THE ORIGIN AND PERMANENT VALUE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

BY

CHARLES FOSTER KENT, PH. D. 

WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY

 "Ye shall know the Truth and the Truth shall make you free"

PREFACE

During the past generation the Old Testament has commanded equally withthe New the enthusiastic and devoted study of the great body of biblicalscholars throughout the world. Two out of every three graduate studentsin our universities who specialize in the general field of biblicalliterature choose the Old as the special centre of their work. At thesame time the tendency of the rank and file of the Christian churchwithin the past decade has undoubtedly been to neglect the olderTestament. Preachers as a rule select less than a fourth of their textsfrom it; the prevailing courses of Bible study devote proportionatelyless time to it; and teachers and scholars in the great majority ofcases turn to the Old Testament with much less enthusiasm than theydo to the New. Why are these two great currents setting in oppositedirections, and what are the causes of the present popular neglect ofthe Old Testament? If the Old Testament should be relegated to a secondplace in our working canon of the Bible, let us frankly and carefullydefine our reasons. If, on the other hand, the prevailing apathy andneglect are due to ignorance of the real character and value of the OldTestament, let as lose no time in setting ourselves right. 

The present volume has been suggested by repeated calls from ministerialbodies, popular assemblies, and groups of college students for addresseson the themes here treated. The aim has been to give in concise, popularform answers to some of the many questions thus raised, with theconviction that they are in the mind of every thoughtful man and womanto-day, and especially on the lips of earnest pastors, missionaries, and Sunday-school teachers. There are indications on every side ofa deepening and far more intelligent interest in the needs andpossibilities of religious education. Its vital importance to the lifeof the Church and the nation is being understood as never before. Earnest and fruitful efforts are being put forth to improve the methodsand courses of instruction. The first essential, however, is a trueunderstanding and appreciation of that Book of Books, which willforever continue to be the chief manual "for teaching, for reproof, forcorrection, for instruction, in righteousness, that the man of Godmay be perfect, completely fitted for every good work. " The supremeimportance and practical value of the New Testament are recognized byall, but we usually forget when we quote the familiar words of Paul thathe had in mind simply the Scriptures of the Old Testament. 

In divine Providence mighty forces have been quietly at work during thepast century removing false rabbinical traditions and misconceptionsthat had gathered about these ancient Scriptures, while from othersources has come new light to illumine their pages. The result is thatin the Old Testament the Christian world is discerning a new heritage, the beauty and value of which is still only half suspected even byintelligent people. This fact is so significant and yet so littlerecognized that one feels impelled to go out and proclaim it on thehousetops. The Old Testament can never be properly presented from thepulpit or in the class-room while the attitude of preacher and teacheris apathetic and the motive a sense of duty rather than an intelligentacquaintance with its real character and genuine admiration andenthusiasm for its vital truths. The irresistible fascination which hasdrawn many of the most brilliant scholars into the Old Testament fieldis a proof that it has lost nothing, of its power and attractiveness. Already the circle of those who have rediscovered the Old Testament israpidly broadening. Observation and experience confirm the convictionthat all that is lacking to make that devotion universal is a rightattitude toward it and an intelligent familiarity with its real origin, contents, and teachings. The sooner this is realized the sooner some ofthe most difficult problems of the Church, of the Sunday-school, and ofpopular religious education will be solved. 

As the repository of a great and varied literature, as a record ofmany of the most important events in human history, and as a concreterevelation of God's character and will through the life and experiencesof a race and the hearts of inspired men, the Old Testament has a vitalmessage marvellously adapted to the intellectual, moral, social, andspiritual needs of to-day and supremely fitted to appeal to the thoughtand imagination of the present age. 

This little volume is intended to be simply a very informal introductionto it. Since of the two Testaments the New is by far the more easilyunderstood and the better known, it is made the point of departure inthe approach to the more complex field represented by the Old. Manyunexpected analogies will aid in understanding the intricate literaryhistory of the older Scriptures. The point of view assumed throughout isthat of the busy pastor, missionary, Sunday-school teacher, and scholar, who have little time for technical study, but who are not afraidof truth because it is new and who firmly believe that God is everrevealing himself more fully to men and that his truth shall make usfree. It is hoped that this general survey will prove for them but anintroduction to a far deeper and more profitable study. 

To the Reverend J. F. McFarland, D. D. , of the Bible Study Union, to theReverend S. A. Cooke, D. D. , of the Methodist Book Concern, to Mr. JohnH. Scribner of the Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sunday-schoolWork, to the Reverend M. C. Hazard, D. D. , of the Pilgrim Press, and tothe Reverend F. K. Sanders, Ph. D. , of the Congregational Sunday-schooland Publishing Society, who have generously read the manuscript of thisbook, I am deeply indebted, not only for their valuable suggestions, butalso for their strong expressions of personal interest in the practicalends which it seeks to conserve, I am also under great obligation to theReverend Morgan Miller, of Yale, for his untiring vigilance in revisingthe proof of a volume written within the all too brief limits of aChristmas vacation. 

C. F. K. 

YALE UNIVERSITY, January, 1906. 

CONTENTS

I. THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

II. THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

III. THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION

IV. THE PLACE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN DIVINE REVELATION

V. THE INFLUENCES THAT PRODUCED THE NEW TESTAMENT

VI. THE GROWTH OF THE OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES

VII. THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES

VIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS

IX. INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HISTORIES

X. THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS

XL THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS

XII. THE HISTORY OF THE PSALTER

XIII. THE FORMATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON

XIV. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE EARLY NARRATIVES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

XV. PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDYING THE OLD TESTAMENT

XVI. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION--THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF TO-DAY

I

THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

[Sidenote: _Jesus' study of the Old Testament_]

The opening chapters of the Gospels record only three or four meagrefacts regarding the first thirty years of Jesus' life. The real historyof those significant years ran so far beneath the surface of externalevents that it completely escaped the historian. The history of themental and spiritual life of the Master is recorded in his maturecharacter and teachings. The fugitive hints, however, vividly illustratethe supreme fact that he ever _grew stronger, becoming filled withwisdom;--and the grace of God was upon him_ (Luke ii. 40). They reveal asoul not only in closest touch with God and with human life, but also ineager quest for the vital truth regarding God and man recorded in theScriptures of his race. It requires no imagination to picture the youngJew of Nazareth eagerly studying in the synagogue, at the temple, andalone by himself the sacred writings found in our Old Testament, forthis fact is clearly recorded on every page of the Gospels. 

[Sidenote: _His familiarity with all parts of it_]

The events of Hebrew history, and its heroes --Abraham, David, Elijah--were all familiar to him. The Old Testament was the background of alarge portion of the Sermon on the Mount. From Deuteronomy vi. 4, 5, andLeviticus xix. 18 he drew his marvellous epitome of all law and duty. Inthe wisdom literature, and especially in the book of Proverbs, he foundmany of those practical truths which he applied to life with newauthority and power. From the same storehouse of crystallized experiencehe derived certain of those figures which he expanded into hisinimitable parables; he adopted also, and put to new use, the effectivegnomic form of teaching of the wisdom school. As in the mouth of hisherald, John the Baptist, the great moral and spiritual truths, firstproclaimed by the ancient prophets, live again on the lips of Jesus. Atevery point in his teachings one recognizes the thought and language ofthe older Scriptures. At the moments of his greatest temptation anddistress, even in the last agony, the words of the ancient law andpsalms were on his lips and their consoling and inspiring messages inhis mind. 

[Sidenote: _Attitude of the apostles_]

What is so strikingly true of Jesus is equally true of the apostles anddisciples who have given us the New Testament books: the atmosphere inwhich they lived, the thoughts which they thought, and the language inwhich they spoke, were those of the Old Testament. Not bowing slavishlybefore it, as did their Jewish contemporaries, but with true reverence, singling out that which was vital and eternal, they made it the basis oftheir own more personal and perfect message to humanity. But for them, and for the early Church, until at least the middle of the secondChristian century, the only scriptures regarded as authoritative werethose of the Old Testament. Even then, only gradually, and under thepressure of real needs, were different groups of Christian writingsadded and ascribed an authority equal to that of the older Scriptures. 

[Sidenote: _Attitude of the later Church, and especially Puritanism_]

Throughout the Middle Ages and in the eyes of the Protestant reformersthe two great divisions of the Bible continued to command equal respectand attention. From the Old Testament and its reflection in theteachings of Paul, Puritanism and the theology of the past threecenturies derived most of that which revealed their strength as well astheir weakness. From the law, the prophets, and the book of Proverbsthey drew their stern spirit of justice, their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising condemnation of everything that seemed to themwrong. Their preachers nobly echoed the thunders of Sinai and thedenunciations of an Elijah, an Amos, and an Hosea. They often failed, however, to recognize the divine love which prompted the stern wordsof the prophets, and to see that these denunciations and warnings weresimply intended to arouse the conscience of the people and to makethem worthy of the rich blessings that God was eager to bestow. Misinterpretation of the spirit of the later Old Testament reformers, who dramatically portrayed Jehovah's hatred for the abominable heathencults in the form of commands to slaughter the peoples practising them, frequently led the Puritan fathers to treat their foes in a mannerneither biblical nor Christian. To this narrow interpretation of theletter rather than the spirit of the Old Testament, and the emphasisplaced upon its more primitive and imperfect teachings can be directlytraced the worst faults of that courageous band who lived and diedfighting for what they conceived to be truth and right. 

[Sidenote: _Reaction against the Bible of Puritanism_]

It is undoubtedly true that during the past two decades the OldTestament has in fact, if not in theory, been assigned to a secondaryplace in the life and thought of Christendom. This is not due to thefact that the Christ has been exalted to his rightful position ofcommanding authority and prestige. All that truly exalts him likewiseexalts the record of the work of his forerunners which he came to bringto complete fulfilment and upon which he placed his eternal seal ofapproval. Rather, the present eclipse of the Old Testament appears to bedue to three distinct causes. The first is connected with the reactionfrom Puritanism, and especially from its false interpretation of theBible. Against intolerance and persecution the heart of man naturallyrebelled. These rang true neither with life nor the teaching of Jesus. Refuge from the merciless and seemingly flawless logic of the earliertheologians was found in the simple, reassuring words of the Gospels. The result was that, with the exception of a very few books like thePsalter, the Old Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militanttheology, has been unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by thepresent generation. 

[Sidenote: _Doubts aroused by the work of the "Higher Critics"_]

Within the past decade this tendency has been greatly accelerated by thework of the so-called "Higher Critics. " Because it presents moreliterary and historical problems, and because it was thought, at first, to be farther away from the New Testament, the citadel of the Christianfaith, the Old Testament has been the scene of their greatest activity. With what seemed to the onlooker to be a supreme disregard for thetraditions long accepted as established by the Church, they havepersistently applied to the ancient Scriptures the generally acceptedcanons and methods of modern historical and literary study. In theirscientific zeal they have repeatedly overturned what were once regardedas fundamental dogmas. Unfortunately the first reports of their worksuggested that it was only destructive. The very foundations of faithseemed to be shaking. Sinai appeared to be enveloped in a murky fog, instead of the effulgence of the divine glory; Moses seemed to become avague, unreal figure on the distant horizon of history; David's voiceonly faintly echoed through the Psalter; and the noblest messages ofprophet, sage, and psalmist were anonymous. 

[Sidenote: _The mistakes of the critics_]

Little wonder that many who heard only from afar the ominous reports ofthe digging and delving, and vague rumors, --all the more terrifyingbecause vague, --either leaped to the conclusion that the authority ofthe Old Testament had been undermined or else rallied in a franticeffort to put a stop, by shouting or compulsion, to the seeminglysacrilegious work of destruction. When the history of the HigherCriticism of the Old Testament is finally written, it will be declaredmost unfortunate that the results first presented to the rank and fileof the Christian Church were, as a rule, largely negative and in manycases relatively unimportant. In their initial enthusiasm for scientificresearch scholars, alas! sometimes lost the true perspective and failedto recognize relative values. The date, for example, of Isaiah xl. -lv. Is important for the right understanding and interpretation of thesewonderful chapters, but its value is insignificant compared with thedivine messages contained in these chapters and their direct applicationto life. Moreover, instead of presenting first the testimony and thenpatiently pointing out the reasonableness and vital significance of thenewer conclusions, scholars sometimes, under the influence of theirconvictions, made the fatal mistake of enunciating those conclusionssimply as dogmas. 

[Sidenote: _Resulting loss of faith in the Old Testament_]

History demonstrates that established religions and churches always holdtenaciously to old doctrines, and therefore regard new conclusions withsuspicion. This tendency is clearly illustrated in the experience ofJesus; for with all his divine tact and convincing authority, he was notable to win the leaders of Judaism to the acceptance of hisrevolutionizing teachings. Yet one cannot escape the conviction that ifin this age of enlightenment and open-mindedness, the positive resultsof modern scholarship had been presented first, this latest chapter inGod's revelation of himself to man would have been better understood andappreciated by the leaders of the Church, and its fruits appropriated bythose whose interests are fixed on that which is of practical ratherthan theoretical import. At least many open-minded people might havebeen saved from the supreme error of writing, either consciously orunconsciously, _Ichabod_ across the pages of their Old Testament. 

[Sidenote: _Difficulties in understanding it_]

The third reason why the Old Testament has suffered temporary eclipse inso many minds is more fundamental; it is because of the difficulties inunderstanding it. The background of the New Testament is the Roman worldand a brief century with which we Western readers are well acquainted;but the background of the Old is the ancient East--the age and land ofwonder, mystery, and intuition, far removed from the logical, rushingworld in which we live. The Old Testament contains a vast and complexliterature, filled with the thoughts and figures and cast in the quaintlanguage of the Semitic past. Between us and that past there lie notmerely long centuries, but the wide gulf that is fixed between the Eastand the West. 

[Sidenote:_The new light from the monuments_]

With three such distinct and powerful currents--reaction, suspicion, andmisunderstand--bearing us from the Old Testament, it might be predictedthat in a decade or two it would lie far behind our range of vision. Other forces however are, in divine providence, rapidly bringing it backto us again, so that we are able to understand and appreciate it asnever before since the beginning of the Christian era. The chasm betweenus and it is really being bridged rather than broadened. The longcenturies that lie back of the Old Testament have suddenly beenilluminated by great search-lights, so that today we are almost as wellacquainted with them as with the beginning of the Christian era. Fromancient monuments have arisen, as from the dead, an army of contemporarywitnesses, sometimes confirming, sometimes correcting, but at all timesmarvellously supplementing the biblical data. Now the events andcharacters of Old Testament history no longer stand alone in mysteriousisolation, but we can study in detail their setting and realsignificance. At every point the biblical narrative and thought arebrought into touch with real life and history. The biographies andpolicies, for example, of Sennacherib and Cyrus, are almost as wellknown as those of Napoleon and Washington. The prophets are not merelyvoices, but men with a living message for all times, because theyprimarily dealt with the conditions and needs of their own day. Thevital relation and at the same time the infinite superiority of thereligious teachings of the Old Testament to those of earlier ages andpeoples are clearly revealed. 

[Sidenote: _Modern aids in interpreting the Old Testament_]

Interpreted in the light of contemporary literature and language, mostof the obscurities of the Old Testament melt away. Modern research inthe fields of Semitic philology and syntax and the discovery of oldertexts and versions have put into the hands of translators new andvaluable tools for making clear to all the thoughts in the minds of theoriginal writers of the Old Testament. Studies in comparative religion, geography, and modern Oriental life and customs have illuminated andillustrated at every point the pages of the ancient writings. To utilizeall these requires time and devotion, but he who is willing to study mayknow his Old Testament to-day as well as he does the New. 

[Sidenote: _Rejection of rabinical traditions_]

Fully commensurate with the great light that has been shed upon it fromwithout, is that which has come from a careful study of the testimony ofthe Old Testament itself. Until recent times the Church has been contentto accept blindly the traditions of the late Jewish rabbis regarding theorigin, history, and interpretation of their scriptures. Handed downthrough the Church Fathers and interwoven with creeds and popularbeliefs, they have been identified in many minds with the teaching ofthe Bible itself. Yet, when we analyze their origin and true character, we find that many of them have absolutely no support in the Scriptures, and in many cases are directly contradictory to the plain biblicalteachings. Too often they are but the fanciful conjectures of therabbis. Developed in an uncritical age, and based upon the unreliablemethods of interpretation current among the Jews in the early Christiancenturies, they are often sadly misleading. A close analogy is found inthe traditional identifications of most of the Palestinian sacred sites. To-day the Oriental guide shows the skull of Adam beneath the spot wheretradition places the cross of Christ. If the traveller desires, he willpoint out the very stones which Jesus declared God could raise up to bechildren of Abraham. Every question which curiosity or genuine interesthas raised is answered by the seemingly authoritative voice oftradition. Investigation, however, proves that almost all of thesethousand identifications are probably incorrect. The discovery is ashock to the pious imagination; but to the healthy mind uncertainty isalways better than error. Furthermore, uncertainty often proves the doorwhich leads to established truth. 

[Sidenote: _Acceptance of the testimony of the Old Testament regardingits origin and history. _]

Even so the modern historical and critical spirit has led men to turnfrom the generally accepted but exceedingly doubtful rabbinicaltraditions regarding, for example, the date and authorship of many ofthe Old Testament books, to the authoritative evidence found in thosewritings themselves. In this they are but following the example of theGreat Teacher, who repeatedly appealed from the same rabbis and theirmisleading traditions to the same ancient Scriptures. The saddest factis that many of his followers, even to-day, hesitate to follow hisinspired leadership. Fortunately, as the varied, strata and formationsof the rocks tell the story of the earth's early history, so these earlywritings furnish the data for reconstructing the illuminating history oftheir origin, growth, and transmission. Often the testimony of the factsdiffers as widely from the familiar inherited traditions as theconclusions of modern science from the vague guesses of primitive manregarding the riddles of existence. Neither may represent absolute andfinal truth, and yet no serious-minded man can question which is reallythe more authoritative. To-day one of the most vital issues before theChristian. Church is whether it will follow the guidance of its Founderand accept the testimony of the Bible itself or cling blindly to thetraditions of the rabbis and Church Fathers. 

[Sidenote: _Historical significance of the modern movement_]

The student of history at once recognizes in the modern movement, ofwhich the watchword is, "Back to the testimony of the Bible, " the directsequel to the Protestant Reformation. The early reformers took thechains off the Bible and put it into the hands of men, with fullpermission to study and search. Vested interests and dogmatism soonbegan to dictate how it should be studied and interpreted, and thus itwas again placed practically under lock and key. It is an interestingfact that a young Zulu chief, a pupil of Bishop Colenso of South Africa, first aroused the Anglo-Saxon world to the careful, fearless, andtherefore truly reverential study of its Old Testament. With this newimpetus, the task of the Reformers was again taken up, and in the sameopen, earnest spirit. For two generations it has commanded theconsecrated energies of the most thorough scholars of Christendom. Thoseof England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, America, and Canada have worked shoulder to shoulder, dividing the work, carefully collecting and classifying the minutestdata, comparing results, and, on the basis of all this work, formulatingconclusions, some assured and some hypothetical, which best explain thefacts. 

[Sidenote: _The unveiling of the Old Testament_]

Often, to those who have not followed the detailed steps, theseconclusions have seemed only destructive. Many of them are assuredly so;but the vital question which every honest man should ask is, Do theydestroy the Bible, or simply the false traditions that have gatheredabout it? Fortunately, most of the leaders of the Church and mostintelligent laymen have already discerned the only emphatic answer tothis question. The Church is undoubtedly passing quietly through arevolution in its conception and attitude toward the Bible, morefundamental and far-reaching than that represented by its precursor theProtestant Reformation; but its real significance is daily becoming moreapparent. Not a grain of truth which the Bible contains has beendestroyed or permanently obscured. Instead, the _débris_ of time-honoredtraditions and dogmas have been cleared away, and the true Scriptures atlast stand forth again in their pristine splendor. 

[Sidenote: _The true Old Testament_]

Freed from the misconceptions and false traditions which have gatheredabout it, the true Old Testament rises from amidst the dust and din ofthe much digging and delving. To those who have known only the old it isa fresh revelation. Its literary beauty, its naturalness, its dignity, its majestic authority are a surprise to those who have not followed itsunveiling. The old vagueness and mystery have in part disappeared, andinstead it is found to contain a thousand vital, living messages for to-day. Its human as well as its divine qualities command our interest andattention. Through it all God speaks with a new clearness and authority. Thus, that which we thought was dead has risen, and lives again toinspire us to noble thought and deed and service. 

II

THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

[Sidenote: _A large and complex library_]

Turning from the Jewish and mediæval traditions and theories which soeasily beset us, we ask, What is the real nature of the Old Testament asit is revealed in this new and clearer light? The first conclusion isthat it is a library containing a large and complex literature, recording the varied experiences, political, social, ethical, andreligious, of the Israelitish race. The fact that it is a libraryconsisting of many different books is recognized by the commondesignation of the two testaments. As is well known, our English word_Bible_ came originally from the Papyrus or Byblus reed, the pith ofwhich was widely used in antiquity as the material from which books weremade. It was natural, therefore, that in the Greek a little book shouldbe designated as a _biblion_. About the middle of the second Christiancentury the Greek Christians (first in the so-called Second Epistle ofClement xlv. 2) began to call their sacred scriptures, _Ta Biblia_, thebooks. When this title was transferred to the Latin it was, by reason ofa natural and yet significant error, treated as a feminine singular, _Biblia_, which, reappears In English as _Bible_. This most appropriatename emphasizes the fact that the books thus described are a unit andyet a collection of little books, selected from a larger literature andgiven their present position of preeminent authority. 

[Sidenote: _The record of God's vital, personal relations to theIsraelitish race_]

The term Testament suggests not the form and authority of the books, buttheir theme. It is the English translation, through the Latin and Greek, of the Hebrew word, _berîth_, usually rendered, _covenant_. It means a_bond_ or _basis of agreement_. It implies a close and binding contractbetween two parties, and defines the terms to which each subscribes andthe obligations which they thus assume. The _Old Covenant_ or_Testament_, therefore, is primarily the written record of the origin, terms, and history of the solemn agreement which existed between theIsraelitish nation and Jehovah. The early narratives preserve thetraditions of its origin; the lawgivers endeavored to define its termsand the obligations that rested upon the people; the prophetsinterpreted them in the life of the nation, and the sages into the lifeof the individual; and the historical books recorded its practicalworking. The significant fact is that back of the Old Testament recordsexists something greater and deeper than pen can fully describe: it is avital, living connection between Jehovah and his people that makespossible the unique relation which finds expression in the remarkablehistory of the race and in the experiences and souls of its spiritualleaders. Thus through life, and in the concrete terms of life, Godreveals himself to the life of humanity. 

[Sidenote: _Written in history and human minds and hearts_]

In the light of this truth the Jewish and medieval dogma that everyword, and even every letter of Scripture, was directly dictated by Godhimself, seems sadly mechanical and bears the marks of the narrowschools of thought in which it took form. Hebrew was not, and probablywill never be, the language of heaven! Not on skins and papyrus rolls, but in the life of the Israelitish race and on the minds and consciencesof enlightened men, God wrote his revelation. History and the characterand consciousness of the human race are its imperishable records. Fortunately he also aroused certain men of old, not by word and actonly, but by the pen as well, to record the revelation that was beingperfected in the life of their nation and in their own minds and hearts. He did not, however, dictate to them the form of their writings norvouch for their verbal inerrancy. In time, out of their writings weregradually collected and combined the most significant passages andbooks, and to these was finally attributed the authority that they nowrightfully enjoy. 

[Sidenote: _Secondary sources of its authority_]

The ultimate basis of that authority, however, is not their presence inthe canon of the Old Testament. At the same time their presence there isdeeply significant, for it represents the indorsement of many ages andof countless thousands who, from the most varied points of view and amidthe most diverse experiences, have tested and found these ancientscriptures worthy of the exalted position that has gradually beenassigned to them. It is not the support of the Church, although thisalso for the same reason is exceedingly significant. It is not the calmassumption, of authority that appears at every point throughout the OldTestament, although this is richly suggestive; the sacred writings ofother religions make even more pretentious claims. It is not that itscommands and doctrines come from the mouths of great prophets andpriests, like Moses, Samuel, Isaiah, and Jeremiah. This fact undoubtedlyhad great weight with those who formed the final canon of the OldTestament, and the authority of a strong, noble personality is supremelyimpressive; but divine authority never emanates primarily from a man, however great be his sanctity. Furthermore, to establish the authorityderived from a Moses or a Samuel it is necessary in every case to provethat the books attributed to them by late tradition actually came fromtheir pens. Even if this could in every case be done, some of thenoblest passages in the Old Testament remain avowedly anonymous; for thetendency of the great majority of its authors was clearly to send forththeir messages without any attempt to associate their own names withthem. 

[Sidenote: _Its ultimate basis of authority_]

The ultimate authority of the Old Testament, therefore, is not dependentupon devoted canon-makers, nor the weighty testimony of the Church, norupon its own claims, nor the reputation of the inspired men who havewritten it, nor the estimate of any age. Its seat of authority is morefundamental. It contains the word of God because it faithfully recordsand interprets the most important events in the early religious historyof man, and simply and effectively presents God's revelation of himselfand of his will in the minds and hearts of the great pre-Christianheralds of ethical and spiritual truth. Back of the Old Testament is avast variety of vital experiences, national and individual, politicaland spiritual, social and ethical, pleasurable and painful. Back of allthese deeply significant experiences is God himself, through them makingknown his character and laws and purpose to man. 

[Sidenote: _Its authority ethical and religious, not scientific_]

Students of the rediscovered Old Testament also recognize, in the lightof a broader and more careful study, the fact, so often and so fatallyoverlooked in the past, that its authority lies not in the field ofnatural science, nor even of history in the limited sense. Time andpatience were destined to increase man's knowledge in these greatdepartments and also to develop his mind in attaining it. The teachingof the Old Testament is authoritative only in the far more importantrealm of ethics and religion. Paul truly voiced its supreme claimwhen he said that it was _profitable for teaching, for reproof, forcorrection, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may beperfect, completely fitted for every good work_ (II Tim. Iii. 16, 17). The assertion by the Church in the past of claims nowhere made orimplied by the Old Testament itself is unfortunately still a fertilesource of perplexity and dissension to many faithful souls. Theirsalvation is to be found in a clear and intelligent appreciation of thereal nature and claim of these ancient writings. 

[Sidenote: _Its dominant purpose to teach spiritual truth_]

One dominant aim determines the form of each book and the selection ofindividual passages and binds together the whole: it is effectively toset forth spiritual truth and to mould in accordance with God's will thecharacters and beliefs of men. It was the supreme bond that boundtogether prophets, priests, sages, and psalmists, although the means bywhich they accomplished their common purpose differed widely. Many acurrent tradition, and the crude conceptions of the ancients regardingthe natural world, are recorded in the Old Testament; but they are notthere merely to perpetuate history nor to increase the total ofscientific knowledge, but rather because they concretely illustrate andimpress some vital ethical and spiritual truth. Such singleness ofreligious purpose is paralleled nowhere else except in the work andteachings of Jesus and his apostles. 

[Sidenote: _Its present fruits the proof of its inspired authority_]

The ever-present evidence of the divine authority back of the spiritualteachings of the Old Testament as a whole is that they ring true tolife and meet its needs. By their fruits we know them. It is thedemonstration of the laboratory. We know that they are inspired becausethey inspire. The principles underlying the social sermons of Amos areas applicable to present conditions as when first uttered. The soonerthey are practically applied the sooner our capitalistic civilizationcan raise its head now bowed In shame. The faith that breathes throughthe Psalms is the faith that upholds men to-day in the midst oftemptation and trial. The standards of justice, tempered by love, whichare maintained in the Old Testament laws make good citizens both ofearth and heaven. As long as men continue to test the teachings of theOld Testament scriptures in the laboratory of experience and to knowthem by their fruits, nothing can permanently endanger their positionin the Christian Church or in the life of humanity. Neglect andindifference, not Higher Criticism, alone permanently threaten theauthority of the Old Testament as well as that of the New. 

[Sidenote: _Significance of the variations and inconsistencies_]

Recognizing the real nature and purpose of these ancient records, thetrue student neither denies nor is disturbed by the marks of their humanauthorship. As in the case of the Gospels, the variations between theparallel narratives are all evidence of their genuineness and of thesincerity of their purpose. They demonstrate that God's revelationis adapted to the needs of life and the comprehension of man, because itwas through life and expressed in the terms of life. Their individualpeculiarities and minor errors often introduce us more intimately tothe biblical writers and help us to understand more clearly andsympathetically their visions of truth and of God. Above all, they teachus to look ever through and beyond all these written records to thegreater revelation, which they reflect, and to the infinite Source ofall knowledge and truth. 

[Sidenote: _The record of a gradual revelation_]

The inconsistencies and imperfect teachings which are revealed by acritical study of the Old Testament are also but a few of the manyindices that it is the record of a gradually unfolding revelation. LateJewish tradition, which is traceable even in the Old Testament itself, was inclined to assign the origin of everything which it held dear tothe very beginnings of Hebrew history, and in so doing it has done muchto obscure its true genesis. Fortunately, however, the history of God'sgradual training of the race was writ too plainly in the earlier OldTestament scriptures to be completely obscured by later traditions. Therecognition that God's all-wise method of revealing spiritual as well asscientific truth was progressive, adapted to the unfolding consciousnessof each succeeding age, at once sweeps away many of the greatestdifficulties that have hitherto obscured the true Old Testament. Jesuswith his divine intuition appreciated this principle of growth. Unhesitatingly he abrogated certain time-honored Old Testament laws withthe words, _Ye have heard that it was said . .. But I say to you_. Hisown interpretation of his relation to the sacred writings of his racewas that he came to bring them to complete fulfilment. Rearranged intheir approximately chronological order, the Old Testament books becomethe harmonious and many-sided record of ten centuries of strenuous humanendeavor to know and to do the will of God and of his full and graciousresponse to that effort. The beatitude of those who hunger and thirstafter righteousness was as true in the days of Moses as it was whenJesus proclaimed it. 

[Sidenote: _Its different books of very different values_]

Finally, the right and normal attitude toward the Old Testament leads tothe wholesome conclusion that its different books are of very differentvalues. The great critic of Nazareth again set the example. As we havejust seen, certain of the Old Testament laws he distinctly abrogated;others he quietly ignored; others, as, for example, the law of love(Deut. Vi. 5, and Lev. Xix. 19) he singled out and gave its rightfulplace of central authority. A careful study of the Gospels, in the lightof the Old Testament, demonstrates that a very important element in hiswork, as the Saviour of men, was in thus separating the dross in theolder teachings from the gold, and then in giving to the vital truth aclearer, more personal, and yet more universal application. For theintelligent student and teacher of to-day the Old Testament stillremains a great mine of historical, ethical, and religious truth. Someparts, like Genesis, Deuteronomy, Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah xl. -lv. , andthe Psalter, are richly productive. Others, like Numbers, Chronicles, and Esther, are comparatively barren. 

[Sidenote: _Application of this truth_]

Since the Old Testament is the record of a progressively unfoldingrevelation, it is obvious that all parts do not possess an equalauthority. To place the example of the patriarchs or of David, who livedwhen ethical standards and religious beliefs were only partiallydeveloped, on an equality with the exalted ideals of the later prophets, is to misinterpret those ancient Scriptures and to reject the leadershipof the Great Teacher. At the same time, studied from the newer point ofview, the examples of those early heroes are found to illustrate vitalprinciples in human life and to inspire and warn the child of to-day aseffectively as they did far back in the childhood of the race. 

[Sidenote: _The Old Testament not a fetish but a spiritual guidebook_]

In these later days God has taken the Bible from the throne ofinfallibility on which Protestantism sought to place it. By a gradualyet benign process, which we were nevertheless at first inclinedbitterly to resent, he has opened our eyes to its true character andpurpose. Again, he has pronounced his _Thou shall not_ to the naturaland yet selfish human desire to transfer moral and intellectualresponsibility from the individual conscience to some externalauthority. Again, he has told us that only in the sanctuary of the humansoul is the Infallible One to be found. Yet in order that we each mayfind him there, the cumulative religious experience of the countlessthousands who have already found him is of inestimable value. The OldTestament contains not merely the word of God, but, together with itscomplement the New, is the great guide-book in finding and knowing him, It blazes the way which, the pilgrim of to-day, as in the past, mustfollow from his cradle to the throne of God. At each point it is richlyillustrated by the actual religious experiences of real men and women. Their mistakes and their victories, are equally instructive. Frommany vantage-points reached by prophets and priests and psalmists, we are able to catch new and glorious visions of God's character andpurpose for mankind. Through its pages--sometimes dimly, sometimesbrightly, But growing ever clearer--shines the giving light of God'struth and revelation, culminating in the Christ, the perfectedrevelation and the supreme demonstration that man, though beset bytemptation, baffled by obstacles, deserted by friends, and malignedby foes, can nevertheless, by the invincible sword of love andself-sacrifice, conquer the world and become one with God, as did thepeerless Knight of Nazareth. 

III

THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION

[Sidenote: _The nature of inspiration_]

Since the days of the Greek philosophers the subject of inspiration andrevelation has been fertile theme for discussion and dispute amongscholars and theologians. Many different theories have been advanced, and ultimately abandoned as untenable. In its simplest meaning and use, inspiration describes the personal influence of one individual upon themind and spirit of another. Thus we often say, "That man inspired me. "What we are or do under the influence of that intellectual or spiritualimpulse is the effect and evidence of the inspiration. Similarly, divineinspiration is the influence of God's spirit or personality upon themind and spirit of man. It may find expression in an exalted emotionalstate, in an heightened clarity of mental perception, in noble deeds, inthe development of character, indeed in a great variety of ways; but itsseat is always the mind of man and its ultimate cause the Deity himself. 

[Sidenote: _In the Old Testament_]

The early Old Testament expression most commonly used to describeinspiration was that _the Spirit of God rushed upon the man_, as it didupon Saul, causing him to burst forth into religious ecstasy or frenzy(I Sam. X. 6, 10), and upon Samson, giving him great bodily strength orprowess in war (Judg. Xiv. 6, 19, xv. 14). Skill in interpreting dreamsand in ruling was also regarded as evidence that the Spirit of God wasin a man like Joseph (Gen. Xli. 38); but above all the prophetic giftwas looked upon as the supreme evidence of the presence of the Spirit ofJehovah (Hos. Ix. 1; Micah ii. 7, iii. 8). The word _spirit_ as thusused in the Old Testament is exceedingly suggestive. It means primarilythe breath, that comes from the nostrils. Though invisible to the eye, the breath was in the thought of primitive man the symbol of the activelife of the individual. In the full vigor of bodily strength or inviolent exercise it came quick and strong; in times of weakness it wasfaint; when it disappeared, death ensued; the living personality wasgone, and only the play remained. The same Hebrew word, _rúach_, described the wind--unseen, intangible, and yet one of the most real andirresistible forces in all the universe. Thus it was a supremelyappropriate term to describe the activity of God, as it produced visibleeffects in the minds and lives of men. In the later Old Testamentliterature its use was extended, so that to the Spirit of God wasascribed activity in the natural world and in human history. 

[Sidenote: _Nature of revelation_]

Of the two terms, _revelation_ is broader than _inspiration_. Sometimesit is used collectively, to designate the truth revealed, but it moreproperly describes the means or process whereby it is made apparent tothe human mind. It implies that truth is always existent, but onlygradually recognized. Inspiration is one of the chief means whereby thehuman vision is clarified so as to perceive it. Natural phenomena, environment, and above all experience, are also mighty agents in makingthe divine character and truth clear to the mind of man. The author ofthe Epistle to the Hebrews declares, with true insight, that _God spokein divers manners_. All the universe, all history, and all life revealhim and his ultimate truths, for each is effective in opening the mentaland spiritual eye of man to see the realm long awaiting him asconqueror. 

[Sidenote: _Man's role in the process of revelation_]

For countless ages electricity has inscribed its magic tracery on thestorm-cloud and performed its all-important functions in organic life, but not until men's eyes were opened by experience and trainedobservation to recognize its laws, was it practically applied to theneeds of civilization. Similarly, unchanging moral and spiritual lawshave existed through all time, but they have not become operative inhuman life until the eye of some seer is opened by a great experience, or under the direct influence of the Spirit of God he is led to see andproclaim them. Thus God is in all and reveals himself through all natureand life, but it is only through the mind and on the lips of his highestcreature, man, that truth is fully appreciated, formulated, and applied. 

[Sidenote: _The revelation recorded in the Bible_]

In the broader sense all revelation is divine, for it reveals God andhis laws; and yet it is obvious that there is a real difference betweenthe revelation recorded in a scientific book and that of the Bible. Itis a difference both in subject-matter and in the ends to which thetruth thus made manifest shall be applied. The one relates to theobjective world, the world of things; the other relates to humanbeliefs, emotions, and acts. 

[Sidenote: _Its breadth and gradualness_]

Moreover, it is evident that the spiritual revelation which is in partrecorded in the Bible was not limited to the Israelitish race or to thetwelve centuries represented by the Old and New Testaments. The biblicalwriters themselves assume this fact. According to the early Judeanprophetic narratives, Enoch, who lived ages before Abraham and Moses, was a worshipper of Jehovah (Gen. Iv. 26). Cain and Abel are bothrepresented in the familiar story of Genesis iv. , as bringing theirofferings to Jehovah. One of the chief teachings of the earliest storiesin the Old Testament is that men from the first knew and worshipped Godand were held responsible for their acts according to their moralenlightenment. History, science, and the Bible unite in testifying thatthe revelation of spiritual truth to mankind was something gradual, progressive, and cumulative; also that it is dependent upon the abilityof men to receive it. This capacity of the individual to receive is, after all, the determining factor in the process of divine revelation;for God's truth and his desire to impart it are always the same. Hence, whenever conditions favor, or national or private experiences clarifythe vision of a race or group of men, a revelation is assured. 

[Sidenote: _Antiquity of human civilization and religion_]

In the light of ancient history and the result of recent excavations itis possible, now as never before, to study the varied influences andforces employed by God in the past to open the spiritual eyes of mankindto see him and his truth. The geological evidence suggests that man, asman, has lived on this earth, fifty, perhaps one hundred thousand years. Anthropology, going farther back than history or primitive tradition, traces the slow and painful stages by which early man learned his firstlessons in civilization and religion. From the beginning, man'sinstincts as a religious being have asserted themselves, crude thoughtheir expression was. The oldest mounds of Babylonia and Egypt containruins of ancient temples, altars, and abundant evidence of the religiouszeal of the peoples who once inhabited these lauds. The earliestexamples of human literature thus far discovered are largely religiousin theme and spirit. 

[Sidenote: _Primitive unfolding of the innate religious instinct_]

All these testify that early man believed in a power or powers outsidehimself, and that his chief passion was to know and do the will of hisgod or gods. Jesus himself bore witness in the opening words of theprayer which he taught his disciples, that this is the essence ofreligion. It was natural and inevitable that primitive man, with hisnaive view of the universe, should believe not in one but in many forcesor spirits, and that he should first enthrone the physical above theethical and spiritual. It is the instinctive tendency of the childto-day. The later identification of the divine powers with the sun, thatgave light and fertility to the soil, or with the moon, that guided thecaravans by night over the arid deserts, or with the other heavenlybodies, that moved in majestic array across the midnight sky, waslikewise a natural step in the evolution of primitive belief. 

[Sidenote: _Reasons why Babylonia developed an early civilization_]

Civilization and religion in antiquity developed, as a rule, side byside. The two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, commandingthe trade of the north and the south; proximity to the desert with itscaravans of traders going back and forth from the Euphrates to the Nile;the rich alluvial soil, which supported a dense population when properlydrained and cultivated; and the necessity of developing in a higherdegree the arts of defence in order to maintain the much contestedterritory, --these were a few of the many conditions that made ancientBabylonia one of the two earliest if not the oldest centre of humancivilization. The commercial habits and the abundance of the plasticclay, which could easily be moulded into tablets for the use of thescribe, also fostered the early development of the literary art. Thedurability of the clay tablets and the enveloping and protectingqualities of the ruined mounds of ancient Babylonia have preserved ina marvellous way its early literature. The result is that we can nowstudy, on the basis of contemporary documents, this early and yetadvanced chapter in that divine revelation, the later culmination ofwhich is recorded in the Bible. 

[Sidenote: _Progress during the period of city states_]

It begins as far back of Moses as he is removed from us in point oftime. Its political background at first is the little city states ofBabylonia, each with its independent organization and its local schoolsof artists, whose products in many respects surpass anything that comesfrom the hands of later Semitic craftsmen. Each city had its temple, atwhich the patron god of the local tribe and district was worshipped. Insome places it was the moon god Sin, as at Haran and Ur beside thedesert; elsewhere, as at Nippur, Bel, or at Eridu near the Persian Gulf, Ea, the god of the great deep, was revered. In the name of the localdeity offerings were brought, hymns were sung, and traditions weretreasured, which extolled his might. The life of these little citystates centred about the temple and its cult. To make it more gloriousthe artisans vied with each other, and the kings made campaigns thatthey might dedicate the spoils to the deity. 

[Sidenote: _The growth of extensive empires_]

In time, perhaps as early as 4000 B. C. , certain more energetic andambitious kings succeeded in conquering neighboring cities; they evenbroadened their boundaries until they ruled over great empires extendingto the Mediterranean on the west and the mountains of Elam on the east. In the name of the local god, each went forth to fight, and to him wasattributed the glory of the victory. Naturally, when the territory of acity state grew into an empire, the god of that city was proclaimed andacknowledged as supreme throughout all the conquered territory. At thesame time the local deities of the conquered cities continued to beworshipped at their ancient sanctuaries, and many a conquering king wonthe loyalty of his subjects by making a rich offering to the god and atthe temple of a vanquished foe. 

[Sidenote: _Its effect in developing the pantheon and popular theology_]

The logical and inevitable result of political union was the developmentof a pantheon, modelled after the imperial court, with the god of thevictorious city at its head and the leading deities of the other citiesin subordinate positions. When, during the latter part of the thirdmillennium before Christ, Babylon's supremacy was permanentlyestablished under the rule of Hammurabi. Marduk, the god of that city, was thus placed at the head of the Babylonian pantheon. The theologiansof the day also recast and combined the ancient legends, as, forexample, those of the creation, so as to explain why he, one of thelater gods, was acknowledged by all as supreme. A relationship was alsotraced between the leading gods, and their respective functions wereclearly defined. Corresponding to each male deity was a female deity:thus, the consort of Marduk was Ishtar, while that of Bel was Belit. Furthermore, the ancient myths appear to have been, coördinated, so thatfrom this time on Babylonian, theology presents a certain unity andsymmetry, although one is constantly reminded of the very differentelements out of which it had been built up. 

[Sidenote: _Development of ethical standards and laws_]

Parallel to the evolution of Babylonian religion was that unfolding ofethical ideals and laws which finds its noblest record and expression inthe remarkable code of Hammurabi (about 2250 B. C. ). In its high sense ofjustice; in its regard for the rights of property and of individuals; inits attitude toward women, even though it comes from the ancient East;and above all in its protection of widows and orphans, this code marksalmost as high a stage in the revelation of what is right as theprimitive Old Testament laws, with which it has points of strikingresemblance. 

[Sidenote: _A general comparison between the religions and laws of Egyptand Babylonia_]

The evolution of ancient Egyptian civilization and religion was parallelat almost every stage with that of Babylonia, only in the dreamy landof the Nile the pantheon and the vast body of variant myths were neverso thoroughly coördinated. The result is that its religion foreverremains a labyrinth. Since all interest centred about the future life, instead of commercial pursuits, there is no evidence that the Egyptiansever produced a legal code at all comparable with that of Hammurabi. They did, however, develop a doctrine of sin which anticipates that ofthe Hebrew prophets. While the Babylonians conceived of sin as simplythe failure to bring offerings, or to observe the demands of the ritual, or, in general, to pay proper homage to the gods, the Egyptians heldthat each individual was answerable, not only to the state, but also tothe gods, for his every act and thought. 

[Sidenote: _Significance of this early religious progress_]

If they admitted of a comparison, it would be safe to say that theBabylonian religion and law in the days of Hammurabi were as far removedfrom the crude belief in spirits and the barbarous cults and practicesof primitive man as the teachings of Jesus were from those of the kinglyBabylonian lawgiver and his priestly advisers. Humanity's debt isexceedingly great to the thousands of devoted souls who, in ancientBabylonia and Egypt, according to their dim light, groped for God andthe right. In part they found what they sought, although they neverceased to look through, a glass darkly. 

[Sidenote: _Its arrest and decline_]

The sad and significant fact is that from the days of Hammurabi to thoseof Nebuchadrezzar, Babylonian religion, law, and ethics almost entirelyceased to develop. No other great kings with prophetic insight appear tohave arisen to hold up before the nation the principles of justice andmercy and true piety, The old superstitions and magic also continued inBabylonia as in Egypt to exercise more and more their baneful influence. Saddest of all the priesthood and ceremonialism, which had alreadyreached a point of development commensurate and strikingly analogous tothat of later Judaism, became the dominant power in the state, anddefined religion not in terms of life and action, but of the ritual, andso constricted it that all true growth was impossible. Hence thereligions of the Babylonians and Egyptians perished, like many others, because they ceased to grow, and therefore degenerated into a mereworship of the letter rather than the spirit. 

IV

THE PLACE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN DIVINE REVELATION

[Sidenote: _Advent of the Hebrews_]

Modern discovery and research have demonstrated that the truth revealedthrough the Babylonians and with less definiteness through the people ofthe Nile was never entirely lost. Such a sad waste was out of accordwith the obvious principles of divine economy. As the icy chill ofceremonialism seized decadent Babylonia and Egypt, there emerged fromthe steppes south and east of Palestine a virile, ambitious group ofnomads, who not only fell heir to that which was best in the revelationof the past, but also quickly took their place as the real spiritualleaders of the human race. Possibly their ancestors, like those ofHammurabi, belonged to that wave of nomadic emigration which swept outof overpopulated northern Arabia about 2500 B. C. , part of it to settlefinally in Babylonia and part in Palestine. 

[Sidenote: _Why were they the chosen people?_]

Whatever be the exact date of their advent, the much mooted and morefundamental question at once presents itself, Why were the Hebrews "thechosen people"? It is safe to assert at once that this was not arbitrarynor without reason. Moreover, the choice was not that of a moment, butgradual. Rather the real question is, By what divine process were theIsraelites prepared to be the chosen people that their later prophetsand the event of history declare them to be? Certain definite historicalreasons at once suggest themselves; and these in turn throw new lightupon the true relation of the Old Testament to divine revelation as awhole. 

[Sidenote: _Their preparation to be the chosen people: genius forreligion_]

There is undoubtedly a basis for what Renan was pleased to call, "theSemitic genius for religion. " It is a truly significant fact that thethree great conquering religions of the world, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, sprang from Semitic soil. To this might be added thereligion of Babylonia, which, was unquestionably the noblest of earlyantiquity. In general the Semitic mind is keen, alert, receptive, andintuitional rather than logical. Restless energy and the tendency toacquire have also tended to make them leaders in the widely differentfields of commerce and religion. The patriarch Jacob is a remarkableexample of these combined qualities and results. By day he got thebetter of his kinsmen, and by night he wrestled with God. These combinedand highly developed characteristics of mind and nature at least suggestwhy the Semites have furnished the greatest prophets and prophet nationsfor the moulding of the faith of the world. 

[Sidenote: _Inheritance through their Arabian antecedents_]

In contrast with contemporary Semitic nations, and especially the highlycivilized Babylonians, the Hebrews were fortunate in their immediateinheritances through Arabian or Aramean ancestors. The wandering, nomadic life leaves no place for established sanctuaries, with theirelaborate ceremonial customs and debasing institutions inherited frommore primitive ages. Instead, that life imposes limitations that makefor simplicity. The mysteries and constant dangers of the wild desertexistence also emphasize the constant necessity of divine help. The longmarches by night under the silent stars inspire awe and enforcecontemplation. The close unity of the tribe suggests the worship of onetribal god rather than many. From the desert the ancestors of theHebrews brought strong bodies, inured to hardship, and a grim austeritythat found frequent expression on the lips of their prophets and aresponse in the minds of the people, when luxury threatened to engulfthem. They also inherited from their desert days those democratic ideasand high ideals of individual liberty which, enabled Elijah and Isaiahto stand up add champion the rights of the people even though itinvolved a public denunciation of their kings. 

[Sidenote: _Contact with Babylonian civilization_]

On the other hand, the Israelites undoubtedly became in time theinheritors of the best in religion and law that had been attained by theolder Semitic races. Their late traditions trace back their ancestry toancient Babylonia. Already for long centuries, by conquest and bycommerce, the dominant civilization of the Euphrates valley had beenregnant in the land of Canaan, The Tell-el-Amarna letters, written fromPalestine in the fourteenth century, employ the Babylonian language andsystem of writing, and reveal a high Semitic civilization, closelypatterned after that of Babylonia. When the Israelites settled in Canaanand began to intermarry and assimilate with the older inhabitants, asthe earliest Hebrew records plainly state (_cf_. Judg. I. ), they foundthere, among the Canaanites, established civil and religiousinstitutions and traditions which were largely a reflection of those ofBabylonia. Also, when in the eighth and seventh centuries Assyrianarmies conquered Palestine, they brought Babylonian institutions, traditions, and religious ideas. We know that during the reigns of Ahazand Manasseh these threatened to displace those peculiar to the Hebrews. Again, during the Babylonian exile the influence of the same powerfulcivilization upon the thought and religion of Israel was also stronglyfelt. Thus the opportunities, direct and indirect, for receiving fromBabylonia much of the rich heritage that it held were many and varied. 

[Sidenote: _Heirs of the older Semitic civilizations_]

Certain parts of the Old Testament itself testify that the wealth oftradition, of institutions, of laws, and religious ideas, graduallycommitted to the Semitic ancestors of the Hebrews and best preserved bythe Babylonians, was not lost, but, enriched and purified, has beentransmitted to us through its pages. A careful comparison of thebiblical and Babylonian accounts of the creation and the flood leaveslittle doubt that there is a close historical connection between theseaccounts. Investigation reveals in language, spirit, and form manyanalogies between the laws of Hammurabi and those of the Old Testamentwhich suggest at least an indirect influence. Many of the ceremonialinstitutions of later Judaism are almost identical with those ofBabylonia. While it is exceedingly easy to over or under estimate thisinfluence, it is a mistake to deny or ignore its deep significance. 

[Sidenote: _Recipients of all that was best in earlier revelation_]

Thus one of the chief elements in the providential training of theHebrews as the heralds and exponents of the most exalted religious andethical truths revealed before the advent of the Prophet of Nazareth wasthe fact that they were the heirs and interpreters of the best that hadbeen hitherto attained. Babylonia, Egypt, and later, Persia and Greece, each contributed their noblest beliefs and ideals. In the Israelites thediverse streams of divine revelation converged. The result is that, instead of many little rivulets, befouled by errors and superstitions, through their history there flowed a mighty stream, ever becomingbroader and deeper and clearer as it received fresh contributions fromthe new fountains of purest revelation that opened in Hebrew soil. 

[Sidenote: _In close geographical relations to the earlier civilizations_]

Clear evidences of the divine purpose to be realized through the obscurepeasant people who lived among the uplands of central Canaan are foundin a study of the characteristics of the Old Testament world. It isindeed the earliest and one of the most significant chapters in divinerevelation. Most of its area is a barren wilderness, supporting only asmall nomadic population. The three fertile spots are Babylonia, Canaan, and Egypt. The first and last are fitted by nature and situation to bethe seats of powerful civilizations, destined to reach out in everydirection. Canaan, on the contrary, is shut in, with no good harborsalong the Mediterranean; and its largest river system leads to the DeadSea, far below the surface of the ocean, --an effective negation to allcommerce. Although thus shut in by itself, Canaan lies on the isthmus offertile land that connects the great empires of the Nile and theEuphrates. On the east and south it is always subject to the influencesand waves of immigration, that come from the Arabian desert. Itattracted from their nomadic life the ancestors of the Israelites, andduring their early period of development gave them a secluded home. Whenthey were ready to learn the larger lessons in the stream of life, Egyptand the great empires of the Tigris and Euphrates valley contended forthem, conquered and ultimately scattered them throughout the then knownworld. While their conquerors, Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome, the greatest powers of the ancient world, took fromthem their gold and their freedom, from the same conquerors they appearto have received the infinitely more precious treasures of tradition andthought. 

[Sidenote: _Trained by remarkable national experience_]

Great as was their heritage from the past, the truth that came throughthe Hebrews themselves constitutes by far the greatest and mostsignificant part of that revelation which the Old Testament records. Their history suggests the ways in which, Jehovah opened the spiritualeyes of the people. From the beginning to the present day it has beencharacterized by a series of crises unparalleled in the life of anyother race. Experiences, intense and often superlatively painful, havecome to them in rapid succession, forcing them to think and develop. Thelittle street Arab, alert, resourceful, uncanny in his prematurity, is amodern illustration of what grim necessity and experience can produce. It was in the school supremely adapted to divine ends that Jehovah, trained his people to be his spokesmen to the world. 

[Sidenote: _Guided by unique spiritual teachers_]

Other peoples, however, had their crises and yet had no such message asdid the Israelites. What made the crises in the history of theIsraelites richly fruitful in ethical and spiritual truth was thepresence within their midst of certain devoted, responsive teachers, andespecially the prophets, who guided them in their time of peril, interpreted its significance, and appealed to the awakened conscience ofthe nation. Like begets like. At the beginning of Israel's historystands the great prophet Moses, and during the long centuries thatfollowed the voice of the prophets was rarely hushed. 

[Sidenote: _Taught by inspired prophets_]

In seeking the ultimate answer to our question, How were the Israelitesprepared to be the chosen people, we are confronted by a miracle thatbaffles our power to analyze: it is the supreme fact that the Spirit ofthe Almighty touched the spirit of certain men in ancient Israel so thatthey became seers and prophets. This is their own testimony, and theirdeeds and words amply confirm it. The experiences of men to-day alsodemonstrate its possibility. Indeed it is not surprising, but mostnatural, that the one supreme Personality in the universe should revealhimself to and through human minds, and that the most enlightened men ofthe most spiritually enlightened race should be the recipients of thefullest and most perfect revelation. It is the truth that they thusperceived, and then proclaimed by word and deed and pen, that completedthe preparation of the chosen people, for it was none other than thepossession of a unique spiritual message that constituted the essence oftheir choice. Furthermore, as the greatest of the later prophetsdeclares (Is. Xl. -lv. ), that divine choice did not mean that they wereto be the recipients of exceptional favors, but rather that they werecalled to service. By the patient enduring of suffering and by voluntaryself-sacrifice they were to perfect the revelation of God's characterand will in the life of humanity. 

[Sidenote: _Jesus' relation to the Old Testament_]

The Old Testament, therefore, is the final record of a revelationextending through thousands of years, finding at last its most exaltedexpression in the messages of the Hebrew prophets, and its clearestreflection in the thoughts and experiences of the priests, sages, andpsalmists of ancient Israel. In varied literary forms and by manydifferent writers the best fruits of that revelation have beenpreserved. Ancient traditions, songs, proverbs, laws, historicalnarratives, prophecies, and psalms, each present their precious truth. The Israelitish race, however, never fully completed the work to whichit was called. A master was needed to distinguish between the essentialand the non-essential, to simplify and unify the teachings of the OldTestament as a whole, and to apply them personally to individual life, Aman was demanded to realize fully in his own character the highestideals of this ancient revelation. A divinely gifted prophet wasrequired to perfect man's knowledge, and to bring him into natural, harmonious relations with his Eternal Father. The world awaited theadvent of a Messiah who would establish, on the everlasting foundationsof justice and truth and love, the universal kingdom of God. Thesesupreme needs were met in fullest measure by the Master, the perfectMan, the Prophet, and the Messiah, whose work the New Testament records. 

[Sidenote: _Points of likeness and contact between the two Testaments_]

While there are many superficial points of difference in language, literary form, background, and point of view between the Old and the NewTestaments, these are insignificant in comparison with the essentialpoints of likeness and contact. Each Testament is but a differentchapter in the history of the same divine revelation. The one isthe foundation on which the other is built. The writers of the Newconstantly assume the historical facts, the institutions, and theteachings of the Old. Although in Greek garb, their language and idiomsare also those of the Old. On many themes, as, for example, man's dutyto society, Jesus said little, for the teachers of his race had fullydeveloped them and there was little to add. Repeatedly by word and acthe declared that he came not to destroy the older teachings, but simplyto bring them to full perfection. The Old Testament also tells ofthe long years of preparation and of the earnest expectations of theIsraelitish race; the New records a fulfilment far transcending themost exalted hopes of Hebrew seers. The same God reveals himself throughboth Testaments. One progressively unfolding system of religiousteachings, one message of love, and one divine purpose bind bothtogether with bonds that no generation or church can break. 

V

THE INFLUENCES THAT PRODUCED THE NEW TESTAMENT

[Sidenote: _Importance of the study of origins_]

The present age is supremely interested in origins. Not until we havetraced the genesis and earliest unfolding of an institution or an ideaor a literature do we feel that we really understand and appreciate it. Familiarity with that which is noble breeds not contempt but reverence, and intelligent devotion. Acquaintance with the origin and history of abook is essential to its true interpretation. Therefore it is fortunatethat modern discovery and research have thrown so much light upon theorigin of both the Old and the New Testaments. 

[Sidenote: _The growing recognition that the natural is divine_]

Equally fortunate is it that we are also learning to appreciate thesublimity and divinity of the natural. The universe and organic life areno less wonderful and awe-inspiring because, distinguishing some of thenatural laws that govern their evolution, we have abandoned thegrotesque theories held by primitive men. Similarly we do not to-daydemand, as did our forefathers, a supernatural origin for our sacredbooks before we are ready to revere and obey their commands. Withgreater insight we now can heartily sing, "God moves in a natural wayhis wonders to perform. " Our ability to trace the historical influencesthrough which he brought into being and shaped the two Testaments andgave them their present position in the life of humanity does not in athoughtful mind obscure, but rather reveals the more clearly, theirdivine origin and authority. 

[Sidenote: _Value of the comparative study of the origin of bothTestaments_]

Through contemporary writings and the results of modern biblicalresearch it is possible to study definitely the origin of the variousNew Testament books and to follow the different stages in their growthinto a canon. This familiar chapter in the history of the Bible isrichly suggestive, because of the clear light which it sheds upon themore complex and obscure genesis and later development of the OldTestament. It will be profitable, therefore, to review it in outline, not only because of its own importance, but also as an introduction tothe study of the influences that produced the older Scriptures; foralmost every fact that will be noted in connection with the origin andliterary history of the New has its close analogy in the growth of theOld Testament. 

[Sidenote: _The threefold grouping of the New Testament books_]

We find that as they are at present arranged, the books of the NewTestament are divided into three distinct classes. The first groupincludes the historical books: the Gospels and Acts; the second, theEpistles--the longer, like the letters to the Romans and Corinthians, being placed first and the shorter at the end; while the third groupcontains but one book, known as the Apocalypse or Revelation. Thegeneral arrangement is clearly according to subject-matter, notaccording to date of authorship; the order of the groups representdifferent stages in the process of canonization. 

[Sidenote: _Why the Gospels are not the earliest_]

Their position as well as the themes which they treat suggest that theGospels were the first to be written. It is, however, a self-evidentfact that a book was not written--at least not in antiquity, when themaking of books was both laborious and expensive--unless a real need forit was felt. If we go back, and live for a moment in imagination amongthe band of followers which Jesus left behind at his death, we seeclearly that while the early Christian Church was limited to Palestine, and a large company of disciples, who had often themselves seen andheard the Christ, lived to tell by word of mouth the story of his lifeand teachings, no one desired a written record. It is not surprising, therefore, that the oldest books in the New Testament are not theGospels. The exigencies of time and space and the burning zeal of theapostles for the churches of their planting apparently produced theearliest Christian writings. 

[Sidenote: _Origin of the earliest epistles_]

In his second missionary journey Paul preached for a time atThessalonica, winning to faith in the Christ a small mixed company ofJews and proselyte Greeks. His success aroused the bitter opposition ofthe narrower Jews, who raised a mob and drove him from the city beforehis work was completed. But the seed which he had planted continued togrow. Naturally he was eager to return to the infant church. Twice heplanned to visit it, but was prevented. In his intense desire to helpthe brave Christians of Thessalonica, he sent Timothy to inquireregarding their welfare and to encourage them. When about 50 A. D. Timothy reported to Paul at Corinth, the apostle wrote at once to thelittle church at Thessalonica a letter of commendation, encouragement, and counsel, which we know to-day as First Thessalonians and which isprobably one of the oldest writings in our New Testament, Galatiansperhaps being the earliest. 

[Sidenote: _Paul's later epistles_]

Another letter (II Thess. ) soon followed, giving more detailed advice. As the field of Paul's activity broadened, he was obliged more and moreto depend upon letters, since he could not in person visit the churcheswhich he had planted. Questions of doctrine as well as of practice whichperplexed the different churches were treated in these epistles. Tocertain of his assistants, like Timothy, he wrote dealing with theirpersonal problems. Frankly, forcibly, and feelingly Paul poured out inthese letters the wealth of his personal and soul life. They reveal hisfaith in the making as well as his mature teachings. Since he wasdealing with definite conditions in the communities to which he wrote, his letters are also invaluable contemporary records of the growth andhistory of the early Christian church. Thus between 30 and 60 A. D. , during the period of his greatest activity, certainly ten, and probablythirteen, of our twenty-seven New Testament books came from the burningheart of the apostle to the Gentiles. 

[Sidenote: _Growth of the other epistles_]

Similar needs impelled other apostles and early Christian teachers towrite on the same themes with the same immediate purpose as did Paul. The result is a series of epistles, associated with the names of James, Peter, John, and Jude. In some, like Third John, the personal element ispredominant; in others, the didactic, as, for example, the Epistle ofJames. 

[Sidenote: _Purpose of the Epistle to the Hebrews_]

A somewhat different type of literature is represented by the Epistle tothe Hebrews. Its form is that of a letter, and it was without doubtoriginally addressed to a local church or churches by a writer whosename has ever since been a fertile source of conjecture. The only factdefinitely established is that Paul did not write it. It is essentiallya combination of argument, doctrine, and exhortation. The aim isapologetic as well as practical. Most of Paul's letters were written asthe thoughts, which he wished to communicate to those to whom he wrote, came to his mind; but in the Epistle to the Hebrews the author evidentlyfollows a carefully elaborated plan. The argument is cumulative. Thethesis is that Christ, superior to all earlier teachers of his race, isthe perfect Mediator of Salvation. 

[Sidenote: _Value of the Epistles_]

Thus the Epistles, originally personal notes of encouragement andwarning, growing sometimes into more elaborate treatises, were made themeans whereby the early Christian teachers imparted their doctrines toconstantly widening groups of readers. At best they were regarded simplyas inferior substitutes for the personal presence and spoken words oftheir authors. Like the Old Testament books, their authority lies in thefact that they faithfully reflect, in part at least, the greaterrevelation coming through the lives and minds of the early apostles. 

[Sidenote: _The larger group_]

As is well known, the twenty-one letters in our New Testament wereselected from a far larger collection of epistles, some of which wereearly lost, while others, like the Epistles of Barnabas and Polycarp andClement, were preserved to share with those later accepted as canonical, the study and veneration of the primitive Church. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that gave rise to the earliest Gospels_]

The influences which originally produced the Gospels and Acts were verydifferent from those which called forth the Epistles. The naturalpreference of the early Christians for the spoken word explains why wedo not possess to-day a single written sentence in the Gospels which wecan with absolute assurance assign to the first quarter-centuryfollowing the death of Jesus. Two influences, however, in time ledcertain writers to record his early life and teachings. The one was thatdeath was rapidly thinning the ranks of those who could say, _I saw andheard_; the other was the spread of Christianity beyond the bounds ofJudaism and Palestine, and the resulting need for detailed records feltby those Christians who had never visited Palestine and who had learnedfrom the lips of apostles only the barest facts regarding the life ofthe Christ. 

[Sidenote: _Testimony of Luke's Gospel_]

The opening verses of Luke's Gospel are richly suggestive of the originand growth of the historical books of the New Testament:

Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative concerningthose matters which have been fulfilled among us, even as they deliveredthem unto us, --they who from the beginning were eye-witnesses andministers of the word, it seemed good to me also, having traced thecourse of all things accurately from the first, to write unto thee inorder, most excellent Theophilus, that thou mightest know the certaintyconcerning the things wherein thou wast instructed. 

This prologue states that many shorter Gospels had previously beenwritten, not by eye-witnesses, but by men who had listened to those whohad themselves seen. Luke leaves his readers to infer that he also drewa large number of his facts from these earlier sources as well as fromthe testimony of eye-witnesses. The implication of the prologue is thathe himself was entirely dependent upon written and oral sources for hisdata. This is confirmed by the testimony of the _Muratorian Fragment_:

Luke the physician, after the ascension of Christ, when Paul had takenhim, as it were, as a follower zealous of the right, wrote the gospelbook according to Luke in his own name, as is believed. Nevertheless hehad not himself seen the Lord in the flesh, and, accordingly, going backas far as he could obtain information, he began his narrative with thebirth of John. 

His many literal quotations from it and the fact that he makes it theframework of his own, indicate that Mark's Gospel was one of thoseearlier attempts to which he refers. 

[Sidenote: _Luke's motive in writing_]

The motive which influenced Luke to write is clearly stated. It was toprepare a comprehensive, accurate, and orderly account of the facts inregard to the life of Jesus for his Greek friend Theophilus, who hadalready been partially instructed in the same. His Gospel confirms theimplications of the prologue. It is the longest and most carefullyarranged of all the Gospels. The distinctively Jewish ideas orinstitutions which are prominent in Matthew are omitted or elseexplained; hence there is nothing which would prove unintelligible to aGreek. The book of the Acts of the Apostles, dedicated to the samepatron, is virtually a continuation of the third Gospel, tracing, in amore or less fragmentary manner, the history and growth, of the earlyChristian Church, and especially the work of Paul. 

[Sidenote: _Purpose of Mark's Gospel_]

Very similar influences called forth the shortest and undoubtedly theoldest of the four Gospels, the book of Mark. The testimony of thecontents confirms in general the early statement of Papias and otherChristian Fathers that it was written at Rome by John Mark, the discipleand interpreter of the apostle Peter, after the death of his teacher. The absence of many Old Testament quotations, the careful explanation ofall Jewish and Palestinian references which would not be intelligible toa foreigner, the presence of certain Latin words, and many otherindications, all tend to establish the conclusion that it was writtenfor the Gentile and Jewish Christians, probably at Rome, and that itspurpose was simply historical. 

[Sidenote: _The two-fold purpose of the Gospel of Matthew_]

The memoir of Jesus, which we know as the Gospel of Matthew, is from thehand of a Jewish Christian and, as is shown by the amount of materialdrawn from Mark's Gospel, must be placed at a later date. The greatnumber of quotations from the Old Testament, the interest in tracing thefulfilment of the Messianic predictions, and the distinctively Jewish-Christian point of view and method of interpretation, indicate clearlythat he wrote not with Gentile but Jewish Christians in mind. Nevertheless, like that of Mark and Luke, his purpose was primarily topresent a faithful and, as far as his sources permitted, detailedpicture of the life and teachings of Jesus. His arrangement of hismaterial appears, however, to be logical rather than purelychronological. The different sections and the individual incidents andteachings each contribute to the great argument of the book, namely, that Jesus was the true Messiah of the Jews; that the Jews, since theyrejected him, forfeited their birthright; and that his kingdom, fulfilling and inheriting the Old Testament promises, has become auniversal kingdom, open to all races and freed from all Jewish bonds. [Footnote: Cf. E. G. , x. 5, 6; xv. 24; viii. 11, 12; xii. 38-45; xxi. 42, 43; xxii. 7; xxiii. 13, 36, 38; xxiv. 2; xxviii. 19] This suggests thatthe First Gospel represents a more mature stage in the thought of theearly Church than Mark and Luke. 

[Sidenote: _Origin of Matthew's Sayings of Jesus_]

Its title and the fact that the Church Fathers constantly connect itwith Matthew, the publican, and later apostle is explained by thestatement of Papias, quoted by Eusebius:

Matthew accordingly composed the oracles in the Hebrew dialect, andeach one interpreted them as he was able (H. E. , iii. 39). These oraclesevidently consisted of a written collection of the sayings of Jesus. Since they were largely if not entirely included in our First Gospel, It was therefore known as The _Gospel of Matthew_. There is no evidencethat the original Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_ contained definitenarrative material. The fact that the First Gospel draws so largely fromMark for its historical data would indicate that this was not suppliedby its main source. The _Sayings of Jesus_ was probably the oldestwritten record of the work of Jesus, for, while oral tradition, easilyremembers incidents, disconnected teachings are not so readily preservedby the memory. Their transcendent importance would also furnish astrong incentive to use the pen. It was natural also that, of all thedisciples, the ex-customs officer of Capernaum should be the one toundertake this transcendently important task. 

[Sidenote: _Aim of the The Fourth Gospel_]

The Fourth is clearly the latest of the Gospels, for it does not attemptfully to reproduce the facts presented in the other three, but assumestheir existence. Its doctrines are also more fully developed, and itsaim is not simply the giving of historical facts and teachings, butalso, as it clearly states, that those reading it _might believe thatJesus was the Christ, the son of God, and that believing they might havelife in his name_ (xx. 31). The motive that produced it was, therefore, apologetic and evangelical rather than merely historical. 

[Sidenote: _Review of growth of the Gospels_]

A detailed comparison of the differences between the Gospels, as well asof their many points of likeness which often extend to exact verbalagreement, furnishes the data for reconstructing their history. Ingeneral the resulting conclusions are in perfect harmony with thetestimony of the Church Fathers. Mark, the shortest and moredistinctively narrative Gospel, is clearly the oldest of the four. Possibly it was originally intended to be the supplement of the otherearly source, Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_, now known only throughquotations. These two earliest known Christian records of the work ofthe Master in their original form were the chief sources quoted in theFirst and Third Gospels. So largely is Mark thus reproduced that, iflost, it would be possible from these to restore the book with theexception of only a few verses. But in addition, Matthew and Luke eachhave material peculiar to themselves, suggesting other independentwritten as well as oral sources. To such shorter written Gospels, andalso to the oral testimony of eyewitnesses, Luke refers in his prologue. In the Fourth Gospel, the doctrinal motive already apparent in Matthew, and prominent in the Church at the beginning of the second Christiancentury, takes the precedence of the merely historical. A distinctsource, the personal observation of the beloved disciple, probably alsofurnishes the majority of the illustrations which are here soeffectively arrayed. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that produced the apocalypses_]

More complex were the influences which produced the single example ofthe third type of New Testament literature, --the Apocalypse, or Book ofRevelation. The so-called apocalyptic type of literature was acharacteristic product of later Judaism. The Book of Daniel is the mostfamiliar example. Although in the age of scribism the voice of theprophets was regarded as silent, and the only authority recognized wasthat of the past, the popular Messianic hopes of the people continued tofind expression anonymously in the form of apocalypses. In the periodsof their greatest distress Jews and Christians found encouragement andinspiration in the pictures of the future. Since the present situationwas so hopeless, they looked for a supernatural transformation, whichwould result in the triumph of the right and the establishment of therule of the Messiah. Underlying all the apocalypses is the eternal truthvoiced by the poet: "God's in his heaven and all's right with theworld. "

[Sidenote: _Origin of the Book of Revelation_]

The immediate historical background of the Apocalypse is the bitterstruggle between Christianity and heathenism. Rome has become _drunkwith the blood of the saints and the blood of the martyrs of Jesus_(xvii. 6). The contest centres about the worship of the beast, --thatis, Caesar. The book possibly includes older apocalypses which reflectearlier conflicts, but in its present form it apparently comes fromthe closing years of Domitian's reign. The obvious aim of its JewishChristian writer was to encourage his readers by glowing pictures ofthe coming victory of the Lamb, and thus to steel them for unfalteringresistance to the assaults of heathenism. The purpose which actuated thewriter was therefore in certain respects the same as that which led Paulto write his letter to the persecuted church of Thessalonica, althoughthe form in which that purpose was realized was fundamentally different. 

[Sidenote: _The literary activity of the first four centuries_]

Many other apocalypses were written by the early Christians. The onerecently discovered and associated with the name of Peter is perhaps themost important. Thus, the second half of the first century after thedeath of Jesus witnessed the birth of a large Christian literature, consisting of epistles, gospels, and apocalypses. The work of the nextthree centuries was the appreciation and the selection of the bookswhich, to-day constitute our New Testament. The influences which ledto this consummation may be followed almost as clearly as those whichproduced the individual books. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that led to the canonization of the Gospels_]

Early in the second century the motives which had originally led certainChristians to write the four Gospels induced the Church to regard thosebooks as the most authentic, and therefore authoritative, records of thelife and teachings of the Master. We have no distinctive history of theprocess. It was gradual, and probably almost unconscious. The fact thatthree of the Gospels were associated with the names of apostles and theother with Luke, the faithful companion of Paul, undoubtedly tended toestablish their authority; but the chief canonizing influence was theneed of such records for private and public reading. The production, early in the second century, of spurious gospels, like the Gospel ofMarcion, written to furnish a literary basis for certain hereticaldoctrines, also the desire of the Church Fathers to have records towhich they could appeal as authoritative hastened the formation of thefirst New Testament canon. The use of the Gospels in the services of thechurch, which probably began before the close of the first Christiancentury, by degrees gave them an authority equal to that of the OldTestament Scriptures. The earliest canon consisted simply of these fourbooks. They seem to have been universally accepted by the Western Churchby the middle of the second century. About 152 A. D. Justin Martyr, inproving his positions, refers to the _Memoirs of the Apostles compiledby Christ's apostles and those who associated with them_, and during thesame decade his pupil Tatian made his _Diatessaron_ by combining ourpresent four Gospels. 

[Sidenote: _The second edition of the New Testament_]

Meantime the natural desire to supplement the teachings of Jesus bythose of the Apostles led the Church to single out certain of theepistles and associate them with the Gospels. Already in the firstcentury the apostolic epistles and traditions were cherished by theindividual churches to which they had been first directed. In time, however, the need for a written record of the apostolic teachings andwork became widely felt. Hence, by the end of the second century, Actsand the thirteen Pauline epistles, First Peter, First John, and theApocalypse, were by common consent placed side by side with the Gospels, at least by the leaders of the Western Church. 

[Sidenote: _The disputed books_]

Regarding the authority of the remaining New Testament books, Hebrews, James, First and Second John, and Jude, opinion long remained undecided. Concerning them an earnest discussion was carried on for the next twocenturies. By certain leaders in the Church they were regarded asauthoritative, while elsewhere and at different periods, other books, like the Gospel to the Hebrews, the Epistle of Barnabas, Clement'sEpistle to the Corinthians, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Apocalypseof Peter, were included in the canon and even given the priority overthe disputed books later included in our New Testament. 

[Sidenote: _Final completion of the New Testament canon_]

The final decision represents the result of an open and prolonged andyet quiet consideration of the merits of each book and of its claims toapostolic authority. The ablest scholars of the early Christian Churchdevoted their best energies to the problem. Gradually, thoughtfully, prayerfully, and by testing them in the laboratory of experience, theChristian world separated the twenty-seven books which we find to-dayin our New Testament from the much larger heritage of kindred writingswhich come from the early Christian centuries. Time and laterconsideration have fully approved the selection and confirmed the beliefthat through the minds of consecrated men God was realizing his purposefor mankind. As is well known, at the Council of Carthage, in 397 A. D. , the Western world at last formally accepted them, although the Syrianchurches continued for centuries to retain a somewhat different canon. 

[Sidenote: _Conclusions from this study of the influences that producedthe New Testament_]

This brief historical study of the origin of our New Testament hasdemonstrated twelve significant facts: (1) That the original authors ofthe different books never suspected that their writings would have theuniversal value and authority which they now rightfully enjoy. (2) Thatthey at first regarded them as merely an imperfect substitute for verbalteaching and personal testimony. (3) That in each case they had definiteindividuals and conditions in mind. (4) That the needs of the rapidlygrowing Church and the varied and trying experiences through which itpassed were all potent factors in influencing the authors of the NewTestament to write. (5) That certain books, especially the historical, like Luke and Matthew, are composite, consisting of material takenbodily from older documents, like Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_ and theoriginal narrative of Mark. (6) That our New Testament books are onlya part of a much larger early Christian literature. (7) That they areunquestionably, however, the most valuable and representative writingsof that larger literature. (8) That they were only gradually selectedand ascribed a value and authority equal to that of the Old Testamentwritings. (9) That there were three distinct stages in the formationof the New Testament canon: the gospels were first recognized asauthorative; then Acts, the Apostolic Epistles, and the Apocalypse; andlast of all, the complete canon. (10) That the canon was formed as aresult of the need felt by later generations, in connection with theirstudy and worship, for reliable records of the history and teachings ofChristianity. (11) That the principles of selection depended ultimatelyupon the intrinsic character of the books themselves and the authorityascribed to their reputed authors. (12) That the process of selectioncontinued for fully three centuries, and that the results represent thethoughtful, enlightened judgment of thousands of devoted Christians. Thus through definite historical forces and the minds and wills ofmen, the Eternal Father gradually perfected the record of his supremerevelation, to humanity. 

VI

THE GROWTH OF THE OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES

[Sidenote: _Analogies between the influences that produced the twoTestaments_]

Very similar influences were at work in producing and shaping both theOld and the New Testaments; only in the history of the older Scripturesstill other forces can be distinguished. Moreover, the Old Testamentcontains a much greater variety of literature. It is also significantthat, while some of the New Testament books began to be canonized lessthan a century after they were written, there is clear evidence thatmany of the Old Testament writings were in existence several centuriesbefore they were gathered together into a canon and thus crystallizedinto their final form. The inevitable result is that they bear the marksof much more elaborate editorial revision than those of the New. It is, however, not the aim of the present work to trace this complex processof revision in detail, nor to give the cumulative evidence and the manydata and reasons that lead to each conclusion. These can be studied inany modern Old Testament introduction or in the volumes of the presentwriter's _Student's Old Testament_. 

[Sidenote: _The present classification of the Old Testament books_]

In their present form, the books of the Old Testament, like those of theNew, fall into three classes. The first includes the historical books. In the Old, corresponding to the four Gospels and Acts of the New, arefound the books from Genesis through Esther. Next in order, in the Old, stand the poetical books, from Job through the Song of Songs, with whichthe New Testament has no analogy except the liturgical hymns connectedwith the nativity, preserved in the opening chapters of Matthew andLuke. The third group in the Old Testament includes the prophecies fromIsaiah through Malachi. 

[Sidenote: _Close correspondence between the Old Testament prophecies andthe New Testament apocalypses and epistles_]

One book in this group, Daniel, and portions of Ezekiel and Joel, areanalogous to the New Testament Apocalypse, but otherwise the propheticbooks correspond closely in character and contents to the epistles ofthe New. Both are direct messages to contemporaries of the prophets andapostles, and both deal with then existing conditions. Both consist ofpractical warnings, exhortations, advice, and encouragement. The form issimply incidental. The prophets of Jehovah preached, and then they ortheir disciples wrote down the words which they had addressed to theircountrymen. When they could not reach with their voices all in whomthey were interested, the prophets, like the apostles, committed theirteachings to writing and sent them forth as tracts (_cf_. Jer. Xxxvi. ). At other times, when they could not go in person, they wrote letters. Thus, for example, the twenty-ninth chapter of the prophecy of Jeremiahopens with the interesting superscription:

Now these are the words of the letter that Jeremiah the prophet sentfrom Jerusalem unto the residue of the elders of the captivity, andto the priests, and to the prophets, and to all the people, whomNebuchadrezzar had carried away captive from Jerusalem to Babylon; bythe hand of Elasah the son of Shaphan, and Gemariah the son of Hilkiah, whom Zedekiah king of Judah sent unto Babylon to Nebuchadrezzar. 

If it were not for this superscription, no one would suspect from thenature of the letter which follows that it was anything other than aregular spoken or written prophecy. Its contents and spirit are exactlyparallel to those of Paul's epistles. Undoubtedly many prophecies werenever delivered orally, but were originally written like Paul's Epistleto the Ephesians, and sent out as circular letters. The Babylonianexile scattered the Jews so widely that the exilic and post-exilicprophets depended almost entirely upon this method of reaching theircountrymen and thus became writers of epistles. 

[Sidenote: _The oldest literature poetry_]

Like the Epistles in the New, certain of the prophecies, --as, forexample, those of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, --are among the earliestwritings of the Old Testament. But in the light of modern biblicalstudy, it has become apparent that prose was not the earliest form ofexpression among the Hebrews, In this respect their literary historyis parallel with that of other early peoples; for first they treasuredtheir thought in heroic song and ballad. While they were nomads, wandering in the desert, and also while they were struggling for thepossession of Canaan, they had little time or motive for cultivating theliterary art. The popular songs which were sung beside the camp-fires, at the recurring festivals, and as the Hebrews advanced in battleagainst their foes, were the earliest records of their past. There isevidence that many of the primitive narratives now found in the openingchapters of Genesis were also once current in poetical form. In somecases the poetic structure has been preserved. 

[Sidenote: _Israel's early song-books_]

The earliest collections of writings referred to in the Old Testamentbear the suggestive titles, _The Book of the Upright_ (i. E. , Israel), and, _The Book of the Wars of Jehovah_. From the quotations which wehave from them it is clear that they consisted of collections of songs, recounting the exploits of Israel's heroes and the signal victories ofthe race. 

[Sidenote: _The Song of Deborah_]

That stirring paean of victory known as the Song of Deborah was perhapsonce found in the Book of the Wars of Jehovah. It is one of the oldestpieces of literature in the Old Testament, and breathes the heroicspirit of the primitive age from which it comes. Through the eyes of thepoet one views the different scenes in the mighty conflict. [Footnote:The translation is from "The Student's Old Testament, " Vol. I. , pp. 320-323. ]

[Sidenote: _Exordium_]

 That the leaders took the lead in Israel, That the people volunteered readily, Bless Jehovah! Hear, O kings, Give ear, O rulers. I myself will sing to Jehovah, I will sing praise to Jehovah, the God of Israel. 

[Sidenote: _Advent of Jehovah_]

 Jehovah, when thou wentest forth from Seir, When thou marchest from the land of Edom, The earth trembled, the heavens also dripped, Yea, the clouds dropped water. The mountains quaked before Jehovah, Yon Sinai before Jehovah, the God of Israel. 

[Sidenote: _Conditions before the war_]

 In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath, In the days of Jael, the highways ceased to be used, And travellers walked by round-about paths. The rulers ceased in Israel, they ceased, Until than didst arise, Deborah, Until thou didst arise a mother in Israel. 

 * * * * *

[Sidenote: _The rally about Deborah and Barak_]

 Then the people of Jehovah went down to the gates, crying, "Arise, arise, Deborah, Arise, arise, strike up the song! Arise Barak, and take thy captives, thou son of Abinoam!" So a remnant went down against the powerful, The people of Jehovah went down against the mighty, From Ephraim they rushed forth into the valley, Thy brother Benjamin among thy peoples, From Machir went down, commanders, And from Zebulun those who carry the marshal's staff. And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah; And Napthali was even so with Barak, Into the valley they rushed forth at his back. 

[Sidenote: _The cowards who remained at home_]

 By the brooks of Reuben great were the resolves! Why didst they sit among the sheepfolds, Listening to the pipings for the flocks? By the brooks of Reuben there were great questionings! Gilead remained beyond the Jordan; And Dan, why does he stay by the ships as an alien? Asher sits still by the shore of the sea, And remains by its landings. 

[Sidenote: _The battle and defeat of the Canaanites_]

 Zebulun was a people who exposed their lives to deadly peril, And Napthali on the heights of the open field. Bless Jehovah! Kings came, they fought; Then fought the kings of Canaan, At Taanach by the waters of Megiddo; They took no booty of silver. From heaven fought the stars, From their courses fought against Sisera. The river Kishon swept them away, The ancient river, the river Kishon. O my soul, march on with strength! Then did the horse-hoofs resound With the galloping, galloping of the powerful steeds. 

[Sidenote: _David's dirge over Saul and Jonathan_]

 In the Book of the Upright is included that touching elegy which David sang after the death of Saul and Jonathan, and which stands next to the Song of Deborah as one of the earliest surviving examples of Old Testament literature. [Footnote: "Student's Old Testament, " Vol. II. , pp. 113, 114. ]

[Sidenote: _The greatness of the calamity_]

 Weep, O Judah! Grieve, O Israel! On thy heights are the slain! How have the mighty fallen!

 Tell it not in Gath, Declare it not in the streets of Askelon; Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised exult. Ye mountains of Gilboa, may no dew descend, Nor rain upon you, O ye fields of death! For there was the shield of the mighty cast away, The shield of Saul, not anointed with oil. 

[Sidenote: _Bravery and attractiveness of the fallen_]

 From the blood of the slain, From the fat of the mighty, The bow of Jonathan turned not back, The sword of Saul returned not empty. 

 Saul and Jonathan, the beloved and the lovely! In life and in death they were not parted; They were swifter than eagles, They were stronger than lions. 

[Sidenote: _Saul's services to Israel_]

 Daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, Who clothed you daintily in fine linen, Who put golden ornaments on your garments, [and say:] "How have the mighty fallen in the midst of battle!"

[Sidenote: _David's love for Jonathan_]

 Jonathan, in thy death hast thou wounded me! I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan! Thou wert surpassingly dear to me, Thy love to me was far more than the love of woman!

 How have the mighty fallen, And the weapons of war perished!

[Sidenote: _The blessing of Jacob_]

The so-called _Blessing of Jacob_ (Gen. Xlix, 2-27) is a poeticaldelineation of the strength and weakness of the different tribes ofIsrael with references to specific events in their history. Thesehistorical allusions suggest that it probably comes from the reigns ofDavid and Solomon, when the tribes were for the first time all unitedunder a common rule and had passed through certain of the experiencesalluded to in the poem. 

[Sidenote: _Israel's heritage of oral traditions_]

The Israelitish race was supremely rich in possessing not only manyancient songs, but also a large body of oral traditions which hadlong been handed down from father to son or else treasured by thestory-tellers and by the priests of the ancient sanctuaries. Many ofthese traditions were inherited from their Semitic ancestors, and, inthe light of recently discovered Babylonian literature, can be tracedback far beyond the days of Abraham and Moses. Some were originallythe possessions of certain nomadic tribes; others recorded the earlyexperiences of their ancestors or told of the achievements of earlyheroes. In the process of continuous retelling, all unnecessary detailshad been eliminated and the really dramatic and essential elementsemphasized, until they attained their present simple, graphic form, which fascinates young and old alike. 

[Sidenote: _Value of these oral traditions_]

The superlative value of these varied traditions is apparent. They werethe links which bound later generations to their prehistoric past. Incidentally, in the characteristic language of Semitic tradition, theypreserved the memory of many important events in their early tribalhistory. They are also the illuminating record of the primitive beliefs, customs, and aspirations of their Semitic ancestors. Subject as theyinevitably were to the idealizing tendency, they became in time theconcrete embodiment of the noblest ideals of later generations. Thusthey presented before the kindled imagination of each succeeding age, in the character and achievements of their traditional ancestors, thoseideals of courage, perseverance, and piety which contributed much towardmaking the Israelites the chosen people that they were. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that led to the writing of history_]

In time this growing heritage of traditions became too great for eventhe remarkable Oriental memory to retain. Meantime the Hebrews had alsoacquired that system of writing which they learned from their morecivilized neighbors the Canaanites and Phoenicians. From, the days ofSolomon, scribes were to be found in court and temple, and probablyamong the prophetic guilds; although the common people, as in the sameland to-day, doubtless had little knowledge of the literary art. Whilethe nation was struggling for the soil of Canaan, or enjoying the fulltide of victory and achievement that came under the leadership of David, there was no time or incentive to write history. But with thequieter days of Solomon's reign, and the contrasting period of nationaldecline that followed his death, the incentive to take up the pen andrecord the departed glories became strong. With a large body of definiteoral traditions dealing with all the important men and events of theearlier periods, the task of the historian was chiefly that of writingdown and coordinating what was already at hand. 

[Sidenote: _The early Judean prophetic history_]

The oldest Hebrew history that has been preserved in the Old Testamentwas the work of an unknown Judean prophet or group of prophets who livedand labored probably during the latter part of the ninth century beforeChrist. This history corresponds closely in relative age and aim toMark's graphic narrative of the chief facts in the life of Jesus. Themotive which influenced the earliest historians both of the Old and NewTestaments to write was primarily the religious significance of theevents which they thus recorded. This early Judean prophetic history(technically known as J) begins with the account of the creation of manfrom the dust by the hand of Jehovah, and tells of the first sin and itsdire consequences (Gen. Ii. 4 to iii. 24); then it gives an ancient listof those who stood as the fathers of nomads, of musicians and workers inmetal (Gen. Iv. 1, l6b-26). This is followed by the primitive storiesof the sons of God and the daughters of men (Gen. Vi. 1-4), of Noah thefirst vineyard-keeper (ix. 20-27), and of the tower of Babel and theorigin of different languages (xi. 1-9). In a series of more or lessclosely connected narratives the character and experiences of thepatriarchs, the life of the Hebrews in Egypt and the wilderness, and thesettlement in Canaan are presented. Its basis for the history of theunited kingdom was for the most part the wonderfully graphic group ofSaul and David stories which occupy the bulk of the books of Samuel. Thus this remarkable early Judean prophetic history begins with thecreation of the universe and man and concludes with the creation of theHebrew empire. 

[Sidenote: _Its unity and characteristics_]

In its present Old Testament form it has been closely combined withother histories, just as Mark's narrative is largely reproduced inMatthew and Luke; but when, it is separated from the later narrativesits unity and completeness are astounding. Almost without a break itpresents the chief characters and events of Israel's history in theirrelations to each other. The same peculiar vocabulary, the use ofJehovah as the designation of the Deity, the same vivid, flowingnarrative style, the same simple, naïve, primitive conception ofJehovah, the same patriotic interest in the history of the race, and thesame emphasis upon the vital religious significance of men and facts, characterize every section of this narrative and make comparatively easythe task of separating it from the other histories with which it hasbeen joined. 

[Sidenote: _The early Ephraimite prophetic history_]

A little later, sometime about the middle of the eighth century beforeChrist, a prophet or group of prophets in Northern Israel devotedthemselves to the similar task of writing the history of Israel fromthe point of view of the northern kingdom. Since this state is called_Ephraim_ by Hosea and other writers of the North, its history may bedesignated as _the early Ephraimite prophetic_ (technically known as E). Naturally its author or authors utilized as the basis of their workthe oral traditions current in the North. Sometimes these are closelyparallel, and sometimes they vary widely in order and representationfrom the Judean versions. In general the variations are similar, although somewhat greater than those between the parallel narratives ofMatthew and Luke. 

[Sidenote: _Its characteristics_]

Marked peculiarities in vocabulary and literary style distinguishthis northern history from the Judean. Since _Elohim_ or _God_ isconsistently used to describe the Deity, it has sometimes been calledthe _Elohistic_ history. Interest inclines to the sanctuaries and heroesand events prominent in the life of the North. In that land whichproduced a Samuel, an Elijah, an Elisha, and an Hosea, it was naturalthat especial emphasis should be placed on the role of the prophet. Throughout these narratives he is portrayed as the dominant figure, moulding the history as God's representative. Abraham and Moses are hereconceived of as prophets, and the Ephraimite history of their age islargely devoted to a portrayal of their prophetic activity. 

[Sidenote: _Its scope_]

The interests of later editors who combined these early prophetichistories, as we now find them in the Old Testament, were centred in theJudean, and hence they have introduced citations from the Ephraimitenarratives chiefly to supplement the older history. Possibly it neverwas as complete as that of the South. At present it begins with Abrahamand traces the parallel history of the patriarchs and the life of theHebrews in Egypt and the wilderness. Its account of the conquest, issomewhat fuller, probably because Joshua was a northern leader. It alsopreserves many of the stories of the heroes in the book of Judges. Withthese the citations from the early Ephraimite prophetic history seem todisappear, but the opening stories in the book of Samuel, regarding thegreat prophet whose name was given to the book, apparently come from thepen of later disciples of this same Ephraimite group of prophets. 

[Sidenote: _Later editorial supplementing and combination of the twohistories_]

The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ were periods of intenseprophetic activity both in the North and the South. It was natural, therefore, that these early prophetic histories should be supplementedby the disciples of the original historians. Traditions that possessed apermanent historical or religious value, as, for example, the familiarstory of Cain and Abel (Gen. Iv. 2-16), and the earlier of the twoaccounts of the flood, were thus added. Also when in 722 B. C. Thenorthern kingdom fell and its literary heritage passed to Judah, it wasmost natural that a prophetic editor, recognizing the valuable elementsin each, and the difficulties presented by the existence of the twovariant versions of the same events, should combine the two, andfurthermore that, in the days of few manuscripts, the older originalsshould be lost and only the combined history survive. To-day we findthis in turn incorporated in the still later composite history extendingfrom Genesis through Samuel. 

[Sidenote: _Method of combining_]

The later editor's method of uniting his sources is exceedinglyinteresting, and is analogous in many ways to the methods followedin the citations in Matthew and Luke from their common sources, theoriginal Mark and Matthew's _Sayings of Jesus_. Where the two versionswere closely parallel, as in the account of Jacob's deception ofhis father Isaac, or the story of the spies, the two are completelyamalgamated; short passages, verses, and parts of verses are taken inturn from each. In other cases the editor introduced the differentversions--as, for example, the two accounts of the flight of Hagar--intodifferent settings. From subsequent allusions to two versions, of whichonly one survives in the Old Testament, it is to be inferred thatsometimes he simply preserved the fuller, usually the Judean. As a rule, however, there is clear evidence that he made every effort to retainall that he found in his original sources, even though the resultingcomposite narrative contained many inconsistencies. 

[Sidenote: _Practical value of the rediscovery of the original histories_]

To the careful student, seeking to recover the original narratives intheir primal unity, these inconsistencies are guides as valuable as thefossils and stratification of the earth are to the geologist intent upontracing the earth's past history. Guided by these variations and thedistinctive peculiarities in vocabulary, literary style, point of view, religious conceptions, and purpose of each of the groups of narratives, Old Testament scholars have rediscovered these two original histories;and with their recovery the great majority of seeming inconsistenciesand many perplexing problems fade into insignificance. Supplementingeach other, as do the earliest Gospels, these two independent historiespresent with new definiteness and authority the essential facts inIsrael's early political, social and religious life. Like eye-witnesses, they testify to the still more significant fact that from the first Godwas revealing his character and will through a unique race. 

[Sidenote: _The brief late prophetic history_]

A third survey of the period beginning with the sojourn in Egypt andconcluding with the conquest of the east-Jordan land is found in theintroduction to the book of Deuteronomy. It is the prologue to the lawsthat follow, appropriately and effectively placed in the mouth of thepioneer prophet Moses. A comparison quickly demonstrates that it is inreality a brief summary of the older histories, and especially of theearly Ephraimite prophetic. Like the Gospel of Matthew, its aim is notmerely to present historical facts, but to illustrate and establish athesis. The thesis is that Jehovah has personally led his people, andthat when they have been faithful to him they have prospered, butwhen they have disobeyed calamity has overtaken, them. The message isdistinctly prophetic; and to distinguish this third history, which wasprobably written near the close of the seventh century before Christ, from the earlier, it may be designated as the late prophetic or_Deuteronomic history_ (technically represented by D). 

[Sidenote: _Comparison of the Old with the New Testament histories_]

These three prophetic histories correspond strikingly to the threesynoptic Gospels: Mark, Luke and Matthew. The essential differences intheir literary history are that they come, not from a single limitedgroup of writers and a brief quarter century, but represent the workof many hands and at least two hundred and fifty years of literaryactivity. Two, at least, of these histories, are no longer extant intheir original form, but only as they have been quoted verbatim bylater historians and closely amalgamated. Similarly, as is wellknown, Tatian, the pupil of Justin Martyr, in the middle of the secondChristian century, did for the four Gospels precisely what an OldTestament editor did for the two early prophetic histories, --he combinedthem into one composite, continuous narrative. By joining passagesand verses and parts of verses taken from the different Gospels, by omitting verbal duplicates, by rearranging in some cases and byoccasionally adding a word or phrase to join dissimilar parts, Tatianproduced a marvellous mosaic gospel, known as the _Diatessaron_. All ofthe Fourth Gospel is thus preserved, and most of the first three. So successfully was the work done that the volume was widely usedthroughout the Eastern Church. If, as once seemed possible, it hadcompletely supplanted the original four Gospels, the literary history ofthese would have been a repetition of that of the earliest Old Testamentrecords. 

[Sidenote: _The dominant motive of the prophetic historians_. ]

It is very important to note that the motive which led the prophetichistorians to commit to writing the earlier traditions of their race wasnot primarily historical. Like the author of the Fourth Gospel, theyselected their material chiefly with a view to enforcing certainimportant religious truths. If an ancient Semitic tradition illustratedtheir point, they divested it of its heathen clothing and, irrespectiveof its origin, pressed it into service. For example, it seems clear thatthe elements which enter into the story of the Garden of Eden and man'sfall were current, with variations, among the ancient Babylonianscenturies before the Hebrews inherited them from their Semiticancestors. The early prophet who wrote the second and third chaptersof Genesis appreciated their value as illustrations, and made them themedium for imparting some of the most important spiritual truths everconveyed to mankind. Like the preachers or moral teachers of to-day, thefirst question the prophets asked about a popular story was not, Is itabsolutely historical or scientifically exact? but, Does it illustratethe vital point to be impressed? Undoubtedly Israel's heritage of oraltraditions was far greater than is suggested by the narratives of theOld Testament; but only those which individually and collectivelyenforced some important religious truth, were utilized. Just as Jesusdrew his illustrations from nature and human life about him, so theseearlier spiritual teachers, with equal tact, took their illustrationsfrom the familiar atmosphere of song and story and national tradition inwhich their readers lived. A secondary purpose, which they obviouslyhad in view, was also to remove from certain of the popular tales theimmoral implications which still clung to them from their heathen past, and to reconsecrate them to a diviner end. 

[Sidenote: _The permanent and vital value of these narratives_]

Questions of relative date and historical accuracy concern thehistorian, but they should not obscure the greater value of thesenarratives. To the majority of us, who turn to the Old Testament simplyas the record of divine revelation and as a guide to life, the essentialthing is to put ourselves into touch with these ancient prophets, whotaught by illustration as well as by direct address, and ask, What wasthe ethical or spiritual truth that illumined their souls and findsconcrete expression and illustration through these primitive stories? Todiscuss the literal historicity of the story of the Garden of Eden is asabsurd as to seek to discover who was the sower who went forth to sowor the Samaritan who went down to Jericho. Even, if no member ofthe despised Samaritan race ever followed in the footsteps of anhypocritical Levite along the rocky road to Jericho and succored a needyhuman being, the vital truth abides. Not until we cease to focusour gaze on the comparatively unimportant, can we discern the greatspiritual messages of these early narratives. 

[Sidenote: _The sequel to the early prophetic histories_]

The sequel to the great prophetic histories which underlie the OldTestament books, from Genesis through Samuel, is in the books of Kings. These carry the record of Israel's life down to the Babylonian exile. The opening chapters of First Kings contain the conclusion of the Judeanprophetic David stories. Fortunately the rest of the biblical history tothe exile was largely compiled from much earlier sources. As in most ofthe historical writings, the later editors, also, quoted _verbatim_ fromthese earlier records and histories, so that in many cases we have thetestimony of almost contemporary witnesses. The titles of certain ofthese earlier books are given: _The Book of the Acts of Solomon_, _TheChronicles of the Kings of Israel_, and _The Chronicles of the Kings ofJudah_. 

[Sidenote: _Earlier sources quoted by the editor of Kings_]

A careful study of the books of Kings suggests many other ancientsources. For the reign of Solomon, state annals, temple records, andpopular Solomon traditions appear to have been utilized. The graphicaccount of the division of the Hebrew empire was probably drawn froman early Jeroboam history. In the latter part of First Kings appearcitations from an early Ahab history and a group of Ephraimite Elijahstories. The political data throughout First and Second Kings wereprobably drawn from the annals of the northern and southern kingdoms. Furthermore, in II Kings ii. -viii. Appear long quotations from twocycles of Elisha stories, centring, respectively, about the ancientnorthern sanctuary of Gilgal, near Shiloh, and about Samaria. The restof the book includes citations from sources which may be designated as aprophetic Jehu history, temple records, a Hezekiah history, and a groupof Isaiah stories. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that produced this later prophetic history_]

These valuable quotations the late prophetic editor of Kings hasarranged in chronological order and fitted into a framework which givesthe length of each reign and the date of accession of the differentkings, according to the chronology of the other Hebrew kingdom. To thisdata he adds a personal judgment upon the policy of each ruler, therebyrevealing his prophetic spirit. History is to him, as to every trueprophet, a supreme illustration of fundamental spiritual principles. Clearly the influence that led him to compile and edit his great workwas his recognition of the fact that the record of Israel's nationalexperience as a whole was of deep religious import. The same motiveundoubtedly guided him in the selection of material from his greatvariety of sources. Only that which was essential was presented. Thushe, or a later editor of his book, traced Israel's remarkablehistory down to the middle of the Babylonian exile (560 B. C. ), andcompleted that wonderful chain of prophetic narratives which recordand interpret the first great chapter of divine revelation through thechosen race. 

VII

THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES

[Sidenote: _Real character and aims of the prophets_]

To understand and rightly interpret the prophetic writings of the OldTestament it is necessary to cast aside a false impression as to thecharacter of the prophets which is widely prevalent. They were notforetellers, but forth-tellers. Instead of being vague dreamers, in imagination living far in the distant future, they were mostemphatically men of their own times, enlightened and devotedpatriots, social and ethical reformers, and spiritual teachers. Theircharacteristic note of conviction and authority was due to the factthat, on the one hand, they knew personally and distinctly the evilsand needs of their nation, and that, on the other hand, their minds andhearts, ever open to receive the truth, were in vital touch with theInfinite. Thus, just as Aaron became Moses' prophet to the people, publicly proclaiming what the great leader imparted to him in private(Ex. Vii. 1, 2), so the Hebrew prophets became Jehovah's heralds andambassadors, announcing by word and life and act the divine will. 

[Sidenote: _Influences that led the prophets to write down theirsermons_]

While the historians were perfecting their histories certain prophetsalso were beginning to commit their sermons to writing. The oldestrecorded address in the Old Testament is probably that of Amos atBethel. His banishment from the northern kingdom under strict injunctionnot to prophesy there (Am. Vii. 10-17) may well explain why he resortedto writing to give currency to his prophetic message, though, like Paulin later days, he undoubtedly regarded writing as an inferior substitutefor the spoken word. Jeremiah appears to have preached twenty yearsbefore he dictated a line to his scribe Baruch, and then it was becausehe could not personally speak in the temple (xxxvi. 1-5). Sometimescomplete sermons of the prophets are preserved, but more often we seemto have only extracts and epitomes. In some of the prophetic books, likethat of Jeremiah, there are also popular reports of a prophetic address, and narrative sections, telling of the prophet's experience. 

[Sidenote: _The editing of the earlier prophecies_]

Evidences of editing are very apparent in the earlier prophecies. Suddeninterruptions, and verses or clauses, in which appear ideas and literarystyle very different from that of the immediate context, indicate thatmany of the prophecies have been supplemented by later notes, someexplanatory and some hortatory. Other longer passages are intended toadjust the earlier teaching to later conditions and beliefs and so toadapt them to universal human needs that they are not limited to thehour and occasion of their first delivery. Some of these passages comefrom the hands of disciples of the prophets and often contain valuableadditional data; others are from later prophetic editors and scribes. Adetailed comparison, for example, of the Hebrew and Greek versions ofJeremiah quickly discloses wide variations of words, verses, and evenlong passages, added in one or the other text by later hands. All theseadditions testify to the deep interest felt by later generations in theearlier writings, even before they were assigned a final place inthe canon. It is one of the important tasks of biblical scholars todistinguish the original from the additions and thus determine what werethe teachings of each prophet and what are the contributions of latergenerations. 

[Sidenote: _The background of Isaiah xl. -lv. _]

Many of the later additions possess a value and authority entirelyindependent of that possessed by the prophet with whose writings theyhave been joined by their original authors or later editors. Thus thesublime chapters appended to the original sermons of Isaiah contain someof the noblest teachings in the Old Testament. The different themesand literary style; the frequent references to the Babylonians, not asdistant allies, as in the days of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but as thehated oppressors of the Jews; the evidence that the prophet's readersare not exiles far from Judah; the many allusions to the conquests ofCyrus, --all these leave little doubt that chapters xl. -lv. Were writtenin the latter part of the Babylonian or the first of the Persian period. Interpreted in the light of this background, their thought and teachingsbecome clear and luminous. Similarly, the varied evidence within thechapters themselves seems to indicate that Isaiah lvi. -lxvi. Containsermons directed to the struggling Jewish community in Palestine duringthe days following the rebuilding of the temple in 520 B. C. 

[Sidenote: _The order and date of the prophetic books_]

The prophetic sermons, epistles, and apocalypses fall naturally intofive great groups. The books prophets of the Assyrian period were Amosand Hosea, who between 750 and 734 B. C. Preached to Northern Israel;also Isaiah and Micah, whose work lies between 740 and 680 B. C. Nahum'slittle prophecy, although much later, echoes the death-knell of thegreat Assyrian kingdom, which for two or three centuries dominatedsouthwestern Asia. The prophets of Judah's decline were Zephaniah (about628 B. C. ), Jeremiah (628-690), and Habakkuk (609-605). To the sameperiod belong Ezekiel's earlier sermons, delivered between 592 and 586, just before the final destruction of Jerusalem. The prophets of theBabylonian exile were Obadiah, whose original oracle belongs to itsopening years; Ezekiel (xxv. -xlviii. ), who continued to preach until 572B. C. , and the great prophet whose deathless messages ring through Isaiahxl. -lv. The prophets of the Persian period were Haggai and Zechariah, whose inspiring sermons kept alive the flagging zeal of those whorebuilt the second temple; the authors of Isaiah lvi. -lxvi. ; the authorof the little book of Malachi; and Joel. To this list we may perhapsadd the prophet who has given us that noble protest, found in the muchmisunderstood book of Jonah, against the narrow and intolerant attitudeof later Judaism toward foreigners. 

[Sidenote: _Growth of anonymous and apocalyptic literature_]

With the exception of Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Joel, all theprophecies which come from the centuries following the fall of Jerusalemin 586 B. C. Are anonymous. The worship of the authority of the past hadbegun, and there is evidence that the belief was gaining currency thatthe days of the prophets were past. Hence the natural tendency to resortto anonymous authorship or else to append a later message to an earlierprophecy. Chapters ix. -xiv. Of the book of Zechariah illustrate thiscustom, --chapters which apparently come from the last Old Testamentperiod, the Greek or Maccabean. The habit of presenting prophetic truthin the highly figurative, symbolic form, of the apocalypse also becameprominent in later Judaism. This has already been noted in the study ofthe growth of the New Testament, and is illustrated by the book ofRevelation. It was especially adapted to periods of religiouspersecution, for it enabled the prophet to convey his message ofencouragement and consolation in language impressive and clear to hispeople, yet unintelligible to their foreign masters. 

[Sidenote: _The historical background of the book of Daniel_]

To the mind of one who has carefully studied the book of Daniel in thelight of the great crisis that came to the Jews as a result of therelentless persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, between the years 169and 165 B. C. , there remains little doubt that it is in this period thewonderful apocalypse finds its true setting and interpretation. Thefamiliar examples of the heroic fidelity of Daniel and his friends tothe demands of their religion and ritual were supremely well adaptedto arouse a similar resistance toward the demands of a tyrant who wasattempting to stamp out the Jewish, religion and transform the chosenpeople into a race of apostates. The visions found in the book tracerapidly, in succession, the history of the Babylonian, Median, Persian, and, last of all, the Greek kingdoms. The culmination is a minutedescription of the character and reign, of the tyrant AntiochusEpiphanes (xi. 21-45). He is clearly the little horn of chapter viii. But suddenly, in the midst of the account of the persecutions, thedescriptions become vague and general. Nor is there any reference to thesuccess of the Maccabean uprising; instead, the prediction is made thatJehovah himself will soon come to establish his Messiah's kingdom. 

[Sidenote: _Date of the book_]

The inference is, therefore, that the prophecy was written a short timebefore the rededication of the temple in 165 B. C. This conclusion isconfirmed by many other indications. For example the language, in partAramaic, is that of the Greek period. The mistakes regarding the finaloverthrow of the Babylonian empire, which was by Cyrus, not Darius, and brought about not by strategy, but as a result of the voluntarysubmission of the Babylonians, are identical with the errors currentin Greek tradition of the same late period. Here, as in the earlynarratives of Genesis, a true prophet has utilized earlier stories aseffective illustrations. He has also given in the common apocalypticform an interpretation of the preceding four centuries of human history, and showed how through it all God's purpose was being realized, The bookconcludes with the firm assurance that those who now prove faithful areto be richly rewarded and to have a part in Ms coming Messianic kingdom. 

[Sidenote: _The common motive actuating the prophets and the authors ofthe New Testament_]

Thus, from the minds of the prophets come the earliest writings of theOld Testament. They consist of exhortations, warnings, messages ofencouragement, or else stories intended to illustrate a religiousprinciple or to present, in concrete form, a prophetic ideal. Thefundamental motive which produced them all was identical with that whichled the disciples and apostles to write the Gospels and Epistles of theNew. In the case of the historico-prophetic writings, like Samuel andKings, the desire to inspire and mould the minds and wills of theirreaders was combined with the desire to preserve in permanent form arecord of the events which, in their national history, revealed mostclearly Jehovah's character and purpose. In this respect they correspondperfectly to the Gospels and Acts of the New Testament. It is easy tosee, therefore, that kindred aims and ideals actuated these unknownprophetic writers and their later successors, Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Their literary products differ only because their subject-matter isdifferent. The one group records Jehovah's revelation of himself throughthe life of the Messianic nation, the other through the life of theperfect Messiah. 

[Sidenote: _The New Testament the sequel of the prophetic writings_]

It is interesting to note, in conclusion, that from the point of view ofthe Old, all the literature of the New may be designated as prophetic. The three distinct groups of writings found in the New, namely, theGospels and Acts, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse, correspond exactlyto the three types of prophetic literature found in the Old: thehistorico-prophetical writings, direct written prophecies, andapocalypses. If the final canon of the Old Testament had been completedbefore the days of Josiah, there is every reason to believe that italso would have contained little beside prophetic writings. In divineprovidence it was not closed until seven centuries later, so that, as ithas come to us, it is a comprehensive library, representing every stageand every side of Israel's development. It is, however, in perfectkeeping with the spirit of the Master that the New Testament shouldcontain significant facts and broad principles rather than detailed lawsor even the songs of worship. He whose ideals, teachings, and methodswere in closest harmony with those of the Hebrew prophets, naturallybegat, through his immediate followers, a group of distinctivelyprophetic writings. 

VIII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS

[Sidenote: _First the principle, and then the detailed laws_]

If the canon of the New Testament had remained open as long as did thatof the Old, there is little doubt that it also would have contained manylaws, legal precedents, and ecclesiastical histories. From the writingsof the Church Fathers and the records of the Catholic Church it ispossible to conjecture what these in general would have been. The earlyhistory of Christianity illustrates the universal fact that the broadprinciples are first enunciated by a great prophetic leader or leaders, and that in succeeding centuries these new principles are graduallyembodied in detailed laws and ceremonials. Also the principles must beaccepted, partially at least, by the majority of the people before theenactments based upon them can be enforced. This important fact, statedin Old Testament terms, is that the prophet must and always does precedethe lawgiver. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning of the Hebrew word for law_]

_Torah_, the common Hebrew word for law, comes from a Hebrew wordmeaning to _point out_ or _direct_. It is probably also connectedwith the older root signifying, to cast the sacred lot. The _torah_, therefore, was originally the decision, rendered in connection withspecific questions of dispute, and referred to Jehovah by means of thesacred lot. Thus the early priests were also judges because they werethe custodians of the divine oracle. 

[Sidenote: _Origin of this Hebrew belief in the divine origin of law_]

Here we are able to trace, in its earliest Hebrew form, the universalbelief in the divine origin of the law. In the primitive laws of Exodusxxi. -xxiii. , in connection with a case of disputed responsibility forinjury to property, the command is given: _the cause of both partiesshall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall pay double to hisneighbor_ (xxii. 8, 9). In ancient times all cases of dispute were thuslaid before God and decided by the lot or by God's representatives, usually the priests. When, in time, customs and oral laws grew up on thebasis of these decisions, a similar divine origin and authority werenaturally attributed to them. Individually and collectively theywere designated by the same suggestive term, _torah_. When they wereultimately committed to writing, the legal literature bore this title. In the Hebrew text it still remains as the designation of the firstgroup of Old Testament books which contain the bulk of Israel's laws. 

[Sidenote: _Its ultimate basis in fact_]

A belief in the divine origin of law was held by most ancient peoples. In connection with the tablet which records the laws of Hammurabi, wehave a picture of Shamash the sun-god giving the laws to the king. Inthe epilogue to these laws he states that by the command of Shamash, thejudge supreme of heaven and earth, he has set them up that judgment mayshine in the land. The statements in the Old Testament that Jehovahtalked face to face with Moses or wrote the ten words with his finger ontablets of stone reflect the primitive belief which pictured God as aman with hands and voice and physical body; still they are the earlyconcrete statement of a vital, eternal truth. Not on perishable stone, but in the minds of the ancient judges, and in the developing ethicalconsciousness of the Israelitish race, he inscribed the principles ofwhich the laws are the practical expression. If he had not revealedthem, there would have been no progress in the knowledge of justiceand mercy. The thesis of the Old Testament, and of Hammurabi also, isfundamentally true. The vivid forms in which both expressed that thesiswere admirably fitted to impress it upon the mind of early man. 

[Sidenote: _Method in which Hebrew law grew_]

The early Israelitish theory of the origin, of law provided fully forexpansion and development to meet the new and changed conditions oflater periods. Whenever a new question presented itself, it could bereferred to Jehovah's representatives, the priests and prophets; andtheir _torah_, or response, would forthwith become the basis for the newlaw. Malachi ii. 6, 7 clearly defines this significant element in thegrowth, of Israel's legal codes: _the torah of truth was in the mouthof the priest. .. And the people should seek the torah at his mouth. _Similarly Haggai commands the people to ask a _torah_ from the priestsin regard to a certain question of ceremonial cleanliness (ii, 11). Until a very late period in Israelitish history, the belief wasuniversal that Jehovah was ever giving new decisions and laws throughhis priests and prophets, and therefore that the law itself wasconstantly being expanded and developed. This belief is in perfectaccord with all historical analogies and with the testimony of the OldTestament histories and laws themselves. Not until the days of thelatest editors did the tendency to project the Old Testament laws backto the beginning of Israel's history gain the ascendency and leaveits impression upon the Pentateuch. Even then there was no thought ofattributing the literary authorship of all of these laws to Moses. Thiswas the work of still later Jewish tradition. 

[Sidenote: _Moses' relation to Israelitish law_]

The earliest Old Testament narratives indicate clearly the realhistorical basis of the familiar later tradition, and vindicate andhelp us in the effort to define the title, _Law of Moses_. The earlyEphraimite narratives describe Moses as a prophet rather than as a merelawgiver. In Exodus xviii. They give us a vivid picture of his activityas judge. To him the people came in crowds, with their cases, _toinquire of God_ (15). In 16, to his father-in-law Jethro, he states:_whenever they have a matter of dispute they come to me, that I maydecide which of the two is right, and make known the statutes of God andhis decisions (tôrôth)_. Jethro then advises him to appoint reliablemen, gifted with a high sense of justice, to decide minor cases, while he reserves for himself the difficult questions involving newprinciples. The origin and theory of Israel's early laws are vividlypresented in Jethro's words to Moses in verses 19, 20: _You be thepeople's advocate with God, and bring the cases to God, and you makeknown to them the statutes and the decisions, and show them the waywherein they must walk, and the work that they must do. _

[Sidenote: _Historical basis of the tradition of Mosaic authorship_]

It appears from these and other passages that Moses' traditional titleas the father of Israelitish legislation is well established. As aprophet, he proclaimed certain fundamental principles that became thebasis of all later codes. As a judge, he rendered decisions that soongrew into customary laws. As a leader and organizer, he laid thefoundations of the later political and institutional growth of thenation. Furthermore, it is probable that he taught the people certainsimple commands which became the nucleus of all later legislation. Naturally and properly, as oral laws subsequently grew up and werefinally committed to writing, they were attributed to him. Later, whenthese laws were collected and codified, they were still designatedas _Mosaic_, even, though the authors of these codes added manycontemporary enactments to the earlier laws. Thus the traditions, aswell as the theory, of Israelitish law fortunately raised no barrieragainst its normal growth. It was not until the late Jewish period, whenthe tradition became rigid and unnatural, that the rabbis, in order toestablish the authority of contemporary laws, were forced to resort tothe grotesque legal fictions which appear in the Talmud. 

[Sidenote: _Evidences that the earliest laws were oral_]

The earliest Hebrew laws, like the traditions, were apparently longtransmitted in oral form. The simple life of the desert and early Canaanrequired no written records. Custom and memory preserved all the lawsthat were needed. Also, as we have seen, before the Hebrews came intocontact with the Canaanites and Phoenicians, they do not seem to havedeveloped the literary art. Instead, they cast their important commandsand laws into the form of pentads and decalogues. The practical aimseems to have been to aid the memory by associating a brief law witheach finger of the two hands. The system was both simple and effective. It also points clearly to a period of oral rather than writtentransmission. 

[Sidenote: _The earliest Hebrew laws_]

The nucleus of all Israelitish law appears to have been a simpledecalogue, which gave the terms of the original covenant betweenJehovah and his people, and definitely stated the obligations they mustdischarge if they would retain his favor. The oldest version of thisdecalogue is now embedded in the early Judean narrative of Exodus xxxiv. There is considerable evidence, however, that it once stood immediatelyafter the Judean account of Jehovah's revelation of himself at Sinai, and was transposed to its present position in order to give placefor the later and nobler prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx. 1-17. Itsantiquity and importance are also evidenced by the fact that it hasreceived many later introductory, explanatory, and hortatory notes. Exodus xxxiy. 28 preserves the memory that it originally consisted ofsimply ten words. The slightly variant version of these original tenwords Is also found in Exodus xx. 23, xxiii. 12, 15, 16, 18, 29, 30. Furthermore, it probably once occupied a central position in thecorresponding Northern Israelltish account of the covenant at Sinai. 

[Sidenote: _The oldest decalogue_]

With the aid of these two different versions, that of the North andthat of the South, it is possible to restore approximately the commonoriginal:

I. Thou shalt worship no other God. 

II. Thou shalt make no molten gods, III. Thou shalt observe the feast of unleaven bread. 

IV. Every first-born is mine. 

V. Six days shalt thou toil, but on the seventh thou shalt rest. 

VI. Thou shalt observe the feast of weeks and ingathering at the end ofthe year, VII. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven. VIII. The fat of my feast shall not be left until morning. 

IX. The best of the first-fruits of thy land shalt thou bring to thehouse of Jehovah. 

X. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk. 

[Sidenote: _Its date_]

These laws bear on their face the evidence of their primitive date andorigin. They define religion not in the terms of life, as does thefamiliar prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx. , but, like the old Babylonianreligion, in the terms of the ritual. Loyalty to Jehovah, as the God ofthe nation, and fidelity to the demands of the cult is their watchword. Their antiquity and the central position they occupy in Old Testamentlegislation are shown further by the fact that all of them are againquoted in other codes, and most of them four or five times in the OldTestament. Three of them apply to agricultural life; but agriculture isnot entirely unknown to the nomadic life of the wilderness. Possiblyin their present form certain of these commands have been adapted toconditions in Canaan, but the majority reflect the earliest stages inHebrew history. In all probability the decalogue in its original formcame from Moses, as the earliest traditions assert, although comparativeSemitic religion demonstrates that many of the institutions herereflected long antedated the days of the great leader. 

[Sidenote: _The_ Judgements _of Exodus xxi. , xxii_]

Although in part contemporary, the next stage in the developmentof Israelitish law is represented by the civil, social, and humanedecalogues in Exodus xx. 28 to xxiii. 19. The best preserved group isfound in xxi. 1 to xxii. 20, and bears the title _Judgments_, which recallsHammurabi's title to his code, The _Judgments_ of Righteousness. Likethis great Babylonian code, the Hebrew _Judgments_ deal with civil andsocial cases, and are usually introduced by the formula, _If so and so_, followed by the penalty or decision to be rendered. They are evidentlyintended primarily for the guidance of judges. The parallels with thecode of Hammurabi are many, both in theme, form, and penalty, althoughthere is no conclusive evidence that the Hebrew borrowed directlyfrom the older Babylonian. Undoubtedly many of the striking points ofresemblance are due simply to common Semitic ideas and institutions andto the recurrence of similar questions. But on the whole, the Hebrewlaws place a higher estimate on life and less on property. They reflectalso a simpler type of civilization than the Babylonian. 

[Sidenote: _Their arrangement and contents_]

When three or four obviously later additions have been removed, the_Judgments_ are found to consist of five decalogues, each dividedinto two pentads which deal with different phases of the same generalsubject. They are as follows:

_First Decalogue: The Rights of Slaves. _

First Pentad: Males, Ex. Xxi. 2, 3a, 3b, 4, 5-6. Second Pentad: Females, xxi. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. 

_Second Decalogue: Assaults. _

First Pentad: Capital Offences, xxi. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. 

Second Pentad: Minor Offences, xxi. 18-19, 20, 21, 26, 27. 

_Third Decalogue: Laws regarding Domestic Animals. _

First Pentad: Injuries by Animals, xxi. 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. 

Second Pentad: Injuries to Animals, xxi. 33-34, 35, 36; xxii. 1, 4. 

_Fourth Decalogue: Responsibility for Property. _

First Pentad: In General, xxii. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 

Second Pentad: In Cattle, xxii. 10-11, 13, 14, l5a, I5b. 

_Fifth Decalogue: Social Purity. _

First Pentad: Adultery, Deut. Xxii. 13-19, 20-21, 22, 23-24, 25-27. 

Second Pentad: Fornication and Apostasy, Ex. Xxii. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. 

[Sidenote: _Their date_]

Many of these laws anticipate the settled agricultural conditions ofPalestine. Society, however, is very simple. The decalogue and peatadform also points clearly to an early period, when the laws weretransmitted orally. Many of the laws probably came from the days of thewilderness wandering, and therefore go back to the age of Moses, in somecases much earlier, as is shown by close analogies with the code ofHammurabi. Although in their present written form these oral _Judgments_bear the marks of the Northern Israelitish prophetic writers who havepreserved them, the majority, if not all, may with confidence beassigned to the days of David and Solomon. 

[Sidenote: _The early humane and ceremonial laws_]

The remaining verses of Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19, contain, groups ofhumane and ceremonial laws. In the process of transmission they havebeen somewhat disarranged, but, with the aid of the fuller duplicateversions in Deuteronomy, four complete decalogues can be restored andpart of a fifth. The following analysis will suggest their generalcharacter and contents:

HUMANE AND CEREMONIAL LAWS

_First Decalogue: Kindness. _

First Pentad: Towards Men, Ex. Xxii. 2la, 22-23, 25a, 25b, 26-27. 

Second Pentad; Towards Animals, Ex, xxiii. 4 [Deut. Xxii. 1], Deut. Xxii. 2, 3; Ex. Xxiii. 5

[Deut. Xxii. 4], Deut. Xxii. 6-7. 

_Second Decalogue: Justice_. 

First Pentad: Among Equals, Ex. Xxiii. 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3. 

Second Pentad: On the Part of those in Authority, xxiii, 6, 7a, 7b, 7c, 8. 

_Third Decalogue: Duties to God. _

First Pentad: Worship, Ex. Xx. 23a, 23b, 24, 25, 26. 

Second Pentad: Loyalty, Ex. Xxii. 28, 29a, 29b, 30, 31. 

_Fourth Decalogue: Sacred Seasons. _

First Pentad: Command to Observe them, xxiii. 10-11, 12, l5a, 16a, 16b. 

Second Pentad: Method of Observing them, xxiii, 17, 18a, 18b, 19a, 19b. 

[Sidenote: _Period represented by the primitive codes_]

Here the primitive ceremonial decalogue has been expanded into the thirdand fourth group given above. Like the _Judgments_, these decaloguesbear testimony to their northern origin, and probably they also havehad much the same history, although their relation to the primitivedecalogue and the fact that they are prefixed and added to the solidgroup of _Judgments_, would seem to indicate that they were somewhatlater. These two collections, together with their older prototype, theancient decalogue, represent the growth of Israel's laws during thefour centuries beginning with Moses and extending to about 800 B. C. Todistinguish them from later collections they may be designated as the_Primitive Codes_. 

[Sidenote: _The need for new laws_]

The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ which brought to theHebrews great crises and revolutionary changes in both their politicaland religious life, witnessed the epoch-making work of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah. This remarkable group of prophets proclaimed so manynew principles that a fundamental revision and expansion of Israel'sprimitive codes became necessary in order to adapt the latter to the newneeds of the age. The reactionary reign of Manasseh had also brought outplainly the contrast between the older heathen cults, still cherishedby the people, and the exalted ideals of the true prophets. If theprophetic teachings were to become operative in the life of thenation, it was also seen that they must be expressed in concrete legalenactments, which could be universally understood and definitelyenforced. 

[Sidenote: _Application of prophetic principles in the life of thepeople_]

Accordingly, a group of prophets, disciples of the older masters, and inspired by the spirit of reform, devoted themselves to thisall-important task. The results of their work are represented by theprophetic law-book of Deuteronomy. Through its pages glow the newethical teachings of the prophets of the Assyrian period. The elementsof Hosea's doctrine, love to God and love to men and kindness to theneedy and oppressed, in their new setting and application, make it oneof the evangels of the Old Testament. Its lofty standards of justiceand social responsibility reflect the impassioned addresses of Amosand Hosea. Since the new laws, as a whole, represented the practicalapplication of the messages of the prophets to life, they were justlyand appropriately placed in the mouth of Moses, the real and traditionalhead of the nation and of the prophetic order. 

[Sidenote: _Relation to the older laws_]

A comparison of this prophetic law-book with the older primitive lawsshows that the latter were made the basis of the new codes, since mostof them, in revised form, are also found in Deuteronomy. The propheticlawmakers, however, in the same spirit that actuated Jesus in hisattitude toward the ancient law, freely modified, supplemented, and insome cases substituted for the primitive enactments, laws that moreperfectly embodied the later revelation. 

[Sidenote: _Promulgation and date of the prophetic codes_]

The nature of the reforms instituted by Josiah, according to II Kingsxxii. , clearly prove that the laws which inspired them were those ofDeuteronomy, and that this was the law-book discovered in the temple byHilkiah the priest and publicly read and promulgated by the king in 621B. C. Originally it was probably prepared by the prophetic reformers as abasis for their work; but it incorporates not only most of the primitivecodes, but also many other ancient laws and groups of laws, somedoubtless coming from the earliest periods of Israel's history. It alsoappears to have been further supplemented after the reformation ofJosiah. In general it represents the second great stage in Old Testamentlaw, as it rapidly developed between 800 and 600 B. C. Under theinspiring preaching of the remarkable prophets of the Assyrian period. 

[Sidenote: _Their historical and permanent value_]

These laws represent, in many ways, the high-water mark of Old Testamentlegislation. Every effort is made to eliminate that which experience hadproved to be imperfect in the older laws and customs. The chief aimis to protect the rights of the wronged and dependent. The appealthroughout is not to the fear of punishment--in a large number of lawsno penalty is suggested--but to the individual conscience. Not merelyformal worship is demanded, but a love to God so personal that itdominates the individual heart and soul and finds expression throughenergies completely devoted to his service. These laws required strictjustice, but more than that, mercy and practical charity toward theweak and needy and afflicted. Even the toiling ox and the helplessmother-bird and her young are not beyond the kin of these wonderfullaws. Under their benign influence the divine principles of the prophetsbegan to mould directly the character and life of the Israelitish race. The man who lives in accord with their spirit and injunctions to-dayfinds himself on the straight and narrow way, hallowed by the feet ofthe Master. 

IX

INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HISTORIES

[Sidenote: _Influences in the exile that produced written ceremoniallaws_]

The Babylonian exile gave a great opportunity and incentive to thefurther development of written law. While the temple stood, theceremonial rites and customs received constant illustration, and weretransmitted directly from father to son in the priestly families. Hence, there was little need of writing them down. But when most of the priestswere carried captive to Babylonia, as in 597 B. C. , and ten years laterthe temple was laid in ruins and all sacrifice and ceremonial worshipsuddenly ceased, written records at once became indispensable, if thecustoms and rules of Israel's ritual were to be preserved. The integrityand future of the scattered Israelitish race also largely depended uponkeeping alive their distinctive traditions. Torn from their altars, the exiled priests not only had a strong incentive, but likewise theleisure, to write. The ritualistic zeal of their Babylonian mastersdoubtless further inspired them. The result was, that during theBabylonian exile and the following century most of the ceremonial lawsin the Old Testament appear to have been first committed to writing. 

[Sidenote: _Ezekiel's Code_]

Even Ezekiel, the prophet of the early exile, yielded to the influenceof his early priestly training and the needs of the situation. In 572 heissued the unique code found in chapters xl. -xlviii. Of his prophecy. Itprovides for the rebuilding of the temple, and defines the duties of itsdifferent officials and the form of ritual that is to be observed. Thewhole is intended primarily to emphasize, through the arrangement of thesanctuary and the forms of the ceremonial, the transcendent holiness ofJehovah. Ezekiel also proclaims, through this elaborate program for therestored community, the certainty that the exiles would be allowed toreturn and rebuild the temple. He evidently reproduces many of theproportions and regulations of the first temple, but, with the samefreedom that characterizes the authors of the Deuteronomic codes, heunhesitatingly sets aside earlier usages where something better has beenrevealed. 

[Sidenote: _Genesis and character of the Holiness Code_]

Ezekiel's code was never fully adopted by the later Jews, for much ofit was symbolic rather than practical; but it powerfully influencedsubsequent lawmakers, and was indicative of the dominant tendency ofthe day. Even before he issued his code, some like-minded priest hadcollected and arranged an important group of laws, which appear tohave been familiar to Ezekiel himself. They are found in Leviticusxvii. -xxvi. , and have felicitously been designated as the _HolinessCode_, because they constantly emphasize the holiness of Jehovah and thenecessity of the people's being holy in thought and act. In chaptersxvii. -xix. Most of the original laws are still arranged in the decalogueand pentad form. This strong evidence that they had been transmitted byword of mouth from a much earlier period is supported by their contents. They resemble and supplement the primitive laws of Exodus xx. 23to xxiii. 19. Many of them probably came from the early periods ofIsraelitish history. Most of the laws, like those of the prophetic codesin Deuteronomy, are ethical and humane rather than ceremonial. Thecode, as a whole, is a remarkable combination of prophetic and priestlyteaching. It marks the transition from the age of the prophets, represented by Deuteronomy, to that of the priests and ritual, represented by the priestly codes proper. Like every important earlycollection of laws, It also has been much supplemented by later editors;the original Holiness Code, however, may be given a date soon after thefirst captivity in 597 B. C. 

[Sidenote: _The priestly codes_]

The influences represented by Ezekiel and the Holiness Code have givenus the remaining laws of the Old Testament. These are found in Leviticusi-xvi. , xxviii. , and, excepting Exodus xx. -xxiii. , xxxiv. , in the legalsections of Exodus and Numbers. They deal almost entirely withsuch ceremonial subjects, as the forms and rules of sacrifice, theobservation of the annual religious festivals, and the rights and dutiesof priests. Many of them incorporated laws and customs as old or olderthan the days of Moses. An early and important group, technically knownas the Priestly teaching (Lev. I. -iii. , v. -vii. , xi. -xv. ; Num. V. , vi. , xv. , xix. 14-22), is repeatedly designated as _the torah of theburnt-offering_ (Lev. Vi. 9), or _the torah of the meal-offering_ (vi, 14), or _the torah of the unclean and clean beast or bird_ (xi. 46, 47). It is evidently based upon the _toroth_, or decisions, rendered by thepriests concerning the various ceremonial questions thus treated. Therecurring phrase, _according to the ordinance_, probably refers to thefixed usage observed in connection with the first temple. 

[Sidenote: _Their date_]

The atmosphere and point of view of these priestly laws as a whole arethe exilic and post-exilic periods. The ritual has become much moreelaborate, the position of the priests much more prominent, and theirincome far greater than before the exile. The distinction between priestand Levite, which was not recognized before the exile, is clearlydefined. The annual feasts have increased, and their old joyouscharacter has largely disappeared under the dark shadow of the exile. Sin-offerings, guilt-offerings, trespass-offerings, and the day ofatonement (practically unknown before the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B. C. )reflect the spirit of the later Judaism which sought to win Jehovah'sfavor by its many sacrifices. Within these priestly codes there is alsoevidence of development. The older collections, such as the priestlyteachings, were probably made early in the Babylonian exile. Othersrepresent the gradual expansion and supplementing of these older groups, the process apparently continuing until the days of Nehemiah and Ezra. The whole, therefore, is the fruit of the remarkable priestly literaryactivity between 600 and 400 B. C. , and possibly extending even later. 

[Sidenote: _Adoption of the priestly law about 400 B. C. _]

The Jewish community which Nehemiah found in Palestine was still livingunder the Deuteronomic law, and apparently knew nothing of the verydifferent demands of the priestly codes. His reform measures recorded inNehemiah v. And xiii. , as well as his effective work in repairing thewalls, prepared the way for the sweeping innovations which followed thepublic acceptance of the new law-book, brought according to tradition byEzra. Five out of the eight regulations specified by the oath then takenby the leaders of the nation (Neh. X. 30-39) are found only in thepriestly codes; one of them, indeed, is not presented elsewhere in theOld Testament. Henceforth the life of the Jewish race is mouldedby these later codes. It is, therefore, safe to conclude that theyconstituted the essence of the new law-book solemnly adopted by theJewish community as its guide somewhere about 400 B. C. 

[Sidenote: _Aim and characteristics of the priestly narratives_]

Inasmuch as the interest of the priests centred in ceremonialinstitutions and the history of the law rather than about individualsand politics, it was natural that they also should write their ownhistory of the race. Their general purpose was to give an introductionand setting to their laws. As might be anticipated, this priestlyhistory incorporates the traditions of the late priestly school, andtherefore those current long centuries after the events recordedtranspired. As in the case of the prophetic narratives, the aim is notprimarily historical, but doctrinal. The peculiar vocabulary, language, and theological conceptions are those which distinguish the post-exilicpriestly editors of the latest Old Testament laws. 

[Sidenote: _Their sketch of the earlier history_]

Their history begins with the majestic account of creation in Genesis i. 1 to ii. 4a. God does not form man from the dust, as in the primitiveprophetic account, but by a simple word of command; and by progressiveacts of creation he realizes his perfect plan, which culminates in thecreation of mankind. The literary style is that of a legalist: formal, precise, repetitious, and generic. The ultimate aim of the narrativeis to trace the origin of the institution of the Sabbath back to thecreation. The genealogical history of Genesis v. Connects this accountof creation with the priestly version of the flood story which leadsup to the covenant with Noah. The priestly genealogical histories ofGenesis x. And xi. 10-27 trace the ancestry of the Hebrews throughAbraham. Regarding this patriarch these later historians present only abrief sketch; in Genesis xvii. , however, they expand their narrativeto give in detail the origin of the rite of circumcision, which theyassociate with him. Jacob is to them chiefly of interest as the fatherof the ten tribes. 

[Sidenote: _from Egypt to Canaan_]

The history of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt is brieflyoutlined as the prelude to the traditional institution of the feastof the passover. Sinai, however, is the great goal of the priestlynarratives, for about it they group all their laws. It is their concretemethod of proclaiming the antiquity and divine origin of Israelitishlegislation. The period of the wilderness wandering is also made thebackground of many important legal precedents. The priestly historyconcludes with an account of the conquest of Canaan and the allotment ofthe territory to the different tribes. 

[Sidenote: _The lack of historical perspective_]

In these late priestly narratives the historical perspective issometimes considerably shortened and sometimes lengthened. Moreover, their representation often differs widely from that of the parallel butmuch earlier prophetic histories. The original traditions have alsoassumed larger proportions, and the supernatural element is much moreprominent. This is evidently the result of long transmission, in an agethat had largely lost the historic sense, and among the priestly exiles, who were far removed from the real life of Palestine. 

[Sidenote: _Variations between the older and later narratives_. ]

The wide variations between the older prophetic and late priestlyaccounts of the same events might be illustrated by scores of examples. The following parallel account of the exodus will suffice:

[Sidenote: _Early Judean Prophetic Account_]

Ex. Xiv. L9b. Then the pillar of cloud changed its position from beforethem and stood behind them. (20b) And the cloud lighted up the night;yet throughout the entire night the one _army_ did not come near theother. (21b) And Jehovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east windall the night, and made the bed of the sea dry. (24b) And it came topass in the watch before the dawn that Jehovah looked forth through thepillar of fire and of cloud upon the host of the Egyptians, (25) and hebound their horsemen. 

[Sidenote: _Late Priestly Account of the Exodus_]

(21a, c) Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the waterswere divided, (22) so that the Israelites went into the midst of the seaon the dry ground; and the waters were a wall to them on their righthand and on their left. (23b) And the Egyptians went in after theminto the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and hishorsemen. (26) Then Jehovah said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand overthe sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upontheir chariots and their chariot wheels, so that they proceeded withdifficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before Israel;for Jehovah fighteth for them against the Egyptians. (27b) But the seareturned to its ordinary level toward morning, while the Egyptians wereflying before it. And Jehovah shook off the Egyptians into the midst ofthe sea, (28b) so that not one of them remained. (30) Thus Jehovah savedIsrael that day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw theEgyptians dead upon the sea-shore. 

(27a) So Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, (28a) and thewaters returned and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, even all thehost of Pharaoh that went in after them into the sea. (29) But theIsraelites walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, the watersbeing a wall to them on their right hand, and on their left. [Footnote:"Student's Old Testament, " Vol. I. , 175, 176. ]

[Sidenote: _Inferior historical value of the priestly narratives_]

No one can doubt for a moment that the older, simpler, and more naturalversion is, from the historical point of view, the more accurate. The normal man to-day has outgrown the craving for the grotesquelysupernatural. The omnipotent, omniscient, loving Creator, whoreveals himself through the growing flower, commands our admirationas fully as a God who speaks through the unusual and extraordinary. Everything is possible with God, and the man is blind indeed who woulddeny the Infinite Being, who is all and in all, the ability to passbeyond the bounds of that which we, with our extremely limited vision, have designated as natural. The real question is, How did God see fit toaccomplish his ends? Our judicial and historical sense unhesitatinglyinclines to the older and simpler narratives as containing the trueanswer. In distinguishing these different strands of narrative, it mustbe acknowledged that modern biblical scholarship has performed a serviceinvaluable alike to the student of literature, of history, and ofrevelation. 

[Sidenote: _Recognition of their defects and real value_]

In passing, it is instructive to note that, almost without exception, Ingersoll's once famous examples of the mistakes of Moses were drawnfrom the priestly narratives. It is safe to predict that had thatlearned jurist been introduced, when a boy, to the Old Testament, asrevealed in modern light, he would have enjoyed a very different popularfame. In the divine economy, however, even the sledge-hammer of ridiculemay play an important rôle in shattering false claims and the untenabletheories which obscure the real truth. It is wholesome to apply theprinciple of relative values to the Bible, since one cannot fullyappreciate the best without recognizing that which is inferior. Thesepriestly narratives come from a school which, in its reverence for theform and the letter, had began to lose sight of the vital and spiritual. Its still later product is that ritualistic Judaism which stands in suchunfavorable contrast to the perfected spiritual revelation which camethrough Jesus. At the same time, the recognition of the defects of thelate priestly school should not deter us from appreciating the richreligious teaching of a narrative like the first chapter of Genesis, nor from accepting its great message, namely, that through all naturalphenomena and history God is revealing and perfecting his graciouspurpose. 

[Sidenote: _The ecclesiastical history of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah_]

The long ecclesiastical history found in I and II Chronicles and theoriginal sequel of these books, Ezra and Nehemiah, were written from thesame general point of view as the late priestly narratives, but in amuch later period. The same peculiar literary style and conceptions, which recur throughout these four books, show clearly that they are fromone author and age. Since they trace the history to the beginning of theGreek period and speak of the kings and events of the Persian period asif they belonged to the distant past, it is evident that the anonymousauthor, who is usually designated as the Chronicler, lived after theconquests of Alexander. The internal evidence all points to the middleof the third century before Christ as the date of their composition. 

[Sidenote: _Its general point of view_]

From the author's evident interest in the ritual of the temple, andespecially its song service, it would appear that he belonged to one ofthe guilds of temple singers that became prominent in the post-exilicperiod. His history centres about the sanctuary and its services. SinceJudah, not Israel, is the land of the temple, Northern Israel is almostcompletely ignored. Like the late priestly historians, his chief aimis to trace the origin of the ceremonial institutions back to thebeginnings of Hebrew history. Thus he represents the song service andthe guilds of singers as having been established in the days of David. Living as he did under the glamour of the great Persian and Greekempires, he, in common with his contemporaries, idealized the pastglories of his race. As we compare his versions of early events withthe older parallel accounts of Samuel and Kings, we find that ironhas become gold, and hundreds have become thousands, and defeats aretransformed into victories. No mention is made of the crimes of suchkings as David and Solomon, since they are venerated profoundly as thefounders of the temple. 

[Sidenote: _Sources of I and II Chronicles_]

The basis of I and II Chronicles is the prophetic history of Samuel andKings; from these the author quotes _verbatim_ chapter after chapter, according as their contents are adapted to his purpose. This groundworkhe supplements by introducing the priestly traditions current in hisown day. Possibly he quotes also from certain somewhat earlier writtencollections of traditions, for to those, following the example ofthe author of Kings, he frequently refers his readers for furtherinformation. In some cases these later traditions may have preservedauthentic, supplemental data; but when the representation of Chroniclesdiffers, as it frequently does, from that of Samuel and Kings, the olderand more sober prophetic history is undoubtedly to be followed. 

[Sidenote: _The older sources quoted in Ezra-Nehemiah_]

In Ezra and Nehemiah the author has preserved some exceedingly valuablehistorical material, for he has quoted, fortunately, long sections fromtwo or three older sources. Oae is the document in Ezra iv. 7 to vi. 14, the original Aramaic of which is retained. This appears to have beena temple record, dating from the middle or latter part of the Persianperiod, and tells of the interruption of the temple building in the daysof Darius and the finding of the original decree of Cyrus sanctioningthe restoration of the shrine of Jerusalem. Still more important is thewonderful memoir of Nehemiah quoted in Nehemiah i. , ii. , iv. To vii. 5, xii. 31, 32, 37-40, and xiii. 4-31. Here we are able to study the eventsof an exceedingly important period through the eyes of the man who, byhis able and self-sacrificing efforts, did more than any one elseto develop and shape later Judaism. Less important, yet suggestive, citations are taken from the priestly traditions regarding the work ofEzra. The final editor has apparently rearranged this material in orderto give to the work of Ezra the scribe such precedence over that ofNehemiah the layman, as, from his later Levitical point of view, hedeemed proper. Restoring what seems to have been the original order(_i. E. _, Ezra vii. Viii. , Neh. Vii. 70 to viii. 18; Ezra ix. , x. ; Neh. Ix. , x. ) and studying it as the sequel of Nehemiah's essential pioneerwork, the obscurities of this period begin to disappear and itssignificant facts to stand out in clear relief. 

[Sidenote: _Value of the writings of the priestly school_]

Thus we find that, quoting largely as he does, from much older sources, the author of this great ecclesiastical history of Judah and thetemple has given us, in Ezra and Nehemiah, some exceedingly importanthistorical data. His writings also clearly reveal the ideas andinstitutions of his own day; but otherwise it is not as history that hiswork is of permanent value. Rather it is because, in common with all thegreat teachers who speak to us through the Old Testament, he believedfirmly in the moral order of the universe, and that back of all eventsand all history is an infinitely powerful yet just and merciful God whois constantly revealing himself to mankind. While these later priestlywriters were not in such close touch with fact and life as were theprophets, and while they were subject to the defects of all extremeritualists and theologians, they were faithful heralds of truth to theirown and later generations. Behind their symbolism and traditions liecertain great universal principles which amply reward an earnest quest. 

X

THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS

[Sidenote: _Rôle of the sages in Israel's life_]

In the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Jer. Xviii. 18; Ezek. Vii. 26)three distinct classes of religious teachers were recognized by thepeople: the prophets, the priests, and the wise men or sages. Fromtheir lips and pens have come practically all the writings of the OldTestament. Of these three classes the wise men or sages are far lessprominent or well known. They wrote no history of Israel, they preachedno public sermons, nor do they appear to have been connected with anysanctuaries. Quietly, as private teachers, they appealed to the nationthrough the consciences and wills of individuals. Proverbs viii. 1-5reveals their methods:

 Doth not wisdom cry, And understanding put forth her voice? On the top of high places by the way, Where the paths meet, she standeth; Beside the gates, at the entry of the city, At the coining in at the doors, she crieth aloud: Unto you, O men, I call; And my voice is to the sons of men. O ye simple, understand prudence; And ye fools, be of an understanding heart. 

At the open spaces beside the city gates, where legal cases were tried, at the intersections of the streets, wherever men congregated, the sagesof ancient Israel could be found, ready and eager to instruct or advisethe inexperienced and foolish. 

[Sidenote: _Their functions_]

The wise man or sage is a characteristic Oriental figure. First Kingsiv. 30 speaks of the far-famed wisdom of the nomadic tribes of northernArabia and of the wisdom of Egypt. The sage appears to have been theproduct of the early nomadic Semitic life, in which books were unknownand the practical wisdom gained by experience was treasured in the mindsof certain men who were called the wise or sages. In our more complexwestern life such functions have been distributed among the members ofthe legal, medical, and clerical professions, but even now, in smallertowns, may be found an Uncle Toby who is the counterpart of the ancientHebrew sage. To men of this type young and old resort with their privateproblems, and rarely return without receiving real help and light. Inthe East, sages are still to be found, usually gray-bearded elders, honored and influential in the tribe or town. 

[Sidenote: _Source of their knowledge and inspiration_]

Of the three classes of Israel's teachers the sages stood in closesttouch with the people. They were naturally the father-confessors of thecommunity. Observation was their guide, enlightened common sense theirinterpreter, and experience their teacher. The great book of human life, which is one of the most important chapters of divine revelation, wasthrown open wide before them. The truths that they read there, as theireyes were divinely opened to see it, are recorded in the wisdom books ofthe Old Testament, --Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. 

[Sidenote: _The objects of their attention_]

It is significant that neither Israel nor the nation is mentioned in allthe wisdom literature, and that man is spoken of thirty-three timesin the book of Proverbs alone. Man was the object of their study andteaching; the nation, only as it was made up of individuals. In thisrespect the sages stand in contrast with the prophets, whose messageusually is to the nation. They also have little to say about the ritualor the forms of religion. _To them the fear and knowledge of God is thebeginning of wisdom_, and its end a normal relation to God, to one'sfellowmen, and to life. Their message is directed equally to allmankind. The subjects that command, their attention are of universalinterest: the nature and tendencies of man, and his relations and dutiesto God, to society, to the family, and to himself. Everything thatconcerns man, whether it be the tilling of the soil, the choice of awife, the conduct of a lawsuit, or the proper deportment in the presenceof a ruler, commands their earnest consideration. 

[Sidenote: _Their aims not theoretical but practical_]

The Hebrew sages, however, were not mere students of human nature orphilosophers. Knowledge to them was not an end in itself, but only ameans. Their contribution to Israel's life was counsel (Jer. Xviii. 18). Their aim was, by the aid of their tried maxims, to so advise theinexperienced, the foolish, indeed, all who needed advice, that theymight live the fullest and best lives and successfully attain all worthyends. While their teaching was distinctively ethical and religious, itwas also very practical and utilitarian. As pastors and advisers of thepeople, they drew their principles and ideals from Israel's prophets, and applied them to the practical, every-day problems of life. It isobvious that without their patient, devoted instruction the preparationof the chosen people for their mission would have been imperfect, andthat without a record of their teachings the Old Testament would havebeen incomplete. 

[Sidenote: _Their teachings preserved in proverbs_]

The proverb was the most characteristic literary form in which the sagestreasured and imparted their teachings. Poetical in structure, terse, often figurative or epigrammatic, the proverb was well calculated toarouse individual thought and make a deep impression on the mind. Transmitted from mouth to mouth for many generations, like the populartradition or law, it lost by attrition all its unnecessary elements, sothat, 'like an arrow, ' it shot straight to the mark. Based on commonhuman experience, it found a ready response in the heart of man. In thisway crystallized experience was transmitted, gathering effectivenessand volume in each succeeding generation. Job viii. 8-10 speaks of thisaccumulated wisdom handed down from _the former age, that which thefathers have searched out. They shall teach man and inform him, andutter words out of their heart_. Job xv. 18 also refers to that _whichwise men have told from their fathers and have not hid it_. A proverbthus orally transmitted not only gains in beauty of form but also inauthority, for it is constantly being tested in the laboratory of reallife and receives the silent attestation of thousands of men and ofmany different generations. 

[Sidenote: _Expansion of the proverb_]

When the sages desired to treat a many-sided subject, as, for example, intemperance, they still used proverbs, but combined them into briefgnomic essays (_e. G_. , xxiii. 29-85, xxvi. 1-17). Sometimes, to fix theattention of their hearers, they combined two proverbs, so as to producea paradox, as in Proverbs xxvi. 4, 5:

 Answer not a fool according to his folly, Lest them also be like unto him. Answer a fool according to his folly, Lest he be wise in his own conceit. 

Later they developed the simple gnomic essay into a philosophicaldrama, of which Job is the classic example, or into a homily, likeEcclesiastes. 

[Sidenote: _Use of fables and riddles_]

Side by side with the proverb, the sages appear from the earliest timesto have used the fable also; this is illustrated by the fable of Jothamin Judges ix. 6-21. Of the riddle a famous examples is that of Samsonin Judges xiv. 14, 18, which combines rhythm of sound with rhythm ofthought and well illustrates the form of the earliest popular Hebrewpoetry:

 Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet, And its answer: If with my heifer you did not plow, You had not solved my riddle now. 

Proverbs xxx. 15-31 contains a collection of numerical riddles, combinedwith their answers. 

[Sidenote: _Traces of proverbs and the work of sages in the Hebrewhistory_]

Proverbs are found in the oldest Hebrew literature. The Midianite kings, awaiting death at the hand of Gideon, cite a popular proverb, _For asthe man, so is his strength_. David in his conversation with Saul says, _As runs the proverb, "Out of the wicked cometh forth wickedness"_ (ISam. Xxiv. 13). Frequent references are also found to wise men andwomen, and examples are given of their prudence and insight Thus Joab, David's iron-hearted commander, brings a wise woman from Tekoa, thelater home of the prophet Amos, to aid him in securing the recall of thebanished Absalom. By her feigned story she succeeds in working upon thesympathy of the king to such a degree that he commits himself finally toa principle which she at once asks him to apply to the case of his ownson (II Sam. Xiv. 1-24). 

[Sidenote: _Basis of Solomon's reputation for wisdom_]

The stories told in I Kings iii. 16-28, to illustrate the wisdom ofSolomon, suggest the historical basis of the reputation which he enjoyedin the thought of succeeding generations. Such stories also indicate, asdo the other early examples of the work of the wise, the conception ofwisdom held in that more primitive age. Such wisdom does not necessarilyinclude ethical righteousness or even practical executive ability, forthe true Solomon of history was lacking in both; but rather a certain. Shrewdness, versatility, and keenness of insight which enable itspossessor to discern what is not clearly apparent. First Kings iv. 29-34contains the later popular tradition of Solomon's wisdom:

(29) And God gave Solomon wisdom and insight in plentiful measure, andbreadth of mind, even as the sand that is on the seashore, (30) so thatSolomon's wisdom surpassed the wisdom of all the eastern Arabians andall the wisdom of Egypt. (31) For he was wiser than all men: than Ethanthe Ezrahite, and Heman, Calcol, Darda, the sons of Mahol, and his famewas in all the surrounding nations. (32) And he uttered three thousandproverbs, and his songs were five thousand. (33) And he spoke ofdifferent varieties of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even tothe hyssop that springs out of the wall; he spoke also of beasts, ofbirds, of creeping things, and of fishes. (34) And there came some fromamong all peoples to hear the wisdom of Solomon, deputed by allkings of the earth, who had heard of his wisdom. 

[Sidenote: _Reason why all ancient proverbs were attributed to him_]

A popular proverb, like a primitive oral law, usually grows out ofcommon human experience, and is gradually formulated and moulded intoits final literary form by successive generations. No one man can claimit as his own, and even if he could, the ancient Semitic East, whichcared so little about authors' titles, would have quickly forgotten hisname. That Solomon did utter certain brilliant aphorisms, embellished byillustrations drawn from animal and plant life, cannot be doubted;and that some of them have been preserved in the book of Proverbs isprobable. These facts and the popular tradition that tended to exalt hiswisdom clearly explain why all Hebrew proverbs were attributed to him(Prov. I. 1), in the days of the final editing of the book of Proverbs. 

[Sidenote: _Evidence that Proverbs comes from many different writers_]

That our present book of Proverbs is the work of many unknown sages, and consists of a collection of smaller groups coming from differentperiods, is demonstrated by the superscriptions which recur throughoutthe book, such as, _These are the proverbs of Solomon_ (x. 1), _Thesealso are the sayings of the wise_ (xxiv. 23), _These are the proverbs ofSolomon which the men of_ _Hezekiah king of Judah copied out_ (xxv. 5), _The words of King Lemuel_ (xxxi. 1), The same proverbs also recur Indifferent groups, indicating that originally they were independentcollections, gleaned from the same field. When the first collection wasmade, the title _Proverb of Solomon_ evidently meant a popular maximhanded down from antiquity and therefore naturally attributed to themost famous wise man in Israel's early history. It is an instructivefact that later proverbs, the immediate superscriptions to which plainlystate that they come from many different sages, are still called_Proverbs of Solomon;_ it betrays an exact parallel to the similartendency, apparent in the legal and prophetic literature, to attributelate anonymous writings to earlier authors. This is also furtherillustrated by such late Jewish books as _The Wisdom of Solomon_ or the_Psalms of Solomon. _

[Sidenote: _Testimony of the individual proverbs_]

The individual proverbs confirm the general conclusion that they comefrom many different authors. Those which commend fidelity to one wifeand kingly consideration for the rights of subjects, qualities in whichSolomon was sadly lacking, do not fit in his mouth. Many are writtenfrom the point of view of a subject, and describe what a man should doin the presence of a ruler. Furthermore, the ethical standards upheldare those of prophets who lived and taught long after the days of theGrand Monarch who fascinated his own and succeeding generations by hisbrilliant wit rather than by his sterling virtues. 

[Sidenote: _Real nature of Proverbs_]

The book of Proverbs is far more than an epitome of his versatilesayings: it represents at least ten centuries of experience divinelyguided, but won often through mistakes and bitter disappointments. Itcontains the many index hands, set up before the eyes of men to pointthem from error to truth, from folly to right, and from failureto success. Like most of the Old Testament books, it embodies thecontributions of many different teachers writing from many differentages and points of view. Their common aim is well expressed by the sagewho appended to Proverbs the preface:

 To acquire wisdom and training, To understand rational discourse, To receive training in wise conduct, In uprightness, justice, and rectitude, To impart discretion to the inexperienced, To the young knowledge and insight; That the wise man may hear and add to his learning, And the man of intelligence gain education, To understand a proverb and a parable, The words of sages and their aphorisms. 

[Sidenote: _The first edition of Proverbs_]

The structure and contents of the book suggest its literary history. Like the New Testament, it appears to have passed through differentstages, and to have been supplemented repeatedly by the addition of newcollections. The original nucleus is probably found in x. 1 to xxii. 16; this is introduced by the simple superscription, _The Proverbs ofSolomon_. The form of the proverb is simple; the atmosphere is joyous, prosperity prevails, virtue is rewarded; a king who loves justice andrighteousness is on the throne (xiv. 35, xvi. 10, 12, 13, xx. 8, xxii. 11); the rich, and poor stand in the same relation to each other asin the days of the pre-exile prophets; and the teaching of theirprophets--righteousness is more acceptable than sacrifice--is frequentlyreiterated (xv. 8, xvi. 6, xxi. 3, 27). While this long collectiondoubtless contains many proverbs antedating even the beginnings ofIsrael's history and possibly some added later, the indications are thatthey represent the original edition of the book which the Jews carriedwith them into the Babylonian exile. This early collection was perhapsmade under the inspiring influence of the reign of Josiah. 

[Sidenote: _Dates of the other collections_]

Undoubtedly the remaining collections also contain many very ancientproverbs, but as a whole their literary form and thought is morecomplex. The descriptions of the kings suggest the Persian and Greektyrants who ruled over the Jews during the long centuries after theexile (_cf. _ xxv. 1-7, xxviii. 2, 12, 15, 28, xxix. 2, 4, 16, xix. 14), The age of the prophets has apparently been succeeded by that ofthe priest and the law (xxix. 18). Already the Jews have tasted thebitterness of exile (xxvii. 8). There are also certain points of closecontact with proverbs of Ben Sira, written about 190 B. C. The sages as aclass are very prominent, as in the later centuries before Christ. Theseand many other indications lead to the conclusion that the differentcollections were probably made after the exile, and that the nobleintroduction, i. -ix. , and the two chapters in the appendix were notadded until some time in the Greek period, --not long before 200 B. C. Thedate, however, when these proverbs arose and were committed to writingis comparatively unimportant, save as a knowledge of their backgroundaids in their interpretation, and as they, in turn, reveal the life andthought of the persecuted, tempted Jews, whose religious life centred inthe second temple. 

[Sidenote: _Teaching of the Song of Songs_]

Probably in the Greek period also a poet-sage collected and wovetogether certain love and wedding songs of his race. The result wascalled the Song of Songs, that is, the Peerless Song. According to oneinterpretation, it presents, in a series of scenes, the heart struggleof a simple country maiden with the promptings of a true, pure love fora shepherd lover and the bewildering attractions of a royal marriage;and true love in the end triumphs. Whatever be the interpretation, it isclear that this exquisite little book, so filled with pictures of natureand simple country life, was intended to emphasize the duty and beautyof fidelity to nature and the promptings of the human heart. Thisthought is expressed in the powerful passage which seems to voice thecentral teaching of the poem:

 Love is strong as death; Jealousy is as cruel as Sheol; Its flashes are flashes of fire, A very flame of Jehovah. Many waters cannot quench love, Neither can floods drown it: If a man would give all the substance of his house for love, He would utterly be condemned. 

XI

THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS

[Sidenote: _Discussions the problem of evil_]

An intense interest in man led certain of Israel's sages in time todevote their attention to more general philosophical problems, such asthe moral order of the universe. In the earlier proverbs, prophetichistories, and laws, the doctrine that sin was always punished bysuffering or misfortune, and conversely that calamity and misfortunewere sure evidence of the guilt of the one affected, had been reiterateduntil it had become a dogma. In nine out of ten cases this doctrine wastrue, but in time experience proved that the tenth case might be anexception. While most of the teachers of the race denied or ignored thisexception, certain wise men, faithful and unflinching in their analysisof human life, faced the fact that the innocent as well as the guiltysometimes suffer. Their quest for the answer to the eternal question, Why? is recorded in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes. 

[Sidenote: _The primitive story of Job_]

The basis of the book of Job Is undoubtedly a primitive story. Tracesof a tradition somewhat similar have recently been discovered in theBabylonian-Assyrian literature. The Babylonian treatment of the moralproblem that it presents is even more strikingly similar. Ezekiel alsorefers to a well-known popular Hebrew version of the story of Job (xiv. 14): _though these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, were in it_(the guilty land), _they would deliver simply their own lives theirrighteousness, saith the Lord Jehovah_ (_cf. _ also xiv. 20). Evidentlyin Ezekiel's day these names represented three ancient worthies, eachconspicuous for his superlative piety. The Hebrew word here used alsoindicates that the righteousness attributed to them was conformity tothe demands of the ritual. This agrees closely with the representationof the prose version of the story found in Job i. Ii. And xlii. 7-17;here the supreme illustration of Job's piety is that he repeatedlysacrifices burnt-offerings, whenever there is the least possibility thathis sons have sinned (i. 4, 5). Also in describing his perfection (i. 1), the same unusual term is employed as in the priestly narrative ofGenesis vi. 9, where Noah's righteousness is portrayed. 

[Sidenote: _Original teaching and application of the prose story_]

It seems probable, therefore, that the ancient story of Job was committedto writing by some priest during the Babylonian exile. Since Job and hisfriends live out on the borders of the Arabian desert to the east orsoutheast of Palestine, it seems clear that the tradition came to theHebrews originally from some foreign source; but in the prose form inwhich we find it in Job, it has been thoroughly naturalized, for Job isa faithful servant of Jehovah and the law. Ignoring for the moment thepoetical sections (iii. 1 to xlii. 6), we find that the prose story hasa direct, practical message for the broken-hearted exiles, crushedbeneath an overpowering calamity. Jehovah is testing his servant people, as he tests Job in the story, to prove whether or not they _fear God fornought_ (i, 9). If they bear the test without complaint, as did Job, alltheir former possessions will be restored to them in double measure(xlii. 7-17). 

[Sidenote: _The problem of the poetical sections of Job_]

This prose story has apparently been utilized and given a very differentinterpretation by a later poet-sage in whose ears rang Jeremiah's wordsof anguish, found in chapter xx. 14-18 of his prophecy (_cf_. Job iii. ), and to whose ears came also the cry of the pious voiced in Malachi ii. 17: _Every one who does evil is good in the sight of Jehovah, and hedelighteth in_ _them. Where is the God of justice_? The old solutionsof the problem of evil were being openly discarded. _They who fearedJehovah_ were saying (iii, 13, 14), _It is vain to serve God; and whatprofit is it to have kept his charge or to have walked in funeral garbbefore Jehovah of hosts? Even now we must congratulate the arrogant;yea, they who work wickedness are entrenched; yea, they tempt God andescape!_ With a boldness and thoroughness that must have seemed to hiscontemporaries dangerous and heretical, the great poet-sage presents theproblem in all its intensity. 

[Sidenote: _The role of Job and his friends in presenting the problem_]

He adopts the popular story, utilizing it as his prologue and epilogue:but as we pass to chapter iii, the simple, pure Hebrew yields to sublimepoetry, shot through with the words and idioms and ideas of a much laterage. The designation of God is no longer _Jehovah_ but _El_ or _Eloah_or _Shaddai_. The character of Job suddenly changes; instead of beingthe patient, submissive servant of the law, he boldly, almost defiantly, charges God with injustice. The role of the friends also changes, andthey figure as champions of the Deity. In their successive speeches theypresent in detail the current dogmas and the popular explanations ofsuffering. In his replies Job points out their inapplicability to thesupreme problem of which he is the embodiment. The action and progressin this great drama is within the mind of Job himself. By degrees herises to a clear perception of the fact that he is innocent of any crimecommensurate with the overwhelming series of calamities which haveovertaken him; and he thus throws off the shackles of the ancient dogma. From the seemingly cruel and unjust God who has brought this undeservedcalamity upon him, he then appeals to the Infinite Being who is back ofall phenomena. 

[Sidenote: _The message of the book_]

The reply to this appeal, and the author's contribution to the eternalproblem of evil, are found in xxxviii. I to xlii. 6. It is not asolution, but through the wonders of the natural world, it is a fullerrevelation to the mind of Job, of the omnipotence, the omniscience, the wisdom, and the goodness of God. Even though he cannot discern thereason of his own suffering, he learns to know and to trust the wisdomand love of the Divine Ruler. 

 I had heard of this by the hearing of the ear; But now mine eye seeth thee (xlii. 5). 

[Sidenote: _Teaching the Elihu passage xxxii-xxxvii_]

Faith triumphs over doubt, and the problem, though unsolved, sinks intocomparative insignificance. Apparently another poet-sage has added, outof the depths of his own experience, his contribution to the problemof suffering in the speeches of Elihu (chapters xxxii-xxxvii). It isthat suffering rightly borne becomes a blessing because it is one ofGod's ways of training his servants. This indeed is an expansion of theexplanation urged by Eliphaz in v. 17, _Behold, happy is the man whom Godcorrecteth_. While these speeches of Elihu are written in a differentliterary style and have, in fact, no vital connection with the originalpoem of Job, they nevertheless contain a great and intensely practicaltruth; they have rightly found a place in this marvellous book. Similarly the sublime description of wisdom in chapter xxviii. Makesgood its title; it can, however, be studied best by itself apart fromJob's impassioned protestations of his innocence (chapter xxix. ). 

[Sidenote: _Probable history of the book of Job_]

Thus the book of Job, like so many other Old Testament writings, has itsown literary history. Somewhere and sometime, back in an early Semiticperiod, there doubtless lived a man, conspicuous for his virtue andprosperity. Upon him fell a misfortune so great and apparentlyundeserved that it made a deep impression, not only upon hiscontemporaries, but also upon the minds of later generations. Thus theregrew up a common Semitic story of Job which was in time thoroughlynaturalized in Israel. Probably a Jewish priest in the exile firstcommitted it to writing in order to assure his fellow-sufferers thatcould they but be patient and submissive Jehovah would soon restore themto their former prosperity. The painful experiences that came to theJews, especially to the pious, during the middle and latter part of thePersian period (sometime between 450 and 340 B. C. ), convinced a poet-sage that the old interpretations of the meaning of suffering did notsuffice. Accordingly into the heart of the familiar story of Job heinjected his powerful, impassioned message. Later writers, inspired byhis inspiring genius, added their contributions to the solution of theperennial problem. Hence by 200 B. C. , at least, the book of Job wasprobably current in its present form. 

[Sidenote: _Age and point of view of Ecclesiastes_]

The same ever-recurring, insistent questions regarding the moral valueand meaning of life led another later wise man to embody the results ofhis observation and experience in what we now know as the book ofEcclesiastes. Although i. 16 and ii. 7, 9 clearly imply that many kingshad already reigned in Jerusalem, the author seems to put hisobservations in the mouth of Solomon, the acknowledged patron of wisdomteaching. The evidence, however, that the book is one of the latest inthe Old Testament is overwhelmingly conclusive. The language is that ofan age when Hebrew had long ceased to be spoken. The life mirroredthroughout is that of the luxurious, corrupt Greek period. If notdirectly, at least indirectly, it reflects the doctrines of the Stoicsand the Epicureans. It was a crooked, sordid, weary world upon which itsauthor looked. It is not strange that a vein of materialism andpessimism runs through his observations and maxims. _All is vanity_ isthe dominant note, and yet light alternates with shadow. He loses faithin human nature; yet he does not give up his faith in God, though thatfaith is darkened by the desolateness of the outlook. While the book haspractical religious teachings, perhaps its chief mission, after all, isvividly to portray the darkness just before the dawn of the belief in afuture life and before the glorious rising of the Sun of Righteousness. 

[Sidenote: _Significance of the later additions_]

Its teachings naturally called forth many protests, explanations, andsupplements, and these have found the permanent place in the book thatthey rightfully deserve. Its fragmentary structure and abrupttransitions also made later insertions exceedingly easy. These are thesimplest and the most natural explanation of the sharp contradictionsthat abound in the book (_cf. E. G_. , ii. 22 and iii. 22, or iv. 2 andix. 4, or iii. 16 and iii. 17, or viii. 14 and ix. 2, or iii. 1-9 andiii. 11). The preacher, whose painful experiences and prevailinglypessimistic teachings are the original basis of the book, appears tohave been consistent throughout. He ends in xii. 8 with the samerefrain, _Vanity of vanities; all is vanity!_ In a divine library likethe Old Testament, reflecting every side of human thought andexperience, such a book is not inappropriate. Its contradictions provokethought; they beget also a true appreciation of the positive notes thusbrought into dramatic contrast with the ground tones of pessimism whichresound through all literature and history. 

XII

THE HISTORY OF THE PSALTER

[Sidenote: _Nature of the Psalter_]

Corresponding to the book of Proverbs, itself a select librarycontaining Israel's best gnomic literature, is the Psalter, thecompendium of the nation's lyrical songs and hymns and prayers. It isthe record of the soul experiences of the race. Its language is that ofthe heart, and its thoughts of common interest to worshipful humanity. It reflects almost every phase of religious feeling: penitence, doubt, remorse, confession, fear, faith, hope, adoration, and praise. Even theunlovely emotion of hatred is frankly expressed in certain of theimprecatory psalms. The Psalms appeal to mankind in every age and landbecause, being so divine and yet so human, they rest on the foundationsof universal experience. Whenever a heart is breaking with sorrow orpulsating with thanksgiving and adoration, its strongest emotions findadequate expression in the simple and yet sublime language of thePsalter. 

[Sidenote: _Influence of the prophets upon it_]

In the familiar doings of Mary and Zacharias, found in the openingchapters of Luke, we may trace the beginnings of the hymn literature ofthe early Christian Church, a literature which later became one of theChurch's most valued possessions. If the canon of the New Testament hadbeen closed in 1000 instead of 400 A. D. , its books would doubtless haveincluded a hymnal which would have corresponded closely to the Psalterof the Old. Just as the Psalms represent the application of the greatdoctrines of the Hebrew prophets in the spiritual life of the community, so this new hymnal would represent the personal application of theteachings of Jesus and the apostles to the religious life of the Churchand the individual. The Psalter is also what it is because itsbackground is a period of stress and severe trial. In the hot furnace ofaffliction and persecution the psalmists learned to appreciate thetruths which they so confidently and effectively proclaim. Then thespiritual teachings of the earlier prophets, which were contemptuouslyrejected by their contemporaries, were at last appropriated by thecommunity. The Psalter as a whole appears, therefore, to be one of thelatest and most precious fruits of the divine revelation recorded in theOld Testament. 

[Sidenote: _Evidence of distinct collections of psalms_]

In its present form, the Psalter is divided into five books orcollections. At the end of each collection there is a concludingdoxology (xli. , lxxii. , lxxxix. , cvi). The last psalm (cl. ) serves as aconcluding doxology, not only to the fifth collection, but also to thePsalter as a whole. Certain psalms are also reproduced in two differentcollections with only slight variations. For example, xiv. Ispractically identical with liii. , except that in the first _Jehovah_ isalways used as the designation of the Deity, and in liii. _Elohim_ or_God_; again Psalm xl. 13-17 is reproduced in lxx. ; lvii. 7-11 and lx. 5-12 are together practically equivalent to cviii. These and kindredfacts indicate that the Psalter, like the book of Proverbs, is made upof collections originally distinct. The division into exactly fivegroups appears to be comparatively late, and to be in imitation of thefivefold division of the Pentateuch. 

[Sidenote: _The oldest collection_]

The genesis of the book of Proverbs is exceedingly helpful in tracingthe closely analogous growth of the Psalter. The prevailing form of thesuperscriptions and the predominant use of the name _Jehovah_ or_Elohim_ also aid in this difficult task. Psalms i. And ii. Areintroductory to the entire book. Psalms iii-xli. All bear the Davidicsuperscription and use the designation _Jehovah_ two hundred andseventy-two times, but _Elohim_ only fifteen. The form and contents ofthese psalms, as well as their position, suggest that they are theoldest collection in the book. In the Greek version all the psalms ofthe collection found in li-lxxii. , excepting Psalm lxvi. , which isanonymous, and lxxii. , which is attributed to Solomon, have also theDavidic superscription. Although certain subsequent psalms are ascribedto David, as, for example, lxxxvi. , ci. , and ciii. , the close of thecollection, is the significant epilogue (lxxii. 20), _the prayers ofDavid the son of Jesse are ended. _

[Sidenote: _Meaning and value of the superscriptions_ ]

Before the approximate date of these collections can be determined thesignificance of the Davidic title needs interpretation. In the Hebrewversion, this title is borne by seventy-three psalms. Two are ascribedto Solomon (lxxii. And cxxvii. ), one to Moses (xc. ), and twenty-four tothe members of the post-exilic guilds of temple singers. Thesuperscriptions of the Greek and Syrian versions contain many variationsfrom those in the Hebrew. This is probably due to the fact thatsuperscriptions are usually added by later scribes in whose minds thequestion of authorship first became prominent. In earlier Hebrew thephrase commonly translated _Psalm of David_ would more naturally mean a_psalm for David_ or _dedicated_ or _attributed to David. _ The latterappears to have been its original significance. Like the title, _Proverbs of Solomon, _ it was used to distinguish an ancient poem, which, being a psalm, was naturally ascribed to David, and to him laterJudaism, in common with the New Testament writers, attributed all psalmliterature. A detailed study of the superscriptions soon demonstratesthat the majority of them represent only the conjectures of scribes whowere guided by current traditions or suggestions embodied in the psalmsthemselves. In this manner, to Solomon, the builder of the temple, isascribed Psalm cxxvii. , because it refers to the building of the housein its opening verse. The Greek version even attributes to David Psalmxcvi. , which, it states, was written _when the temple was being builtafter the captivity. _

[Sidenote: _David's relation to the psalter_]

Since the superscriptions to the Psalter were only very late additions, the question still remains, What was the basis of the late Jewishtradition that makes David the father of the psalm literature, as wasSolomon of the wisdom, Moses of the legal, and Enoch of theapocalyptical? The other Old Testament books give no direct answer. Theytell us, however, that the warrior king was skilled in playing the lyre, and we are aware that to this, in antiquity, an improvised accompanimentwas usually sung. We also have the account of David's touching elegiesover the death of Saul and Jonathan and of Abner (II Sam. I. , iii. 33, 34). Moreover, the early historical books vividly portray the faults ofDavid, the limitations which he shared in common with hiscontemporaries, and his deeply religious spirit; but they leave thequestion of his relation to the Psalter to be settled by the testimonyof the individual psalms. Here the evidence is not conclusive. It isclear that many of the psalms attributed by tradition to him werewritten in the clearer light of later prophetic teaching and amid verydifferent circumstances from those which surrounded Israel's early king. Still it would be dogmatic to assert that nothing from his lips is to befound in the Psalter; and to point out with assurance those passages andpsalms which must be Davidic is quite as unwarrantable. 

[Sidenote: _Evidence of pre-exilic elements in the Psalter_]

The Psalter is clearly the repository of that which was best in theearlier spiritual life and thought of the race. While there are nodirect references to songs in connection with the pre-exilic Jewishtemple, Amos (v. 23) found them in use at the sanctuary at Bethel; andfrom Psalm cxxxvii. 3, 4 it would appear that the exiles in Babyloniawere acquainted with certain _songs of Zion_ or _songs of Jehovah_. Treasured in the hearts of the people, and attributed, perhaps even bythe time of the exile, as a whole to David, they constituted thebasis of the earliest collections of psalms, which, as we have noted, practically without exception bear the Davidic superscription. The dateof each individual psalm, however, must be determined independently onthe basis of its own testimony, although the historical allusions arefew and the data in many cases are far from decisive. 

[Sidenote: _Approximate date of the earliest collections_]

Just when the earliest collections, found in iii. -xli. And li. -lxxii. , were made is a comparatively unimportant yet difficult question todecide. Probably the rebuilding of the temple in 516 B. C. Was one of thegreat incentives. The example of the Babylonians, who possessed a largeand rich psalm literature, may also have exerted an indirect influence. At least it is certain that the guilds of temple singers and the songservice became increasingly prominent in the religious life of theJewish community which grew up about the restored temple. The presenceof alphabetical psalms, as, for example, ix. , x. , xxv. , xxxiv. , xxxvii. , in the earliest collection suggests also the leisure of the exile. Thehistorical background of many of these psalms is clearly the exile andthe long period of distress that followed. They voice the experiences ofthe poor, struggling band of the pious, who, living in the midst ofoppressors, found in Jehovah alone their refuge and their joy. Some ofthese psalms also reflect the prophetic teachings of Jeremiah (_e. G. _, xvi. , xxxix) and of Isaiah xl. -lxvi. In general their attitude towardsacrifice is that of the prophets:

 For thou desirest not sacrifice; Else would I give it. Thou delightest not in burnt offering. The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit; A broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt not despise. 

Religion is defined in the terms of life and acts. Ceremonialism has notyet cast its chilling influence over the heart of the nation. Thereforethe earliest collections may, with considerable assurance, be assignedto a date not later than the days of Nehemiah (about 400 B. C. ). 

[Sidenote: _Later collections_]

Psalms xlii. -l. And lxxiii-lxxxiii. Constitute a collection of Leviticalhymns. If we may follow the indications of their superscriptions, they consist of two originally distinct groups, the one, xlii. -xlix. , associated with and possibly at first collected and preserved by thepost-exilic guild of temple singers, known as the sons of Korah, and theother, l. , lxxiii. -lxxxiii. , similarly attributed to Asaph, the guild oftemple singers, mentioned first in the writings of the Greek period. Inthese two groups the priests and Levites and the liturgy are prominent. Psalms lxxxiv. -lxxxix. Constitute a short Levitical supplement. The remainder of the Psalter is also made up of originally smallercollections, as, for example, the Psalms of Ascent or the Pilgrim Psalms(cxx. -cxxxiv. ), and the Hallelujah Psalms (cxi. -cxiii. And cxlvi. -cl. ). Some of the latter come perhaps from the Jews of the dispersion. Eachcollection appears to represent a fresh gleaning of the same or slightlydifferent fields, incorporating ancient with contemporary psalms, and, as has been noted, not infrequently including some already found inearlier collections. 

[Sidenote: _Completion of the Psalter_]

Certain of the psalms, such as lxxiv. , lxxix. , lxxxiii. , seem clearlyto reflect the horrors of the Maccabean struggle (169-165 B. C. ). LaterJewish literature bears testimony that in the last two centuries beforeChrist psalm writing increased rather than decreased (_cf. E. G. _, Psalmsof Solomon). Certainly the experiences through which the Jews passedduring the middle of the second century were of a nature to evoke psalmssimilar to those in the Psalter. The probabilities, therefore, are thatthe Psalter, in its final form, is, like the book of Daniel, one ofthe latest writings in the Old Testament. It was possibly during theprosperous reign of Simon, when the temple service was enriched andestablished on a new basis, that its canon was finally closed. 

[Sidenote: _The book of Lamentations_]

The fact that they all gather about a definite event in Israel'shistory, and probably antedate the majority of the psalms in thePsalter, explains why the little collection of lyrical poems, known asthe book of Lamentations, never found a place beside the kindred psalms(_e. G. _, Pss. Xlii. , xliii) in the larger book. Their theme is theBabylonian exile and the horrors and distress that it brought to thescattered members of the Jewish race. Their aim is prophetic, that is, to point out and confess the guilt of the nation and its direconsequences. They reflect the teachings of both Jeremiah and Ezekiel. While it is not strange that later tradition attributed the collectionto the first of these prophets, its contents do not support theconjecture. Four out of the five poems are alphabetical, and distinctlydifferent points of view are represented. Chapters ii. And iv. Probablycome from the middle of the Babylonian exile, and to the remainder mustbe assigned a still later period. 

[Sidenote: _The national and individual element in the Psalter_]

The Psalter, with its natural appendix, the book of Lamentations, wasthe song and prayer book of the Jewish community. A majority of thepsalms, and especially those in the latter part of the book, weredoubtless originally intended for liturgical use. Many, particularlywhere the first person singular is used, are to be interpretedcollectively, for here, as often in the book of Lamentations, thepsalmist is speaking in behalf of the community. Others have beenadapted to liturgical ends. But in the final analysis it is theexperience and emotions of the individual soul that find expressionthroughout all the psalms. Since these experiences and emotions wereshared in common by all right-minded members of the community, it wasnatural that they should in time be employed in the liturgy. 

[Sidenote: _E pluribus unum_]

Again, as we review the history of the Psalter, we are impressed withthe many sides of Israel's life and human experience that it represents. Not one, but perhaps fifty or a hundred, inspired souls, laymen, prophets, priests, sages, kings, and warriors, have each clothed thedivine truth that came to them or to their generation in exquisitelanguage and imagery, and given it thus to their race and humanity. Successive editors have collected and combined the noblest of thesepsalms, and the Psalter is the result. The exact date of each psalmistand editor is comparatively unimportant, for though differing widely inorigin and theme, they are all bound together by a common purpose anda common belief in the reality and the immediate presence of God. Allnature and history and life are to them but the manifestation of hisjustice and mercy and love. In direct communion with the God whom theypersonally knew, they found the consolation and peace and joy thatpasseth all understanding, even though the heathen raged and their foesplundered and taunted them. To that same haven of rest they still pilotthe world's storm-tossed mariners. 

XIII

THE FORMATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON

[Sidenote: _Israel's literature at the beginning of the fourth centurybefore Christ_]

Could we have studied the scriptures of the Israelitish race about 400B. C. , we should have classified them under four great divisions: (1)The prophetic writings, represented by the combined early Judean, Ephraimite, and late prophetic or Deuteronomic narratives, and theircontinuation in Samuel and Kings, together with the earlier and exilicprophecies; (2) the legal, represented by the majority of the OldTestament laws, combined with the late priestly history; (3) thewisdom, represented by the older small collections of proverbs; (4) thedevotional or liturgical, represented by Lamentations and the earliercollections of psalms. 

[Sidenote: _The combining of the prophetic and priestly histories_]

Even before all the Old Testament books were written, the work ofcanonization began; before the first large canon was adopted, theprophetic and priestly narratives, and with them the earlier and laterlaws, were combined. This amalgamation was the work of a late priestlyeditor. The Pentateuch and its immediate sequel, Joshua, is the result. 

[Sidenote: _The method of combining_]

A study of these books makes clear the editor's method. Naturally hegave the late priestly versions the precedence. He placed, therefore, its version of the creation first, --a position that it well deserves. Probably as a result of this arrangement the older and more primitiveprophetic version of Genesis ii. 4a-25 was somewhat abridged, for itbegins with the picture of a level plain, watered by a daily mist, andis immediately followed by the account of the creation of man. Genesisiii. And iv. Are taken entirely from the prophetic, and practically allof v. From the priestly, group of narratives. Confronted by two variantversions of the flood, he joined them together into a closely knitnarrative; but all the elements of both versions are so faithfullypreserved that when they are again separated, behold! the two originallycomplete and self-consistent versions reappear. The story of Noah, the first vineyard-keeper, in ix. 20-27, is taken entirely from theprophetic history, but in x. Two distinct lists of the nations arejoined together. All the story of the tower of Babel in xi. 1-9 is fromthe prophetic, while the genealogical list in the remainder of thechapter is from the priestly history. The patriarchal and subsequentnarratives are likewise combined with, the same remarkable skill. 

[Sidenote: _Later biblical analogies_]

Thus the first six Old Testament books were given their final form. Themethod in general was the same as that followed by the authors of theFirst and Third Gospels in their use of Matthew's Sayings of Jesus andthe original Mark narrative, or by the authors of Samuel, Kings, andChronicles in their citations from the older sources. In his closefusion of three or four parallel narratives the editor's work resembledmost closely that of Tatian, who thus combined the four Gospels in his_Diatessaron_. So far as we are able to observe, the final editor ofthe Hexateuch preserved, like Tatian, most of the material in his oldersources, except where a parallel version verbally duplicated another. The prophetic and priestly narratives also followed lines so distinctlydifferent that cases of duplication were comparatively few. 

[Sidenote: _Deep significance of the work of the later editors_]

To the latest editor of the early narratives we owe the preservation ofsome or the oldest and most valuable sections of the Old Testament. Inthat age and land of perishable writing materials, the prevailing methodof compilation was one of the effective means whereby the importantportions of primitive records were handed down in practically theiroriginal form. It is well that we are beginning to understand itssignificance in the realization of the divine purpose. Important beyondwords, although often overlooked, were the services of the faithfuleditors who without the slightest desire for personal glory or reward, other than the perpetuation of truth, carefully selected, condensed, andcombined material gleaned from earlier and fuller sources. To them isdue the marvellous preservation of our Old Testament, To the honoredrôle of the prophets and apostles, therefore, let us add the anonymousredactors. 

[Sidenote: _Date of the beginning of the cannonization of the Law_]

The final editors were the immediate precursors of those who formed thesuccessive canons of the Old Testament. Indeed, between the work of theformer and the latter there is no clear line of demarcation. A periodshortly after 400 B. C. Is the date usually accepted for the work ofthe final editor of the Pentateuch; the canonization of the law, whichincluded these five books, is dated between 400 and 300 B. C. The realcanonization of Israel's laws had, however, begun much earlier. Theprimitive decalogue, represented by Exodus xxxiv. , and probably fromthe first associated with Moses, appears, in the earliest periods ofIsrael's history, to have enjoyed a canonical authority. The primitiveaccounts, in Exodus xix. , of the establishment of the covenantby Jehovah with his people mark the real beginning of the process ofcanonization, --a process, that is, of attributing to certain laws aunique and commanding authority. 

[Sidenote: _Popular acceptance and promulgation of the earlier codes_]

Likewise the successive civil, humane, and ceremonial decalogues appearfrom the days of the united kingdom to have occupied a similar position. Primarily this was probably due to the fact that each was based upon adivine _torah_ or decision, received from Jehovah through the priestlyoracle. The public reading and promulgation of the Deuteronomic laws inthe days of Josiah, with the attestation of the prophets and the solemnadoption by the people, was an act of canonization far more formal thanthe final acceptance of the New Testament writings by the Council ofCarthage. 

[Sidenote: _Adoption of the late priestly law_]

The next great stage in the canonization of the law is recorded inNehemiah x. Then the representatives of the Jewish community _enteredinto a solemn obligation and took oath to walk in God's law, which wasgiven by Moses the servant of God, and to observe to do all the commandsof Jehovah our Lord and his ordinances and his statutes_ (v. 29. ) Thisaction appears to be the historical basis of the fanciful and incredibleJewish traditions concerning the work of the Great Synagogue and theauthority of Ezra. The new law thus adopted was evidently the onegradually developed and finally formulated by the Jewish priests inBabylonia. It was accepted, as was the earlier Deuteronomic code, because it met the needs and appealed to the moral and religions senseof those by whom it was adopted. 

[Sidenote: _Acceptance of the completed Torah_]

To set completely aside the Deuteronomic lawbook and the primitivedecalogue of Exodus xx. -xxiii. , already in force among the Jews ofPalestine, was impossible and unnecessary. Hence, as we have noted, itwas the task of some editor of the next generation to combine theseand the earlier prophetic histories with the late priestly law and itsaccompanying history. Naturally this whole collection was still calledthe _Torah_ or _Law_ and was at once accepted as canonical by the Jews. This step was also most natural because their interests all centredabout the ritual, and for two centuries the dominant tendency had beento exalt the sanctity of the written law. 

[Sidenote: _Date of the final canonization of the Law_]

It is possible to fix approximately the date of this first edition ofthe Old Testament writings, since the Samaritans adopted and stillretain simply the Pentateuch and an abbreviated edition of Joshua astheir scriptures. Although Josephus, following a late Jewish tradition, dates the Samaritan schism at about 330 B. C. , the contemporary evidenceof Nehemiah xiii. 28 suggests that it was not long after 400. It istherefore safe to conclude that by 350 B. C. The first five books of ourOld Testament had not only been singled out of the larger literatureof the race, but were regarded as possessing a unique sanctity andauthority. 

[Sidenote: _Principles of canonization_]

As the name _Law_ suggests, the chief reason for this was the fact thatthese five books embodied laws long since accepted as binding. Thesecond reason was probably because they were by current traditionascribed to Moses. The third, and not the least, was, doubtless, becausethey met the need felt by the community for a unified and authoritativesystem of laws and for an authentic record of the earlier history oftheir race, especially that concerning the origin of their belovedinstitutions. 

[Sidenote: _Evidence that the Law was first canonized_]

The priority of the canon of the law is also proved by the fact that, although it contains some of the later Old Testament writings, it standsfirst, not only in position but in the esteem of the Jewish race. Furthermore, it became in time the designation of all the Old Testamentcanonical writings. The term _Law_ is thus used in the New Testament(_e. G. _, John x. 34, xii. 34; I Cor. Xiv. 21), in the Talmud, and by therabbis, indicating that the later groups of historical, prophetic, andpoetical books were simply regarded as supplements. 

[Sidenote: _Canonization of the prophetic writings_]

The history of the canonization of the next group, known as the_Prophets_, is very obscurely recorded, and this largely because itreached its culmination in the Greek period, concerning which we haveonly the most meagre information. Here analogy with the history ofthe New Testament is helpful. The same influences which led the earlyChristians to add the Epistles and Acts undoubtedly operated upon theminds of the Jews. The Law represented only a limited period in theirnational and religious history. But the addition of the early propheticand legal histories to the detailed laws prepared the way for theexpansion of the canon. This included first, the four historical books, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, with the exception of Ruth. Thesewere designated as the _Former Prophets_. Thus even the later Jewsrecognized their true character and authorship. The second division ofthe _Prophets_ included Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of theTwelve, which contained the minor prophets. 

[Sidenote: _Evidence that the historico-prophetic books were first addedto the Law_]

The order of the book and the probabilities of the situation suggestthat the _Former Prophets_, since they were the immediate sequel of theprophetic histories of the Pentateuch, and recorded the deeds of suchheroes as David, Solomon, and Isaiah, were added first. That they alsobear the marks of late priestly revision, is direct evidence of theesteem in which they were held by the late priestly school thatcompleted the canon of the Law. They therefore may have been added asearly as 300 B. C. They were certainly known to the author of Chronicles, as his many quotations from them show, although it is difficult to seehow he would have felt as free as he does to substitute the testimony oflater tradition, if they were regarded as equally sacred with the Law. 

[Sidenote: _Reverence for the prophetic word_]

The reference to the prediction of Jeremiah, in the opening verseof Ezra, suggests the reverence with which the author of Chroniclesregarded the words of this prophet. The post-exilic Jews never ceasedto revere the prophetic word. The popular belief, current in the Greekperiod, that the prophets had ceased to speak only deepened theirreverence for the teachings of Moses' successors (Deut. Xviii. 15-19). The devotion of the later scribes is evinced by the scores of glosseswhich they have added to the older prophecies. It is manifest, therefore, how strong was the tendency, even in priestly circles, to addthe Prophets to the Law. 

[Sidenote: _Date of completion of the prophetic canon_]

The process was probably gradual and perhaps not complete until the Jewshad learned fully to appreciate the value of their ancient Scriptures, after martyrs had died for the sacred writings during the Maccabeanstruggle. Aside from supplements made to older books, as, for example, Zechariah ix. -xiv. , the canon of the prophets was probably closed notlater than 200 B. C. From direct evidence it is clear that the book ofDaniel (written about 165 B. C. ) did not find a place in this canon. Itis also significant that in the prologue to the Greek version of BenSira or Ecclesiasticus (132 B. C. ) the translator refers repeatedly--asthough they were then regarded as of equal authority--to the _Law andthe Prophets and the rest of the books_, or to _the other books of thefathers_. But most significant of all, Ben Sira, who wrote about 190B. C. , includes in his list of Israel's heroes (xliv. -l. ) not only thosementioned in the _Torah_, but also David, Solomon, Hezekiah, and thechief characters in the _Former Prophets_. Furthermore, Isaiah andJeremiah and Ezekiel are introduced in their proper settings, and thepanegyric closes with a reference to the twelve prophets collectively, indicating that Ben Sira was also acquainted with the _Latter Prophets_as a group. 

[Sidenote: _The beginning of the last stage in the canonization of theOld Testament_]

The reference to _the rest of the books_ in the prologue to Ben Siraindicates that even before 130 B. C. Certain other writings had beenjoined to the canon of the Law. Ben Sira himself, to judge from hisdescription of David (_cf_. Xlvii. 8, 9, and I Chron. 25), Zerubbabel, Joshua, and Nehemiah, was acquainted with the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Chapter xlvii. 8 apparently contains an allusion to ahymn-book attributed to David. Evidently he was also familiar with thebook of Proverbs, including its introductory chapters. Thus we have aglimpse of the beginning of that third stage in the canonization of theOld Testament which, as in the case of the New, continued for fullythree centuries. 

[Sidenote: _Canonization of the Psalter and Lamentations_]

The Psalter doubtless passed through different stages of canonization, as did the Old Testament itself. The earliest collection was, in thebeginning, probably made for liturgical purposes, and its adoption inthe service of the temple was practically equivalent to canonization. When successive collections were added, they too were thus canonized. The result was that the Psalter, when complete, enjoyed a positionsomewhat similar to that of the Law and the Prophets, although theauthority of each rested upon a different basis. That the Psalter wasearly canonized is further demonstrated by a quotation in I Maccabeesvii. 17 (about 125 B. C. ) from Psalm lxxix. 2, 3, introduced by thewords, _as it is written in the Scriptures_. This conclusion is alsosupported by the significant reference in the New Testament to the _Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms_ (Lk. Xxiv. 44). Jesus' use of the Psalterindicates that in his day its canonicity was already thoroughlyestablished. Lamentations, by a late tradition attributed to Jeremiah, was probably also canonized contemporaneously with the Psalms. 

[Sidenote: _The other books of the fathers_]

The canonization of the book of Proverbs, like that of the Psalter, wasundoubtedly by successive stages. The Jews of the Greek and Maccabeanperiod were especially appreciative of this type of literature, and itwas doubtless accorded its position of authority primarily because itrang true to human experience. That it was attributed to Solomon alsotold in its favor. Ben Sira's indirect testimony suggests that it andthe books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, which were in close accordwith the point of view of later Judaism, were already in his dayassociated with the Law and the Prophets. The book of Ruth was probablyat this time added to the other historical books. 

[Sidenote: _Canonization of the book of Daniel_]

The absence of any reference in Ben Sira to Daniel is significant. Thefirst allusion to it comes from the last half of the second centurybefore Christ. First Maccabees i. 54 appears to quote the prediction ofDaniel ix. 27, and in I Maccabees ii. 59, 60, Daniel and his threefriends are held up as noble examples of virtue. Thus it would seem thatwithin a half century after the book of Daniel was written its authoritywas recognized. In New Testament times its canonicity is fullyestablished (_e. G. , cf_. I Cor. Vi. 2, and Dan. Vii. 22). 

[Sidenote: _Date of the completion of the Hebrew Old Testament canon_]

Concerning the canonicity of two books, Ecclesiastes and the Song ofSongs or Canticles, the opinions of the rabbis continued to differ untilthe close of the first Christian century. From the Mishna we learnthat the school of Shammai accepted Ecclesiastes, while that of Hillelrejected it. Finally, in a conference in Jamnia, about 100 A. D. , the twoschools finally agreed to accept both books as canonical. From SecondEsdras and Josephus, however, we learn that the present Hebrew andProtestant canon of the Old Testament had already for some time beenpractically adopted by common consent. 

[Sidenote: _Contents of the last group of writings_]

The last collection, which includes eleven books known as the_Hagiographa_ or _Sacred Writings_, constitutes the third generaldivision of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is a heterogeneous group ofhistories, prophecies, stories, and wisdom books. Some, like thePsalter, were, as we have seen, probably canonized as early as theProphets; although the final canon of the Old Testament was not closeduntil 100 A. D. Even later the canonicity of Ecclesiastes, the Song ofSongs, and Esther was sometimes questioned; most of them were regardedas authoritative as early as 100 B. C. Here, as in the case of the NewTestament, the real decision was not the work of any school or council;but gradually, on the basis of their intrinsic merit, the twenty-fourbooks of the Hebrew Bible were singled out of a much larger literatureand recognized, at least by the Jews of Palestine, as the authoritativerecord of God's revelation through their race. 

[Sidenote: _Differences between the Palestinian and Alexandrian canons_]

Jewish tradition, represented by Second Esdras xiv. And the Talmudictreatise _Baba Bathra_ xv. A, states that all the canonical books werein existence in the time of Ezra. While the tradition is refuted by thehistorical facts, it appears to have influenced the Jews of Palestine inshaping their canon; since no books purporting to come from a later dateor author are found in it. The broader-minded Jews of the dispersion, and especially Alexandria and the early Christian Church, refused to bebound by the narrow principle that divine revelation ceased with Ezra. Accordingly we find them adopting a larger canon, that included manyother later writings known in time as the apocryphal or hidden books. 

[Sidenote: _Additional books in the Greek and Christian canon_]

These consisted of three genuine works, --I and II Maccabees and Ben Siraor Ecclesiasticus; two didactic stories, --Tobit and Judith; four bookswrongly ascribed to earlier authors, --the Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, theEpistle of Jeremy, and Second Esdras (Gk. IV Esdras); and four additionsto the Hebrew canonical books, --First Esdras, an expansion of the bookof Ezra, the Prayer of Manasses, and additions to Esther and Daniel. 

[Sidenote: _History of the Apocryphal books in the Christian Church_]

As is well known, these books were retained by the Christian Church, as they still are by the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, until theProtestant reformers relegated them, as a whole, to a secondary place. Ultimately the Bible societies, during the first part of the lastcentury, ceased to print them in the ordinary editions of the Bible. The result is that the present generation has almost forgotten theirexistence. The last decade or two, however, has witnessed a significantrevival of interest among the scholars of Christendom, and the wholesometendency to restore certain of the Apocrypha to the working OldTestament canon is very marked. This is only a correction of the errorof the Protestant reformers in estimating the Apocryphal books, not bythe intrinsic merit of each individual writing but of the group as awhole. 

[Sidenote: _Great value of these later Jewish writings_]

Some of the Apocrypha and kindred books like the apocalypse of Enoch, were quoted and recognized by New Testament scholars as having authorityequal to that of the other Old Testament Scriptures. The rejection of Iand II Maccabees and Ben Sira from the Palestinian canon because theywere written after the days of Ezra and not associated with the namesof any early Old Testament worthies, was due to a narrow conceptionof divine revelation, directly contrary to that of Christianity whichrecognized the latest as the noblest. These later Jewish writingsalso bridge the two centuries which otherwise yawn between the twoTestaments--two centuries of superlative importance both historicallyand religiously, witnessing as they do the final development of the lifeand thought of Judaism and the rise of those conditions and beliefswhich loom so large in the New Testament. 

[Sidenote: _The larger working canon of the Old Testament_]

While they will always be of great value in the study of later Jewishhistory, literature, and religion, the majority of the apocryphal booksundoubtedly belong in the secondary group to which the Palestinian Jewsand the Protestant reformers assigned them. Three or four, however, tested by the ultimate principles of canonicity, are equal, if notsuperior, to certain books like Chronicles, Esther, and Ecclesiastes. First Maccabees records one of the most important crises in Israelishhistory. As a faithful historical writing, it is hardly equalled inancient literature. Its spirit is also genuinely religious. The laterbut parallel history of II Maccabees is not the equal of the first, although its religious purpose is more pronounced. Its historicalcharacter, style, aim, and point of view are strikingly similar to thoseof the book of Chronicles. The proverbs of Ben Sira, while not allof the same value, yet abound in noble and practical teachings, verysimilar to those in the book of Proverbs. Not only does the Wisdom ofSolomon contain many exalted and spiritual passages, but it is also ofunique importance because it represents that wonderful fusion of thebest elements in Hebrew and Hellenic thought which formed the backgroundof Christianity. Probably the Church, will ultimately restore to itslarger working Old Testament canon the beautiful Prayer of Manasses, already largely adopted in the prayer-book of the Anglican Church. 

[Sidenote: _Conclusion_]

Our rapid historical study has revealed the unity and the variety ofteaching reflected in the Old Testament, and has suggested its realplace in the revelation of the past and its true place in the life ofto-day. This older testament is the record of God's gradual revelationof himself through the history of the Israelitish race and theexperiences and minds of countless men and women whose spiritual eyeswere open and whose ears were attentive to divine truth. The same benignFather who has always spoken to his children has influenced them also torecognize the writings that most faithfully and fully record thespiritual truth thus revealed. Had the task been entrusted to our own orlater generations, it is not probable that the result would havediffered in any important essential. For a few brief centuries falsetheories and traditions may partially obscure the truth, but these, likethe mists of morning, are sure in time to melt away and reveal theeternal verities in their sublime beauty and grandeur. 

XIV

THE INTERPRETATION OF THE EARLY NARRATIVES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

[Sidenote: _Importance of regarding each story as a unit_]

Of all the different groups of writings in the Old Testament, undoubtedly the early narratives found in the first seven books presentthe most perplexing problems. This is primarily due to the fact thatthey have been subject to a long process of editorial revision by whichstories, some very old and others very late and written from a verydifferent point of view, have been closely joined together. While thereis a distinct aim and unity in the whole, in approaching them it issimplest to study each story as a unit in itself. Not only is thispractical, but it is justified by the fact that almost every story wasonce current in independent form. Often, as in the case of the accountsof creation and the flood, it is possible to recover the older versionsand even to trace their origin and earlier history. 

[Sidenote: _Classification necessary to determine the point of view_]

The first essential, however, is to determine to the point of view andpurpose of the biblical writer, who has taken the given story from thelips of his contemporaries and incorporated it in the cycle of storiesin which it is now found, Here the language, literary style, theme, andconceptions of God and religion are the chief guides. If, as in thefirst chapter of Genesis, the Deity is always designated as _God_ or_Elohim;_ if the literary style is formal, repetitious, and generic; ifthe theme is the origin of an institution like the Sabbath; and ifthe Deity is conceived of as a spirit, accomplishing his purpose byprogressive stages through the agency of natural forces, --it is notdifficult to recognize at once the work of a late priestly writer. If, on the contrary, as in Genesis ii. 4b to iii. 24, _Jehovah_ is the nameof the Deity; if the style is vivid, picturesque, and flowing; if theinterest centres in certain individuals instead of species; if thethemes vitally concern the spiritual life of man; if the Deity isconceived of after human analogies, as intimately associating withmen, and as revealing himself directly to them by word and visiblepresence, --the work of an early prophetic writer is evidently before us. The identification of the point of view of the author at once puts usinto appreciative sympathy with him. 

[Sidenote: _Value of knowing an author's point of view_]

It also enables us intelligently to interpret his words and figures. Knowing, for example, that the first chapter of Genesis was written by apriest who lived long after his race had ceased to think of God ashaving a body like a man, we cannot make the common mistake ofinterpreting verse 26 as implying physical likeness. Rather, as hisconception of God as a spirit demands and the latter part of the verseproves, his sublime teaching is that man, the end and culmination of theentire work of creation, is like his Creator, a spiritual being, endowedwith a mind and a will, and as God's viceregent, is divinely commandedto rule over all created things. 

[Sidenote: _Practical value of the critical analysis_]

Where two distinct versions of the same narrative have been amalgamatedin the process of editorial revision, the analysis of the originalsources is indispensable to a true understanding and interpretation ofthe thought of the prophet and priest who have each utilized theancient story, --as, for example, that of the flood, --to illustrate theinevitable consequences of sin and God's personal interest in mankind. Here the culminating purpose of the prophet, however, is to proclaimJehovah's gracious promise that he will never thus again destroy man orliving things; that (viii. 21, 22):

 While the earth remains, Seedtime and harvest, Cold and heat, Summer and winter, Day and night Shall not cease. 

The priest, on the other hand, is interested in the renewal of thecovenant which insures man's dominion over the natural world, and in thesanctity of blood, and in the primitive, divine origin of the command, Thou shalt not kill (ix. 1-6). 

[Sidenote: _The necessary basis for intelligent interpretation_]

Fortunately the work of analysis has been so thoroughly carried outduring the last century that there is practical agreement among theChristian scholars of the world on the essential questions. Theseresults are now also available in popular form, so that, without wastingtime on technicalities, the pastor and teacher of to-day can utilizethem as the basis for more important study and teaching. The origin, the literary form, and the scientific and historical accuracy of eachnarrative all suggest definite and interesting lines of study, but, ashas been noted (p. 106), these are of secondary value compared with thereligious truths that each story is intended to illustrate. 

[Sidenote: _Principles of religious interpretation_]

Since these stories were preserved because they conserve this higherpurpose, it is always safe to ask, What are their distinctivecontributions to the grand total of ethical and spiritual teaching foundin the Old Testament? At the same time it is exceedingly importantalways to be sure to read the teachings out of, and not into, a givennarrative. By unnatural and fanciful interpretation of these simplestories the friends of the Bible in the past have often wronged it morethan have its avowed foes. Each story, like the parables of Jesus, hadits one or two central teachings, usually conveyed to the mind byimplication rather than by direct statement. The characters who figurein them by their words and deeds proclaim the practical truths andembody the ideals in the minds of the ancient prophets and priests. 

[Sidenote: _Theme of Genesis ii. And iii. _]

The heterogeneous group of stories found in Genesis i. -xi. Constitutethe general introduction to the succeeding narratives which gather aboutthe names of the traditional ancestors of the Hebrews. Each of theseoriginally independent stories illustrates its own peculiar religiousteachings. None has taken a deeper hold on the imagination and made adeeper impression on the thought and literature of the world than thatwhich is found in the second and third chapters of Genesis. Its theme--the origin and nature and consequences of sin--is of vital, personalinterest to every man of every age. 

[Sidenote: _The problem of presenting it in a form intelligible toearly man_]

The problem that confronted the early Judean prophet was to present inform intelligible to the minds of his primitive readers a subject thathas taxed to the utmost the resources of the world's greatestphilosophers and theologians. The task was comparable to that which fellto the Master when he sought to make clear to his untutored disciplesthe real nature of the mighty tempest of temptation that raged in hissoul at the beginning, and, indeed, later in his ministry. The methodadopted was strikingly similar in each case. If the language of modernphilosophy and psychology had been at the command of these greatreligious teachers, it would have but obscured the great truths. Thesetruths must be made objective; they must be expressed in the familiarlanguage of the people. Even the inner struggle of conflicting motivesmust be presented in words so simple that a child could understand. 

[Sidenote: _Pictorial elements drawn from popular tradition_]

The second and third chapters of Genesis record the effective way inwhich a great early prophet dealt with his difficult problem. From thelips of the people he took fragments of ancient Semitic traditions. Almost all of the elements which enter into the story of man's fall havebeen traced to far earlier sources; but the narrative in its presentunity and suggestiveness never has and never will be found outside theBible. How far the prophet adapted to his higher purpose the currentHebrew version can not be absolutely determined. The fact alone remainsthat it is one of the truest bits of history in the Old Testament, andthis not because it is a leaf from the diary of Adam and Eve, butbecause it concretely and faithfully portrays universal humanexperience. 

[Sidenote: _Creation of man and the elements necessary for hisdevelopment_]

In the simple language of popular tradition it proclaims, among othertruths, that Jehovah, Israel's God, created man, breathing into him fromhis own nostrils the vital principle of life and making him thecommanding figure in the universe; then that the Creator graciouslyprovided all that was needful and best for his true physical andspiritual development. Incidentally the prophet calls attention to thatinnate and divine basis of the marriage bond which Jesus re-emphasizes(Matt. Xix. 4-6). Physical death, according to the story in its presentform, was not a necessary part of Jehovah's plan; the implication isthat man would not die while he remained in the garden and ate of thelife-giving tree. Temptation is not in itself evil, but necessary, ifman is to develop positive virtue, for beside the tree of life grows thetree of the knowledge of good and evil, with its attractive, alluringfruit guarded by the divine prohibition. 

[Sidenote: _The struggle in the woman's heart_]

The elements of the temptation are all presented in chapter ii. , but theserpent, the craftiest of animals, in his conversation with the woman isrequired to make clear and objective the real nature of the conflictwithin her mind. The rôle of the serpent is the opposite of that ofBalaam's ass, which figures in a story which comes from the same earlyJudean prophetic school. In the conversation between the woman and theserpent the true character of all temptation is revealed: it is thenecessity of choosing between two courses of conduct neither of which isaltogether bad. Curiosity, which is the guide to all knowledge, thebeauty of the apple, which appeals to the aesthetic sense, and physicalappetite, not in itself bad, --all these powerfully attracted theOriental woman of the ancient story. On the other side she felt thecompelling power of love and gratitude and the definite divine command. 

[Sidenote: _The essence of all temptation_]

The prophet saw clearly that all the elements of temptation are withinman--a truth sometimes obscured in later Jewish thought. Milton has alsoled us astray in identifying the crafty serpent with the Satan of laterJudaism. The prophet graphically presents another great fact of humanexperience, namely, that what is one man's temptation is not another's, that the temptation to be real must appeal to the one tested. The craftyserpent is not represented as speaking to the man; he would probablyhave turned away in loathing. His wife, she who had already sinned, theone whom Jehovah had given him as a helpmeet, herself appeals to thesense of chivalry within him. Hence the conflict rages in his soulbetween love and obligation to Jehovah and his natural affection andapparent duty to his wife. Thus in all temptation the diviner impulsesstruggle with those which are not in themselves necessarily wrong butonly baser by contrast. Duty is the call of the diviner, sin is theyielding to the baser, motives. 

[Sidenote: _The real nature of sin_]

The Hebrew word for sin, which means the missing of the mark set upbefore each individual, is the only altogether satisfactory definitionof sin ever devised, for it absolutely fits the facts of humanexperience. Deflection from the moral standard set up by each man'sconscience, even though his resulting act seem in itself noble, is forhim a sin. Although the influences which led the man and woman of thestory to disobey were exceedingly strong, the higher standard had beenset up, and in falling short of it they sinned. Thus sin is not God'sbut man's creation, and results from the deliberate choice of what thesinner knows to be wrong. 

[Sidenote: _The effects of sin_]

In the same simple yet powerful way the prophet depicts the inevitableconsequences of sin. At every point the picture is true to universalexperience. The most appalling effect of a wrong act is that it destroyspeace and purity of mind. It also makes cowards of brave men, and thepresence and tender affection of the one wronged suddenly becomeintolerable. Sin also begets sin. To the cowering fugitives Jehovahcomes, as he always does, with a message intended to evoke a frankconfession which would tear down the hideous barrier that their sin hadreared between himself and them; but, like most foolish, blind Adams andEves, they hug their crime to their breasts and raise the barrier heavenhigh by trying to excuse their guilt. Thus they pronounce their owndoom. For God himself only one course of action remains: it is to sendthem forth from his presence and from the life-giving tree, out into theschool of hardship and bitter pain, that there they may learn thelessons which are necessary before they can again become citizens of thetrue Garden of Eden. 

[Sidenote: _The sequel to the story of man's fall_]

Two simple yet exceedingly significant touches lighten the gloom of thisuniversal tragedy of human life. The one is that for the guilty, unrepentant pair, Jehovah himself made tunics of skins to protect themfrom the inclemency of their new life, --evidence that his love and carestill went with them. The other is the implication that the true gardenof Eden was still to be found on earth, and was closed simply to theguilty and unrepentant. The Bible is the record of how men learned theall-important lessons in the painful school of experience. Israel'steachers, each in his characteristic way, led their race on toward thecommon goal. The Gospels tell of how _a man, tempted in all points as weare_ in a distant day and land found his way again into the abidingpresence of God. He _was one with the Father_, not because he did notmeet temptation in all its power, but because, unlike the actors in theprimitive story, and all other participants in the drama of life, heyielded only to the guidance of divine impulses. Not content withachieving the goal himself, he gave his energies and his life to showingothers how they also might overcome the baser impulses within them andfind their way to God's presence and become one with him. Thus, becauseof what he did and said and was, he forever vindicated his title ofSaviour of Mankind. 

[Sidenote: _The religious teachings of other early stories_]

No other early Old Testament narrative is perhaps so full of richspiritual suggestion as the one just considered, and yet each has itsvaluable contribution. Even such a story as that of the killing of Abelby Cain forcibly teaches the great prophetic truth that it is not theform of the offering, but the character and deeds back of the sacrifice, that determine Jehovah's favor or disfavor (iv. 7). Graphically it setsforth the spirit that prompts the greatest of crimes. In contrast toCain, defiant yet pursued by haunting fear of vengeance, it alsopresents the divine tenderness and mercy in granting him a tribal markto protect him from the hand of man. The similar story of Noah, thefirst vineyard-keeper, preaches the first temperance sermon in allliterature, and also suggests the inevitable consequences of moraldepravity so forcibly illustrated in the history of the ancientCanaanites. Even the prosaic table of the nations in Genesis x. Emphasizes the conception of the unity of the human family which wasdestined in time to become the basis of Israel's belated missionaryactivity. 

[Sidenote: _Ideals presented in the early prophetic portrait of Abraham_]

When we pass to the twelfth chapter of Genesis the independent storiescoalesce into cycles, and each cycle, as well as each narrative, has itsown religious purpose. In definite outlines each successive group ofteachers painted the character of Abraham, the traditional father of theIsraelitish race, and held it up before their own and succeedinggenerations as a perpetual example and inspiration. In the early Judeanprophetic narratives he is pictured as the friend of Jehovah. His ownmaterial interests are entirely secondary, as illustrated in his dealingwith Lot. Without hesitation he leaves home and kindred behind, for hisdominating purpose in life is simply to know and do the will of Jehovah. To this end he rears altars throughout the land of Canaan. His chief joyis in communion with God and in the promises to be realized in hisdescendants. Through warring, hostile Canaan he passes unscathed, forhis eyes are fixed on things heavenly. 

[Sidenote: _Its significance_]

It matters little whether or not, far back in the primitive days ofIsrael's history, a Bedouin sheik anticipated in actual character andlife all that was gradually revealed to the prophets of a much laterage. The supremely significant fact is that the noble ideal of Israel'searliest teachers was thus vividly and concretely embodied in theportrait of him whom the Hebrews regarded with pride and adoration asthe founder of their race. In Hosea and Jeremiah, and less imperfectlyin the nation as a whole, the ideal in time became an historicalreality. 

[Sidenote: _Later portraits of Abraham_]

The early Ephraimite school of writers picture Abraham as a prophet(Gen. Xx. 7), and therefore as an exemplification of their highestideal. In the remarkable fourteenth chapter of Genesis he is acourageous, chivalrous knight, attacking with a handful of followers theallied armies of the most powerful kings of his day. Returningvictorious, he restores the spoil to the plundered and gives a princelygift to the priest of the local sanctuary. In the later priestlynarratives the picture suddenly changes, and Abraham figures as thefaithful servant of the law, with whom originates the rite ofcircumcision, the seal of a new covenant (xvii). Later Jewish and Moslemtraditions each have their characteristic portrait. One, which pictureshim as in heaven the protector of the faithful, is reflected in the NewTestament (Luke xvi. 23-30), Thus each succeeding age and group ofteachers made him the embodiment and supreme illustration of its noblestideals, and it is this ideal element that gives the Old Testamentstories their permanently practical value. 

[Sidenote: _Practical teachings of the Abraham stories_]

Having noted the teachings that each individual story and the cycle as awhole conveyed to the minds of their first readers, it only remains forthe teacher of to-day to translate them into modern terms. Some of themost important implications of the Abraham stories thus interpreted are, for example: (1) God calls each man to a high mission. (2) He will guideand care for those who are responsive. (3) To those who seek to know himintimately, and to do his will, he will reveal himself in fullestmeasure, and for such he has in store his richest blessings. (4) _Hethat findeth his life_ (Lot) _shall lose it, and he that loseth hislife_ (Abraham) _shall find it_. 

[Sidenote: _Significance of the character of Esau_]

The Jacob and Esau stories contain marvellously exact and realisticportraits of the two races (the Israelites and the Edomites) that theyrespectively represent. Of the two brothers, Esau is in many ways themore attractive. He suggests the open air and the fields, where he lovedto hunt. He is easy-going, ingenuous, and impulsive. His faults arethose of not being or doing. As long as he had enough to eat and wascomfortable, he was contented. He is the type of the world's drifters. Since Aram was far distant he disregards the wishes of his parents andmarries one of the daughters of the land. No ambition stirred him and nodevotion to Jehovah or to the ideals of his race gave content anddirection to his life. Thus he remained a laggard, and the half-nomadic, robber people that he represented became but a stagnant pool, comparedwith the onrushing stream of Israel's life. 

[Sidenote: _Jacob's faults_]

Jacob's faults are also presented by the early prophets with anastonishing fidelity. Rarely does a race early in its history have aportrait of its weaknesses as well as its strength held up thusprominently before its eyes. Jacob is the antithesis of Esau. While hisbrother was hunting care-free in the fields, he was at home plotting howhe could farther his own interests. When the opportunity offers, hemanifests a cold, calculating shrewdness. To make good the title to thebirthright thus acquired he does not hesitate to resort to fraud andlying. Then he flees, pursued by his own guilty conscience, and, trickedby Laban, he serves as a slave fourteen years to win the wife whom heloves. At last, again a fugitive from the consequences of his ownquestionable dealing, he returns with quaking heart to face the brotherthat he had wronged. 

[Sidenote: _The elements of strength in Israel's character_]

The character is far from a perfect one, and yet the ancient storiessuggest its elements of strength. By nature he was selfish and crafty;and yet he has what Esau fatally lacks: energy, persistency, and acommanding ambition. From the first his ambition looks beyond himself tothe future of his descendants. Measured by our modern standards, hisreligious professions seem only hypocrisy; but as we analyze hischaracter we find that a faith in Jehovah, narrow and selfish though itbe, was ever his guiding star. Out of the tortuous windings of hisearlier years it ultimately led him to a calm old age. Imperfect thoughhis character was, like that of the race which he represented, thesignificant fact is that God ever cared for him and was able to utilizehim as an agent in divine revelation. 

[Sidenote: _The noble teachings of the Joseph stories_]

Even more obvious and universal are the practical lessons illustrated bythe Joseph stories. In the early prophetic narratives, Abraham is theperfect servant of God, Jacob the type of the Israelitish race, butJoseph is the ideal man of affairs. Graphically the successive storiespicture the man in his making and reveal his true character. He issimple, affectionate, and yet strongly ambitious. His day-dreams makehim odious, as in the case of many a boy to-day, to his unimaginativebrothers. A seemingly hard fate rudely snatches him from the enervatinginfluences of his childhood home and places him in the severe school ofexperience, where he is tested and trained. It also opens wide the doorof opportunity. Fidelity to every interest and an unselfish response toevery opportunity for service soon bring him into the presence of thePharaoh. His judicious counsels, diplomacy, and organizing ability winfor him the highest honors Egypt can confer. With modesty and fidelityhe endures this supreme test--success. Toward his brothers, who hadbitterly wronged him, he is nobly magnanimous, and to his kinsmen, whobelong to the shepherd class especially despised as boors by thecultured Egyptians, he is loyal and considerate. Above all, not byprofessions, but by deeds, he reveals the true source of his strength, --a natural faith in the God of his race and an unfailing loyalty to him. 

[Sidenote: _Conclusion_]

In the same way Moses, the exodus, and the great men and events ofIsrael's dramatic history, all have a religious importance andsignificance far surpassing the merely historical. At the same time themethods of modern literary and historical investigation reveal ratherthan conceal the deeper spiritual truths that they illustrate. The morelight that can be turned upon them the more clearly will their essentialteachings stand forth. Like the Old Testament as a whole, they grew upout of real life and truly reflect and interpret it, and therefore havea living, vital message to life to-day. Any interpretation that does notring true to life may well be questioned. Finally, the authority ofthese ancient narratives depends not upon the historical or scientificaccuracy of the individual story that is used as an illustration, butupon the fact that through the experiences and hearts of those whoemployed them God was seeking to make men free by the knowledge of thetruth. 

XV

PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDYING THE OLD TESTAMENT

[Sidenote: _The various methods of approach_]

The Old Testament may be studied as literature, as history, as therecord of an important stage in the evolution of religion, as therevelation of God to the race, or as a practical aid to the individualin living the true life. Each angle of approach calls for differentmethods and yields its correspondingly rich results. Studied inaccordance with the canons of modern literary investigation, aliterature is disclosed of surpassing variety, beauty, and fascination. After the principles of historical criticism have been vigorouslyapplied, the Old Testament is found to contain some of the mostimportant and authentic historical data that have come down to us fromantiquity. To the general student of religion there is no group ofwritings that equals in value those included in these ancientScriptures. As a simple, clear revelation of the character and will ofthe Divine Ruler, present and regnant in all life, the Old Testament issurpassed by only one other volume, and that is its complement, the New. 

[Sidenote: _The supreme aim of Old Testament study_]

It is, however, as the guide to right thinking, and being, and acting, _that the man of God may be perfect, completely equipped for every goodwork_, that the Old Testament is and always will be studied by themajority of people. In so doing they will be realizing its primary andsupreme purpose. Like true religion, it is not an end in itself, butsimply an effective force, drawing and binding individual men to God andto the right. Any method of study that fails to attain this definiteand practical end does not achieve the chief aim of the Old Testamentwritings. 

[Sidenote: _Necessity of studying the Old Testament as an organicwhole_]

This practical and personal end, however, cannot be attained at a leap. It is impossible to achieve the best results by taking a truth or apassage here and there and applying it at once to the individual. Boththe Old Testament and the individual are something organic. Each bookhas a unity and a history that must be understood, if a given passage isto be fairly interpreted or its truths intelligently applied, Individualbooks are also related to others and to their historical background. Also, as has already been shown, to appreciate fully the vital messageof a given writer it is necessary, not to know his name, but his placein history, his point of view, his method of expression, and hispurpose. The Old Testament and Israelitish history as a whole are thebest and most essential interpreters of individual books and passages. The most serious handicap to the ordinary Bible teacher and scholaris the lack of this broader, systematic, constructive knowledge. Muchearnest, devoted study, especially in the Old Testament fields, isdeficient in inspiration and results, because it is simply groping in anunknown land. It is all important, therefore, to ascend some height andspy out the land as a whole, to note the relation of different books andevents to each other, and to view broadly the great stream of divinerevelation which flows out of the prehistoric past on through the Oldand New Testaments to the present. 

[Sidenote: _Remarkable adaptation of the Old Testament to different agesand degrees of moral culture. _]

In order effectively to apply the truths of the Old Testament to life, it is also necessary to regard the point of view of the individual tobe taught. This fundamental principle of all education was fullyappreciated and applied by Israel's great spiritual teachers. The resultis that the Old Testament contains truths marvellously adapted to everyage and type of mind. The importance of the religious culture of thechild is emphasized by the comparatively large proportion, of writingsespecially fitted to hold the attention and arouse the imagination andshape the ideals even of the youngest. Nearly half of the Old Testamentconsists simply of narratives. Those inimitable stories, which come fromthe childhood of the race, have a perennial fascination for the child ofto-day. They find him on his own mental and moral plane, as they did theprimitive child, and by natural stages lead him on and up to the higherstandards and broader faith of Israel's later prophets and sages, andthus prepare him to understand and appreciate the perfected life andteachings of Jesus. 

[Sidenote: _The prophetic stories the children's Bible_]

In the modern use of the Old Testament, the faithful application of thisfundamental principle also leads to a most practical conclusion; thestories peculiarly adapted to children are not the mature, legalisticnarratives of the late priestly writers, but the early propheticstories, which begin in the second chapter of Genesis. If children aretaught only these, they will not be disconcerted by widely variantversions of the same events. Above all, they will be delivered from theinconsistencies and erroneous impressions which are often the cause ofstumbling to the child. The later process of unlearning, which isalways dangerous, will be avoided. If the problems presented by thepriestly narratives be reserved until they can be studied from thebroader and truer point of view, they will be readily solved, and thegreat positive teachings of these later didactic stories will be fullyappreciated. 

[Sidenote: _The prophets the best story-tellers_]

The subject-matter, therefore, supremely suitable for the earliestmoral and spiritual culture of the child, is clearly the simple and yetprofound prophetic stories of the Old Testament. It is very questionablewhether the many excellent paraphrases now current are a gain or ahindrance. The ancient prophets and the generations who have retold themwere inimitable story-tellers. To attempt to improve upon their work isfutile. A simple, clear translation is all that is required. [Footnote:A Children's Bible is now being prepared according to the plan suggestedabove. ] The interpretation and application of their practical teachingscan best be left to the intuition of the child and the direction of theintelligent parent and teacher. 

[Sidenote: _Their effective methods of presenting truths_]

It is also astonishing how readily even a little child appreciates theessential lessons, as, for example, those regarding the nature andconsequences of sin, presented by the story of the Garden of Eden. Underthe charm of the attractive personalities that figure in them, andthe stirring achievements, so dramatically presented that they commandbreathless attention, the early prophetic narrations unconsciously and, therefore, all the more effectively, instil into the mind of the childthe most essential truths regarding God and life and duty. At the sametime, as they study in order the deeds of the heroes and makers ofIsrael's history, they are becoming familiar with the real background ofthe earlier revelation recorded in the Old Testament. 

[Sidenote: _The present position of these stories_]

Therefore scattered throughout Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, and the older sections of Ezra, Nehemiah, and IMaccabees, are to be found in rich profusion the material for theearliest years of Bible study. These should naturally be supplemented bythe stories of the prophets, found in such books as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Haggai. Their sequel and culmination are the corresponding storiesin the Gospels and Acts. 

[Sidenote: _Study of the direct personal teachings of the OldTestament_]

In connection with the earliest study of the achievements of Israel'sheroes and spiritual leaders, many of their greatest teachings would beappropriated and applied, but when the years of early adolescence arereached, the prophets in their sermons, the priests in their laws, theusages in their proverbs, and the psalmists in their psalms, each havecertain personal messages, superbly adapted to the critical, formativeyears, when childhood begins to unfold into maturity. To make thismaterial available, judicious selection and interpretation are required. The organism of each book and of the child must both be carefullyregarded to make the adjustment perfect. Naturally this most vital lineof study would be the introduction to a corresponding study of thedirect, personal teachings of Jesus and the apostles. 

[Sidenote: _Study of the origin and growth of the Old Testament_]

This intensely practical work could profitably be preceded or followedby a study of the origin and growth of the different books and groups ofOld Testament writings and the gradual stages whereby these Scripturesattained their present form and authority. The guides in thisinvestigation should not be the Jewish rabbis or even the traditions ofthe Church Fathers. We have been misled too long by the pious guesses ofthe mediæval saints; but rather the testimony of the Bible itself andthe evidence of contemporary writings should be the guides. The spiritshould also be frank and constructive. The results cannot fail to bepractically helpful in a great variety of ways. Thus on the basis offacts, in the light of history, and by the use of those methods ofresearch which alone command respect and acceptance in other kindredlines of investigation, the questions which come to every thoughtfulboy and girl will be fairly and truly answered. In this way thoseexperiences which are inevitable in this critical age will deepen andbroaden rather than destroy the foundations of individual faith. 

[Sidenote: _The historical method of approach_]

With this general introduction, many students and classes will find itprofitable to approach the Old and New Testaments from the distinctivelyhistorical point of view. Beginning with the unfolding of thecivilization and religion of ancient Babylonia, they will study inconjunction the history, the strong personalities, the literature, andthe thought of each successive period. The advantages of this method ofstudy are many. Each book will be read and its messages interpretedin the light of the conditions and forces that constitute its truebackground. The different characters will live again, and thesignificance of their work and words will be fully appreciated as theyare viewed in the clear perspective of history. 

[Sidenote: _Its practical aims and results_]

Above all, such a synthetic study of the unfolding of the supreme truthsof revelation lays a foundation for the individual faith as broad ashuman experience. This is to attain one of the chief aims of all study, which is to put the individual into practical possession of all that isvital and best in the experiences and achievements of the past, that, thus equipped, he may go forth to fight the battle of life, valiantlyand successfully. 

[Sidenote: _Its natural sequel_]

This last course of study would call for several years, and, more thanthat, for enthusiasm, devotion, and real work. It would also take thestudent in time through the New Testament period, with its literatureand commanding personalities and events, and perhaps beyond to the greatepochs of Church history. Many would not stop until they had studiedthe latest chapter in Church history, the noble missionary activity andachievement of the past and present century. 

[Sidenote: _Advances courses of study_]

When the Bible had thus been studied, the scholars in our schools wouldnot be ready to graduate, but rather to enter upon that still deeperand more fundamental study which would mean an ultimate conquest of thebroad field that it represents. Then it might be safe and profitable toadopt the topical method and study some one of the vital themes that aretreated from many different points of view in the various parts of theBible. 

[Sidenote: _Study of Old Testament history_]

It will, however, probably be found easier and more natural next totake up in succeeding years the detailed study of the nine or ten greatgroups of writings which are found in the Bible. The natural and easiestmethod of approach to those of the Old Testament would be through acareful, constructive study of the history of the Israelitish race, perhaps beginning with the definite historical period of Saul and Samueland concluding with the advent of Rome. Far better than any modernhistory of Israel is that marvellous history written by its ownhistorians, which begins with the book of Samuel and ends with IMaccabees. Analyzed and arranged in their chronological order, thesenarratives tell the story with rare fascination and suggestiveness. [Footnote: Volume II of the "Student's Old Testament": contains thenarratives from Samuel through I Maccabees, thus arranged. ]

[Sidenote: _Study of the prophecies and earlier narratives_]

On the basis of this detailed study of the historical background, thework and teachings of the prophets could next be traced in their trueand chronological order. No Old Testament field is more neglected andnone is more intensely interesting, when once the student understandsthe problems and aims of each great prophet. None has a more practicalmessage for to-day, provided its supreme truths are interpreted intomodern terms and conditions. After becoming intimately acquainted withthe Hebrew prophets, it would be possible to go back and study with anew understanding and appreciation the early narratives which gatherabout the beginnings of Hebrew history. Then the intricate problems ofthe first eight books of the Bible would vanish in the light of a fullerknowledge. Above all, that which is essential and permanent would standout in clear relief. 

[Sidenote: _Study of the devotional literature_]

From the earliest fruits of prophetic activity it would then beprofitable to turn to the later, represented by Lamentations and thePsalter. Here the best results require a classification of the differentpsalms according to their themes, so that their teachings can be studiedsystematically and as a whole. In this field of study the student comesvery close to the heart of the Old Testament and the heart of the Godwho speaks through it. 

[Sidenote: _Study of the wisdom literature_]

Less spiritual and yet intensely interesting and practical is the greatdepartment of the Old Testament known as the wisdom literature. _He thatwalketh with the wise shall be wise_ (Prov. Xiii. 20) is as true to-dayas when first uttered. This literature is a great mine of truth, almostentirely neglected by the Christian world. Systematic classificationis the first requisite for the profitable study of the Proverbs and thelater Wisdom of Ben Sira. From these the student may pass on to thefuller treatment of the omnipresent human problem, so sublimelypresented in the book of Job, and to the many fundamental questionsraised by Eccleslastes and the Wisdom of Solomon. 

[Sidenote: _Study of the Old Testament laws and institutions_]

Last of all a year might well be spent in the study of the unfolding andconcrete application and illustration of Israel's ethical and religiousprinciples in the legal codes and institutions of the Old Testament. Many of these have found a higher expression, some are but symbolic, butothers still have permanent authority and value. Studied as a whole andon the basis of a logical classification, this little understood fieldwould also cease to be a jungle, and Instead would yield its ownpractical spiritual fruits. 

XVI

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION--THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF TO-DAY

[Sidenote: _The practical realization of these possibilities_]

This very brief and fragmentary outline of methods and possibilities ofOld Testament study is not an impossible dream. In colleges and in a fewBible schools it is already being tried with the gratifying resultsthat might be anticipated. To put it at once into force in most of ourSunday-schools would be absolutely impracticable. It is presented simplyas a suggestion of a definite and practical goal toward which to work. With careful adjustment, these courses, adapted to different ages, could be arranged so that at least the intermediate grades in theSunday-school would be studying in the same field at the same time. Thisplan provides for no graduation from the school of the Bible. It assumesthat the Christian world is at last awakening to the real significanceof religious education and to a recognition of the fact that theultimate solution of our gravest national and social problems is to befound only in the inculcation of the true ethical ideals in the mind ofthe individual. It also assumes the fundamental principle that noworthy ends can be attained without real work, enthusiastic devotion, systematic methods, and above all a definite and worthy goal. It restson the belief that the sense of gradual conquest and the attainmentof practical results will alone inspire permanent devotion and evokefaithful work, and in the end prepare the individual scholar for theintelligent and loyal service of God. 

[Sidenote: _The overwhelming responsibility of the Sunday-schools_]

Frank confessions are good for a cause as well as for the soul. We mustadmit that most of our Sunday-schools, with their vast resources inopportunity, in financial support, and in the devotion of the teachersand officers, do not permanently hold their scholars, and in the greatmajority of cases do not give them a thorough or systematic knowledge, even of the most vital teachings of the Bible. The ignorance of itsliterature and history on the part of even, the more intelligentstudents who enter college, is almost past belief, as many of us cantestify from personal observation. The limitations in time and equipmentof the Sunday-schools are undoubtedly great in comparison with thoseof the secular schools; and yet the responsibility now thrown upon theBible schools is even greater than upon the latter. Parents have ceasedto instruct their children in spelling and the multiplication-tablebecause they have found that the teachers can do this better. Withoutjustification, but by analogy and because they are themselves oftenunacquainted with the Bible, or uncertain regarding its interpretation, they are more and more leaving the religious education of their sons anddaughters to the Church and the Sunday-school. 

[Sidenote: _The transcendent importance of religious education_]

It is safe to say, and this without reservation, the most fundamentalproblem in England and America to-day is the problem of religiouseducation, because this lies at the roots of all else--political, social, and theological. When the Christian world awakens to itsprofound significance, and when its ideals and methods are raised, evento a level with those of the public schools, the other grave problemswill be near their solution. If the individual is thoroughly taughtduring the impressionable years of childhood and youth, the fundamentalprinciples of ethics and religion, society and the state will have nodifficulty in meeting their problems; but if not, these will perforcecontinue to remain unsolved. 

[Sidenote: _Important that the Old Testament be taught in thepublic schools_]

It is a time for all earnest men of every denomination or creed to unitein meeting this need. In the Old Testament, Jew and Christian, Catholicand Protestant, stand on common ground. The modern inductive historicalmethods of study have prepared the way for union; for they aim tosupport no denominational interpretation, but simply to attain thetruth. The last reasons, therefore, why the literature, history, geography, and ethical teachings of the Old Testament should not betaught in our public schools are rapidly disappearing, and the hundredsof reasons why any system of secular education is incomplete without itare coming to the front. With this fundamental basis of knowledge andinstruction, the work of the Sunday-schools could also at once be placedon a far more effective plane. It is a consummation for which everyintelligent citizen should earnestly work. 

[Sidenote: _The task of the Church in the present century_]

The achievement of the last century was to complete the work of theProtestant Reformation and rediscover the Bible. The task of the presentcentury is to instil its essential teachings, thus revealed, into themind of the individual, so that they will become controlling factors inhuman life. Here lies the great responsibility and opportunity of theChristian Church. If it is to renew its hold on modern men, it will bethrough the mind as well as the heart, and its most efficient methodwill be--as it always has in reality been--religious education. HoraceBushnell proclaimed the watchword of the Church triumphant: "Christianculture. "

[Sidenote: _The examples of the prophets and Jesus_]

His, however, was no new discovery. The Hebrew prophets, priests, andsages were not primarily preachers, but teachers. The prophetic messageswhich fell on deaf ears, instilled into the minds of a few humbledisciples, in time won acceptance from the nation. Jesus himself was notso much the preacher as the Great Teacher. His earliest public preachingwas but the net cast to catch the few faithful disciples. When these hadbeen secured, he turned his back upon a popular preaching ministry, anddevoted the best part of his brief public work to instructing a littlegroup of disciples. History completely vindicates the wisdom of hismethod. Only by following closely on his footsteps can the Church hopeto realize its true mission, especially in this age, when the heart andwill must be reached through the mind. In this respect, it must alsobe confessed that the Catholic are far in advance of the Protestantchurches and Sunday-schools, where the preaching still overshadows theteaching. 

[Sidenote: _The call for a teaching ministry_]

To inspire and direct thorough religious instruction, carefully trainedleaders are needed. The demand to-day is for a teaching as well as apreaching ministry, with an apostolic sense of a mission and a message. Men with natural gifts and the most thorough preparation are wanted toraise the standards and to organize and transform, as they alone can, by personal contact, the teaching corps of our Sunday-schools intoeffective forces. Such men and women certainly can be found. It is aconviction, based on a wide experience, that many of the ablest studentsin our colleges and universities, who for many valid reasons do notfeel the call to a preaching mission, would gladly and enthusiasticallydevote themselves to the work of religious instruction, could they besure of a field, when their preparation was complete. Our universitiesand seminaries already have the facilities and could readily assume thisimportant responsibility. As soon as our large city churches and thefederated churches in our smaller towns, demand a teaching pastor asthe permanent director of their Sunday-schools, and of the religiouseducational work under their charge, they will enter upon a new careerof permanent conquest. The needs are undoubtedly great, the volunteersare at hand, thorough preparation can be assured; but the call mustcome from the Church, united and awake to its supreme opportunity andresponsibility. 

[Sidenote: _The antiquated methods of our Sunday-schools_]

It must also be confessed that our religious systems--if such they maybe called--are still in the experimental stage. They are far inferior inevery respect, except in the self-sacrificing devotion of the teachersand officers, to those of the secular schools. What is most vital to ournational and individual life is most neglected. Instead of the latestand best pedagogical methods, the most antiquated largely prevail. Saddest of all, the Bible which is being taught in the majority of ourschools is the Bible of later Judaism and the Middle Ages, not the Bookof Books which stands forth in the light of God's latest revelation, asa message of beauty and life to the present age. It is not strange thatthere is a growing distrust of the Sunday-school among many intelligentpeople, and an appalling apathy or distaste for Bible study in the mindof the rising generation. 

[Sidenote: _The crying need for improved courses of study_]

If we shut our eyes to these facts, they will remain; but if we franklyface them, a decade of intelligent and devoted work will effect a greattransformation. The first step is obviously along the line of improvedcourses and methods of study. Many different courses are at present inthe field. All have their merits, and to those who have developed themhighest praise and credit is due. Some have been prepared to meetimmediate and practical needs, but ignore the larger unities and thehistorical background, and in general neglect the results of moderneducational and biblical knowledge. Some have been worked out in thestudy and have a strong academic flavor, but do not meet the needs ofthe average scholar or teacher. Others are models of pedagogicalperfection, but lack content. Progressive Sunday-schools are trying onesystem after another, and meantime the note of discontent is rapidlyrising. The crisis is too serious to admit of personal rivalries orprejudices. 

[Sidenote: _How to meet this need_]

The moral of the situation is simple: that which will fully meet theneeds of the present must be a combination of all that is good inexisting courses, and embody what is best in the scholarship and methodsof to-day. Like the most effective systems in the past, it must bewrought out in the laboratory of practical experience. It must beplanned from the point of view of actual needs and conditions. Itmust also have a worthy and definite goal and a high ideal. It shouldemphasize the importance of fundamental religious instruction, as wellas preaching. All that is practical and permanent in modern educationalmethods should be utilized. It should preserve the existing superbSunday-school organization, and, as far as possible, the unity of thesplendid system now under the direction of the International Committee. Finally, it should incorporate the positive and illuminating results ofmodern constructive biblical research. The task cannot be accomplishedin a moment, nor by one man nor a small group of men. It is certainlyimportant enough to command the best experience, the ripest scholarship, and the most unselfish devotion. 

[Sidenote: _The advent of a new era in the history of the kingdom ofGod_]

When this task has been thoroughly performed, and the ablest of oureducated men and women have been enlisted in our Bible schools, thecause of religious education will command the respect of the world, notmerely because of the fundamental need which it aims to meet, but alsobecause it is effectually meeting it. The Christian Church will alsofind itself in sympathy and touch with that which is best and mostsignificant in modern life and thought. Religious teachers andscientific investigators will work shoulder to shoulder in a commonstudy and interpretation of God's many-sided revelation. Pastors willfeel the solid foundations of historical truth beneath their feet. Leaving behind the din and distractions of the transitional period, thedisciples of the Great Teacher will go forth with fresh zeal to make theeternal truths of the Bible regnant in the lives of men, and the kingdomof God a reality in human history.