forced to wear, atgreat inconvenience to herself, an abdominal supporter. Her mind wasconfused, and she was the victim of apparently causeless unpleasantsensations. She was convinced that she had been, and still was, deranged. 

The physician could discover nothing wrong about her system other than aslight falling of the womb. This was easily relieved. She at onceimproved in body and mind, soon was able to walk with ease and freedom, and once more enjoyed the pleasure of life. In a letter written soonafter her return home, she said, 'This beautiful world, which at onetime I could not look upon without disgust, has become once more asource of delight. ' How strongly do these deeply felt words reveal thedifference between her two conditions!

There is one source of great comfort in considering these afflictions. It is, that they are in the great majority of cases traceable to

CAUSES WHICH ARE AVOIDABLE. 

Most of them are the penalties inflicted by stern nature on infractionsof her laws. Hence the great, the unspeakable, importance of women beingmade aware of the dangers to which they are exposed, and being fullyinformed how to avoid them. This task we now assume. 

There is, we concede, a tendency in the changes which take place duringpregnancy and parturition to expose the system to such accidents. Butthis tendency can be counteracted by care, and by the avoidance ofcertain notorious and familiar infractions of the laws of health. It isusually not until she gets up and commences to go about the house, thatthe woman feels any pain referable to a displaced womb. Very frequentlythe origin of it is leaving the bed too soon, or attempting to do somework, too much for her strength, shortly after a premature birth or aconfinement. Not only should a woman keep her bed, as a rule, fornineteen days after every abortion and every confinement, but for weeksafter she commences to move about she should avoid any severe muscularexertion, especially lifting, long walks, straining, or working on thesewing-machine. Straining at stool is one of the commonest causes. Manywomen have a tendency to constipation for weeks or months afterchildbirth. They are aware that it is unfavorable to health, and theyseek to aid nature by violent muscular effort. They cannot possibly do amore unwise act. Necessarily the efforts they make press the wombforcibly down, and its ligaments being relaxed, it assumes eithersuddenly on some one well-remembered occasion, or gradually after asuccession of efforts, some unnatural position. The same reasoningapplies to relieving the bladder, which is connected in some personswith undue effort. 

Constipation, if present, must, and almost always can, be relieved by ajudicious diet, and the moderate use of injections. These simple methodsare much to be preferred to purgative medicines, which are rarelysatisfactory if they are continued for much time. When anything more isneeded, we recommend a glass of some laxative mineral water, whichshould be taken before breakfast. 

For the difficulty with the bladder we mentioned, diet is alsoefficacious. It is familiarly known that several popular articles offood have a decided action in stimulating the kidneys: for instance, asparagus and water-melon. Such articles should be freely partaken, andtheir effect can be increased by some vegetable infusion, takenwarm, --as juniper-tea or broom-tea. The application to the parts of acloth wrung out in water as hot as it can conveniently be borne, is alsoa most excellent assistant to nature. 

Similar strains on the muscles of the abdomen are consequent on violentcoughing and vomiting. Therefore these should be alleviated, as theyalways can be, by some anodyne taken internally. Any medical man isfamiliar with many such preparations, so that it seems unnecessary togive any formula, particularly as it would have to be altered, more orless, to suit any given case. 

OTHER CAUSES OF INWARD WEAKNESS. 

Women of languid disposition and relaxed muscles are frequently urged to'take exercise, ' and to 'go to work. ' Their condition sometimes excitescensure rather than commiseration, because it is thought that they donot exert, and thus strengthen, themselves as much as they should. Weare quite as much in favour of work and vigorous muscles as any one. Butoften it were the most foolish advice possible to give a woman, to tellher to seek active exercise. It is just what she should avoid, as it mayultimately give rise to that very trouble which, now only threatening, is the cause of her listlessness. Many instances are familiar to everyphysician of extensive experience, where a long walk, a hard day's work, a vigorous dance in the evening, or a horseback ride, has left behind ita uterine weakness which has caused years of misery. Especially afterconfinement or premature delivery it is prudent for a woman to avoid anysuch exertion for months and months. Moderate employment of her musclesin any light avocation, short walks and drives, fresh air, withjudicious exercise, --these are well enough in every instance, but beyondthem there is danger. We know too well that advice like this will soundlike mockery to some who read these lines. They have to work, and workhard; they have no opportunity to spare themselves; the iron hand ofnecessity is upon them, and they must obey. We can but sympathize withthem, and cheer them with the consolation that many a woman has borneall this and lived to a healthy and happy old age. Nature has surroundedthe infinitely delicate machinery of woman's organization with athousand safeguards, but for all that, the delicacy remains; and it isbecause so many women are forced to neglect their duties to theirownselves, that so many thousands walk the streets of our great cities, living martyrs. 

But no. We must modify what we have just written. In justice to our ownsex, and in all truthfulness, we cannot allow the blame to be removedaltogether from women themselves. They alone are responsible for one ofthe most fruitful causes of their wretchedness. The theme is athreadbare one. We approach it without hardly any hope that we shall dogood by repeated warnings utterly monotonous and tiresome. But stillless can we feel comfortable in mind to pass it over in silence. Werefer to the foolish and injurious pressure which is exerted on thelower part of the chest and the abdomen by tight corsets, belts, andbands to support the under-clothing; in other words, TIGHT LACING. 

Why it is, by what strange freak of fashion and blindness to artisticrules, women of the present day think that a deformed andill-proportioned waist is a requisite of beauty, we do not know. Certainly they never derived such an idea from a contemplation of thosemonuments of perfect beauty bequeathed to posterity by the chisels ofAttic artists, nor from those exquisite figures which lend to the canvasof Titian and Raphael such immortal fame. Look, for instance, at thatwork of the former artist, now rendered so familiar by thechromo-lithographic process, called 'Titian's Daughter. ' It is theportrait of a blonde-haired maiden holding aloft a trencher heaped withfruits. She turns her face to the beholder, leaning slightly backward tokeep her equilibrium. Her waist is encircled by a zone of pearls; and itis this waist we would have our readers observe with something more thanan æsthetic eye. It is the waist of health as well as beauty. Narrowerthan either the shoulders or the hips, it is yet anything than that'wasplike waist, ' which is so fashionable a deformity. With such awaist, a woman is fitted to pass through her married state with healthand pleasure. There is little fear that she will be the tenant ofdoctors' chairs, and the victim of drugs and instruments. Let women aimat beauty, let them regard it as a matter of very high importance, worthmoney and time and trouble, and we will applaud them to the echo. Butlet them not mistake deformity, vicious shape, unnatural and injuriousattitudes, and hurtful distortions for beauty. That not only degradestheir physical nature, but it lowers their tastes, and places them inæsthetics on a level with the Indian squaw who flattens her head andbores her nose, and with the Chinese woman who gilds her teeth, andcompresses her foot into a shapeless mass. True beauty is eversynonymous with health; and the woman who, out of subservience to thedemands of fashion, for years squeezes her waist and flattens herbreast, will live to rue it when she becomes a mother. Away, then, withtight corsets and all similar contrivances. 

Of a similar objectionable character are many of the devices whichignorant men connected with the medical profession urge upon the publicfor the sake of remedying curvature of the spine, restoring the figure, or supporting the abdomen. Not a few of such braces and supporters areseriously dangerous. A good brace, well-fitting, carefully adjusted, suited to the particular case, is often of excellent service; but themajority of them do not answer this description. Our advice is, that nogirl, and still more no mother, should wear one of these without it isfitted upon her by an experienced hand. We have known more than oneinstance where the binder put on after childbirth has been wronglyplaced, and pinned so firmly that it has resulted in producing fallingof the womb. This, too, should be sedulously looked after. 

All these are causes which are strictly under the control of the womanherself. They are therefore such as she should have in mind and be onher guard against. There are others, but they are less frequent, whichare beyond her power; and it would be labor lost, therefore, for us tomention them. 

Equally vain would it be for us to speak of the various means by whichdifficulties of this nature are removed. Probably no one branch ofmedical surgery has been more assiduously cultivated than this; and thenumber of supporters, pessaries, braces, and levers which have beenrecently brought before the medical profession for this purpose issimply appalling. There are women and men who make it their business tocarry them through the country and sell them on commission. Wedistinctly warn our readers against this class. They are almostinvariably ignorant and unscrupulous, rich in promises, and regardlessof performances. She who patronizes them will be sure to lose her money, and will be lucky if she does not forfeit her health also. 

The most we shall do is to give some advice how to treat such complaintson principles of hygiene. And indeed this means nearly one-half thebattle. For without these simple cares, treatment of any kind isuseless, and sure to fail; and with them, many complaints are remediedas well as avoided. 

THE HYGIENIC TREATMENT OF INWARD WEAKNESS. 

The first point we would urge is, that the woman who finds herself thusafflicted should seek to have such a position that she can _rest_. Ifshe is burdened with family cares, let her, if possible, diminish orescape them for a time. A rest of a month or two, not at a fashionablewatering-place, nor at a first-class hotel in some noisy city, but inquiet lodgings, or with some sympathizing friend, will be of greatadvantage. This she should obtain without travelling too far. Prolongedmotion in railway carriages is in every instance injurious. If it mustbe undertaken, for instance, in order to consult a qualified physicianor to reach some friends, the modern appliances of comfort, such asair-cushions, foot-rests, and head-supports, should be provided. Theycost but little, and to the invalid their value is great. No suchjourney should be undertaken at or near the time when the monthlyillness might come on, as the suffering is always greater at theseperiods. 

The pleasant associations which group themselves around a _happy home_are an important element in the treatment of diseases which, like these, are so intimately connected with the mind and nervous system. It willnot do heedlessly to throw such advantages away. When the home _is_pleasant, and rest can there be had, the patient, in the majority ofinstances, will do well to abide there. But when this is not the case, for any reason, be it domestic infelicities, in which the husband has ashare, --be it disagreeable relatives, or importunate and tediousvisitors, --then the sooner such a mental weight is removed or avoidedthe better. 

The _diet_ is a very common subject of error. It is popularly supposedthat everybody who is weak should eat a 'strengthening' diet, --meatthree times a day, --eggs, ale, and beef-tea to any extent. This is agreat error. Frequently such a diet has just the contrary effect fromwhat is expected. The patient becomes dyspeptic, nervous, and moredebilitated than ever. The rule is, that only that diet is strengtheningwhich is thoroughly digested, and taken up in the system. Frequently, wemay say in the majority of cases, a small amount of animal food, especially game, fowls, fish, and soups, with fresh vegetables, and ripefruits, will be far more invigorating than heavier foods. Pastry, cakes, and confectionery should be discarded, and great regularity in the hoursof meals observed. Stimulants of all kinds are, as a rule, unnecessary, and highly spiced food is to be avoided. There is an old German proverbwhich says, 'Pepper helps a man on his horse, and a woman to her grave. 'This is much too strong; but we may avail ourselves, in this connection, of the grain of truth that it contains. 

_Cleanliness_, in its widest sense, is an important element in thetreatment. Not only should the whole surface of the body be thoroughlywashed several times a week, but the whole person should be _soaked_ byremaining in the water for an hour or more. This has an excellenteffect, and is far from unpleasant. It was regarded in the days ofancient Rome as such a delightful luxury, and such a necessity, indeed, that every municipality erected public bathing establishments, withfurnaces to heat the water to such a temperature that persons couldremain in it for several hours without inconvenience. 

The use of public baths is almost unknown in this country; but, in placeof them, every modern house of even moderate pretensions has its ownbath-room, so that the custom of cleanliness might appear to be hardlyless general among all classes than in old Rome. 

The difficulty is, that so few people appreciate that to thoroughlycleanse the skin, still more for the bath to have a medicinal effect, itmust be prolonged far beyond the usual time we allow it. The Europeanphysicians, who, as a rule, attach much greater importance to this thanourselves, require their patients to remain immersed two, three, four, and occasionally even ten or twelve hours daily! This is said to havemost beneficial results; but who would attempt to introduce it in thiscountry?

Local cleanliness is of equal importance. This is obtained by meansof----

INJECTIONS AND IRRIGATIONS

of simple water, or of some infusion or solution. The use of the syringeas an article of essential service in preserving the health of marriedwomen should never be overlooked. Even when they are aware of notendency to weakness or unusual discharge, it should be employed once ortwice a week; and when there is debility or disease of the partsactually present, it is often of the greatest service. 

There are many varieties of female syringes now manufactured and sold, some of which are quite worthless. Much the most convenient, cleanly, and efficient is the self-injecting india-rubber syringe, which isworked by means of a ball held in the hand, and which throws a constantand powerful stream. They come neatly packed in boxes, occupying smallspace, and readily transported from place to place. Much depends onknowing how to apply them. The patient should be seated on the edge of alow chair or stool with a hard seat, immediately over a basin. The tubeshould then be introduced as far as possible without causing pain, andthe liquid should be thrown up for five or ten minutes. About one or twoquarts may be used of a temperature, in ordinary cases, a little lowerthan that of the apartment. Water actually cold is by no means to berecommended, in spite of what some physicians say to the contrary. Itunquestionably occasionally leads to those very evils which thejudicious use of the syringe is intended to avoid. 

No fluid but water should be used in ordinary cases. When, however, there is much discharge, a pinch of powdered alum can be dissolved inthe water; and when there is an unpleasant odor present, a sufficientamount of solution of permanganate of potash may be added to the water, to change it to a light pink color. This latter substance is mostadmirable in removing all unpleasant odors; but it will stain theclothing, and must on that account be employed with caution. 

We will add a few warnings to what we have just said about injections. There are times when they should be omitted, --as for instance during theperiodical illness, when the body is either chilled or heated, andgenerally when their administration gives pain. There are also somewomen in whom the mouth of the womb remains open, especially those whohave borne many children. In such cases, the liquid used is liable to bethrown into the womb itself, and may give rise to serious troubles. These should either omit the use of the syringe altogether, or obtainone of those which throw the water backward and not forward. Thisvariety is manufactured and sold by various dealers. 

_Irrigations_ are more convenient in some respects than injections. Theyare administered in the following manner:--A jar holding about a gallonof water, simple or medicated, as may be advisable, is placed upon atable or high stand. A long india-rubber tube is attached to the bottomof the jar, ending in a metallic tube, and furnished with a stopcock. The patient seats herself on the edge of a chair over a basin, introduces the tube, and turns the stopcock. The liquid is thus thrownup in a gentle, equable stream, without any exertion on her part. Noassistant is required, and the force and amount of the liquid can beexactly graduated by elevating or lowering the jar, or by turning thestopcock. When there is much debility, or when it is desirable to applythe liquid for a long time, this method is much preferable to syringing. The necessary apparatus can readily be obtained in any large city. Ithas, however, the drawback that the jar is large, and not convenient tocarry on journeys. 

We shall close this chapter on Health in Marriage by a few words on someof the _ailments to which mothers are subject while nursing. _

GATHERED BREASTS. 

Gathering of the breasts may occur at any time during the period ofnursing, but it is most frequently met with within the first threemonths after childbirth, and is more common after the first than aftersubsequent confinements. All women are more or less liable to it, butthose who are weakly, and particularly those who are scrofulous, aremost prone to its attacks. 

The _causes_ of inflammation of the breast are numerous. It may becreated by a blow or fall, by a cold, by mental excitement, byindiscretions in eating or drinking, and by moving the arms too muchwhen the breasts are enlarged, but its most common cause is undueaccumulation of milk in the breasts. Dr. Bedford is of the opinion thatin nineteen cases out of twenty it is the result of carelessness--ofneglect in not having the breasts properly drawn. 'For example, thechild may be delicate, and not able to extract the milk; or the nurse, in the gratification of some ancient prejudice derived from a remoteancestry, does not think it proper to allow the infant to be put to thebreast for two or three days after its birth. In this way, the milkducts become greatly distended, inflammation ensues, which, if notpromptly arrested, terminates in suppuration. '

Often the love of pleasure brings with it this punishment to the nursingmother who neglects her maternal duties. During an evening spent insociety or at the theatre the breasts cannot be relieved in the mannerrequired for the preservation of their health. 

Soreness of the nipples, which renders suckling painful, often leads themother to avoid putting the child to the breast as often as she should. It is only when forced by the pain in the over-distended parts that shecan summon courage to permit of their being emptied. This partial andirregular nursing is very dangerous, and cannot fail, in most cases, tolead to the very painful affection of which we are now speaking. 

No nursing mother is safe whose breasts are not properly and dailyemptied. If this cannot be done by the child, another infant should beapplied, or a small puppy, either of which expedients is preferable to abreast-pump, which, however, is much better than neither. If the tenderor chapped condition of the nipples interferes with free nursing, thiscondition must be promptly remedied. When undue accumulation of milk isthreatened gentle friction of the breasts with sweet oil and camphor isalso of service; and they should be supported by means of a handkerchiefplaced under them and tied over the shoulders. 

It must not be forgotten, however, that though _gentle_ rubbing affordrelief to the breasts when they are hard, knotty, and over-distended, any friction is injurious if gathering has actually commenced. In allcases, therefore, it is of importance to distinguish betweenover-distension (which may _lead_ to inflammation) and a condition ofalready established gathering of the breasts. This it is not difficultto do. In the former case the skin is pale, there is little or notenderness, and the hardness is evenly diffused over the whole of thebreast; whereas, when gathering has taken place there is a blush ofredness on some portion of the breast, which is always painful to thetouch, and which will be found to be particularly hard and sore in someone spot. 

The _symptoms_ of gathered breasts we have just described in part. Theseverity of the symptoms will depend upon the extent and depth of theinflammation. The affection is always ushered in by shivering, followedby fever and a shooting pain in the breasts. A small, hard, painfulswelling will be noticed in the breast even before the skin shows anysign of redness. This swelling increases in size and the sufferingbecomes very great and difficult to bear, preventing sleep andprostrating the whole system. The secretion of milk is suspended atleast during the first active stage of the disease. 

The object of _treatment_ is to prevent the formation of an abscess bysubduing the inflammation as speedily as possible. This is to be soughtfirst by keeping the breast as nearly empty as possible. For this reasonthe child should be assiduously applied to the affected rather than tothe well side, although suckling will be painful. Indeed, it is better, if it can be done, to procure an older child and let it keep the milkunder. When, however, the inflammation is fully established, the painwill compel the restriction of the child to the well side. Theapplication of warmth is both grateful to the part and beneficial. Thismay be done by means of poultices or fomentations, or by immersing awooden bowl in hot water and putting the breast, wrapped in flannel, within it. This latter means will be found an easy and agreeable one ofkeeping up the application of dry heat. The bowels should be brisklypurged by a dose of citrate of magnesia or cream of tartar. The dietmust be mild, and the breasts supported in a sling. If, in spite of allthese efforts, an abscess actually forms, the attending physician willdoubtless advise its immediate opening, to which advice the patientshould accede, as that is the course which will afford her quicker andmore effectual relief than she can hope for from nature's unaidedefforts at effecting a discharge of the pent-up matter. 

It is interesting for the mother to know that if her child bestill-born, or if unfortunately she be unable from any of the reasonsmentioned in our chapter on Hindrances to Nursing to give the breast atall to her child, she is not liable to gathering on this account. Thisis contrary to what might be expected. It is not the mother who isunable to nurse at all who suffers, but she who does so in anunsatisfactory manner and who fails to have her breasts properlyemptied. 

The first milk which makes its appearance in the breast towards recoveryfrom inflammation is likely to be stringy and thick, and should, therefore, be rejected before nursing is resumed. 

THE SINGLE LIFE. 

A few words, ere we pass to another branch of our subject, on thephysical relations of her who by choice or other reasons never marries. It is a common observation among physicians who have devoted themselvesto the study of woman's physical nature, that, in spite of those perilsof maternity which we have taken no pains to conceal, the health ofsingle women during the child-bearing period is, as a general rule, notbetter, not even so good, as that of their married sisters. Thoseinsurance companies who take female risks, do not ask any higher premiumfor the married than the unmarried. 

Various suggestions have been made to account for this unexpected fact. Some writers have pointed out that in many diseases marriage exerts adecidedly curative influence, especially in chronic nervous ailments. Chorea, for instance, or St. Vitus's dance, as it is popularly termed, has been repeatedly cured by marriage. As a rule, painful menstruation, which always arises from some defect or disease of the ovaries oradjacent organs, is improved, and often completely removed, bythe same act. There are, as is well known, a whole series ofemotional disorders, --hysteria, and various kinds of mania andhallucination, --which are almost exclusively confined to single persons, and only occur in the married under exceptional circumstances. Aninstance has lately been detailed in the medical journals by a Prussianphysician, of a case of undoubted hereditary insanity which was greatlybenefited--indeed temporarily cured--by a fortunate nuptial relation. Fewwho have watched a large circle of lady acquaintances but will haveobserved that many of them increased in flesh and improved in health whenthey had been married some months. An English writer of distinctionaccounts for these favourable results in a peculiar manner. Success, hesays, is always a tonic, and the best of tonics. Now, to women, marriageis a success. It is their aim in social life; and this accomplished, health and strength follow. We are not quite ready to subscribe to such asweeping assertion, but no doubt it is applicable in a limited number ofcases. Our own opinion is, that nature gave to each sex certainfunctions, and that the whole system is in better health when all partsand powers fulfil their destiny. 

Common proverbs portray the character of the spinster as peevish, selfish, given to queer fancies, and unpleasant eccentricities. In manya case we are glad to say this is untrue. Instances of noble devotion, broad and generous sympathy, and distinguished self-sacrifice, are by nomeans rare in single women. But take the whole class, the popularopinion, as it often is, must be granted to be correct. Deprived of thenatural objects of interest, the sentiments are apt to fix themselves onparrots and poodles, or to be confined within the breast, and witherfor want of nourishment. Too often the history of those sisterhoods whoassume vows of singleness in the interest of religion, presents to thephysician the sad spectacle of prolonged nervous maladies, and to theChristian that of a sickly sensibility. 

In this connection we may answer a question not unfrequently put to themedical attendant. Are those women who marry late in their sexual lifemore apt to bear living children than the married of the same age; andare they more likely to prolong their child-bearing period by theirdeferred nuptials? To both these inquiries we answer No. On thecontrary, the woman who marries a few years only before her change oflife, is almost sure to have no children who will survive. She isdecidedly less apt to have any than the woman of the same age whomarried young. If, therefore, love of children and a desire foroffspring form, as they rightly should, one of the inducements to marry, let not the act be postponed too long, or it will probably fail of anysuch result. 

THE CHANGE OF LIFE. 

After a certain number of years, woman lays aside those functions withwhich she had been endowed for the perpetuation of the species, andresumes once more that exclusively individual life which had been herswhen a child. The evening of her days approaches; and if she hasobserved the precepts of wisdom, she may look forward to a long andplacid period of rest, blessed with health, --honored, yes, loved with apurer flame than any which she inspired in the bloom of youth andbeauty. Those who are familiar with the delightful memoirs of MadameSwetchine or Madame Recamier will not dispute even so bold an assertionas this. 

But ere this haven of rest is reached, there is a crisis to pass whichis ever the subject of anxious solicitude. Unscientific people, in theirvivid language, call it _the change of life_; physicians know it as the_menopause_--the period of the cessation of the monthly flow. It is theepoch when the ovaries cease producing any more ova, and the womanbecomes therefore incapable of bearing any more children. 

The age at which it occurs is very variable. In this country fromforty-five to fifty is the most common. Instances are not at allunusual when it does not appear until the half century has been turned;and we have known instances where women past sixty still continued tohave their periodical illnesses. 

Examples of very early cessation are more rare. We do not remember tohave met any, in our experience, earlier than thirty years, but othershave observed healthy women as young as twenty-eight in whom the flowhad ceased. 

The physical change which is most apparent at this time is the tendencyto grow stout. The fat increases as the power of reproduction decreases. And here a curious observation comes in. We have said that when the girlchanges to a woman, a similar deposit of fat takes place (though less inamount), which commences at the loins. This is the first sign ofpuberty. In the change of life the first sign is visible at the lowerpart of the back of the neck, on a level with the bones known as the twolowest cervical vertebræ. Here commences an accumulation of fat, whichoften grows to form two distinct prominences, and is an infallible indexof the period of a woman's life. 

The breasts do not partake of this increase, but become flat and hard, the substance of the gland losing its spongy structure. The legs andarms lose their roundness of outline, and, where they do not grow fat, dry up, and resemble those of the other sex. The abdomen enlarges, evento the extent occasionally of leading the wife to believe that she is tobe a mother, --a delusion sometimes strengthened by the absence of themonthly sickness. Finally, a perceptible tendency to a beard at timesmanifests itself, the voice grows harder, and the characteristics of thefemale sex become less and less distinct. 

Some who are more fortunate than their neighbours do not experience theleast discomfort at the change of life. They simply note that at theexpected time the illness does not appear, and for ever after they arefree from it. These are the exceptions. More commonly, markedalterations in the health accompany this important crisis, and call forsedulous hygienic care. It is gratifying to know that nearly all thesethreatening affections can be avoided by such care, as they depend uponcauses under the control of the individual. Another fact, to which wehave already referred, is full of consolation. It is an unexpectedfact--one that we should hardly credit, did it not rest on statisticalevidence of the most indisputable character. The popular opinion, everyone knows, is, that the period of the change of life is one peculiarlydangerous to women. If this is so, we might expect that, if the numberof deaths between the ages of forty and fifty years in the two sexes becompared, we should find that those of females far exceed those ofmales. This is, however, not the case. On the contrary, the deaths ofthe males exceed in number those of the females. 

Hasty readers may draw a false conclusion from this statement. They mayat once infer that the change of life merits little or no attention, ifit thus in nowise increases the bills of mortality. This would be aserious error. All intelligent physicians know that there are in verymany cases a most unpleasant train of symptoms which characterize thisepoch in the physical life of woman. They are alarming, painful, oftenentailing sad consequences, though rarely fatal. All physicians are, however, not intelligent; and there are too many who are inclined toridicule such complaints, to impute them to fancy, and to think thatthey have done their full duty when they tell the sufferer that suchsensations are merely indicative of her age, and that in a year or twothey will all pass away. Such medical attendants do not appreciate thegravity of the sufferings they have been called to relieve. Says adistinguished writer on the subject, after entering into some details inthe matter: 'I would not dwell on things apparently so trivial as these, had I not seen some of the worst misery this world witnesses inducedthereby. ' Such a conviction should be in the mind of the physician, andlead him to attach their full weight to the vague, transitory, unstable, but most distressing symptoms described to him. 

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS. 

We shall speak of the various signs and symptoms which occur at and markthe change; and in commencing so to do, we call attention to aninteresting illustration of the rhythm which controls the laws of life. As in old age, when we draw near the last scene of all, we re-enterchildhood, and grow into second infancy, so the woman, finishing herpilgrimage of sexual life, encounters the same landmarks and stationswhich greeted her when she first set out. She obeys at eve the voice ofher own nature which she obeyed at prime. The same diseases anddisorders, the same nervous and mental sensations, the same pains andweaknesses which preceded the first appearance of her monthly illness, will in all probability precede its cessation. Even those affections ofthe skin or of the brain, as epilepsy, which were suffered in childhood, and which disappeared as soon as the periodical function wasestablished, may be expected to reappear when the function has reachedits natural termination. Therefore if a woman past the change noticesthat she suffers from bleeding at the nose, headache, boils, or someskin disease, let her bethink herself whether it is not a repetition ofsome similar trouble with which she was plagued before the eventfulperiod which metamorphosed her from a girl into a woman. 

So true is what we have just said, that in detailing the symptoms whichfrequently occur at the change of life, we could turn back to theprevious pages where we discussed the dangers of puberty, and repeatmuch that we there said as of equal application here. For instance, thegreen-sickness, _chlorosis_, is by no means exclusively a disease ofgirls. It may occur at any period of child-bearing life, but is muchmore frequent at the _beginning_ and the _end_ of this term. Hardly anyone has watched women closely without having observed the peculiar tintof skin, the debility, the dislike of society, the change of temper, thefitful appetite, the paleness of the eye, and the other traits that showthe presence of such a condition of the nervous system in those aboutrenouncing their powers of reproduction. The precautions and rules whichwe before laid down, can be read with equal profit in this connection. 

In addition to these symptoms, which in a measure belong to theindividual's own history, there are others of a general character whichbetoken the approaching change. One of them is an increasingirregularity in the monthly appearance. This is frequently accompaniedwith a sinking sensation, --a 'feeling of goneness, ' as the sufferersays--at the pit of the stomach, often attended by flushes of heat, commencing at the stomach and extending over the whole surface of thebody. The face, neck, and hands are suffused at inopportune moments, andgreatly to the annoyance of the sufferer. This is sometimes accompaniedby a sense of fulness in the head, a giddiness, and dulness of thebrain, sometimes going so far as to cause an uncertainty in the step, aslowness of comprehension, and a feeling as if one might fall at anymoment in some sort of a fit. 

This is not the worst of it. These physical troubles react upon themind. An inward nervousness, intensely painful to bear, is very sure tobe developed. She fears she will be thought to have taken liquor, and tobe overcome with wine; she grows more confused, and imagines that she iswatched with suspicious and unkind eyes, and often she worries herselfby such unfounded fancies into a most harassing state of mentaldistress. Society loses its attractions, and solitude does but allow heropportunity to indulge to a still more injurious extent such broodingphantasms. Every ache and pain is magnified. Does her heart palpitate, as it is very apt to do? Straightway she is certain that she has someterrible disease of that organ, and that she will drop down dead someday in the street. Is one of her breasts somewhat sore, which, too, isnot unusual? She knows at once it is a cancer, and suffers an agony ofterror from a cause wholly imaginary. 

Vibrating between a distressing excitement and a gloomy depression, hertemper gives way; and even the words of the Divine Master lose theirinfluence over her. She becomes fretful, and yet full of remorse foryielding to her peevishness; she seeks for sympathy, without being ableto give reasons for needing it; she annoys those around her bygroundless fears, and is angered when they show their annoyance. Infine, she is utterly wretched, without any obvious cause ofwretchedness. 

This is a dark picture, but it is a true one--inexorably true. Let ushasten to add that such a mental condition is, however, neither anecessary nor a frequent concomitant of the change. We depict it, sothat friends and relatives may better appreciate the sufferings of aclass too little understood, and so that women themselves, by knowingthe cause of such complaints, and the sad results which flow from them, may make the more earnest efforts to avoid them. 

Other symptoms are, a sense of choking, a feeling of faintness, shootingpains in the back and loins, creepings and chilliness, a feeling as if ahand were applied to the back or the cheek, a fidgety restlessness, inability to fix the mind on reading or in following a discourse, and aloss of control over the emotions, so that she is easily affected totears or to laughter. All these merely indicate that nature is employingall her powers to bring about that mysterious transformation in theeconomy by which she deprives the one sex for ever of partaking in thecreative act after a certain age, while she only diminishes the power ofthe other. 

EFFECTS ON THE CHARACTER. 

The effects on the character of this 'grand climacteric' are oftenmarked. Not unfrequently the woman becomes more masculine in thought andhabit, as has been admirably described by Dr. Tilt:--'There are almostalways while the change is progressing various forms of nervousirritability and some amount of confusion and bewilderment, which seemto deprive women of the mental endowments to which they had acquired agood title by forty years' enjoyment. They often lose confidence inthemselves, are unable to manage domestic or other business, and aremore likely to be imposed on either within or without the family circle. When the change is effected, the mind emerges from the clouds in whichit has seemed lost. Thankful that they have escaped from realsufferings, women cease to torture themselves with imaginary woes, andas they feel the ground grow steadier underfoot, they are less dependenton others--for, like the body, the mental faculties then assume amasculine character. The change of life does not give talents, but itoften imparts a firmness of purpose to bring out effectively those thatare possessed, whether it be to govern a household, to preside in adrawing-room, or to thread and unravel political entanglements. Whenwomen are no longer hampered by a bodily infirmity periodicallyreturning, they have more time at their disposal, and for obviousreasons they are less subject to be led astray by a too ardentimagination, or by wild flights of passion. '

Changes in the moral character also frequently show themselves, and fora time astonish friends and relatives. These shades of moral insanityall disappear in a little while, if there be no family tendency toinsanity to prolong and intensify them. 

THOSE WHO SUFFER MOST. 

Those women especially may anticipate serious trouble at this epoch inwhom the change at puberty was accompanied by distressful and obstinatedisorders, --those in whom the menstrual periods have usually beenattended with considerable pain and prostration, and those in whosemarried life several abortions or several tedious and unnatural laborshave occurred; also those who from some temporary cause are reduced inhealth and strength, --as from repeated attacks of intermittent fever, ordisorders of the liver and digestive organs. Still more predisposed arethey who are subject to some of those displacements or local ulcerationswhich we have mentioned in our chapter on Health in Marriage. It becomesof great consequence, that any such deviation from the healthy standardshall be corrected before a woman reaches this trying passage in hercareer. 

The constitution and temperament have much to do with the liability todisease and suffering during the change of life. Those of weakconstitutions sometimes fail of the necessary stamina to carry themeasily through the trials of this transition period. It has beenremarked that the _lymphatic_ temperament is the most favorable to aneasy change. Women with this temperament suffer less from nervous orbilious disorders, and quickly show signs of having been benefited bywhat has occurred. Those of a _sanguine_ temperament are more liable tofloodings and to head symptoms; but such disorders with them usuallyreadily yield to treatment. The _bilious_ temperament predisposes todisorders of the stomach and liver at this epoch; while the union of thenervous with the bilious temperament seems to predispose to mentaldiseases. The most suffering at this time of life is experienced bywomen of a _nervous_ temperament. 

The social position exerts an influence on the pain and the tendency todisease at this epoch. The poor who are forced to labor beyond theirstrength and who are exhausted by fatigue, anxiety, and want, suffermuch. So also do those who have recently been exposed to some greatsorrow. As the poet says:--

 Danger, long travel, want, or woe, Soon change the form that best we know---- For deadly fear can time out-go, And blanch at once the hair. Hard toil can roughen form and face, And want can quell the eye's bright grace, Nor does old age a wrinkle trace More deeply than despair. 

The occupations of women also have an influence upon the change of life. Washerwomen are said in particular to suffer more than others on accountof the exposure to which they are subject by their trade. Those who areconfined many hours a day in close or damp rooms are unfavorablysituated for passing through the various stages of the 'grandclimacteric. ' The rich, with plenty of time and means to care forthemselves, often blindly or obstinately create an atmosphere about themand follow a mode of life, quite as deleterious as the enforcedsurroundings of their poorer sisters. 

DISEASES AND DISCOMFORTS. 

In rather more than one out of every four cases the change of life iseither ushered in or accompanied by considerable flooding. When thisoccurs at the regular period, and is not in sufficient quantity to causedebility, and is not associated with much pain, it need not give rise toany alarm. It is an effort of nature to relieve the impending plethoraof the system, to drain away the excessive amount of blood which wouldotherwise accumulate by the cessation of the flow. When it is rememberedthat every month, for some thirty years of life, the woman of forty-fivehas been moderately bled, we need not wonder that suddenly to break offthis long habit would bring about a plethora, which would in turn be thesource of manifold inconveniences to the whole system. Therefore thisflooding may be regarded as a wise act of nature, and, as such, allowedto take its course so long as it is not attended with the symptomsmentioned above. When this is the case, however, the doctor should beconsulted, as then the bleeding may be from inflammation or ulceration, or even from that dreaded foe to life, cancer. 

Instead of finding this exit, the blood occasionally is thrown off bybleeding at the nose, or is spat up from the lungs, or is passed frombleeding piles. Due caution must be used about stopping such dischargestoo promptly. Rest, cool drinks, and the application of cold to theparts, are generally all that is needed. 

We have just spoken of cancer. This is a subject of terror to manywomen, and their fears are often increased and deliberately played uponby base knaves who journey about the country calling themselves 'cancerdoctors, ' and professing to have some secret remedy with which they workinfallible cures. It should be generally known that all such pretensionsare false. It is often a matter of no little difficulty, requiring anexperienced eye, to pronounce positively whether a tumour or ulcer iscancerous. These charlatans have no such ability; but they pronounceevery sore they see a cancer, and all their pretended cures are ofinnocent, non-malignant disorders. Cancers are more apt to developethemselves at this period. Their seat is most frequently in the womb orthe breast, and they are said to be especially liable to arise in thosewomen who have suffered several abortions or unnatural labours. Undoubtedly they are more frequent in the married than the unmarried, and they evidently bear some relation to the amount of disturbance whichthe system has suffered during childbirth, and the grief and mental painexperienced. For this reason a celebrated teacher of obstetrics insistsupon classing them among nervous diseases. The surgeon alone can curethem, and he but rarely. Medicine is of no avail, however long andpainstaking have been its searches in this direction. A touching storyis related in this connection of Raymond Sully, the celebratedphilosopher. When a young man, he was deeply impressed with the beautyof a lady, and repeatedly urged his suit, which she as persistentlyrepelled, though it was evident she loved him. One day, when he insistedwith more than usual fervor that she should explain her mysterioushesitation, she drew aside the folds of her dress and exposed herbreast, partly destroyed by a cancer. Shocked and horrified, but unmovedin his affection, he rushed to the physicians and demanded their aid. They replied they could give none. He determined to find a cure, if hehad to seek in all parts of the earth. He visited the learned doctors ofAfrica and Asia, and learned many wonderful things--even, it was said, the composition of the philosopher's stone itself; but what he did notfind, and what has never yet been found, was what he went forth toseek--a cure for cancer. 

At this time, too, tumors or swellings of the ovaries are apt tocommence. They are nearly always preceded by scanty or painfulmenstruation; and this, therefore, it is the duty of every woman, as shevalues the preservation of her future health, to remedy by every meansin her power. 

Generally, from the commencement of the change of life commences also asteady diminution of the sexual passions, and soon after this periodthey quite disappear. Sometimes, however, the reverse takes place, andthe sensations increase in intensity, occasionally exceeding what theyeven were before. This should be regarded with alarm. It is contrary tothe design of nature, and can but mean that something is wrong. Deep-seated disease of the uterus or ovaries is likely to be present, oran unnatural nervous excitability is there, which, if indulged, willbring about dangerous consequences. Gratification, therefore, should betemperate, and at rare intervals, or wholly denied. 

PRECAUTIONS AND REMEDIES. 

To guard against the dangers of this epoch, those general rules ofhealth which we have throughout insisted upon should be rigidlyobserved. If during the whole of her sexual life the woman has beendiligent in observing the laws of health, she has little to fear at thisperiod. Some simple remedies will suffice to allay the disagreeablesymptoms; and the knowledge that most of them are temporary, common toher sex, and not significant of any peculiar malady, will aid her inopposing their attacks on her peace of mind. When plethora, flooding, or congestion is apparent, the food should be light, chiefly vegetable, and moderate in quantity. Liquors, wines, strong tea, coffee, andchocolate should be avoided; an occasional purgative or a glass of somelaxative mineral water should be taken, and cool bathing regularlyobserved. Exercise should be indulged in with caution, and care taken toavoid excitement, severe mental or bodily effort, and exhaustion. If thesystem is debilitated, and the danger is rather from a want of bloodthan too much blood, nourishing food, tonic medicines, and perhaps somestimulant, are called for. When the perspiration is excessive, flannelshould be worn next the skin in the daytime, and a flannel night-dressat night. A tepid bath before retiring is also useful. The 'goneness'and other unpleasant sensations referred to the pit of the stomach maybe much relieved by wearing a well-made spice-plaster over the stomach, or binding there a bag of gum camphor; or if these fail, an opiumplaster will hardly fail to be of service. Internally, we think, nothingat all is needed; but as something must be taken, let it not be spiritsor wine, but half a tea-spoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in a fewtable-spoonfuls of water. There is too much of a tendency among somewomen to seek alleviation in intoxicating compounds, 'bitters, ''tonics, ' and so forth, at such times. They can only result in injury, and should be shunned. The pains in the back and loins oftenexperienced, can generally be removed by rubbing the parts with hotmustard-water and taking a gentle purgative, or by placing against thelower part of the spine a hot brick wrapped in a flannel cloth wrungout in warm water or laudanum and water. 

Once safely through this critical period, the woman has a better chancefor long life and a green old age than the man of equal years. Tables ofhuman life show this conclusively. With the sweet consciousness of dutyperformed, she is now prepared to assist others by intelligent advice, cheerful counsel, and tender offices; she can now surround herself withthat saintly halo of kind words and good works which wins a worthierlove than passion offers; and, passing onward to the silence of eternalrest, she will leave in the memory of all who knew her, pleasantimpressions and affectionate reminiscences. 

NOTES. 

P. 20. HERMAPHRODITES AND ASEXUALISM. --Rokitansky decides Hohmann to bea case of _hermaphrodita vera lateralis_, and all who examine her saythe same. See _Wiener Medicin. Wochenschrift_, October, 1868, and the_Medical and Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xix. P. 487. A marked case ofasexualism, proven so by a _post mortem_ examination, is reported in the_Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal_ for April, 1869, p. 338; andanother in the _Medical Times and Gazette_ of about the same date. Wemight refer to many more recent and authentic cases. 

P. 25. AGE OF PUBERTY. --See case by Dr. T. H. Twiner, in the _Richmondand Louisville Medical Journal_, March, 1869, Raciborski, _De laMenstruation et de l'Age Critique chez la Femme_, p. 130. The quotation(p. 26) is from Dr. Edward Smith, _Cyclical Changes in Health andDisease_, --a profound work. Raciborski is the principal authority forthis and the following section. Our own inquiries fully confirm hisstatements. 

P. 32. INFLUENCE OF THE MOON ON MENSTRUATION. --On this question, see theresearches of M. Parchappe, _Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences_, tom. Xvi. P. 550. See also Dr. Shrye, _Tractatus de Fluxu Menstruo_, inthe _Acta Lipsiensia_ for 1686, p. 111; Dr. W. Charleton, _InquisitioPhysica de Causis Catameniorum_, p. 78; and Galen, _De DiebusDecretoriis_, lib. Iii. , for other curious particulars. 

P. 37. CHLOROSIS. --For the pathology of this disease, see Dr. GaillardThomas, _Diseases of Women_, p. 625, and Dr. C. H. Bauer, in the_Weiner Medicin. Zeitung_, No. 33, 1868. Occasionally the change atpuberty leads to an affection very closely resembling typhoid fever, butwhich is strictly due to the sexual crisis; and often goitre commencesat this period. See a review of Raciborski, in the _Bulletin deTherapeutique_, June, 1869. 

P. 39. MASTURBATION IN GIRLS. --See Miss Catherine E. Beecher, _Lettersto the People on Health and Happiness_, p. 159. The late medicalliterature on the subject is abundant. See _Ueber die Behandlung derMasturbation bei kleinen Mädchen, Journal jür Kinderkrankheiten_, Bd. Li. P. 360; H. R. Storer, _Western Journal of Medicine_, July, 1868; and_Journal of the Gynecological Society_, vol. I. No. 1. 

Pp. 50, 51. PREMATURE MARRIAGES. --See Dr. Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility_, etc. , p. 241; Reich, _Natur und Gesundheitslehre desEhelichen Lebens_, p. 518. 

P. 56. HOLY LOVE. --The distinction between [Greek: haghapê] and [Greek:irhôhê] is too familiar to all scholars to need extended mention. SeeTrench, _Synonyms of the New Testament, sub voce. _

Pp. 57, 58. SINGLE LIFE IN ITS RELATION TO SANITY AND MORTALITY. --Theextraordinary statements in the text are vouched for by Dr. Casper, _Medicinische Statistik_, vol. Ii. P. 164, and Dr. Reich, _Geschichte, Natur, und Gesundheitslehre des Ehelichen Lebens_, pp. 510, 511. We havecompared the reports of a number of asylums for the insane, and find theproportions very nearly as great as stated by these authorities. 

P. 70. INTERMARRIAGE OF RELATIVES. --The view we advocate on this point, we know, is neither the received nor the popular one. In the middle agesit was forbidden to intermarry within the seventh degree ofconsanguinity; but this and all other regulations were based ontheological and political, not physiological, grounds. Among others, Dr. Nathan Allen has insisted on the danger of consanguineous marriages(_Journal of Psychological Medicine_, Volume ii). But other very carefuland recent students adopt the view of our text: for instance, Dr. F. J. Behrend, _Journal für Kinderkrankheiten_, December, 1868, p. 316; Dr. A. Voisin, in the reports of the _Paris Académie de Médecin_, 1864, 1865, and 1868; and Dr. H. Gaillard, in the last edition (1868) of the_Dictionnaire de Médecine et de Chirurgie Pratique_. All the statementsin the text are supported with incontrovertible evidence by thesewriters. If we are asked how to meet the seemingly alarming array ofallegations by Dr. Bemiss, the Kentucky physician referred to in the_Transactions of the American Medical Association_ for 1859, we wouldrefer to Dr. Behrend's articles, where the researches of Bemiss areseverely criticised. For Dr. Edward Smith's assertion, see his _Essay onConsumption_, p. 244 (Philadelphia, 1865). 

P. 80. COMMUNICATION OF VENEREAL DISEASES. --Many instances are recordedwhere a drinking-glass, a spoon, a fork, or a handkerchief has infectedinnocent persons with these terrible diseases (see Cullerier, _Atlas ofVenereal Diseases_, p. 43). They are communicated from the male to thefemale, or from the female to the male, with equal facility, and eitherparent can transmit them to the children. The physician referred to isDr. Sigmund, in the _Humboldt Medical Archives_, 1868. 

P. 83. SYMBOLISM. --See Dr. Carus, _Symbolik der Menschlichen Gestalt_, the most scientific work ever written on physiognomy, phrenology, andallied subjects. 

Pp. 90, 91. --See Raciborski, _De la Puberté et de l'Age Critique chez laFemme_, p. 133; Tilt, _Uterine Therapeutics_, p. 315. 

P. 94. CONTAGION OF PHTHISIS. --See Dr. William A. Hammond's _Treatise onHygiene_, p. 438, for air-space required by a healthy person. Thecontagion of phthisis is maintained by many authorities--among others, Dr. W. W. Gerbard (see Pennsylvanian Hospital Reports for 1868, p. 266). Professor Castan has recently collected, in the _MontpelierMédicale_, a variety of facts, which seem to show that tuberculosis maybe communicated from a diseased to a healthy person by transpiration, breathed air, and living together (_Press and Circular_, March 10, 1869). In regard to the inoculation of tubercle, we have reference tothe well-known experiments of M. Villemin, of the Hôpital Val-de-Grace, Paris. In this connection we may record an instance of recent medicalheroism. M. Lespiaud, attached to the surgical department of theVal-de-Grace, in presence of several of his colleagues, extractedgranular matter from the body of a phthisical subject, and introduced itunder his own integument. This zealous investigator into the etiology oftuberculosis has thus exposed himself in a courageous way for thebenefit of science, to the effects of a most dangerous and mercilessdisease. 

P. 96. THE DIGNITY AND PROPRIETY OF THE SEXUAL INSTINCT. --Dr. EdwardJohn Tilt is the medical writer referred to (see _Uterine Therapeutics_, pp. 95, 313). See also Bosquet, _Noveau Tableau de l'Amour Conjugal_, vol. Ii. P. 2, etc. ; Rousel, _Système Physique et Moral de la Femme_, p. 211; Menville, _Histoire Médicale et Philosophique de la Femme_, vol. I. P. 36 et seq. ; Raciborski, _De la Puberté_, etc. , p. 45. 

P. 99. ON THE INDULGENCE AND RESTRAINT OF SEXUAL DESIRE. --Menville, vol. Ii. P. 91; Bosquet, vol. Ii. P. 280; _Economy of Life--or, Food, Repose, and Love_, by George Miles. Dr. Edward Smith, in his valuable work on_Cyclical Changes in Health and Disease_, has collected extensivestatistics showing the effect of the time of conception on the viabilityof the fœtus. The quotation is from Carpenter's _Human Physiology_, p. 753. 

P 103. See _Lancet_ for March 6, 1869, p. 337, for report of discussionin the Pathological Society of London upon the physical degeneracyresulting from procreation during intoxication. Authorities could becited at length upon this subject, but it is not necessary. SeeHuleland's _Art of Prolonging Life_, p. 207. 

Pp. 106-114. STERILITY. --For statistics referred to, see Dr. MatthewsDuncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility_ (Edinburgh, 1866), p. 181_et seq. _; Dr. Tilt, _Uterine Therapeutics_, p. 291; Dr. Edward Reich, _Gesundheitslehre des Ehelichen Lebens_, Th. Ii. 

Dr. J. Marion Sims, _On the Microscope as an Aid in the Diagnosis andTreatment of Sterility_, _New York Medical Journal_, January 1869, p. 406; Charles Darwin, _The Variation of Animals and Plants underDomestication_, vol. Ii. P. 198; _Philadelphia Medical and SurgicalReporter_, November 2, 1867, p. 384; A. Debay, _Hygiène et Physiologiedu Mariage_, p. 288 (Paris, Quarante-quatrième édition); Raciborski, _Dela Puberté_, etc. , p. 451; Virey, _De la Femme sous ses Rapports Phys. _, etc. , p. 332; Dr. Gunning S. Bedford, _The Principles and Practice ofObstetrics_, p. 107. 

P. 115. THE LIMITATION OF OFFSPRING. --We have taken great pains to avoidgiving false or dangerous impressions in this section. The references inthe order of quotation are:--Dr. Tilt, _Hand-Book of UterineTherapeutics_, p. 317; Dr. Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, Sterility, andAllied Topics_, pp. 289, 290; Dr. Hillier, _Diseases of Children_, p. 114; John Stuart Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_, p. 591; Dr. Drysdale, _London Medical Press and Circular_, December, 1868, p. 478;Raciborski, _De l'Age Critique chez la Femme_, p. 484; _The Nation_, June 1869; Dr. Edward Reich, _Natur und Gesundheitslehre des EhelichenLebens_, p. 493; _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, February 1867;_Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xix. P. 305;Sismondi, _Principles of Political Economy_, book vii. Chap. V. ; Dr. MacCormac, in _London Medical Press and Circular_, March 1869, p. 244;Dr. Gaillard Thomas, _Diseases of Women_, p. 58; _Leavenworth MedicalHerald_, April, 1867; Dr. N. K. Bowling, in _The Nashville Journal ofMedicine and Surgery_, October 1868. We have rather let others speakthan spoken ourselves, and have collected the opinions of many mostdistinguished physicians and statesmen, who thus pronounce againstexcessive child-bearing. Any intelligent physician will acknowledge theweight to be assigned to such names. 

P. 128. SIGNS OF FRUITFUL CONJUNCTION. --Carpenter, _Human Physiology_, p. 772; Dr. Gunning S. Bedford, _Principles and Practice of Obstetrics_, p. 304; Menville, vol. I p. 295; Montgomery, _Signs and Symptoms ofPregnancy_, p. 90. 

P. 132. INHERITANCE. --Darwin, _Animals and Plants under Domestication_, pp. 42, 473; Sir Henry Holland's _Medical Notes and Reflections_, p. 30;Pritchard, _Researches into the Physical History of Mankind_, vol. Ii. P. 551; Carpenter, _Human Physiology_, p. 779; A. Debay, _Hygiène etPhysiologie du Mariage_, p. 173; Fleurens, _De la Longévité et de laQuantie de Vie sur le Globe_, p. 256 (Paris, 1860); Hufeland, _Art ofProlonging Life_, pp. 91, 206; Hammond's _Hygiene_, p. 116; _AmericanJournal of Medical Sciences_, July, 1865, p. 82; Francis Galton, _OnHereditary Talent and Character_, in _Macmillan's Magazine_, vol. Xii. Pp. 157, 318; Madden, _The Infirmities of Genius_, vol. Ii. P. 107;_Lancet_, December 22, 1868, p. 825; _The British Medical Journal_, January 11, 1868, p. 25; Dr. Prosper Lucas, _Traité de l'HéréditéNaturelle_; Victor Hugo, _L'Homme qui Rit_, le seconde chapitrepréliminaire; Watson's _Practice_, p. 1153; Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, _Guide-Book to Florida and the South_, Pt. Iii. ; Dr. J. V. C. Smith, _Physical Indications of Longevity in Man. _

P. 163. PLURAL BIRTHS. --Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility_, p. 69; Ramsbotham, _System of Obstetrics_, p. 461; _Philadelphia Medicaland Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xix. P. 508, xx. P. 98. 

P. 167. PREGNANCY. --Menville, i. P. 299; Dr. Gunning S. Bedford, _Systemof Obstetrics_, p. 144 et seq. ; Montgomery, _Signs and Symptoms ofPregnancy_; Dr. Edward Rigby, _System of Midwifery_, p. 47. 

P. 180. MOTHERS' MARKS. --See a very interesting article by Professor Wm. A. Hammond, in _The Quarterly Journal of Psychological Medicine andMedical Jurisprudence_, January, 1868, p. 1, in which he says, inregard to the influence of the maternal mind over the fœtus _in utero_:'The chances of these instances, and others which I have mentioned, being due to coincidence, are infinitesimally small; and though I amcareful not to reason upon the principle of _post hoc ergo propter hoc_, I cannot--nor do I think any other person can, no matter how logical maybe his mind--reason fairly against the connection between cause andeffect in such cases. The correctness of the facts only can bequestioned: if these be accepted, the probabilities are thousands ofmillions to one, that the relation between the phenomena is correct. 'See also Dr. J. Lewis Smith, _Diseases of Infancy and Childhood_, 1869, p. 21; _Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xix. P. 359. 

Pp. 192-197. CONCURRENT PREGNANCIES. --Raciborski, _De la Puberté_, etc. , p. 491; Dr. Gunning S. Bedford, _System of Obstetrics_, p. 442; _Dict. Des Sciences Médicales_, t. L. Iii. ; _Lancet_, August, 1856, p. 131;Carpenter, _Human Physiology_, p. 779; Beck's _Elements of MedicalJurisprudence_, art. 'Superfœtation;' Rokitansky, _PathologicalAnatomy_; _Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter_, May 1, 1869, p. 335. --Professor Pancost removed some years since, from the cheek of achild some months old, a rudimentary second child. 

P. 198. CAN THE FŒTUS CRY IN UTERO?--Dr. Bedford Obstetrics, p. 264;_Lancet_, January 23, 1869. 

P. 199. IS IT A SON OR DAUGHTER?--_Philadelphia Medical and SurgicalReporter_, vol. Xvii. P. 495; Dr. Frankenhauser, in the _Monatschriftfür Geburtskunde_; Dr. Packman, _On Impregnation_, _Lancet_, July 18, 1863. 

P. 202. GARDNER PEERAGE CASE. --Dr. Bedford, _System of Obstetrics_, p. 299. 

P. 204. PROLONGED PREGNANCIES. --Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_, p. 586;_Report of Proceedings against the Rev. Fergus Jardine_ (Edinburgh, 1839). 

P. 207. CARE OF HEALTH DURING PREGNANCY. --Churchill, _On Women_, p. 451;Menville, ii. 114; Tilt's _Elements of Health_, p. 271. 

P. 236. TO HAVE LABOR WITHOUT PAIN. --Professor T. Gaillard Thomas says, 'The rule should be to employ an anæsthetic in every case of labor, _during the second stage_, unless some contra-indication exists. After adelivery, under its influence patients recover more rapidly, are freerfrom complications, and show fewer signs of prostration. ' See _Lectureon the Management of Women after Parturition_, in the _Richmond andLouisville Medical Journal_, February, 1869, p. 145. 

P. 238. WEIGHT AND LENGTH OF NEW-BORN CHILDREN--_Philadelphia Medicaland Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xix. P. 388; Carpenter, _Human Physiology_, p. 810; Ramsbotham, _Obstetrics_, p. 111; _Detroit Review of Medicineand Pharmacy_, March, 1869, p. 150. 

P. 271. THE CHILD. --Dr. J. Lewis Smith, _A Treatise on the Diseases ofInfancy and Childhood_, 1869, p. 28 _et seq. _; Dr. Thomas Hillier, _Clinical Treatise on the Diseases of Children_, p. 17; Dr. EdwardSmith, _Cyclical Changes in Health and Disease_; Dr. John Marshall, _Outlines of Physiology, Human and Comparative_, pp. 761, 765, 998; Dr. Charles A. Cameron, _Lectures on the Preservation of Health_, 1868, p. 174; Dr. Charles J. B. Williams, _Principles of Medicine_, p. 480; Dr. J. Forsyth Meigs, _Diseases of Children_; Dr. E. J. Tilt, _Elements ofHealth and Principles of Female Hygiene_, p. 50 _et seq. _; Dr. AndrewCombe, _The Management of Infancy_, p. 73 _et seq. _ (ninth ed. Edinburgh, 1860), _Report of Board of Health of Philadelphia_ for 1868, p. 43; _British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review_, April 1868, pp. 382, 454; _Southern Journal of the Medical Sciences_, November, 1867, p. 555; Dr. Thomas Hawkes Tanner, _Practice of Medicine_, p. 108; Dr. William A. Hammond, _Treatise on Hygiene_, p. 95 _et seq. _;_Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter_, vol. Xvi. P. 530, xix. Pp. 37, 59, 119, 134, 382; Edward C. Seaton, M. D. , _A Hand-Book ofVaccination_; Professor J. B. Fonssagrives, _L'Education Physique desFilles; Le Rôle des meres dans les maladies des Enfants_; Sir James Y. Simpson, _Selected Obstetrical and Gynecological Works_, etc. , etc. 

INDEX. 

Abdomen, changes in, during pregnancy, 173 pain in, during pregnancy, 355

Abortion, crime of, how to stop, 122 evils of, 123

Advantages of the games and plays of children, 314

Advice to wives who desire to have children, 113

After birth, 230

Age of husband, 75 nubility, 50 puberty, 23, 25

Air and ventilation during infancy, 307

Air space required in bed-room, 94

Anger, effect of, on the mother's milk, 252

Appetite, depraved, a sign of pregnancy, 175

Approaching labor, signs of, 223

Arrowroot, how to prepare, for children, 275, 291

Articles wanted for confinement, 221

Atavism explained, 133

Attendants during confinement, hints for, 229

Avoidance of hereditary tendencies, 151

'Bad-getting-up, ' causes of, 241

Bandage after confinement, how to make, 221 how to apply, 230

Barrenness, its causes and cure, 106

Bath, hour of, for infants, 303 drying of the skin after, 304 during pregnancy, 212 value of, in infantile diseases, 305

Beautiful children, how to have, 140

Beauty, inheritance of, 135

Bedroom, size of, for the married, 94

Bed-wetting, causes and cure, 337

Bed, for married persons, 95 clothing, 96 the most healthful, 95 in confinement, how to 'dress it', 222

Binder, how to make, 221

Births, relative proportion of male to female, 54

Blondes, age of puberty of, 28

Boarding school life, effect of, on girls, 47, 289

Body, changes in, at puberty, 30 symbolism of, 83

Bowel complaints of children, 339

Boys, more born than girls, 154

Braces, abdominal, 376

Breasts, attention required towards the end of pregnancy, 219 changes in, during pregnancy, 170 first application of child to, 232 inflammation and abscess of, 382 management after confinement, 246

Bringing up by hand, 274

Brunettes, age of puberty of, 28

Care of infancy, 271

Carrying an infant, manner of, 309

Celibacy not chastity, 57 results of, 58

Change of life, regimen and perils of, 389

Changes, the monthly, precautions during, 45 precautions in the intervals of, 46 when delayed, 48 painful, 49 worked by puberty, 30

Child, the, 271 attention to, at birth, 231 can it cry before birth?, 198 education, of before birth, 191

Child-bearing, excessive, 115

Childbed, diseases of, 361 mortality of, 237

Childbirth, imprudence after, 240 preparations for, 219 to preserve form after, 242

Children, bathing of, 303 bed for, 297 clothing of, 300 decreased number of, 73 diet for, 288 new-born, weight and length of, 238 three and more at a birth, 164

Children's diseases, home management of, 325

Chlorosis, 36

Choice of a husband, 69

City life, effect of, on puberty, 29, 47

Cleanliness, curative influence of, 378 importance of, to wives, 131

Climate, effect of, on puberty, 27

Clothing at puberty, 43 at confinement, 227 during pregnancy, 209 of new-born infants, 222 of young children, 300

Cold, effect of, on infants, 300

Color of infant, influence of mind of mother on, 182

Completion of puberty, 32

Complexion, 136 inheritance of, 125

Conception, is it possible during pregnancy?, 192 nature of, 125 signs of, 128

Confinement, bed for, 226 day of, how to calculate, 206 dress for, 227 hints for attendants at, 229 imprudence after, 240 preparations for, 219

Constipation of pregnancy, 358

Constitution, effect of the, on puberty, 21 on change of life, 398

Consumption, 41, 71, 94, 148, 151

Continence demanded from husbands, 121

Cough of pregnancy, 359

Count, how to make the, 206

Country life, effect of, on puberty, 29

Courtship, 65

Cousins, shall they marry?, 69

Crime of abortion, 122

Croup, home treatment of, 325

Culture of the skin, 306

Dangers of puberty, 35

Daughters, influenced by fathers, 144

Deformities, are they hereditary?, 139

Degeneracy, cause of, 349 of the human race, a query, 348

Diet for infants, 274, 288 children, 292 the pregnant, 208

Diarrhœa during pregnancy, 357 of infants, 339

Directions for mothers who cannot nurse their own children, 267

Dignity and propriety of the sexual instinct, 96

Disease, communication of, 80

Diseases, hereditary, 148 of children, home management of, 325 of wives and mothers, 352

Distinction of the sexes, 18

Divorce, unnatural and improper, 63

Dress, attention to, during pregnancy, 209 for confinement, 227

Dressing of the new-born child, 231

Drying up of the milk, 258, 279

Duration of labor, 239

Dyspepsia of children, 342

Ear, the hygiene of, in childhood, 323

Education, influence of, over hereditary qualities, 147 of the child in the womb, 191 special senses in children, 318

Emotion, influence of, on unborn child, 185

Emotions, stimulation of, effects of, on puberty, 29

Engagement, the, 85

Engagements, long, 86

Epilepsy, a cause of, 255

Eruptions of childhood, how to prevent, 106

Eternity of love, 60

Exercise at puberty, 42 during pregnancy, 210 of children, 309

Excessive child-bearing, 115

Eyes, the education of, in childhood, 319

Falling of the womb, 368

False labor pains, 225

Fathers, influence of, on daughters, 144

Feeding of infants, manner of, 291

Fertility, hereditary, 138 laws of, 109

First application of child to breasts, 232 cares to the child newly born, 231 mother after childbirth, 230 labors, 51 seven years of life, 314

Fits of children, home treatment of, 330

Flat nipples, how to remedy, 245

Food, during pregnancy, 207 of infants and children, 288 bill of fare for, 292

Foreigners, should native women marry, 73

Form, to preserve after confinement, 242

Frigidity, 109

Galen, anecdote of, 127

Games and plays, advantages of, 314

Gardner, Lord, the case of, 202

Garters, danger of, during pregnancy, 355

Gathered breasts, 382

Goftr, story of, 166

Government of children, hints on, 344

Green sickness, 36

Growth of children, 287

Habits, dangers and advantages of, 316

Hair, its significance, 84 transmission of, 137

Hardening of infants, dangerous theories on the, 303

Hearing, the training of, in children, 323

Head colds of children, home treatment of, 329

Health, care of, during pregnancy, 207 effect of pregnancy on, 216 in marriage, 351

Hereditary diseases, 148 qualities influenced by education, 147

Hermaphrodite, a true, 20

Hindrances to nursing, 245

Hints for attendants at confinement, 229

Home government, hints on, 344 management of some common children's diseases, 325 treatment of female ailments, 377

Husband, age of, 75 and wife, during pregnancy, 216 shall they occupy same room and bed, 93 character of, 79 how to choose, 69 retain the affections of, 130

Husbands, plurality of, 64

Hygiene of puberty, 41 the monthly periods, 45 pregnancy, 207 of infancy, 271 of the special senses, 318

Hygienic habits, importance of teaching children, 316 treatment of inward weakness, 377

Hysterics, 38

Imagination of mother, influence of, on unborn child, 186

Imprudence after childbirth, 240

Indigestion of childhood, 342

Indulgence and restraint of sexual desire, 99

Infancy, care of, 271 deaths in, 272

Infant, first clothing of, 222 washing of, 231 how to carry, 309 lift, 310 teach to walk, 313

Infants' food, 288

Inheritance, 132 how to avoid evil tendencies of, 151 how to have beautiful children, 140 influence of education over, 147 each parent over, 144 of beauty, 135 of diseases, 148 of longevity, 138 of mutilations, 149 of personal qualities, 139 of physical ", 136 of talent and genius, 141 of temperament, 137 late manifestations of, 151 the effects of, 151

Injections, 379

Injurious exercises for infants, 311

Intemperance, of several kinds, 117

Intermarriage of relatives, 69

Inward weakness, 368

Irregularities, causes of, 46

Irrigations, 381

Knowledge, safety in, 17

Labor, cause of, 225 duration of, 239 dress during, 227 false and true, 225 how to calculate time of, 170 how to have, without pain, 236 mortality of, 237 signs of approaching, 223 symptoms of actual, 224

Late manifestations of the effects of inheritance, 151

Late marriages, offspring of, 388

Length of pregnancy, 200

Liebig's soup for infants, 289

Lifting an infant, manner of, 310

Light, necessity of, for children, 308

Limitation of offspring, 115

Long engagements, 86

Longevity, hereditary, 138

Longings in pregnancy, 186

Love, at first sight, 67 differs from lust, 50 is a necessity, 57 is eternal, 60 its power on humanity, 52 what is it?, 54

Looseness of bowels in children, 339 during pregnancy, 357

Lying-in room, the management of, 226

Maiden, the, 23

Manner of feeding infants, 291

Mania, puerperal, 362

Marital relations, times to suspend, 103 when painful, 92, 104

Marriage, age for, 50 health in, 351 time of month for, 87 year for, 87

Marriages, second, 62

Maternity, duties and privileges of, 243 perils of, 352

Matrimony, necessity of, for happiness, 58

Matron, the happy, 243

Memory, visual, cultivation of, in childhood, 320

Men, as wet-nurses, 260

Menstruation explained, 24

Mental impressions, effect of, on hysterics, 39 on unborn children, 180 troubles of girlhood, 47

Milk, mother's, effect of anger on, 253 effect of retention in the breasts, 249 influence of diet on, 249 pregnancy on, 250 over-abundance of, 258 scantiness of, 259 quantity required by infant, 256 when poisonous, 252 value as food, 42

Milk-leg, causes and treatment of, 367

Mind, changes in, at puberty, 31 during pregnancy, 175, 214 influence of over conception, 126 nursing child, 251 unborn child, 182

Miscarriage, 176 causes and dangers of, 178 frequency of, 176 influence of age of mother on, 177 prevention of, 179 symptoms of, 180

Mixture of races by marriage, 71

Month, right time of the, to marry, 87

Monthly changes, precautions in the intervals of, 46 precautions during, 45 when delayed, 48 when painful, 49

Moon, connection of monthly periods with, 32

Morning sickness of pregnancy, 169, 353

Mortality of childbed, 237 comparative, of the two sexes in early life, 154

Mortality of infants, causes of, 271 relative to married life, 57

Mother, the, 243 diseases of, 361 duties of, towards daughters at puberty, 44 influence of, over sons, 144 position in nursing, 225 who is unable to nurse her child, 267

Mothers' marks, 180

Music, influence of, 99

Mutilations, are they inheritable?, 149

Native women, shall they marry foreigners?, 73

Near-sightedness, how to prevent, 322

Neck, form of, 83 its significance, 84

New-born babe, first cares for, 231 weight and length of, 238

Night dress of children, 301 covering of children, 298 the wedding, 91

Nipples, how to harden, 220

Nose-bleed in childhood, 333

Nubility, the age of, 50

Nursing, 244 care of health during, 263 diseases of, 382 hindrances to, 245 position during, 225 prolonged, 262 rules for, 248 when improper, 245

Nursing mother, qualities of good, 257

Offspring, the limitation of, 115 influenced by the mind, 126

Over-nursing, signs of, 265

Overlaying of children, deaths from, 273

Over-production, evils of, 115 remedies for, 121

Ovulation, the meaning of, 24

Painful monthly changes, causes and treatment, 49

Pains of labor, true and false, 225

Painless labors, how to have, 236

Parr, Thomas, the long life of, 139

Pendulous abdomen after confinement, how to escape, 242

Perils of maternity, 352

Persons of both sexes, and of neither sex, 20

Perspiration, fetid, 131

Phases, the three, of woman's life, 22

Piles, during pregnancy, 356

Plays, the, of children, advantages of, 314

Plural births, 163

Plurality of wives or husbands, 64

Position of child while eating, 294 of child while sleeping, 299

Position of mother while nursing, 255

Precautions necessary at the time of the monthly changes, 45

Precocity, remarkable instances of, 25

Pregnancy, 167 bathing during, 212 care of health during, 207 causes of protracted, 205 can a woman again become pregnant during, 192 clothing during, 209 diseases of, 352 double, 192 effect of, on the health, 216 exercise during, 210 food during, 208 influence of, on the milk of nursing mother, 250 length of, 200 relation of husband and wife during, 216 signs and symptoms of, 168 sleep during, 213 ventilation of sleeping-room during, 212

Premature marriages, 50

Preparations for confinement, 219

Prolific wives, 115

Puerperal mania, 362

Qualities transmitted by parents, 132

Quantity of milk required by infant, 256

Quickening, as a sign of pregnancy, 170 flatulence mistaken for, 172 how caused, 171 time of, 171

Race, the human, is it degenerating?, 348

Races, mixture of, 71

Relation of husband and wife during pregnancy, 216 nursing, 264

Relative age of man and wife, 76 proportion of men and women living, 153

Religion, mistaken notions of, 57

Rest, after delivery, 241 during pregnancy, 211

Re-vaccination, 286

Right time of the month to marry, 87 time of the year to marry, 87

Schooling, the, of the first seven years of life, 316

Scrofulous diseases, a cause of, 309

Second marriages, 62

Secret bad habits, 39

Self-deceptions regarding pregnancy, 172

Senses, training of the special, in childhood, 318

Sex of child, how to predict before birth, 198

Sexes, distinction of, 18 laws which determine the relative numbers of the, 155 persons of both and of neither, 20 production of, at will, 157

Sexual desire, indulgence and restraint of, 99 moderation in, 100 instinct, dignity and propriety of, 96 false notions about, 97 desire, influence of on offspring, 98

Sexuality, what it implies, 18

Sickness, morning, during pregnancy, 353 during labor, 225

Signs of approaching labor, 223 puberty, 30 conception, 128 over-nursing, 265 pregnancy, 168

Sight, the training of, in childhood, 319

Single life, the, 386 in its relation to sanity and mortality, 57

Skin, changes in, during pregnancy, 174 culture, of, in infancy, 306

Sleep, amount required in early life, 295 at puberty, 42 during pregnancy, 213 position in, 299

Sleeplessness during pregnancy, 360

Small pox, death rate from, 283 the only preventive against, 284

Son or daughter?, 198

Sore nipples, 246

Soup, Liebig's, 289

Sphere of woman, 21

Spinal disease, 36

Spring-time, 101

Spurious labor pains, 225

Stages of labor, 123

Starvation of girls, 41

Sterility, 106 how to remedy, 113

Still-births, 240

Stilling Jung, anecdote of, 67

Stimulation of the emotions, dangers of, at puberty, 29

St. Pierre, anecdote of, 78

Sully Raymond, anecdote of, 401

Swimming, benefit of, 306

Symbolism of the human body, 83

Syringes, and how to use them, 379

Talent, hereditary, 141

Teething, period of, 279

Temperament, transmission of, 137

Temperaments, explained, 77 influence of, 101 in marriage, 77

Things wanted during confinement, 221

Tight-lacing, 43, 374

Time of expected labor, how to calculate it, 206 of the year to marry, 87 of the month to marry, 87

Times when marital relations should be suspended, 103

Toilet, innocent arts of, 132

Tour, the wedding, 87

Toys, a mean of infantile education, 315

Twins, how to predict, 199 why born, 161

Twin-bearing, 160 influence of, on size of families, 163

Thury, Prof. , discovery of, 157

Unborn child, education of, 191

Vaccination, age for, 285 importance of, 282

Varicose veins of pregnancy, 355

Ventilation of sleeping rooms during pregnancy, 212

Virgins, wet-nursing by, 260

Voice, change in, at puberty, 30

Wakefulness of pregnancy, 360

Walk, how to teach a child to, 313

Washing of the new-born infant, 231

Weakness, inward, 368

Weaning, 277

Wedding tour, the, 87 night, the, 91

Weight and length of new-born children, 238

Wet-nurse, how to select, 269

Wet-nursing by virgins and men, 260

White-flowing, 365

Wives famous in history, 59 plurality of, 64

Woman, the three phases in the life of, 22 physical differences from man, 19 sphere of, 21 to be sought, 65

Womb, falling of, 368

Worms of children, home treatment of, 335

Women, diseases peculiar to, 352 treatment of, 377 why redundant, 153

Young wives, 50 mothers, 51

Year, right time of, to marry, 87

Zurich, curious custom in, 93

TESTIMONIALS

OF

EMINENT MEN AND OF THE PRESS

TO THE

PHYSICAL LIFE OF WOMAN

AND ITS AUTHOR. 

Of the _very numerous_ testimonials in our hands we select those ofearlier date in preference, as showing the acumen of the writers and thewarmth with which they welcomed the book. 

FROM WILLIAM A. HAMMOND, M. D. , Late Surgeon-General of U. S. Army; Professor of Diseases of the Mindand Nervous System and of Clinical Medicine in the Bellevue HospitalMedical College, New York. 

NEW YORK, Aug. '69. 

DR. NAPHEYS--

_Dear Sir_: I have read with much interest and satisfaction your veryadmirable book on "The Physical Life of Woman. " I am glad that thesubject has been taken up by one who shows himself so thoroughlyqualified for the task, and I trust the instruction and advice containedin the volume will reach every woman in the land. 

Yours, sincerely, WILLIAM A. HAMMOND. 

 * * * * *

FROM REV. HENRY WARD BEECHER. 

BROOKLYN, N. Y. , Sept. 1869. 

DR. GEO. H. NAPHEYS--

_Dear Sir_: I have examined your volume: "The Physical Life of Woman, "and desire to thank you for performing a work so long needed, sodifficult to perform, and now, at length, so well done by you. Everymother should have this book, nor should she suffer a child to bemarried without the knowledge which this work contains. Thousands havedragged through miserable lives and many have perished for want of suchknowledge. It is to be hoped, too, now that these delicate topics havebeen so modestly and plainly treated, that your work will supersede thescores of ill-considered and often mischievous treatises addressed "tothe married, " which too often serve the lusts of men under the pretenceof virtue. 

HENRY WARD BEECHER. 

 * * * * *

FROM REV. HORACE BUSHNELL, D. D. 

HARTFORD, CONN. , Sept. 1869. 

GEO. H. NAPHEYS, M. D. --

_Dear Sir_: I have read a large part of your book with interest. Ishrink from expressing any estimate of it as respects its physiologicalmerit, but it seems to be a book well studied, and it is written withmuch delicacy and a careful respect, at all points, to the greatinterests of morality. It will certainly be a great help to intelligenceon the subject, and ought, therefore, to be correspondingly useful. 

Very respectfully yours, HORACE BUSHNELL. 

 * * * * *

FROM HARVEY L. BYRD, M. D. , Professor of Obstetrics in the Medical Department of WashingtonUniversity of Baltimore, Maryland. 

BALTIMORE, Sept. 1869. 

DR. GEO. H. NAPHEYS, Philadelphia--

_Dear Sir_: I have examined with much pleasure and satisfaction yourwork on "The Physical Life of Woman, " and do not hesitate to commend itmost warmly to our countrywomen, for whose benefit it is intended. Icongratulate you on the felicitous manner in which you have treated sodifficult a subject, and would recommend it to the public as supplying awant that has long been felt in this country. 

_Omne verum utile dictu_, and what can be more proper or more usefulthan that woman should be made acquainted with the great laws of herbeing and the duties for which she was created?

Very respectfully, your obed't servant, HARVEY L. BYRD. 

 * * * * *

EXTRACT FROM LETTER RECEIVED FROM EDWIN M. SNOW, M. D. , OF PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. 

PROVIDENCE, Sept. 1869. 

DR. NAPHEYS--

_Dear Sir_: I have examined with much interest the advance sheets ofyour book, "The Physical Life of Woman:" I am highly pleased with it. The advice given seems to me to be generally correct, and judiciouslyexpressed; and, in my opinion, the wide circulation of the book would bea benefit to the community, Truly yours, EDWIN M. SNOW. 

 * * * * *

FROM REV. GEORGE ALEX. CROOKE, D. D. , D. C. L. 

PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 1869. DR. GEO. H. NAPHEYS--

_Dear Sir_: I have carefully read your work entitled "The Physical Lifeof Woman, " and, as the result, I must candidly say that I believe theinformation it contains is well calculated to lessen suffering andgreatly benefit the human race. I know there are some falsely fastidiouspersons who would object to any work of the kind, but "to the pure allthings are pure. " You have done your part fearlessly and well, and in apopular manner, and I trust that your work may be productive of all thegood you design by its publication. 

Very faithfully, GEO. ALEX. CROOKE. 

 * * * * *

OPINION OF LLOYD P. SMITH, Esq. 

Librarian Philadelphia Library. 

LIBRARY CO. OF PHILADELPHIA, FIFTH ST. BEL. CHESTNUT, PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 1869. 

It is an open question whether books de _secretis mulierum_ should bewritten for the general public; but there is no doubt that, when theyare written, it should be done by the regular faculty, and not byignorant quacks. Dr. Napheys' "Physical Life of Woman" shows not onlythe scientific attainments of the author, but also a wide range ofmiscellaneous reading. The delicate subjects treated of are handled witha seriousness and earnestness becoming their importance, and theauthor's views are expressed in excellent English. 

LLOYD P. SMITH. 

 * * * * *

OPINION OF S. W. BUTLER, M. D. 

Editor of the Philadelphia "Medical and Surgical Reporter. "

I have carefully examined "The Physical Life of Woman, " and find it awork at once thoroughly representing modern science, and eminentlyadapted for family instruction. It is well suited to female readers, towhom it is especially addressed both in the matter it contains and inthe delicacy with which points relating to their physiological life arementioned. 

S. W. BUTLER. 

 * * * * *

EXTRACT FROM LETTER RECEIVED FROM JOHN H. GRISCOM, M. D. 

NEW YORK, Sept. 1869. DR NAPHEYS--

_My Dear Sir_: The "Physical Life of Woman" is a very scientific andintellectually written work, and contains almost all the physiologicaland sanitary facts and directions needed for the preservation of thehealth and longevity of the maiden, wife, and mother. It must proveattractive and useful for any lady who reads it. 

Your sincere friend, JOHN H. GRISCOM. 

 * * * * *

FROM THE NATIONAL BAPTIST, PHILA. , DEC. 30, 1869

We join in the cordial welcome which this book has received. There is noother work which tells so well just what every woman--and everyconsiderate man also--ought to know. Maternity is the one great functionof woman, according to God's ordinance, and for this marvelous and holymission her physical, intellectual, and moral constitution has beendesigned. Dr. Napheys, in his wise "Advice to maiden, wife, and mother, "passes in review the cardinal facts respecting woman's physical life. The book is written in a very clear and simple style, so that no one canmisunderstand it, while there is nothing to disturb or offend the mostsensitive. A judicious mother would do her maturing daughters greatservice by first carefully reading this volume herself, and then havethem read it under her guidance. 

 * * * * *

OPINION OF MRS. R. B. GLEASON, M. D. 

ELMIRA, N. Y. , Sept. 1869. 

The advance sheets of "The Physical Life of Woman" have been read withmuch interest. In this book Dr. Napheys has well met a real need of theage. There are many things incident to woman's physical organizationwhich she needs to know, and concerning which she still does not want toask a physician, and may not have one at hand when she most desires theinformation. This book can be easily read and perfectly understood bythose not familiar with medical terms. All matters of delicacy aretreated with freedom, and still with a purity of thought and expressionwhich is above criticism. 

For many years we have been often asked for just such a book, and shallgladly commend it to the many wives and mothers who want for themselvesand grown-up daughters such a book of helps and hints for home life. 

MRS. R. B. GLEASON. 

 * * * * *

FROM PROFESSOR JOHN S. HART, LL. D. 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N. J. GEO. H. NAPHEYS, M. D. --

_Dear Sir_: I have read with attention the advance sheets of your book, "The Physical Life of Woman:" and take pleasure in saying that you havehandled a most difficult and important subject with equal delicacy andability. 

Yours truly, JOHN S. HART. 

 * * * * *

OPINION OF MARK HOPKINS, D. D. , LL. D. , President of Williams College. 

"Your book is conscientiously written, and will be likely to do good. "

 * * * * *

FROM THE N. Y. EVANGELIST, NOV. 18, 1869. 

This is a plain and practical treatise, prepared by a physician of skilland experience, in which he aims to furnish information to women, intheir peculiar conditions and relations, married and single, so as toenable them to preserve their own health, and perform their duties tothemselves and their children. The most delicate subjects are treated inlanguage so chaste as not to offend any pure mind. 

 * * * * *

OPINION OF DR. R. SHELTON MACKENZIE. 

PHILADELPHIA, Oct. 1869. 

"Believing that such a work as Dr. Napheys' 'Physical Life of Woman, 'giving a great deal of valuable information, explicitly and delicately, is likely to be of very essential importance to the fair sex, I cannothesitate to express my favorable opinion of its object and execution. "

 * * * * *

LETTER RECEIVED FROM REV. GEO. BRINGHURST, Rector of the P. E. Church of the "Messiah, " Philadelphia. 

PHILADELPHIA, Sept. 1869. DR. GEO. H. NAPHEYS--

_My Dear Sir_: I have perused with considerable care and pleasure thework on the "Physical Life of Woman, " and feel no hesitation inpronouncing it admirably composed, honest, succinct, refined, and worthyof the companionship of every lady of this age. I hail its appearancewith gratitude, and look upon it as a valuable contribution to thoseefforts which are making in various directions to elevate the tone ofmorals of the nineteenth century, and to enable mothers to dischargefaithfully the duties they owe their children. 

Sincerely yours, GEORGE BRINGHURST. 

 * * * * *

FROM H. N. EASTMAN, M. D. , Professor of Practical Medicine in Geneva Medical College. 

GENEVA, Sept. 1869. GEO. H. NAPHEYS, M. D. --

_Dear Sir_: I have just completed a careful reading of your advancesheets of "The Physical Life of Woman, " and I unhesitatingly pronounceit an admirable work, and one especially needed at this time. The bookis written in a chaste, elevated, and vigorous style, is replete withinstruction indispensable to the welfare and happiness of woman, andshould be placed in the hands of every mature maiden and matron in ourland. 

H. N. EASTMAN. 

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EDITORIAL FROM PHILADELPHIA MEDICAL AND SURGICAL REPORTER. 

It is a singular fact, that in this country, most of the works onmedical and hygienic matters have been written by irregularpractitioners in order to help on its legs some ism or pathy of theirown. The public is really desirous of information about the greatquestions of life and health. It buys whatever is offered it, and cannottell of course the tares from the wheat. In fact, as we have said, therehas been very little wheat offered it. Scientific physicians do not seemto have taken the pains in this country, as in Germany, to expand soundmedical information among the people. 

We therefore welcome all the more warmly a work which, under anycircumstances, would command our praise, advance sheets of which are nowbefore us. The author is Dr. George H. Napheys, of this city, wellknown to all the readers of the "Reporter" as a constant contributor toits pages for a number of years, a close student of therapeutics, and apleasing writer. The title of the book is "The Physical Life of Woman:advice to the Maiden, Wife, and Mother. " It is a complete manual ofinformation for women, in their peculiar conditions and relations, married and single. 

The style is simple, agreeable, and eminently proper and delicate, conspicuously so when treating of such difficult topics to handle in apopular book, yet so necessary to be handled, as the marital relationsof husband and wife, the consummation of marriage, etc. 

We do not doubt that this work will find as large a sale both in and outof the profession in this country, as the works of Bock and Klencke inGermany, and of Tilt and Chavasse in England. 

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FROM THE NASHVILLE JOURNAL OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY FOR NOVEMBER, 1869. 

The outside of this book is more stylish and artistic than any themarket has owed to the press this season. The type and paper of theinside are in keeping with the elegant exterior. The work contains muchvaluable matter, in a style peculiarly attractive. It is intended totreat woman as a rational being, to let her know much about herself as awoman, that from this knowledge she may prevent and therefore escapemuch of the suffering endured by her sex. 

And who can do this but a physician? This may be regarded as the firstattempt of the kind in this country. 

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FROM THE MEDICAL RECORD, NEW YORK, JAN. 15, 1870. 

Doctor Napheys, in his work on "The Physical Life of Woman, " hasacquitted himself with infinite credit. The subject, which for a work ofits size takes a very wide range, is treated in choice, nay elegantlanguage, and we have not noticed a single expression upon the mostdelicate matter that could offend the most refined taste. There are, too, a great many interesting historical facts connected with thegeneral topic, both in an ethical and physiological point of view, whichshow much discrimination in their production, and a good amount ofsterling scholarship. To the medical reader there are many points in thebook that are worthy of attention, prominent among which are remarksbearing upon the right of limitation of offspring. We sincerely hopethat, for the real benefit of American women, it may meet with a heartyreception, and be productive of great good, in preventing many of thosedisorders now so rife in the community, which are solely the result ofignorance of the ordinary laws of female hygiene. 

No one, however scrupulous, need fear to admit the work within the paleof his family circle, and place it, with confidence, in the hands of hisdaughters. 

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FROM THE NEW YORK MEDICAL GAZETTE, JAN. 8, 1870. 

Though professedly written for popular instruction, this little bookwill not fail to instruct as well the professional reader. We cordiallyrecommend the perusal of Dr. Napheys' book to every woman seeking afuller acquaintance with her physical organism. 

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FROM THE BOSTON MEDICAL AND SURGICAL JOURNAL, NOV. 25, 1869. 

Most valuable for the perusal of mothers, and of those fathers who maybe equal to the task of advising sons liable to commit matrimony. Thestyle--of the text--is unexceptionable. Words are not wasted, and thoseused are to the point. The volume is not a mere _resumé_ of others'opinions; but the author has made the topics of which he treats his own. 

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FROM THE CHICAGO MEDICAL EXAMINER OF NOV. 1869. 

This work is written in a plain and pleasing style, well calculated bothto please and instruct. There is nothing of the _sensational_ orimaginative character in it. On the contrary, its teachings are instrict accordance with scientific facts and good sense. Though designedspecially for females, yet a careful perusal would be productive of muchbenefit to both sexes. 

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FROM THE METHODIST HOME JOURNAL, DEC. 4, 1860. 

Hitherto, the subjects so honestly and so skilfully treated in thisvolume have, to a very great extent, been ruled out of the realm ofpopular knowledge, and information of this class sought only in aclandestine manner. The people have suffered by deplorable ignorance onthose topics, which should be as familiar to us as the alphabet. Dr. Napheys, by his scientific handling of the physiological points whichrelate to health, training, and development, has rendered a greatservice to the world. This, the press, and public men, have not beenslow to acknowledge. The book has gained unqualified praise, and welldeserves it. 

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FROM THE PRESBYTERIAN, OF PHILADELPHIA, DEC. 4, '69. 

A book which treats wisely and delicately of very important subjects, and subjects which ought to be treated by competent hands, instead ofbeing left to quacks and the venders of nostrums. Dr. Napheys isevidently a conscientious and intelligent physician, and his counselsare such as may be put in the hands of all persons needing suchcounsels. We commend it for its judicious exposition of the laws ofnature. 

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FROM THE NEW YORK CHRISTIAN UNION, JAN. 8, 1870. 

Society owes a debt of gratitude to this brave and scientific physicianfor the unexceptionable way in which he has performed a work that has, up to the publication of this book, been a paramount need, not to besatisfied anywhere in the English language. If the volume contained onlythe chapter on the influence of the mother's mind upon her unborn child, we would recommend its purchase by every family in the United States. 

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FROM THE PHILA. EVENING TELEGRAPH, OCT. 6, 1869. 

This is a work by a physician of reputation on the hygiene of woman, designed for popular use, and introducing a variety of topics notgenerally discussed outside of regular scientific medical works. Dr. Napheys writes with dignity and earnestness, and there is not a chapterin his book that may not be read by persons of both sexes. Of coursesuch a work as this is intended for men and women of mature years, andit is not suitable to be left lying about for the gratification of idlecuriosity. The author has been careful to write nothing that canpossibly give offence, and he conveys much sound instruction that, ifheeded by those to whom it is particularly addressed, will save muchsuffering. 

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FROM THE INDEPENDENT, NEW YORK, NOV. 11, 1869. 

It required a brave but sensitively pure man to provide for the wantwhich existed for some reliable medical instruction upon points whichevery woman and every married man ought to know, and few do. Dr. Napheyswe do not know personally. But his book is at once brave and pure. It iswritten in such a spirit that she who really desires to learn the truthsof which she cannot with justice to herself or others be ignorant, maydo so without being shocked; while he who hopes to stimulate a viciousimagination by its perusal will turn from its pages disappointed away. 

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FROM REV. HENRY CLAY TRUMBULL, Secretary of New England Department of Missions of the AmericanSunday-school Union. 

HARTFORD, CT. , Oct. 1869. 

GEO. H. NAPHEYS, M. D. --

_My Dear Sir_: Understanding, from my long acquaintance with you, yourthoroughness of mental culture, your delicacy of sentiment, and yoursound good sense, I was prepared to approve heartily the tone and styleof your new work, "The Physical Life of Woman, " when its advance sheetswere first placed in my hands. 

A close examination of it convinces me that it is a book which can beread by every woman to her instruction and advantage. Its manner isunexceptionable. Its style is remarkably simple. Its substance evidencesyour professional knowledge and your extensive study. I believe it needsonly to be brought to notice to commend itself widely. I think you havedone an excellent work in its preparation. 

Sincerely your friend, H. CLAY TRUMBULL. 

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FROM THE REV. W. H. H. MURRAY, Pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston, Mass. 

DEC. 2, 1871. 

It is with sincere gratitude to the author that I give my endorsement tothe book entitled "The Physical Life of Woman. " Never was such a workmore needed anywhere, or in any age, than it is in America at this time. I should rejoice at its introduction among the people until every wifeand mother in the country and the world had a copy in her possession. Init the author has indeed given needed instruction and warning. Hedeserves the thanks of every Christian and well-wisher of the race. 

W. H. H. MURRAY.