THE NUTTALL ENCYCLOPÆDIA

BEING

A CONCISE AND COMPREHENSIVE DICTIONARY

OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

CONSISTING OF

OVER 16, 000 TERSE AND ORIGINAL ARTICLES ON NEARLY ALL SUBJECTSDISCUSSED IN LARGER ENCYCLOPÆDIAS, AND SPECIALLY DEALING

WITH SUCH AS COME UNDER THE CATEGORIES

OF

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, SCIENCE, AND ART

EDITED BY THE

REV. JAMES WOOD

EDITOR OF "NUTTALL'S STANDARD DICTIONARY" AND COMPILER OF THE"DICTIONARY OF QUOTATIONS"

_THE SIXTY-FIRST THOUSAND_

1907

PREFACE

"The NUTTALL ENCYCLOPÆDIA" is the fruit of a project to provide, in aconcise and condensed form, and at a cheap rate, an epitome of the kindof information given in the larger Encyclopædias, such as may provesufficient for the ordinary requirements, in that particular, of thegenerality of people, and especially of such as have not the means forpurchasing or the leisure for studying the larger. 

An Encyclopædia is now recognised to be as indispensable a book ofreference as a dictionary; for while the latter explains and defines thevehicle of _thought_, the former seeks to define the subject-matter. Nowthe rapid increase in the vocabulary of a nation, which makes thepossession of an up-to-date dictionary almost one of the necessaries oflife, is evidently due to the vast increase in the number of _facts_which the language has to describe or interpret; and if it is difficultto keep pace with the growth in the language, it is obviously moredifficult to attain even a working knowledge of the array of facts whichin this age come before us for discussion. No man can now peruse even adaily newspaper without being brought face to face with details aboutquestions of the deepest interest to _him_; and he is often unable tograsp the meaning of what he reads for want of additional knowledge orexplanation. In short, it becomes more and more a necessity of modernlife to know something of everything. A little knowledge is not dangerousto those who recognise it to be little, and it may be sufficient toenable those who possess it to understand and enjoy intelligently whatwould otherwise only weigh as a burdensome reflection upon theirignorance. Even a comparatively exhaustive treatment of the multitudinoussubjects comprehended under the term universal knowledge would demand alibrary of large volumes, hence the extent and heavy cost of the greatEncyclopædias. But it is doubtful whether the mass of informationcontained in those admirable and bulky works does not either go beyond, or, more frequently than not, fall short of the requirements of those whorefer to them. For the special student there is too little, for thegeneral reader too much. Detailed knowledge of any subject in this age ofspecialisation can be acquired only by study of the works specificallydevoted to it. What is wanted in a popular Encyclopædia is succinctinformation--the more succinct the better, so long as it gives what isrequired by the inquiry, leaving it to the authorities in each subject tosupply the information desired by those intent on pursuing it further. The value of an Encyclopædia of such small scope must depend, therefore, upon the careful selection of its materials, and in this respect it ishoped the one now offered to the public will be found adequate to anyreasonable demands made upon it. If the facts given here are the factsthat the great majority are in search of when they refer to its pages, itmay be claimed for "The Nuttall Encyclopædia" that, in one respect at allevents it is more valuable for instant reference than the bestEncyclopædia in many volumes; for "The Nuttall" can lie on the desk forready-to-hand reference, and yields at a glance the information wanted. 

Within the necessary limits of a single volume the Editor persuadeshimself he has succeeded in including a wide range of subjects, and hetrusts that the information he has given on these will meet in somemeasure at least the wants of those for whom the book has been compiled. To the careful Newspaper Reader; to Heads of Families, with children atschool, whose persistent questions have often to go without an answer; tothe Schoolmaster and Tutor; to the student with a shallow purse; to theBusy Man and Man of Business, it is believed that this volume will provea solid help. 

The subjects, as hinted, are various, and these the Editor may bepermitted to classify in a general way under something like the followingrubrics:--

1. Noted people, their nationality, the time when they flourished, andwhat they are noted for. 

2. Epochs, important movements, and events in history, with the dates andtheir historical significance. 

3. Countries, provinces, and towns, with descriptions of them, theirsizes, populations, etc. , and what they are noted for. 

4. Heavenly bodies, especially those connected with the solar system, their sizes, distances, and revolutions. 

5. Races and tribes of mankind, with features that characterise them. 

6. Mythologies, and the account they severally give of the divine anddemonic powers, supreme and subordinate, that rule the world. 

7. Religions of the world, with their respective credos and objects andforms of worship. 

8. Schools of philosophy, with their theories of things and of theproblems of life and human destiny. 

9. Sects and parties, under the different systems of belief or polity, and the specialities of creed and policy that divide them. 

10. Books of the world, especially the sacred ones, and the spiritualimport of them; in particular those of the Bible, on each of which a noteor two is given. 

11. Legends and fables, especially such as are more or less of worldsignificance. 

12. Characters in fiction and fable, both mediæval and modern. 

13. Fraternities, religious and other, with their symbols andshibboleths. 

14. Families of note, especially such as have developed into dynasties. 

15. Institutions for behoof of some special interest, secular or sacred, including universities. 

16. Holidays and festivals, with what they commemorate, and the rites andceremonies connected with them. 

17. Science, literature, and art in general, but these chiefly inconnection with the names of those distinguished in the cultivation ofthem. 

Such, in a general way, are some of the subjects contained in the book, while there is a number of others not reducible to the classificationgiven, and among these the Editor has included certain subjects of whichhe was able to give only a brief definition, just as there are doubtlessothers which in so wide an area of research have escaped observation andare not included in the list. In the selection of subjects the Editorexperienced not a little embarrassment, and he was not unfrequently at aloss to summarise particulars under several of the heads. Such as it is, the Editor offers the book to the public, and he hopes that with all itsshortcomings it will not be unfavourably received. 

NOTES. 

(1) The figures in brackets following Geographical names indicate thenumber of _thousands of population_. 

(2) The figures in brackets given in Biographical references indicate the_dates_ of birth and death where both are given. 

THE NUTTALL ENCYCLOPÆDIA

A

A'ALI PASHA, an eminent reforming Turkish statesman (1815-1871). 

AACHEN. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 

AALBORG (19), a trading town on the Liimfiord, in the N. Of Jutland. 

AAR, a large Swiss river about 200 m. Long, which falls into theRhine as it leaves Switzerland. 

AARGAU, a fertile Swiss canton bordering on the Rhine. 

AARHUUS (33), a port on the E. Of Jutland, with a considerableexport and import trade, and a fine old Gothic cathedral. 

AARON, the elder brother of Moses, and the first high-priest of theJews, an office he held for forty years. 

ABACA, Manila hemp, or the plant, native to the Philippines, whichyield it in quantities. 

ABACUS, a tablet crowning a column and its capital. 

ABADDON, the bottomless pit, or the angel thereof. 

ABARIM, a mountain chain in Palestine, NE. Of the Dead Sea, thehighest point being Mount Nebo. 

ABATEMENT, a mark of disgrace in a coat of arms. 

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN, a French Protestant theologian and a mathematician, a friend of Newton, and much esteemed for his learning by Rousseau andVoltaire (1679-1767). 

ABBADIE, two brothers of French descent, Abyssinian travellers inthe years 1837-1848; also a French Protestant divine (1658-1727). 

ABBAS, uncle of Mahomet, founder of the dynasty of the Abbasides(566-652). 

ABBAS PASHA, the khedive of Egypt, studied five years in Vienna, ascended the throne at eighteen, accession hailed with enthusiasm; showsat times an equivocal attitude to Britain; _b_. 1874. 

ABBAS THE GREAT, shah of Persia, of the dynasty of the Sophis, greatalike in conquest and administration (1557-1628). 

ABBAS-MIRZA, a Persian prince, a reformer of the Persian army, and aleader of it, unsuccessfully, however, against Russia (1783-1833). 

ABBASIDES, a dynasty of 37 caliphs who ruled as such at Bagdad from750 to 1258. 

AB`BATI, NICCOLO DELL', an Italian fresco-painter (1512-1571). 

ABBÉ, name of a class of men who in France prior to the Revolutionprepared themselves by study of theology for preferment in the Church, and who, failing, gave themselves up to letters or science. 

ABBEVILLE (19), a thriving old town on the Somme, 12 m. Up, with aninteresting house architecture, and a cathedral, unfinished, in theFlamboyant style. 

ABBOT, head of an abbey. There were two classes of abbots: AbbotsRegular, as being such in fact, and Abbots Commendatory, as guardians anddrawing the revenues. 

ABBOT, GEORGE, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of James I. And Charles I. , and one of the translators of King James's Bible; anenemy of Laud's, who succeeded him (1562-1633). 

ABBOT OF MISRULE, a person elected to superintend the Christmasrevelries. 

ABBOTSFORD, the residence of Sir Walter Scott, on the Tweed, nearMelrose, built by him on the site of a farm called Clarty Hole. 

ABBOTT, EDWIN, a learned Broad Church theologian and man of letters;wrote, besides other works, a volume of sermons "Through Nature toChrist"; esteemed insistence on miracles injurious to faith; _b_. 1838. 

ABDAL`LAH, the father of Mahomet, famed for his beauty (545-570);also a caliph of Mecca (622-692). 

ABDALRAH`MAN, the Moorish governor of Spain, defeated by CharlesMartel at Tours in 732. 

ABDALS (lit. Servants of Allah), a set of Moslem fanatics inPersia. 

ABD-EL-KA`DIR, an Arab emir, who for fifteen years waged war againstthe French in N. Africa, but at length surrendered prisoner to them in1847. On his release in 1852 he became a faithful friend of France(1807-1883). 

ABDE`RA, a town in ancient Thrace, proverbial for the stupidity ofits inhabitants. 

ABDICATIONS, of which the most celebrated are those of the RomanDictator Sylla, who in 70 B. C. Retired to Puteoli; of Diocletian, who inA. D. 305 retired to Salone; of Charles V. , who in 1556 retired to themonastery St. Yuste; of Christina of Sweden, who in 1654 retired to Rome, after passing some time in France; of Napoleon, who in 1814 and 1815retired first to Elba and then died at St. Helena; of Charles X. In 1830, who died at Goritz, in Austria; and of Louis Philippe, who in 1848retired to end his days in England. 

ABDIEL, one of the seraphim, who withstood Satan in his revoltagainst the Most High. 

ABDUL-AZIZ, sultan of Turkey from 1861, in succession toAbdul-Medjid (1830-1876). 

ABDUL-AZIZ, sultan of Morocco, was only fourteen at his accession;_b_. 1880. 

ABDUL-HA`MID II. , sultan of Turkey in 1876, brother to Abdul-Aziz, and his successor; under him Turkey has suffered serious dismemberment, and the Christian subjects in Armenia and Crete been cruelly massacred;_b_. 1842. 

ABD-UL-MED`JID, sultan, father of the two preceding, in whosedefence against Russia England and France undertook the Crimean war(1823-1861). 

ABDUR-RAH`MAN, the ameer of Afghanistan, subsidised by the English;_b_. 1830. 

À'BECKET, GILBERT, an English humourist, who contributed to _Punch_and other organs; wrote the "Comic Blackstone" and comic histories ofEngland and Rome (1811-1856). 

À'BECKET, A. W. , son of the preceding, a littérateur and journalist;_b_. 1844. 

ABEL, the second son of Adam and Eve; slain by his brother. Thedeath of Abel is the subject of a poem by Gessner and a tragedy byLegouvé. 

ABEL, SIR F. A. , a chemist who has made a special study ofexplosives; _b_. 1827. 

ABEL, HENRY, an able Norwegian mathematician, who died young(1802-1828). 

AB`ELARD, PETER, a theologian and scholastic philosopher of Frenchbirth, renowned for his dialectic ability, his learning, his passion forHéloïse, and his misfortunes; made conceivability the test ofcredibility, and was a great teacher in his day (1079-1142). 

ABELLI, a Dominican monk, the confessor of Catharine de Medici(1603-1691). 

ABENCERRA`GES, a powerful Moorish tribe in Grenada, whose fate inthe 15th century has been the subject of interesting romance. 

ABEN-EZ`RA, a learned Spanish Jew and commentator on the Hebrewscriptures (1090-1168). 

ABERA`VON (6), a town and seaport in Glamorganshire, with copper andiron works. 

ABERCROMBIE, SIR RALPH, a distinguished British general of Scottishbirth, who fell in Egypt after defeating the French at Aboukir Bay(1731-1801). 

ABERDEEN (124), the fourth city in Scotland, on the E. Coast, between the mouths of the Dee and Don; built of grey granite, with manyfine public edifices, a flourishing university, a large trade, andthriving manufactures. Old Aberdeen, on the Don, now incorporated in themunicipality, is the seat of a cathedral church, and of King's College, founded in 1404, united with the university in the new town. 

ABERDEEN, EARL OF, a shrewd English statesman, Prime Minister ofEngland during the Crimean war (1784-1860). --Grandson of the preceding, Gov. -Gen. Of Canada; _b_. 1847. 

ABERDEENSHIRE (281), a large county in NE. Of Scotland; mountainousin SW. , lowland N. And E. ; famed for its granite quarries, its fisheries, and its breed of cattle. 

ABERNETHY, a small burgh in S. Perthshire, with a Pictish roundtower, and once the capital of the Pictish kingdom. 

ABERRATION OF LIGHT, an apparent motion in a star due to the earth'smotion and the progressive motion of light. 

ABERYST`WITH (16), a town and seaport in Cardiganshire, Wales, witha university. 

AB`GAR XIV. , a king of Edessa, one of a dynasty of the name, acontemporary of Jesus Christ, and said to have corresponded with Him. 

ABHORRERS, the Royalist and High Church party in England underCharles II. , so called from their abhorrence of the principles of theiropponents. 

ABIGAIL, the widow of Nabal, espoused by David. 

ABICH, W. H. , a German mineralogist and traveller (1806-1886). 

ABINGDON (6), a borough in Berks, 6 m. S. Of Oxford. 

ABIOGENESIS, the doctrine of spontaneous generation. 

ABIPONES, a once powerful warlike race in La Plata, now nearly allabsorbed. 

ABLE MAN, man with "a heart to resolve, a head to contrive, and ahand to execute" (Gibbon). 

ABNER, a Hebrew general under Saul; assassinated by Joab. 

ABO, the old capital of Finland and seat of the government, on theGulf of Bothnia. 

AB`OMEY, the capital of Dahomey, in W. Africa. 

ABOU`KIR, village near Alexandria, in Egypt, on the bay near whichNelson destroyed the French fleet in 1799; where Napoleon beat the Turks, 1799; and where Abercrombie fell, 1801. 

ABOUT, EDMOND, spirited French littérateur and journalist(1828-1885). 

ABRAHAM, the Hebrew patriarch, ancestor of the Jews, the very typeof an Eastern pastoral chief at once by his dignified character andsimple faith. 

ABRAHAM, THE PLAINS OF, a plain near Quebec. 

ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of lunatics allowed out of restraint, at onetime, to roam about and beg; a set of impostors who wandered about thecountry affecting lunacy. 

ABRAN`TES, a town in Portugal, on the Tagus; taken by Marshal Junot, 1807, and giving the title of Duke to him. 

ABRAXAS STONES, stones with cabalistic figures on them used astalismans. 

ABRUZ`ZI, a highland district in the Apennines, with a pop. Of100, 000. 

ABSALOM, a son of David, who rebelled against his father, and atwhose death David gave vent to a bitter wail of grief. A name given byDryden to the Duke of Monmouth, son of Charles II. 

ABSOLUTE, THE, the philosophical name for the uncreated Creator, orcreating cause of all things, dependent on nothing external to itself. 

ABSYRTUS, a brother of Medea, whom she cut in pieces as she fledwith Jason, pursued by her father, throwing his bones behind her todetain her father in his pursuit of her by stopping to pick them up. 

ABT, FRANZ, a German composer of song-music (1819-1885). 

ABU, a mountain (6000 ft. ) in Rajputana, with a footprint of Vishnuon the top, and two marble temples half-way up, held sacred by the Jains. 

AB`UBEKR, as the father of Ayesha, the father-in-law of Mahomet, thefirst of the caliphs and the founder of the Sunnites; _d_. 634. 

AB`U-KLEA, in the Soudan, where the Mahdi's forces were defeated bySir H. Stewart in 1885. 

A`BUL-FARAJ, a learned Armenian Jew, who became bishop of Aleppo, and wrote a history of the world from Adam onwards (1226-1286). 

ABUL-FAZEL, the vizier of the great Mogul emperor Akbar, and whowrote an account of his reign and of the Mogul empire; he wasassassinated in 1604. 

ABUL-FEDA, a Moslem prince of Hamat in Syria, who in his youth tookpart against the Crusaders, and wrote historical works in Arabic(1273-1331). 

ABU-THA`LEB, uncle of Mahomet, and his protector against the plotsof his enemies the Koreish. 

ABY`DOS, a town on the Asiatic side of the Hellespont, famous as thehome of Leander, who swam the Hellespont every night to visit Hero inSestos, and as the spot where Xerxes built his bridge of boats to crossinto Europe in 480 B. C. ; also a place of note in Upper Egypt. 

ABYSSIN`IA, a mountainous country SE. Of Nubia, with an area of200, 000 sq. M. , made up of independent states, and a mixed population ofsome four millions, the Abyssinians proper being of the Semite stock. Itis practically under the protectorate of Italy. 

ACACIA, a large group of trees with astringent and gum-yieldingproperties, natives of tropical Africa and Australia. 

ACADEMY, a public shady park or place of groves near Athens, wherePlato taught his philosophy and whence his school derived its name, ofwhich there are three branches, the _Old_, the _Middle_, and the _New_, represented respectively by Plato himself, Arcesilaos, and Carneades. The_French Academy_, of forty members, was founded by Richelieu in 1635, and is charged with the interests of the French language and literature, and in particular with the duty of compiling an authoritative dictionaryof the French language. Besides these, there are in France other fourwith a like limited membership in the interest of other departments ofscience and art, all now associated in the _Institute of France_, whichconsists in all of 229 members. There are similar institutions in otherstates of Europe, all of greater or less note. 

ACADIA, the French name for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 

ACANTHUS, a leaf-like ornament on the capitals of the columns ofcertain orders of architecture. 

ACAPUL`CO, a Mexican port in the Pacific, harbour commodious, butclimate unhealthy. 

ACARNA`NIA, a province of Greece N. Of Gulf of Corinth; its pop. Once addicted to piracy. 

ACCA`DIANS, a dark, thick-lipped, short-statured Mongol race inCentral Asia, displaced by the Babylonians and Assyrians, who wereSemitic. 

ACCA-LAURENTIA, the wife of Faustulus, shepherd of Numitor, whosaved the lives of Romulus and Remus. 

ACCIAIOLI, a Florentine family of 15th century, illustrious inscholarship and war. 

ACCOLADE, a gentle blow with a sword on the shoulder in conferringknighthood. 

ACCOL`TI, a Tuscan family, of 15th century, famous for theirlearning. 

ACCOR`SO, the name of a Florentine family, of 12th and 13thcenturies, great in jurisprudence. 

ACCRA (16), capital and chief port in British Gold Coast colony. 

ACCRINGTON (39), a manufacturing town 22 m. N. Of Manchester. 

ACCUM, FRIEDRICH, a German chemist, the first promoter ofgas-lighting (1769-1838). 

ACCUMULATOR, a hydraulic press for storing up water at a highpressure; also a device for storing up electric energy. 

ACERRA (14), an ancient city 9 m. NE. Of Naples; is in an unhealthydistrict. 

ACETIC ACID, the pure acid of vinegar; the salts are called_acetates_. 

ACETONE, a highly inflammable liquid obtained generally by the drydistillation of acetates. 

ACET`YLENE, a malodorous gaseous substance from the incompletecombustion of hydro-carbons. 

ACHÆAN LEAGUE, a confederation of 12 towns in the Peloponnesus, formed especially against the influence of the Macedonians. 

ACHÆ`ANS, the common name of the Greeks in the heroic or Homericperiod. 

ACHAI`A, the N. District of the Peloponnesus, eventually the wholeof it. 

ACHARD, a Prussian chemist, one of the first to manufacture sugarfrom beetroot (1753-1821). 

ACHARD`, LOUIS AMÉDÉE, a prolific French novelist (1814-1876). 

ACHA`TES, the attendant of Æneas in his wandering after the fall ofTroy, remarkable for, and a perennial type of, fidelity. 

ACHELO`ÜS, a river in Greece, which rises in Mt. Pindus, and fallsinto the Ionian Sea; also the god of the river, the oldest of the sons ofOceanus, and the father of the Sirens. 

ACHEN, an eminent German painter (1556-1621). 

ACHENWALL, a German economist, the founder of statistic science(1719-1772). 

ACH`ERON, a river in the underworld; the name of several rivers inGreece more or less suggestive of it. 

ACH`ERY, a learned French Benedictine of St. Maur (1609-1685). 

ACH`ILL, a rocky, boggy island, sparsely inhabited, off W. Coast ofIreland, co. Mayo, with a bold headland 2222 ft. High. 

ACHILLE`ID, an unfinished poem of Statius. 

ACHIL`LES, the son of Peleus and Thetis, king of the Myrmidons, themost famous of the Greek heroes in the Trojan war, and whose wrath withthe consequences of it forms the subject of the Iliad of Homer. He wasinvulnerable except in the heel, at the point where his mother held himas she dipt his body in the Styx to render him invulnerable. 

ACHILLES OF GERMANY, Albert, third elector of Brandenburg, "fiery, tough old gentleman, of formidable talent for fighting in his day; a veryblazing, far-seen character, " says Carlyle (1414-1486). 

ACHILLES TENDON, the great tendon of the heel, where Achilles wasvulnerable. 

ACHMED PASHA, a French adventurer, served in French army, condemnedto death, fled, and served Austria; condemned to death a second time, pardoned, served under the sultan, was banished to the shores of theBlack Sea (1675-1747). 

ACH`MET I. , sultan of Turkey from 1603 to 1617; A. II. , from1691 to 1695; A. III. , from 1703 to 1730, who gave asylum to CharlesXII. Of Sweden after his defeat by the Czar at Pultowa. 

ACHIT`OPHEL, name given by Dryden to the Earl of Shaftesbury of histime. 

ACHROMATISM, transmission of light, undecomposed and free fromcolour, by means of a combination of dissimilar lenses of crown and flintglass, or by a single glass carefully prepared. 

ACIERAGE, coating a copper-plate with steel by voltaic electricity. 

A`CI-REA`LË (38), a seaport town in Sicily, at the foot of MountEtna, in NE. Of Catania, with mineral waters. 

A`CIS, a Sicilian shepherd enamoured of Galatea, whom the CyclopsPolyphemus, out of jealousy, overwhelmed under a rock, from under whichhis blood has since flowed as a river. 

ACK`ERMANN, R. , an enterprising publisher of illustrated works inthe Strand, a native of Saxony (1764-1834). 

ACLAND, SIR HENRY, regius professor of medicine in Oxford, accompanied the Prince of Wales to America in 1860, the author of severalworks on medicine and educational subjects, one of Ruskin's old and triedfriends (1815). 

ACLINIC LINE, the magnetic equator, along which the needle alwaysremains horizontal. 

ACNE, a skin disease showing hard reddish pimples; ACNEROSACEA, a congestion of the skin of the nose and parts adjoining. 

ACOEMETÆ, an order of monks in the 5th century who by turns kept upa divine service day and night. 

ACONCA`GUA, the highest peak of the Andes, about 100 m. NE. OfValparaiso, 22, 867 ft. High; recently ascended by a Swiss and aScotchman, attendants of Fitzgerald's party. 

ACONITE, monk's-hood, a poisonous plant of the ranunculus order witha tapering root. 

ACONITINE, a most virulent poison from aconite, and owing to thevery small quantity sufficient to cause death, is very difficult ofdetection when employed in taking away life. 

ACORN-SHELLS, a crustacean attached to rocks on the sea-shore, described by Huxley as "fixed by its head, " and "kicking its food intoits mouth with its legs. "

ACOUSTICS, the science of sound as it affects the ear, specially ofthe laws to be observed in the construction of halls so that people maydistinctly hear in them. 

ACRASIA, an impersonation in Spenser's "Faërie Queen, " ofintemperance in the guise of a beautiful sorceress. 

ACRE, ST. JEAN D' (7), a strong place and seaport in Syria, at thefoot of Mount Carmel, taken, at an enormous sacrifice of life, by PhilipAugustus and Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191, held out against Bonaparte in1799; its ancient name Ptolemaïs. 

ACRES, BOB, a coward in the "Rivals" whose "courage always oozed outat his finger ends. "

ACROAMATICS, esoteric lectures, i. E. Lectures to the initiated. 

ACROLEIN, a light volatile limpid liquid obtained by the destructivedistillation of fats. 

ACROLITHS, statues of which only the extremities are of stone. 

ACROP`OLIS, a fortified citadel commanding a city, and generally thenucleus of it, specially the rocky eminence dominating Athens. 

ACROTE`RIA, pedestals placed at the middle and the extremities of apediment to support a statue or other ornament, or the statue or ornamentitself. 

ACTA DIURNA, a kind of gazette recording in a summary way dailyevents, established at Rome in 131 B. C. , and rendered official by Cæsarin 50 B. C. 

ACTA SANCTORUM, the lives of the saints in 62 vols. Folio, begun inthe 17th century by the Jesuits, and carried on by the Bollandists. 

ACTÆON, a hunter changed into a stag for surprising Diana whenbathing, and afterwards devoured by his own dogs. 

ACTINIC RAYS, "non-luminous rays of higher frequency than theluminous rays. "

ACTINISM, the chemical action of sunlight. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS, a disease of a fungous nature on the mouth and lowerjaw of cows. 

ACTIUM, a town and promontory at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf(Arta), in Greece, where Augustus gained his naval victory over Antonyand Cleopatra, Sept. 2, 31 B. C. 

ACTON, an adventurer of English birth, who became prime minister ofNaples, but was driven from the helm of affairs on account of hisinveterate antipathy to the French (1737-1808). 

ACTON, LORD, a descendant of the former, who became a leader of theLiberal Catholics in England, M. P. For Carlow, and made a peer in 1869;a man of wide learning, and the projector of a universal history byexperts in different departments of the field; _b_. 1834. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a narrative account in the New Testament ofthe founding of the Christian Church chiefly through the ministry ofPeter and Paul, written by Luke, commencing with the year 33, andconcluding with the imprisonment of Paul in Rome in 62. 

ACUN`HA, TRISTRAM D', a Portuguese navigator, companion ofAlbuquerque; NUNA D', his son, viceroy of the Indies from 1528 to1539; RODRIQUE D', archbishop of Lisbon, who in 1640 freed Portugalfrom the Spanish domination, and established the house of Braganza on thethrone. 

ACUPRESSURE, checking hemorrhage in arteries during an operation bycompressing their orifices with a needle. 

ACUPUNCTURE, the operation of pricking an affected part with aneedle, and leaving it for a short time in it, sometimes for as long asan hour. 

ADAIR, SIR ROBERT, a distinguished English diplomatist, andfrequently employed on the most important diplomatic missions(1763-1855). 

ADAL, a flat barren region between Abyssinia and the Red Sea. 

ADALBE`RON, the archbishop of Rheims, chancellor of Lothaire andLouis V. ; consecrated Hugh Capet; _d_. 998. 

ADALBERT, a German ecclesiastic, who did much to extend Christianityover the North (1000-1072). 

ADALBERT, ST. , bishop of Prague, who, driven from Bohemia, essayedto preach the gospel in heathen Prussia, where the priests fell upon him, and "struck him with a death-stroke on the head, " April 27, 997, on theanniversary of which day a festival is held in his honour. 

ADA`LIA (30), a seaport on the coast of Asia Minor, on a bay of thesame name. 

ADAM (i. E. Man), the first father, according to the Bible, of thehuman race. 

ADAM, ALEX. , a distinguished Latin scholar, rector for 40 years ofthe Edinburgh High School, Scott having been one of his pupils(1741-1809). 

ADAM, LAMBERT, a distinguished French sculptor (1700-1759). 

ADAM, ROBERT, a distinguished architect, born at Kirkcaldy, architect of the Register House and the University, Edinburgh(1728-1792). 

ADAM BEDE, George Eliot's first novel, published anonymously in1859, took at once with both critic and public. 

ADAM KADMON, primeval man as he at first emanated from the Creator, or man in his primeval rudimentary potentiality. 

ADAM OF BROMEN, distinguished as a Christian missionary in the 11thcentury; author of a celebrated Church history of N. Europe from 788 to1072, entitled _Gesta Hammenburgensis Ecclesiæ Pontificum_. 

ADAMAS`TOR, the giant spirit of storms, which Camoëns, in his"Luciad, " represents as rising up before Vasco de Gama to warn him offfrom the Cape of Storms, henceforth called, in consequence of theresultant success in despite thereof, the Cape of Good Hope. 

ADAMAWA, a region in the Lower Soudan with a healthy climate and afertile soil, rich in all tropical products. 

ADAMITES, visionaries in Africa in the 2nd century, and in Bohemiain the 14th and 15th, who affected innocence, rejected marriage, and wentnaked. 

ADAMNAN, ST. , abbot of Iona, of Irish birth, who wrote a life of St. Columba and a work on the Holy Places, of value as the earliest written(625-704). 

ADAMS, DR. F. , a zealous student and translator of Greek medicalworks (1797-1861). 

ADAMS, JOHN, the second president of the United States, and a chiefpromoter of their independence (1739-1826). 

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, his eldest son, the sixth president (1767-1848). 

ADAMS, JOHN COUCH, an English astronomer, the discoverersimultaneously with Leverrier of the planet Neptune (1819-1892). 

ADAMS, PARSON, a country curate in Fielding's "Joseph Andrews, " witha head full of learning and a heart full of love to his fellows, but inabsolute ignorance of the world, which in his simplicity he takes forwhat it professes to be. 

ADAMS, SAMUEL, a zealous promoter of American independence, wholived and died poor (1722-1803). 

ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of coral reefs and sandbanks connectingCeylon with India. 

ADAM'S PEAK, a conical peak in the centre of Ceylon 7420 ft. High, with a foot-like depression 5 ft. Long and 2½ broad atop, ascribed toAdam by the Mohammedans, and to Buddha by the Buddhists; it was here, theArabs say, that Adam alighted on his expulsion from Eden and stood doingpenance on one foot till God forgave him. 

ADA`NA (40), a town SE. Corner of Asia Minor, 30 m. From the sea. 

ADANSON, MICHEL, a French botanist, born in AIX, the first toattempt a natural classification of plants (1727-1806). 

AD`DA, an affluent of the Po, near Cremona; it flows through LakeComo; on its banks Bonaparte gained several of his famous victories overAustria. 

ADDINGTON, HENRY, Lord Sidmouth, an English statesman was for ashort time Prime Minister, throughout a supporter of Pitt (1757-1844). 

ADDISON, JOSEPH, a celebrated English essayist, studied at Oxford, became Fellow of Magdalen, was a Whig in politics, held a succession ofGovernment appointments, resigned the last for a large pension; waspre-eminent among English writers for the purity and elegance of hisstyle, had an abiding, refining, and elevating influence on theliterature of the country; his name is associated with the _Tatler, Spectator_, and _Guardian_, as well as with a number of beautiful hymns(1672-1749). 

A`DELAAR, the name of honour given to Cort Sivertsen, a famous Norseseaman, who rendered distinguished naval services to Denmark and toVenice against the Turks (1622-1675). 

ADELAIDE (133), the capital of S. Australia, on the river Torrens, which flows through it into St. Vincent Gulf, 7 m. SE. Of Port Adelaide;a handsome city, with a cathedral, fine public buildings, a university, and an extensive botanical garden; it is the great emporium for S. Australia; exports wool, wine, wheat, and copper ore. 

ADELAIDE, eldest daughter of Louis XV. Of France (1732-1806). 

ADELAIDE, PORT, the haven of Adelaide, a port of call, with acommodious harbour. 

ADELAIDE, QUEEN, consort of William IV. Of England (1792-1849). 

ADELAIDE OF ORLEANS, sister of Louis Philippe, his Egeria(1771-1841). 

ADELBERG, a town of Carniola, 22 m. From Trieste, with a largestalactite cavern, besides numerous caves near it. 

ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, a distinguished German philologist andlexicographer, born in Pomerania (1732-1806). 

A`DEN (42), a fortified town on a peninsula in British territory S. Of Arabia, 105 m. E. Of Bab-el-Mandeb; a coaling and military station, ina climate hot, but healthy. 

AD`HERBAL, son of Micipsa, king of Numidia, killed by Jugurtha, 249B. C. 

ADI GRANTH, the sacred book of the Sikhs. 

ADIAPH`ORISTS, Lutherans who in 16th century maintained that certainpractices of the Romish Church, obnoxious to others of them, were mattersof indifference, such as having pictures, lighting candles, wearingsurplices, and singing certain hymns in worship. 

AD`IGE, a river of Italy, which rises in the Rhetian Alps and fallsinto the Adriatic after a course of 250 m. ; subject to sudden swellingsand overflowings. 

ADIPOCERE, a fatty, spermaceti-like substance, produced by thedecomposition of animal matter in moist places. 

ADIPOSE TISSUE, a tissue of small vesicles filled with oily matter, in which there is no sensation, and a layer of which lies under the skinand gives smoothness and warmth to the body. 

ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, a high-lying, picturesque, granite range inthe State of New York; source of the Hudson. 

ADJUTANT, a gigantic Indian stork with an enormous beak, about 5 ft. In height, which feeds on carrion and offal, and is useful in this way, as storks are. 

ADLER, HERMANN, son and successor of the following, born in Hanover;a vigorous defender of his co-religionists and their faith, as well astheir sacred Scriptures; was elected Chief Rabbi in 1891; _b_. 1839. 

ADLER, NATHAN MARCUS, chief Rabbi in Britain, born in Hanover(1803-1890). 

ADLERCREUTZ, a Swedish general, the chief promoter of the revolutionof 1808, who told Gustavus IV. To his face that he ought to retire(1759-1815). 

ADME`TUS, king of Pheræ in Thessaly, one of the Argonauts, underwhom Apollo served for a time as neat-herd. _See_ ALCESTIS. 

ADMIRABLE DOCTOR, a name given to Roger Bacon. 

ADMIRAL, the chief commander of a fleet, of which there are inBritain three grades--admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals, thefirst displaying his flag on the main mast, the second on the fore, andthe third on the mizzen. 

ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF, board of commissioners appointed for themanagement of naval affairs. 

ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island off the coast of Alaska. 

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group NE. Of New Guinea, in the Pacific, whichbelong to Germany. 

ADOLF, FRIEDRICH, king of Sweden, under whose reign the noblesdivided themselves into the two factions of the Caps, or the peace-party, and the Hats, or the war-party (1710-1771). 

ADOLPH, ST. , a Spanish martyr: festival, Sept. 27. 

ADOLPH OF NASSAU, Kaiser from 1291 to 1298, "a stalwart butnecessitous Herr" Carlyle calls him; seems to have been under the pay ofEdward Longshanks. 

ADOLPHUS, JOHN, an able London barrister in criminal cases, and avoluminous historical writer (1766-1845). 

ADONA`I, the name used by the Jews for God instead of Jehovah, toosacred to be pronounced. 

ADONA`IS, Shelley's name for Keats. 

ADO`NIS, a beautiful youth beloved by Aphrodité (Venus), butmortally wounded by a boar and changed by her into a flower the colour ofhis blood, by sprinkling nectar on his body. 

ADOPTIONISTS, heretics who in the 8th century maintained that Christwas the son of God, not by birth, but by adoption, and as being one withHim in character and will. 

ADOR`NO, an illustrious plebeian family in Genoa, of the Ghibellineparty, several of whom were Doges of the republic. 

ADOUR, a river of France, rising in the Pyrenees and falling intothe Bay of Biscay. 

ADOWA`, a highland town in Abyssinia, and chief entrepôt of trade. 

ADRAS`TUS, a king of Argos, the one survivor of the first expeditionof the Seven against Thebes, who died of grief when his son fell in thesecond. 

ADRETS, BARON DES, a Huguenot leader, notorious for his cruelty;died a Catholic (1513-1587). 

A`DRIA, an ancient town between the Po and the Adige; a flourishingseaport at one time, but now 14 m. From the sea. 

A`DRIAN, name of six popes: A. I. , from 772 to 795, did much toembellish Rome; A. II. , from 867 to 872, zealous to subject thesovereigns of Europe to the Popehood; A. III. , from 884 to 885;A. V. , from 1054 to 1059, the only Englishman who attained to thePapal dignity; A. V. , in 1276; A. VI. , from 1222 to 1223. See BREAKSPEARE. 

ADRIAN, ST. , the chief military saint of N. Europe for many ages, second only to St. George; regarded as the patron of old soldiers, andprotector against the plague. 

ADRIANO`PLE (60), a city in European Turkey, the third inimportance, on the high-road between Belgrade and Constantinople. 

ADRIA`TIC, THE, a sea 450 m. Long separating Italy from Illyria, Dalmatia, and Albania. 

ADULLAM, David's hiding-place (1 Sam. Xxii. 1), a royal Canaanitishcity 10 m. NW. Of Hebron. 

ADULLAMITES, an English political party who in 1866 deserted theLiberal side in protest against a Liberal Franchise Bill then introduced. John Bright gave them this name. See 1 Sam. Xxii. 

ADUMBLA, a cow, in old Norse mythology, that grazes on hoar-frost, "licking the rime from the rocks--a Hindu cow transported north, "surmises Carlyle. 

ADVOCATE, LORD, chief counsel for the Crown in Scotland, publicprosecutor of crimes, and a member of the administration in power. 

ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, body of lawyers qualified to plead at theScottish bar. 

ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, a library belonging to the Faculty of Advocatesin Edinburgh, founded in 1632; it alone of Scotch libraries still holdsthe privilege of receiving a copy of every book entered at Stationers'Hall. 

ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, the devil's advocate, a functionary in the RomanCatholic Church appointed to show reason against a proposed canonization. 

ÆACUS, a Greek king renowned as an administrator of distributivejustice, after death appointed one of the three judges in Hades. _See_MINOS and RHADAMANTHUS. 

ÆDILES, magistrates of ancient Rome who had charge of the publicbuildings and public structures generally. 

ÆE`TIS, king of Colchis and father of Medea. 

ÆGE`AN SEA, the Archipelago. 

ÆGEUS, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into the Ægean Sea, so called after him, in the mistaken belief that his son, who had been toslay the Minotaur, had been slain by him. 

ÆGI`NA, an island 20 m. SW. Of Athens, in a gulf of the same name. 

ÆGIR, the god of the sea in the Norse mythology. 

ÆGIS (lit. A goat's skin), the shield of Zeus, made of the hide of thegoat AMALTHEA (q. V. ), representing originally the storm-cloud in whichthe god invested himself when he was angry; it was also the attribute ofAthena, bearing in her case the Gorgon's head. 

ÆGIS`THUS. See AGAMEMNON. 

ÆL`FRIC, a Saxon writer of the end of the 10th century known as the"Grammarian. "

ÆLIA`NUS, CLAUDIUS, an Italian rhetorician who wrote in Greek, andwhose extant works are valuable for the passages from prior authors whichthey have preserved for us. 

ÆMI`LIUS PAULUS, the Roman Consul who fell at Cannæ, 216 B. C. ; alsohis son, surnamed Macedonicus, so called as having defeated Perseus atPydna, in Macedonia. 

ÆNE`AS, a Trojan, the hero of Virgil's "Æneid, " who in his variouswanderings after the fall of Troy settled in Italy, and became, traditionalleges, the forefather of the Julian Gens in Rome. 

ÆNEAS SILVIUS. See PICCOLOMINI. 

Æ`NEID, an epic poem by Virgil, of which Æneas is the hero. 

ÆNESIDEMUS, a sceptical philosopher, born in Crete, who flourishedshortly after Cicero, and summed up under ten arguments the contentionagainst dogmatism in philosophy. See "SCHWEGLER, " translated byDr. Hutchison Stirling. 

ÆOLIAN ACTION, action of the wind as causing geologic changes. 

ÆOLIAN ISLANDS, the LIPARI ISLANDS (q. V. ). 

ÆO`LIANS, one of the Greek races who, originating in Thessaly, spread north and south, and emigrated into Asia Minor, giving rise to theÆolic dialect of the Greek language. 

ÆOLOTROPY, a change in the physical properties of bodies due to achange of position. 

Æ`OLUS, the Greek god of the winds. 

ÆON, among the Gnostics, one of a succession of powers conceived asemanating from God and presiding over successive creations andtransformations of being. 

ÆPYOR`NIS, a gigantic fossil bird of Madagascar, of which the egg issix times larger than that of an ostrich. 

Æ`QUI, a tribe on NE. Of Latium, troublesome to the Romans untilsubdued in 302 B. C. 

AERATED BREAD, bread of flour dough charged with carbonic acid gas. 

AERATED WATERS, waters aerated with carbonic acid gas. 

ÆS`CHINES, a celebrated Athenian orator, rival of Demosthenes, whoin the end prevailed over him by persuading the citizens to believe hewas betraying them to Philip of Macedon, so that he left Athens andsettled in Rhodes, where he founded a school as a rhetorician(389-314 B. C. ). 

ÆS`CHYLUS, the father of the Greek tragedy, who distinguishedhimself as a soldier both at Marathon and Salamis before he figured as apoet; wrote, it is said, some seventy dramas, of which only seven areextant--the "Suppliants, " the "Persæ, " the "Seven against Thebes, " the"Prometheus Bound, " the "Agamemnon, " the "Choephori, " and the"Eumenides, " his plays being trilogies; born at Eleusis and died inSicily (525-456 B. C. ). 

ÆSCULA`PIUS, a son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis, whom, forrestoring Hippolytus to life, Zeus, at the prayer of Pluto, destroyedwith a thunderbolt, but afterwards admitted among the gods as god ofmedicine and the healing art; the cock, the emblem of vigilance, and theserpent, of prudence, were sacred to him. 

AESON, the father of Jason, was restored to youth by Medea. 

Æ`SOP, a celebrated Greek fabulist of the 6th century B. C. , ofwhose history little is known except that he was originally a slave, manumitted by Iadmon of Samos, and put to death by the Delphians, probably for some witticism at their expense. 

ÆSO`PUS, a celebrated Roman actor, a friend of Pompey and Cicero. 

ÆSTHETICS, the science of the beautiful in nature and the fine arts. 

AE`TIUS, a Roman general, who withstood the aggressions of theBarbarians for twenty years, and defeated Attila at Châlons, 451;assassinated out of jealousy by the Emperor Valentinian III. , 454. 

ÆTO`LIA, a country of ancient Greece N. Of the Gulf of Corinth. 

AFFRE, archbishop of Paris, suffered death on the barricades, as, with a green bough in his hand, he bore a message of peace to theinsurgents (1793-1848). 

AFGHAN`ISTAN` (5, 000), a country in the centre of Asia, betweenIndia on the east and Persia on the west, its length about 600 m. And itsbreadth about 500 m. , a plateau of immense mountain masses, and high, almost inaccessible, valleys, occupying 278, 000 sq. M. , with extremes ofclimate, and a mixed turbulent population, majority Afghans. The country, though long a bone of contention between England and Russia, is nowwholly under the sphere of British influence. 

AF`GHANS, THE, a fine and noble but hot-tempered race of theMohammedan faith inhabiting Afghanistan. The Afghans proper are calledPATHANS in India, and call themselves Beni Israel (sons of Israel), tracing their descent from King Saul. 

AFRA`NIUS, a Latin comic poet who flourished 100 B. C. ; also a RomanConsul who played a prominent part in the rivalry between Cæsar andPompey, 60 B. C. 

AFRICA, one of the five great divisions of the globe, three timeslarger than Europe, seven-tenths of it within the torrid zone, andcontaining over 200, 000, 000 inhabitants of more or less dark-skinnedraces. It was long a _terra incognita_, but it is now being explored inall directions, and attempts are everywhere made to bring it within thecircuit of civilisation. It is being parcelled out by European nations, chiefly Britain, France, and Germany, and with more zeal and appliance ofresource by Britain than any other. 

AFRICA`NUS, JULIUS, a Christian historian and chronologist of the3rd century. 

AFRIDIS, a treacherous tribe of eight clans, often at war with eachother, in a mountainous region on the North-Western frontier of India W. Of Peshawar. 

AFRIKAN`DER, one born in S. Africa of European parents. 

AFRIT`, a powerful evil spirit in the Mohammedan mythology. 

AGA`DES, a once important depôt of trade in the S. Of the Sahara, much decayed. 

AGAG, a king of the Amalekites, conquered by Saul, and hewn inpieces by order of Samuel. 

AGAMEM`NON, a son of Atreus, king of Mycenæ and general-in-chief ofthe Greeks in the Trojan war, represented as a man of stately presenceand a proud spirit. On the advice of the soothsayer Calchas sacrificedhis daughter IPHIGENIA (q. V. ) for the success of the enterprisehe conducted. He was assassinated by Ægisthus and Clytæmnestra, his wife, on his return from the war. His fate and that of his house is the subjectof Æschylus' trilogy "Oresteia. "

AGAMOGENESIS, name given to reproduction without sex, by fission, budding, &c. 

AGANIPPE, a fountain in Boeotia, near Helicon, dedicated to theMuses as a source of poetic inspiration. 

AG`APE, love-feasts among the primitive Christians in commemorationof the Last Supper, and in which they gave each other the kiss of peaceas token of Christian brotherhood. 

AGAR-AGAR, a gum extracted from a sea-weed, used in bacteriologicalinvestigations. 

AGA`SIAS, a sculptor of Ephesus, famous for his statue of the"Gladiator. "

AGASS`IZ, a celebrated Swiss naturalist, in the departmentespecially of ichthyology, and in connection with the glaciers; settledas a professor of zoology and geology in the United States in 1846(1807-1873). 

AG`ATHE, ST. , a Sicilian virgin who suffered martyrdom at Palermounder Decius in 251; represented in art as crowned with a long veil andbearing a pair of shears, the instruments with which her breast were cutoff. Festival, Feb. 5. 

AGA`THIAS, a Byzantine poet and historian (536-582). 

AGATH`OCLES, the tyrant of Syracuse, by the massacre of thousands ofthe inhabitants, was an enemy of the Carthaginians, and fought againstthem; was poisoned in the end (361-289 B. C. ). 

AG`ATHON, an Athenian tragic poet, a rival of Euripides(447-400 B. C. ). 

AG`ATHON, ST. , pope from 676 to 682. 

AG`DE (6), a French seaport on the Hérault, 3 m. From theMediterranean. 

A`GEN (21), a town on the Garonne, 84 m. Above Bordeaux. 

AGES, in the Greek mythology four--the Golden, self-sufficient; theSilver, self-indulgent; the Brazen, warlike; and the Iron, violent;together with the Heroic, nobly aspirant, between the third and fourth. In archeology, three--the Stone Age, the Bronze, and the Iron. Inhistory, the Middle and Dark, between the Ancient and the Modern. InFichte, five--of Instinct, of Law, of Rebellion, of Rationality, ofConformity to Reason. In Shakespeare, seven--Infancy, Childhood, Boyhood, Adolescence, Manhood, Age, Old Age. 

AGESAN`DER, a sculptor of Rhodes of the first century, who wroughtat the famous group of the Laocoon. 

AGESILA`US, a Spartan king, victorious over the Persians in Asia andover the allied Thebans and Athenians at Coronea, but defeated byEpaminondas at Mantinea after a campaign in Egypt; _d_. 360 B. C. , aged84. 

AGGAS, RALPH, a surveyor and engraver of the 16th century, who firstdrew a plan of London as well as of Oxford and Cambridge. 

AGGLUTINATE LANGUAGES, languages composed of parts which are wordsglued together, so to speak, as cowherd. 

AGINCOURT`, a small village in Pas-de-Calais, where Henry V. In abloody battle defeated the French, Oct. 25, 1415. 

A`GIS, the name of several Spartan kings, of whom the most famouswere Agis III. And IV. , the former famous for his resistance to theMacedonian domination, _d_. 330 B. C. ; and the latter for his attempts tocarry a law for the equal division of land, _d_. 240 B. C. 

AGLAIA. See GRACES. 

AG`NADEL, a Lombard village, near which Louis XII. Defeated theVenetians in 1509, and Vendôme, Prince Eugène in 1705. 

AGNA`NO, LAKE OF, a lake near Naples, now drained; occupied thecrater of an extinct volcano, its waters in a state of constantebullition. 

AGNELLO, COL D', passage by the S. Of Monte Viso between France andItaly. 

AGNES, an unsophisticated maiden in Molière's _L'École des Femmes_, so unsophisticated that she does not know what love means. 

AGNES, ST. , a virgin who suffered martyrdom, was beheaded becausethe flames would not touch her body, under Diocletian in 303; representedin art as holding a palm-branch in her hand and a lamb at her feet or inher arms. Festival, Jan. 21. 

AGNES DE MÉRANIE, the second wife of Philip Augustus by a marriagein 1193, declared null by the Church, who, being dismissed inconsequence, died broken-hearted in 1201. 

AGNES SOREL, surnamed _Dame de beauté_, mistress of Charles VII. OfFrance (1409-1450). 

AGNE`SI, MARIA GÆTANA, a native of Milan, a woman of extraordinaryability and attainments, prelected for her father in mathematics in theUniversity of Bologna under sanction of the Pope; died a nun at herbirthplace (1718-1799). 

AG`NI, the god of fire in the Vedic mythology, begets the gods, organises the world, produces and preserves universal life, andthroughout never ceases to be fire. One of the three terms of the Vedictrinity, Soma and Indra being the other two. 

AGNOLO, a Florentine artist, friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael, distinguished for his carvings in wood (1460-1543). 

AGNOSTICISM, the doctrine which disclaims all knowledge of thesupersensuous, or denies that we know or can know the absolute, theinfinite, or God. 

AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross as a symbol ofChrist, or a medal with this device; also a prayer in the Mass beginningwith the words, "Lamb of God. "

AGONIC LINE, line along which the needle points due north and south. 

AGORA, the forum of a Grecian town. 

AGOS`TA, a city on east coast of Sicily. 

AGOULT, COUNTESS OF, a French authoress under the pseudonym ofDaniel Stern (1805-1876). 

AGOUST, CAPT. DE, a "cast-iron" captain of the Swiss Guards, who onMay 4, 1788, by order of the Court of Versailles, marched the Parliamentof Paris out of the Palais de Justice and carried off the key. SeeCARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION, " BK. I. CHAP. VIII. 

AGOU`TI, a rodent, native of Brazil, Paraguay, and Guiana; verydestructive to roots and sugar-canes. 

A`GRA (168), a handsome city on the Jumna, in NW. Province of India, famous for, among other monuments, the Taj Mahal, a magnificent mausoleumerected near it by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favouritewife; it is a centre of trade, and seat of manufactures of Indian wares. 

AG`RAM, (37), a Hungarian town, the capital of Croatia, with a fineGothic cathedral and a university; is subject to earthquakes. 

AGRARIAN LAWS, laws among the Romans regulating the division oflands. 

AGRIC`OLA, a Roman general, father-in-law of Tacitus, who conqueredGreat Britain in 80, recalled by the Emperor Domitian in 87, and retiredinto private life (37-93). 

AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a follower and friend of Luther, who became hisantagonist in the matter of the binding obligation of the law onChristians (1492-1566). 

AGRICOLA, RUDOLPHUS, a learned and accomplished Dutchman, muchesteemed by Erasmus, and much in advance of his time; his most importantwork, "Dialectics, " being an attack on the scholastic system (1442-1485). 

AGRIGEN`TUM, an ancient considerable city, now Girgenti, on the S. Of Sicily, of various fortune, and still showing traces of its ancientgrandeur. 

AGRIPPA, H. CORNELIUS, a native of Cologne, of noble birth, for sometime in the service of Maximilian, but devoted mainly to the study of theoccult sciences, which exposed him to various persecutions through life(1486-1535). 

AGRIPPA, HEROD. See HEROD. 

AGRIP`PA, M. VIPSANIUS, a Roman general, the son-in-law andfavourite of Augustus, who distinguished himself at the battle of Actium, and built the Pantheon of Rome (63-12 B. C. ). 

AGRIPPI`NA, the daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, and thusthe granddaughter of Augustus; married Germanicus, accompanied him in hiscampaigns, and brought his ashes to Rome on his death, but was banishedfrom Rome by Tiberius, and _d_. In 33. 

AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Germanicus and the former, born atCologne, and the mother of Nero. Her third husband was her uncle, theEmperor Claudian, whom she got to adopt her son, and then poisoned him, in order to place her son on the throne; but the latter, resenting herintolerable ascendancy, had her put to death in 59. 

AGTELEK, a village NE. Of Pesth, in Hungary with vast stalactitecaverns, some of them of great height. 

AGUA`DO, A. M. , an enormously wealthy banker of Spanish-Jewishdescent, born in Seville, and naturalised in France (1784-1842). 

AGUAS CALIENTES (31), a high-lying inland trading town in Mexico. 

AGUE-CHEEK, SIR ANDREW, a silly squire in "Twelfth Night. "

AGUESSEAU`, D', a French magistrate under Louis XIV. And Louis XV. , of unimpeachable integrity and unselfish devotion, a learned jurist andlaw reformer, and held high posts in the administration of justice(1668-1751). 

AGUILAR, GRACE, a Jewess, born at Hackney; authoress of "MagicWreath, " "Home Influence, " "Vale of Cedars"; of a delicate constitution, died young (1816-1847). 

A`GULHAS, CAPE (i. E. The Needles), the most southerly point ofAfrica, 100 m. ESE. Of the Cape, and along with the bank of the wholesouth coast, dangerous to shipping. 

A`HAB, a king of Israel fond of splendour, and partial to theworship of Baal (918-896 B. C. ). 

AHASUE`RUS, a traditionary figure known as the Wandering Jew; alsothe name of several kings of Persia. 

AHAZ, a king of Judah who first brought Judea under tribute toAssyria. 

AHLDEN, CASTLE OF, a castle in Lüneburg Heath, the nearly lifelongprison-house of the wife of George I. And the mother of George II. And ofSophie Dorothea of Prussia. 

AHMADABAD (148), a chief town of Guzerat, in the Bombay Presidency, a populous city and of great splendour in the last century, of whichgorgeous relics remain. 

AHMED, a prince in the "Arabian Nights, " noted for a magic tentwhich would expand so as to shelter an army, and contract so that itcould go into one's pocket. 

AH`MED SHAH, the founder of the Afghan dynasty and the Afghan power(1724-1773). 

AHMEDNUG`AR (41), a considerable Hindu town 122 m. E. Of Bombay. 

AHOLIBAH, prostitution personified. See EZEK. XXIII. 

AHOLIBAMAH, a grand daughter of Cain, beloved by a seraph, who atthe Flood bore her away to another planet. 

AH`RIMAN, the Zoroastrian impersonation of the evil principle, towhom all the evils of the world are ascribed. 

AIDAN, ST. , the archbishop of Lindisfarne, founder of the monastery, and the apostle of Northumbria, sent thither from Iona on the invitationof King Oswald in 635. 

AIGNAN, St. , the bishop of Orleans, defended it against Attila andhis Huns in 451. 

AIGUILLON, DUKE D', corrupt minister of France, previously undertrial for official plunder of money, which was quashed, at the corruptcourt of Louis XV. , and the tool of Mme. Du Barry, with whom he rose andfell (1720-1782). 

AIKIN, DR. JOHN, a popular writer, and author, with Mrs. Barbauld, his sister, of "Evenings at Home" (1747-1822). 

AIKMAN, W. , an eminent Scotch portrait-painter (1682-1731). 

AILLY, PIERRE D', a cardinal of the Romish Church, and eminent as atheologian, presided at the council of Constance which condemned Huss(1350-1420). 

AILSA CRAIG, a rocky islet of Ayrshire, 10 m. NW. Of Girvan, 2 m. Incircumference, which rises abruptly out of the sea at the mouth of theFirth of Clyde to a height of 1114 ft. 

AIMARD, GUSTAVE, a French novelist, born in Paris; died insane(1818-1883). 

AIMÉ, ST. , archbishop of Sens, in France; _d_. 690; festival, 13thSept. 

AIN, a French river, has its source in the Jura Mts. , and falls intothe Rhône; also a department of France between the Rhône and Savoy. 

AINMILLER, a native of Münich, the reviver of glass-painting inGermany (1807-1870). 

AI`NOS, a primitive thick-set, hairy race, now confined to Yezo andthe islands N. Of Japan, aboriginal to that quarter of the globe, andfast dying out. 

AINSWORTH, R. , an English Latin lexicographer (1660-1743). 

AINSWORTH, W. H. , a popular English novelist, the author of"Rookwood" and "Jack Sheppard, " as well as novels of an antiquarian andhistorical character (1805-1882). 

AIN-TAB (20), a Syrian garrison town 60 m. NE. Of Aleppo; trade inhides, leather, and cotton. 

AIRD, THOMAS, a Scottish poet, author of the "Devil's Dream, " the"Old Bachelor, " and the "Old Scotch Village"; for nearly 30 years editorof the _Dumfries Herald_ (1802-1876). 

AIRDRIE (19), a town in Lanarkshire, 11 m. E. Of Glasgow, in adistrict rich in iron and coal; is of rapid growth; has cotton-mills, foundries, etc. 

AIRDS MOSS, a moor in Ayrshire, between the rivers Ayr and Lugar. 

AIRE, a Yorkshire river which flows into the Ouse; also a Frenchriver, affluent of the Aisne. 

AIRY, SIR G. B. , an eminent English astronomer, mathematician, andman of science, astronomer-royal from 1836 to 1881, retired on a pension;was the first to enunciate the complete theory of the rainbow. 

AISNE, a French river which, after a course of 150 m. , falls intothe Oise near Compiègne; also a department in the N. Of France. 

AÏSSE, MLLE. , a Circassienne brought to France about 1700; leftletters on French society in the eighteenth century, sparkling with witand full of interest. 

AITON, WM. , a botanist, born in Lanarkshire, the first director ofthe Royal Gardens at Kew (1731-1793). 

AITZEMA, LEO, historian of Friesland (1600-1669). 

AIX (22), a town, the ancient capital of Provence, 20 m. N. OfMarseilles, the seat of an archbishop and a university; founded by theRomans 123 B. C. ; near it Marius defeated the Teutons. 

AIX, ISLE OF, island in the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Charente. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE` (103), in Rhenish Prussia, one of the oldest citiesin Germany, made capital of the German empire by Charlemagne; derives itsname from its mineral springs; is a centre of manufacturing industriesand an important trade; is celebrated for its octagonal cathedral (in themiddle of which is a stone marking the burial-place of Charlemagne), fortreaties of peace in 1668 and 1748, and for a European congress in 1818. 

AIX-LES-BAINS`, a small town near Chambéry, in the dep. Of Savoy, and much frequented by invalids for its waters and baths. 

AJAC`CIO (18), the capital of Corsica, the birthplace of theBonaparte family, of Cardinal Fesch, and Bacciochi. 

AJALON, VALLEY OF, in Palestine, scene of a battle between Joshuaand five Canaanitish kings, during which the sun and moon stood still atthe prayer of Joshua, to enable him to finish his victory. 

A`JAN COAST, a district on the E. Coast of Africa, from CapeGuardafui to the mouth of the Juba, under the protectorate of Germany. 

A`JAX the name of two Greek heroes in the Trojan war, and thesynonym of a fiery and impetuous warrior: AJAX, the son of Telamonof Sparta, one of the bravest of the Greeks, who, on the death ofAchilles, contended with Ulysses for his arms, but was defeated, inconsequence of which he lost his reason and put an end to his life; andAJAX, the son of Oïleus, swift of foot, like Achilles, who sufferedshipwreck on his homeward voyage, as a judgment for an outrage heperpetrated on the person of Cassandra in the temple of Athena in Troy. 

AJMERE` (68), a city in a small territory in the heart of Rajputana, under the rule of the Viceroy; well built, and contains some famousedifices. 

AJODHYA, an ancient city of Oudh, 77 m. E. Of Lucknow, once, onreligious grounds, one of the largest and most magnificent cities ofIndia, now in ruins; the modern town is an insignificant place, but hasan annual fair, attended by often 600, 000 pilgrims. 

AK`ABA, a gulf forming the NE. Inlet of the Red Sea. 

AKAKIA, DOCTOR, a satire of a very biting nature by Voltaire, directed against pretentious pedants of science in the person ofMaupertuis, the President of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, which so excited the anger of Frederick the Great, the patron of theAcademy, that he ordered it to be burnt by the common hangman, after30, 000 copies of it had been sold in Paris!

AKAKIA, MARTIN, physician of Francis I. , born at Châlons-sur-Marne, his real name being Sans-Malice; _d_. 1551. 

AK`BAR, the great Mogul emperor of India, who, after a minority of afew years, assumed the reins of government at the age of eighteen, and inten or twelve years, such was his power of conquest, had the whole ofIndia north of the Vindhya Mts. Subject to his rule. He was wise ingovernment as well as powerful in war, and one of the most large-mindedand largest-hearted rulers recorded in history. He reigned half a century(1542-1605). 

AKENSIDE, MARK, an English physician, who wrote, among otherproductions and pieces, the "Hymn to the Naiads, " especially a poementitled the "Pleasures of Imagination, " much quoted from at one time, and suggested by the study of Addison on the Imagination in the_Spectator_ (1721-1770). 

AKERS, B. P. , an able American sculptor (1825-1861). 

AKERMAN` (55), a fortified town in Bessarabia, at the mouth of theDniester. 

AKIBA, BEN JOSEPH, a famous Jewish rabbi of the 2nd century, a greatauthority in the matter of Jewish tradition, flayed alive by the Romansfor being concerned in a revolt in 135. 

AKKAS, a wandering race of negro dwarfs in Central Africa, withlarge heads and slender necks, who live by hunting. 

AKRON (27), a town in Ohio, U. S. , seat of manufactures and centreof traffic. 

AKSAKOF`, a Russian littérateur and advocate of Panslavism(1823-1886). 

AKSU (20), a trading town in E. Turkestan, 250 m. NE. Of Yarkand. 

AK`YAB (37), the capital of Aracan, in British Burmah, 90 m. SE. OfCalcutta. 

AL RAKIM, the dog that guarded the SEVEN SLEEPERS (q. V. ), and that stood by them all through their long sleep. 

ALABA`MA (1, 513), one of the United States of N. America, traversedby a river of the name, a little larger than England, highly fertile anda great cotton-growing country, and abounding in iron, coal, and marble, bounded on the W. By the Mississippi, on the N. By Tennessee, and the E. By Georgia. 

ALABAMA, THE, a vessel built in Birkenhead for the Confederates inthe late American Civil War, for the devastation done by which, accordingto the decision of a court of arbitration, the English Government had topay heavy damages of three millions of money. 

ALACOQUE, MARIE, a French nun of a mystic tendency, the founder ofthe devotion of the Sacred Heart (1647-1690). 

ALAD`DIN, one of the chiefs of the Assassins in the 13th century, better known by the name of the Old Man of the Mountain. 

ALADDIN, a character in the "Arabian Nights, " who became possessedof a wonderful lamp and a wonderful ring, by rubbing which together hecould call two evil genii to do his bidding. 

ALADINISTS, free-thinkers among the Mohammedans. 

ALAGO`AS (397), a maritime province of Brazil, N. Of Pernambuco, with tropical products as well as fine timber and dye-woods. 

ALAIN DE L'ISLE, a professor of theology in the University of Paris, surnamed the _Doctor universel_ (1114-1203). 

ALAINS. See ALANS. 

ALAIS` (18), a town at the foot of the Cévennes, in the centre of amining district; once the stronghold of French Protestantism. 

ALAMAN`NI, LUIGI, an Italian poet and diplomatist, born at Florence(1495-1556). 

ALAND ISLES, a group of 300 small islands in the Gulf of Bothnia, ofwhich 80 are inhabited; fortified by Russia. 

ALANS, a barbarous horde from the East, who invaded W. Europe in the4th and 5th centuries, but were partly exterminated and partly ousted bythe Visigoths. 

ALAR`CON Y MENDO`ZA, JUAN RUIZ DE, a Spanish dramatist born inMexico, who, though depreciated by his contemporaries, ranks after 200years of neglect among the foremost dramatic geniuses of Spain, next evento Cervantes and Lope de Vega; he was a humpback, had an offensive air ofconceit, and was very unpopular; he wrote at least twenty dramas, some ofwhich have been translated into French; _d_. In 1639. 

AL`ARIC I. , the king of the Visigoths, a man of noble birth, who, atthe end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century, ravaged Greece, invaded Italy, and took and pillaged Rome; died at Cosenza, in Calabria, in 412, at the early age of thirty-four. 

ALARIC II. , king of the Visigoths, whose dominions included all Gauland most of Spain; defeated by the Franks at Poitiers, and killed by thehand of Clovis, their king, in 567. 

ALARIC COTIN, Voltaire's nickname for Frederick the Great, theformer in recognition of him as a warrior, the latter as a would-belittérateur, after an indifferent French poet of the name of Cotin. 

ALAS`CO, JOHN, the uncle of Sigismund, king of Poland, and a zealouspromoter in Poland of the Reformation, the friend of Erasmus andZwinglius (1499-1560). 

ALAS`KA (32), an immense territory belonging to the U. S. Bypurchase from Russia, extending from British N. America to BehringStrait; it is poor in resources, and the inhabitants, who are chieflyIndians and Eskimos, live by hunting and fishing, and by the export ofsalmon; seal fishery valuable, however. 

ALASNAM, a hero related of in the "Arabian Nights" as having erectedeight statues of gold, and in quest of a statue for a ninth unoccupiedpedestal, finding what he wanted in the person of a beautiful woman for awife. 

ALAS`TOR, an avenging spirit, given to torment families whosehistory has been stained by some crime. 

A`LAVA (97), the southernmost of the three Basque provinces ofSpain, largest, but least populous; rich in minerals, and fertile insoil. 

ALAVA, RICARDO DE, a Spanish general, born in Vittoria, joined thenational party, and was aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, andbecame eventually ambassador to London and Paris (1771-1843). 

ALBA LONGA, a city of Latium older than Rome. 

ALBACETE (229), a province in Spain, with a capital (30) of samename, 173 m. SE. Of Madrid. 

ALBAN LAKE, near Alban Mount, 6 m. In circuit, occupying the basinof an extinct volcano, its surface 961 ft. Above the sea-level. 

ALBAN MOUNT, a small mountain overlooking Alba Longa. 

ALBAN, ST. , the first martyr in Britain to the Christian faith in303; represented in art as carrying his head between his hands, havingbeen beheaded. 

ALBA`NI, an Italian painter, a disciple of Caracci, born at Bologna;surnamed the Anacreon of painting; his pictures more distinguished forgrace than vigour. 

ALBA`NI, an illustrious Roman family, members of which attained thehighest dignities in the Church, one, Clement XI. , having been Pope. 

ALBANI, MME. , _née_ Emma la Jeunesse, a well-known and highlypopular operatic singer of French-Canadian descent; _b_. 1847. 

ALBA`NIA, a region in Balkan peninsula, on the Adriatic, extendingfrom Servia to Greece. 

ALBANO, LAKE OF, a small crater-like lake 15 m. SE. Of Rome, nearwhich rises the Castel Gandolfo, where the Pope has a villa. 

ALBANY, the old Celtic name for the Scottish highlands. 

ALBANY, a town in W. Australia, on King George Sound, 261 m. SE. OfPerth, a port of call for Australian liners; also the capital (94) of theState of New York, on the Hudson River, a well-appointed city; seat ofjustice for the State, with a large trade and numerous manufactures. 

ALBANY, COUNTESS OF, wife of English pretender, Prince CharlesStuart, a dissolute woman (1753-1824). 

ALBANY, THE DUKE OF, a title formerly given to a member of the royalfamily, and revived in the present reign. 

ALBANY, DUCHESS OF, daughter of Prince Waldeck Pyrmont and widow ofPrince Leopold of England; _b_. 1861, widow since 1884. 

ALBATEGNI, a distinguished Arabian astronomer, born in Mesopotamiain the 9th or 10th century of our era; his observations extended over 50years; he so improved the methods and instruments of observation as toearn the title of the Ptolemy of the Arabs. 

ALBATROSS, the largest and strongest of sea-birds, that ranges overthe southern seas, often seen far from land; it is a superstition amongsailors that it is disastrous to shoot one. 

ALBERO`NI, an Italian of humble birth, became a Cardinal of theChurch and Prime Minister to Philip V. Of Spain, wrought hard to restoreSpain to its ancient grandeur, was defeated in his project by thequadruple alliance of England, France, Austria, and Holland, and obligedto retire (1664-1752). 

ALBERT, archbishop of Mainz, a dignity granted him by Pope Leo X. Atthe ransom of £15, 000, which he was unable to pay, and which, as thePope needed it for building St. Peter's, he borrowed, the Pope grantinghim the power to sell indulgences in order to repay the loan, in whichtraffic Tetzel was his chief salesman, a trade which roused the wrath ofLuther, and provoked the German Reformation (1450-1545). 

ALBERT, the last Grandmaster of the Teutonic knights, who being"religious in an eminent degree and shaken in his belief" took zealouslyto Protestantism and came under the influence of Luther, who advised himto declare himself Duke of Prussia, under the wing of Sigismund ofPoland, in defiance of the Teutonic order as no longer worthy of bed andboard on the earth, and so doing, became founder of the Prussian State(1490-1568). 

ALBERT, markgrave of Brandenburg, defined by Carlyle "a failure of aFritz, " with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burntaway his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the ableeditors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of itwildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change offortune he underwent" (1522-1557). 

ALBERT, PRINCE, second son of Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, born Aug. 26, 1819, an accomplished man with a handsome presence, whobecame the consort of Queen Victoria in 1840, and from his prudence andtact was held in the highest honour by the whole community, but died atWindsor of typhoid fever, Dec. 14, 1861, to the unspeakable sorrow ofboth Queen and country. 

ALBERT, ST. , bishop of Liège, was assassinated by the emissaries ofthe Emperor Henry VI. In 1195. Festival, Nov. 21. 

ALBERT EDWARD. See WALES, PRINCE OF. 

ALBERT I. , emperor of Germany from 1298 to 1308, eldest son ofRudolf of Hapsburg, "a most clutching, strong-fisted, dreadfully hungry, tough, and unbeautiful man, whom his nephew at last had to assassinate, and did assassinate, as he crossed the river Reuss with him in a boat, May 1, 1308. "

ALBERT II. , a successor, "who got three crowns--Hungary, Bohemia, and the Imperial--in one year, and we hope a fourth, " says the oldhistorian, "which was a heavenly and eternal one, " for he died the nextyear, 1439. 

ALBERT III. , elector of Brandenburg. See ACHILLES OF GERMANY. 

ALBERT MEDAL, a medal of gold and of bronze, instituted in 1866, awarded to civilians for acts of heroism by sea or land. 

ALBERT THE BEAR, markgrave of Brandenburg, called the Bear, "notfrom his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from thecognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as astrong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crookedthings, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, aconspicuous country ever since, " says Carlyle, "and which grows more soin our late times" (1100-1175). 

ALBERT NYAN`ZA, a lake in Equatorial Africa, in the Nile basin, discovered by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, 150 m. Long by 40 broad, and 2500feet above sea-level. 

ALBER`TA (26), a fertile region with large forests in BritishAmerica, on the E. Slope of the Rocky Mountains, the south abounding incattle ranches, and the mountainous districts in minerals. 

ALBERTI, an illustrious Florentine family, rivals of the Medicis andthe Albrizzi. 

ALBER`TUS MAGNUS, one of the greatest of the scholastic philosophersand theologians of the Middle Ages, teacher of Thomas Aquinas, supreme inknowledge of the arts and sciences of the time, and regarded by hiscontemporaries in consequence as a sorcerer (1190-1280). 

ALBI, a town of some antiquity and note in S. Of France, 22 m. NE. Of Toulouse. 

ALBIGEN`SES, a religious sect, odious, as heretical, to the Church, which sprung up about Albi, in the S. Of France, in the 12th century, against which Pope Innocent III. Proclaimed a crusade, which was carriedon by Simon de Montfort in the 13th century, and by the Inquisitionafterwards, to their utter annihilation. 

ALBINOS, persons or animals with preternaturally pale skin and fairhair, also with pupils of a red or pink colour, and eyes too weak to bearfull light. 

ALBINUS, an able professor of anatomy and therapeutics at Leyden(1696-1770). 

ALBION, a white cliff, the ancient name of Great Britain. 

ALBOIN, king of the Lombards in the 6th century, from 561 to 573;invaded Italy as far as the Tiber, and set up his capital in Pavia;incurred the resentment of his wife, who had him assassinated for forcingher to drink wine out of the skull of her father. 

ALBORAK, a wonderful horse of Mahomet, an impersonation of thelightning as his steed. 

ALBOR`NOZ, a Spanish statesman, archbishop of Toledo, a bolddefender of the faith against the Moor and a plain-spoken man in theinterest of Christianity (1310-1367). 

ALBRECHT. See ALBERT. 

ALBRIZZI, a powerful Florentine family, rivals of the Medicis andthe Alberti. 

ALBUE`RA, a Spanish village 12 m. SE. Of Badajoz, scene of a victory(May 16, 1811) of General Beresford over Marshal Soult. 

ALBUFE`RA, a lake on the coast of Spain, 7 m. S. Of Valencia, nearwhich Marshal Suchet gained a victory over the English in 1811. 

AL`BULA, Swiss mountain pass in the canton of Grisons, 7595 ft. High. 

ALBUMEN, a glairy substance a constituent of plants and animals, andfound nearly pure in the white of an egg or in the serum of the blood. 

ALBUQUERQUE`, ALFONSO D', a celebrated Portuguese patriot andnavigator, the founder of the Portuguese power in India, who, aftersecuring a footing in India for Portugal that he sought for, settled inGoa, where his recall at the instance of jealous rivals at home gave himsuch a shock that he died of a broken heart just as he was leaving. TheIndians long remembered his benign rule, and used to visit his tomb topray him to deliver them from the oppression of his successors(1453-1513). 

ALBYN, ancient Celtic name of Scotland. 

ALCÆ`US OF MITYLENE, a Greek lyric poet, an aristocrat by birth, acontemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, and much admired by Horace;flourished about 600 B. C. 

ALCA`LA DE HENA`RES (14), a town in Spain, the birthplace ofCervantes, 21 m. E. Of Madrid, long the seat of a famous universityfounded by Cardinal Ximenes. 

ALCAN`TARA, a town of Spain, on the Tagus, near Portugal, with abridge of six arches, 670 ft. Long and 210 ft. High, built in honour ofTrajan in 104. The Order of Alcantara, a religious and military order, was established in 1176 here, for defence against the Moors, and wassuppressed in 1835. 

ALCESTE, the chief character in Molière's _Misanthrope_. 

ALCES`TIS, the wife of Admetus, who gave herself up to death to saveher husband. Hercules descended to the lower world and brought her back. She is the subject of one of the tragedies of Euripides. 

ALCHEMY, the early analysis of substances which has in modern timesdeveloped into chemistry, and which aimed chiefly at the discovery of thephilosopher's stone, of a universal solvent, and of the elixir of life;it has been defined to be "an art without art, which has its beginning infalsehood, its middle in toil, and its end in poverty. "

ALCIBI`ADES, an Athenian of high birth, and related to Pericles, possessed of a handsome person, brilliant abilities, and great wealth, but was of a wayward temper and depraved, whom Socrates tried hard to winover to virtue, but failed. He involved his country in a rash expeditionagainst Sicily, served and betrayed it by turns in the Peloponnesian war, and died by assassination in exile (450-404 B. C. ). 

ALCI`DES, the grandson of Alcæus, a patronymic of Hercules. 

ALCIN`OUS, a king of the Phæacians, the father of Nausicaa, whofigures in the Odyssey as the host of Ulysses, who had been shipwreckedon his shore. 

ALCI`RA (18), a walled town in Spain, on an island 22 m. SW. OfValencia. 

ALCMAN, an early Greek lyric poet, born at Sardis. 

ALCME`NE, the wife of Amphitryon and the mother of Hercules. 

ALCMEONIDÆ, a powerful Athenian family, of which Pericles andAlcibiades were members, who professed to be descended from Alcmæon, thegrandson of Nestor. 

ALCOCK, JOHN, an eminent ecclesiastic of the reign of Edward IV. , distinguished for his love of learning and learned men; _d_. 1500. 

ALCOHOL, pure or highly rectified spirit obtained from fermentedsaccharine solutions by distillation, and the intoxicating principle ofall spirituous liquors. 

ALCOHOLISM, the results, acute or chronic, of the deleterious actionof alcohol on the human system. 

ALCORAN`. See KORÂN. 

ALCOTT, LOUISA MARY, a popular American authoress, who acted as anurse to the wounded during the Civil War; her works mostly addressed tothe young (1832-1888). 

ALCOY (30), a town in Spain, N. Of Alicanti; staple manufacture, paper. 

AL`CUIN, a learned Englishman, a disciple of Bede; invited byCharlemagne to introduce scholarly culture into the empire and establishlibraries and schools of learning; was one of those men whose work liesmore in what they influence others to do than in what they do themselves(735-804). 

ALCY`ONE, daughter of Æolus, who threw herself into the sea afterher husband, who had perished in shipwreck, and was changed into thekingfisher. 

ALDE`BARAN, the bull's-eye, a star of the first magnitude in the eyeof the constellation Taurus; it is the sun in the Arabian mythology. 

ALDEHYDE, a limpid, very volatile liquid, of a suffocating odour, obtained from the oxidation of alcohol. 

AL`DERNEY (2), one of the Channel Islands, 3 or 4 m. Long by 2broad, celebrated for its breed of cows; separated from Cape de la Hogueby the dangerous Race of Alderney. 

AL`DERSHOT, a permanent camp, established in 1855, for instructionin military manoeuvres, on a moorland 35 m. SW. Of London. 

ALDINE EDITIONS, editions, chiefly of the classics, issued from thepress of Aldus Manutius in Venice in the 16th century, and remarkable forthe correctness of the text and the beauty and clearness of the printing. 

ALDINGAR, SIR, legendary character, the steward of Eleanor, wife ofHenry II. , who accused her of infidelity, and offered to substantiate thecharge by combat, when an angel in the form of a child appeared andcertified her innocence. 

ALDOBRANDINI, a Florentine jurisconsult (1500-1558). 

AL`DRED, bishop of Worcester in the reign of Edward the Confessor, made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, became archbishop of York, and crownedthe last of the Saxon and the first of the Norman kings of England; _d_. 1063. 

AL`DRICH, dean of Oxford, an accomplished ecclesiastic; was askilful musician, and composed many services for the Church; wrote asystem of logic, long in use in Oxford University (1647-1710). 

ALDROVAN`DI, ULYSSES, a famous Italian naturalist of Bologna, whocollected an immense body of interesting facts in natural history, published partly in his lifetime and partly after his death (1522-1607). 

ALDUS MANUTIUS, or ALDO MANUZIO, an Italian printer, born atBassano, established a printing-office in Venice in 1488, issued thecelebrated Aldine Editions of the classics, and invented the italic type, for the exclusive use of which for many years he obtained a patent, though the honour of the invention is more probably due to histypefounder, Franciso de Bologna, than to him (1447-1515). 

ALEC`TO, one of the three Eumenides or Furies. 

ALEMAN`, a Spanish novelist, author of the celebrated romance_Guzman de Alfarache_, which in 6 years ran through 26 editions, wastranslated several times into French; died in Mexico in 1610. 

ALEMAN`NI, a confederacy of tribes which appeared on the banks ofthe Rhine in the 3rd cent. , and for long gave no small trouble to Rome, but whose incursions were arrested, first by Maximinus, and finally byClovis in 496, who made them subject to the Franks, hence the modernnames in French for Germany and the Germans. 

ALEMTE`JO (369), a southern province of Portugal; soil fertile tothe east. 

ALENÇON (17), a town in the dep. Of Orne, 105 m. W. Of Paris, oncefamous for its lace. 

ALENÇON, COUNTS AND DUKES OF, a title borne by several members ofthe house of Valois--e. G. CHARLES OF VALOIS, who fell at Crécy(1346); JEAN IV. , who fell at Agincourt (1415). 

ALEP`PO (130), a city in Northern Syria, one of the finest in theEast, once one of the greatest trading centres in the world. 

ALE`SIA, a strong place in the E. Of Gaul, which, as situated on ahill and garrisoned by 80, 000 Gauls, cost Cæsar no small trouble to take. 

ALESIUS, or ALANE, a noted Reformer, born in Edinburgh, converted to Protestantism by Patrick Hamilton; was driven first fromScotland and then from England, till he settled as a theologicalprofessor in Germany, and took an active part in the Reformation there(1500-1563). 

ALESSANDRIA (78), a strongly fortified and stirring town on theTenaro, in Northern Italy, the centre of 8 railways, 55 m. SE. Of Turin. 

ALESSI, architect, born at Perugia, architect of the monastery andchurch of the ESCURIAL, q. V. (1500-1572). 

ALETSCH GLACIER, THE, the largest of the glaciers of the Alps, whichdescends round the south of the Jungfrau into the valley of the UpperRhône. 

ALEU`TIAN ISLANDS (2) a chain of volcanic islands, 150 in number, stretching over the N. Pacific from Alaska in N. America, to Kamchatka, in Asia. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the king of Macedonia, son of Philip byOlympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus; born at Pella, 356 B. C. ; had the philosopher Aristotle for tutor, and being instructedby him in all kinds of serviceable knowledge, ascended the throne on thedeath of his father, at the age of 20; after subduing Greece, had himselfproclaimed generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians, and in 2years after his accession crossed the Hellespont, followed by 30, 000 footand 5000 horse; with these conquered the army of Darius the Persian atGranicus in 334 and at Issus in 333; subdued the principal cities ofSyria, overran Egypt, and crossing the Euphrates and Tigris, routed thePersians at Arbela; hurrying on farther, he swept everything before him, till the Macedonians refusing to advance, he returned to Babylon, when hesuddenly fell ill of fever, and in eleven days died at the early age of32. He is said to have slept every night with his Homer and his swordunder his pillow, and the inspiring idea of his life, all unconsciouslyto himself belike, is defined to have been the right of Greekintelligence to override and rule the merely glittering barbarity of theEast. 

ALEXANDER, ST. , patriarch of Alexandria from 311 to 326, contributedto bring about the condemnation of Arius at the Council of Nice;festival, Feb 26. 

ALEXANDER, SOLOMON, first Protestant bishop of Jerusalem, of Jewishbirth, cut off during a journey to Cairo (1799-1845). 

ALEXANDER III. , pope, successor to Adrian IV. , an able man, whoseelection Barbarossa at first opposed, but finally assented to; took thepart of Thomas à Becket against Henry II. And canonised him, as also St. Bernard. Pope from 1159 to 1181. 

ALEXANDER VI. , called Borgia from his mother, a Spaniard by birth, obtained the popehood by bribery in 1492 in succession to Innocent VIII. , lived a licentious life and had several children, among others thecelebrated Lucretia and the infamous Cæsar Borgia; _d_. In 1503, after acareer of crime, not without suspicion of poison. In addition toAlexanders III. And VI. , six of the name were popes: Alexander I. , popefrom 108 to 117; Alexander II. , pope from 1061 to 1073; Alexander IV. , pope from 1254 to 1261; Alexander V. , pope from 1409 to 1410; AlexanderVII. , pope from 1653 to 1667, who was forced to kiss his hand to LouisXIV. ; Alexander VIII. , pope from 1689 to 1691. 

ALEXANDER I. , king of Scotland, son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, a vigorous prince, surnamed on that account_The Fierce_; subdued a rising in the North, and stood stoutly in defenceof the independent rights of both Crown and Church against the claim ofsupremacy over both on the part of England; _d_. 1124. 

ALEXANDER II. , of Scotland, successor of William the Lion, hisfather, a just and wise ruler, aided the English barons against John, andmarried Joan, the sister of Henry III. ; _d_. 1249. 

ALEXANDER III. , son of the preceding, married a daughter of HenryIII. , sided with him against the barons, successfully resisted theinvasion of Haco, king of Norway, and on the conclusion of peace gave hisdaughter in marriage to Haco's successor Eric; accidentally killed byfalling over a cliff near Kinghorn when hunting in 1285. 

ALEXANDER I. , emperor of Russia, son and successor of Paul I. , tookpart in the European strife against the encroachments of Napoleon, waspresent at the battle of Austerlitz, fought the French at Pultusk andEylau, was defeated at Friedland, had an interview with Napoleon atTilsit in 1813, entered into a coalition with the other Powers againstFrance, which ended in the capture of Paris and the abdication ofNapoleon in 1814. Under his reign Russia rose into political importancein Europe (1777-1825). 

ALEXANDER II. , emperor of Russia, son and successor of Nicholas I. , fell heir to the throne while the siege of Sebastopol was going on; onthe conclusion of a peace applied himself to reforms in the state and theconsolidation and extension of the empire. His reign is distinguished bya ukase decreeing in 1861 the emancipation of the serfs numbering 23millions, by the extension of the empire in the Caucasus and CentralAsia, and by the war with Turkey in the interest of the Slavs in 1877-78, which was ended by the peace of San Stephano, revised by the treaty ofBerlin. His later years were clouded with great anxiety, owing to thespread of Nihilism, and he was killed by a bomb thrown at him by aNihilist (1818-1881). 

ALEXANDER III. , emperor of Russia, son of the preceding, followed inthe footsteps of his father, and showed a marked disposition to live onterms of peace with the other Powers; his reign not distinguished by anyvery remarkable event. The present Czar is his son and successor(1845-1894). 

ALEXANDER I. , king of Servia, _b_. 1876. 

ALEXANDER NEVSKY, grand-duke of Russia, conquered the Swedes, theDanes, and the Teutonic Knights on the banks of the Neva, freed Russiafrom tribute to the Mongols, is one of the saints of the Russian Church. 

ALEXANDER OF HALES, the _Doctor irrefragabilis_ of the Schools, anEnglish ecclesiastic, a member of the Franciscan order, who in his "SummaUniversæ Theologiæ" formulated, by severe rigour of Aristotelian logic, the theological principles and ecclesiastical rites of the Romish Church;_d_. In 1222. 

ALEXANDER OF PARIS, a Norman poet of the 16th century, who wrote apoem on Alexander the Great in twelve-syllabled lines, called after himAlexandrines. 

ALEXANDER OF THE NORTH, Charles XII. Of Sweden. 

ALEXANDER SEVE`RUS, a Roman emperor, a wise, virtuous, and piousprince, conquered Artaxerxes, king of Persia, in an expedition againsthim, but setting out against the Germans, who were causing trouble on thefrontiers of the empire, fell a victim, along with his mother, to aninsurrection among his troops not far from Mainz (205-235). 

ALEXAN`DRIA (230), a world-famous city, the chief port of Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great in 332 B. C. , at one time a great centreof learning, and in possession of the largest library of antiqueliterature in the world, which was burned by the Caliph Omar in 640; atone time a place of great commerce, but that has very materially decayedsince the opening of the Suez Canal. Alexandria, from its intimateconnection with both East and West, gave birth in early times to aspeculative philosophy which drew its principles from eastern as well aswestern sources, which was at its height on the first encounter of theseelements. 

ALEXANDRIA (14), a town on the Potomac, 7 m. S. Of Washington, accessible to vessels of the largest size; also a thriving town (7) onthe river Leven, 3 m. N. Of Dumbarton. 

ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, an MS. On parchment of the Septuagint Scripturesin Greek in uncial letters, which belonged to the library of thepatriarchs of Alexandra. 

ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, the library burned by the Caliph Omar in 642, said to have contained 700, 000 volumes. 

ALEXANDRI`NA LAKE, a lake in Australia into which the river Murrayflows. 

ALEXANDRINE PHILOSOPHY, a Gnostic philosophy, combining eastern withwestern forms of thought. 

ALEXANDRINES. See ALEXANDER OF PARIS. 

ALEXAN`DROPOL (22), the largest town in the Erivan district ofRussian Armenia, and a fortress of great strength. 

ALEXIS, ST. , the patron saint of beggars and pilgrims, representedin art with a staff and in a pilgrim's habit; sometimes lying on a mat, with a letter in his hand, dying. 

ALEXIS MICHAELOVITCH, czar of Russia, the father of Peter the Great, the first czar who acted on the policy of cultivating friendly relationswith other European states (1630-1677). 

ALEXIS PETROVITCH, son of Peter the Great, conspired against hisfather as he had broken the heart of his mother, was condemned to death;after his trial by secret judges he was found dead in prison (1695-1718). 

ALEXIUS COMNE`NUS, emperor of the East, began life as a soldier, wasa great favourite with the soldiers, who, in a period of anarchy, raisedhim to the throne at the period of the first crusade, when the empire wasinfested by Turks on the one hand and Normans on the other, while thecrusaders who passed through his territory proved more troublesome thaneither. He managed to hold the empire together in spite of thesetroubles, and to stave off the doom that impended all through his reignof thirty-seven years (1048-1118). 

ALFA, an esparto grass valuable for making paper. 

AL`FADUR, the All-Father or uncreated supreme in the Norsemythology. 

ALFARA`BI, an Arabian philosopher of the 10th century, had Avicennafor a disciple, wrote on various subjects, and was the first to attemptan encyclopedic work. 

ALFIE`RI, an Italian dramatist, spent his youth in dissipationbefore he devoted himself to the dramatic art; on the success of hisfirst drama "Cleopatra, " met at Florence with the Countess of Albany, thewife of Charles Edward Stuart, on whose death he married her; was atParis when the Revolution broke out, and returned to Florence, where hedied and was buried. Tragedy was his _forte_ as a dramatist (1749-1803). 

ALFONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables drawn up at Toledo by order ofAlfonso X. In 1252 to correct the anomalies in the Ptolemaic tables; theydivided the year into 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 16 seconds. 

ALFONSO I. , the "Conqueror, " founder of the kingdom of Portugal, wasthe first king, originally only count, as his father before him; in thatcapacity took up arms against the Moors, and defeating them had himselfproclaimed king on the field of battle, a title confirmed to him by thePope and made good by his practically subjecting all Portugal to his sway(1110-1185). 

ALFONSO X. , the Wise, or the Astronomer, king of Castile and Leon, celebrated as an astronomer and a philosopher; after various successesover the Moors, first one son and then another rose against him and drovehim from the throne; died of chagrin at Seville two years later. His fameconnects itself with the preparation of the Alfonsine Tables, and theremark that "the universe seemed a crank machine, and it was a pity theCreator had not taken advice. " It was a saying of his, "old wood to burn, old books to read, old wine to drink, and old friends to converse with"(1226-1284). 

ALFONSO III. , surnamed the Great, king of Asturias, ascended thethrone in 866, fought against and gained numerous victories over theMoors; the members of his family rose against him and compelled him toabdicate, but on a fresh incursion of the Moors he came forth from hisretreat and triumphantly beat them back; died in Zamora, 910. 

ALFORD, HENRY, vicar of Wymeswold and afterwards Dean of Canterbury;his works and writings were numerous, and included poems and hymns. Hisgreat work, however, was an edition of the Greek New Testament, withnotes, various readings, and comments (1810-1871). 

ALFORD, MICHAEL, a learned English Jesuit, left two great works, "Britannia Illustrata" and "Annales Ecclesiastici et CivilesBritannorum. "

ALFRED, DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA, son of Prince Albert andQueen Victoria; _b_. 1844. 

ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Saxons, and the most celebratedand greatest of all the Saxon kings. His troubles were with the Danes, who at the time of his accession infested the whole country north of theThames; with these he fought nine battles with varied success, till aftera lull of some years he was surprised by Gunthrum, then king, in 878, anddriven to seek refuge on the island of Athelney. Not long after this heleft his retreat and engaged Gunthrum at Edington, and after defeatinghim formed a treaty with him, which he never showed any disposition tobreak. After this Alfred devoted himself to legislation, theadministration of government, and the encouragement of learning, being aman of letters himself. England owes much to him both as a man and aruler, and it was he who in the creation of a fleet laid the firstfoundation of her greatness as monarch of the deep. His literary workswere translations of the "General History" of Orosius, the"Ecclesiastical History" of Bede, Boëthius's "Consolations ofPhilosophy, " and the "Cura Pastoralis" of Pope Gregory, all executed forthe edification of his subjects (849-901). 

ALGÆ, sea-weeds and plants of the same order under fresh water aswell as salt; they are flowerless, stemless, and cellular throughout. 

ALGAR`DI, an Italian sculptor of note, born at Bologna; his greatestwork is an alto-relievo, the largest existing, of Pope Leo restrainingAttila from marching on Rome (1602-1654). 

ALGARO`TTI, FRANCESCO, a clever Italian author, born at Venice, whom, for his wit, Frederick the Great was attached to and patronised, "one of the first _beaux esprits_ of the age, " according to Wilhelmina, Frederick's sister. Except his wit, it does not appear Frederick got muchgood out of him, for the want of the due practical faculty, all thefaculty he had having evaporated in talk (1712-1764). 

ALGAR`VE (240), the southernmost province of Portugal, hilly, buttraversed with rich valleys, which yield olives, vines, oranges, &c. 

ALGEBRA, a universal arithmetic of Arabian origin or Arabiantransmission, in which symbols are employed to denote operations, andletters to represent number and quantity. 

ALGE`RIA, in the N. Of Africa, belongs to France, stretches betweenMorocco on the W. And Tripoli and Tunis on the E. , the country beingdivided into the Tell along the sea-coast, which is fertile, the AtlasHighlands overlooking it on the S. , on the southern slopes of which aremarshy lakes called "shotts, " on which alfa grows wild, and the Saharabeyond, rendered habitable here and there by the creation of artesianwells; its extent nearly equal in area to that of France, and thepopulation numbers about four millions, of which only a quarter of amillion is French. The country is divided into Departments, of whichAlgiers, Oran, and Constantine are the respective capitals. It has beensuccessively under the sway of the Carthaginians, the Romans, theVandals, the Arabs, the Byzantines, and the Berbers, which last were inthe 16th century supplanted by the Turks. At the end of this period itbecame a nest of pirates, against whom a succession of expeditions weresent from several countries of Europe, but it was only with the conquestof it by the French in 1830 that this state of things was brought to anend. 

ALGESI`RAS (12), a town and port in Spain on the Bay of Gibraltar, 5m. Across the bay; for centuries a stronghold of the Moors, but takenfrom them by Alfonso IX. After a siege of twenty months. 

ALGIERS` (75), the capital of Algeria, founded by the Arabs in 935, called the "silver city, " from the glistening white of its buildings asseen sloping up from the sea, presenting a striking appearance, was forcenturies under its Bey the head-quarters of piracy in the Mediterranean, which only began to cease when Lord Exmouth bombarded the town anddestroyed the fleet in the harbour. Since it fell into the hands of theFrench the city has been greatly improved, the fortificationsstrengthened, and its neighbourhood has become a frequent resort ofEnglish people in winter. 

ALGINE, a viscous gum obtained from certain sea-weeds, used as sizefor textile fabrics, and for thickening soups and jellies. 

ALGO`A BAY, an inlet at the E. Of Cape Colony, 20 m. Wide, on whichPort Elizabeth stands, 425 m. E. Of the Cape of Good Hope. 

AL`GOL, a double star in the constellation Perseus, of changingbrightness. 

ALGONQUINS, one of the three aboriginal races of N. AmericanIndians, originally occupying nearly the whole region from the Churchilland Hudson Bay southward to N. Carolina, and from the E. Of the RockyMts. To Newfoundland; the language they speak has been divided into fivedialects. 

ALHAM`BRA (Red Castle), an ancient palace and stronghold of theMoorish kings of Granada, founded by Muhammed II. In 1213, decorated withgorgeous arabesques by Usuf I. (1345), erected on the crest of a hillwhich overlooks Granada; has suffered from neglect, bad usage, andearthquake. 

A`LI, the cousin of Mahomet, and one of his first followers at theage of sixteen, "a noble-minded creature, full of affection and fierydaring. Something chivalrous in him; brave as a lion; yet with a grace, atruth and affection worthy of Christian knighthood. " Became Caliph in656, died by assassination in the Mosque at Bagdad; the Sheiks yearlycommemorate his death. See Carlyle's "Heroes. "

ALI BABA. See BABA, ALI. 

A`LI PASHA, pasha of Janina, a bold and crafty Albanian, able man, and notorious for his cruelty as well as craft; alternately gained thefavour of the Porte and lost it by the alliances he formed with hostilepowers, until the Sultan sentenced him to deposition, and sent HassanPasha to demand his head; he offered violent resistance but beingoverpowered at length surrendered, when his head was severed from hisbody and sent to Constantinople (1741-1822). 

ALICAN`TE (40), the third seaport-town in Spain, with a spaciousharbour and strongly fortified, in a province of the same name on theMediterranean. 

ALIGARH` (61), a town with a fort between Agra and Delhi, thegarrison of which mutinied in 1857. 

ALIGHIE`RI, the family name of Dante. 

AL`IMA, an affluent on the right bank of the Congo, in Frenchterritory. 

ALIMENTARY CANAL, a passage 5 or 6 times the length of the body, lined throughout with mucous membrane, extends from the mouth to theanus, and includes mouth, fauces, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and smalland large intestines. 

ALISON, ARCHIBALD, an Episcopal clergyman in Edinburgh, of which hewas a native, best known for his "Essay on the Nature and Principles ofTaste" (1757-1839). 

ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD, son of the preceding, a lawyer who heldseveral prominent legal appointments, and a historian, his great workbeing a "Modern History of Europe from the French Revolution to the Fallof Napoleon, " afterwards extended to the "Accession of Louis Napoleon"(1792-1867). 

ALISON, W. PULTENEY, brother of the preceding, professor of medicinein Edinburgh University, and a philanthropist (1790-1859). 

ALIWAL`, a village in the Punjab, on the Sutlej, where Sir HarrySmith gained a brilliant victory over the Sikhs, who were provided withforces in superior numbers, in 1846. 

AL`KAHEST, the presumed universal solvent of the alchemists. 

ALKALIES, bodies which, combining with acids form salts, are solublein water, and properly four in number, viz. , potash, soda, lithia, andammonia. 

ALKALINE EARTHS, earths not soluble in water, viz. , lime, magnesia, strontia, and baryta. 

ALKALOIDS, bodies of vegetable origin, similar in their properties, as well as toxicologically, to alkalies; contain as a rule carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; many of them are poisonous and invaluablein medicine. 

ALKMAAR` (14), the capital of N. Holland, 25 m. NW. Of Amsterdam, with a large trade in cattle, grain, and cheese. 

ALKMER, HENRIK VAN, the reputed author of the first German versionof "Reynard the Fox. "

ALL THE TALENTS, ADMINISTRATION OF, a ministry formed by LordGrenville on the death of Pitt in 1806. 

AL`LAH, the Adorable, the Arab name for God, adopted by theMohammedans as the name of the one God. 

ALLAHABAD` (175), the City of God, a central city of British India, on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, 550 m. From Calcutta, andon the railway between that city and Bombay. 

ALLAN, DAVID, a Scottish portrait and historical painter, born atAlloa; illustrated Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd"; his greatest work is the"Origin of Painting, " now in the National Gallery at Edinburgh(1744-1796). 

ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished Scottish historical painter, born at Edinburgh, many of his paintings being on national subjects; hewas a friend of Scott, who patronised his work, and in succession toWilkie, president of the Royal Scottish Academy; painted "CircassianCaptives" and "Slave-Market at Constantinople" (1782-1850). 

ALLANTOIS, a membrane enveloping the foetus in mammals, birds, andreptiles. 

ALLARD`, a French general, entered the service of Runjeet Singh atLahore, trained his troops in European war tactics, and served himagainst the Afghans; died at Peshawar (1785-1839). 

ALLEGHA`NY (105), a manufacturing city in Pennsylvania, on the Ohio, opposite Pittsburg, of which it is a kind of suburb. 

ALLEGHA`NY MOUNTAINS, a range in the Appalachian system in U. S. , extending from Pennsylvania to N. Carolina; do not exceed 2400 ft. Inheight, run parallel with the Atlantic coast, and form the watershedbetween the Atlantic rivers and the Mississippi. 

ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION, assigning a higher than a literalinterpretation to the Scripture record of things, in particular the OldTestament story. 

ALLEGORY, a figurative mode of representation, in which a subject ofa higher spiritual order is described in terms of that of a lower whichresembles it in properties and circumstances, the principal subject beingso kept out of view that we are left to construe the drift of it from theresemblance of the secondary to the primary subject. 

ALLEGRI, the family name of Correggio; the name of an Italiancomposer, born at Rome, the author of a still celebrated _Miserere_(1580-1652). 

AL`LEINE, JOSEPH, a Puritan writer, author of a book once, and tosome extent still, much in favour among religious people, entitled "Alarmto the Unconverted" (1632-1674). 

ALLEN, BOG OF, a dreary expanse of bogs of peat E. Of the Shannon, in King's Co. And Kildare, Ireland; LOUGH OF, an expansion of thewaters of the Shannon. 

ALLEN, ETHAN, one of the early champions of American independence, taken prisoner in a raid into Canada; wrote a defence of deism andrational belief (1738-1789). 

ALLEN, GRANT, man of letters, born in Kingston, Canada, 1848, and aprolific writer; an able upholder of the evolution doctrine and anexpounder of Darwinism. 

ALLEN, JOHN, an M. D. Of Scotch birth, and a contributor to the_Edinburgh Review_ (1771-1843). 

ALLEN, WM. , a distinguished chemist and philanthropist, son of aSpitalfields weaver, a member of the Society of Friends, and a devotedpromoter of its principles (1770-1843). 

ALLENTOWN (34), a town on the Lehigh River, 50 m. NW. OfPhiladelphia, the great centre of the iron trade in the U. S. 

ALLE`RION, in heraldry, an eagle with expanded wings, the pointsturned downwards, and without beak or feet. 

ALLEYN, EDWARD, a celebrated actor in the reigns of Elizabeth andJames I. , the founder of Dulwich College, and was voluntarily along withhis wife one of its first beneficiaries and inmates; was a contemporaryof Shakespeare (1566-1626). 

AL`LIA, a stream flowing into the Tiber 11 m. From Rome, where theRomans were defeated by the Gauls under Brennus, 387 B. C. 

ALLIANCE, THE TRIPLE, in 1668, between England, Holland, and Swedenagainst Louis XIV. ; the QUADRUPLE, in 1718, between France, England, Holland, and the Empire to maintain the treaty of Utrecht; the HOLY, in 1815, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia against Liberal ideas; theTRIPLE, in 1872, between Germany, Austria, and Russia, at theinstigation of Bismarck, from which Russia withdrew in 1886, when Italystepped into her place. Under it the signatories in 1887 guarantee theintegrity of their respective territories. 

ALLIER, a confluent of the river Loire, in France, near Nevers; alsothe department through which it flows. 

ALLIES, the name generally given to the confederate Powers who in1814 and 1815 entered France and restored the Bourbons. 

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM, an English clergyman who turned RomanCatholic, and wrote, in defence of the step, among others, the "See ofSt. Peter, the Rock of the Church. "

ALLIGATOR, a N. American fresh-water crocodile, numerous in theMississippi and the lakes and rivers of Louisiana and Carolina; subsistson fish, and though timid, is dangerous when attacked; is slow inturning, however, and its attacks can be easily evaded. 

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM, a poet and journalist, born in Ireland, ofEnglish origin; his most celebrated works are "Day and Night Songs" and"Lawerence Bloomfield in Ireland"; was for a time editor of _Fraser'sMagazine_ (1824-1889). 

ALLMAN, GEORGE J. , M. D. , Emeritus Professor of Natural History inEdinburgh, an eminent naturalist; born in Ireland (1812-1898). 

ALLOA (12), a thriving seaport on north bank of the Forth, inClackmannan, 6 m. Below Stirling, famous for its ale. 

ALLOB`ROGES, a Celtic race troublesome to the Romans, who occupiedthe country between the Rhône and the Lake of Geneva, corresponding toDauphiné and Savoy. 

ALLOPATHY, in opposition to homoeopathy, the treatment of disease byproducing a condition of the system different from or opposite to thecondition essential to the disease to be cured. 

ALLOTROPY, the capability which certain compounds show of assumingdifferent properties and qualities, although composed of identicalelements. 

ALLOWAY, the birthplace of Burns, on the Doon, 2 m. From Ayr, theassumed scene of Tam o' Shanter's adventure. 

ALLOWAY KIRK, a ruin S. Of Ayr, celebrated as the scene of thewitches' dance in "Tam o' Shanter. "

ALL-SAINTS' DAY, the 1st of November, a feast dedicated to all theSaints. 

ALL-SOULS' DAY, a festival on the 2nd November to pray for the soulsof the faithful deceased, such as may be presumed to be still sufferingin Purgatory. 

ALLSPICE, the berry of the pimento, or Jamaica pepper. 

ALLSTON, WASHINGTON, an American painter and poet, whose genius wasmuch admired by Coleridge (1779-1843). 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, half-way between Eupatoria andSebastopol, where the allied English, French, and Turkish armies defeatedthe Russians under Prince Menschikoff, Sept. 20, 1854. 

ALMACK'S, a suite of assembly rooms, afterwards known as Willis'sRooms, where select balls used to be given, admission to which was acertificate of high social standing. 

ALMADEN (9), a town on the northern slope of the Sierra Morena, inSpain, with rich mines of quicksilver. 

ALMA`GRO, DIEGO D', a confederate of Pizzaro in the conquest ofPeru, but a quarrel with the brothers of Pizzaro about the division ofthe spoil on the capture of Cuzco, the capital of Chile, led to hisimprisonment and death (1475-1538). --DIEGO D', his son, who avengedhis death by killing Pizzaro, but being conquered by Vaca de Castro, washimself put to death (1520-1542). 

AL-MAMOUN, the son of HAROUN-EL-RASCHID, the 7th Abbasidecaliph, a great promoter of science and learning; _b_. 833. 

ALMANACH DE GOTHA, a kind of European peerage, published annually byPerthes at Gotha; of late years extended so as to include statesmen andmilitary people, as well as statistical information. 

ALMANSUR, ABU GIAFAR, the 2nd Abbaside caliph and the first of thecaliphs to patronise learning; founded Bagdad, and made it the seat ofthe caliphate; _d_. 775. 

ALMANSUR, ABU MOHAMMED, a great Moorish general in the end of the10th century, had overrun and nearly made himself master of all Spain, when he was repulsed and totally defeated by the kings of Leon andNavarre in 948. 

AL`MA-TAD`EMA, LAURENCE, a distinguished artist of Dutch descent, settled in London; famous for his highly-finished treatment of classicsubjects; _b_. 1836. 

ALMAVIVA, a character in Beaumarchais' _Marriage de Figaro_, representative of one of the old noblesse of France, recalling all theirmanners and vices, who is duped by his valet Figaro, a personification ofwit, talent, and intrigue. 

ALMEIDA, a strong fortress in the province of Beira, on the Spanishfrontier of Portugal. 

ALMEIDA, FRANCESCO, the first Portuguese viceroy of India, a firmand wise governor, superseded by Albuquerque, and killed on his way homeby the Kaffirs at the Cape in 1510. --LORENZO, his son, acting underhim, distinguished himself in the Indian seas, and made Ceylon tributaryto Portugal. 

ALMERIA (37), a chief town and seaport in the S. Of Spain, animportant and flourishing place, next to Granada, under the Moors, and atone time a nest of pirates more formidable than those of Algiers. 

ALMIGHTY DOLLAR, the Almighty whom the Americans are charged withworshipping, first applied to them, it would seem, by Washington Irving. 

ALMOHADES, a Moslem dynasty which ruled in N. Africa and Spain from1129 to 1273. 

ALMO`RA, a high-lying town at the foot of the Himalayas, 85 m. N. OfBareilly. 

ALMORAVIDES, a Moslem dynasty which subdued first Fez and Morocco, and then S. Spain, from 1055 to 1147. 

ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, on the Aln; at the northentrance is Alnwick Castle, the seat of the Duke of Northumberland, oneof the most magnificent structures of the kind in England, and during theBorder wars a place of great strength. 

ALOE, a genus of succulent plants embracing 200 species, themajority natives of S. Africa, valuable in medicine, in particular apurgative from the juice of the leaves of several species. 

ALOES WOOD, the heart of certain tropical trees, which yields afragrant resinous substance and admits of high polish. 

ALOST (25), a Belgian town on the Dender, 19 m. NW. From Brussels, with a cathedral, one of the grandest in Belgium, which contains a famouspainting by Rubens, "St. Roche beseeching Christ to arrest the Plague atAlost. "

ALOYSIUS, ST. , See GONZAGA. 

ALOYSIUS, ST. , an Italian nobleman, who joined the Society of Jesus;canonised for his devotion to the sick during the plague in Rome, towhich he himself fell a victim, June 21, 1591. 

ALPACA, a gregarious ruminant of the camel family, a native of theAndes, and particularly the tablelands of Chile and Peru; is covered witha long soft silky wool, of which textile fabrics are woven; in appearanceresembles a sheep, but is larger in size, and has a long erect neck witha handsome head. 

ALP-ARSLAN (Brave Lion), a sultan of the Seljuk dynasty in Persia, added Armenia and Georgia to his dominions (1030-1072). 

ALPES, three departments in SE. France: the BASSES-A, in NE. Part of Provence, bounded by Hautes-Alpes on the N. And Var on the S. , sterile in the N. , fertile in the S. , cap. Digne; HAUTES-A. , formingpart of Dauphiné, traversed by the Cottian Alps, climate severe, cap. Gap; A. MARITIMES, E. Of the Basses-A. , bordering on Italy and theMediterranean, made up of the territory of Nice, ceded by Italy, and ofMonaco and Var; cap. Nice. 

ALPHE`US, a river in the Peloponnesus, flowing west, with its sourcein Arcadia; also the name of the river-god enamoured of the nymphArethusa, and who pursued her under the sea as far as Sicily, where heovertook her and was wedded to her. 

ALPINE CLUB, a club of English gentlemen devoted to mountaineering, first of all in the Alps, members of which have successfully addressedthemselves to attempts of the kind on loftier mountains. 

ALPINE PLANTS, plants whose natural habitat approaches the line ofperpetual snow. 

ALPS, THE, the vastest mountain system in Europe; form the boundarybetween France, Germany, and Switzerland on the N. And W. , and Italy onthe S. , their peaks mostly covered with perpetual snow, the highest beingMont Blanc, within the frontiers of France. According to height, theyhave been distributed into _Fore, Middle_, and _High:_ the Fore rising tothe limit of trees; the Middle, to the line of perpetual snow; and theHigh, above the snow-line. In respect of range or extent, they have beendistributed into _Western, Middle_, and _Eastern:_ the Western, includingthe Maritime, the Cottian, the Dauphiné, and the Graian, extend from theMediterranean to Mont Blanc; the Middle, including the Pennine andBernese, extend from Mont Blanc to the Brenner Pass; and the Eastern, including the Dolomite, the Julian, and the Dinaric, extend from theBrenner and Hungarian plain to the Danube. These giant masses occupy anarea of 90, 000 sq. M. , and extend from the 44th to the 48th parallel oflatitude. 

ALPUJAR`RAS, a rich and lovely valley which stretches S. From theSierra Nevada in Spain. 

ALRUNA-WIFE, the household goddess of a German family. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE` (1, 640), a territory originally of the Germanempire, ceded to Louis XIV. By the peace of Westphalia in 1648, butrestored to Germany after the Franco-German war in 1870-71, by the peaceof Frankfort; is under a governor general bearing the title of"Statthalter"; is a great wine-producing country, yields cereals andtobacco, its cotton manufacture the most important in Germany. 

ALSA`TIA, Whitefriars, London, which at one time enjoyed theprivilege of a debtors' sanctuary, and had, till abolished in 1697, become a haunt of all kinds of nefarious characters. 

ALSEN (25), a Danish island adjacent to Sleswig, one of the finestin the Baltic, now ceded to Germany. 

AL-SIRAT, the hair-narrow hell-bridge of the Moslem, which everyMohammedan must pass to enter Paradise. 

ALSTEN, an island off the coast of Northland, Norway, with sevensnow-capped hills, called the Seven Sisters. 

ALTAI` MOUNTAINS, in Central Asia, stretching W. From the Desert ofGobi, and forming the S. Boundary of Asiatic Russia, abounding, to theprofit of Russia, in silver and copper, as well as other metals. 

ALTDOR`FER, ALBRECHT, a German painter and engraver, a distinguishedpupil of Albert Dürer, and as a painter, inspired with his spirit; his"Battle of Arbela" adorns the Münich Picture Gallery (1488-1538). 

AL`TEN, KARL AUGUST, a distinguished officer, native of Hanover, whoentered the British service, bore arms under Sir John Moore, was chief ofa division, under Wellington, in the Peninsular war, and closed hismilitary career at the battle of Waterloo (1763-1840). 

AL`TENBURG (33), capital of Saxe-Altenburg, and 4 m. S. Of Leipsic;its castle is the scene of the famous "PRINZENRAUB" (q. V. ), related by Carlyle in his "Miscellanies. "

ALTHEN, a Persian refugee, who introduced into France thecultivation of madder, which became one of the most important products ofthe S. Of France. 

ALTON LOCKE, a novel, by Charles Kingsley, written in sympathy withthe Chartist movement, in which Carlyle is introduced as one of thepersonages. 

ALTO`NA (148), a town and seaport of Sleswig-Holstein, now belongingto Germany, close to Hamburg, on the right bank of the Elbe, andhealthier, and as good as forming one city with it. 

ALTO-RELIEVO, figures carved out of a tablet so as to project atleast one half from its surface. 

AL`TORF, an old town in the canton Uri, at the S. End of the Lake ofLucerne; associated with the story of William Tell; a place of transittrade. 

ALTRUISM, a Comtist doctrine which inculcates sacrifice of self forthe good of others as the rule of human action. 

ALUMBRA`DO, a member of a Spanish sect that laid claim to perfectenlightenment. 

ALURED OF BEVERLEY, an English chronicler of the 12th century; hisannals comprise the history of the Britons, Saxons, and Normans up to hisown time; _d_. 1129. 

ALVA, DUKE OF, a general of the armies of Charles V. And Philip ofSpain; his career as a general was uniformly successful, but as agovernor his cruelty was merciless, especially as the viceroy of Philipin the Low Countries, "very busy cutting off high heads in Brabant, andstirring up the Dutch to such fury as was needful for exploding Spain andhim" (1508-1582). 

ALVARA`DO, PEDRO DE, one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico, andcomrade of Cortez; was appointed Governor of Guatemala by Charles V. As areward for his valiant services in the interest of Spain; was a generousman as well as a brave. 

ALVAREZ, FRANCESCO, a Portuguese who, in the 15th century, visitedAbyssinia and wrote an account of it. 

ALVAREZ, DON JOSÉ, the most distinguished of Spanish sculptors, bornnear Cordova, and patronised by Napoleon, who presented him with a goldmedal, but to whom, for his treatment of his country, he conceived sogreat an aversion, that he would never model a bust of him (1768-1827). 

ALVIANO, an eminent Venetian general, distinguished himself in thedefence of the republic against the Emperor Maximilian (1455-1515). 

AMADEUS, LAKE, a lake in the centre of Australia, subject to analmost total drying-up at times. 

AMADE`US V. , count of Savoy, surnamed the Great from his wisdom andsuccess as a ruler (1249-1323). 

AMADEUS VIII. , 1st duke of Savoy, increased his dominions, andretired into a monastery on the death of his wife; he was elected Pope asFelix V. , but was not acknowledged by the Church (1383-1451). 

AMADEUS I. , of Spain, 2nd son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, electedking of Spain in 1870, but abdicated in 1873 (1845-1890). 

AM`ADIS DE GAUL, a celebrated romance in prose, written partly inSpanish and partly in French by different romancers of the 15th century;the first four books were regarded by Cervantes as a masterpiece. Thehero of the book, Amadis, surnamed the Knight of the Lion, stands for atype of a constant and deferential lover, as well as a modelknight-errant, of whom Don Quixote is the caricature. 

AMADOU, a spongy substance, consisting of slices of certain fungibeaten together, used as a styptic, and, after being steeped insaltpetre, used as tinder. 

AMAIMON, a devil who could he restrained from working evil from thethird hour till noon and from the ninth till evening. 

AMALARIC, king of the Visigoths, married a daughter of Clovis; _d_. 581. 

AMALEKITES, a warlike race of the Sinaitic peninsula, which gavemuch trouble to the Israelites in the wilderness; were as good asannihilated by King David. 

AMAL`FI, a port on the N. Of the Gulf of Salerno, 24 m. SE. OfNaples; of great importance in the Middle Ages, and governed by Doges ofits own. 

AMALFIAN LAWS, a code of maritime law compiled at Amalfi. 

AMA`LIA, ANNA, the Duchess of Weimar, the mother of the grand-duke;collected about her court the most illustrious literary men of the time, headed by Goethe, who was much attached to her (1739-1807). 

AMALRIC, one of the leaders in the crusade against the Albigenses, who, when his followers asked him how they were to distinguish hereticsfrom Catholics, answered, "Kill them all; God will know His own;" _d_. 1225. 

AMALTHE`A, the goat that suckled Zeus, one of whose horns became thecornucopia--horn of plenty. 

AMA`RA SINHA, a Hindu Buddhist, left a valuable thesaurus ofSanskrit words. 

AMA`RI, MICHELE, an Italian patriot, born at Palermo, devoted agreat part of his life to the history of Sicily, and took part in itsemancipation; was an Orientalist as well; he is famous for throwing lighton the true character of the Sicilian Vespers (1806-1889). 

AMARYL`LIS, a shepherdess in one of Virgil's pastorals; any youngrustic maiden. 

AMA`SIA (25), a town in Asia Minor, once the capital of the kings ofPontus. 

AMA`SIS, king of Egypt, originally a simple soldier, took part in aninsurrection, dethroned the reigning monarch and assumed the crown, proved an able ruler, and cultivated alliances with Greece; reigned from570 to 546 B. C. 

AMA`TI, a celebrated family of violin-makers; Andrea and Niccolo, brothers, at Cremona, in the 16th and 17th centuries. 

AMATITLAN (10), a town in Guatemala, the inhabitants of which aremainly engaged in the preparation of cochineal. 

AMAUROSIS, a weakness or loss of vision, the cause of which was atone time unknown. 

AMAZON, a river in S. America and the largest on the globe, itsbasin nearly equal in extent to the whole of Europe; traverses thecontinent at its greatest breadth, rises in the Andes about 50 m. Fromthe Pacific, and after a course of 4000 m. Falls by a delta into theAtlantic, its waters increased by an immense number of tributaries, 20 ofwhich are above 1000 m. In length, one 2000 m. , its mouth 200 m. Wide;its current affects the ocean 150 m. Out; is navigable 3000 m. Up, and bysteamers as far as the foot of the Andes. 

AMAZONS, a fabulous race of female warriors, who had a queen oftheir own, and excluded all men from their community; to perpetuate therace, they cohabited with men of the neighbouring nations; slew all themale children they gave birth to, or sent them to their fathers; burntoff the right breasts of the females, that they might be able to wieldthe bow in war. 

AMBASSADOR, "an honest man sent to lie abroad for the commonwealth"(_Wotton_). 

AMBER, a fossil resin, generally yellow and semi-transparent, derived, it is presumed, from certain extinct coniferous trees; becomeselectric by friction, and gives name to electricity, the Greek word forit being _electron_; has been fished up for centuries in the Baltic, andis now used in varnishes and for tobacco pipes. 

AMBERGER, a painter of Nürnberg in the 16th century, a disciple ofHolbein, his principal work being the history of Joseph in twelvepictures. 

AMBERGRIS, an ashy-coloured odorous substance used in perfumery, presumed to be a morbid fragment of the intestines of the spermacetiwhale, being often found floating on the ocean which it frequents. 

AMBERLEY, LORD, son of Lord John Russell, wrote an "Analysis ofReligious Belief, " which, as merely sceptical, his father took steps tosecure the suppression of, without success. 

AMBLESIDE, a small market-town near the head of Lake Windermere, inthe Wordsworth or so-called Lake District. 

AMBLYOPSIS, a small fish without eyes, found in the MammothCave, U. S. 

AMBOISE (5), a town on the Loire, 14 m. E. Of Tours, with a castle, once the residence of the French kings. The Conspiracy of A. , theconspiracy of Condé and the Huguenots in 1560 against Francis II. , Catharine de Medici, and the Guises. The Edict of A. (1563) conceded thefree exercise of their worship to the Protestants. 

AMBOISE, GEORGE DE, CARDINAL, the popular Prime Minister of LouisXII. , who, as such, reduced the Public burdens, and as the Pope's legatein France effected a great reform among the religious orders; is said tohave died immensely rich (1460-1510). 

AMBOYNA (238), with a chief city of the name, the most important ofthe Moluccas, in the Malay Archipelago, and rich before all in spices; itbelongs to the Dutch, who have diligently fostered its capabilities. 

AM`BROSE, ST. , bishop of Milan, born at Trèves, one of the Fathersof the Latin Church, and a zealous opponent of the Arian heresy; as astern puritan refused to allow Theodosius to enter his church, covered ashis hands were with the blood of an infamous massacre, and only admittedhim to Church privilege after a severe penance of eight months; heimproved the Church service, wrote several hymns, which are reckoned hismost valuable legacy to the Church; his writings fill two vols. Folio. Heis the Patron saint of Milan; his attributes are a _scourge_, from hisseverity; and a _beehive_, from the tradition that a swarm of beessettled on his mouth when an Infant without hurting him (340-397). Festival, Dec. 7. 

AMBRO`SIA, the fragrant food of the gods of Olympus, fabled topreserve in them and confer on others immortal youth and beauty. 

AMELIA, a character in one of Fielding's novels, distinguished forher conjugal affection. 

AMENDE HONORABLE, originally a mode of punishment in France whichrequired the offender, stripped to his shirt, and led into court with arope round his neck held by the public executioner, to beg pardon on hisknees of his God, his king, and his country; now used to denote asatisfactory apology or reparation. 

AMERBACH, JOHANN, a celebrated printer in Basel in the 15th century, the first who used the Roman type instead of Gothic and Italian; sparedno expense in his art, taking, like a true workman, a pride in it; _d_. 1515. 

AMERICA, including both North and South, 9000 m. In length, variesfrom 3400 m. To 28 m. In breadth, contains 16½ millions of sq. M. , islarger than Europe and Africa together, but is a good deal smaller thanAsia; bounded throughout by the Atlantic on the E. And the Pacific on theW. 

AMERICA, BRITISH N. , is bounded on the N. By the Arctic Ocean, onthe E. By the Atlantic, on the S. By the United States, and on the W. Bythe Pacific; occupies one-third of the continent, and comprises theDominion of Canada and Newfoundland. 

AMERICA, CENTRAL, extends from Mexico on the north to Panama on thesouth, and is about six times as large as Ireland; is a plateau withterraces descending to the sea on each side, and rich in all kinds oftropical vegetation; consists of seven political divisions: Guatemala, San Salvador, British Honduras, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mosquitia, and CostaRica. 

AMERICA, NORTH, is 4560 m. In length, contains over 8½ millions sq. M. , is less than half the size of Asia, consists of a plain in the centrethroughout its length, a high range of mountains, the Rocky, on the W. , and a lower range, the Appalachian, on the E. , parallel with the coast, which is largely indented with gulfs, bays, and seas; has a magnificentsystem of rivers, large lakes, the largest in the world, a rich fauna andflora, and an exhaustless wealth of minerals; was discovered by Columbusin 1492, and has now a population of 80 millions, of which a fourth arenegroes, aborigines, and half-caste; the divisions are British NorthAmerica, United States, Mexico, Central American Republics, BritishHonduras, the West Indian Republics, and the Spanish, British, French, and Dutch West Indies. 

AMERICA, RUSSIAN, now called Alaska; belongs by purchase to theUnited States. 

AMERICA, SOUTH, lies in great part within the Tropics, and consistsof a high mountain range on the west, and a long plain with minor rangesextending therefrom eastward; the coast is but little indented, but theAmazon and the Plate Rivers make up for the defect of seaboard; aboundsin extensive plains, which go under the names of Llanos, Selvas, andPampas, while the river system is the vastest and most serviceable in theglobe; the vegetable and mineral wealth of the continent is great, and itcan match the world for the rich plumage of its birds and the number andsplendour of its insect tribes. 

AMERICA, SPANISH, the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, till latelybelonging to Spain, though the designation is often applied to all thecountries in N. America where Spanish is the spoken language. 

AMERICAN FABIUS, George Washington. 

AMERICAN INDIANS, a race with a red or copper-coloured skin, coarseblack straight hair, high cheek-bones, black deep-set eyes, and tallerect figure, limited to America, and seems for most part fast dying out;to be found still as far south as Patagonia, the Patagonians being of therace. 

AMERI`GO-VESPUC`CI, a Florentine navigator, who, under the auspicesfirst of Spain, and afterwards of Portugal, four times visited the NewWorld, just discovered by Columbus, which the first cartographers calledAmerica, after his name; these visits were made between 1499 and 1505, while Columbus's discovery, as is known, was in 1492 (1451-1512). 

AMES, JOSEPH, historian of early British typography, in a work whichmust have involved him in much labour (1689-1759). 

AMHA`RA, the central and largest division of Abyssinia. 

AMHERST, LORD, a British officer who distinguished himself both onthe Continent and America, and particularly along with General Wolfe insecuring for England the superiority in Canada (1717-1797). 

AMICE, a flowing cloak formerly worn by pilgrims, also a strip oflinen cloth worn over the shoulder of a priest when officiating at mass. 

AM`IEL, a professor of æsthetics, and afterwards of ethics atGeneva, who is known to the outside world solely by the publication ofselections from his Journal in 1882-84, which teems with suggestivethoughts bearing on the great vital issues of the day, and which has beentranslated into English by Mrs. Humphrey Ward. 

AMIENS` (88), the old capital of Picardy, on the Somme, with acathedral begun in 1220, described as the "Parthenon of Gothicarchitecture, " and by Ruskin as "Gothic, clear of Roman tradition and ofArabian taint, Gothic pure, authoritative, unsurpassable, andunaccusable"; possesses other buildings of interest; was the birthplaceof Peter the Hermit, and is celebrated for a treaty of peace betweenFrance and England concluded in 1802. 

AMIRAN`TES, a group of small coral islands NE. Of Madagascar, belonging to Britain; are wooded, are 11 in number, and only a few feetabove the sea-level. 

AMMANA`TI, BARTOLOMEO, a Florentine architect and sculptor of note, was an admirer of Michael Angelo, and executed several works in Rome, Venice, and Padua (1511-1592). 

AMMIA`NUS MARCELLI`NUS, a Greek who served as a soldier in the Romanarmy, and wrote a history of the Roman Empire, specially valuable as arecord of contemporary events; _d_. 390. 

AMMIRATO, an Italian historian, author of a history of Florence(1531-1601). 

AM`MON, an Egyptian deity, represented with the head of a ram, whohad a temple at Thebes and in the Lybian Desert; was much resorted to asan oracle of fate; identified in Greece with Zeus, and in Rome withJupiter. 

AMMONIA, a pungent volatile gas, of nitrogen and hydrogen, obtainedfrom sal-ammonia. 

AMMONIO, ANDREA, a Latin poet born in Lucca, held in high esteem byErasmus; sent to England by the Pope, he became Latin secretary to Henryand a prebendary of Salisbury; _d_. 1517. 

AMMONITES, a Semitic race living E. Of the Jordan; at continual feudwith the Jews, and a continual trouble to them, till subdued by JudasMaccabæus. 

AMMONITES, a genus of fossil shells curved into a spiral form likethe ram-horn on the head of the image of Ammon. 

AMMO`NIUS SACCAS, a philosopher of Alexandria, and founder ofNeo-Platonism; Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus were among his pupils; _d_. 243, at a great age. 

AMNION, name given to the innermost membrane investing the foetus inthe womb. 

AMOEBA, a minute animalcule of the simplest structure, being a meremass of protoplasm; absorbs its food at every point all over its body bymeans of processes protruded therefrom at will, with the effect that itis constantly changing its shape. 

AMOMUM, a genus of plants, such as the cardamom and grains ofparadise, remarkable for their pungency and aromatic properties. 

AMORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe, seemingly of tall stature, NE. Of the Jordan; subdued by Joshua at Gibeon. 

AMORY, THOMAS, an eccentric writer of Irish descent, author of the"Life of John Buncle, Esq. , " and other semi-insane productions; he was afanatical Unitarian (1691-1789). 

AMOS, a poor shepherd of Tekoa, near Bethlehem, in Judah, who in the8th century B. C. Raised his voice in solitary protest against theiniquity of the northern kingdom of Israel, and denounced the judgment ofGod as Lord of Hosts upon one and all for their idolatry, which nothingcould avert. 

AMOY` (96), one of the open ports of China, on a small island in theStrait of Fukien; has one of the finest harbours in the world, and alarge export and import trade; the chief exports are tea, sugar, paper, gold-leaf, &c. 

AMPÈRE`, ANDRÉ MARIE, a French mathematician and physicist, born atLyons; distinguished for his discoveries in electro-dynamics andmagnetism, and the influence of these on electro-telegraphy and thegeneral extension of science (1775-1836). 

AMPÈRE, JEAN JACQUES, son of the preceding; eminent as alittérateur, and a historian and critic of literature; attained to therank of a member of the French Academy (1800-1864). 

AMPHIC`TYONIC COUNCIL, a council consisting of representatives fromseveral confederate States of ancient Greece, twelve in number at length, two from each, that met twice a year, sitting alternately at Thermopylæand Delphi, to settle any differences that might arise between them, thedecisions of which were several times enforced by arms, and gave rise towhat were called _sacred wars_, of which there were three; it wasoriginally instituted for the conservation of religious interests. 

AMPHI`ON, a son of Zeus and Antiope, who is said to have inventedthe lyre, and built the walls of Thebes by the sound of it, a feat oftenalluded to as an instance of the miraculous power of music. 

AMPHISBÆNA, a genus of limbless lizards; a serpent fabled to havetwo heads and to be able to move backward or forward. 

AM`PHITRITE, a daughter of Oceanus or Nereus, the wife of Neptune, mother of Triton, and goddess of the sea. 

AMPHIT`RYON, the king of Tiryns, and husband of Alcmene, who becameby him the mother of Iphicles, and by Zeus the mother of Hercules. 

AMPHITRYON THE TRUE, the real host, the man who provides the feast, as Zeus proved himself to the household to be when he visited Alcmene. 

AM`RAN RANGE, pronounced the "scientific frontier" of India towardsAfghanistan. 

AMRIT`SAR (136), a sacred city of the Sikhs in the Punjab, and agreat centre of trade, 32 m. E. Of Lahore; is second to Delhi in NorthernIndia; manufactures cashmere shawls. 

AM`RU, a Mohammedan general under the Caliph Omar, conquered Egyptamong other military achievements; he is said to have executed the orderof the Caliph Omar for burning the library of Alexandria; _d_. 663. 

AMSTERDAM (456), the capital of Holland, a great trading city andport at the mouth of the Amsel, on the Zuyder Zee, resting on 90 islandsconnected by 300 bridges, the houses built on piles of wood driven intothe marshy ground; is a largely manufacturing place, as well as anemporium of trade, one special industry being the cutting of diamonds andjewels; birthplace of Spinoza. 

AMUR`, a large eastward-flowing river, partly in Siberia and partlyin China, which, after a course of 3060 m. , falls into the Sea ofOkhotsk. 

AMURNATH, a place of pilgrimage in Cashmere, on account of a cavebelieved to be the dwelling-place of Siva. 

AMYOT, JACQUES, grand-almoner of France and bishop of Auxerre; wasof humble birth; was tutor of Charles, who appointed him grand-almoner;he was the translator, among other works, of Plutarch into French, whichremains to-day one of the finest monuments of the old literature ofFrance, it was much esteemed by Montaigne (1513-1593). 

AMYOT, JOSEPH, a French Jesuit missionary to China, and a learnedOrientalist (1713-1794). 

ANABAPTISTS, a fanatical sect which arose in Saxony at the time ofthe Reformation, and though it spread in various parts of Germany, cameat length to grief by the excesses of its adherents in Münster. SeeBAPTISTS. 

ANAB`ASIS, an account by Xenophon of the ill-fated expedition ofCyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, and of the retreat ofthe 10, 000 Greeks under Xenophon who accompanied him, after the battle ofCunaxa in 401 B. C. 

ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher of the 6th century B. C. , who, inhis roamings in quest of wisdom, arrived at Athens, and became the friendand disciple of Solon, but was put to death on his return home by hisbrother; he stands for a Scythian savant living among a civilised people, as well as for a wise man living among fools. 

ANACHARSIS CLOOTZ. See CLOOTZ. 

ANACON`DA, a gigantic serpent of tropical America. 

ANAC`REON, a celebrated Greek lyric poet, a native of Teos, in AsiaMinor; lived chiefly at Samos and Athens; his songs are in praise of loveand wine, not many fragments of them are preserved (560-418 B. C. ). 

ANACREON OF PAINTERS, Francesco Albani; A. OF PERSIA, Häfiz;A. OF THE GUILLOTINE, Barère. 

ANADYOM`ENE, Aphrodité, a name meaning "emerging, " given to her inallusion to her arising out of the sea; the name of a famous painting ofApelles so representing her. 

ANADYR, a river in Siberia, which flows into Behring Sea. 

ANAG`NI, a small town 40 m. SE. Of Rome, the birthplace of severalPopes. 

ANAHUAC`, a plateau in Central Mexico, 7580 ft. Of mean elevation;one of the names of Mexico prior to the conquest of it by the Spaniards. 

AN`AKIM, a race of giants that lived in the S. Of Palestine, calledalso sons of Anak. 

ANAM`ALAH MOUNTAINS, a range of the W. Ghâts in Travancore. 

ANAMU`DI, the highest point in the Anamalah Mts. , 7000 ft. 

ANARCHISM, a projected social revolution, the professed aim of whichis that of the emancipation of the individual from the present system ofgovernment which makes him the slave of others, and of the training ofthe individual so as to become a law to himself, and in possession, therefore, of the right to the control of all his vital interests, theproject definable as an insane attempt to realise a social system on thebasis of absolute individual freedom. 

ANASTA`SIUS, the name of four popes: A. I. , the most eminent, pope from 398 to 401; A. II. , pope from 496 to 498; A. III. , pope from 911 to 913; A. IV. , pope from 1153 to 1154. 

ANASTASIUS, ST. , a martyr under Nero; festival, April 15. 

ANASTASIUS I. , emperor of the East, excommunicated for hisseverities to the Christians, and the first sovereign to be so treated bythe Pope (430-515). 

ANATO`LIA, the Greek name for Asia Minor. 

ANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY, a "mosaic" work by Burton, described byProfessor Saintsbury as "a wandering of the soul from Dan to Beersheba, through all employments, desires, pleasures, and finding them barrenexcept for study, of which in turn the _tædium_ is not obscurely hinted. "

ANAXAG`ORAS, a Greek philosopher of Clazomenæ, in Ionia, removed toAthens and took philosophy along with him, i. E. Transplanted it there, but being banished thence for impiety to the gods, settled in Lampsacus, was the first to assign to the _nous_, conceived of "as a purelyimmaterial principle, a formative power in the origin and organisation ofthings"; _d_. 425 B. C. 

ANAXAR`CHUS, a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus andfriend of Alexander the Great. 

ANAXIMANDER, a Greek philosopher of Miletus, derived the universefrom a material basis, indeterminate and eternal (611-547 B. C. ). 

ANAXIM`ENES, also of Miletus, made air the first principle ofthings; _d_. 500 B. C. ; A. , of Lampsacus, preceptor and biographerof Alexander the Great. 

ANCÆUS, a son of Neptune, who, having left a flagon of wine topursue a boar, was killed by it. 

ANCELOT, a French dramatic poet, distinguished both in tragedy andcomedy; his wife also a distinguished writer (1792-1875). 

ANCENIS (4), a town on the Loire, 23 m. NE. Of Nantes. 

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, the worship of ancestors that prevails inprimitive nations, due to a belief in ANIMISM (q. V. ). 

ANCHIETA, a Portuguese Jesuit, born at Teneriffe, called the Apostleof the New World (1538-1597). 

ANCHI`SES, the father of Æneas, whom his son bore out of the flamesof Troy on his shoulders to the ships; was buried in Sicily. 

ANCHITHERIUM, a fossil animal with three hoofs, the presumedoriginal of the horse. 

ANCHOVY, a small fish captured for the flavour of its flesh and madeinto sauce. 

ANCHOVY PEAR, fruit of a W. Indian plant, of the taste of the mango. 

ANCIENT MARINER, a mariner doomed to suffer dreadful penalties forhaving shot an albatross, and who, when he reaches land, is haunted bythe recollection of them, and feels compelled to relate the tale of themas a warning to others; the hero of a poem by Coleridge. 

ANCILLON, FREDERICK, a Prussian statesman, philosophic man ofletters, and of French descent (1766-1837). 

ANCO`NA (56), a port of Italy in the Adriatic, second to that ofVenice; founded by Syracusans. 

ANCRE, MARSHAL, a profligate minister of France during the minorityof Louis XIII. 

ANCUS MARCIUS, 4th king of Rome, grandson of Numa, extended the cityand founded Ostia. 

ANDALUSIA (3, 370), a region in the S. Of Spain watered by theGuadalquivir; fertile in grains, fruits, and vines, and rich in minerals. 

ANDAMANS, volcanic islands in the Bay of Bengal, surrounded by coralreefs; since 1858 used as a penal settlement. 

ANDELYS, LES, a small town on the Seine, 20 m. NE. Of Evreux, divided into Great and Little. 

ANDERMATT, a central Swiss village in Uri, 18 m. S. Of Altorf. 

ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN, a world-famous story-teller of Danishbirth, son of a poor shoemaker, born at Odense; was some time before hemade his mark, was honoured at length by the esteem and friendship of theroyal family, and by a national festival on his seventieth birthday(1805-1875). 

ANDERSON, JAMES, a Scotch lawyer, famous for his learning and hisantiquarian knowledge (1662-1728). 

ANDERSON, JAMES, native of Hermiston, near Edinburgh, a writer onagriculture and promoter of it in Scotland (1739-1808). 

ANDERSON, JOHN, a native of Roseneath, professor of physics inGlasgow University, and the founder of the Andersonian College in Glasgow(1726-1796). 

ANDERSON, LAWRENCE, one of the chief reformers of religion in Sweden(1480-1552). 

ANDERSON, MARY, a celebrated actress, native of California; in 1890married M. Navarro de Viano of New York; _b_. 1859. 

ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND, Lord Chief-Justice of Common Pleas underElizabeth, sat as judge at the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. Anderson'sReports is still a book of authority; _d_. 1605. 

ANDES, an unbroken range of high mountains, 150 of them activelyvolcanic, which extend, often in double and triple chains, along the westof South America from Cape Horn to Panama, a distance of 4500 m. , dividedinto the Southern or Chilian as far as 23½° S. , the Central as far as 10°S. , and the Northern to their termination. 

ANDOCIDES, an orator and leader of the oligarchical faction inAthens; was four times exiled, the first time for profaning theEleusinian Mysteries (467-393 B. C. ). 

ANDOR`RA (6), a small republic in the E. Pyrenees, enclosed bymountains, under the protection of France and the Bishop of Urgel, inCatalonia; cattle-rearing is the chief occupation of the inhabitants, whoare a primitive people and of simple habits. 

ANDOVER, an old municipal borough and market-town in Hampshire, 66m. SW. Of London; also a town 23 m. From Boston, U. S. , famous for itstheological seminary, founded in 1807. 

ANDRAL, GABRIEL, a distinguished French pathologist, professor inParis University (1797-1876). 

AN`DRASSY, COUNT, a Hungarian statesman, was exiled from 1848 to1851, became Prime Minister in 1867, played a prominent part indiplomatic affairs on the Continent to the advantage of Austria(1823-1890). 

ANDRE, JOHN, a brave British officer, tried and hanged as a spy inthe American war in 1780; a monument is erected to him in WestminsterAbbey. 

ANDRÉ II. , king of Hungary from 1205 to 1235, took part in the fifthcrusade. 

ANDREA DEL SARTO. See SARTO. 

ANDREA PISANO, a sculptor and architect, born at Pisa, contributedgreatly to free modern art from Byzantine influence (1270-1345). 

ANDREOSSY, COUNT, an eminent French general and statesman, servedunder Napoleon, ambassador at London, Vienna, and Constantinople, advocated the recall of the Bourbons on the fall of Napoleon. 

ANDREOSSY, FRANÇOIS, an eminent French engineer and mathematician(1633-1688). 

ANDREW, ST. , one of the Apostles, suffered martyrdom by crucifixion, became patron saint of Scotland; represented in art as an old man withlong white hair and a beard, holding the Gospel in his right hand, andleaning on a transverse cross. 

ANDREW, ST. , RUSSIAN ORDER OF, the highest Order in Russia. 

ANDREW, ST. , THE CROSS OF, cross like a X, such having, it issaid, been the form of the cross on which St. Andrew suffered. 

ANDREWES, LANCELOT, an English prelate, born in Essex, and zealousHigh Churchman in the reign of Elizabeth and James I. ; eminent as ascholar, a theologian, and a preacher; in succession bishop of Ely, Chichester, and Winchester; was one of the Hampton Court Conference, andof the translators of the Authorised Version of the Bible; he was ferventin devotion, but of his sermons the criticism of a Scotch nobleman, whenhe preached at Holyrood once, was not inappropriate: "He rather playswith his subject than preaches on it" (1555-1626). 

ANDREWS, JOSEPH, a novel by Fielding, and the name of the hero, whois a footman, and the brother of Richardson's Pamela. 

ANDREWS, THOMAS, an eminent physicist, born and professor in Belfast(1813-1885). 

ANDRIEUX, ST. , a French littérateur and dramatist, born atStrassburg, professor in the College of France, and permanent secretaryto the Academy (1759-1822). 

ANDRO`CLUS, a Roman slave condemned to the wild beasts, but saved bya lion, sent into the arena to attack him, out of whose foot he had longbefore sucked a thorn that pained him, and who recognised him as hisbenefactor. 

ANDROM`ACHE, the wife of Hector and the mother of Astyanax, famousfor her conjugal devotion; fell to Pyrrhus, Achilles' son, at the fall ofTroy, but was given up by him to Hector's brother; is the subject oftragedies by Euripides and Racine respectively. 

ANDROM`EDA, a beautiful Ethiopian princess exposed to a sea monster, which Perseus slew, receiving as his reward the hand of the maiden; shehad been demanded by Neptune as a sacrifice to appease the Nereids for aninsult offered them by her mother. 

ANDRONI`CUS, the name of four Byzantine emperors: A. I. , COMNENUS, killed his ward, Alexis II. , usurped the throne, and wasput to death, 1183; A. II. , lived to see the empire devastated bythe Turks (1282-1328); A. III. , grandson of the preceding, dethronedhim, fought stoutly against the Turks without staying their advances(1328-1341); A. IV. Dethroned his father, Soter V. , and wasimmediately stripped of his possessions himself (1377-1378). 

ANDRONICUS, LIVIUS, the oldest dramatic poet in the Latin language(240 B. C. ). 

ANDRONICUS OF RHODES, a disciple of Aristotle in the time of Cicero, and to whom we owe the preservation of many of Aristotle's works. 

ANDROS (22), the most northern of the Cyclades, fertile soil andproductive of wine and silk. 

ANDROUET DU CERCEAU`, an eminent French architect who designed thePont Neuf at Paris (1530-1600). 

ANDUJAR (11), a town of Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir, noted forthe manufacture of porous clay water-cooling vessels. 

ANEMOMETER, an instrument for measuring the force, course, andvelocity of the wind. 

ANEROID, a barometer, consisting of a small watch-shaped, air-tight, air-exhausted metallic box, with internal spring-work and an index, affected by the pressure of the air on plates exposed to its action. 

ANEU`RIN, a British bard at the beginning of the 7th century, whotook part in the battle of Cattraeth, and made it the subject of a poem. 

ANEURISM, a tumour, containing blood, on the coat of an artery. 

ANGARA, a tributary of the Yenisei, which passes through LakeBaikal. 

ANGEL, an old English coin, with the archangel Michael piercing thedragon on the obverse of it. 

ANGEL-FISH, a hideous, voracious fish of the shark family. 

ANGELIC DOCTOR, Thomas Aquinas. 

ANGEL`ICA, a faithless lady of romance, for whose sake Orlando losthis heart and his senses. 

ANGELICA DRAUGHT, something which completely changes the affection. 

ANGELICO, FRA, an Italian painter, born at Mugello, in Tuscany;became a Dominican monk at Fiesole, whence he removed to Florence, andfinally to Rome, where he died; devoted his life to religious subjects, which he treated with great delicacy, beauty, and finish, and conceivedin virgin purity and child-like simplicity of soul; his work in the formof fresco-painting is to be found all over Italy (1387-1455). 

AN`GELUS, a devotional service in honour of the Incarnation. 

ANGERS` (77), on the Maine, the ancient capital of Anjou, 160 m. SW. Of Paris, with a fine cathedral, a theological seminary, and a medicalschool; birthplace of David the sculptor. 

ANGERSTEIN, JOHN, born in St. Petersburg, a distinguished patron ofthe fine arts, whose collection of paintings, bought by the BritishGovernment, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery (1735-1822). 

ANGI`NA PEC`TORIS, an affection of the heart of an intenselyexcruciating nature, the pain of which at times extends to the leftshoulder and down the left arm. 

ANGLER, a fish with a broad, big-mouthed head and a tapering body, both covered with appendages having glittering tips, by which, as itburrows in the sand, it allures other fishes into its maw. 

ANGLES, a German tribe from Sleswig who invaded Britain in the 5thcentury and gave name to England. 

AN`GLESEA (50), i. E. Island of the Angles, an island forming acounty in Wales, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait, flat, fertile, and rich in minerals. 

ANGLESEY, MARQUIS OF, eldest son of the first Earl of Uxbridge, famous as a cavalry officer in Flanders, Holland, the Peninsula, andespecially at Waterloo, at which he lost a leg, and for his services atwhich he received his title; was some time viceroy in Ireland, where hewas very popular (1768-1854). 

ANGLIA, EAST territory in England occupied in the 6th century by theAngles, corresponding to counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. 

ANG`LICAN CHURCH, the body of Episcopal churches all over theBritish Empire and Colonies, as well as America, sprung from the Churchof England, though not subject to her jurisdiction, the term_Anglo-Catholic_ being applied to the High Church section. 

ANGLO-SAXON, the name usually assigned to the early inflected formof the English language. 

ANGO`LA (2, 400), a district on the W. Coast of Africa, between theCongo and Benguela, subject to Portugal, the capital of which is St. Paulde Loando. 

ANGO`RA (20), a city in the centre of Anatolia, in a district notedfor its silky, long-haired animals, cats and dogs as well as goats. 

ANGOSTU`RA, capital of the province of Guayana, in Venezuela, 240 m. Up the Orinoco; also a medicinal bark exported thence. 

ANGOULÊME` (31), an old French city on the Charente, 83 m. NE. OfBordeaux, with a fine cathedral, the birthplace of Marguerite de Valoisand Balzac. 

ANGOULÊME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUC D', natural son of Charles IX. , gained great reputation as a military commander, left Memoirs of his life(1575-1650). 

ANGOULÊME, DUC D', the eldest son of Charles X. , after theRevolution of 1830 gave up his rights to the throne and retired to Goritz(1778-1844). 

ANGOULÊME, DUCHESSE D', daughter of Louis XVI. And wife of thepreceding (1778-1851). 

AN`GRA, the capital of the Azores, on the island of Terceira, afortified place. 

AN`GRA PEQUE`NA, a port in SW. Africa, N. Of the Orange River, andthe nucleus of the territory belonging to Germany. 

ANG`STROM, a Swedish physicist and professor at Upsala, distinguished for his studies on the solar spectrum; _b_. 1814. 

ANGUIL`LA (2), or Snake Island, one of the Lesser Antilles, E. OfPorto Rico, belonging to Britain. 

ANGUIER, the name of two famous French sculptors in the 17thcentury. 

AN`HALT (293), a duchy of Central Germany, surrounded and split upby Prussian Saxony, and watered by the Elbe and Saale; rich in minerals. 

ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD, PRINCE OF, a Prussian field-marshal, servedand distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish Succession and inItaly, was wounded at Cassano; defeated Charles XII. At the Isle ofRügen, and the Saxons and Austrians at Kesseldorf (1676-1747). 

ANICHINI, an Italian medallist of the 16th century; executed a medalrepresenting the interview of Alexander the Great with the High Priest ofthe Jews, which Michael Angelo pronounced the perfection of the art. 

ANILINE, a colourless transparent oily liquid, obtained chiefly fromcoal-tar, and extensively used in the production of dyes. 

ANIMAL HEAT, the heat produced by the chemical changes which go onin the animal system, the intensity depending on the activity of theprocess. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM, a name given to the alleged effects on the animalsystem, in certain passive states, of certain presumed magneticinfluences acting upon it. 

ANIMISM, a belief that there is a psychical body within the physicalbody of a living being, correspondent with it in attributes, and thatwhen the connection between them is dissolved by death the former liveson in a ghostly form; in other words, a belief of a ghost-soul existingconjointly with and subsisting apart from the body, its physicalcounterpart. 

AN`IO, an affluent of the Tiber, 4 m. Above Rome; ancient Rome wassupplied with water from it by means of aqueducts. 

ANISE, an umbelliferous plant, the seed of which is used as acarminative and in the preparation of liqueurs. 

ANJOU`, an ancient province in the N. Of France, annexed to thecrown of France under Louis XI. In 1480; belonged to England till wrestedfrom King John by Philip Augustus in 1203. 

ANKARSTRÖM, the assassin of Gustavus III. Of Sweden, at a maskedball, March 15, 1792, for which he was executed after being publiclyflogged on three successive days. 

ANKLAM (12), an old Hanse town in Pomerania, connected by railwaywith Stettin. 

ANKOBAR, capital of Shoa, in Abyssinia; stands 8200 ft. Above thesea-level. 

ANN ARBOR (10), a city of Michigan, on the Huron, with anobservatory and a flourishing university. 

ANNA COMNE`NA, a Byzantine princess, who, having failed in apolitical conspiracy, retired into a convent and wrote the life of herfather, Alexius I. , under the title of the "Alexiad" (1083-1148). 

AN`NA IVANOV`NA, niece of Peter the Great, empress of Russia insuccession to Peter II. From 1730 to 1740; her reign was marred by theevil influence of her paramour Biren over her, which led to theperpetration of great cruelties; was famed for her big cheek, "which, asshown in her portraits, " Carlyle says, "was comparable to a Westphalianham" (1693-1740). 

AN`NAM (6, 000), an empire, of the size of Sweden, along the eastcoast of Indo-China, under a French protectorate since 1885; it has arich well-watered soil, which yields tropical products, and is rich inminerals. 

AN`NAN (3), a burgh in Dumfries, on river Annan; birthplace ofEdward Irving, and where Carlyle was a schoolboy, and at lengthmathematical schoolmaster. 

ANNAP`OLIS (3), seaport of Nova Scotia, on the Bay of Fundy; alsothe capital (7) of Maryland, U. S. , 28 m. E. Of Washington. 

ANNE, QUEEN, daughter of James II. ; by the union of Scotland withEngland during her reign in 1707 became the first sovereign of the UnitedKingdom; her reign distinguished by the part England played in the war ofthe Spanish succession and the number of notabilities, literary andscientific, that flourished under it, though without any patronage on thepart of the Queen (1665-1714). 

ANNE, ST. , wife of St. Joachim, mother of the Virgin Mary, and thepatron saint of carpentry; festival, July 26. 

ANNE OF AUSTRIA, the daughter of Philip III. Of Spain, wife of LouisXIII. , and mother of Louis XIV. , became regent on the death of herhusband, with Cardinal Mazarin for minister; during the minority of herson, triumphed over the Fronde; retired to a convent on the death ofMazarin (1610-1666). 

ANNE OF BRITTANY, the daughter of Francis II. , Duke of Brittany; byher marriage, first to Charles VIII. Then to Louis XII. , the duchy wasadded to the crown of France (1476-1514). 

ANNE OF CLÈVES, daughter of Duke of Clèves, a wife of Henry VIII. , who fell in love with the portrait of her by Holbein, but beingdisappointed, soon divorced her; _d_. 1577. 

ANNECY (11), the capital of Haute-Savoie, in France, on a lake ofthe name, 22 m. S. Of Geneva, at which the Counts of Geneva had theirresidence, and where Francis of Sales was bishop. 

ANNOBON, a Spanish isle in the Gulf of Guinea. 

ANNONAY (14), a town in Ardèche, France; paper the chiefmanufacture. 

ANNUNCIATION DAY, a festival on the 25th of March in commemorationof the salutation of the angel to the Virgin Mary on the Incarnation ofChrist. 

ANQUETIL`, LOUIS PIERRE, a French historian in holy orders, wrote"Précis de l'Histoire Universelle" and a "Histoire de France" in 14vols. ; continued by Bouillet in 6 more (1723-1806). 

ANQUETIL`-DUPERRON, brother of the preceding, an enthusiasticOrientalist, to whom we owe the discovery and first translation of theZend-Avesta and Schopenhauer his knowledge of Hindu philosophy, and whichinfluenced his own system so much (1731-1805). 

ANSBACH (14), a manufacturing town in Bavaria, 25 m. SW. OfNürnberg, the capital of the old margraviate of the name, and themargraves of which were HOHENZOLLERNS (q. V. ). 

ANSCHAR or ANSGAR, ST. , a Frenchman born, the first to preachChristianity to the pagans of Scandinavia, was by appointment of the Popethe first archbishop of Hamburg (801-864). 

ANSELM, ST. , archbishop of Canterbury, a native of Aosta, inPiedmont, monk and abbot; visited England frequently, gained the favourof King Rufus, who appointed him to succeed Lanfranc, quarrelled withRufus and left the country, but returned at the request of Henry I. , aquarrel with whom about investiture ended in a compromise; an able, high-principled, God-fearing man, and a calmly resolute upholder of theteaching and authority of the Church (1033-1109). See CARLYLE'S "PASTAND PRESENT. "

ANSON, LORD, a celebrated British naval commander, sailed round theworld, during war on the part of England with Spain, on a voyage ofadventure with a fleet of three ships, and after three years and ninemonths returned to England, his fleet reduced to one vessel, but with£500, 000 of Spanish treasure on board. Anson's "Voyage Round the World"contains a highly interesting account of this, "written in brief, perspicuous terms, " witnesses Carlyle, "a real poem in its kind, orromance all fact; one of the pleasantest little books in the world'slibrary at this time" (1697-1762). 

ANSTRUTHER, EAST AND WEST, two contiguous royal burghs on the Fifecoast, the former the birthplace of Tennant the poet, Thomas Chalmers, and John Goodsir the anatomist. 

ANTÆUS, a mythical giant, a _terræ filius_ or son of the earth, whowas strong only when his foot was on the earth, lifted in air he becameweak as water, a weakness which Hercules discovered to his discomfiturewhen wrestling with him. The fable has been used as a symbol of thespiritual strength which accrues when one rests his faith on theimmediate fact of things. 

ANTAL`CIDAS, a Spartan general, celebrated for a treaty which heconcluded with Persia whereby the majority of the cities of Asia Minorpassed under the sway of the Persians, to the loss of the fruit of allthe victories gained over them by Athens (387 B. C. ). 

ANTANANARI`VO (100), the capital of Madagascar, in the centre of theisland, on a well-nigh inaccessible rocky height 5000 ft. Above thesea-level. 

ANTAR, an Arab chief of the 6th century, a subject of romance, anddistinguished as a poet. 

ANT-EATERS, a family of edentate mammals, have a tubular mouth witha small aperture, and a long tongue covered with a viscid secretion, which they thrust into the ant-hills and then withdraw covered with ants. 

ANTELOPE, an animal closely allied to the sheep and the goat, verylike the latter in appearance, with a light and elegant figure, slender, graceful limbs, small cloven hoofs, and generally a very short tail. 

ANTEQUE`RA (27), a town in Andalusia, 22 m. N. Of Malaga, astronghold of the Moors from 712 to 1410. 

ANTHE`LIA, luminous rings witnessed in Alpine and Polar regions, seen round the shadow of one's head in a fog or cloud opposite the sun. 

ANTHE`MIUS, the architect of the church of St. Sophia inConstantinople; _d_. 534. 

ANTHON, CHARLES, a well-known American classical scholar and editorof the Classics (1797-1867). 

ANTHRAX, a disease, especially in cattle, due to the invasion of aliving organism which, under certain conditions, breeds rapidly; calledalso splenic fever. 

ANTHROPOID APES, a class of apes, including the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang-outang, and gibbon, without tails, with semi-erect figures and longarms. 

ANTHROPOLOGY, the science of man as he exists or has existed underdifferent physical and social conditions. 

ANTHROPOMORPHISM, the ascription of human attributes to the unseenauthor of things. 

ANTI`BES (5) a seaport and place of ancient date on a peninsula inthe S. Of France, near Cannes and opposite Nice. 

ANTICHRIST, a name given in the New Testament to variousincarnations of opposition to Christ in usurpation of His authority, butis by St. John defined to involve that form of opposition which deniesthe doctrine of the Incarnation, or that Christ has come in the flesh. 

ANTICOSTI, a barren rocky island in the estuary of St Lawrence, frequented by fishermen, and with hardly a permanent inhabitant. 

ANTIG`ONE`, the daughter of Oedipus, king of Thebes, led about herfather when he was blind and in exile, returned to Thebes on his death;was condemned to be buried alive for covering her brother's exposed bodywith earth in defiance of the prohibition of Creon, who had usurped thethrone; Creon's son, out of love for her, killed himself on the spotwhere she was buried. She has been immortalised in one of the grandesttragedies of Sophocles. 

ANTIGONE, THE MODERN, the Duchess of Angoulême, daughter of LouisXV. See THE PARTING SCENE IN CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION. "

ANTIG`ONUS, surnamed the Cyclops or One-eyed, one of the generals ofAlexander the Great, made himself master of all Asia Minor, excited thejealousy of his rivals; was defeated and slain at Ipsus, in Phrygia, 301B. C. 

ANTIGONUS, the last king of the Jews of the Asmonean dynasty; put todeath in 77 B. C. 

ANTIGONUS GONATAS, king of Macedonia, grandson of the preceding;twice deprived of his kingdom, but recovered it; attempted to prevent theformation of the Achæan League (275-240 B. C. ). 

ANTIGUA, one of the Leeward Islands, the seat of the government; themost productive of them belongs to Britain. 

ANTILLES, an archipelago curving round from N. America to S. America, and embracing the Caribbean Sea; the GREATER A. , on the N. Of the sea, being Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; and the LESSERA. , on the E. , forming the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands, andthe Venezuelan Islands--the Leeward as far as Dominica, the Windward asfar as Trinidad, and the Venezuelan along the coast of S. America. 

ANTIMONY, a brittle white metal, of value both in the arts andmedicine. 

ANTINOMIANISM, the doctrine that the law is superseded in some senseor other by the all-sufficing, all-emancipating free spirit of Christ. 

ANTINOMY, in the transcendental philosophy the contradiction whicharises when we carry the categories of the understanding above experienceand apply them to the sphere of that which transcends it. 

ANTIN`OUS, a Bithynian youth of extraordinary beauty, a slave of theEmperor Hadrian; became a great favourite of his and accompanied him onall his journeys. He was drowned in the Nile, and the grief of theemperor knew no bounds; he enrolled him among the gods, erected a templeand founded a city in his honour, while artists vied with each other inimmortalising his beauty. 

AN`TIOCH (23), an ancient capital of Syria, on the Orontes, calledthe Queen of the East, lying on the high-road between the E. And the W. , and accordingly a busy centre of trade; once a city of great splendourand extent, and famous in the early history of the Church as the seat ofseveral ecclesiastical councils and the birthplace of Chrysostom. Therewas an Antioch in Pisidia, afterwards called Cæsarea. 

ANTI`OCHUS, name of three Syrian kings of the dynasty of theSeleucidæ: A. I. , SOTER, i. E. Saviour, son of one of Alexander'sgenerals, fell heir of all Syria; king from 281 to 261 B. C. A. II. , THEOS, i. E. God, being such to the Milesians in slaying the tyrantTimarchus; king from 261 to 246. A. III. , the Great, extended andconsolidated the empire, gave harbour to Hannibal, declared war againstRome, was defeated at Thermopylæ and by Scipio at Magnesia, killed inattempting to pillage the temple at Elymaïs; king from 223 to 187. A. IV. , EPIPHANES, i. E. Illustrious, failed against Egypt, tyrannisedover the Jews, provoked the Maccabæan revolt, and died delirious; kingfrom 175 to 104. A. V. , EUPATOR, king from 164 to 162. 

ANTI`OPE, queen of the Amazons and mother of Hippolytus. _The Sleepof Antiope_, _chef-d'oeuvre_ of Correggio in the Louvre. 

ANTIP`AROS (2), one of the Cyclades, W. Of Paros, with a stalactitecavern. 

ANTIP`ATER, a Macedonian general, governed Macedonia with greatability during the absence of Alexander, defeated the confederate Greekstates at Cranon, reigned supreme on the death of Perdiccas(397-317 B. C. ). 

ANTIPH`ILUS, a Greek painter, contemporary and rival of Apelles. 

AN`TIPHON, an Athenian orator and politician, preceptor ofThucydides, who speaks of him in terms of honour, was the first toformulate rules of oratory (479-411 B. C. ). 

ANTIPOPE, a pope elected by a civil power in opposition to oneelected by the cardinals, or one self-elected and usurped; there weresome 26 of such, first and last. 

ANTIPYRETICS, medicines to reduce the temperature in fever, of whichthe chief are quinine and salicylate of soda. 

ANTIPYRIN, a febrifuge prepared from coal-tar, and used as asubstitute for quinine. 

ANTISA`NA, a volcano of the N. Andes, in Ecuador, 19, 200 ft. High;also a village on its flanks, 13, 000 ft. High, the highest village in theworld. 

ANTISE`MITES, a party in Russia and the E. Of Germany opposed to theJews on account of the undue influence they exercise in national affairsto the alleged detriment of the natives. 

ANTISEPTICS, substances used, particularly in surgery, to prevent orarrest putrefaction. 

ANTIS`THENES, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of Socrates, themaster of Diogenes, and founder of the Cynic school; affected to disdainthe pride and pomp of the world, and was the first to carry staff andwallet as the badge of philosophy, but so ostentatiously as to draw fromSocrates the rebuke, "I see your pride looking out through the rent ofyour cloak, O Antisthenes. "

ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range running NE. From the Taurus Mts. 

ANTIUM, a town of Latium on a promontory jutting into the sea, longantagonistic to Rome, subdued in 333 B. C. ; the beaks of its ships, captured in a naval engagement, were taken to form a rostrum in the Forumat Home; it was the birthplace of Caligula and Nero. 

ANTIVA`RI, a fortified seaport lately ceded to Montenegro. 

ANTOFAGAS`TA (7), a rising port in Chile, taken from Bolivia afterthe war of 1879; exports silver ores and nitrate of soda. 

ANTOMMAR`CHI, Napoleon's attached physician at St. Helena, wrote"The Last Moments of Napoleon" (1780-1838). 

ANTONELLI, CARDINAL, the chief adviser and Prime Minister of PopePius IX. , accompanied the Pope to Gaeta, came back with him to Rome, acting as his foreign minister there, and offered a determined oppositionto the Revolution; left immense wealth (1806-1876). 

ANTONEL`LO, of Messina, Italian painter of the 15th century, introduced from Holland oil-painting into Italy (1414-1493). 

ANTONI`NUS, ITINERARY OF, a valuable geographical work supposed ofdate 44 B. C. 

ANTONI`NUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, successor to thefollowing, and who surpassed him in virtue, being also of the Stoicschool and one of its most exemplary disciples, was surnamed the"philosopher, " and has left in his "Meditations" a record of hisreligious and moral principles (121-180). 

ANTONI`NUS PIUS, a Roman emperor, of Stoic principles, who reignedwith justice and moderation from 138 to 161, during which time the Empireenjoyed unbroken peace. 

ANTONI`NUS, WALL OF, an earthen rampart about 36 m. In length, fromthe Forth to the Clyde, in Scotland, as a barrier against invasion fromthe north, erected in the year 140 A. D. 

ANTO`NIUS, MARCUS, a famous Roman orator and consul, slain in thecivil war between Marius and Sulla, having sided with the latter (143-87B. C. ). 

ANTO`NIUS, MARCUS (Mark Antony), grandson of the preceding and warmpartisan of Cæsar; after the murder of the latter defeated Brutus andCassius at Philippi, formed a triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, fellin love with the famous Cleopatra, was defeated by Octavius in the navalbattle of Actium, and afterwards killed himself (83-30 B. C. ). 

AN`TONY, ST. , a famous anchorite of the Thebaïd, where from the ageof thirty he spent 20 years of his life, in a lonely ruin by himself, resisting devils without number; left his retreat for a while toinstitute monasteries, and so became the founder of monachism, butreturned to die; festival, Jan. 17 (251-351). 

ANTONY OF PADUA, a Minorite missionary to the Moors in Africa;preached to the fishes, who listened to him when no one else would; thefishes came in myriads to listen, and shamed the pagans into conversion, says the fable; festival, June 13 (1195-1234)

ANTRAIGUES, COUNT D', one of the firebrands of the FrenchRevolution; "rose into furor almost Pythic; highest where many werehigh, " but veered round to royalism, which he at length intrigued onbehalf of--to death by the stiletto (1765-1812). 

ANT`RIM (471), a maritime county in the NE. Of Ulster, in Ireland;soil two-thirds arable, linen the chief manufacture, exports butter, inhabitants mostly Protestant. 

ANTWERP (240), a large fortified trading city in Belgium, on theScheldt, 50 m. From the sea, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, the spire402 ft. High; the burial-place of Rubens; has a large picture-galleryfull of the works of the Dutch and Flemish artists. 

ANU`BIS, an Egyptian deity with the body of a man and the head of ajackal, whose office, like that of Hermes, it was to see to the disposalof the souls of the dead in the nether world, on quitting the body. 

ANWARI, a Persian lyric poet who flourished in the 12th century. 

AN`YTUS, the most vehement accuser of Socrates; banished inconsequence from Athens, after Socrates' death. 

AOS`TA (5), a town of Italy, N. Of Turin, in a fertile Alpine levelvalley, but where goitre and cretinism prevail to a great extent; thebirthplace of Anselm. 

APA`CHES, a fierce tribe of American Indians on the S. And W. Of theUnited States; long a source of trouble to the republic. 

APEL`LES, the most celebrated painter of antiquity; bred, if notborn, at Ephesus; lived at the court of Alexander the Great; his greatwork "APHRODITÉ ANADYOMENE" (q. V. ); a man conscious, likeDürer, of mastery in his art, as comes out in his advice to thecriticising shoemaker to "stick to his last. "

AP`ENNINES, a branch of the Alps extending, with spurs at rightangles, nearly through the whole length of Italy, forming about themiddle of the peninsula a double chain which supports the tableland ofAbruzzi. 

APES, DEAD SEA, dwellers by the Dead Sea who, according to theMoslem tradition, were transformed into apes because they turned a deafear to God's message to them by the lips of Moses, fit symbol, thinksCarlyle, of many in modern time to whom the universe, with all itsserious voices, seems to have become a weariness and a humbug See"PAST AND PRESENT, " BK. III. CHAP. III. 

APH`IDES, a family of insects very destructive to plants by feedingon them in countless numbers. 

APHRODI`TE, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, wife of Hephæstosand mother of Cupid; sprung from sea-foam; as queen of beauty had thegolden apple awarded her by Paris, and possessed the power of conferringbeauty, by means of her magic girdle, the cestus, on others. 

API`CIUS, the name of three famous Roman epicures, the first of whomwas contemporary with Sulla, the second with Augustus, and the third withTrajan. 

A`PION, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 1st century, and an enemyof the Jews, and hostile to the privileges conceded them in Alexandria. 

A`PIS, the sacred live bull of the Egyptians, the incarnation ofOsiris; must be black all over the body, have a white triangular spot onthe forehead, the figure of an eagle on the back, and under the tonguethe image of a scarabæus; was at the end of 25 years drowned in a sacredfountain, had his body embalmed, and his mummy regarded as an object ofworship. 

APOCALYPTIC WRITINGS, writings composed among the Jews in the 2ndcentury B. C. , and ascribed to one and another of the early prophets ofIsrael, forecasting the judgments ordained of God to overtake the nation, and predicting its final deliverance at the hands of the Messiah. 

APOCRYPHA, THE, a literature of sixteen books composed by Jews, after the close of the Hebrew canon, which though without the unction ofthe prophetic books of the canon, are instinct, for most part, with thewisdom which rests on the fear of God and loyalty to His law. The wordApocrypha means hidden writing, and it was given to it by the Jews todistinguish it from the books which they accepted as canonical. 

APOL`DA (20), a town in Saxe-Weimar with extensive hosierymanufactures; has mineral springs. 

APOLLINA`RIS, bishop of Laodicea, denied the proper humanity ofChrist, by affirming that the Logos in Him took the place of the humansoul, as well as by maintaining that His body was not composed ofordinary flesh and blood; _d_. 390. 

APOLLO, the god _par excellence_ of the Greeks, identified with thesun and all that we owe to it in the shape of inspiration, art, poetry, and medicine; son of Zeus and Leto; twin brother of Artemis; born in theisland of DELOS (q. V. ), whither Leto had fled from the jealousHera; his favourite oracle at Delphi. 

APPLLODO`RUS (1), an Athenian painter, the first to paint figures inlight and shade, 408 B. C. ; (2) a celebrated architect of Damascus, _d_. A. D. 129; and (3), an Athenian who wrote a well-arranged account of themythology and heroic age of Greece. 

APOLLONIUS OF RHODES, a grammarian and poet, flourished in the 3rdcentury B. C. , author of the "Argonautica, " a rather prosaic account ofthe adventures of the Argonauts. 

APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, a Pythagorean philosopher, who, having becomeacquainted with some sort of Brahminism, professed to have a divinemission, and, it is said, a power to work miracles; was worshipped afterhis death, and has been compared to Christ; _d_. 97. 

APOL`LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, who became an eloquent preacher ofChrist, and on account of his eloquence rated above St. Paul. 

APOLLYON, the destroying angel, the Greek name for the HebrewAbaddon. 

APOLOGETICS, a defence of the historical verity of the Christianreligion in opposition to the rationalist and mythical theories. 

APOSTATE, an epithet applied to the Emperor Julian, from his having, conscientiously however, abjured the Christian religion established byConstantine, in favour of paganism. 

APOSTLE OF GERMANY, St. Boniface; A. OF IRELAND, St. Patrick; OF THEENGLISH, St. Augustine; OF THE FRENCH, St. Denis; OF THE GAULS, Irenæus;OF THE GENTILES, St. Paul; OF THE GOTHS, Ulfilas; OF THE INDIAN, JohnEliot; OF THE SCOTS, Columba; OF THE NORTH, Ansgar; OF THE PICTS, St. Ninian; OF THE INDIES, Francis Xavier; OF TEMPERANCE, Father Mathew. 

APOSTLES, THE FOUR, picture of St. John, St. Peter, St. Mark, andSt. Paul, in the museum at Münich, painted by Albert Dürer. 

APOSTOLIC FATHERS, Fathers of the Church who lived the same time asthe Apostles: Clemens, Barnabas Polycarp, Ignatius, and Hermas. 

APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION, the derivation of episcopal power in anunbroken line from the Apostles, a qualification believed by HighChurchmen to be essential to the discharge of episcopal functions and thetransmission of promised divine grace. 

APPALA`CHIANS, a mountainous system of N. America that stretches NE. From the tablelands of Alabama to the St. Lawrence, and includes theAlleghanies and the Blue Mountains; their utmost height, under 7000 feet;do not reach the snow-line; abound in coal and iron. 

APPENZELL` (67), a canton in the NE. Of Switzerland, enclosed by St. Gall, divided into Outer Rhoden, which is manufacturing and Protestant, and Inner Rhoden, which is agricultural and Catholic; also the name ofthe capital. 

AP`PIAN, an Alexandrian Greek, wrote in 2nd century a history ofRome in 24 books, of which 11 remain. 

AP`PIAN WAY, a magnificent highway begun by Appius Claudius, 312 B. C. , and finished by Augustus, from Rome to Brundusium. 

APPLE OF DISCORD, a golden apple inscribed with the words, "To themost Beautiful, " thrown in among the gods of Olympus on a particularoccasion, contended for by Hera, Athena, and Aphrodité, and awarded byParis of Troy, as referee, to Aphrodité, on promise that he would havethe most beautiful woman of the world for wife. 

APPLEBY, the county town of Westmorland, on the Eden; is a healthresort. 

APPLEGATH, AUGUSTUS, inventor of the vertical printing-press(1788-1871). 

APPLETON (11), a city of Wisconsin, U. S. , on the Fox River. 

APPLETON, CH. EDWARD, founder and editor of the _Academy_(1841-1879). 

APPOMATTOX COURTHOUSE, a village in Virginia, U. S. , where Gen. Leesurrendered to Gen. Grant in 1865. 

APRAXEN, COUNT, a celebrated naval commander under Peter the Greatand his right-hand man in many enterprises (1671-1728). 

APRIL, the fourth month of the year, the month of "opening of thelight in the days, and of the life of the leaves, and of the voices ofthe birds, and of the hearts of men. "

AP`TERYX, a curious New Zealand bird with rudimentary wings, plumagelike hair, and no tail. 

APULE`IUS, a student of Plato, of N. African birth, lived in the 2ndcentury; having captivated a rich widow, was charged at one time withsorcery; his most celebrated work was the "Golden Ass, " which contains, among other stories, the exquisite apologue or romance of PSYCHEand CUPID (q. V. ). 

APU`LIA (1, 797), an ancient province in SE. Of Italy, which extendsas far N. As Monte Gargano, and the scene of the last stages in thesecond Punic war. 

APU`RE, a river in Venezuela, chief tributary of the Orinoco, intowhich it falls by six branches. 

AQUA TOFA`NA, Tofana's poison, some solution of arsenic with which aSicilian woman called Tofana, in 17th century, poisoned, it is alleged, 600 people. 

AQUA`RIUS, the Water-bearer, 11th sign of the Zodiac, which the sunenters Jan. 21. 

AQUAVIVA, a general of the Jesuits of high authority (1543-1615). 

A`QUILA (20), capital of the province of Abruzzo Ulteriora, on theAlterno, founded by Barbarossa; a busy place. 

A`QUILA, a Judaised Greek of Sinope, in Pontus, executed a literaltranslation of the Old Testament into Greek in the interest of Judaismversus Christianity in the first half of the 2nd century A. D. 

A`QUILA, GASPAR, a friend of Luther who aided him in the translationof the Bible. 

AQUILEIA, an Italian village, 22 m. W. Of Trieste, once a place ofgreat importance, where several councils of the Church were held. 

AQUI`NAS, THOMAS, the Angelic Doctor, or Doctor of the Schools, anItalian of noble birth, studied at Naples, became a Dominican monkdespite the opposition of his parents, sat at the feet of AlbertusMagnus, and went with him to Paris, was known among his pupils as the"Dumb Ox, " from his stubborn silence at study, prelected at his AlmaMater and elsewhere with distinguished success, and being invited toassist the Council at Lyons, fell sick and died. His "Summa Theologiæ, "the greatest of his many works, is a masterly production, and to this dayof standard authority in the Romish Church. His writings, which fill 17folio vols. , along with those of Duns Scotus, his rival, constitute thehigh-water mark of scholastic philosophy and the watershed of itsdivergence into the PHILOSOPHICO-SPECULATIVE THOUGHT on the onehand, and the ETHICO-PRACTICAL OR REALISM OF MODERN TIMES on theother, q. V. (1226-1274). 

AQUITAINE`, a division of ancient Gaul between the Garonne and thePyrenees, was from the time of Henry II. Till 1453 an appanage of theEnglish crown. 

ARABELLA STUART, a cousin of King James I. , the victim all her daysof jealousy and state policy, suspected of aspiring to the crown on thedeath of Queen Elizabeth, was shut up in the Tower of London, where shedied bereft of reason in 1615 at the age of 38. 

ARABESQUE, an ornamentation introduced by the Moors, consisting ofimaginary, often fantastic, mathematical or vegetable forms, butexclusive of the forms of men and animals. 

ARA`BI, AHMED PASHA, leader of an insurrectionary movement in Egyptin 1882; he claimed descent from the Prophet; banished to Ceylon; _b_. 1839. 

ARABIA (12, 000), the most westerly peninsula of Asia and the largestin the world, being one-third the size of the whole of Europe, consistingof (_a_) a central plateau with pastures for cattle, and fertile valleys;(_b_) a ring of deserts, the Nefud in the N. , stony, the Great Arabian, aperfect Sahara, in the S. , sandy, said sometimes to be 600 ft. Deep, andthe Dahna between; and (_c_) stretches of coast land, generally fertileon the W. And S. ; is divided into eight territories; has no lakes orrivers, only wadies, oftenest dry; the climate being hot and arid, has noforests, and therefore few wild animals; a trading country with no roadsor railways, only caravan routes, yet the birthland of a race thatthreatened at one time to sweep the globe, and of a religion that hasbeen a life-guidance to wide-scattered millions of human beings for overtwelve centuries of time. 

ARABIA FELIX, the W. Coast of Arabia, contains YEMEN and ELHEJAZ (q. V. ), and is subject to Turkey. 

ARABIAN DESERT. See ARABIA. 

ARABIAN NIGHTS, or the Thousand and One Nights, a collection oftales of various origin and date, traceable in their present form to themiddle of the 15th century, and first translated into French by Gallandin 1704. The thread on which they are strung is this: A Persian monarchhaving made a vow that he would marry a fresh bride every night andsacrifice her in the morning, the vizier's daughter obtained permissionto be the first bride, and began a story which broke off at aninteresting part evening after evening for a thousand and one nights, atthe end of which term the king, it is said, released her and spared herlife. 

ARABS, THE, "a noble-gifted people, swift-handed, deep-hearted, something most agile, active, yet most meditative, enthusiastic in theircharacter; a people of wild, strong feelings, and iron restraint overthese. In words too, as in action, not a loquacious people, taciturnrather, but eloquent, gifted when they do speak, an earnest, truthfulkind of men, of Jewish kindred indeed, but with that deadly terribleearnestness of the Jews they seem to combine something graceful, brilliant, which is not Jewish. " Such is Carlyle's opinion of the racefrom whom Mahomet sprang, as given in his "Heroes. "

ARACAN. See ARAKAN. 

ARACH`NE, a Lydian maiden, who excelled in weaving, and whom Athenachanged into a spider because she had proudly challenged her ability toweave as artistic a work; she had failed in the competition, andpreviously hanged herself in her despair. 

ARAD (42), a fortified town in Hungary, seat of a bishop, on theright bank of the Maros; manufactures tobacco, trades in cattle and corn. 

ARAF, the Mohammedan sheol or borderland between heaven and hell forthose who are from incapacity either not morally bad or morally good. 

ARAFAT`, a granite hill E. Of Mecca, a place of pilgrimage as thespot where Adam received his wife after 200 years separation from her onaccount of their disobedience to the Lord in deference to the suggestionof Satan. 

AR`AGO, FRANÇOIS, an eminent physicist and astronomer, born in theS. Of France, entered the Polytechnic School of Paris when seventeen, elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at the early age oftwenty-three, nominated Director of the Observatory in 1830, was memberof the Provisional Government in 1848, refused to take the oath to LouisNapoleon after the _coup d'état_, would rather resign his post at theObservatory, but was retained, and at his death received a public funeral(1786-1853). 

ARAGO, JACQUES, a brother of the preceding, a littérateur and atraveller, author of a "Voyage Round the World" (1790-1855). 

AR`AGON (925), a territory in the NE. Of Spain, traversed by theEbro, and divided as you proceed southward into the provinces of Huesca, Saragossa, and Teruel, mountainous in the N. ; with beautiful fertilevalleys, rather barren, in the S; was a kingdom till 1469. 

ARAGUAY, an affluent of the Tocantins, in Brazil, which it joinsafter a course of 1000 m. , augmented by subsidiary streams. 

ARAKAN (671), a strip of land in British Burmah, on the E. Of theBay of Bengal, 400 m. Long and from 90 to 15 m. Broad, a low, marshycountry; produces and exports large quantities of rice, as well as sugarand hemp. The natives belong to the Burman stock, and are of the Buddhistfaith, though there is a sprinkling of Mohammedans among them. 

ARAL, THE SEA OF, a lake in Turkestan, 265 m. Long and 145 broad, larger than the Irish Sea, 150 m. E. Of the Caspian; has no outlet, shallow, and is said to be drying up. 

ARAM, EUGENE, an English school-usher of scholarly attainments, convicted of murder years after the act and executed 1759, to whose fatea novel of Bulwer Lytton's and a poem of Hood's have lent a romantic andsomewhat fictitious interest. 

ARAMÆA, the territories lying to NE. Of Palestine, the inhabitantsof which spoke a Semitic dialect called Aramaic, and improperly Chaldee. 

ARAMA`IC, the language of Palestine in the days of Christ, a Semiticdialect that has now almost entirely died out. 

ARAMÆ`ANS, a generic name given to the Semitic tribes that dwelt inthe NE. Of Palestine, also to those that dwelt at the mouths of theEuphrates and the Tigris. 

ARAN, VAL D', a Pyrenean valley, source of the Garonne, and one ofthe highest of the Pyrenees. 

ARAN ISLANDS, three islands with antique relics across the mouth ofGalway Bay, to which they form a breakwater. 

ARANDA, COUNT OF, an eminent Spanish statesman, banished theJesuits, suppressed brigandage, and curtailed the power of theInquisition, was Prime Minister of Charles IV. , and was succeeded byGodoy (1719-1798). 

ARANJU`EZ (8), a town 28 m. SE. Of Madrid, long the spring resort ofthe Spanish Court. 

AR`ANY, JANOS, a popular Hungarian poet of peasant origin, attainedto eminence as a man of letters (1819-1882). 

AR`ARAT, a mountain in Armenia on which Noah's ark is said to haverested, 17, 000 ft. High, is within Russian territory, and borders on bothTurkey and Persia. 

ARA`TUS, native of Sicyon, in Greece, promoter of the Achæan League, in which he was thwarted by Philip of Macedon, was poisoned, it is said, by his order (271-213 B. C. ); also a Greek poet, author of two didacticpoems, born in Cilicia, quoted by St Paul in Acts xvii. 28. 

ARAUCA`NIA (88), the country of the Araucos, in Chile, S. OfConcepcion and N. Of Valdivia, the Araucos being an Indian race longresistant but now subject to Chilian authority, and interesting as theonly one that has proved itself able to govern itself and hold its own inthe presence of the white man. 

ARAUCA`RIA, tall conifer trees, natives of and confined to thesouthern hemisphere. 

ARBE`LA, a town near Mosul, where Alexander the Great finallydefeated Darius, 331 B. C. 

ARBROATH (22), a thriving seaport and manufacturing town on theForfarshire coast, 17 m. N. Of Dundee, with the picturesque ruins of anextensive old abbey, of which Cardinal Beaton was the last abbot. It isthe "Fairport" of the "Antiquary. "

ARBUTHNOT, JOHN, a physician and eminent literary man of the age ofQueen Anne and her two successors, born in Kincardineshire, the friend ofSwift and Pope and other lights of the time, much esteemed by them forhis wit and kind-heartedness, joint-author with Swift, it is thought, ofthe "Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus" and the "History of John Bull"(1667-1735). 

AR`CACHON (7), a popular watering-place, with a fine beach and amild climate, favourable for invalids suffering from pulmonarycomplaints, 34 m. SW. Of Bordeaux. 

ARCA`DIA, a mountain-girt pastoral tableland in the heart of theMorea, 50 m. Long by 40 broad, conceived by the poets as a land ofshepherds and shepherdesses, and rustic simplicity and bliss, and was theseat of the worship of Artemis and Pan. 

ARCA`DIUS, the first emperor of the East, born in Spain, a weak, luxurious prince, leaving the government in other hands (377-405). 

ARCESILA`US, a Greek philosopher, a member of the Platonic Schooland founder of the New Academy, who held in opposition to the Stoics thatperception was not knowledge, denied that we had any accurate criterionof truth, and denounced all dogmatism in opinion. 

ARCHÆOLOGY, the study or the science of the monuments of antiquity, as distinct from palæontology, which has to do with extinct organisms orfossil remains. 

ARCHANGEL (19), the oldest seaport of Russia, on the Dvina, near itsmouth, on the White Sea, is accessible to navigation from July toOctober, is connected with the interior by river and canal, and has alarge trade in flax, timber, tallow, and tar. 

ARCHANGELS, of these, according to the Korân, there are four:Gabriel, the angel who reveals; Michael, the angel who fights; Azrael, the angel of death; Azrafil, the angel of the resurrection. 

ARCHELA`US, king of Macedonia, and patron of art and literature, with whom Euripides found refuge in his exile, _d_. 400 B. C. ; a generalof Mithridates, conquered by Sulla twice over; also the Ethnarch ofJudea, son of Herod, deposed by Augustus, died at Vienne. 

ARCHER, JAMES, portrait-painter, born in Edinburgh, 1824. 

ARCHER, WM. , dramatic critic, born in Perth, 1856. 

AR`CHES, COURT OF, an ecclesiastical court of appeal connected withthe archbishopric of Canterbury, the judge of which is called the dean. 

AR`CHIL, a purple dye obtained from lichens. 

ARCHIL`OCHUS, a celebrated lyric poet of Greece; of a satiric andoften bitter vein, the inventor of iambic verse (714-676 B. C. ). 

ARCHIMA`GO, a sorcerer in Spenser's "Faërie Queene, " who in thedisguise of a reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa or Deceit, seduces the Red-Cross Knight from Una or Truth. 

ARCHIME`DES OF SYRACUSE, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, aman of superlative inventive power, well skilled in all the mechanicalarts and sciences of the day. When Syracuse was taken by the Romans, hewas unconscious of the fact, and slain, while busy on some problem, by aRoman soldier, notwithstanding the order of the Roman general that hislife should be spared. He is credited with the boast: "Give me a fulcrum, and I will move the world. " He discovered how to determine the specificweight of bodies while he was taking a bath, and was so excited over thediscovery that, it is said, he darted off stark naked on the instantthrough the streets, shouting "_Eureka! Eureka!_ I have found it! I havefound it!" (287-212 B. C. ). 

ARCHIMED`ES SCREW, in its original form a hollow spiral placedslantingly to raise water by revolving it. 

ARCHIPEL`AGO, originally the Ægean Sea, now the name of any similarsea interspersed with islands, or the group of islands included in it. 

ARCHITRAVE, the lowest part of an entablature, resting immediatelyon the capital. 

AR`CHON, a chief magistrate of Athens, of which there were nine at atime, each over a separate department; the tenure of office was first forlife, then for ten years, and finally for one. 

ARCHY`TAS OF TARENTUM, famous as a statesman, a soldier, ageometrician, a philosopher, and a man; a Pythagorean in philosophy, andinfluential in that capacity over the minds of Plato, his contemporary, and Aristotle; was drowned in the Adriatic Sea, 4th century B. C. ; hisbody lay unburied on the shore till a sailor humanely cast a handful ofsand on it, otherwise he would have had to wander on this side the Styxfor a hundred years, such the virtue of a little dust, _munera pulveris_, as Horace calls it. 

ARCIS`-SUR-AUBE (3), a town 17 m. N. Of Troyes, in France, birthplace of Danton; scene of a defeat of Napoleon, March 1814. 

AR`COT, the name of two districts, N. And S. , in the Presidency ofMadras; also chief town (11) in the district, 65 m. SW. Of Madras;captured by Clive in 1787; once the capital of the Carnatic. 

ARCTIC OCEAN, a circular ocean round the N. Pole, its diameter 40°, with low, flat shores, covered with ice-fields, including numerousislands; the Gulf Stream penetrates it, and a current flows out of itinto the Atlantic. 

ARCTU`RUS, star of the first magnitude and the chief in the N. Constellation Boötes. 

ARDÈCHE, an affluent of the Rhône, source in the Cévennes; givesname to a department traversed by the Cévennes Mountains. 

ARDEN, a large forest at one time in England, E. Of the Severn. 

ARDEN, ENOCH, hero of a poem by Tennyson, who finds, on his returnfrom the sea, after long absence, his wife, who believed him dead, married happily to another; does not disclose himself, and diesbroken-hearted. 

ARDENNES, a forest, a tract of rugged woodland on the confines ofFrance and Belgium; also department of France (325), on the borders ofBelgium. 

AR`DOCH, a place in Perthshire, 7 m. From Crieff, with the remainsof a Roman camp, the most complete in Britain. 

ARENDS, LEOPOLD, a Russian of literary ability, inventor of a systemof stenography extensively used on the Continent (1817-1882). 

AREOPAGITICA, a prose work of Milton's, described by Prof. Saintsbury as "a magnificent search for the Dead Truth. "

AREOP`AGUS, the hill of Ares in Athens, which gave name to thecelebrated council held there, a tribunal of 31 members, charged withjudgment in criminal offences, and whose sentences were uniformly theawards of strictest justice. 

AREQUI`PA (35), a city in Peru, founded by Pizarro in 1536, in afruitful valley of the Andes, 8000 ft. Above the sea, 30 m. Inland; ismuch subject to earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one in 1868. 

A`RÉS, the Greek god of war in its sanguinary aspects; was the sonof Zeus and Hera; identified by the Romans with Mars, was fond of war forits own sake, and had for sister Eris, the goddess of strife, who used topander to his passion. 

ARETÆ`US, a Greek physician of 1st century; wrote a treatise ondiseases, their causes, symptoms, and cures, still extant. 

ARETHU`SA, a celebrated fountain in the island of Ortygia, nearSyracuse, transformed from a Nereid pursued thither from Elis, in Greece, by the river-god Alphæus, so that the waters of the river henceforthmingled with those of the fountain. 

ARETI`NO, PIETRO, called the "Scourge of Princes, " a licentioussatirical writer, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, alternately attached topeople and repelled from them by his wit, moved from one centre ofattraction to another; settled in Venice, where he died after anuncontrollable fit of laughter which seized him at the story of theadventure of a sister (1492-1557). 

AREZZO (44), an ancient Tuscan city, 38 m. SE. Of Florence, andeventually subject to it; the birthplace of Mæcenas, Michael Angelo, Petrarch, Guido, and Vasari. 

AR`GALI, a sheep of Siberia, as large as a moderately-sized ox, withenormous grooved curving horns, strong-limbed, sure-footed, and swift. 

ARGAN`, the hypochondriac rich patient in Molière's "Le MaladeImaginaire. "

ARGAND, a Swiss physician and chemist, born at Geneva; inventor ofthe argand lamp, which, as invented by him, introduced a circular wick(1755-1803). 

ARGELAN`DER, a distinguished astronomer, born at Memel, professor atBonn; he fixed the position of 22, 000 stars, and recorded observations toprove that the solar system was moving through space (1799-1874). 

AR`GENS, MARQUIS D', a French soldier who turned to letters, authorof sceptical writings, of which the best known is entitled "LettresJuives" (1704-1771). 

ARGENSON, RENÉ-LOUIS, MARQUIS D', French statesman, who left"Memoirs" of value as affecting the early and middle part of Louis XV. 'sreign (1694-1757). 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, or ARGENTINA (4, 000), a confederation likethat of the United States of 14 states and 9 territories, occupying theeastern slopes of the Andes and the vast level plain extending from themto the Atlantic, bounded on the N. By Bolivia and Paraguay; its area tentimes that of Great Britain and Ireland; while the population includes600, 000 foreigners, Italians, French, Spaniards, English, and Germans. 

AR`GO, the fifty-oared ship of the ARGONAUTS (q. V. ). 

AR`GOLIS, the north-eastern peninsula of the Morea of Greece, andone of the 13 provinces of Greece, is 12 m. Long by 5 m. Broad. 

AR`GON, a new element lately discovered to exist in a gaseous formin the nitrogen of the air. 

ARGONAUTICA, the title of a poem on the Argonautic expedition byApollonius of Rhodes. 

AR`GONAUTS, the Greek heroes, sailors in the _Argo_, who, under thecommand of Jason, sailed for Colchis in quest of the golden fleece, whichwas guarded by a dragon that never slept, a perilous venture, but itproved successful with the assistance of Medea, the daughter of the king, whom, with the fleece, Jason in the end brought away with him to be hiswife. 

ARGONNE`, FOREST OF, "a long strip of rocky mountain and wild wood"in the NE. Of France, within the borders of which the Duke of Brunswickwas outwitted by Dumouriez in 1792. 

AR`GOS (9), the capital of Argolis, played for long a prominent partin the history of Greece, but paled before the power of Sparta. 

AR`GUS, surnamed the "All-seeing, " a fabulous creature with ahundred eyes, of which one half was always awake, appointed by Hera towatch over Io, but Hermes killed him after lulling him to sleep by thesound of his flute, whereupon Hera transferred his eyes to the tail ofthe peacock, her favourite bird. Also the dog of Ulysses, immortalised byHomer; he was the only creature that recognised Ulysses under his rags onhis return to Ithaca after twenty years' absence, under such excitement, however, that immediately after he dropped down dead. 

ARGUS, a pheasant, a beautiful Oriental game-bird, so called fromthe eye-like markings on its plumage. 

ARGYLL (74), a large county in the W. Of Scotland, consisting ofdeeply indented mainland and islands, and abounding in mountains, moorlands, and lochs, with scenery often picturesque as well as wild andsavage. 

ARGYLL, a noble family or clan of the name of Campbell, the membersof which have held successively the title of Earl, Marquis, and Duke, their first patent of nobility dating from 1445, and their earldom from1453. 

ARGYLL, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1ST MARQUIS OF, sided with theCovenanters, fought against Montrose, disgusted with the execution ofCharles I. , crowned Charles II. At Scone, after the Restoration committedto the Tower, was tried and condemned, met death nobly (1598-1661). 

ARGYLL, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 9TH EARL OF, son of the preceding, fought for Charles II. , was taken prisoner, released at the Restorationand restored to his estates, proved rebellious at last, and was condemnedto death; escaped to Holland, made a descent on Scotland, was capturedand executed in 1685. 

ARGYLL, GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8TH DUKE OF, as Marquis ofLorne took a great interest in the movement which led to the Disruptionof the Church of Scotland in 1843, a Whig in politics, was a member ofthe Cabinets of Aberdeen, Palmerston, and Gladstone; of late has shownmore Conservative tendencies; takes a deep interest in the scientifictheories and questions of the time; wrote, among other works, a book in1866 entitled "The Reign of Law, " in vindication of Theism, and anotherin the same interest in 1884 entitled "The Unity of Nature"; _b_. 1824. 

ARGYLL, JOHN CAMPBELL, 2ND DUKE OF, favoured the Union, was createdan English peer, fought under Marlborough, opposed the return of theStuarts, defeated Mar at Sheriffmuir, ruled Scotland under Walpole(1678-1743). 

ARIAD`NE, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, gave to Theseus a clueby which to escape out of the labyrinth after he had slain the Minotaur, for which Theseus promised to marry her; took her with him to Naxos andleft her there, where, according to one tradition, Artemis killed her, and according to another, Dionysos found her and married her, placing herat her death among the gods, and hanging her wedding wreath as aconstellation in the sky. 

ARIANISM, the heresy of ARIUS (q. V. ). 

ARIA`NO (12), a city with a fine cathedral, 1500 ft. Above thesea-level, NE. Of Naples; has a trade in wine and butter. 

ARI`CA, a seaport connected with Tacna, S. Of Peru, the chief outletfor the produce of Bolivia; suffers again and again from earthquakes, andwas almost destroyed in 1832. 

ARIÈGE, a department of France, at the foot of the northern slopesof the Pyrenees; has extensive forests and is rich in minerals. 

A`RIEL, in Shakespeare's "Tempest, " a spirit of the air whomProspero finds imprisoned by Sycorax in the cleft of a pine-tree, andliberates on condition of her serving him for a season, which shewillingly engages to do, and does. 

ARIEL, an idol of the Moabites, an outcast angel. 

ARIES, the Ram. The first of the signs of the Zodiac, which the sunenters on March 21, though the constellation itself, owing to theprecession of the equinoxes, is no longer within the limits of the sign. 

ARI`ON, a lyrist of Lesbos, lived chiefly at the court of Periander, Corinth; returning in a ship from a musical contest in Sicily laden withprizes, the sailors plotted to kill him, when he begged permission toplay one strain on his lute, which being conceded, dolphins crowded roundthe ship, whereupon he leapt over the bulwarks, was received on the backof one of them, and carried to Corinth, arriving there before thesailors, who, on their landing, were apprehended and punished. 

ARIOS`TO, LUDOVICO, an illustrious Italian poet, born at Reggio, inLombardy; spent his life chiefly in Ferrara, mostly in poverty; his greatwork "ORLANDO FURIOSO" (q. V. ), published the first edition, in40 cantos, in 1516, and the third in 46 cantos, in 1532; the work is socalled from the chief subject of it, the madness of Roland induced by theloss of his lady-love through her marriage to another (1474-1532). 

ARIOVISTUS, a German chief, invaded Gaul, and threatened to overrunit, but was forced back over the Rhine by Cæsar. 

ARISTÆ`US, a son of Apollo, the guardian divinity of the vine andolive, of hunters and herdsmen; first taught the management of bees, someof which stung Eurydice to death, whereupon the nymphs, companions ofOrpheus, her husband, set upon his bees and destroyed them. In thisextremity Aristæus applied to Proteus, who advised him to sacrifice fourbullocks to appease the manes of Eurydice; this done, there issued fromthe carcasses of the victims a swarm of bees, which reconciled him to theloss of the first ones. 

ARISTAR`CHUS OF SAMOS, a Greek astronomer, who first conceived theidea of the rotundity of the earth and its revolution both on its ownaxis and round the sun, in promulgating which idea he was accused ofimpiously disturbing the serenity of the gods (280 B. C. ). 

ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOTHRACE, a celebrated Greek grammarian and critic, who devoted his life to the elucidation and correct transmission of thetext of the Greek poets, and especially Homer (158-88 B. C. ). 

ARISTE`AS, a sort of Wandering Jew of Greek fable, who turns up hereand there in Greek tradition, and was thought to be endowed with a soulthat could at will leave and enter the body. 

ARISTI`DES, an Athenian general and statesman, surnamed The Just;covered himself with glory at the battle of Marathon; was made archonnext year, in the discharge of the duties of which office he received hissurname; was banished by ostracism at the instance of his rival, Themistocles; recalled three years after the invasion of Xerxes, wasreconciled to Themistocles, fought bravely at Salamis, and distinguishedhimself at Platæa; managed the finances of the State with such probitythat he died poor, was buried at the public charges, and left the Stateto provide for his children. 

ARISTION, a philosopher, tyrant of Athens, put to death by order ofSylla, 86 B. C. 

ARISTIP`PUS OF CYRENE, founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, a disciple of Socrates; in his teaching laid too much emphasis on oneprinciple of Socrates, apart from the rest, in insisting too exclusivelyupon pleasure as the supreme good and ultimate aim of life. 

ARISTOBU`LUS I. , son of John Hyrcanus, first of the Asmonæan dynastyin Judea to assume the name of king, which he did from 104-102 B. C. , apronounced Helleniser; A. II. , twice carried captive to Rome, assassinated 50 B. C. ; A. III. , last of Asmonæan dynasty, drowned byHerod in the Jordan, 34 B. C. 

ARISTODE`MUS, king of Messenia, carried on for 20 years a war withSparta, till at length finding resistance hopeless he put an end to hislife on the tomb of his daughter, whom he had sacrificed to ensure thefulfilment of an oracle to the advantage of his house; _d_. 724 B. C. Also a Greek sculptor, 4th century B. C. 

ARISTOM`ENES, a mythical king of Messenia, celebrated for hisstruggle with the Spartans, and his resistance to them on Mount Ira for11 years, which at length fell to the enemy, while he escaped and wassnatched up by the gods; died at Rhodes. 

ARISTOPHANES, the great comic dramatist of Athens, lived in the 5thcentury B. C. ; directed the shafts of his wit, which were very keen, against all of whatever rank who sought in any way to alter, and, as itwas presumed, amend, the religious, philosophical, social, political, orliterary creed and practice of the country, and held up to ridicule suchmen as Socrates and Euripides, as well as Cleon the tanner; wrote 54plays, of which 11 have come down to us; of these the "Clouds" aim atSocrates, the "Acharnians" and the "Frogs" at Euripides, and the"Knights" at Cleon; _d_. 384 B. C. 

AR`ISTOTLE, a native of Stagira, in Thrace, and hence named theStagirite; deprived of his parents while yet a youth; came in his 17thyear to Athens, remained in Plato's society there for 20 years; after thedeath of Plato, at the request of Philip, king of Macedon, who held himin high honour, became the preceptor of Alexander the Great, then only 13years old; on Alexander's expedition into Asia, returned to Athens andbegan to teach in the Lyceum, where it was his habit to walk up and downas he taught, from which circumstance his school got the name ofPeripatetic; after 13 years he left the city and went to Chalcis, inEuboea, where he died. He was the oracle of the scholastic philosophersand theologians in the Middle Ages; is the author of a great number ofwritings which covered a vast field of speculation, of which the progressof modern science goes to establish the value; is often referred to asthe incarnation of the philosophic spirit (385-322 B. C. ). 

ARISTOX`ENUS OF TARENTUM, a Greek philosopher, author of the"Elements of Harmony, " the only one of his many works extant, and one ofthe oldest writers on music; contemporary of Aristotle. 

A`RIUS, a presbyter of Alexandria in the 4th century, and founder ofArianism, which denied the consubstantiality of the Son with the Fatherin the so-called Trinity, a doctrine which hovered for a time betweenacceptance and rejection throughout the Catholic Church; was condemnedfirst by a local synod which met at Alexandria in 321, and then by aGeneral Council at Nice in 325, which the Emperor Constantine attended inperson; the author was banished to Illyricum, his writings burned, andthe possession of them voted to be a crime; after three years he wasrecalled by Constantine, who ordered him to be restored; was about to bereadmitted into the Church when he died suddenly, by poison, alleged hisfriends--by the judgment of God, said his enemies (280-336). 

ARIZO`NA (59), a territory of the United States N. Of Mexico and W. Of New Mexico, nearly four times as large as Scotland, rich in mines ofgold, silver, and copper, fertile in the lowlands; much of the surface abarren plateau 11, 000 ft. High, through which the cañon of the Coloradopasses. See CAÑON. 

ARK OF THE COVENANT, a chest of acacia wood overlaid with gold, 2½cubits long and 1½ in breadth; contained the two tables of stoneinscribed with the Ten Commandments, the gold pot with the manna, andAaron's rod; the lid supported the mercy-seat, with a cherub at each end, and the shekinah radiance between. 

ARKANS`AS (1, 128), one of the Southern States of America, N. OfLouisiana and W. Of the Mississippi, a little larger than England; richin metals, grows cotton and corn. 

ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD, born at Preston, Lancashire; bred to thetrade of a barber; took interest in the machinery of cotton-spinning;with the help of a clockmaker, invented the spinning frame; was mobbedfor threatening thereby to shorten labour and curtail wages, and had toflee; fell in with Mr. Strutt of Derby, who entered into partnership withhim; prospered in business and died worth half a million. "FrenchRevolutions were a-brewing; to resist the same in any way, ImperialCæsars were impotent without the cotton and cloth of England; and it wasthis man, " says Carlyle, "that had to give to England the power ofcotton" (1732-1792). 

ARLBERG, a mountain mass between the Austrian provinces ofVorarlberg and Tyrol, pierced by a tunnel, one of the three thatpenetrate the Alps, and nearly four miles in length. 

ARLES (14), a city, one of the oldest in France, on the Rhône, 46 m. N. Of Marseilles, where Constantine built a palace, with ruins of anamphitheatre and other Roman works; the seat of several Church Councils. 

AR`LINCOURT, VISCOUNT D', a French romancer, born near Versailles(1789-1856). 

AR`LINGTON, HENRY BENNET, EARL OF, served under Charles I. , andaccompanied Charles II. In his exile; a prominent member of the famousCabal; being impeached when in office, lost favour and retired intoprivate life (1618-1685). 

AR`LON (8), a prosperous town in Belgium, capital of Luxemburg. 

ARMA`DA, named the Invincible, an armament fitted out in 1588 byPhilip II. Of Spain against England, consisting of 130 war-vessels, mounted with 2430 cannon, and manned by 20, 000 soldiers; was defeated inthe Channel on July 20 by Admiral Howard, seconded by Drake, Hawkins, andFrobisher; completely dispersed and shattered by a storm in retreat onthe coasts of Scotland and Ireland, the English losing only one ship; ofthe whole fleet only 53 ships found their way back to Spain, and thesenearly all _hors de combat_. 

ARMAGEDDON, a name given in Apocalypse to the final battlefieldbetween the powers of good and evil, or Christ and Antichrist. 

ARMAGH (143), a county in Ulster, Ireland, 32 m. Long by 20 m. Broad; and a town (18) in it, 33 m. SW. Of Belfast, from the 5th to the9th century the capital of Ireland, as it is the ecclesiastical still;the chief manufacture linen-weaving. 

ARMAGNAC, a district, part of Gascony, in France, now in dep. OfGers, celebrated for its wine and brandy. 

ARMAGNACS, a faction in France in time of Charles VI. At mortal feudwith the Bourguignons. 

ARMATO`LES, warlike marauding tribes in the mountainous districts ofNorthern Greece, played a prominent part in the War of Independence in1820. 

ARMED SOLDIER OF DEMOCRACY, Napoleon Bonaparte. 

ARME`NIA, a country in Western Asia, W. Of the Caspian Sea and N. OfKurdistan Mts. , anciently independent, now divided between Turkey, Russia, and Persia, occupying a plateau interspersed with fertilevalleys, which culminates in Mt. Ararat, in which the Euphrates andTigris have their sources. 

ARMENIANS, a people of the Aryan race occupying Armenia, earlyconverted to Christianity of the Eutychian type; from early times haveemigrated into adjoining, and even remote, countries, and are, like theJews, mainly engaged in commercial pursuits, the wealthier of themespecially in banking. 

ARMENTIÈRES (27), a manufacturing and trading town in France, 12 m. N. Of Lille. 

ARMI`DA, a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered, "who bewitched Rinaldo, one of the Crusaders, by her charms, as Circe didUlysses, and who in turn, when the spell was broken, overpowered her byhis love and persuaded her to become a Christian. _The Almida Palace_, inwhich she enchanted Rinaldo, has become a synonym for any merelyvisionary but enchanting palace of pleasure. 

ARMINIANISM. See ARMINIUS. 

ARMIN`IUS, or HERMANN, the Deliverer of Germany from theRomans by the defeat of Varus, the Roman general, in 9 A. D. , nearDetmold (where a colossal statue has been erected to his memory); killedin some family quarrel in his 37th year. 

ARMINIUS, JACOBUS, a learned Dutch theologian and founder ofArminianism, an assertion of the free-will of man in the matter ofsalvation against the necessitarianism of Calvin (1560-1609). 

ARMOR`ICA, a district of Gaul from the Loire to the Seine. 

ARMSTRONG, JOHN, a Scotch doctor and poet, born in Roxburghshire, practised medicine in London; friend of poet Thomson, as well as ofWilkes and Smollett, and author of "The Art of Preserving Health"(1709-1779). 

ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE, LORD, born at Newcastle, produced thehydraulic accumulator and the hydraulic crane, established the Elswickengine works in the suburbs of his native city, devoted his attention tothe improvement of heavy ordnance, invented the Armstrong gun, which hegot the Government to adopt, knighted in 1858, and in 1887 raised to thepeerage; _b_. 1810. 

AR`NAUD, HENRI, a pastor of the Vaudois, turned soldier to rescue, and did rescue, his co-religionists from their dispersion under thepersecution of the Count of Savoy; but when the Vaudois were exiled asecond time, he accompanied them in their exile to Schomberg, and actedpastor to them till his death (1641-1721). 

ARNAULD, ANTOINE, the "great Arnauld, " a French theologian, doctorof the Sorbonne, an inveterate enemy of the Jesuits, defended Jansenismagainst the Bull of the Pope, became religious director of the nuns ofPort Royal des Champs, associated here with a circle of kindred spirits, among others Pascal; expelled from the Sorbonne and banished the country, died at Brussels (1612-1694). 

ARNAULD, MARIE ANGE`LIQUE, _La Mère Angelique_ as she was called, sister of the preceding and abbess of the Port Royal, a victim of thepersecutions of the Jesuits to very death (1624-1684). 

ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ, a German poet and patriot, whose memory is muchrevered by the whole German people, one of the first to rouse hiscountrymen to shake off the tyranny of Napoleon; his songs and eloquentappeals went straight to the heart of the nation and contributedpowerfully to its liberation; his "Geist der Zeit" made him flee thecountry after the battle of Jena, and his "Was ist des DeutschenVaterland?" strikes a chord in the breast of every German all the worldover (1710-1860). 

ARNDT, JOHN, a Lutheran theologian, the author of "TrueChristianity, " a work which, in Germany and elsewhere, has contributed toinfuse a new spirit of life into the profession of the Christianreligion, which seemed withering away under the influence of a lifelessdogmatism (1553-1621). 

ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE, a musical composer of versatile genius, produced, during over 40 years, a succession of pieces in every stylefrom songs to sonatas and oratorios, among others the world-famous chorus"Rule Britannia"; Mrs. Cibber was his sister (1719-1778). 

ARN`HEIM (51), the capital of Guelderland, is situated on the rightbank of the Rhine, and has a large transit trade. 

ARNIM, BETTINE VON, sister of Clemens Brentano, wife of LudwigArnim, a native of Frankfort; at 22 conceived a passionate love forGoethe, then in his 60th year, visited him at Weimar, and correspondedwith him afterwards, part of which correspondence appeared subsequentlyunder the title of "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child" (1785-1859). 

ARNIM, COUNT, ambassador of Germany, first at Rome and then atParis; accused in the latter capacity of purloining State documents, andsentenced to imprisonment; died in exile at Nice (1824-1881). 

ARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM VON, a German poet and novelist (1781-1831). 

ARNO, a river of Italy, rises in the Apennines, flows westward pastFlorence and Pisa into the Mediterranean, subject to destructiveinundations. 

ARNOBIUS, an African rhetorician who, in the beginning of the 4thcentury, embraced Christianity, and wrote a book in its defence, stillextant, and of great value, entitled "Disputations against the Heathen. "

ARNOLD, BENEDICT, an American military general, entered the ranks ofthe colonists under Washington during the War of Independence, distinguished himself in several engagements, promoted to the rank ofgeneral, negotiated with the English general Clinton to surrender animportant post entrusted to him, escaped to the English ranks on thediscovery of the plot, and served in them against his country; _d_. InEngland in 1801. 

ARNOLD, MATTHEW, poet and critic, eldest son of Thomas Arnold ofRugby; professor of Poetry in Oxford from 1857 to 1867; inspector ofschools for 35 years from 1851; commissioned twice over to visit France, Germany, and Holland, to inquire into educational matters there; wrotetwo separate reports thereon of great value; author of "Poems, " of ahighly finished order and showing a rich poetic gift, "Essays onCriticism, " "Culture and Anarchy, " "St. Paul and Protestantism, ""Literature and Dogma, " &c. ; a man of culture, and especially literaryculture, of which he is reckoned the apostle; died suddenly at Liverpool. He was more eminent as a poet than a critic, influential as he was inthat regard. "It is, " says Swinburne, "by his verse and not his prose hemust be judged, " and is being now judged (1822-1888). 

ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN, poet and journalist, familiar with Indianliterature; author of the "Light of Asia, " "Light of the World, " andother works in prose and verse; _b_. 1832, at Gravesend. 

ARNOLD, THOMAS, head-master of Rugby, and professor of ModernHistory at Oxford; by his moral character and governing faculty effectedimmense reforms in Rugby School; was liberal in his principles and of aphilanthropic spirit; he wrote a "History of Rome" based on Niebuhr, andedited Thucydides; his "Life and Correspondence" was edited by DeanStanley (1795-1842). 

ARNOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian monk, and disciple of Abelard;declaimed against the temporal power of the Pope, the corruptions of theChurch, and the avarice of the clergy; headed an insurrection against thePope in Rome, which collapsed under the Pope's interdict; at last wasburned alive in 1156, and his ashes thrown into the Tiber. 

ARNOLD OF WINKELRIED, the Decius of Switzerland, a peasant of thecanton of Unterwald, who, by the voluntary sacrifice of his life, brokethe lines of the Austrians at Sempach in 1386 and decided the fate of thebattle. 

ARNOTT, DR. NEIL, a native of Arbroath, author of the "Elements ofPhysics" and of several hygienic inventions (1788-1874). 

AROU`ET, the family name of Voltaire; his name formed by aningenious transposition he made of the letters of his name, Arouet l. J. (jeune). 

AR`PAD, the national hero of Hungary; established for the Magyars afirm footing in the country; was founder of the Arpad dynasty, whichbecame extinct in 1301; _d_. 907. 

ARPI`NO (ARPINIUM), an ancient town in Latium, S. Of Rome, birthplace of Cicero and Marius. 

ARQUA, a village 12 m. SW. Of Padua, where Petrarch died and wasburied. 

ARRACK, a spirituous liquor, especially that distilled from thejuice of the cocoa-nut tree and from fermented rice. 

AR`RAH, a town in Bengal, 36 m. From Patna; famous for its defenceby a handful of English and Sikhs against thousands during the Mutiny. 

ARRAN (4), largest island in the Firth of Clyde, in Buteshire; amountainous island, highest summit Goatfell, 2866 ft, with a margin oflowland round the coast; nearly all the property of the Duke of Hamilton, whose seat is Brodick Castle. 

ARRAS (20), a French town in the dep. Of Pas-de-Calais, longcelebrated for its tapestry; the birthplace of Damiens and Robespierre. 

AR`RIA, a Roman matron, who, to encourage her husband in meetingdeath, to which he had been sentenced, thrust a poniard into her ownbreast, and then handed it to him, saying, "It is not painful, " whereuponhe followed her example. 

AR`RIAN, FLAVIUS, a Bithynian, a friend of Epictetus the Stoic, edited his "Enchiridion"; wrote a "History of Alexander the Great, " and"Periplus, " an account of voyages round the Euxine and round the Red Sea;_b_. 100, and died at an advanced age. 

ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS, the same as the CUNEIFORM (q. V. ). 

ARRU ISLANDS (15), a group of 80 coralline islands, belonging toHolland, W. Of New Guinea; export mother-of-pearl, pearls, tortoise-shell, &c. 

AR`SACES I. , the founder of the dynasty of the Arsacidæ, by a revoltwhich proved successful against the Seleucidæ, 250 B. C. 

ARSACIDÆ, a dynasty of 31 Parthian kings, who wrested the thronefrom Antiochus II. , the last of the Seleucidæ, 250 B. C. 

ARSIN`OË, the name of several Egyptian princesses of antiquity; alsoa prude in Molière's "Misanthrope. "

ARTA, GULF OF, gulf forming the NW. Frontier of Greece. 

ARTS, THE. There are three classes of these, the Liberal, the Fine, and the Mechanical: the Liberal, implying scholarship, graduation inwhich is granted by universities, entitling the holder to append M. A. Tohis name; the Mechanical, implying skill; and the Fine, implying thepossession of a soul, discriminated from the mechanical by the wordspiritual, as holding of the entire, undivided man, heart as well asbrain. 

ARTAXER`XES, the name of several Persian monarchs: A. I. , called the "Long-handed, " from his right hand being longer than his left;son of Xerxes I. ; concluded a peace with Greece after a war of 52years; entertained Themistocles at his court; king from 465 to 424 B. C. A. II. , MNEMON, vanquished and killed his brother Cyrus at Cunaxa in401, who had revolted against him; imposed in 387 on the Spartans theshameful treaty of ANTALCIDAS (q. V. ); king from 405 to 359B. C. A. III. , OCHUS, son of the preceding, slew all his kindred onascending the throne; in Egypt slew the sacred bull Apis and gave theflesh to his soldiers, for which his eunuch Bagsas poisoned him; kingfrom 359 to 338 B. C. A. IV. , grandson of Sassan, founder of thedynasty Sassanidæ; restored the old religion of the Magi, amended thelaws, and promoted education; king from A. D. 223 to 232. 

ARTE`DI, a Swedish naturalist, assisted Linnæus in his "SystemaNaturæ"; his own great work, "Ichthyologia, " published by Linnæus afterhis death (1703-1735). 

AR`TEGAL, the impersonation and champion of Justice in Spenser's"Faërie Queene. "

AR`TEMIS, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Zeus and Leto, twinsister of Apollo, born in the Isle of Delos, and one of the greatdivinities of the Greeks; a virgin goddess, represented as a huntressarmed with bow and arrows; presided over the birth of animals, wasguardian of flocks, the moon the type of her and the laurel her sacredtree, was the Diana of the Romans, and got mixed up with deities in othermythologies. 

ARTEMI`SIA, queen of Halicarnassus, joined Xerxes in his invasion ofGreece, and fought with valour at Salamis, 440 B. C. A. II. , alsoqueen, raised a tomb over the grave of her husband Mausolus, regarded asone of the seven wonders of the world, 355 B. C. 

ARTEMI`SIUM, a promontory N. Of Euboea, near which Xerxes lost partof his fleet, 480 B. C. 

ARTEMUS WARD. See C. F. BROWNE. 

ARTESIAN WELLS, wells made by boring for water where it is lowerthan its source, so as to obtain a constant supply of it. 

AR`TEVELDE, JACOB VAN, a wealthy brewer of Ghent, chosen chief in arevolt against Count Louis of Flanders, expelled him, made a treaty withEdward III. As lord-superior of Flanders, was massacred in a populartumult (1300-1345). 

ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN, son of the preceding, defeated Louis II. Andbecame king; but with the help of France Louis retaliated and defeatedthe Flemings, and slew him in 1382. 

ARTFUL DODGER, a young thief, an expert in the profession inDickens' "Oliver Twist. "

AR`THUR, a British prince of wide-spread fame, who is supposed tohave lived at the time of the Saxon invasion in the 6th century, whoseexploits and those of his court have given birth to the tradition of theRound Table, to the rendering of which Tennyson devoted so much of hisgenius. 

ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN, twenty-first president of the United States, alawyer by profession, and a prominent member of the Republican party(1830-1886). 

ARTHUR, PRINCE, DUKE OF BRITTANY, heir to the throne of England bythe death of his uncle Richard I. ; supplanted by King John. 

ARTHUR SEAT, a lion-shaped hill 822 ft. , close to Edinburgh on theE. , from the top of which the prospect is unrivalled; "the blue, majestic, everlasting ocean, with the Fife hills swelling gradually intothe Grampians behind it on the N. ; rough crags and rude precipices at ourfeet ('where not a hillock rears its head unsung'), with Edinburgh attheir base, clustering proudly over her rugged foundations, and coveringwith a vapoury mantle the jagged, black, venerable masses of stone-work, that stretch far and wide, and show like a city of fairyland"--such theview Carlyle had in a clear atmosphere of 1826, whatever it may be now. 

ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, originally Forty-Two, a creed framed in1562, which every clergyman of the Church of England is bound by law tosubscribe to at his ordination, as the accepted faith of the Church. 

ARTIST, according to a definition of Ruskin, which he prints insmall caps. , "a person who has submitted to a law which it was painful toobey, that he may bestow a delight which it is gracious to bestow. "

ARTISTS, PRINCE OF, Albert Dürer, so called by his countrymen. 

AR`TOIS, an ancient province of France, comprising the dep. OfPas-de-Calais, and parts of the Somme and the Nord; united to the crownin 1659. 

ARTOIS, MONSEIGNEUR D', famed, as described in Carlyle's "FrenchRevolution, " for "breeches of a new kind in this world"; brother of LouisXVI. , and afterwards CHARLES X. (q. V. ). 

AR`UNDEL (2), a municipal town in Sussex, on the Arun, 9 m. E. OfChichester, with a castle of great magnificence, the seat of the Earls ofArundel. 

ARUNDEL, THOMAS, successively bishop of Ely, Lord Chancellor, archbishop of York, and archbishop of Canterbury; a persecutor of theWickliffites, but a munificent benefactor of the Church (1353-1414). 

ARUNDEL MARBLES, ancient Grecian marbles collected at Smyrna andelsewhere by the Earl of Arundel in 1624, now in the possession of theUniversity of Oxford, the most important of which is one from Parosinscribed with a chronology of events in Grecian history from 1582 to 264B. C. ; the date of the marbles themselves is 263 B. C. 

ARUNS, son of Tarquinus Superbus, who fell in single combat withBrutus. 

ARUWI`MI, an affluent of the Congo on the right bank below theStanley Falls. 

ARVA`TES, FRATRES, a college of twelve priests in ancient Rome whoseduty it was to make annual offerings to the Lares for the increase of thefruits of the field. 

ARVE, a river that flows through the valley of Chamouni and fallsinto the Rhône below Geneva. 

ARVEYRON, an affluent of the Arve from the Mer de Glace. 

AR`YANS, or Indo-Europeans, a race that is presumed to have had itsprimitive seat in Central Asia, E. Of the Caspian Sea and N. Of theHindu-Kush, and to have branched off at different periods north-westwardand westward into Europe, and southward into Persia and the valley of theGanges, from which sprung the Greeks, Latins, Celts, Teutons, Slavs, onthe one hand, and the Persians and Hindus on the other, a community oforigin that is attested by the comparative study of their respectivelanguages. 

AR`ZEW, a seaport in Algeria, 22 m. From Oran, with Roman remains;exports grain and salt. 

ASAFOE`TIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from an Indian umbelliferoustree, used in medicine. 

ASAPH, a musician of the temple at Jerusalem. 

ASAPH, ST. , a town in Flintshire, 20 m. From Chester; seat of abishopric. 

ASBES`TOS, an incombustible mineral of a flax-like fibrous texture, which has been manufactured into cloth, paper, lamp-wick, steam-pipes, gas-stoves, &c. 

ASBJÖRN`SEN, a Dane, distinguished as a naturalist, and particularlyas a collector of folk-lore, as well as an author of children's stories(1812-1885). 

AS`BURY, FRANCIS, a zealous, assiduous Methodist preacher andmissionary, sent to America, was consecrated the first bishop of thenewly organised Methodist Church there (1745-1816). 

AS`CALON, one of the five cities of the Philistines, much contestedfor during the Crusades. 

ASCA`NIUS, the son of Æneas, who trotted _non passibus æquis_ ("withunequal steps") by the side of his father as he escaped from burningTroy; was founder of Alba Longa. 

AS`CAPART, a giant conquered by Bevis of Southampton, though so hugeas to carry Bevis, his wife, and horse under his arm. 

ASCENSION, a bare volcanic island in the Atlantic, rising to nearly3000 ft. , belonging to Britain, 500 m. NW. Of St. Helena, and 900 m. Fromthe coast of Africa; a coaling and victualling station for the navy. 

ASCHAF`FENBURG (14), an ancient town of Bavaria, on the Main, 20 m. From Frankfort, with an old castle and cathedral. 

ASCHAM, ROGER, a Yorkshireman, Fellow of Cambridge, a goodclassical, and particularly Greek, scholar; wrote a book on archery, deemed a classic, entitled "Toxophilus, " for which Henry VIII. Settled apension on him; was tutor and Latin secretary to Queen Elizabeth, andmuch esteemed by her; his chief work, the "Schoolmaster, " an admirabletreatise on education, held in high regard by Dr. Johnson, the sum ofwhich is _docendo discas_, "learn by teaching" (1515-1560). 

ASCHERSLE`BEN (22), a manufacturing town in the Magdeburg districtof Prussia. 

ASCLEPI`ADES, a Bithynian who practised medicine with repute at Romein Cicero's time, and was great in hygiene. 

AS`COT, a racecourse in Berks, 6 m. SW. Of Windsor, the races atwhich, instituted by Queen Anne, take place a fortnight after the Derby. 

AS`GARD, the garden or heaven of the Asen or gods in the Norsemythology, in which each had a separate dwelling, and who heldintercourse with the other spheres of existence by the bridge Bifröst, i. E. The rainbow. 

ASGILL, JOHN, an eccentric Englishman, wrote a book to prove thatdeath was due to want of faith, and to express his belief that he wouldbe translated, and translated he was, to spend 30 years, apparently quitehappily, writing pamphlets, and end his days in the debtors' prison. 

ASH, JOHN, a dissenting divine, author of an English dictionary, valuable for the number of obsolete and provincial words contained in it(1724-1779). 

ASH`ANTI, or ASHANTEE, a negro inland kingdom in the UpperSoudan, N. Of Gold Coast territory, wooded, well watered, and wellcultivated; natives intelligent, warlike, and skilful; twice overprovoked a war with Great Britain, and finally the despatch of a militaryexpedition, which led to the submission of the king and the appointmentof a British Resident. 

ASHBURNHAM, JOHN, a member of the Long Parliament, a faithfuladherent and attendant of Charles I. , and assistant to him in histroubles (1603-1671). 

ASHBURNHAM, 5TH EARL OF, collected a number of valuable MSS. Andrare books known as the Ashburnham Collection; _d_. 1878. 

ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, LORD, second son of Sir Francis Baring, a Liberal politician, turned Conservative, member of Peel'sadministration in 1834-35, sent special ambassador to the United Statesin 1842; concluded the boundary treaty of Washington, known as theAshburton Treaty; in his retirement "a really good, solid, most cheery, sagacious, simple-hearted old man" (1774-1848). 

ASHBURTON, WILLIAM BINGHAM BARING, son of the preceding, "a veryworthy man, " an admirer, and his wife, Lady Harriet, still more, ofThomas Carlyle (1797-1844). 

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a small market-town 17 m. W. Of Leicester, figures in "Ivanhoe, " with the ruins of a castle in which Queen Mary wasimmured. 

ASHDOD, a maritime Philistine city 20 m. S. Of Jaffa, seat of theDagon worship. 

ASHE`RA, an image of ASTARTE (q. V. ), and associated withthe worship of that goddess. 

ASH`MOLE, ELIAS, a celebrated antiquary and authority on heraldry;presented to the University of Oxford a collection of rarities bequeathedto him, which laid the foundation of the Ashmolean Collection there(1617-1692). 

ASHMUN, JEHUDI, an American philanthropist, founder of the NegroRepublic of Liberia, on the W. Coast of Africa (1794-1828). 

ASH`TAROTH. See ASTARTE. 

ASH`TON-UNDER-LYNE (47), a cotton-manufacturing town nearManchester. 

ASIA, the largest of the four quarters of the globe, and as good asin touch with the other three; contains one-third of all the land, which, from a centre of high elevations, extensive plains, and deep depressions, stretches southward into three large peninsulas separated by threeimmense arms of the sea, and eastward into three bulging masses and threepronounced peninsulas forming seas, protected by groups of islands; withrivers the largest in the whole world, of which four flow N. , two SE. , and eight S. ; with a large continental basin, also the largest in theworld, and with lakes which though they do not match those of America andAfrica, strikingly stand at a higher level as we go E. ; with everyvariety of climate, with a richly varied flora and fauna, with apopulation of 840, 000, 000, being the half of that of the globe, ofchiefly three races, Caucasian, Mongolian, and Malay, at different stagesof civilisation, and as regards religion, by far the majority professingthe faith of Brahma, Buddha, Mahomet, or Christ. 

ASIA MINOR, called also ANATOLE`, a peninsular extensionwestward of the Armenian and Kurdistan highlands in Asia, bounded on theN. By the Black Sea, on the W. By the Archipelago, and on the S. By theLevant; indented all round, mainland as well as adjoining islands, withbays and harbours, all more or less busy centres of trade; is as large asFrance, and consists of a plateau with slopes all round to the coasts;has a population of over 28, 000, 000. 

ASKEW, ANNE, a lady of good birth, a victim of persecution in thetime of Henry VIII. For denying transubstantiation, tortured on the rackand burnt at the stake, 1546. 

ASKEW, ANTONY, a physician and classical scholar, a collector ofrare and curious books (1722-1774). 

ASMODE`US, a mischievous demon or goblin of the Jewish demonology, who gloats on the vices and follies of mankind, and figures in Le Sage's"Le Diable Boiteux, " or the "Devil on Two Sticks, " as lifting off theroofs of the houses of Madrid and exposing their inmost interiors and thesecret doings of the inhabitants. 

ASMONÆ`ANS, a name given to the Maccabees, from Asmon, the place oftheir origin. 

ASO`KA, a king of Behar, in India; after his accession in 264 B. C. Became an ardent disciple of Buddha; organised Buddhism, as Constantinedid Christianity, into a State religion; convened the third great councilof the Church of that creed at Patna; made a proclamation of this faithas far as his influence extended, evidence of which is still extant inpillars and rocks inscribed with his edicts in wide districts of NorthernIndia; _d_. 223 B. C. 

ASP, a poisonous Egyptian viper of uncertain species. 

ASPA`SIA, a woman remarkable for her wit, beauty, and culture, anative of Miletus; being attracted to Athens, came and settled in it;became the wife of Pericles, and her home the rendezvous of all theintellectual and wise people of the city, Socrates included; hercharacter was often both justly and unjustly assailed. 

AS`PERN, a village in Austria, on the Danube, 4 m. NE. Of Vienna, where a charge of the Austrians under the Archduke Charles was defeatedby Napoleon, May 21, 1809, and Marshal Lannes killed. 

ASPHALT, a mineral pitch of a black or brownish-black colour, consisting chiefly of carbon; also a limestone impregnated with bitumen, and more or less in every quarter of the globe. 

ASPHALTIC LAKE, the DEAD SEA (q. V. ), so called from theasphalt on its surface and banks. 

AS`PHODEL, a lily plant appraised by the Greeks for its almostperennial flowering, and with which they, in their imagination, coveredthe Elysian fields, called hence the Asphodel Meadow. 

ASPHYX`IA, suspended respiration in the physical life; a termfrequently employed by Carlyle to denote a much more recondite, but a noless real, corresponding phenomenon in the spiritual life. 

ASPINWALL, a town founded by an American of the name in 1800, at theAtlantic extremity of the Panama railway; named Colon, since the EmpressEugenie presented it with a statue of Columbus. 

ASPROMON`TE, a mountain close by Reggio, overlooking the Strait ofMessina, near which Garibaldi was defeated and captured in 1862. 

ASQUINI, COUNT, a rural economist who did much to promote silkculture in Italy (1726-1818). 

ASSAB BAY, a coaling-station belonging to Italy, on the W. Coast ofthe Red Sea. 

ASSAM` (5, 500), a province E. Of Bengal, ceded to Britain after theBurmese war in 1826; being an alluvial plain, with ranges of hills alongthe Brahmapootra, 450 m. Long and 50 broad; the low lands extremelyfertile and productive, and the hills covered with tea plantations, yielding at one time, if not still, three-fourths of the tea raised inIndia. 

ASSAROTTI, an Italian philanthropist, born at Genoa; the first toopen a school for deaf-mutes in Italy, and devoted zealously his fortuneand time to the task (1753-1821). 

AS`SAS, NICOLAS, captain of the French regiment of Auvergne, whosecelebrity depends on a single act of defiance: having entered a wood toreconnoitre it the night before the battle of Kloster Kampen, wassuddenly surrounded by the enemy's (the English) soldiers, and defiedwith bayonets at his breast to utter a cry of alarm; "Ho, Auvergne!" heexclaimed, and fell dead on the instant, pierced with bayonets, to thesaving of his countrymen. 

ASSASSINS, a fanatical Moslem sect organised in the 11th century, atthe time of the Crusades, under a chief called the Old Man of theMountain, whose stronghold was a rock fortress at Alamut, in Persia, devoted to the assassination of all enemies of the Moslem faith, and socalled because they braced their nerves for their deeds of blood bydraughts of an intoxicating liquor distilled from hashish (thehemp-plant). A Tartar force burst upon the horde in their stronghold in1256, and put them wholesale to the sword. 

ASSAYE`, a small town 46 m. NE. Of Aurungabad, where Sir ArthurWellesley gained a victory over the Mahrattas in 1803. 

ASSEGAI, a spear or javelin of wood tipped with iron, used bycertain S. African tribes with deadly effect in war. 

ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the chief court of the Presbyterian Church, arepresentative body, half clergymen and half laymen, which sits inEdinburgh for ten days in May, disposes of the general business of theChurch, and determines appeals. 

ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL, the Commons section of the States-General ofFrance which met on May 5, 1789, constituted itself into a legislativeassembly, and gave a new constitution to the country. 

ASSEMBLY, WESTMINSTER, a body composed of 140 members, of which 117were clergymen, convened at Westminster to determine questions ofdoctrine, worship, and discipline in the National Church, and which heldits sittings, over 1100 of them, from July 1, 1643, to Feb. 22, 1649, with the result that the members of it were unanimous in regard todoctrine, but were divided in the matter of government. 

ASSEMANI, GIUSEPPE, a learned Syrian Maronite, librarian of theVatican, wrote an account of Syrian writers (1687-1768); STEPHANO, nephew, held the same office, wrote "Acta Sanctorum Martyrum"(1707-1782). 

ASSER, JOHN, monk of St. David's, in Wales, tutor, friend, andbiographer of Alfred the Great; is said to have suggested the founding ofOxford University; _d_. 909. 

ASSIEN`TO, a treaty with Spain to supply negroes for her colonies, concluded in succession with the Flemings, the Genoese, a French company, the English, and finally the South Sea Company, who relinquished theirrights in 1750 on compensation by Spain. 

AS`SIGNATS, bills or notes, to the number of 45 thousand million, issued as currency by the revolutionary government of France in 1790, andbased on the security of Church and other lands appropriated by it, andwhich in course of time sunk in value, to the ruin of millions. 

ASSINIBOI`A, a province in Canada between Saskatchewan and theUnited States. 

ASSINIBOINES, certain aborigines of Canada; the few of whom thatremain do farming on the banks of the Saskatchewan. 

ASSI`SI (3), a town in Central Italy, 12 m. SE. Of Perugia, thebirthplace and burial-place of St. Francis, and the birthplace ofMetastasio; it was a celebrated place of resort of pilgrims, whosometimes came in great numbers. 

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a connection in the mind between two ideas, such that the consciousness of one tends to recall the other, a factemployed to explain certain recondite psychological phenomena. 

ASSOUAN`, the ancient Syene, the southernmost city of Egypt, on theright bank of the Nile, near the last cataract. 

ASSOUCY, D', a French burlesque poet ridiculed by Boileau(1604-1679). 

ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF THE, festival in honour of the translation ofthe Virgin Mary to heaven, celebrated on the 15th of August, the allegedday of the event. 

ASSUR, mythical name of the founder of Assyria. 

ASSYR`IA, an ancient kingdom, the origin and early history of whichis uncertain, between the Niphates Mountains of Armenia on the N. AndBabylonia on the S. , 280 m. Long and 150 broad, with a fertile soil and apopulation at a high stage of civilisation; became a province of Media, which lay to the E. , in 606 B. C. , and afterwards a satrapy of thePersian empire, and has been under the Turks since 1638, in whose handsit is now a desert. 

ASSYRIOLOGY, the study of the monuments of Assyria, chiefly in aBiblical interest. 

ASTAR`TE, or ASHTORETH, or IST`AR, the female divinity ofthe Phoenicians, as Baal was the male, these two being representativerespectively of the conceptive and generative powers of nature, andsymbolised, the latter, like Apollo, by the sun, and the former, likeArtemis or Diana, by the moon; sometimes identified with Urania andsometimes with Venus; the rites connected with her worship were of alascivious nature. 

ASTER, of Amphipolis, an archer who offered his services to Philipof Macedon, boasting of his skill in bringing down birds on the wing, andto whom Philip had replied he would accept them when he made war on thebirds. Aster, to be revenged, sped an arrow from the wall of a townPhilip was besieging, inscribed, "To the right eye of Philip, " which tookeffect; whereupon Philip sped back another with the words, "When Philiptakes the town, Aster will hang for it, " and he was true to his word. 

AS`TEROIDS, or Planetoids, small planets in orbits between those ofMars and Jupiter, surmised in 1596, all discovered in the presentcentury, the first on Jan. 1, 1801, and named Ceres; gradually found tonumber more than 200. 

AS`TI (33), an ancient city in Piedmont, on the Tanaro, 26 m. SE. From Turin, with a Gothic cathedral; is noted for its wine; birthplace ofAlfieri. 

ASTLEY, PHILIP, a famous equestrian and circus manager, along withFranconi established the Cirque Olympique in Paris (1742-1814). 

ASTOLFO, a knight-errant in mediæval legend who generous-heartedlyis always to do greater feats than he can perform; in "Orlando Furioso"he brings back Orlando's lost wits in a phial from the moon, andpossesses a horn that with a blast can discomfit armies. 

ASTON, LUISE, German authoress, championed the rights of women, andwent about in male attire; _b_. 1820. 

ASTON MANOR (54), a suburb of Birmingham. 

ASTOR, JOHN JACOB, a millionaire, son of a German peasant, who madea fortune of four millions in America by trading in furs (1763-1848). Hisson doubled his fortune; known as the "landlord of New York" (1792-1875). 

ASTOR, WILLIAM WALDORF, son of the preceding, devoted to politics;came to London, 1891; became proprietor of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and_Budget_ in 1893; _b_. 1848. 

ASTO`RIA, in Oregon, a fur-trading station, with numeroussalmon-tinning establishments. 

ASTRÆ`A, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess of justice;dwelt among men during the Golden Age, but left the earth on its decline, and her sister Pudicitia along with her, the withdrawal explained to meanthe vanishing of the ideal from the life of man on the earth; now placedamong the stars under the name of Virgo. 

ASTRÆA REDUX, the name given to an era which piques itself on thereturn of the reign of justice to the earth. 

AS`TRAKHAN (43), a Russian trading town on the Volga, 40 m. From itsmouth in the Caspian Sea, of which it is the chief port. 

ASTRAL BODY, an ethereal body believed by the theosophists to investthe animal, to correspond to it, and to be capable of BILOCATION(q. V. )

ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits believed to animate or to people theheavenly bodies, to whom worship was paid, and to hover unembodiedthrough space exercising demonic influence on embodied spirits. 

ASTROLOGY, a science founded on a presumed connection between theheavenly bodies and human destiny as more or less affected by them, ascience at one time believed in by men of such intelligence as Tacitusand Kepler, and few great families at one time but had an astrologerattached to them to read the horoscope of any new member of the house. 

ASTRUC, JEAN, a French physician and professor of medicine in Paris, now noted as having discovered that the book of Genesis consists ofElohistic and Jehovistic portions, and who by this discovery founded themodern school called of the Higher Criticism (1681-1766). 

ASTU`RIAS (579), an ancient province in the N. Of Spain, gives titleto the heir to the crown, rich in minerals, and with good fisheries; nownamed Oviedo, from the principal town. 

ASTY`AGES, last king of the Medes; dethroned by Cyrus, 549 B. C. 

ASTY`ANAX, the son of Hector and Andromache; was cast down by theGreeks from the ramparts after the fall of Troy, lest he should live andrestore the city. 

ASUN`CION, or ASSUMPTION (18), the capital of Paraguay, on theleft bank of the Paraguay, so called from having been founded by theSpaniards on the Feast of the Assumption in 1535. 

ASURAS, THE, in the Hindu mythology the demons of the darkness ofnight, in overcoming whom the gods asserted their sovereignty in theuniverse. 

ASYMPTOTE, a line always approaching some curve but never meetingit. 

ATACA`MA, an all but rainless desert in the N. Of Chile, aboundingin silver and copper mines, as well as gold in considerable quantities. 

ATAHUALPA, the last of the Incas of Peru, who fell into Pizarro'shands through perfidy, and was strangled by his orders in 1533, that is, little short of a year after the Spaniards landed in Peru. 

ATALAN`TA, a beautiful Grecian princess celebrated for her agility, the prize of any suitor who could outstrip her on the racecourse, failurebeing death; at last one suitor, Hippomenes his name, accepted the riskand started along with her, but as he neared the goal, kept droppingfirst one golden apple, then another, provided him by Venus, stooping tolift which lost her the race, whereupon Hippomenes claimed the prize. 

AT`AVISM, name given to the reappearance in progeny of the features, and even diseases, of ancestors dead generations before. 

ATBA`RA, or Black River, from the Highlands of Abyssinia, the lowesttributary of the Nile, which it joins near Berber. 

ATE`, in the Greek mythology the goddess of strife and mischief, also of vengeance; was banished by her father Zeus, for the annoyance shegave him, from heaven to earth, where she has not been idle since. 

ATHABA`SCA, a province, a river, and a lake in British N. America. 

ATHALIA, the queen of Judah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, celebrated for her crimes and impiety, for which she was in the endmassacred by her subjects, 9th century B. C. 

ATHANASIAN CREED, a statement, in the form of a confession, of theorthodox creed of the Church as against the Arians, and damnatory ofevery article of the heresy severally; ascribed to Athanasius at onetime, but now believed to be of later date, though embracing his theologyin affirmation of the absolute co-equal divinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost in the Trinity. 

ATHANASIUS, Christian theologian, a native of Alexandria, and adeacon of the Church; took a prominent part against Arius in the Councilat Nice, and was his most uncompromising antagonist; was chosen bishop ofAlexandria; driven forth again and again from his bishopric underpersecution of the Arians; retired into the Thebaïd for a time; spent thelast 10 years of his life as bishop at Alexandria, where he died; hisworks consist of treatises and orations bearing on the Arian controversy, and in vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity viewed in the mostabsolute sense (296-373). 

ATHEISM, disbelief in the existence of God, which may be eithertheoretical, in the intellect, or practical, in the life, the latter themore common and the more fatal form of it. 

ATHEISM, MODERN, ascribed by Ruskin to "the unfortunate persistenceof the clergy in teaching children what they cannot understand, and inemploying young consecrate persons to assert in pulpits what they do notknow. "

ATHELNEY, ISLE OF, an island in a marsh near the confluence of theTone and Parret, Somerset; Alfred's place of refuge from the Danes. 

ATHE`NA, the Greek virgin goddess of wisdom, particularly in thearts, of war as of peace, happily called by Ruskin the "'Queen of theAir, ' in the heavens, in the earth, and in the heart"; is said to havebeen the conception of Metis, to have issued full-armed from the brain ofZeus, and in this way the child of both wisdom and power; wears a helmet, and bears on her left arm the ægis with the Medusa's head; the oliveamong trees, and the owl among animals, were sacred to her. 

ATHENÆUM, a school of learning established in Rome about 133 byHadrian. 

ATHENÆUS, a Greek writer of the 3rd century, wrote a curiousmiscellany of a book entitled "Deipnosophistæ, or the Suppers of theLearned, " extant only in an imperfect state. 

ATHENAG`ORAS, an able Christian apologist of the 2nd century, wasAthenian and a pagan by birth, but being converted to Christianity, wrotean apology in its defence, and a treatise on the resurrection of thedead. 

ATH`ENS, the capital of Attica, and the chief city of ancientGreece, at once the brain and the heart of it; the resort in ancienttimes of all the able and wise men, particularly in the domain ofliterature and art, from all parts of the country and lands beyond; whilethe monuments of temple and statue that still adorn it give evidence of aculture among the citizens such as the inhabitants of no other city ofthe world have had the genius to surpass, though the name Athens has beenadopted by or applied to several cities, Edinburgh in particular, thathave been considered to rival it in this respect, and is the name of overtwenty places in the United States. The two chief monuments of thearchitecture of ancient Athens, both erected on the Acropolis, are thePARTHENON (q. V. ), dedicated to Athena, the finest building onthe finest site in the world, and the Erechtheum, a temple dedicated toPoseidon close by; is the capital (100) of modern Greece, the seat of thegovernment, and the residence of the king. 

ATHLONE (7), a market-town on the Shannon, which divides it, and achief military station. 

ATHOLE, a district in the N. Of Perthshire, which gives name to abranch of the Murray family. 

ATHOLE-BROSE, oatmeal, honey, and whisky mixed. 

ATHOLE, SIR JOHN JAMES HUGH STEWART-MURRAY, 7TH DUKE OF, honourablydistinguished for having devoted years of his life to editing the recordsof the family and the related history; _b_. 1840

A`THOS, MOUNT, or MONTE SANTO (6), a mountain 6780 ft. High atthe southern extremity of the most northerly peninsula of Salonica, inTurkey, covered with monasteries, inhabited exclusively by monks of theGreek Church, and rich in curious manuscripts; the monks devotethemselves to gardening, bee-culture, and other rural occupations, themore devout among them at one time celebrated for the edification theyderived from the study of their own navels. 

ATLANTA (65), the largest city in Georgia, U. S. ; a largemanufacturing and railway centre. 

ATLANTES, figures of men used in architecture instead of pillars. 

ATLANTIC, THE, the most important, best known, most traversed andbest provided for traffic of all the oceans on the globe, connecting, rather than separating, the Old World and the New; covers nearlyone-fifth of the surface of the earth; length 9000 m. , its averagebreadth 2700 m. ; its average depth 15, 000 ft. , or from 3 to 5 m. , withwaves in consequence of greater height and volume than those of any othersea. 

ATLAN`TIS, an island alleged by tradition to have existed in theocean W. Of the Pillars of Hercules; Plato has given a beautiful pictureof this island, and an account of its fabulous history. THE NEW, aUtopia figured as existing somewhere in the Atlantic, which Lord Baconbegan to outline but never finished. 

AT`LAS, a Titan who, for his audacity in attempting to dethroneZeus, was doomed to bear the heavens on his shoulders; although anotheraccount makes him a king of Mauritania whom Perseus, for his want ofhospitality, changed into a mountain by exposing to view the head of theMedusa. 

ATLAS MOUNTAINS, a range in N. Africa, the highest 11, 000 feet, theGREATER in Morocco, the LESSER extending besides throughAlgeria and Tunis, and the whole system extending from Cape Nun, inMorocco, to Cape Bon, in Tunis. 

ATMAN, THE, in the Hindu philosophy, the divine spirit in man, conceived of as a small being having its seat in the heart, where it maybe felt stirring, travelling whence along the arteries it peers out as asmall image in the eye, the pupil; it is centred in the heart of theuniverse, and appears with dazzling effect in the sun, the heart and eyeof the world, and is the same there as in the heart of man. 

AT`OLL, the name, a Polynesian one, given to a coral islandconsisting of a ring of coral enclosing a lagoon. 

ATOMIC THEORY, the theory that all compound bodies are made up ofelementary in fixed proportions. 

ATOMIC WEIGHT, the weight of an atom of any body compared with thatof hydrogen, the unit. 

ATRA`TO, a river in Colombia which flows N. Into the Gulf of Darien;is navigable for 200 m. , proposed, since the failure of the Panamascheme, to be converted, along with San Juan River, into a canal toconnect the Atlantic and the Pacific. 

A`TREUS, a son of Pelops and king of Mycenæ, who, to avenge a wrongdone him by his brother Thyestes, killed his two sons, and served them upin a banquet to him, for which act, as tradition shows, his descendantshad to pay heavy penalties. 

ATRI`DES, descendants of Atreus, particularly Agamemnon andMenelaus, a family frequently referred to as capable of and doomed toperpetrating the most atrocious crimes. 

AT`ROPOS, one of the three Fates, the one who cut asunder the threadof life; one of her sisters, Clotho, appointed to spin the thread, andthe other, Lachesis, to direct it. 

AT`TALUS, the name of three kings of Pergamos: A. I. , foundedthe library of Pergamos and joined the Romans against Philip and theAchæans (241-197 B. C. ); A. II. , kept up the league with Rome(157-137); A. III. , bequeathed his wealth to the Roman people(137-132). 

ATTERBURY, FRANCIS, an English prelate, in succession dean of ChristChurch, bishop of Rochester, and dean of Westminster; a zealous Churchmanand Jacobite, which last brought him into trouble on the accession of theHouse of Hanover and led to his banishment; died in Paris. He was ascholarly man, an eloquent preacher, and wrote an eloquent style(1662-1731). 

ATTIC BEE, Sophocles, from the sweetness and beauty of hisproductions. 

ATTIC FAITH, inviolable faith, opposed to Punic. 

ATTIC MUSE, Xenophon, from the simplicity and elegance of his style. 

ATTIC SALT, pointed and delicate wit. 

ATTIC STYLE, a pure, classical, and elegant style. 

AT`TICA, a country in ancient Greece, on the NE. Of thePeloponnesus, within an area not larger than that of Lanarkshire, whichhas nevertheless had a history of world-wide fame and importance. 

ATTICISM, a pure and refined style of expression in any language, originally the purest and most refined style of the ancient literature ofGreece. 

ATTICUS, TITUS P. , a wealthy Roman and a great friend of Cicero's, devoted to study and the society of friends, took no part in politics, died of voluntary starvation rather than endure the torture of a painfuland incurable disease (110-33 B. C. ). 

AT`TILA, or Etzel, the king of the Huns, surnamed "the Scourge ofGod, " from the terror he everywhere inspired; overran the Roman Empire atthe time of its decline, vanquished the emperors of both East and West, extorting heavy tribute; led his forces into Germany and Gaul, wasdefeated in a great battle near Châlons-sur-Marne by the combined armiesof the Romans under Aëtius and the Goths under Theodoric, retreatedacross the Alps and ravaged the N. Of Italy; died of hemorrhage, it isalleged, on the day of his marriage, and was buried in a gold coffincontaining immense treasures in 453, the slaves who dug the grave having, it is said, been killed, lest they should reveal the spot. 

AT`TOCK (4), a town and fortress in the Punjab, on the Indus wherethe Kabul joins it--a river beyond which no Hindu must pass; it was builtby Akbar in 1581. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, the name given the first law officer and legaladviser of the Crown in England and Ireland. 

ATTWOOD, GEORGE, a mathematician, invented a machine forillustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion, as in fallingbodies (1745-1807). 

ATTWOOD, THOMAS, an eminent English musician and composer, wrote afew anthems (1767-1836). 

A`TYS, a beautiful Phrygian youth, beloved by Cybele, who turned himinto a pine, after she had, by her apparition at his marriage to forbidthe banns, driven him mad. 

AUBE (255), a dep. In France, formed of Champagne and a small partof Burgundy, with Troyes for capital. 

AU`BER, a popular French composer of operas, born at Caen; hisoperas included "La Muette de Portici, " "Le Domino Noir, " "Fra Diavolo, "&c. (1782-1871). 

AU`BERT, THE ABBÉ, a French fabulist, born at Paris (1731-1814). 

AUB`REY, JOHN, an eminent antiquary, a friend of Anthony Wood's;inherited estates in Wilts, Hereford, and Wales, all of which he lost bylawsuits and bad management; was intimate with all the literary men ofthe day; left a vast number of MSS. ; published one work, "Miscellanies, "being a collection of popular superstitions; preserved a good deal of thegossip of the period (1624-1697). 

AUB`RIOT, a French statesman, born at Dijon, provost of Paris underCharles V. : built the famous Bastille; was imprisoned in it for heresy, but released by a mob; died at Dijon, 1382. 

AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, French knight murdered by ROBERT MACAIRE(q. V. ), the sole witness of the crime and the avenger of it being hisdog. 

AUBUSSON, a French town on the Creuse, manufactures carpets andtapestry. 

AUBUSSON, PIERRE D', grand-master of the Knights of St. John ofJerusalem, of French descent, who in 1480 gallantly defended Rhodes whenbesieged by Mahomet II. , and drove the assailants back, amounting to nofewer than 100, 000 men (1423-1503). 

AUCH (12), capital of the dep. Of Gers, France, 14 m. W. OfToulouse, with a splendid cathedral perched on a hill, and accessibleonly by a flight of 200 steps; has a trade in wine and brandy. 

AUCHINLECK, a village 15 m. E. Of Ayr, with the mansion of theBoswell family. 

AUCHTERAR`DER, a village in Perthshire, where the forcing of apresentee by a patron on an unwilling congregation awoke a large sectionin the Established Church to a sense of the wrong, and the assertion ofthe rights of the people and led to the disruption of the community, andthe creation of the Free Church in 1843. 

AUCK`LAND (60), the largest town in New Zealand, in the N. Island, with an excellent harbour in the Gulf of Hauraki, and the capital of adistrict of the name, 400 m. Long, and 200 m. Broad, with a fertile soiland a fine climate, rich in natural products of all kinds; was thecapital of New Zealand till the seat of government was transferred toWellington. 

AUCKLAND, BISHOP (11), a town on the Wear, 10 m. SW. Of Durham andin the county of Durham, with the palace of the bishop. 

AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, LORD, son of the following, a Whig inpolitics, First Lord of the Admiralty, Governor-General of India; gavename to Auckland; returned afterwards to his post in the Admiralty(1784-1849). 

AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, LORD, diplomatist, and an authority oncriminal law (1744-1814). 

AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of small islands 180 m. S. Of New Zealand, with some good harbours, and rich in vegetation. 

AUDE (317), a maritime dep. In the S. Of France, being a portion ofLanguedoc; yields cereals, wine, &c. , and is rich in minerals. 

AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French artist and naturalist; devotedhimself to the illustration in coloured plates of objects of naturalhistory, such especially as monkeys and humming-birds, all exquisitelydone (1759-1800). 

AUDHUMBLA, the cow, in the Norse mythology, that nourished Hymir, and lived herself by licking the hoar-frost off the rocks. 

AUDLEY, SIR THOMAS, LORD, born in Essex, son of a yeoman; becameSpeaker of the House of Commons and Lord Chancellor of England; theselfish, unscrupulous tool of Henry VIII. (1488-1554). 

AU`DOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, an eminent French entomologist; was employedby the French Government to inquire into and report on the diseases ofthe silkworm, and the insects that destroy the vines (1797-1841). 

AUDRAN, GERARD, an engraver, the most eminent of a family ofartists, born at Lyons; engraved the works of Lebrun, Mignard, andPoussin; he did some fine illustrations of the battles of Alexander theGreat (1640-1703). 

AU`DUBON, JOHN JAMES, a celebrated American ornithologist of FrenchHuguenot origin; author of two great works, the "Birds of America" andthe "Quadrupeds of America, " drawn and illustrated by himself, the formercharacterised by Cuvier as "the most magnificent monument that Art up tothat time had raised to Nature" (1780-1851). 

AU`ENBRUGGER, an Austrian physician, discoverer of the method ofinvestigating diseases of the chest by percussion (1722-1809). 

AU`ERBACH, BERTHOLO, a German poet and novelist of Jewish birth, born in the Black Forest; his novels, which have been widely translated, are in the main of a somewhat philosophical bent, he having been earlyled to the study of Spinoza, and having begun his literary career aseditor of his works; his "Village Tales of the Black Forest" were widelypopular (1812-1882). 

AU`ERSPERG, COUNT VON, an Austrian lyrical and satirical poet, ofliberal politics, and a pronounced enemy of the absolutist party headedby Metternich (1806-1876). 

AUF`RECHT, THEODOR, eminent Sanskrit scholar, born in Silesia; wasprofessor of Sanskrit in Edinburgh University; returning to Germany, became professor at Bonn; _b_. 1822. 

AUFKLÄRUNG, THE, or Illuminationism, a movement, conspicuously ofthe present time, the members of which pique themselves on ability todisperse the darkness of the world, if they could only persuade men toforego reason, and accept sense, common-sense, as the only test of truth, and who profess to settle all questions of reason, that is, of faith, byappeal to private judgment and majorities, or as Dr. Stirling defines it, "that stripping of us naked of all things in heaven and upon earth, atthe hands of the modern party of unbelief, and under the guidance ofso-called rationalism. "

AUGE`AS, a legendary king of Elis, in Greece, and one of theArgonauts; had a stable with 3000 oxen, that had not been cleaned out for30 years, but was cleansed by Hercules turning the rivers Peneus andAlpheus through it; the act a symbol of the worthless lumber a reformermust sweep away before his work can begin, the work of reformationproper. 

AUGER, a French littérateur, born at Paris, renowned as a critic(1772-1829). 

AU`GEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, marshal of France and duke ofCastiglione, born at Paris; distinguished in the campaigns of theRepublic and Napoleon; executed the _coup d'état_ of the 4th Sept. 1797;his services were rejected by Napoleon on his return from Elba, onaccount of his having supported the Bourbons during his absence. He wassimply a soldier, rude and rough-mannered, and with no great brains foranything else but military discipline (1757-1816). 

AU`GIER, ÉMILE, able French dramatist, produced brilliant comediesfor the French stage through a period of 40 years, all distinctly on theside of virtue. His only rivals were Dumas _fils_ and M. Sardou(1820-1889). 

AUGS`BURG (75), a busy manufacturing and trading town on the Lech, in Bavaria, once a city of great importance, where in 1531 theProtestants presented their Confession to Charles V. , and where the peaceof Augsburg was signed in 1555, ensuring religious freedom. 

AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document drawn up by Melanchthon in name ofthe Lutheran reformers, headed by the Elector of Saxony in statement oftheir own doctrines, and of the doctrines of the Church of Rome, againstwhich they protested. 

AUGURS, a college of priests in Rome appointed to forecast thefuture by the behaviour or flight of birds kept for the purpose, andwhich were sometimes carried about in a coop to consult on emergencies. 

AUGUST, originally called Sextilis, as the sixth month of the Romanyear, which began in March, and named August in honour of Augustus, asbeing the month identified with remarkable events in his career. 

AUGUSTA (33), a prosperous town in Georgia, U. S. , on the Savannah, 231 m. From its mouth; also a town (10) the capital of Maine, U. S. 

AUGUSTAN AGE, the time in the history of a nation when itsliterature is at its best. 

AUGUSTI, a German rationalist theologian of note, born near Gotha(1771-1841). 

AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, ST. , the apostle of England, sent thitherwith a few monks by Pope Gregory in 596 to convert the country toChristianity; began his labours in Kent; founded the see, or ratherarchbishopric, of Canterbury; _d_. 605. 

AU`GUSTINE, ST. , the bishop of Hippo and the greatest of the LatinFathers of the Church; a native of Tagaste, in Numidia; son of a paganfather and a Christian mother, St. Monica; after a youth of dissipation, was converted to Christ by a text of St. Paul (Rom. Xiii. 13, 14), whichhis eyes first lit upon, as on suggestion of a friend he took up theepistle to read it in answer to an appeal he had made to him to explain avoice that was ever whispering in his ears, "Take and read"; becamebishop in 396, devoted himself to pastoral duties, and took an activepart in the Church controversies of his age, opposing especially theManichæans, the Donatists, and the Pelagians; his principal works are his"Confessions, " his "City of God, " and his treatises on Grace andFree-Will. It is safe to say, no Churchman has ever exercised suchinfluence as he has done in moulding the creed as well as directing thedestiny of the Christian Church. He was especially imbued with thetheology of St. Paul (354-430). 

AUGUSTINIANS, (_a_) Canons, called also Black Cenobites, under aless severe discipline than monks, had 200 houses in England and Wales atthe Reformation; (_b_) Friars, mendicant, a portion of them barefooted;(_c_) Nuns, nurses of the sick. 

AUGUSTUS, called at first CAIUS OCTAVIUS, ultimately CAIUSJULIUS CÆSAR OCTAVIANUS, the first of the Roman Emperors or Cæsars, grand-nephew of Julius Cæsar, and his heir; joined the Republican partyat Cæsar's death, became consul, formed one of a triumvirate with Antonyand Lepidus; along with Antony overthrew the Republican party underBrutus and Cassius at Philippi; defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, and became master of the Roman world; was voted the title of "Augustus"by the Senate in 27 B. C. ; proved a wise and beneficent ruler, andpatronised the arts and letters, his reign forming a distinguished epochin the history of the ancient literature of Rome (63 B. C. -A. D. 14). 

AUGUSTUS, the name of several princes of Saxony and Poland in the16th and 17th centuries. 

AUGUSTUS I. , Elector of Saxony, a Lutheran prince, whose reign waspeaceful comparatively, and he was himself both a good man and a goodruler, a monarch surnamed the "pious" and the "Justinian of Saxony"(1526-1586). 

AUGUSTUS II. , Elector of Saxony and King of Poland; forced himselfon Poland; had twice to retire, but was reinstated; is known to historyas "The Strong"; "attained the maximum, " says Carlyle, "in severalthings, --of physical strength, could break horse-shoes, nay, half-crownswith finger and thumb; of sumptuosity, no man of his means so regardlessof expense; and of bastards, three hundred and fifty-four of them(Marshal Saxe one of the lot); baked the biggest bannock on record, acake with 5000 eggs and a tun of butter. " He was, like many a monarch ofthe like loose character, a patron of the fine arts, and founded theDresden Picture Gallery (1670-1733). 

AUGUSTUS III. , son of the preceding; beat Stanislaus Leszcynski inthe struggle for the crown of Poland; proved an incompetent king(1696-1763). 

AULIC COUNCIL, supreme council in the old German Empire, from whichthere was no appeal, of date from 1495 to 1654; it had no constitution, dealt with judicial matters, and lived and died with the emperor. 

AULIS, a port in Boeotia, where the fleet of the Greeks assembledbefore taking sail for Troy, and where Iphigeneia, to procure afavourable wind, was sacrificed by her father Agamemnon, an eventcommemorated in the "Iphigeneia in Aulis" of Euripides. 

AUMALE, DUC D', one of the chiefs of the League, became governor ofParis, which he held against Henry IV. , leagued with the Spaniards, wasconvicted of treason, and having escaped, was burned in effigy; died anexile at Brussels (1556-1631). 

AUMALE, DUC D', fourth son of Louis Philippe, distinguished himselfin Algiers, and was governor of Algeria, which he resigned when hisfather abdicated; lived in England for twenty years after, acknowledgedthe Republic, and left his estate and valuables to the French nation(1822-1897). 

AUNGERVILLE, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE BURY, tutor to Edward III. , bishop of Durham, sent on embassies to various courts, was a lover andcollector of books, and left a curious work called "Philobiblon"(1281-1345). 

AUNOY, COMTESSE D', a French authoress, known and appreciated forher fairy tales (1650-1705). 

AURELIA`NUS, LUCIUS DOMITIUS, powerful in physique, and an ableRoman emperor; son of a peasant of Pannonia; distinguished as a skilfuland successful general; was elected emperor, 270; drove the barbariansout of Italy; vanquished Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, carrying her captiveto Rome; subdued a usurper in Gaul, and while on his way to crush arebellion in Persia was assassinated by his troops (212-275). 

AURE`LIUS, MARCUS. See ANTONI`NUS. 

AURE`LIUS, VICTOR SEXTUS, a Roman consul and a Latin historian ofthe 4th century. 

AUREOLA, a wreath of light represented as encircling the brows ofthe saints and martyrs. 

AURILLAC (14), capital of the dep. Of Cantal, on the Jourdanne, affluent of the Dordogne, built round the famous abbey of St. Geraud, nowin ruins. 

AU`ROCHS, a German wild ox, now extinct. 

AURO`RA, the Roman goddess of the dawn, charged with opening for thesun the gates of the East; had a star on her forehead, and rode in a rosychariot drawn by four white horses. See EOS. 

AURORA (19), a city in Illinois, U. S. , 35 m. SW. Of Chicago, saidto have been the first town to light the streets with electricity. 

AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights, understood to be an electricdischarge through the atmosphere connected with magnetic disturbance. 

AURUN`GABAD` (50), a city in Hyderabad, in the Nizam's dominions;once the capital, now much decayed, with the ruins of a palace ofAurungzebe. 

AU`RUNGZEBE, Mogul emperor of Hindustan, third son of Shah Jehan;ascended the throne by the deposition of his father, the murder of twobrothers and of the son of one of these; he governed with skill andcourage; extended his empire by subduing Golconda, the Carnatic, andBengal, and though fanatical and intolerant, was a patron of letters; hisrule was far-shining, but the empire was rotten at the core, and when hedied it crumbled to pieces in the hands of his sons, among whom hebeforehand divided it (1615-1707). 

AUSCULTATION, discerning by the sound whether there is or is notdisease in the interior organs of the body. 

AUSCULTATOR, name in "Sartor Resartus, " the hero as a man qualifiedfor a profession, but as yet only expectant of employment in it. 

AUSONIA, an ancient name of Italy. 

AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS, a Roman poet, a native of Gaul, born inBordeaux; tutor to the Emperor Gratian, who, on coming to the throne, made him prefect of Latium and of Gaul, and consul of Rome. He was a goodversifier and stylist, but no poet (300-394). 

AUSTEN, JANE, a gifted English novelist, daughter of a clergyman inN. Hampshire; member of a quiet family circle, occupied herself inwriting without eye to publication, and only in mature womanhood thoughtof writing for the press. Her first novel, "Sense and Sensibility, " waspublished in 1811, and was followed by "Pride and Prejudice, " hermasterpiece, "Persuasion, " and others, her interest being throughout inordinary quiet cultured life, and the delineation of it, which sheachieved in an inimitably charming manner. "She showed once for all, "says Professor Saintsbury, "the capabilities of the very commonest andmost ordinary life, if sufficiently observed and selected, and combinedwith due art, to furnish forth prose fiction not merely that would pass, but that should be of the absolutely first quality as literature. She isthe mother of the English 19th-century novel, as Scott is the father ofit" (1775-1816). 

AUS`TERLITZ (3), a town in Moravia, near Brünn, where Napoleondefeated the emperors of Russia and of Austria, at "the battle of thethree emperors, " Dec. 2, 1805; one of Napoleon's most brilliantvictories, and thought so by himself. 

AUSTIN (14), the capital of Texas, on the Colorado River, namedafter Stephen Austin, who was chiefly instrumental in annexing Texas tothe States. 

AUSTIN, ALFRED, poet-laureate in succession to Tennyson, born nearLeeds, bred for the bar, but devoted to literature as journalist, writer, and poet; has written "The Golden Age, a Satire, " "Savonarola, " "EnglishLyrics, " and several works in prose; _b_. 1835. 

AUSTIN, JOHN, a distinguished English jurist, professor ofJurisprudence in London University; mastered the science of law by thestudy of it in Germany, but being too profound in his philosophy, wasunsuccessful as professor; his great work, "The Province of JurisprudenceDetermined, " and his Lectures, were published by his widow after hisdeath (1790-1859). 

AUSTIN, MRS. J. , (_née_ Sarah Taylor), wife of the preceding, executed translations from the German, "Falk's Characteristics of Goethe"for one; was, like her husband, of the utilitarian school; was introducedto Carlyle when he first went up to London; he wrote to his wife of her, "If I 'swear eternal friendship' with any woman here, it will be withher" (1793-1867)

AUSTIN FRIARS. See AUGUSTINIANS. 

AUSTRALASIA (i. E. Southern Asia), a name given to Australia, NewZealand, and the islands adjoining. 

AUSTRALIA, a continent entirely within the Southern Hemisphere, about one-fourth smaller than Europe, its utmost length from E. To W. Being 2400 m. , and breadth 1971; the coast has singularly few inlets, though many and spacious harbours, only one great gulf, Carpentaria, onthe N. , and one bight, the Great Australian Bight, on the S. ; theinterior consists of a low desert plateau, depressed in the centre, bordered with ranges of various elevation, between which and the sea is avarying breadth of coast-land; the chief mountain range is in the E. , andextends more or less parallel all the way with the E. Coast; the riversare few, and either in flood or dried up, for the climate is veryparching, only one river, the Murray, 2345 m. Long, of any consequence, while the lakes, which are numerous, are shallow and nearly all salt; theflora is peculiar, the eucalyptus and the acacia the most characteristic, grains, fruits, and edible roots being all imported; the fauna is no lesspeculiar, including, in the absence of many animals of other countries, the kangaroo, the dingo, and the duck-bill, the useful animals beinglikewise all imported; of birds, the cassowary and the emu, and smallerones of great beauty, but songless; minerals abound, both the preciousand the useful; the natives are disappearing, the colonists in 1904numbering close upon 4, 000, 000; and the territory divided into Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, S. Australia, and W. Australia, which withTasmania federated in 1900 and became the Commonwealth. 

AUSTRASIA, or the East Kingdom, a kingdom on the E. Of thepossessions of the Franks in Gaul, that existed from 511 to 843, capitalof which was Metz; it was celebrated for its rivalry with the kingdom ofNeustria, or the Western Kingdom. 

AUSTRIA, or AUSTRO-HUNGARY, is a country of every variety ofsurface and scenery; is inhabited by peoples of different races andnationalities, speaking different languages, as many as 20, and composedof 50 different states, 5 of them kingdoms; occupies the centre ofEurope, yet has free communication with the seas on all sides of it; isthe third country for size in it; is divided by the Leitha, a tributaryof the Danube, into Cis-Leithan on the W. And Trans-Leithan on the E. ;has next to no coast-line; its chief seaport, Trieste; is watered byrivers, the Danube in chief, all of which have their mouths in othercountries; has three zones of climate with corresponding zones ofvegetation; is rich in minerals; is largely pastoral and agricultural, manufacturing chiefly in the W. ; the capital Vienna, and the populationover 40, 000, 000. 

AUSTRIAN LIP, a thick under-lip characteristic of the House ofHapsburg. 

AUTEUIL, a village in the dep. Of the Seine, now included in Paris. 

AUTHORISED VERSION OF THE BIBLE was executed between the years 1604and 1610 at the instance of James I. , so that it is not undeservedlycalled King James's Bible, and was the work of 47 men selected withmarked fairness and discretion, divided into three groups of two sectionseach, who held their sittings for three years severally at Westminster, Cambridge, and Oxford, the whole being thereafter revised by a committeeof six, who met for nine months in Stationers' Hall, London, and receivedthirty pounds each, the rest being done for nothing. The result was atranslation that at length superseded every other, and that has sincewoven itself into the affectionate regard of the whole English-speakingpeople. The men who executed it evidently felt something of theinspiration that breathes in the original, and they have produced aversion that will remain to all time a monument of the simplicity, dignity, grace, and melody of the English language; its very style hashad a nobly educative effect on the national literature, and hascontributed more than anything else to prevent it from degenerating intothe merely frivolous and formal. 

AUTOCHTHONS, Greek for aborigines. 

AUTO-DA-FÉ, or Act of Faith, a ceremony held by the court of theInquisition in Spain, preliminary to the execution of a heretic, in whichthe condemned, dressed in a hideously fantastic robe, called the SanBenito, and a pointed cap, walked in a procession of monks, followed bycarts containing coffins with malefactors' bones, to hear a sermon on thetrue faith, prior to being burned alive; the most famous auto-da-fé tookplace in Madrid in 1680. 

AUTOL`YCUS, in the Greek mythology a son of HERMES (q. V. ), and maternal grandfather of Ulysses by his daughter Anticlea; famed forhis cunning and robberies; synonym for thief. 

AUTOM`EDON, the charioteer of Achilles. 

AUTONOMY (i. E. Self-law), in the Kantian metaphysics denotes thesovereign right of the pure reason to be a law to itself. 

AUTRAN`, JOSEPH, a French poet and dramatist, born at Marseilles; hewas of the school of Lamartine, and attained distinction by theproduction of the tragedy "La Fille d'Eschyle" (1813-1877). 

AUTUN` (15), an ancient city in the dep. Of Saône-et-Loire, on theArroux, 28 m. NW. From Châlons, where Talleyrand was bishop, with a finecathedral and rich in antiquities; manufactures serges, carpets, velvet, &c. 

AUVERGNE`, an ancient province of France, united to the crown underLouis XIII. In 1610, embracing the deps. Of Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, and partof Haute-Loire, the highlands of which separate the basin of the Loirefrom that of the Garonne, and contain a hardy and industrious race ofpeople descended from the original inhabitants of Gaul; they speak astrange dialect, and supply all the water-carriers and street-sweepers ofParis. 

AUXERRE` (15), an ancient city, capital of the dep. Of Yonne, 90 m. SE. Of Paris; has a fine cathedral in the Flamboyant style; drives alarge trade in wine. 

AVA, capital of the Burmese empire from 1364 to 1740 and from 1822to 1835; now in ruins from an earthquake in 1839. 

AV`ALON, in the Celtic mythology an island of faërie in the regionwhere the sun sinks to rest at eventide, and the final home of the heroesof chivalry when their day's work was ended on earth. 

AVARS, a tribe of Huns who, driven from their home in the Altai Mts. By the Chinese, invaded the E. Of Europe about 553, and committed ravagesin it for about three centuries, till they were subdued by Charlemagne, and all but exterminated in 827. 

AVATAR`, or Descent, the incarnation and incarnated manifestation ofa Hindu deity, a theory both characteristic of Vishnuism and marking anew epoch in the religious development of India. 

AVE MARIA, an invocation to the Virgin, so called as forming thefirst two words of the salutation of the angel in Luke i. 28. 

AVEBURY, or ABERY, a village in Wiltshire, 6 m. W. OfMarlborough, in the middle of a so-called Druidical structure consistingof 100 monoliths, surmised to have been erected and arranged in memory ofsome great victory. 

AVELLI`NO (26), chief town in a province of the name in Campania, 59m. E. Of Naples, famous for its trade in hazel-nuts and chestnuts;manufactures woollens, paper, macaroni, &c. ; has been subject toearthquakes. 

AVENTINE HILL, one of the seven hills of Rome, the mount to whichthe plebs sullenly retired on their refusal to submit to the patricianoligarchy, and from which they were enticed back by Menenius Agrippa bythe well-known fable of the members of the body and the stomach. 

AVENTI`NUS, a Bavarian historian, author of the "Chronicon Bavariæ"(Annals of Bavaria), a valuable record of the early history of Germany(1477-1534). 

AVENZO`AR, an Arabian physician, the teacher of Averroës(1073-1103). 

AVERNUS, a deep lake in Italy, near Naples, 1½ m. In circumference, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, at one time surrounded by adark wood, and conceived, from its gloomy appearance, as well as from themephitic vapours it exhaled, to be the entrance to the infernal world, and identified with it. 

AVER`ROËS, an Arabian physician and philosopher, a Moor by birth anda native of Cordova; devoted himself to the study and the exposition ofAristotle, earning for himself the title of the "Commentator, " though heappears to have coupled with the philosophy of Aristotle the Orientalpantheistic doctrine of emanations (1126-1198). 

AVERSA (24), an Italian town 8 m. From Naples, amid vineyards andorange groves; much resorted to by the Neapolitans. 

AVEYRON`, a mountainous dep. In the S. Of France, with excellentpastures, where the Roquefort cheese is produced. 

AVICEN`NA, an illustrious Arabian physician, surnamed the prince ofphysicians, a man of immense learning and extensive practice in his art;of authority in philosophy as well as in medicine, his philosophy beingof the school of Aristotle with a mixture of Neoplatonism, his "Canon ofMedicine, " being the supreme in medical science for centuries (980-1037). 

AVIE`NUS, RUFUS FESTUS, a geographer and Latin poet, or versifierrather, of the 4th century. 

AVIGN`ON (37), capital of the dep. Of Vaucluse, France; an ancientcity beautifully situated on the left bank of the Rhône, near theconfluence of the Durance, of various fortune from its foundation by thePhocæans in 539 B. C. ; was the seat of the Papacy from 1305 to 1377, purchased by Pope Clement VI. At that period, and belonged to the Papacyfrom that time till 1797, when it was appropriated to France; it containsa number of interesting buildings, and carries on a large trade in wine, oil, and fruits; grows and manufactures silk in large quantities. 

A`VILA (10), a town in Spain, in a province of the name, in S. OfOld Castile, 3000 ft. Above the sea-level, with a Gothic cathedral and aMoorish castle; birthplace of St. Theresa. 

AVILA, JUAN D', a Spanish priest, surnamed the Apostle of Andalusia, for his zeal in planting the Gospel in its mountains; _d_. 1569. 

AVILA Y ZINUGA, a soldier, diplomatist, and historian under CharlesV. 

AVLO`NA (6), or VALONA, a port of Albania, on an inlet of theAdriatic. 

AV`OLA (12), a seaport on the E. Coast of Sicily, ruined by anearthquake in 1693, rebuilt since; place of export of the Hybla honey. 

A`VON, the name of several English rivers, such as Shakespeare's inWarwickshire, of Salisbury in Wiltshire, and of Bristol, rising inWiltshire. 

AVRANCHES` (7), a town in dep. Of Manche, Normandy; the place, thespot marked by a stone, where Henry II. Received absolution for themurder of Thomas à Becket; lace-making the staple industry, and trade inagricultural products. 

AWE, LOCH, in the centre of Argyllshire, overshadowed by mountains, 25 m. In length, the second in size of Scottish lakes, studded withislands, one with the ruin of a castle; the scenery gloomily picturesque;its surface is 100 ft. Above the sea-level. 

AXEL, archbishop of Lund; born in Zealand; a Danish patriot withNorse blood; subdued tribes of Wends, and compelled them to adoptChristianity. 

AXHOLME, ISLE OF, a tract of land in NW. Lincolnshire, 17 m. Longand 5 m. Broad; once a forest, then a marsh; drained in 1632, and nowfertile, producing hemp, flax, rape, &c. 

AXIM, a trading settlement on the Gold Coast, Africa, belonging toBritain; belonged to Holland till 1871. 

AX`OLOTL, a batrachian, numerous in Mexico and the Western States, believed to be in its preliminary or tadpole state of existence. 

AX`UM, capital of an Ethiopian kingdom in Abyssinia, now in ruins, where Christianity was introduced in the 4th century, and which as theoutpost of Christendom fell early before the Mohammedan power. 

AYACU`CHO, a thriving town in Peru, founded by Pizarro in 1539, where the Peruvians and Colombians achieved their independence of Spainin 1824, and ended the rule of Spain in the S. American continent. 

AYA`LA, PEDRO LOPEZ D', a Spanish soldier, statesman, anddiplomatist, born in Murcia; wrote a "History of the Kings of Castile, "which was more than a chronicle of wars, being also a review of them; anda book of poems entitled the "Rhymes of the Court" (1332-1407). 

AYE-AYE, a lemur found in the woods of Madagascar. 

AYESHA, the daughter of Abubekr, and favourite wife of Mahomet, whomhe married soon after the death of Kadijah; as much devoted to Mahomet ashe was to her, for he died in her arms. "A woman who distinguishedherself by all manner of qualities among the Moslems, " who is styled bythem the "Mother of the Faithful" (see KADIJAH). She was, it issaid, the only wife of Mahomet that remained a virgin. On Mahomet's deathshe opposed the accession of Ali, who defeated her and took her prisoner, but released her on condition that she should not again interfere inState matters (610-677). 

AYLES`BURY (9), a borough and market-town in Buckinghamshire, 40 m. NW. Of London, in an agricultural district; supplies the London marketwith ducks. 

AYLMER, JOHN, tutor to Lady Jane Grey, bishop of London, a highlyarbitrary man, and a friend to neither Papist nor Puritan; he issatirised by Spenser in the "Shepherd's Calendar" (1521-1594). 

AYLOFFE, SIR JOSEPH, English antiquary, born in Sussex (1708-1781). 

AYMA`RAS, the chief native race of Peru and Bolivia, from which itwould appear sprang the Quinchuas, the dominant people of Peru at thetime of the Spanish conquest; attained a high degree of civilisation, andnumber to-day 500, 000. 

AYMON, THE COUNT OF DORDOGNE, the father of four sons, Renaud, Guiscard, Alard, and Richard, renowned in the legends of chivalry, andparticularly as paladins of Charlemagne. 

AY`MAR-VER`NAY, a peasant of Dauphiné, who in the 17th centuryprofessed to discover springs and treasures hid in the earth by means ofa divining rod. 

AYR (23), the county town of Ayrshire, at the mouth of a river ofthe same name, a clean, ancient town, its charter, granted by William theLion, dating from 1200; well built, with elegant villas in the suburbs, agood harbour and docks for shipping; famous in early Scottish history, and doubly so among Scottish towns as the birthplace near it of RobertBurns. 

AYR`ER, JACOB, a German dramatist in the 16th century, of the styleof HANS SACHS (q. V. ). 

AYRSHIRE (226), a large and wealthy county in the W. Of Scotland, bordered on the W. By the Firth of Clyde, agricultural and pastoral, witha large coal-field and thriving manufactures; its divisions, Carrick, tothe S. Of the Doon; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, andCunningham, on the N. ; concerning which there is an old rhyme: "Kyle fora man, Carrick for a coo, Cunningham for butter and cheese, Galloway for'oo. "

AYTON, SIR ROBERT, a poet of considerable merit, a native of Fife, born at Kinaldie, who made his fortune by a Latin panegyric to King JamesI. On his accession; was on friendly terms with the eminent literary menof his time, Ben Jonson in particular; his poems are written in pure andeven elegant English, some in Latin, and have only recently beencollected together (1571-1638). 

AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONDSTOUNE, poet and critic, a native ofEdinburgh, professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in EdinburghUniversity, author of the "Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers"; he was alsoeditor, along with Sir Theodore Martin, of the "Gaultier Ballads, " anadmirable collection of light verse (1813-1865). 

AZEGLIO, MARCHESE D', an Italian patriot and statesman, native ofTurin; wounded at Vicenza in 1848, fighting for Italian independence;entered the Piedmontese Parliament, was Victor Emanuel's right-hand man, retired in favour of Cavour; he was not altogether engrossed withpolitics, being an amateur in art (1798-1866). 

AZERBIJAN (2, 000), prov. Of Armenian Persia, S. Of the river Aras, with fertile plains, cattle-breeding, and rich in minerals. 

AZORES, i. E. Hawk Islands (250), a group of nine volcanic islandsin the Atlantic, 800 m. W. Of Portugal, and forming a province of it; arein general mountainous; covered with orange groves, of which the chiefare St. Michael's and Fayal; and 900 m. W. Of it, in the latitude ofLisbon; the climate is mild, and good for pulmonary complaints; they wereknown to the Carthaginian mariners, but fell out of the map of Europetill rediscovered in 1431. 

AZOV, SEA OF, an opening from the Black Sea, very shallow, andgradually silting up with mud from the Don. 

AZ`RAEL, the angel of death according to Rabbinical tradition. 

AZ`TECS, a civilised race of small stature, of reddish-brown skin, lean, and broad featured, which occupied the Mexican plateau for somecenturies before the Spaniards visited it, and were overthrown by theSpaniards in 1520. 

AZUNI, DOMINICO ALBERTO, an Italian jurist, born in Sardinia;president of the Court of Appeal at Genoa; made a special study ofmaritime law; author of "Droit Maritime de l'Europe" (1729-1827). 

AZYMITES, the name given to a party in the Church who insisted thatonly unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist, and thecontroversy hinged on the question whether the Lord's Supper wasinstituted before the Passover season was finished, or after, as in theformer case the bread must have been unleavened, and in the latterleavened. 

B

BAADER, FRANZ XAVIER VON, a German philosopher, born at Münich; waspatronised by the king of Bavaria, and became professor in Münich, who, revolting alike from the materialism of Hume, which he studied inEngland, and the transcendentalism of Kant, with its self-sufficiency ofthe reason, fell back upon the mysticism of Jacob Boehme, and taught in16 vols. What might rather be called a theosophy than a philosophy, whichregarded God in Himself, and God even in life, as incomprehensiblerealities. He, however, identified himself with the liberal movement inpolitics, and offended the king (1765-1841). 

BA`AL (meaning Lord), _PL_. BAALIM, the principal male divinityof the Canaanites and Phoenicians, identified with the sun as the greatquickening and life-sustaining power in nature, the god who presided overthe labours of the husbandman and granted the increase; his crowningattribute, strength; worshipped on hill-tops with sacrifices, incense, and dancing. Baal-worship, being that of the Canaanites, was for a timemixed up with the worship of Jehovah in Israel, and at one timethreatened to swamp it, but under the zealous preaching of the prophetsit was eventually stamped out. 

BAAL`BEK (i. E. City of Baal, or the Sun), an ancient city ofSyria, 35 m. NW. Of Damascus; called by the Greeks, Heliopolis; once aplace of great size, wealth, and splendour; now in ruins, the mostconspicuous of which is the Great Temple to Baal, one of the mostmagnificent ruins of the East, covering an area of four acres. 

BAALISM, the name given to the worship of natural causes, tending tothe obscuration and denial of the worship of God as Spirit. 

BABA, ALI, the character in the "Arabian Nights" who discovers andenters the den of the Forty Thieves by the magic password "SESAMË"(q. V. ), a word which he accidentally overheard. 

BABA, CAPE, in Asia Minor, the most western point in Asia, inAnatolia, with a town of the name. 

BABBAGE, CHARLES, a mathematician, born in Devonshire; studied atCambridge, and professor there; spent much time and money over theinvention of a calculating machine; wrote on "The Economy of Manufacturesand Machinery, " and an autobiography entitled "Passages from the Life ofa Philosopher"; in his later years was famous for his hostility to streetorgan-grinders (1791-1871). 

BABBINGTON, ANTONY, an English Catholic gentleman; conspired againstElizabeth on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots, confessed his guilt, and wasexecuted at Tyburn in 1586. 

BAB-EL-MANDEB (i. E. The Gate of Tears), a strait between Asia andAfrica forming the entrance to the Red Sea, so called from the strongcurrents which rush through it, and often cause wreckage to vesselsattempting to pass it. 

BABER, the founder of the Mogul empire in Hindustan, a descendant ofTamerlane; thrice invaded India, and became at length master of it in1526; left memoirs; his dynasty lasted for three centuries. 

BABES IN THE WOOD, Irish banditti who infested the Wicklow Mountainsin the 18th century, and were guilty of the greatest atrocities. SeeCHILDREN. 

BÂBIS, a modern Persian sect founded in 1843, their doctrines amixture of pantheistic with Gnostic and Buddhist beliefs; adverse topolygamy, concubinage, and divorce; insisted on the emancipation ofwomen; have suffered from persecution, but are increasing in numbers. 

BABOEUF, FRANÇOIS NOEL, a violent revolutionary in France, self-styled Gracchus; headed an insurrection against the Directory, "which died in the birth, stifled by the soldiery"; convicted ofconspiracy, was guillotined, after attempting to commit suicide(1764-1797). 

BABOO, or BABU, name applied to a native Hindu gentleman whohas some knowledge of English. 

BABOON, LEWIS, the name Arbuthnot gives to Louis XIV. In his"History of John Bull. "

BA`BRIUS, or GABRIUS, a Greek poet of uncertain date; turnedthe fables of Æsop and of others into verse, with alterations. 

BABY-FARMING, a system of nursing new-born infants whose parents maywish them out of sight. 

BABYLON, the capital city of Babylonia, one of the richest and mostmagnificent cities of the East, the gigantic walls and hanging gardens ofwhich were classed among the seven wonders of the world; was taken, according to tradition, by Cyrus in 538 B. C. , by diverting out of theirchannel the waters of the Euphrates, which flowed through it and byDarius in 519 B. C. , through the self-sacrifice of Zophyrus. The name wasoften metaphorically applied to Rome by the early Christians, and isto-day to great centres of population, such as London, where theovercrowding, the accumulation of material wealth, and the so-calledrefinements of civilisation, are conceived to have a corrupting effect onthe religion and morals of the inhabitants. 

BABYLO`NIA, the name given by the Greeks to that country called inthe Old Testament, Shinar, Babel, and "the land of the Chaldees"; itoccupied the rich, fertile plain through which the lower waters of theEuphrates and the Tigris flow, now the Turkish province of Irak-Arabi orBagdad. From very early times it was the seat of a highly developedcivilisation introduced by the Sumero-Accadians, who descended on theplain from the mountains in the NW. Semitic tribes subsequently settledamong the Accadians and impressed their characteristics on the languageand institutions of the country. The 8th century B. C. Was marked by afierce struggle with the northern empire of Assyria, in which Babyloniaeventually succumbed and became an Assyrian province. But Nabopolassar in625 B. C. Asserted his independence, and under his son Nebuchadnezzar, Babylonia rose to the zenith of its power. Judah was captive in thecountry from 599 to 538 B. C. In that year Cyrus conquered it for Persia, and its history became merged in that of Persia. 

BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, the name given to the deportation of Jews fromJudea to Babylon after the capture of Jerusalem by the king of Babylon, and which continued for 70 years, till they were allowed to return totheir own land by Cyrus, who had conquered Babylon; those who returnedwere solely of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi. 

BACCHANALIA, a festival, originally of a loose and riotouscharacter, in honour of Bacchus. 

BACCHANTES, those who took part in the festival of Bacchus, confinedoriginally to women, and were called by a number of names, such asMænads, Thyads, &c. ; they wore their hair dishevelled and thrown back, and had loose flowing garments. 

BAC`CHUS, son of Zeus and Semele, the god of the vine, and promoterof its culture as well as the civilisation which accompanied it;represented as riding in a car drawn by tame tigers, and carrying aTHYRSUS (q. V. ); he rendered signal service to Zeus in the warof the gods with the GIANTS (q. V. ). See DIONYSUS. 

BACCHYL`IDES, a Greek lyric poet, 5th century B. C. , nephew ofSimonides and uncle of Eschylus, a rival of Pindar; only a few fragmentsof his poems extant. 

BACCIO DELLA PORTO. See BARTOLOMEO, FRA. 

BACCIO`CHI, a Corsican officer, who married Maria Bonaparte, and wascreated by Napoleon Prince of Lucca (1762-1841). 

BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, one of the greatest of musical composers, born in Eisenach, of a family of Hungarian origin, noted--sixty ofthem--for musical genius; was in succession a chorister, an organist, adirector of concerts, and finally director of music at the School of St. Thomas, Leipzig; his works, from their originality and scientific rigour, difficult of execution (1685-1750). 

BACHE, A. DALLAS, an American physicist, born at Philadelphia, superintended the coast survey (1806-1867). 

BACHELOR, a name given to one who has achieved the first grade inany discipline. 

BACIL`LUS (lit. A little rod), a bacterium, distinguished as beingtwice as long as it is broad, others being more or less rounded. SeeBACTERIA. 

BACK, SIR GEORGE, a devoted Arctic explorer, born at Stockport, entered the navy, was a French captive for five years, associated withFranklin in three polar expeditions, went in search of Sir John Ross, discovered instead and traced the Great Fish River in 1839, was knightedin 1837, and in 1857 made admiral (1796-1878). 

BACKHUY`SEN, LUDOLPH, a Dutch painter, famous for his sea-pieces andskill in depicting sea-waves; was an etcher as well as painter(1631-1708). 

BACON, DELIA, an American authoress, who first broached, though shedid not originate, the theory of the Baconian authorship of Shakespeare'sworks, a theory in favour of which she has received small support(1811-1859). 

BACON, FRANCIS, LORD VERULAM, the father of the inductive method ofscientific inquiry; born in the Strand, London; son of Sir NicholasBacon; educated at Cambridge; called to the bar when 21, after study atGray's Inn; represented successively Taunton, Liverpool, and Ipswich inParliament; was a favourite with the queen; attached himself to Essex, but witnessed against him at his trial, which served him little; becameat last in succession Attorney-General, Privy Councillor, Lord Keeper, and Lord Chancellor; was convicted of venality as a judge, deposed, finedand imprisoned, but pardoned and released; spent his retirement in hisfavourite studies; his great works were his "Advancement of Learning, ""Novum Organum, " and "De Augmentis Scientiarum, " but is seen to bestadvantage by the generality in his "Essays, " which are full of practicalwisdom and keen observation of life; indeed, these show such shrewdnessof wit as to embolden some (see _SUPRA_) to maintain that theplays named of Shakespeare were written by him (1561-1626). 

BACON, ROGER, a Franciscan monk, born at Ilchester, Somerset; afearless truth-seeker of great scientific attainments; accused of magic, convicted and condemned to imprisonment, from which he was released onlyto die; suggested several scientific inventions, such as the telescope, the air-pump, the diving-bell, the camera obscura, and gunpowder, andwrote some eighty treatises (1214-1294). 

BACON, SIR NICHOLAS, the father of Francis, Lord Bacon, PrivyCouncillor and Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen Elizabeth; a prudentand honourable man and minister, and much honoured and trusted by thequeen (1510-1579). 

BACSANYI, JANOS, a Hungarian poet; he suffered from his liberalpolitical opinions, like many of his countrymen (1763-1845). 

BACTE`RIA, exceedingly minute organisms of the simplest structure, being merely cells of varied forms, in the shape of spheres, rods, orintermediate shapes, which develop in infusions of organic matter, andmultiply by fission with great rapidity, fraught, as happens, with lifeor death to the higher forms of being; conspicuous by the part they playin the process of fermentation and in the origin and progress of disease, and to the knowledge of which, and the purpose they serve in nature, somuch has been contributed by the labours of M. Pasteur. 

BAC`TRIA, a province of ancient Persia, now BALKH (q. V. ), the presumed fatherland of the Aryans and the birthplace of theZoroastrian religion. 

BACTRIAN SAGE, a name given to Zoroaster as a native of Bactria. 

BACUP (23), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, about 20 m. NE. OfManchester. 

BADAJOZ` (28), capital of a Spanish province of the name, on theGuadiana, near the frontier of Portugal; a place of great strength;surrendered to Soult in 1811, and taken after a violent and bloodystruggle by Wellington in 1812; the scene of fearful outrages after itscapture. 

BADAKANS, a Dravidian people of small stature, living on theNilghiri Mountains, in S. India. 

BADAKHSHAN` (100), a Mohammedan territory NE. Of Afghanistan, apicturesque hill country, rich in minerals; it is 200 m. From E. To W. And 150 from N. To S. ; it has been often visited by travellers, fromMarco Polo onwards; the inhabitants, called Badakhshans, are of the Aryanfamily and speak Persian. 

BADALO`NA (15), a seaport 5 m. NE. Of Barcelona. 

BA`DEN (4), a town in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, 14 m. NW. Of Zurich, long a fashionable resort for its mineral springs; also a townnear Vienna. 

BAD`EN, THE GRAND-DUCHY OF (1, 725), a German duchy, extends alongthe left bank of the Rhine from Constance to Mannheim; consists ofvalley, mountain, and plain; includes the Black Forest; is rich intimber, minerals, and mineral springs; cotton fabrics, wood-carving, andjewellery employ a great proportion of the inhabitants; there are twouniversity seats, Heidelberg and Freiburg. 

BADEN-BADEN (13), a town in the duchy of Baden, 18 m. From Carlsruheand 22 from Strassburg, noted for its hot mineral springs, which wereknown to the Romans, and is a popular summer resort. 

BAD`ENOCH, a forest-covered district of the Highlands of Scotland, 45 m. Long by 19 broad, traversed by the Spey, in the SE. OfInverness-shire; belonged originally to the Comyns, but was forfeited bythem, was bestowed by Bruce on his nephew; became finally the property ofthe Earl of Huntly. 

BADI`A-Y-LABLICH, a Spaniard, born at Barcelona; travelled in theEast; having acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Arab customs, disguisedhimself as a Mohammedan under the name of Ali-Bei; his disguise was socomplete that he passed for a Mussulman, even in Mecca itself; isbelieved to be the first Christian admitted to the shrine of Mecca; aftera time settled in Paris, and wrote an account of his travels (1766-1818). 

BADRINATH, a shrine of Vishnu, in N. W. India, 10, 000 ft. High; muchfrequented by pilgrims for the sacred waters near it, which are believedto be potent to cleanse from all pollution. 

BAEDEKER, KARL, a German printer in Coblenz, famed for theguide-books to almost every country of Europe that he published(1801-1859). 

BAER, KARL ERNST VON, a native of Esthonia; professor of zoology, first in Königsberg and then in St. Petersburg; the greatest of modernembryologists, styled the "father of comparative embryology"; thediscoverer of the law, known by his name, that the embryo when developingresembles those of successively higher types (1792-1876). 

BAFFIN, WILLIAM, an early English Arctic explorer, who, when actingas pilot to an expedition in quest of the N. W. Passage, discoveredBaffin Bay (1584-1622). 

BAFFIN BAY, a strait stretching northward between N. America andGreenland, open four months in summer to whale and seal fishing;discovered in 1615 by William Baffin. 

BAGDAD (185), on the Tigris, 500 m. From its mouth, and connectedwith the Euphrates by canal; is the capital of a province, and one of themost flourishing cities of Asiatic Turkey; dates, wool, grain, and horsesare exported; red and yellow leather, cotton, and silk are manufactured;and the transit trade, though less than formerly, is still considerable. It is a station on the Anglo-Indian telegraph route, and is served by aBritish-owned fleet of river steamers plying to Basra. Formerly a centreof Arabic culture, it has belonged to Turkey since 1638. An imposing cityto look at, it suffers from visitations of cholera and famine. 

BAGEHOT, WALTER, an English political economist, born in Somerset, abanker by profession, and an authority on banking and finance; a discipleof Ricardo; wrote, besides other publications, an important work, "TheEnglish Constitution"; was editor of the _Economist_; wrote in a vigorousstyle (1826-1877). 

BAGGE`SEN, JENS EMMANUEL, a Danish poet, travelled a good deal, wrote mostly in German, in which he was quite at home; his chief works, apastoral epic, "Parthenais oder die Alpenreise, " and a mock epic, "Adamand Eve"; his minor pieces are numerous and popular, though from hisegotism and irritability he was personally unpopular (1764-1826). 

BAGHELKAND, name of five native states in Central India, Rewah themost prosperous. 

BAGHE`RIA, a town in Sicily, 8 m. From Palermo, where citizens ofthe latter have more or less stylish villas. 

BAGIR`MI, a Mohammedan kingdom in Central Africa, SE. Of Lake Tehad, 240 m. From N. To S. And 150 m. From E. To W. 

BAGLIO`NI, an Italian fresco-painter of note (1573-1641). 

BAGLI`VI, GIORGIO, an illustrious Italian physician, wrote "De FibraMotrice" in defence of the "solidist" theory, as it is called, whichtraced all diseases to alterations in the solid parts of the body(1667-1706). 

BAGNÈRES, two French towns on the Pyrenees, well-knownwatering-places. 

BAGNES, name given to convict prisons in France since the abolitionof the galleys. 

BAGRA`TION, PRINCE, Russian general, distinguished in manyengagements; commanded the vanguard at Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and in 1812, against Napoleon; achieved a brilliant success at Smolensk;fell at Borodino (1765-1812). 

BAGSTOCK, JOE, a "self-absorbed" talking character in "Dombey &Son. "

BAHA`MAS, THE (47), a group of over 500 low, flat coral islands inthe W. Indies, and thousands of rocks, belonging to Britain, of which 20are inhabited, and on one of which Columbus landed when he discoveredAmerica; yield tropical fruits, sponges, turtle, &c. ; Nassau the capital. 

BAHAR (263), a town on the Ganges, 34 m. SE. Of Patna; after fallinginto decay, is again rising in importance. 

BAHAWALPUR (650), a feudatory state in the NW. Of India, with acapital of the name; is connected administratively with the Punjab. 

BAHI`A, or San Salvador (200), a fine city, one of the chiefseaports of Brazil, in the Bay of All Saints, and originally the capitalin a province of the name stretching along the middle of the coast. 

BAHR, an Arabic word meaning "river, " prefixed to the name of manyplaces occupied by Arabs. 

BÄHR, FELIX, classical scholar, burn at Darmstadt; wrote a "Historyof Roman Literature, " in high repute (1798-1872). 

BAHREIN` ISLANDS (70), a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, underthe protection of Britain, belonging to Muscat, the largest 27 m. Longand 10 broad, cap. Manamah (20); long famous for their pearl-fisheries, the richest in the world. 

BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, an old Egyptian prov. Including the district wateredby the tributaries of the Bahr-el-Arab and the Bahr-el-Ghazal; it waswrested from Egypt by the Mahdi, 1884; a district of French Congo lies W. Of it, and it was through it Marchand made his way to Fashoda. 

BAIÆ, a small town near Naples, now in ruins and nearly allsubmerged; famous as a resort of the old Roman nobility, for its climateand its baths. 

BAÏF, a French poet one of a group of seven known in Frenchliterature as the "Pléiade, " whose aim was to accommodate the Frenchlanguage and literature to the models of Greek and Latin. 

BAIKAL, a clear fresh-water lake, in S. Of Siberia, 397 m. Long andfrom 13 to 54 wide, in some parts 4500 ft. Deep, and at its surface 1560ft. Above the sea-level, the third largest in Asia; on which sledges plyfor six or eight months in winter, and steamboats in summer; it aboundsin fish, especially sturgeon and salmon; it contains several islands, thelargest Olkhin, 32 m. By 10 m. 

BAIKIE, W. BALFOUR, an Orcadian, born at Kirkwall, surgeon in theRoyal Navy; was attached to the Niger Expedition in 1854, and ultimatelycommanded it, opening the region up and letting light in upon it at thesacrifice of his life; died at Sierra Leone (1825-1864). 

BAILEY, NATHAN, an early English lexicographer, whose dictionary, very popular in its day, was the basis of Johnson's; _d_. 1742. 

BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES, English poet, born in Nottingham; author of"Festus, " a work that on its appearance in 1839 was received withenthusiasm, passed through 11 editions in England and 30 in America, wassucceeded by "The Angel World, " "The Mystic, " "The Universal Hymn, " and"The Age"; he has been rated by some extravagantly high; _b_. 1816. 

BAILEY, SAMUEL, an English author, born in Sheffield, aliberal-minded man, a utilitarian in philosophy, who wrote on psychology, ethics, and political economy, and left a fortune, acquired in business, to his native town (1787-1870). 

BAILLIE, JOANNA, a poetess, born at Bothwell, child of thePresbyterian manse there; joined a brother in London, stayed afterwardswith a sister at Hampstead; produced a series of dramas entitled "Playsof the Passions, " besides many others, both comedies and tragedies, oneof which, the "Family Legend, " was acted in the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, under the auspices of Sir Walter Scott; she does not stand high either asa dramatist or a writer (1762-1851). 

BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL, an heroic Scotch lady, famous for her songs, "And werena my heart licht I wad dee" is well known (1665-1740). 

BAILLIE, MATTHEW, physician, brother of Joanna, wrote on MorbidAnatomy (1761-1823). 

BAILLIE, ROBERT, a Scotch Presbyterian divine, born in Glasgow;resisted Laud's attempt to thrust Episcopacy on the Scotch nation, andbecame a zealous advocate of the national cause, which he was delegatedto represent twice over in London; he was a royalist all the same, andwas made principal of Glasgow University; "His Letters and Journals" werepublished by the Bannatyne Club, and are commended by Carlyle as"veracious, " forming, as they do, the subject of one of his criticalessays (1599-1662). 

BAILLIE, ROBERT, a zealous Scotch Presbyterian, tried for complicityin the Rye House Plot, and unfairly condemned to death, and barbarouslyexecuted the same day (in 1683) for fear he should die afterwards andcheat the gallows of its victim. 

BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN, an astronomer, born at Paris; wrote the"History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern, " in five volumes; wasdistracted from further study of the science by the occurrence of theRevolution; elected president of the National Assembly; installed mayorof Paris; lost favour with the people; was imprisoned as an enemy of thepopular cause and cruelly guillotined. Exposed beforehand "for hourslong, amid curses and bitter frost-rain, 'Bailly, thou tremblest, ' saidone; 'Mon ami, ' said he meekly, 'it is for cold. ' Crueller end, " saysCarlyle, "had no mortal. "

BAILY, E. H. , a sculptor, born in Bristol, studied under Flaxman;his most popular works were, "Eve Listening to the Voice, " "The SleepingGirl, " and the "Graces Seated" (1788-1867). 

BAIN, ALEXANDER, born at Aberdeen, professor of Logic in theuniversity, and twice Lord Rector, where he was much esteemed by andexercised a great influence over his pupils; his chief works, "The Sensesand the Intellect, " "The Emotions and the Will, " and "Mental and MoralScience"; has written on composition in a very uninteresting style; hispsychology, which he connected with physiology, was based on empiricismand the inductive method, to the utter exclusion of all _a priori_ ortranscendental speculation, such as hails from Kant and his school; he isof the school of John Stuart Mill, who endorsed his philosophy; _b_. 1818. 

BAIRAM, a Mohammedan festival of three days at the conclusion of theRamadan, followed by another of four days, seventy days later, called theSecond Bairam, in commemoration of the offering up of Isaac, andaccompanied with sacrifices. 

BAIRD, JAMES, ironmaster, founder of the Baird Lectureship, invindication of Scotch orthodoxy; bequeathed £500, 000 to support churches(1802-1876). 

BAIRD, SIR DAVID, a distinguished English general of Scotch descent, born at Newbyth, Aberdeenshire; entered the army at 15; served in India, Egypt, and at the Cape; was present at the taking of Seringapatam, andthe siege of Pondicherry; in command when the Cape of Good Hope waswrested from the Dutch, and on the fall of Sir John Moore at Corunna, wounded; he afterwards retired (1757-1829). 

BAIRD, S. FULLERTON, an American naturalist, wrote, along withothers, on the birds and mammals of N. America, as well as contributed tofish-culture and fisheries (1823-1887). 

BAI`REUTH (24), the capital of Upper Franconia, in Bavaria, with alarge theatre erected by the king for the performance of Wagner's musicalcompositions, and with a monument, simple but massive, as was fit, to thememory of Jean Paul, who died there. 

BAIREUTH, WILHELMINA, MARGRAVINE OF, sister of Frederick the Great, left "Memoirs" of her time (1709-1758). 

BAJAZET` I. , sultan of the Ottoman Turks, surnamed ILDERIM, _i. E_. Lightning, from the energy and rapidity of his movements; aimed atConstantinople, pushed everything before him in his advance on Europe, but was met and defeated on the plain of Angora by Tamerlane, who is saidto have shut him in a cage and carried him about with him in his traintill the day of his death (1347-1403). 

BA`JUS, MICHAEL, deputy from the University of Louvain to theCouncil of Trent, where he incurred much obloquy at the hands of theJesuits by his insistence of the doctrines of Augustine, as theJansenists did after him (1513-1580). 

BAKER, MOUNT, a volcano in the Cascade range, 11, 000 ft. ; stillsubject to eruptions. 

BAKER, SIR RICHARD, a country gentleman, born in Kent, oftenreferred to by Sir Roger de Coverley; author of "The Chronicle of theKings of England, " which he wrote in the Fleet prison, where he died(1603-1645). 

BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE, a man of enterprise and travel, born inLondon; discovered the Albert Nyanza; commanded an expedition under theKhedive into the Soudan; wrote an account of it in a book, "Ismailia";visited Cyprus and travelled over India; left a record of his travels infive volumes with different titles (1821-1893). 

BAKSHISH, a word used all over the East to denote a small fee forsome small service rendered. 

BAKU (107), a Russian port on the Caspian Sea, in a district soimpregnated and saturated in parts with petroleum that by digging in thesoil wells are formed, in some cases so gushing as to overflow instreams, which wells, reckoned by hundreds, are connected by pipes withrefineries in the town; a district which, from the spontaneous ignitionof the petroleum, was long ago a centre of attraction to the Parsees orfire-worshippers of the East, and resorted to by them as holy ground. 

BAKU`NIN, MICHAEL, an extreme and violent anarchist, and a leader ofthe movement; native of Moscow; was banished to Siberia, but escaped;joined the International, but was expelled (1814-1876). 

BALA, the county town of Merioneth, in Wales. Bala Lake, the largestlake in Wales, 4 m. Long, and with a depth of 100 ft. 

BA`LAAM, a Midianitish soothsayer; for the account of him see Num. Xxii. -xxiv. , and Carlyle's essay on the "Corn-Law Rhymes" for itsapplication to modern State councillors of the same time-serving type, and their probable fate. 

BALACLA`VA, a small port 6 m. SE. Of Sebastopol, with a largeland-locked basin; the head-quarters of the British during the Crimeanwar, and famous in the war, among other events, for the "Charge of theSix Hundred. "

BALANCE OF POWER, preservation of the equilibrium existing among theStates of Europe as a security of peace, for long an importantconsideration with European statesmen. 

BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference in value between the exports andthe imports of a country, and said to be in favour of the country whoseexports exceed in value the imports in that respect. 

BALANOGLOS`SUS, a worm-like marine animal, regarded by the zoologistas a possible connecting link between invertebrates and vertebrates. 

BALATA, a vegetable gum used as a substitute for gutta-percha, beingat once ductile and elastic; goes under the name of bully. 

BAL`ATON, LAKE, the largest lake in Hungary, 48 m. Long, and 10 m. Broad, 56 m. SW. Of Pesth; slightly saline, and abounds in fish. 

BALBI, ADRIANO, a geographer of Italian descent, born at Venice, whocomposed in French a number of works bearing on geography (1782-1848). 

BALBO, CÆSARE, an Italian statesmen and publicist, born at Turin;devoted his later years to literature; wrote a life of Dante; works inadvocacy of Italian independence (1789-1853). 

BALBO`A. VASCO NUÑEZ DE, a Castilian noble, established a settlementat Darien; discovered the Pacific; took possession of territory in thename of Spain; put to death by a new governor, from jealousy of the gloryhe had acquired and the consequent influence in the State (1475-1517). 

BALDACHINO, a tent-like covering or canopy over portals, altars, orthrones, either supported on columns, suspended from the roof, orprojecting from the wall. 

BALD`ER, the sun-god of the Norse mythology, "the beautiful, thewise, the benignant, " who is fated to die, and dies, in spite of, and tothe grief of, all the gods of the pantheon, a pathetic symbol conceivedin the Norse imagination of how all things in heaven, as on earth, aresubject in the long-run to mortality. 

BALDERSTONE, CALEB, the faithful old domestic in Scott's "Bride ofLammermoor, " the family he serves his pride. 

BALDRICK, an ornamental belt worn hanging over the shoulder, acrossthe body diagonally, with a sword, dagger, or horn suspended from it. 

BALDUNG, HANS, or HANS GRÜN, a German artist, born in Suabia; afriend of Dürer's; his greatest work, a masterpiece, a painting of the"Crucifixion, " now in Freiburg Cathedral (1300-1347). 

BALDWIN, archbishop of Canterbury; crowned Richard Coeur de Lion;accompanied him on the crusade; died at Acre in 1191. 

BALDWIN, the name of several counts of Flanders, eight in all. 

BALDWIN I. , king of Jerusalem; succeeded his brother Godfrey deBouillon; assuming said title, made himself master of most of the townson the coast of Syria; contracted a disease in Egypt; returned toJerusalem, and was buried on Mount Calvary; there were five of this nameand title, the last of whom, a child of some eight years old, died in1186 (1058-1118). 

BALDWIN I. , the first Latin emperor of Constantinople; by birth, count of Hainault and Flanders; joined the fourth crusade, led the van inthe capture of Constantinople, and was made emperor; was defeated andtaken prisoner by the Bulgarians (1171-1206). B. II. , nephew ofBaldwin I. , last king of the Latin dynasty, which lasted only 57 years(1217-1273). 

BALE, JOHN, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland; born in Suffolk; a convertfrom Popery, and supported by Cromwell; was made bishop by Edward VI. ;persecuted out of the country as an apostate from Popery; author of avaluable account of early British writers (1495-1563). 

BALEARIC ISLES (312), a group of five islands off the coast ofValencia, in Spain, Majorca the largest; inhabitants in ancient timesfamous as expert slingers, having been one and all systematically trainedto the use of the sling from early childhood; cap. Palma (58). 

BALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM, a musical composer, of Irish birth, bornnear Wexford; author of "The Bohemian Girl, " his masterpiece, andworld-famous (1808-1870). 

BALFOUR, A. J. , of Whittinghame, East Lothian; educated at Eton andCambridge; nephew of Lord Salisbury, and First Lord of the Treasury andleader of the House of Commons in Lord Salisbury's ministry; author of a"Defence of Philosophic Doubt" and a volume of "Essays and Addresses";_b_. 1848. 

BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND, brother of the preceding; a promisingbiologist; career was cut short by death in attempting to ascend theWetterhorn (1851-1882). 

BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, Lord President of the Court of Session; nativeof Fife; an unprincipled man, sided now with this party, now with theopposite, to his own advantage, and that at the most critical period inScottish history; _d_. 1583. 

BALFOUR OF BURLEY, leader of the Covenanters in Scott's "OldMortality. "

BALI, one of the Samoa Islands, 75 m. Long by 40 m. Broad; producescotton, coffee, and tobacco. 

BALIOL, EDWARD, son of the following, invaded Scotland; was crownedking at Scone, supported by Edward III. ; was driven from the kingdom, andobliged to renounce all claim to the crown, on receipt of a pension; diedat Doncaster, 1369. 

BALIOL, JOHN DE, son of the following; laid claim to the Scottishcrown on the death of the Maid of Norway in 1290; was supported by EdwardI. , and did homage to him for his kingdom, but rebelled, and was forcedpublicly to resign the crown; died in 1314 in Normandy, after spendingsome three years in the Tower; satirised by the Scotch, in their stinginghumorous style, as King Toom Tabard, i. E. Empty King Cloak. 

BALIOL, SIR JOHN DE, of Norman descent; a guardian to the heir tothe Scottish crown on the death of Alexander III. ; founder of BaliolCollege, Oxford; _d_. 1269. 

BALIZE, or BELIZE, the capital of British Honduras, in CentralAmerica; trade in mahogany, rosewood, &c. 

BALKAN PENINSULA, the territory between the Adriatic and the ÆgeanSea, bounded on the N. By the Save and the Lower Danube, and on the S. ByGreece. 

BALKANS, THE, a mountain range extending from the Adriatic to theBlack Sea; properly the range dividing Bulgaria from Roumania; meanheight, 6500 ft. 

BALKASH, LAKE, a lake in Siberia, 780 ft. Above sea-level, thewaters clear, but intensely salt, 150 m. Long and 73 m. Broad. 

BALKH, anciently called Bactria, a district of Afghan Turkestanlying between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, 250 m. Long and 120 m. Broad, with a capital of the same name, reduced now to a village; birthplace ofZoroaster. 

BALL, JOHN, a priest who had been excommunicated for denouncing theabuses of the Church; a ringleader in the Wat Tyler rebellion; capturedand executed. 

BALL, SIR R. S. , mathematician and astronomer, born in Dublin;Astronomer-Royal for Ireland; author of works on astronomy and mechanics, the best known of a popular kind on the former science being "The Storyof the Heavens"; _b_. 1840. 

BALLAD, a story in verse, composed with spirit, generally ofpatriotic interest, and sung originally to the harp. 

BALLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON, a mystic writer, born at Lyons, his chiefwork "la Palingénésie Sociale, " his aim being the regeneration of society(1814-1847). 

BALLANTINE, JAMES, glass-stainer and poet, born in Edinburgh(1808-1877). 

BALLANTINE, SERJEANT, distinguished counsel in celebrated criminalcases (1812-1887). 

BALL`ANTYNE, JAMES, a native of Kelso, became a printer inEdinburgh, printed all Sir Walter Scott's works; failed in business, afailure in which Scott was seriously implicated (1772-1833). 

BALLANTYNE, JOHN, brother of preceding, a confidant of Sir Walter'sin the matter of the anonymity of the Waverley Novels; an inimitablestory-teller and mimic, very much to the delight of Sir Walter(1774-1821). 

BALLARAT` (40), a town in Victoria, and since 1851 the second cityin the province, about 100 m. NW. Of Melbourne; the centre of the chiefgold-fields in the colony, the precious metal being at first washed outof the soil, and now crushed out of the quartz rocks and dug out of deepmines; it is the seat of both a Roman Catholic and a Church of Englandbishopric. 

BALL`ATER, a clean Aberdeenshire village on the Dee, a favouritesummer resort, stands 668 ft. Above sea-level. 

BALMAT, JACQUES, of Chamounix, a celebrated Alpine guide(1796-1834). 

BALMAWHAPPLE, a prejudiced Scotch clergyman in "Waverley. "

BAL`MEZ, an able Spanish Journalist, author of "Protestantism andCatholicism compared in their Effects on the Civilisation of Europe"(1810-1848). 

BALMOR`AL, a castle on the upper valley of the Dee, at the foot ofBraemar, 52½ m. From Aberdeen, 9 m. From Ballater; the Highland residenceof Queen Victoria, on a site which took the fancy of both the Queen andthe Prince Consort on their first visit to the Highlands. 

BALMUNG, the sharp-cutting sword of Siegfried, so sharp that a smithcut in two by it did not know he was so cut till he began to move, whenhe fell in pieces. 

BALNAVES, HENRY, coadjutor of John Knox in the Scottish Reformation, and a fellow-sufferer with him in imprisonment and exile; afterwardscontributed towards formulating the creed of the Scotch Church; born atKirkcaldy, and educated in Germany; _d_. 1579. 

BALSALL, a thriving suburb of Birmingham, engaged in hardwaremanufacture. 

BALTIC PROVINCES, Russian provinces bordering on the Baltic. 

BALTIC SEA, an inland sea in the N. Of Europe, 900 m. Long and from100 to 200 m. Broad, about the size of England and Wales; comparativelyshallow; has no tides; waters fresher than those of the ocean, owing tothe number of rivers that flow into it and the slight evaporation thatgoes on at the latitude; the navigation of it is practically closed fromthe middle of December to April, owing to the inlets being blocked withice. 

BALTIMORE (550), the metropolis of Maryland, on an arm of ChesapeakeBay, 250 m. From the Atlantic; is picturesquely situated; not quite soregular in design as most American cities, but noted for its finearchitecture and its public monuments. It is the seat of the John HopkinsUniversity. The industries are varied and extensive, including textiles, flour, tobacco, iron, and steel. The staple trade is in bread-stuffs; theexports, grain, flour, and tobacco. 

BALUE, CARDINAL, minister of Louis XI. ; imprisoned, for havingconspired with Charles the Rash, by Louis in an iron cage for elevenyears (1421-1491). 

BALUCHISTAN, a country lying to the S. Of Afghanistan and extendingto the Persian Gulf. See Beluchistan. 

BALZAC, HONORÉ DE, native of Tours, in France; one of the mostbrilliant as well as prolific novelwriters of modern times; hisproductions remarkable for their sense of reality; they show power ofobservation, warmth and fertility of imagination, and subtle and profounddelineation of human passion, his design in producing them being to makethem form part of one great work, the "Comédie Humaine, " the whole beinga minute dissection of the different classes of society (1799-1850). 

BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GUEZ DE, born at Angoulême, a French littérateurand gentleman of rank, who devoted his life to the refinement of theFrench language, and contributed by his "Letters" to the classic form itassumed under Louis XIV. ; "he deliberately wrote, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "for the sake of writing, and not because he had anything particular tosay, " but in this way did much to improve the language; _d_. 1685. 

BAMBAR`RA (2, 000), a Soudan state on the banks of the Upper Niger, opened up to trade; the soil fertile; yields grain, dates, cotton, andpalm-oil; the natives are negroes of the Mohammedan faith, and are goodhusbandmen. 

BAMBERG (35), a manufacturing town in Upper Franconia, Bavaria; oncethe centre of an independent bishopric; with a cathedral, a magnificentedifice, containing the tomb of its founder, the Emperor Henry II. 

BAMBINO, a figure of the infant Christ wrapped in swaddling bands, the infant in pictures surrounded by a halo and angels. 

BAMBOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient fortress E. Of Belford, on the coastof Northumberland, now an alms-house. 

BAMBOUK (800), a fertile but unhealthy negro territory, with mineralwealth and deposits of gold, W. Of Bambarra. 

BAMIAN`, a high-lying valley in Afghanistan, 8500 ft. Abovesea-level; out of the rocks on its N. Side, full of caves, are hewn hugefigures of Buddha, one of them 173 ft. High, all of ancient date. 

BAMPTON LECTURES, annual lectures on Christian subjects, eight innumber, for the endowment of which John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, leftproperty which yields a revenue worth £200 a year. 

BANBURY, a market-town in Oxfordshire, celebrated for its cross andits cakes. 

BANCA (80), an island in the Eastern Archipelago, belonging to theDutch, with an unhealthy climate; rich in tin, worked by Chinese. 

BANCROFT, GEORGE, an American statesman, diplomatist, and historian, born in Massachusetts; his chief work "The History of the United States, "issued finally in six vols. , and a faithful account (1800-1891). 

BANCROFT, HUBERT, an American historian, author of a "History of thePacific States of N. America"; _b_. 1832. 

BANCROFT, RICHARD, archbishop of Canterbury, a zealous Churchman andan enemy of the Puritans; represented the Church at the Hampton CourtConference, and was chief overseer of the Authorised Version of the Bible(1554-1610). 

BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE, English actor, born in London, made his firstappearance in Birmingham in 1861; married Mrs. Wilton, an actress; openedwith her the Haymarket Theatre in 1880; retired in 1885, at which timeboth retired, and have appeared since only occasionally. 

BANDA ISLES, a group of the Moluccas, some twelve in number, belonging to Holland; yield nutmegs and mace; are subject to earthquakes. 

BANDA ORIENTAL, See URUGUAY. 

BANDELLO, an Italian Dominican monk, a writer of tales, some ofwhich furnished themes and incidents for Shakespeare, Massinger, andother dramatists of their time (1480-1562). 

BANDIE`RA, brothers, born in Venice; martyrs, in 1844, to the causeof Italian independence. 

BANDINELLI, a Florentine sculptor, tried hard to rival MichaelAngelo and Cellini; his work "Hercules and Cacus" is the most ambitiousof his productions; did a "Descent from the Cross" in bas-relief, inMilan Cathedral (1487-1559). 

BANFF (7), county town of Banffshire, on the Moray Firth, at themouth of the Deveron; the county itself (64) stretches level along thecoast, though mountainous on the S. And SE. ; fishing and agriculture thegreat industries. 

BANFFY, BARON, Premier of Hungary, born at Klausenburg; became in1874 provincial prefect of Transylvania; was elected a peer on theformation of the Upper Hungarian Chamber, and was made Premier in 1893;he is a strong Liberal; _b_. 1841. 

BANGA, the Hindu name for the Delta of the Ganges. 

BAN`GALORE (180), the largest town in Mysore, and the capital;stands high; is manufacturing and trading. 

BANGHIS, a low-caste people in the Ganges valley. 

BANGK`OK (500), the capital of Siam, on the Menam; a very strikingcity; styled, from the canals which intersect it, the "Venice of theEast"; 20 m. From the sea; the centre of the foreign trade, carried on byEuropeans and Chinese; with the royal palace standing on an island, inthe courtyard of which several white elephants are kept. 

BANGOR (9), an episcopal city in Carnarvon, N. Wales, with largeslate quarries; a place of summer resort, from the beauty of itssurroundings. 

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy in the Church of Englandprovoked by a sermon which Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, preached beforeGeorge I. In 1717, which offended the sticklers for ecclesiasticalauthority. 

BANGWEO`LO, a lake in Equatorial Africa, discovered by Livingstone, and on the shore of which he died; 150 m. Long, and half as wide; 3690ft. Above sea-level. 

BANIAN DAYS, days when no meat is served out to ships' crews. 

BANJARI, a non-Aryan race in Central India, the carriers andcaravan-conductors of the region. 

BANIM, JOHN, Irish author, a native of Kilkenny, novelist of Irishpeasant life on its dark side, who, along with his brother Michael, wrote24 vols. Of Irish stories, &c. ; his health giving way, he fell intopoverty, but was rescued by a public subscription and a pension; Michaelsurvived him 32 years (1798-1842). 

BANKS, SIR JOSEPH, a zealous naturalist, particularly in botany; acollector, in lands far and wide, of specimens in natural history; lefthis collection and a valuable library and herbarium to the BritishMuseum; president of the Royal Society for 41 years (1744-1820). 

BANKS, THOMAS, an eminent English sculptor, born at Lambeth; firstappreciated by the Empress Catharine; his finest works, "Psyche" and"Achilles Enraged, " now in the entrance-hall of Burlington House; heexcelled in imaginative art (1735-1805). 

BANNATYNE CLUB, a club founded by Sir Walter Scott to print rareworks of Scottish interest, whether in history, poetry, or generalliterature, of which it printed 116, all deemed of value, a complete sethaving been sold for £235; dissolved in 1861. 

BAN`NOCKBURN (2), a manufacturing village 3 m. SE. Of Stirling, thescene of the victory, on June 24, 1314, of Robert the Bruce over EdwardII. , which reasserted and secured Scottish independence; it manufacturescarpets and tartans. 

BAN`SHEE, among the Irish, and in some parts of the Highlands andBrittany, a fairy, believed to be attached to a family, who gave warningsby wailings of an approaching death in it, and kept guard over it. 

BANTAM, a chief town in Java, abandoned as unhealthy by the Dutch;whence the Bantam fowl is thought to have come. 

BANTING SYSTEM, a dietary for keeping down fat, recommended by a Mr. Banting, a London merchant, in a "Letter on Corpulence" in 1863; herecommended lean meat, and the avoidance of sugar and starchy foods. 

BANTRY BAY, a deep inlet on the SW. Coast of Ireland; a place ofshelter for ships. 

BANTU, the name of most of the races, with their languages, thatoccupy Africa from 6° N. Lat. To 20° S. ; are negroid rather than negro, being in several respects superior; the name, however, suggests rather alinguistic than an ethnological distinction, the language differingradically from all other known forms of speech--the inflection, for onething, chiefly initial, not final. 

BANVILLE, THEODORE DE, a French poet, born at Moulins; wellcharacterised as "_Roi des Rimes_, " for with him form was everything, andthe matter comparatively insignificant, though, there are touches hereand there of both fine feeling and sharp wit (1823-1891). 

BANYAN, the Indian fig; a tree whose branches, bending to theground, take root and form new stocks, till they cover a large area andbecome a forest. 

BA`OBAB, a large African tropical tree, remarkable for the girth ofits trunk, the thickness of its branches, and their expansion; its leavesand seeds are used in medicine. 

BAPHOMET, a mysterious image, presumed represent Mahomet, which theTemplars were accused of worshipping, but which they may rather besurmised to have invoked to curse them if they failed in their vow;Carlyle refers to this cult in "Sartor, " end of Bk. II. Chapter vii. , where he speaks of the "Baphometic fire-baptism" of his hero, under whichall the spectres that haunted him withered up. 

BAPTISM, the Christian rite of initiation into the membership of theChurch, identified by St. Paul (Rom. Vi. 4) with that No to the worldwhich precedes or rather accompanies Yea to God, but a misunderstandingof the nature of which has led to endless diversity, debate, andalienation all over the Churches of Christendom. 

BAPTISTE, JEAN, a name given to the French Canadians. 

BAPTISTRY, a circular building, sometimes detached from a church, inwhich the rite of baptism is administered; the most remarkable, that ofPisa. 

BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians, sometimes called Anabaptiststo distinguish them from Pædobaptists, who, however they may and dodiffer on other matters, insist that the rite of initiation is dulyadministered only by immersion, and to those who are of age to make anintelligent profession of faith; they are a numerous body, particularlyin America, and more so in England than in Scotland, and have included intheir membership a number of eminent men. 

BAPTISMAL REGENERATION, the High Church doctrine that the power ofspiritual life, forfeited by the Fall, is bestowed on the soul in thesacrament of baptism duly administered. 

BARAGUAY D'HILLIERS`, ACHILLE, a French marshal who fought underNapoleon at Quatre-Bras; distinguished himself under Louis Philippe inAlgeria, as well as under Louis Napoleon; presided at the trial ofMarshal Bazaine (1795-1878). 

BARATARIA, the imaginary island of which Sancho Panza was formallyinstalled governor, and where in most comical situations he learned howimaginary is the authority of a king, how, instead of governing hissubjects, his subjects govern him. 

BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, a fortification to a castle outside thewalls, generally at the end of the drawbridge in front of the gate. 

BARBA`DOES (182), one of the Windward Islands, rather larger thanthe Isle of Wight; almost encircled by coral reefs; is the most denselypeopled of the Windward Islands; subject to hurricanes; healthy and wellcultivated; it yields sugar, arrowroot, ginger, and aloes. 

BARBARA, ST. , a Christian martyr of the 3rd century; beheaded by herown father, a fanatical heathen, who was immediately after the act struckdead by lightning; she is the patron saint of those who might otherwisedie impenitent, and of Mantua; her attributes are a tower, a sword, and acrown. Festival, Dec. 4. 

BARBARIANS, originally those who could not speak Greek, andultimately synonymous with the uncivilised and people without culture, particularly literary; this is the sense in which Matthew Arnold uses it. 

BARBAROSSA, the surname of Frederick I. , emperor of Germany, of whomthere is this tradition, that "he is not yet dead; but only sleeping, till the bad world reach its worst, when he will reappear. He sits withina cavern near Saltzburg, at a marble table, leaning on his elbow;winking, only half-asleep, as a peasant once tumbling into the interiorsaw him; beard had grown through the table, and streamed out on thefloor. He looked at the peasant one moment, asked something about thetime it was; then drooped his eyelids again: 'Not yet time, but will besoon. '"

BARBAROSSA (i. E. Red-beard), HORUK, a native of Mitylene;turned corsair; became sovereign of Algiers by the murder of Selim theemir, who had adopted him as an ally against Spain; was defeated twice bythe Spanish general Gomarez and slain (1473-1518). 

BARBAROSSA, KHAIR-EDDIN, brother and successor of the preceding;became viceroy of the Porte, made admiral under the sultan, opposedAndrea Doria, ravaged the coast of Italy, and joined the French againstSpain; died at Constantinople in 1546. 

BARBAROUX, CHARLES, advocate, born at Marseilles, of which he becametown-clerk; came to Paris "a young Spartan, " and became chief of theGirondins in the French Revolution; represented Marseilles in theConstituent Assembly and the Convention; joined the Rolands; sent"fire-eyed" message to Marseilles for six hundred men "who knew how todie"; held out against Marat and Robespierre; declared an enemy of thepeople, had to flee; mistook a company approaching for Jacobins, drew hispistol and shot himself, but the shot miscarried; was captured andguillotined (1767-1794). 

BARBARY APE, a tailless monkey of gregarious habits, native of themountainous parts of Barbary, and of which there is a colony on the Rockof Gibraltar, the only one in Europe. 

BARBARY STATES, the four states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, andTripoli, so called from the Berbers who inhabit the region. 

BARBAULD, ANNA LÆTITIA, _née_ Aiken, an English popular andaccomplished authoress, wrote "Hymns in Prose for Children, " "Evenings atHome, " in which she was assisted by a brother, &c. (1743-1825). 

BARBAZAN, a French general under Charles VI. And VII. , whodeservedly earned for himself the name of the Irreproachable Knight; _d_. 1432. 

BAR`BECUE, a feast in the open air on a large scale, at which theanimals are roasted and dressed whole, formerly common in the SW. Statesof N. America. 

BARBERI`NI, an illustrious and influential Florentine family, several of the members of which were cardinals, and one made pope in 1623under the name Urban VIII. 

BARBERTON, a mining town and important centre in the Transvaal, 180m. E. Of Pretoria. 

BARBÈS, ARMAND, a French politician, surnamed the Bayard ofDemocracy; imprisoned in 1848, liberated in 1854; expatriated himselfvoluntarily; died at the Hague (1809-1870). 

BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEX. , a French bibliographer, author of a"Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works" (1765-1825). 

BARBIER, ED. FR. , jurisconsult of the parliament, born in Paris;author of a journal, historical and anecdotical, of the time of Louis XV. (1689-1771). 

BARBIER, HENRY, a French satirical poet, born in Paris; wrotevigorous political verses; author of "Iambics" (1805-1882). 

BARBOUR, JOHN, a Scotch poet and chronicler, archdeacon of Aberdeen, a man of learning and sagacity; his only extant work a poem entitled "TheBruce, " being a long history in rhyme of the life and achievements ofRobert the Bruce, a work consisting of 13, 000 octosyllabic lines, andpossessing both historical and literary merit; "represents, " saysStopford Brooke, "the whole of the eager struggle for Scottish freedomagainst the English, which closed at Bannockburn, and the national spiritin it full grown into life;" _d_. 1195. 

BARCA (500), a Turkish province in the N. Of Africa, between Tripoliand Egypt; produces maize, figs, dates, and olives. 

BARCA, name of a Carthaginian family to which Hamilcar, Hasdrubal, and Hannibal belonged, and determinedly opposed to the ascendency ofRome; known as the Barcine faction. 

BARCELO`NA (280), the largest town in Spain next to Madrid, on theMediterranean, and its chief port, with a naval arsenal, and its largestmanufacturing town, called the "Spanish Manchester, " the staplemanufacture being cotton; is the seat of a bishopric and a university;has numerous churches, convents, and theatres. 

BARCLAY, ALEX. , a poet and prose-writer, of Scotch birth; bred amonk in England, which he ceased to be on the dissolution of themonasteries; wrote "The Ship of Fools, " partly a translation and partlyan imitation of the German "Narrerschiff" of Brandt. "It has no value, "says Stopford Brooke; "but it was popular because it attacked the folliesand questions of the time; and its sole interest to us is in its picturesof familiar manners and popular customs" (1475-1552). 

BARCLAY, JOHN, born in France, educated by the Jesuits, a stanchCatholic; wrote the "Argenis, " a Latin romance, much thought of byCowper, translated more than once into English (1582-1621). 

BARCLAY, JOHN, leader of the sect of the Bereans (1734-1798). 

BARCLAY, ROBERT, the celebrated apologist of Quakerism, born inMorayshire; tempted hard to become a Catholic; joined the Society ofFriends, as his father had done before him; his greatest work, written inLatin as well as in English, and dedicated to Charles II. , "An Apologyfor the True Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and preachedby the People called in scorn Quakers, " a great work, the leading thesisof which is that Divine Truth is not matter of reasoning, but intuition, and patent to the understanding of every truth-loving soul (1645-1690). 

BARCLAY, WILLIAM, father of John (1), an eminent citizen andprofessor of Law at Angers; _d_. 1605. All these Barclays were ofScottish descent. 

BARCLAY DE TOLLY, a Russian general and field-marshal, of Scottishdescent, and of the same family as Robert Barclay the Quaker;distinguished in successive Russian wars; his promotion rapid, in spiteof his unpopularity as German born; on Napoleon's invasion of Russia histactic was to retreat till forced to fight at Smolensk; he was defeated, and superseded in command by Kutusow; on the latter's death was madecommander-in-chief; commanded the Russians at Dresden and Leipzig, andled them into France in 1815; he was afterwards Minister of War at St. Petersburg, and elevated to the rank of prince (1761-1818). 

BARD OF AVON, Shakespeare; OF AYRSHIRE, Burns; OF HOPE, Campbell; OF IMAGINATION, Akenside; OF MEMORY, Rogers; OFOLNEY, Cowper; OF RYDAL MOUNT, Wordsworth; OF TWICKENHAM, Pope. 

BARDELL`, MRS. , a widow in the "Pickwick Papers, " who sues Pickwickfor breach of promise. 

BARDOLPH, a drunken, swaggering, worthless follower of Falstaff's. 

BARDON HILL, a hill in Leicestershire, from which one can see rightacross England. 

BAR-DURANI, the collective name of a number of Afghan tribes betweenthe Hindu-Kush and the Soliman Mountains. 

BAREBONE'S PARLIAMENT, Cromwell's Little Parliament, met 4th July1653; derisively called Barebone's Parliament, from one Praise-GodBarebone, a member of it. "If not the remarkablest Assembly, yet theAssembly for the remarkablest purpose, " says Carlyle, "that ever met inthe modern world; the business being no less than introducing of theChristian religion into real practice in the social affairs of thisnation. .. . In this it failed, could not but fail, with what we call theDevil and all his angels against it, and the Little Parliament had to goits ways again, " 12th December in the same year. 

BARÈGES, a village on the Hautes-Pyrénées, at 4000 ft. Above thesea-level, resorted to for its mineral waters. 

BAREILLY (121), a city in NW. India, the chief town in Rohilkhand, 153 m. E. Of Delhi, notable as the place where the Mutiny of 1858 firstbroke out. 

BARENTZ, an Arctic explorer, born in Friesland; discoveredSpitzbergen, and doubled the NE. Extremity of Nova Zembla, in 1596, anddied the same year. 

BARÈRE, French revolutionary, a member of the States-General, theNational Assembly of France, and the Convention; voted in the Conventionfor the execution of the king, uttering the oft-quoted words, "The treeof Liberty thrives only when watered by the blood of tyrants;" escapedthe fate of his associates; became a spy under Napoleon; was called byBurke, from his flowery oratory, the Anacreon of the Guillotine, and byMercier, "the greatest liar in France;" he was inventor of the famousfable "his masterpiece, " of the "Sinking of the _Vengeur_, " "the largest, most inspiring piece of _blaque_ manufactured, for some centuries, by anyman or nation;" died in beggary (1755-1841). See VENGEUR. 

BARETTI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian lexicographer, born in Turin; taughtItalian in London, patronised by Johnson, became secretary of the RoyalAcademy (1719-1789). 

BARFLEUR, a seaport 15 m. E. Of Cherbourg, where William theConqueror set out with his fleet to invade England. 

BÂRFRÜSH (603), a town S. Of the Caspian, famous for its bazaar. 

BAR`GUEST, a goblin long an object of terror in the N. Of England. 

BARI, THE, a small negro nation on the banks of the White Nile. 

BARING, SIR FRANCIS, founder of the great banking firm of BaringBrothers & Co. ; amassed property, value of it said to have been nearlyseven millions (1740-1810). 

BARING-GOULD, SABINE, rector of Lew-Trenchard, Devonshire, celebrated in various departments of literature, history, theology, andromance, especially the latter; a voluminous writer on all manner ofsubjects, and a man of wide reading; _b_. 1834. 

BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS, his literary name Thomas Ingoldsby, born atCanterbury, minor canon of St. Paul's; friend of Sidney Smith; author of"Ingoldsby Legends, " published originally as a series of papers in_Bentley's Miscellany_ (1788-1879). 

BARKIS, a carrier-lad in "David Copperfield, " in love with Peggotty. "Barkis is willin'. "

BARKER, E. HENRY, a classical scholar, born in Yorkshire; editedStephens' "Thesaurus Linguæ Græcæ, " an arduous work; died in poverty(1788-1839). 

BARKING, a market-town in Essex, 7 m. NE. Of London, with theremains of an ancient Benedictine convent. 

BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT, a mediæval legend, being a Christianisedversion of an earlier legend relating to Buddha, in which Josaphat, aprince like Buddha, is converted by Barlaam to a like ascetic life. 

BARLEYCORN, JOHN, the exhilarating spirit distilled from barleypersonified. 

BARLOW, JOEL, an American poet and diplomatist; for his Republicanzeal, was in 1792 accorded the rights of citizenship in France; wrote apoem "The Vision of Columbus" (1755-1812). 

BARLOWE, a French watchmaker, inventor of the repeating watch; _d_. 1690. 

BARMACIDE FEAST, an imaginary feast, so called from a story in the"Arabian Nights" of a hungry beggar invited by a Barmacide prince to abanquet, which proved a long succession of merely empty dishes, and whichhe enjoyed with such seeming gusto and such good-humour as to earn forhimself a sumptuous real one. 

BAR`MACIDES, a Persian family celebrated for their magnificence, andthat in the end met with the cruellest fate. Yâhyá, one of them, eminentfor ability and virtue, was chosen by the world-famous Haroun-Al-Raschidon his accession to the caliphate to be his vizier; and his four sonsrose along with him to such influence in the government, as to excite thejealousy of the caliph so much, that he had the whole family invited to abanquet, and every man, woman, and child of them massacred at midnight incold blood. The caliph, it is gratifying to learn, never forgave himselffor this cruelty, and was visited with a gnawing remorse to the end ofhis days; and it had fatal issues to his kingdom as well as himself. 

BAR`MEN (116), a long town, consisting of a series of hamlets, 6 m. In extent, in Rhenish Prussia; the population consists chiefly ofProtestants; the staple industry, the manufacture of ribbons, and it isthe centre of that industry on the Continent. 

BARNABAS, ST. , a member of the first Christian brotherhood, acompanion of St. Paul's, and characterised in the Acts as "a good man";stoned to death at Cyprus, where he was born; an epistle extant bears hisname, but is not believed to be his work; the Epistle to the Hebrews hasby some been ascribed to him; he is usually represented in art as avenerable man of majestic mien, with the Gospel of St. Matthew in hishand. Festival, June 11. 

BARNABITES, a proselytising order of monks founded at Milan, whereBarnabas was reported to have been bishop, in 1530; bound, as the restare, by the three monastic vows, and by a vow in addition, not to sue forpreferment in the Church. 

BARNABY RUDGE, one of Dickens' novels, published in 1841. 

BARNARD, HENRY, American educationist, born in Connecticut, 1811. 

BARNARD, LADY ANNE, daughter of Lindsay, the 5th Earl of Balcarres, born in Fife; authoress of "Auld Robin Gray, " named after a Balcarresherd; lived several years at the Cape, where her husband held anappointment, and after his death, in London (1750-1825). 

BARNARD CASTLE, an old tower W. Of Darlington, in Durham; birthplaceof John Baliol, and the scene of Scott's "Rokeby. "

BAR`NARDINE, a reckless character in "Measure for Measure. "

BARNAVE, JOSEPH MARIE, French lawyer, born at Grenoble; president ofthe French Constitutional Assembly in 1780; one of the trio in theAssembly of whom it was said, "Whatsoever those three have on hand, Dupont thinks it, Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it;" a defender of themonarchy from the day he gained the favour of the queen by his gallantconduct to her on her way back to Paris from her flight with the king toVarennes; convicted by documentary evidence of conspiring with the courtagainst the nation; was guillotined (1761-1793). 

BARN-BURNERS, name formerly given to an extreme radical party in theUnited States, as imitating the Dutchman who, to get rid of the rats, burned his barns. 

BARNES, THOMAS, editor of the _Times_, under whom the paper firstrose to the pre-eminent place it came to occupy among the journals of theday (1786-1841). 

BARNES, WILLIAM, a local philologist, native of Dorsetshire; authorof "Poems of Rural Life in Dorset, " in three vols. ; wrote on subjects ofphilological interest (1830-1886). 

BARNET (5), a town in Hertfordshire, almost a suburb of London; afavourite resort of Londoners; has a large annual horse and cattle fair;scene of a battle in 1471, at which Warwick, the king-maker, was slain. 

BARNETT, JOHN, composer, born at Bedford; author of operas and anumber of fugitive pieces (1802-1891). 

BARNEVELDT, JOHANN VAN OLDEN, Grand Pensionary of Holland, of adistinguished family; studied law at the Hague, and practised as anadvocate there; fought for the independence of his country against Spain;concluded a truce with Spain, in spite of the Stadtholder Maurice, whoseambition for supreme power he courageously opposed; being an Arminian, took sides against the Gomarist or Calvinist party, to which Mauricebelonged; was arrested, tried, and condemned to death as a traitor andheretic, and died on the scaffold at 71 years of age, with sanction, too, of the Synod of Dort, in 1619. 

BARNSLEY (35), a manufacturing town in W. Yorkshire, 18 m. N. OfSheffield; manufactures textile fabrics and glass. 

BARNUM, an American showman; began with the exhibition of GeorgeWashington's reputed nurse in 1834; picked up Tom Thumb in 1844; engagedJenny Lind for 100 concerts in 1849, and realised a fortune, which helost; started in 1871 with his huge travelling show, and realised anotherfortune, dying worth five million dollars (1810-1891). 

BAROCCI, a celebrated Italian painter, imitator of the style ofCorreggio (1528-1612). 

BAROCHE, PIERRE-JULES, a French statesman, minister of Napoleon III. (1802-1870). 

BARO`DA (2, 415), a native state of Gujerat, in the prov. Of Bombay, with a capital (101) of the same name, the sovereign of which is calledthe Guicowar; the third city in the presidency, with Hindu temples and aconsiderable trade. 

BARO`NIUS, CÆSAR, a great Catholic ecclesiastic, born near Naples, priest of the Congregation of the Oratory under its founder, andultimately Superior; cardinal and librarian of the Vatican; his greatwork, "Annales Ecclesiastici, " being a history of the first 12 centuriesof the Church, written to prove that the Church of Rome was identicalwith the Church of the 1st century, a work of immense research thatoccupied him 30 years; failed of the popehood from the intrigues of theSpaniards, whose political schemes he had frustrated (1538-1607). 

BARONS' WAR, a war in England of the barons against Henry III. , headed by Simon de Montfort, and which lasted from 1258 to 1265. 

BAROQUE, ornamentation of a florid and incongruous character, morelavish and showy rather than true and tasteful; much in vogue from the16th to the 18th centuries. 

BARRA, a small island, one of the Hebrides, 5 m. SW. Of S. Uist, theinhabitants of which are engaged in fisheries. 

BAR`RACKPUR (18), a town on the Hooghly, 15 m. Above Calcutta, wherethe lieutenant-governor of Bengal has a residence; a healthy resort ofthe Europeans. 

BARRACK-ROOM BALLADS, ballads by Rudyard Kipling, with a finemartial strain. 

BARRAS, PAUL FRANÇOIS, a member of the Jacobin Club, born inProvence; "a man of heat and haste, . .. Tall, and handsome to the eye;"voted in the National Convention for the execution of the king; took partin the siege of Toulon; put an end to the career of Robespierre and theReign of Terror; named general-in-chief to oppose the reactionaries;employed Bonaparte to command the artillery, "he the commandant's cloak, this artillery officer the commandant;" was a member of the Directorytill Bonaparte swept it away (1755-1829). 

BAR`RATRY, the offence of inciting and stirring up riots andquarrels among the Queen's subjects, also a fraud by a ship captain onthe owners of a ship. 

BARRÉ, ISAAC, soldier and statesman, born in Dublin, served underWolfe in Canada, entered Parliament, supported Pitt, charged withauthorship of "Junius' Letters"; _d_. 1802. 

BARREL MIRABEAU, Viscount de Mirabeau, brother of the great tribuneof the name, so called from his bulk and the liquor he held. 

BARRÈRE. See BARÈRE. 

BARRETT, WILSON, English actor, born in Essex; made his _début_ atHalifax; lessee of the Grand Theatre, Leeds, and of the Court and thePrincess's Theatres, London; produced his Hamlet in 1884; _b_. 1846. 

BARRIE, JAMES MATTHEW, a writer with a rich vein of humour andpathos, born at Kirriemuir ("Thrums"), in Forfarshire; began his literarycareer as a contributor to journals; produced, among other works, "AuldLicht Idylls" in 1888, and "A Window in Thrums, " in 1889, and recently"Margaret Ogilvie, " deemed by some likely to prove the most enduringthing he has yet written; _b_. 1860. 

BARRIER REEF, THE GREAT, a slightly interrupted succession of coralreefs off the coast of Queensland, of 1200 m. Extent, and 100 m. Wide atthe S. , and growing narrower as they go N. ; are from 70 to 20 m. Off thecoast, and protect the intermediate channel from the storms of thePacific. 

BARRIÈRE, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French historian of the Revolution(1786-1868). 

BARRIÈRE, PIERRE, would-be assassin of Henry IV. Of France; brokenon the wheel in 1593. 

BARRIERS, BATTLE OF THE, a battle fought within the walls of Parisin 1814 between Napoleon and the Allies, which ended in the capitulationof the city and the abdication of Napoleon. 

BARRINGTON, JOHN SHUTE, 1st Viscount, gained the favour of theNonconformists by his "Rights of Dissenters, " and an Irish peerage fromGeorge I. For his "Dissuasive from Jacobitism"; left six sons, all moreor less distinguished, particularly Daines, the fourth, distinguished inlaw (1727-1800), and Samuel, the fifth, 1st Lord of the name, distinguished in the naval service, assisted under Lord Howe at therelief of Gibraltar, and became an admiral in 1787 (1678-1764). 

BARROS, JOÃO DE, a distinguished Portuguese historian; his greatwork. "Asia Portugueza, " relates, in a pure and simple style, thediscoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the Indies; he did notlive to complete it (1493-1570). 

BARROT, ODILON, famous as an advocate, born at Villefort;contributed to the Revolutions of both 1830 and 1848; accepted officeunder Louis Napoleon; retired after the _coup d'état_, to return tooffice in 1872 (1791-1873). 

BARROW, a river in Ireland rising in the Slievebloom Mts. ; fallsinto Waterford harbour, after a course of 114 m. 

BARROW, ISAAC, English scholar, mathematician, and divine, born inLondon; a graduate of Cambridge, and fellow of Trinity College; appointedprofessor of Greek at Cambridge, and soon after Gresham professor ofGeometry; subsequently Lucasian professor of Mathematics (in which he hadNewton for successor), and master of Trinity, and founder of the library;a man of great intellectual ability and force of character; besidesmathematical works, left a "Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy, " and a bodyof sermons remarkable for their vigour of thought and nervousness ofexpression (1630-1677). 

BARROW, SIR JOHN, secretary to the Admiralty for 40 years, and muchesteemed in that department, distinguished also as a man of letters;wrote the Lives of Macartney, Anson, Howe, and Peter the Great(1764-1848). 

BARROW-IN-FURNESS (51), a town and seaport in N. Lancashire, ofrecent rapid growth, owing to the discovery of extensive deposits of ironin the neighbourhood, which has led to the establishment of smeltingworks and the largest manufacture of steel in the kingdom; the principallandowners in the district being the Dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch. 

BARRY, JAMES, painter, born in Cork; painted the "Death of GeneralWolfe"; became professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, but wasdeposed; died in poverty; his masterpiece is the "Victors at Olympia"(1741-1806). 

BARRY, SIR CHARLES, architect, born at Westminster; architect of thenew Palace of Westminster, besides other public buildings (1795-1860). 

BARRY CORNWALL. See PROCTER. 

BART, or BARTH, JEAN, a distinguished French seaman, born atDunkirk, son of a fisherman, served under De Ruyter, entered the Frenchservice at 20, purchased a ship of two guns, was subsidised as aprivateer, made numerous prizes; having had other ships placed under hiscommand, was captured by the English, but escaped; defeated the Dutchadmiral, De Vries; captured his squadron laden with corn, for which hewas ennobled by Louis XIV. ; he was one of the bravest of men and the mostindependent, unhampered by red-tapism of every kind (1651-1702). 

BARTH, HEINRICH, a great African explorer, born at Hamburg; authorof "Travels in the East and Discoveries in Central Africa, " in fivevolumes (1821-1865). 

BARTHÉLEMY, AUGUSTE-MARSEILLE, a poet and politician, born atMarseilles; author of "Nemesis, " and the best French translation of the"Æneid, " in verse; an enemy of the Bourbons, an ardent Imperialist, andwarm supporter of Louis Napoleon (1796-1867). 

BARTHÉLEMY, THE ABBÉ, JEAN JACQUES, a French historian andantiquary, born at Cassis, in Provence; educated by the Jesuits; hadgreat skill in numismatics; wrote several archæological works, in chief, "Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce;" long treated as an authority inthe history, manners, and customs of Greece (1716-1795). 

BARTHÉLEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, JULES, a French baron and politician, bornat Paris; an associate of Odilon Barrot in the Revolutions of 1830 and1848, and subsequently a zealous supporter of M. Thiers; for a timeprofessor of Greek and Roman Philosophy in the College of France; anOriental as well as Greek scholar; translated the works of Aristotle, his greatest achievement, and the "Iliad" into verse, as well as wrote onthe Vedas, Buddhism, and Mahomet; _b_. 1805. 

BARTHEZ, PAUL JOSEPH, a celebrated physician, physiologist, andEncyclopædist, born at Montpellier, where he founded a medical school;suffered greatly during the Revolution; was much esteemed and honoured byNapoleon; is celebrated among physiologists as the advocate of what hecalled the Vital Principle as a physiological force in the functions ofthe human organism; his work "Nouveaux Eléments de la Science de l'Homme"has been translated into all the languages of Europe (1734-1806). 

BARTHOLDI, a French sculptor, born at Colmar; his principal works, "Lion le Belfort, " and "Liberté éclairant le Monde, " the largest bronzestatue in the world, being 150 ft. High, erected at the entrance of NewYork harbour; _b_. 1834. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST. , an apostle of Christ, and martyr; represented inart with a knife in one hand and his skin in the other; sometimes beenpainted as being flayed alive, also as headless. Festival, Aug. 24. 

BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, an annual market held at Smithfield, London, andinstituted in 1133 by Henry I. , to be kept on the saint's day, butabolished in 1853, when it ceased to be a market and became an occasionfor mere dissipation and riot. 

BARTHOLOMEW HOSPITAL, an hospital in Smithfield, London, founded in1123; has a medical school attached to it, with which the names of anumber of eminent physicians are associated. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, ST. , 24th August, day in 1572 memorable for thewholesale massacre of the Protestants in France at the instance ofCatharine de Medici, then regent of the kingdom for her son, Charles IX. , an event, cruelly gloried in by the Pope and the Spanish Court, whichkindled a fire in the nation that was not quenched, although itextinguished Protestantism proper in France, till Charles was coerced togrant liberty of conscience throughout the realm. 

BARTIZAN, an overhanging wall-mounted turret projecting from thewalls of ancient fortifications. 

BARTLETT, JOHN H. , an American ethnologist and philologist, born atRhode Island, U. S. ; author of "Dictionary of Americanisms, " among otherworks particularly on ethnology (1805-1886). 

BARTOLI, DANIELE, a learned Italian Jesuit, born at Ferrara(1635-1685). 

BARTOLI, PIETRO, Italian engraver, engraved a great number ofancient works of art (1635-1700). 

BARTOLINI, LORENZO, a Florentine sculptor, patronised by Napoleon;produced a great number of busts (1777-1850). 

BARTOLOMME`O, FRA, a celebrated Florentine painter of sacredsubjects, born at Florence; an adherent of Savonarola, friend of Raphael;"St. Mark" and "St. Sebastian" among his best productions (1469-1517). 

BARTOLOZ`ZI, FRANCESCO, an eminent engraver, born at Florence;wrought at his art both in England and in Portugal, where he died; hischief works, "Clytie, " after Annibale Caracci, the "Prometheus, " afterMichael Angelo, and "Virgin and Child, " after Carlo Dolci; he was thefather of Madame Vestris (1725-1815). 

BARTON, BERNARD, the "Quaker poet, " born in London; a clerk nearlyall his days in a bank; his poems, mostly on homely subjects, butinstinct with poetic feeling and fancy, gained him the friendship ofSouthey and Charles Lamb, as well as more substantial patronage in theshape of a government pension (1784-1849). 

BARTON, ELIZABETH, "the Maid of Kent, " a poor country servant-girl, born in Kent, subject from nervous debility to trances, in which she gaveutterances ascribed by Archbishop Warham to divine inspiration, till hercommunications were taken advantage of by designing people, and she wasled by them to pronounce sentence against the divorce of Catharine ofAragon, which involved her and her abettors in a charge of treason, forwhich they were all executed at Tyburn (1506-1534). 

BARUCH, (1) the friend of the prophet Jeremiah, and his scribe, whowas cast with him into prison, and accompanied him into Egypt; (2) a bookin the Apocrypha, instinct with the spirit of Hebrew prophecy, ascribedto him; (3) also a book entitled the Apocalypse of Baruch, affecting topredict the fall of Jerusalem, but obviously written after the event. 

BARYE, a French sculptor, distinguished for his groups of statues ofwild animals (1795-1875). 

BASAITI, a Venetian painter of the 15th and 16th centuries, a rivalof Bellini; his best works, "Christ in the Garden" and the "Calling ofSt. Peter and St. Andrew. "

BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNARD, a zealous educational reformer, born atHamburg; his method modelled according to the principles of Rousseau;established a normal school on this method at Dessau, which, however, failed from his irritability of temper, which led to a rupture with hiscolleagues (1723-1790). 

BASEL (74), in the NW. Of Switzerland, on the Rhine, just before itenters Germany; has a cathedral, university, library, and museum; was acentre of influence in Reformation times, and the home for several yearsof Erasmus; it is now a great money market, and has manufactures of silksand chemicals; the people are Protestant and German-speaking. 

BASEL, COUNCIL OF, met in 1431, and laboured for 12 years to effectthe reformation of the Church from within. It effected some compromisewith the Hussites, but was hampered at every step by the opposition ofPope Eugenius IV. Asserting the authority of a general council over thePope himself, it cited him on two occasions to appear at its bar, on hisrefusal declared him contumacious, and ultimately endeavoured to suspendhim. Failing to effect its purpose, owing to the secession of hissupporters, it elected a rival pope, Felix V. , who was, however, butscantily recognised. The Emperor Frederick III. Supported Eugenius, andthe council gradually melted away. At length, in 1449, the pope died, Felix resigned, and Nicholas V. Was recognised by the whole Church. Thedecrees of the council were directed against the immorality of theclergy, the indecorousness of certain festivals, the papal prerogativesand exactions, and dealt with the election of popes and the procedure ofthe College of Cardinals. They were all confirmed by Nicholas V. , but arenot recognised by modern Roman canonists. 

BA`SHAN, a fertile and pastoral district in NE. Palestine ofconsiderable extent, and at one time densely peopled; the men of it wereremarkable for their stature. 

BASHAHR, a native hill state in the Punjab, traversed by the Sutlej;tributary to the British Government. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS`, irregular, undisciplined troops in the pay of theSultan; rendered themselves odious by their brutality in the Bulgarianatrocities of 1876, as well as, more or less, in the time of the Crimeanwar. 

BASHKIRS, originally a Finnish nomad race (and still so to someextent) of E. Russia, professing Mohammedanism; they number some 500, 000. 

BASHKIRTSEFF, MARIE, a precocious Russian young lady of good family, but of delicate constitution, who travelled a good deal with her mother, noted her impressions, and left a journal of her life, which created, when published after her death, an immense sensation from the confessionsit contains (1860-1884). 

BASIL, ST. , THE GREAT, bishop of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia, hisbirthplace; studied at Athens; had Julian the Apostate for afellow-student; the lifelong friend of Gregory Nazianzen; founded amonastic body, whose rules are followed by different monasticcommunities; a conspicuous opponent of the Arian heresy, and defender ofthe Nicene Creed; tried in vain to unite the Churches of the East andWest; is represented in Christian art in Greek pontificals, bareheaded, and with an emaciated appearance (326-380). There were several Basils ofeminence in the history of the Church: Basil, bishop of Ancyra, whoflourished in the 4th century; Basil, the mystic, and Basil, the friendof St. Ambrose. 

BASIL I. , the Macedonian, emperor of the East; though he had raisedhimself to the throne by a succession of crimes, governed wisely;compiled, along with his son Leo, surnamed the Philosopher, a code oflaws that were in force till the fall of the empire; fought successfullyagainst the Saracens; _d_. 886. 

BASILICA, the code of laws, in 60 books, compiled by Basil I. , andLeo, his son and successor, first published in 887, and named after theformer. 

BASILICA, a spacious hall, twice as long as broad, for publicbusiness and the administration of justice, originally open to the sky, but eventually covered in, and with the judge's bench at the end oppositethe entrance, in a circular apse added to it. They were first erected bythe Romans, 180 B. C. ; afterwards, on the adoption of Christianity, theywere converted into churches, the altar being in the apse. 

BASILICON DORON (i. E. Royal Gift), a work written by James I. In1599, before the union of the crowns, for the instruction of his son, Prince Henry, containing a defence of the royal prerogative. 

BASILI`DES, a Gnostic of Alexandria, flourished at the commencementof the 2nd century; appears to have taught the Oriental theory ofemanations, to have construed the universe as made up of a series ofworlds, some 365 it is alleged, each a degree lower than the preceding, till we come to our own world, the lowest and farthest off from theparent source of the series, of which the God of the Jews was the ruler, and to have regarded Jesus as sent into it direct from the parent sourceto redeem it from the materialism to which the God of the Jews, asCreator and Lord of the material universe, had subjected it; whichteaching a sect called after his name accepted and propagated in both theEast and the West for more than two centuries afterwards. 

BAS`ILISK, an animal fabled to have been hatched by a toad from theegg of an old cock, before whose breath every living thing withered anddied, and the glance of whose eye so bewitched one to his ruin that thebravest could confront and overcome it only by looking at the reflectionof it in a mirror, as PERSEUS (q. V. ) was advised to do, anddid, when he cut off the head of the Medusa; seeing itself in a mirror, it burst, it as said, at the sight. 

BASKERVILLE, JOHN, a printer and typefounder, originally awriting-master in Birmingham; native of Sion Hill, Worcestershire;produced editions of classical works prized for their pre-eminent beautyby connoisseurs in the art of the printer, and all the more for theirrarity (1706-1756). 

BASNAGES, JACQUES, a celebrated Protestant divine, born at Rouen;distinguished as a linguist and man of affairs; wrote a "History of theReformed Churches" and on "Jewish Antiquities" (1653-1723). 

BASOCHE, a corporation of lawyers' clerks in Paris. SeeBAZOCHE. 

BASQUE PROVINCES, a fertile and mineral district in N. Of Spain, embracing the three provinces of Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, of whichthe chief towns are respectively Bilbao, St. Sebastian, and Vittoria; thenatives differ considerably from the rest of the Spaniards in race, language, and customs. See BASQUES. 

BASQUE ROADS, an anchorage between the Isle of Oléron and themainland; famous for a naval victory gained in 1809 over a French fleetunder Vice-Admiral Allemand. 

BASQUES, a people of the Western Pyrenees, partly in France andpartly in Spain; distinguished from their neighbours only by theirspeech, which is non-Aryan; a superstitious people, conservative, irascible, ardent, proud, serious in their religious convictions, andpure in their moral conduct. 

BAS-RELIEF (i. E. Low relief) a term applied to figures veryslightly projected from the ground. 

BASS ROCK, a steep basaltic rock at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 350 ft. High, tenanted by solan geese; once used as a prison, speciallyin Covenanting times. 

BASS STRAIT, strait between Australia and Tasmania, about 150 m. Broad. 

BASSANIO, the lover of Portia in the "Merchant of Venice. "

BASSANO, a town in Italy, on the Brenta, 30 m. NW. Of Padua;printing the chief industry. 

BASSANO, DUC DE, an intriguing French diplomatist in the interest ofBonaparte, and his steadfast auxiliary to the last (1763-1839). 

BASSANO, JACOPO DA PONTE, an eminent Italian painter, chiefly ofcountry scenes, though the "Nativity" at his native town, Bassano, showshis ability in the treatment of higher themes (1510-1592). 

BASSOMPIERRE, FRANÇOIS DE, a marshal of France, born in Lorraine;entered military life under Henry IV. , was a gallant soldier, and one ofthe most brilliant wits of his time; took part in the siege of Rochelle;incurred the displeasure of Richelieu; was imprisoned by his order twelveyears in the Bastille; wrote his Memoirs there; was liberated on thedeath of Richelieu; his Memoirs contain a lively description of hiscontemporaries, the manners of the time, his own intrigues, no less thanthose of his friends and enemies (1579-1646). 

BASSORAH (40), a port in Asiatic Turkey, on the Shatt-el-Arab; aplace of great commercial importance when Bagdad was the seat of thecaliphate; for a time sank into insignificance, but has of late revived. 

BASTI`A (22), a town in NE. Corsica, the most commercial in theisland, and once the capital; was founded by the Genoese in 1383, andtaken by the French in 1553; exports wine, oil, fruits, &c. 

BASTIAN, ADOLF, an eminent ethnologist, born at Bremen; travelledover and surveyed, in the interest of his science, all quarters of theglobe, and recorded the fruits of his survey in his numerous works, nofewer than thirty in number, beginning with "Der Mensch in derGeschichte, " in three vols. ; conducts, along with Virchow and R. Hartman, the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_; _b_. 1826. 

BASTIAN, DR. H. C. , a physiologist, born at Truro; a materialist inhis theory of life; a zealous advocate of the doctrine of spontaneousgeneration; _b_. 1837. 

BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC, an eminent political economist, born at Bayonne;a disciple of Cobden's; a great advocate of Free Trade; wrote on behalfof it and against Protection, "Sophismes Economiques"; a zealousAnti-Socialist, and wrote against Socialism (1801-1850). 

BASTIDE, JULES, French Radical writer, born in Paris; took part inthe Revolution of 1848, and became Minister of Foreign Affairs(1800-1879). 

BASTILLE (lit. The Building), a State prison in Paris, builtoriginally as a fortress of defence to the city, by order of Charles V. , between 1369 and 1382, but used as a place of imprisonment from thefirst; a square structure, with towers and dungeons for the incarcerationof the prisoners, the whole surrounded by a moat, and accessible only bydrawbridges; "tyranny's stronghold"; attacked by a mob on 14th July 1789;taken chiefly by noise; overturned, as "the city of Jericho, bymiraculous sound"; demolished, and the key of it sent to Washington; thetaking of it was the first event in the Revolution. See Carlyle's "FrenchRevolution" for the description of the fall of it. 

BASUTOLAND (250), a fertile, healthy, grain-growing territory in S. Africa, SE. Of the Orange Free State, under protection of the Britishcrown, of the size of Belgium; yields large quantities of maize; thenatives keep large herds of cattle. 

BASUTOS, a S. African race of the same stock as the Kaffirs, butsuperior to them in intelligence and industry. 

BATANGAS, a port in the island of Luzon, one of the PhilippineIslands, which has a considerable trade. 

BATAVIA (105), the capital of Java, on the N. Coast, and of theDutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago; the emporium, with a largetrade, of the Far East; with a very mixed population. Also the ancientname of Holland; _insula Batavorum_ it was called--that is, island of theBatavi, the name of the native tribes inhabiting it. 

BATES, HENRY WALTER, a naturalist and traveller, born at Leicester;friend of, and a fellow-labourer with, Alfred R. Wallace; author of "TheNaturalist on the Amazons"; an advocate of the Darwinian theory, andauthor of contributions in defence of it (1825-1892). 

BATH (54), the largest town in Somerset, on the Avon; a cathedralcity; a place of fashionable resort from the time of the Romans, onaccount of its hot baths and mineral waters, of which there are sixsprings; it was from 1704 to 1750 the scene of Beau Nash's triumphs; hasa number of educational and other institutions, and a fine public park. 

BATH, MAJOR, a gentleman in Fielding's "Amelia, " who stoops from hisdignity to the most menial duties when affection prompts him. 

BATH, ORDER OF THE, an English order of knighthood, traceable to thereign of Henry IV. , consisting of three classes: the first, Knights GrandCross; the second, Knights Commanders, and the third, Knights Companions, abbreviated respectively into G. C. B. , K. C. B. , and C. B. ; initiationinto the order originally preceded by immersion in a bath, whence thename, in token of the purity required of the members by the laws ofchivalry. It was originally a military order, and it is only since 1847that civil Knights, Knights Commanders, and Companions have been admittedas Knights. The first class, exclusive of royal personages andforeigners, is limited to 102 military and 28 civil; the second, to 102military and 50 civil; and the third, to 525 military and 200 civil. Themotto of the order is _Tria juncta in uno_ (Three united in one); andHenry VI. 's chapel at Westminster is the chapel of the order, with theplates of the Knights on their stalls, and their banners suspended overthem. 

BATHGATE (5), largest town in Linlithgowshire; a mining centre; thebirthplace of Sir J. Simpson, who was the son of a baker in the place. 

BATHILDA, ST. , queen of France, wife of Clovis II. , who governedFrance during the minority of her sons, Clovis III. , Childéric II. , andThierry; died 680, in the monastery of Chelles. 

BATH`ORI, ELIZABETH, a Polish princess, a woman of infamous memory, caused some 650 young girls to be put to death, in order, by bathing intheir blood, to renew her beauty; immersed in a fortress for life on thediscovery of the crime, while her accomplices were burnt alive; _d_. 1614. 

BATHOS, an anti-climax, being a sudden descent from the sublime tothe commonplace. 

BATH`URST (8), the capital of British Gambia, at the mouth of theriver Gambia, in Western Africa; inhabited chiefly by negroes; exportspalm-oil, ivory, gold dust, &c. 

BATHURST (10), the principal town on the western slopes of New SouthWales, second to Sydney, with gold mines in the neighbourhood, and in afertile wheat-growing district. 

BATHURST, a district in Upper Canada, on the Ottawa, a thrivingplace and an agricultural centre. 

BATHYB`IUS, (i. E. Living matter in the deep), substance of aslimy nature found at great sea depth, over-hastily presumed to beorganic, proved by recent investigation to be inorganic, and of no availto the evolutionist. 

BATLEY (28), a manufacturing town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, 8m. SW. Of Leeds; a busy place. 

BATN-EL-HAJAR, a stony tract in the Nubian Desert, near the thirdcataract of the Nile. 

BATON-ROUGE (10), a city on the E. Bank of the Mississippi, 130 m. Above New Orleans, and capital of the state of Louisiana; originally aFrench settlement. 

BATON-SINISTER, a bend-sinister like a marshal's baton, anindication of illegitimacy. 

BATOUM` (10), a town in Transcaucasia, on the E. Of the Black Sea; aplace of some antiquity; recently ceded by Turkey to Russia, but only asa mere trading port; has an excellent harbour, and has improved underRussian rule. 

BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, a mock-heroic poem, "The Battle of the Frogs andMice, " falsely ascribed to Homer. 

BATTAS, a Malay race, native to Sumatra, now much reduced innumbers, and driven into the interior. 

BATTERSEA, a suburb of London, on the Surrey side of the Thames, opposite Chelsea, and connected with it by a bridge; with a park 185acres in extent; of plain and recent growth; till lately a quite ruralspot. 

BATTHYA`NI, COUNT, an Hungarian patriot, who fought hard to see hiscountry reinstated in its ancient administrative independence, but failedin his efforts; was arrested, tried for high treason by court-martial, and sentenced to be shot, to the horror, at the time, of the civilisedworld (1809-1849). 

BATTLE, a market-town in Sussex, near Hastings, so called from thebattle of Senlac, in which William the Conqueror defeated Harold in 1066. 

BATTLE OF THE SPURS, (_a_) an engagement at Courtrai in 1302 where theburghers of the town beat the knighthood of France, and the spurs of 4000knights were collected after the battle; (_b_) an engagement atGuinegate, 1513, in which Henry VIII. Made the French forces take totheir spurs; OF THE BARRIERS (see BARRIERS); OF THE BOOKS, a satire bySwift on a literary controversy of the time; OF THE STANDARD, a battle in1138, in which the English, with a high-mounted crucifix for a standard, beat the Scots at Northallerton. 

BATTUE, method of killing game after crowding them by cries andbeating them towards the sportsmen. 

BAUCIS. See PHILEMON. 

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES, French poet of the romantic school, born inParis; distinguished among his contemporaries for his originality, andhis influence on others of his class; was a charming writer of prose aswell as verse, as his "Petits Poèmes" in prose bear witness. Victor Hugoonce congratulated him on having "created a new shudder"; and as has beensaid, "this side of his genius attracted most popular attention, which, however, is but one side, and not really the most remarkable, of asingular combination of morbid but delicate analysis and reproduction ofthe remotest phases and moods of human thought and passion" (1821-1867). 

BAUDRICOURT, a French courtier whom Joan of Arc pressed to conducther into the presence of Charles VII. 

BAUDRY, PAUL, French painter, decorated the _foyer_ of the GrandOpera in Paris; is best known as the author of the "Punishment of aVestal Virgin" and the "Assassination of Marat" (1828-1886). 

BAUER, BRUNO, a daring Biblical critic, and violent polemic on politicalas well as theological subjects; born at Saxe-Altenburg; regarded theChristian religion as overlaid and obscured by accretions foreign to it;denied the historical truth of the Gospels, and, like a true disciple ofHegel, ascribed the troubles of the 19th century to the overmasteringinfluence of the "ENLIGHTENMENT" or the "AUFKLÄRUNG" (q. V. ) thatcharacterised the 18th. His last work was entitled "Disraeli's Romanticand Bismarck's Socialistic Imperialism" (1809-1882). 

BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB, professor of Philosophy atFrankfort-on-the-Oder; disciple of Wolf; born at Berlin; the founder ofÆsthetics as a department of philosophy, and inventor of the name(1714-1762). 

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, a German theologian of the school ofSchleiermacher; professor of Theology at Jena; born at Merseburg; anauthority on the history of dogma, on which he wrote (1788-1843). 

BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, head of the Tübingen school ofrationalist divines, born near Stuttgart; distinguished by hisscholarship and his labours in Biblical criticism and dogmatic theology;his dogmatic treatises were on the Christian Gnosis, the Atonement, theTrinity, and the Incarnation, while his Biblical were on certain epistlesof Paul and the canonical Gospels, which he regarded as the product ofthe 2nd century; regarded Christianity of the Church as Judaic in itsorigin, and Paul as distinctively the first apostle of pure Christianity(1792-1861). 

BAUSSET, cardinal, born at Pondicherry, who wrote the Lives ofBossuet and Fénélon (1748-1824). 

BAUTZEN, a town of Saxony, an old town on the Spree, where Napoleondefeated the Prussians and Russians in 1813; manufactures cotton, linen, wool, tobacco, paper, etc. 

BAVARIA (5, 590), next to Prussia the largest of the German States, about the size of Scotland; is separated by mountain ranges from Bohemiaon the E. And the Tyrol on the S. ; Würtemburg lies on the W. , Prussia, Meiningen, and Saxony on the N. The country is a tableland crossed bymountains and lies chiefly in the basin of the Danube. It is a busyagricultural state: half the soil is tilled; the other half is undergrass, planted with vineyards and forests. Salt, coal, and iron arewidely distributed and wrought. The chief manufactures are of beer, coarse linen, and woollen fabrics. There are universities at Münich, Würzburg, and Erlangen. Münich, on the Isar, is the capital; Nüremberg, where watches were invented, and Angsburg, a banking centre, the otherchief towns. Formerly a dukedom, the palatinate, on the banks of theRhine, was added to it in 1216. Napoleon I. Raised the duke to the titleof king in 1805. Bavaria fought on the side of Austria in 1866, butjoined Prussia in 1870-71. 

BAVIE`CA, the famous steed of the Cid, held sacred after the hero'sdeath. 

BAVOU, ST. , a soldier monk, the patron saint of Ghent. 

BAXTER, RICHARD, an eminent Nonconformist divine, native ofShropshire, at first a conformist, and parish minister of Kidderminsterfor 19 years; sympathised with the Puritans, yet stopped short of goingthe full length with them; acted as chaplain to one of their regiments, and returned to Kidderminster; became, at the Restoration one of theking's chaplains; driven out of the Church by the Act of Uniformity, wasthrown into prison at 70, let out, spent the rest of his days in peace;his popular works, "The Saint's Everlasting Rest, " and his "Call to theUnconverted" (1615-1691). 

BAY CITY (27), place of trade, and of importance as a great railwaycentre in Michigan, U. S. ; the third city in it. 

BAYADERE, a dancing-girl in India, dressed in loose Eastern costume. 

BAYARD, a horse of remarkable swiftness belonging to the four sonsof Aymon, and which they sometimes rode all at once; also a horse ofAmadis de Gaul. 

BAYARD, CHEVALIER DE, an illustrious French knight, born in theChâteau Bayard, near Grenoble; covered himself with glory in the wars ofCharles VIII. , Louis XII. , and Francis I. ; his bravery and generositycommanded the admiration of his enemies, and procured for him thethrice-honourable cognomen of "The Knight _sans peur et sans reproche_";one of his most brilliant feats was his defence, single-handed, of thebridge over the Garigliano, in the face of a large body of Spaniards; wasmortally wounded defending a pass at Abblategrasso; fell with his face tothe foe, who carried off his body, but restored it straightway afterwardsfor due burial by his friends (1476-1524). 

BAYEUX (7), an ancient Norman city in the dep. Of Calvados, France;manufactures lace, hosiery, &c. ; is a bishop's seat; has a very oldGothic cathedral. 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, representations in tapestry of events connectedwith the Norman invasion of England, commencing with Harold's visit tothe Norman court, and ending with his death at the battle of Hastings;still preserved in the public library of Bayeux; is so called becauseoriginally found there; it is 214 ft. Long by 20 in. Wide, divided into72 scenes, and contains a variety of figures. It is a question whose workit was. 

BAYLE, PIERRE, a native of Languedoc; first Protestant (as the sonof a Calvinist minister), then Catholic, then sceptic; Professor ofPhilosophy at Padua, then at Rotterdam, and finally retired to theBoompjes in the latter city; known chiefly as the author of the famous_Dictionnaire Historique et Critique_, to the composition of which heconsecrated his energies with a zeal worthy of a religious devotee, andwhich became the fountain-head of the sceptical philosophy that floodedFrance on the eve of the Revolution; pronounced by a competent judge inthese matters, a mere "imbroglio of historical, philosophical, andanti-theological marine stores" (1647-1700). 

BAYLEN, a town in the province of Jaen, Spain, where GeneralCastaños defeated Dupont, and compelled him to sign a capitulation, in1808. 

BAYLEY, SIR JOHN, a learned English judge; author of a standard work"On the Law of Bills of Exchange"; _d_. 1841. 

BAYONNE (24), a fortified French town, trading and manufacturing, inthe dep. Of Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of the Adour and Nive, 4m. From the Bay of Biscay; noted for its strong citadel, constructed byVauban, and one of his _chef-d'oeuvres_, and its 12th-century cathedralchurch; it belonged to the English from 1152 to 1451. 

BAZAINE, FRANÇOIS ACHILLE, a marshal of France, born at Versailles;distinguished himself in Algiers, the Crimea, and Mexico; did goodservice, as commander of the army of the Rhine, in the Franco-German war, but after the surrender at Sedan was shut up in Metz, surrounded by theGermans, and obliged to surrender, with all his generals, officers, andmen; was tried by court-martial, and condemned to death, but wasimprisoned instead; made good his escape one evening to Madrid, where helived to write a justification of his conduct, the sale of the book beingprohibited in France (1811-1888). 

BAZARD, SAINT-AMAND, a French socialist, founder of the_Charbonnerie Française_; a zealous but unsuccessful propagator of St. Simonianism, in association with ENFANTIN (q. V. ), from whom heat last separated (1791-1832). 

BAZOCHE, a guild of clerks of the parliament of Paris, under a mockking, with the privilege of performing religious plays, which theyabused. 

BEACHES, RAISED, elevated lands, formerly sea beaches, the result ofupheaval, or left high by the recession of the sea, evidenced to be suchby the shells found in them and the nature of the débris. 

BEACHY HEAD, a chalk cliff in Sussex, 575 ft. High, projecting intothe English Channel; famous for a naval engagement between the alliedEnglish and Dutch fleets and those of France, in which the latter weresuccessful. 

BEACONSFIELD, capital of the gold-mining district in Tasmania; alsoa town in Buckinghamshire, 10 m. N. Of Windsor, from which BenjaminDisraeli took his title on his elevation to the peerage. 

BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF, English novelist andpolitician, born in London; son of Isaac D'Israeli, littérateur, and thusof Jewish parentage; was baptized at the age of 12; educated under aUnitarian minister; studied law, but did not qualify for practice. Hisfirst novel, "Vivian Grey, " appeared in 1826, and thereafter, wheneverthe business of politics left him leisure, he devoted it to fiction. "Contarini Fleming, " "Coningsby, " "Tancred, " "Lothair, " and "Endymion"are the most important of a brilliant and witty series, in which manyprominent personages are represented and satirised under thin disguises. His endeavours to enter Parliament as a Radical failed twice in 1832; in1835 he was unsuccessful again as a Tory. His first seat was forMaidstone in 1837; thereafter he represented Shrewsbury andBuckinghamshire. For 9 years he was a free-lance in the House, hating theWhigs, and after 1842 leading the Young England party; his onslaught onthe Corn Law repeal policy of 1846 made him leader of the ToryProtectionists. He was for a short time Chancellor of the Exchequer underLord Derby in 1852, and coolly abandoned Protection. Returning to powerwith his chief six years later, he introduced a Franchise Bill, thedefeat of which threw out the Government. In office a third time in 1866, he carried a democratic Reform Bill, giving household suffrage inboroughs and extending the county franchise. Succeeding Lord Derby in1868, he was forced to resign soon afterwards. In 1874 he entered hissecond premiership. Two years were devoted to home measures, among whichwere Plimsoll's Shipping Act and the abolition of Scottish Churchpatronage. Then followed a showy foreign policy. The securing of the halfof the Suez Canal shares for Britain; the proclamation of the Queen asEmpress of India; the support of Constantinople against Russia, afterwards stultified by the Berlin Congress, which he himself attended;the annexation of Cyprus; the Afghan and Zulu wars, were its salientfeatures. Defeated at the polls in 1880 he resigned, and died next year. A master of epigram and a brilliant debater, he really led his party. Hewas the opposite in all respects of his protagonist, Mr. Gladstone. Lacking in zeal, he was yet loyal to England, and a warm personal friendof the Queen (1804-1881). 

BEAR, name given in the Stock Exchange to one who contracts todeliver stock at a fixed price on a certain day, in contradistinctionfrom the _bull_, or he who contracts to take it, the interest of theformer being that, in the intervening time, the stocks should fall, andthat of the latter that they should rise. 

BEAR, GREAT. See URSA MAJOR. 

BEAM, an ancient prov. Of France, fell to the crown with theaccession of Henry IV. In 1589; formed a great part of the dep. OfBasses-Pyrénées, capital Pau. 

BEATIFICATION, religious honour allowed by the pope to certain whoare not so eminent in sainthood as to entitle them to canonisation. 

BEATON, or BETHUNE, DAVID, cardinal, archbishop of St. Andrews, and primate of the kingdom, born in Fife; an adviser of James V. , twiceover ambassador to France; on the death of James secured to himself thechief power in Church and State as Lord High Chancellor and Papal Legate;opposed alliance with England; persecuted the Reformers; condemned GeorgeWishart to the stake, witnessed his sufferings from a window of hiscastle in St. Andrews, and was assassinated within its walls shortlyafter; with his death ecclesiastical tyranny of that type came to an endin Scotland (1494-1546). 

BEATON, JAMES, archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews, uncle of thepreceding, a prominent figure in the reign of James V. ; was partial toaffiliation with France, and a persecutor of the Reformers; _d_. 1539. 

BEATTIE, JAMES, a poet and essayist, born at Laurencekirk; becameprofessor of Logic and Moral Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen;wrote an "Essay on Truth" against Hume; his most admired poem, "TheMinstrel, " a didactic piece, traces the progress of poetic genius, admitted him to the Johnsonian circle in London, obtained for him thedegree of LL. D. From Oxford, and brought him a pension of £200 per annumfrom the king; died at Aberdeen (1735-1803). 

BEATRICE, a beautiful Florentine maiden, Portinari, her family name, for whom Dante conceived an undying affection, and whose image abode withhim to the end of his days. She is his guide through Paradise. 

BEAU NASH, a swell notability at Bath; died in beggary (1674-1761). 

BEAU TIBBS, a character in Goldsmith's "Citizen of the World, " notedfor his finery, vanity, and poverty. 

BEAUCAIRE (8), a French town near Avignon, on the Rhône, which itspans with a magnificent bridge; once a great centre of trade, andfamous, as it still is, for its annual fair, frequented by merchants fromall parts of Europe. 

BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, a historian, born at Monaco; wrote the"Conquest of Peru, " "History of Brazil, " &c. (1769-1832). 

BEAUCLERK, Henry I. Of England, so called from his superiorlearning. 

BEAUCLERK, TOPHAM, a young English nobleman, the only son of LordSydney Beauclerk, a special favourite of Johnson's, who, when he died, lamented over him, as one whose like the world might seldom see again(1759-1780). 

BEAUFORT, DUKE OF, grandson of Henry IV. Of France; one of thechiefs of the Fronde; was surnamed Roi des Halles (King of theMarket-folk); appointed admiral of France; did good execution against thepirates; passed into the service of Venice; was killed at the siege ofCandia in 1669. 

BEAUFORT, HENRY, cardinal, bishop of Winchester, son of John ofGaunt, learned in canon law, was several times chancellor; took aprominent part in all the political movements of the time, exerted aninfluence for good on the nation, lent immense sums to Henry V. And HenryVI. , also left bequests for charitable uses, and founded the hospital ofSt. Cross at Winchester (1377-1447). 

BEAUHAR`NAIS, ALEXANDRE, VICOMTE DE, born at Martinique, where hemarried a lady who, afterwards as wife of Napoleon, became the EmpressJoséphine; accepted and took part in the Revolution; was secretary of theNational Assembly; coolly remarked, on the news of the flight of theking, "The king's gone off; let us pass to the next business of theHouse"; was convicted of treachery to the cause of the Revolution and putto death; as the father of Hortense, who married Louis, Napoleon'sbrother, he became grandfather of Napoleon III. (1760-1794). 

BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE, son of the preceding and of Joséphine, bornat Paris, step-son of Napoleon, therefore was made viceroy of Italy; tookan active part in the wars of the empire; died at Münich, whither heretired after the fall of Napoleon (1781-1824). 

BEAUHARNAIS, HORTENSE EUGENIE, sister of the preceding, ex-queen ofHolland; wife of Louis Bonaparte, an ill-starred union; mother ofNapoleon III. , the youngest of three sons (1783-1837). 

BEAUMAR`CHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE, a dramatist and pleader ofthe most versatile, brilliant gifts, and French to the core, born inParis, son of a watchmaker at Caen; ranks as a comic dramatist next toMolière; author of "Le Barbier de Seville" (1775), and "Le Mariage deFigaro" (1784), his masterpiece; astonished the world by his conduct of alawsuit he had, for which "he fought against reporters, parliaments, andprincipalities, with light banter, clear logic, adroitly, with aninexhaustible toughness of resource, like the skilfullest fencer. " He wasa zealous supporter of the Revolution, and made sacrifices on its behalf, but narrowly escaped the guillotine; died in distress and poverty. Of thetwo plays he wrote, Saintsbury says, "The wit is indisputable, but hischansons contain as much wit as the Figaro plays. " He made a fortune byspeculations in the American war, and lost by others, one of them beingthe preparation of a sumptuous edition of Voltaire. For the culminationand decline, as well as appreciation, of him, see the "FrenchRevolution, " by Carlyle (1732-1799). 

BAUMA`RIS, principal town in Anglesea, Wales, on the Menai Strait, near Bangor, a favourite watering-place, with remains of a castle erectedby Edward I. 

BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE, archbishop of Paris, born at Périgord, "spent his life in persecuting hysterical Jansenists and incredulousnon-confessors"; but scrupled to grant, though he fain would havegranted, absolution on his deathbed to the dissolute monarch of France, Louis XV. ; issued a charge condemnatory of Rousseau's "Émile, " whichprovoked a celebrated letter from Rousseau in reply (1703-1781). 

BEAUMONT, FRANCIS, dramatic poet, born in Leicestershire, of afamily of good standing; bred for the bar, but devoted to literature; wasa friend of Ben Jonson; in conjunction with his friend Fletcher, thecomposer of a number of plays, about the separate authorship of whichthere has been much discussion, the dramatic power of which comes farshort of that so conspicuous in the plays of their great contemporaryShakespeare, though it is said contemporary criticism gave them thepreference (1585-1615). 

BEAUMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉLIE DE, French geologist, born in Calvados;became secretary to the Academy of Sciences; was joint-editor of ageological map of France. He had a theory of his own of the formation ofthe crust of the earth (1798-1874). 

BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT, American Confederate general, born at New Orleans; adopted the cause of the South, and fought in itsbehalf (1818-1893). 

BEAUREPAIRE, a French officer, noted for his noble defence of Verdunagainst the Prussians; preferred death by suicide to the dishonour ofsurrender (1748-1792). 

BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC, a Huguenot divine, born at Poitou; fled to Hollandon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Berlin, and became anotability in high quarters there; attracted the notice of the youngFrederick, the Great that was to be, who sought introduction to him, andthe young Frederick "got good conversation out of him"; author of a"History of Manichæism, " praised by Gibbon, and of other books famous intheir day, a translation of the New Testament for one (1659-1738). 

BEAUTIFUL PARRICIDE, BEATRICE CENCI (q. V. ). 

BEAUTY AND THE BEAST, the hero and heroine of a famous fairy tale. Beauty falls in love with a being like a monster, who has, however, theheart of a man, and she marries him, upon which he is instantlytransformed into a prince of handsome presence and noble mien. 

BEAUVAIS (19), capital of the dep. Of Oise, in France, 34 in. SW. OfAmiens, an ancient town, noted for its cathedral, its tapestry weaving, and the feat of Jeanne-Hachette and her female following when the townwas besieged by Charles the Bold. 

BEAUVAIS, a French prelate, born at Cherbourg, Bishop of Senez, celebrated as a pulpit orator (1731-1790). 

BEAUVILLIER, a statesman, patron of letters, to whom Louis XIV. Committed the governorship of his sons; died of a broken heart due to theshock the death of the dauphin gave him (1607-1687). 

BEBEK BAY, a fashionable resort on the Bosphorus, nearConstantinople, and with a palace of the sultan. 

BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO, one of the best painters of the Sienese school, distinguished also as a sculptor and a worker in mosaic (1486-1550). 

BECCA`RIA, CÆSARE BONESANA, MARQUIS OF, an Italian publicist, authorof a celebrated "Treatise on Crimes and Punishments, " which has beenwidely translated, and contributed much to lessen the severity ofsentences in criminal cases. He was a utilitarian in philosophy and adisciple of Rousseau in politics. 

BECHE-DE-MER, a slug, called also the trepang, procured on the coralreefs of the Pacific, which is dried and eaten as a dainty by theChinese. 

BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM, chemist, born at Spires; distinguished as apioneer in the scientific study of chemistry (1635-1682). 

BECHSTEIN, a German naturalist, wrote "Natural History of CageBirds" (1757-1822). 

BECHUANA-LAND, an inland tract in S. Africa, extends from the OrangeRiver to the Zambesi; has German territory on the W. , the Transvaal andMatabele-land on the E. The whole country is under British protection;that part which is S. Of the river Molopo was made a crown colony in1885. On a plateau 4000 ft. Above sea-level, the climate is suited forBritish emigrants. The soil is fertile; extensive tracts are suitable forcorn; sheep and cattle thrive; rains fall in summer; in winter there arefrosts, sometimes snow. The Kalahari Desert in the W. Will be habitablewhen sufficient wells are dug. Gold is found near Sitlagoli, and diamondsat Vryburg. The Bechuanas are the most advanced of the black races of S. Africa. 

BECHUA`NAS, a wide-spread S. African race, totemists, rearers ofcattle, and growers of maize; are among the most intelligent of the Bantupeoples, and show considerable capacity for self-government. 

BECKER, KARL, German philologist; bred to medicine; author of aGerman grammar (1775-1842). 

BECKER, NICOLAUS, author of the "Wacht am Rhein, " was an obscurelawyer's clerk, and unnoted for anything else (1810-1845). 

BECKER, WILLIAM ADOLPHE, an archæologist, born at Dresden; wasprofessor at Leipzig; wrote books in reproductive representation ofancient Greek and Roman life; author of "Manual of Roman Antiquities"(1796-1846). 

BECKET, THOMAS A, archbishop of Canterbury, born in London, ofNorman parentage; studied at Oxford and Bologna; entered the Church; wasmade Lord Chancellor; had a large and splendid retinue, but on becomingarchbishop, cast all pomp aside and became an ascetic, and devotedhimself to the vigorous discharge of the duties of his high office;declared for the independence of the Church, and refused to sign theCONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON (q. V. ); King Henry II. Grew restiveunder his assumption of authority, and got rid of him by the hands offour knights who, to please the king, shed his blood on the steps of thealtar of Canterbury Cathedral, for which outrage the king did penancefour years afterwards at his tomb. The struggle was one affecting therelative rights of Church and king, and the chief combatants in the fraywere both high-minded men, each inflexible in the assertion of his claims(1119-1170). 

BECKFORD, WILLIAM, author of "Vathek, " son of a rich alderman ofLondon, who bequeathed him property to the value of £100, 000 per annum;kept spending his fortune on extravagancies and vagaries; wrote "Vathek, "an Arabian tale, when a youth of twenty-two, at a sitting of three daysand two nights, a work which established his reputation as one of thefirst of the imaginative writers of his country. He wrote two volumes oftravels in Italy, but his fame rests on his "Vathek" alone (1759-1844). 

BECKMANN, a professor at Göttingen; wrote "History of Discoveriesand Inventions" (1738-1811). 

BECKX, PETER JOHN, general of the Jesuits, born in Belgium(1790-1887). 

BECQUEREL, ANTOINE CÆSAR, a French physicist; served as engineer inthe French army in 1808-14, but retired in 1815, devoting himself toscience, and obtained high distinction in electro-chemistry, working withAmpère, Biot, and other eminent scientists (1788-1878). 

BED OF JUSTICE, a formal session of the Parlement of Paris, underthe presidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of the royaledicts, the last session being in 1787, under Louis XVI. , at Versailles, whither the whole body, now "refractory, rolled out, in wheeled vehicles, to receive the order of the king. "

BEDCHAMBER, LORDS or LADIES OF, officers or ladies of the royalhousehold whose duty it is to wait upon the sovereign--the chief of theformer called Groom of the Stole, and of the latter, Mistress of theRobes. 

BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL, born at Clifton, son of Thomas Beddoes; anenthusiastic student of science; a dramatic poet, author of "Bride'sTragedy"; got into trouble for his Radical opinions; his principal work, "Death's Jest-Book, or the Fool's Tragedy, " highly esteemed by BarryCornwall (1803-1849). 

BEDE, or BEDA, surnamed "The Venerable, " an English monk andecclesiastical historian, born at Monkwearmouth, in the abbey of which, together with that of Jarrow, he spent his life, devoted to quiet studyand learning; his writings numerous, in the shape of commentaries, biographies, and philosophical treatises; his most important work, the"Ecclesiastical History" of England, written in Latin, and translated byAlfred the Great; completed a translation of John's Gospel the day hedied. An old monk, it is said, wrote this epitaph over his grave, _Hacsunt in fossâ Bedæ . .. Ossa_, "In this pit are the bones . .. Of Beda, "and then fell asleep; but when he awoke he found some invisible hand hadinserted _venerabilis_ in the blank which he had failed to fill up, whence Bede's epinomen it is alleged. 

BEDELL, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh, born in Essex; studied atCambridge; superintended the translation of the Old Testament into Irish;though his virtues saved him and his family for a time from outrage bythe rebels in 1641, he was imprisoned at the age of 70, and thoughreleased, died soon after (1571-1642). 

BEDFORD (160), a midland agricultural county of England, generallylevel, with some flat fen-land; also the county town (28), on the GreatOuse, clean and well paved, with excellent educational institutions, famous in connection with the life of John Bunyan, where relics of himare preserved, and where a bronze statue of him by Boehm has been erectedto his memory by the Duke of Bedford in 1871; manufactures agriculturalimplements, lace, and straw plaiting; Elstow, Bunyan's birthplace, is notfar off. 

BEDFORD, JOHN, DUKE OF, brother of Henry V. , protector of thekingdom and regent of France during the minority of Henry VI. , whom, onthe death of the French king, he proclaimed King of France, taking uparms thereafter and fighting for a time victoriously on his behalf, tillthe enthusiasm created by Joan of Arc turned the tide against him andhastened his death, previous to which, however, though he prevailed overthe dauphin, and burnt Joan at the stake, his power had gone (1389-1435). 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a flat marshy district, comprising part of sixcounties, to the S. And W. Of the Wash, about 40 m. In extent each way, caused originally by incursions of the sea and the overflowing of rivers;received its name from the Earl of Bedford, who, in the 17th century, undertook to drain it. 

BEDLAM, originally a lunatic asylum in London, so named from thepriory "Bethlehem" in Bishopsgate, first appropriated to the purpose, Bedlam being a corruption of the name Bethlehem. 

BEDMAR, MARQUIS DE, cardinal and bishop of Oviedo, and a Spanishdiplomatist, notorious for a part he played in a daring conspiracy in1618 aimed at the destruction of Venice, but which, being betrayed, wasdefeated, for concern in which several people were executed, though thearch-delinquent got off; he is the subject of Otway's "Venice Preserved";it was after this he was made cardinal, and governor of the Netherlands, where he was detested and obliged to retire (1572-1655). 

BEDOUINS, Arabs who lead a nomadic life in the desert and subsist bythe pasture of cattle and the rearing of horses, the one element thatbinds them into a unity being community of language, the Arabic namely, which they all speak with great purity and without variation of dialect;they are generally of small stature, of wiry constitution, and darkcomplexion, and are divided into tribes, each under an independent chief. 

BEE, THE, a periodical started by Goldsmith, in which some of hisbest essays appeared, and his "Citizen of the World. "

BEECHER, HENRY WARD, a celebrated American preacher, born atLitchfield, Connecticut; pastor of a large Congregational church, Brooklyn; a vigorous thinker and eloquent orator, a liberal man both intheology and politics; wrote "Life Thoughts"; denied the eternity ofpunishment, considered a great heresy by some then, and which led to hissecession from the Congregational body (1813-1887). 

BEECHER-STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH, sister of the above, authoress of"Uncle Tom's Cabin, " of which probably over a million copies have beensold. Born at Litchfield, Connecticut, U. S. A. , in 1812; _d_. 1896. 

BEECHY, REAR-ADMIRAL, born in London, son of the following;accompanied Franklin in 1818 and Parry in 1819 to the Arctic regions;commanded the _Blossom_ in the third expedition of 1825-1828 to the sameregions; published "Voyage of Discovery towards the North Pole"(1796-1856). 

BEECHY, SIR WILLIAM, portrait-painter, born in Oxfordshire; amonghis portraits were those of Lord Nelson, John Kemble, and Mrs. Siddons(1753-1839). 

BEEF-EATERS, yeomen of the royal guard, whose institution dates fromthe reign of Henry VII. , and whose office it is to wait upon royalty onhigh occasions; the name is also given to the warders of the Tower, though they are a separate body and of more recent origin; the namesimply means (royal) dependant, a corruption of the French word_buffetier_, one who attends the sideboard. 

BEEHIVE HOUSES, small stone structures, of ancient date, remains ofwhich are found (sometimes in clusters) in Ireland and the W. OfScotland, with a conical roof formed of stones overlapping one another, undressed and without mortar; some of them appear to have been monks'cells. 

BEEL`ZEBUB, the god of flies, protector against them, worshipped bythe Phoenicians; as being a heathen deity, transformed by the Jews into achief of the devils; sometimes identified with Satan, and sometimes hisaide-de-camp. 

BEERBOHM TREE, HERBERT, actor, born in London, son of a grainmerchant; his first appearance was as the timid curate in the "PrivateSecretary, " and then as the spy Macari in "Called Back"; is lessee of theHaymarket Theatre, London, and has had many notable successes; he isaccompanied by his wife, who is a refined actress; _b_. 1852. 

BEER`SHEBA, a village in the S. Of Canaan, and the most southerly, 27 m. From Hebron; associated with Dan, in the N. , to denote the limit ofthe land and what lies between; lies in a pastoral country abounding inwells, and is frequently mentioned in patriarchal history; means "theWell of the Oath. "

BEESWING, a gauze-like film which forms on the sides of a bottle ofgood port. 

BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VON, one of the greatest musical composers, bornin Bonn, of Dutch extraction; the author of symphonies and sonatas thatare known over all the world; showed early a most precocious genius formusic, commenced his education at five as a musician; trained at first bya companion named Pfeiffer, to whom he confessed he owed more than allhis teachers; trained at length under the tuition of the most illustriousof his predecessors, Bach and Händel; revealed the most wonderful musicaltalent; quitted Bonn and settled in Vienna; attracted the attention ofMozart; at the age of 40 was attacked with deafness that became total andlasted for life; continued to compose all the same, to the admiration ofthousands; during his last days was a prey to melancholy; during athunderstorm he died. Goethe pronounced him at his best "an utterlyuntamed character, not indeed wrong in finding the world detestable, though his finding it so did not, " he added, "make it more enjoyable tohimself or to others" (1770-1827). 

BEETS, NICOLAS, a Dutch theologian and poet, born at Haarlem; came, as a poet, under the influence of Byronism; _b_. 1814. 

BEFA`NA, an Italian female Santa Claus, who on Twelfth Night fillsthe stockings of good children with good things, and those of bad withashes. 

BEGG, JAMES, Scotch ecclesiastic, born at New Monkland, Lanark; wasa stalwart champion of old Scottish orthodoxy, and the last (1808-1883). 

BEGHARDS, a religious order that arose in Belgium in the 13thcentury, connected with the Beguins, a mystic and socialistic sect. 

BEGUINS, a sisterhood confined now to France and Germany, who, without taking any monastic vow, devote themselves to works of piety andbenevolence. 

BEGUM, name given in the E. Indies to a princess, mother, sister, orwife of a native ruler. 

BEHAIM, MARTIN, a geographer and chartographer, born in Nüremberg;accompanied Diego Cam on a voyage of discovery along W. Coast of Africa;constructed and left behind him a famous terrestrial globe; some wouldmake him out to be the discoverer of America (1459-1507). 

BEHAR (24, 393), a province of Bengal, in the valley of the Ganges, which divides it into two; densely peopled; cradle of Buddhism. 

BEHE`MOTH, a large animal mentioned in Job, understood to be thehippopotamus. 

BEHIS`TUN, a mountain in Irak-Ajemi, a prov. Of Persia, on whichthere are rocks covered with inscriptions, the principal relating toDarius Hystaspes, of date about 515 B. C. , bearing on his genealogy, domains, and victories. 

BEHM, ERNST, a German geographer, born in Gotha (1830-1884). 

BEHN, AFRA, a licentious writer, born in Kent, for whom, for herfree and easy ways, Charles II. Took a liking; sent by him as a spy toHolland, and through her discovered the intention of the Dutch to burnthe shipping in the Thames. She wrote plays and novels (1640-1689). 

BEHRING STRAIT, a strait about 50 m. Wide between Asia and N. America, which connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific; discovered bythe Danish navigator Vitus Behring in 1728, sent out on a voyage ofdiscovery by Peter the Great. 

BEIRA (1, 377), a central province of Portugal, mountainous andpastoral; gives title to the heir-apparent to the Portuguese throne. 

BEKE, DR. , traveller, born in London; travelled in Abyssinia andPalestine; author of "Origines Biblicæ, " or researches into primevalhistory as shown not to be in keeping with the orthodox belief. 

BEKKER, IMMANUEL, philologist, born in Berlin, and professor inHalle; classical textual critic; issued recensions of the Greek and Latinclassics (1780-1871). 

BEL AND THE DRAGON, HISTORY OF, one of the books of the Apocrypha, aspurious addition to the book of Daniel, relates how Daniel persuadedCyrus of the vanity of idol-worship, and is intended to show itsabsurdity. 

BELA I. , king of Hungary from 1061 to 1063; an able ruler;introduced a great many measures for the permanent benefit of thecountry, affecting both religion and social organisation. 

BELA IV. , king of Hungary, son of Andreas II. , who had in 1222 beencompelled to sign the Golden Bull, the _Magna Charta_ of Hungarianliberty; faithfully respected the provisions of this charter, andincurred the enmity of the nobles by his strenuous efforts to subdue themto the royal power. 

BELCH, SIR TOBY, a reckless, jolly, swaggering character in "TwelfthNight. "

BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, admiral, was engaged in several exploring andsurveying expeditions; sailed round the world, and took part in theoperations in China (1812-1877). 

BELFAST (256), county town of Antrim, and largest and mostflourishing city in the N. Of Ireland; stands on the Lagan, at the headof Belfast Lough, 100 m. N. Of Dublin; is a bright and pleasant city, with some fine streets and handsome buildings, Presbyterian, Catholic, and Methodist colleges. It is the centre of the Irish linen and cottonmanufactures, the most important shipbuilding centre, and has alsorope-making, whisky, and aerated-water industries. Its foreign trade islarger than even Dublin's. It is the capital of Ulster, and head-quartersof Presbyterianism in Ireland. 

BELFORT (83), a fortified town in dep. Of Haut-Rhin, and is itscapital, 35 m. W. By N. Of Basel; capitulated to the Germans in 1870;restored to France; its fortifications now greatly strengthened. Thecitadel was by Vauban. 

BELGÆ, Cæsar's name for the tribes of the Celtic family in Gaul N. Of the Seine and Marne; mistakenly rated as Germans by Cæsar. 

BELGIUM (6, 136), a small European State bordering on the North Sea, with Holland to the N. , France to the S. , and Rhenish Prussia andLuxemburg on the E. ; is less than a third the size of Ireland, but it isthe most densely populated country on the Continent. The people are ofmixed stock, comprising Flemings, of Teutonic origin; Walloons, of Celticorigin; Germans, Dutch, and French. Roman Catholicism is the predominantreligion. Education is excellent; there are universities at Ghent, Liège, Brussels, and Louvain. French is the language of educated circles and ofthe State; but the prevalence of dialects hinders the growth of anational literature. The land is low and level and fertile in the N. AndW. , undulating in the middle, rocky and hilly in the S. And E. The Meuseand Scheldt are the chief rivers, the basin of the latter embracing mostof the country. Climate is similar to the English, with greater extremes. Rye, wheat, oats, beet, and flax are the principal crops. Agriculture isthe most painstaking and productive of the world. The hilly country isrich in coal, iron, zinc, and lead. After mining, the chief industriesare textile manufactures and making of machinery: the former at Antwerp, Ghent, Brussels, and Liège; the latter at Liège, Mons, and Charleroi. Thetrade is enormous; France, Germany, and Britain are the best customers. Exports are coal to France; farm products, eggs, &c. , to England; and rawmaterial imported from across seas, to France and the basin of the Rhine. It is a small country of large cities. The capital is Brussels (480), inthe centre of the kingdom, but communicating with the ocean by a shipcanal. The railways, canals, and river navigation are very highlydeveloped. The government is a limited monarchy; the king, senate, andhouse of representatives form the constitution. There is a conscript armyof 50, 000 men, but no navy. Transferred from Spain to Austria in 1713. Belgium was under French sway from 1794 till 1814, when it was unitedwith Holland, but established its independence in 1830. 

BELGRADE (54), the capital of Servia, on the confluence of the Saveand Danube; a fortified city in an important strategical position, andthe centre of many conflicts; a commercial centre; once Turkish inappearance, now European more and more. 

BELGRA`VIA, a fashionable quarter in the southern part of the WestEnd of London. 

BELIAL, properly a good-for-nothing, a child of worthlessness; anincarnation of iniquity and son of perdition, and the name in the Biblefor the children of such. 

BELIEF, a word of various application, but properly definable asthat which lies at the heart of a man or a nation's convictions, or isthe heart and soul of all their thoughts and actions, "the thing a mandoes practically lay to heart, and know for certain concerning his vitalrelations to this mysterious universe, and his duty and destiny there. "

BELINDA, ARABELLA FERMOR, the heroine in Pope's "Rape of the Lock. "

BELISA`RIUS, a general under the Emperor Justinian, born in Illyria;defeated the Persians, the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths; was falselyaccused of conspiracy, but acquitted, and restored to his dignities bythe emperor; though another tradition, now discredited, alleges that forthe crimes charged against him he had his eyes put out, and was reducedto beggary (505-565). 

BELIZE, British Honduras, a fertile district, and its capital (6);exports mahogany, rosewood, sugar, india-rubber, &c. 

BELL, ACTON. See BRONTË. 

BELL, ANDREW, LL. D. , educationist, born at St. Andrews; founder ofthe Monitorial system of education, which he had adopted, for want ofqualified assistants, when in India as superintendent of an orphanage inMadras, so that his system was called "the Madras system"; returned fromIndia with a large fortune, added to it by lucrative preferments, andbequeathed a large portion of it, some £120, 000, for the endowment ofeducation in Scotland, and the establishment of schools, such as theMadras College in his native city (1753-1832). 

BELL, BESSY, and MARY GRAY, the "twa bonnie lassies" of aScotch ballad, daughters of two Perthshire gentlemen, who in 1666 builtthemselves a bower in a spot retired from a plague then raging; suppliedwith food by a lad in love with both of them, who caught the plague andgave it to them, of which they all sickened and died. 

BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE, a ceremony at one time attending the greaterexcommunication in the Romish Church, when after sentence was read fromthe "book, " a "bell" was rung, and the "candle" extinguished. 

BELL, CURRER. See BRONTË. 

BELL, ELLIS. See BRONTË. 

BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH, a brother of Sir Charles, distinguished in law;author of "Principles of the Law of Scotland" (1770-1843). 

BELL, HENRY, bred a millwright, born in Linlithgowshire; the firstwho applied steam to navigation in Europe, applying it in a smallsteamboat called the _Comet_, driven by a three horse-power engine(1767-1830). 

BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD, born in Glasgow, a lawyer and literary man, sheriff of Lanarkshire; wrote a vindication of Mary, Queen of Scots, andsome volumes of poetry (1803-1874). 

BELL, JOHN, of Antermony, a physician, born at Campsie; accompaniedRussian embassies to Persia and China; wrote "Travels in Asia, " whichwere much appreciated for their excellency of style (1690-1780). 

BELL, PETER, Wordsworth's simple rustic, to whom the primrose wasbut a yellow flower and nothing more. 

BELL, ROBERT, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Cork;edited "British Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper, " his best-known work, which he annotated, and accompanied with careful memoirs of each(1800-1867). 

BELL, SIR CHARLES, an eminent surgeon and anatomist, born inEdinburgh, where he became professor of Surgery; distinguished chieflyfor his discoveries in connection with the nervous system, which hepublished in his "Anatomy of the Brain" and his "Nervous System, " andwhich gained him European fame; edited, along with Lord Brougham, Paley's"Evidences of Natural Religion" (1774-1842). 

BELL, THOMAS, a naturalist, born at Poole; professor of Zoology inKing's College, London; author of "British Quadrupeds" and "BritishReptiles, " "British Stalk-eyed Crustacea, " and editor of "White's NaturalHistory of Selborne" (1792-1880). 

BELL ROCK, or INCHCAPE ROCK, a dangerous reef of sandstonerocks in the German Ocean, 12 m. SE. Of Arbroath, on which a lighthouse120 ft. High was erected in 1807-10; so called from a bell rung by thesway of the waves, which the abbot of Arbroath erected on it at one timeas a warning to seamen. 

BELL-THE-CAT, Archibald Douglas, Earl of Arran, so called from hisoffer to dispose by main force of an obnoxious favourite of the king, James III. 

BELLA, STEPHANO DELLA, a Florentine engraver of great merit, engraved over 1000 plates; was patronised by Richelieu in France, and theMedici in Florence (1610-1664). 

BELL`AMY, JACOB, a Dutch poet, born at Flushing; his poems highlyesteemed by his countrymen (1752-1821). 

BELLANGE, a celebrated painter of battle-pieces, born at Paris(1800-1866). 

BELLAR`MINE, ROBERT, cardinal, born in Tuscany; a learned Jesuit, controversial theologian, and in his writings, which are numerous, avaliant defender at all points of Roman Catholic dogma; the greatestchampion of the Church in his time, and regarded as such by theProtestant theologians; he was at once a learned man and a doughtypolemic (1542-1621). 

BELLAY, JOACHIM DU, French poet; author of sonnets entitled"Regrets, " full of vigour and poetry; wrote the "Antiquités de Rome"; wascalled the Apollo of the Pléiade, the best poet and the best prose-writeramong them (1524-1560). 

BELLE FRANCE, (i. E. Beautiful France), a name of endearmentapplied to France, like that of "Merry" applied to England. 

BELLE-ISLE (60), a fortified island on the W. Coast of France, nearwhich Sir Edward Hawke gained a brilliant naval victory over the French, under M. De Conflans, in 1759. 

BELLEISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET, COUNT OF, marshal ofFrance; distinguished in the war of the Spanish Succession; an ambitiousman, mainly to blame for the Austrian Succession war; had grand schemesin his head, no less than the supremacy in Europe and the world ofFrance, warranting the risk; expounded them to Frederick the Great;concluded a fast and loose treaty with him, which could bind no one;found himself blocked up in Prague with his forces; had to force his wayout and retreat, but it was a retreat the French boast comparable only tothe retreat of the Ten Thousand; was made War Minister after, and wroughtimportant reforms in the army (1684-1761). See CARLYLE'S"FREDERICK" for a graphic account of him and his schemes, speciallyin Bk. Xii. Chap. Ix. 

BELLENDEN, JOHN, of Moray, a Scottish writer in the 16th century;translated, at the request of James V. , Hector Boece's "History ofScotland, " and the first five books of Livy, which remain the earliestextant specimens of Scottish prose, and remarkable specimens they are, for the execution of which he was well rewarded, being made archdeacon ofMoray for one thing, though he died in exile; _d_. 1550. 

BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, a Scottish writer, distinguished for diplomaticservices to Queen Mary, and for the purity of his Latin composition; aprofessor of belles-lettres in Paris University (1550-1613). 

BELLER`OPHON, a mythical hero, son of Glaucus and grandson ofSisyphus; having unwittingly caused the death of his brother, withdrewfrom his country and sought retreat with Proetus, king of Argos, who, becoming jealous of his guest, but not willing to violate the laws ofhospitality, had him sent to Iobates, his son-in-law, king of Lycia, withinstructions to put him to death. Iobates, in consequence, imposed uponhim the task of slaying the Chimæra, persuaded that this monster wouldbe the death of him. Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus, the winged horsegiven him by Pallas, slew the monster, and on his return received thedaughter of Iobates to wife. 

BELLEROPHON, LETTERS OF, name given to letters fraught with mischiefto the bearer. See SUPRA. 

BELLES-LETTRES, that department of literature which implies literaryculture and belongs to the domain of art, whatever the subject may be orthe special form; it includes poetry, the drama, fiction, and criticism. 

BELLEVILLE, a low suburb of Paris, included in it since 1860; thescene of one of the outrages of the Communists. 

BELLIARD, COMTE DE, a French general and diplomatist; fought in mostof the Napoleonic wars, but served under the Bourbons on Napoleon'sabdication; was serviceable to Louis Philippe in Belgium by his diplomacy(1769-1832). 

BELLI`NI, the name of an illustrious family of Venetian painters. 

BELLINI, GENTILE, the son of Jacopo Bellini, was distinguished as aportrait-painter; decorated along with his brother the council-chamber ofthe ducal palace; his finest picture the "Preaching of St. Mark"(1421-1508). 

BELLINI, GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, produced a great manyworks; the subjects religious, all nobly treated; had Giorgione andTitian for pupils; among his best works, the "Circumcision, " "Feast ofthe Gods, " "Blood of the Redeemer"; did much to promote painting in oil(1426-1516). 

BELLINI, JACOPO, a painter from Florence who settled in Venice, thefather and founder of the family; _d_. 1470. 

BELLINI, VINCENZO, a musical composer, born at Catania, Sicily; hisworks operas, more distinguished for their melody than their dramaticpower; the best are "Il Pirati, " "La Somnambula, " "Norma, " and "IlPuritani" (1802-1835). 

BELLMANN, the poet of Sweden, a man of true genius, called the"Anacreon of Sweden, " patronised by Gustavus Adolphus (1741-1795). 

BELLO`NA, the goddess of fury in war among the Romans, related bythe poets to Mars as sister, wife, or daughter; inspirer of thewar-spirit, and represented as armed with a bloody scourge in one handand a torch in the other. 

BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ, a naval officer, born in Paris, distinguishedin the expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and one of those who went inquest of Sir John Franklin; drowned while crossing the ice (1826-1853). 

BELLOY, a French poet, born at St. Flour; author of "Le Siège duCalais" and numerous other dramatic works (1727-1775). 

BELON, PIERRE, a French naturalist, one of the founders of naturalhistory, and one of the precursors of Cuvier; wrote in differentdepartments of natural history, the chief, "Natural History of Birds";murdered by robbers while gathering plants in the Bois de Boulogne(1518-1564). 

BEL`PHEGOR, a Moabite divinity. 

BELPHOEBE (i. E. Beautiful Diana), a huntress in the "FaërieQueene, " the impersonation of Queen Elizabeth, conceived of, however, asa pure, high-spirited maiden, rather than a queen. 

BELSHAM, THOMAS, a Unitarian divine, originally Calvinist, born atBedford; successor to the celebrated Priestley at Hackney, London; wrotean elementary work on psychology (1750-1829). 

BELSHAZZAR, the last Chaldean king of Babylon, slain, according tothe Scripture account, at the capture of the city by Cyrus in 538 B. C. 

BELT, GREAT and LITTLE, gateways of the Baltic: the Greatbetween Zealand and Fünen, 15 m. Broad; the Little, between Fünen andJutland, half as broad; both 70 m. Long, the former of great depth. 

BELT OF CALMS, the region in the Atlantic and Pacific, 4° or 5°latitude broad, where the trade-winds meet and neutralise each other, inwhich, however, torrents of rain and thunder-storms occur almost daily. 

BELTANE, or BELTEIN, an ancient Celtic festival connected withthe sun-worship, observed about the 1st of May and the 1st of November, during which fires were kindled on the tops of hills, and variousceremonies gone through. 

BELTED WILL, name given to Lord William Howard, warden in the 16thand 17th centuries of the Western Marches of England. 

BELU`CHISTAN (200 to 400), a desert plateau lying between Persia andIndia, Afghanistan and the Arabian Sea; is crossed by many mountainranges, the Suliman, in the N. , rising to 12, 000 ft. Rivers in the NE. Are subject to great floods. The centre and W. Is a sandy desert exposedto bitter winds in winter and sand-storms in summer. Fierce extremes oftemperature prevail. There are few cattle, but sheep are numerous; thecamel is the draught animal. Where there is water the soil is fertile, and crops of rice, cotton, indigo, sugar, and tobacco are raised; in thehigher parts, wheat, maize, and pulse. Both precious and useful metalsare found; petroleum wells were discovered in the N. In 1887. Thepopulation comprises Beluchis, robber nomads of Aryan stock, in the E. And W. , and Mongolian Brahuis in the centre. All are Mohammedan. Kelat isthe capital; its position commands all the caravan routes. Quetta, in theN. , is a British stronghold and health resort. The Khan of Kelat is theruler of the country and a vassal of the Queen. 

BE`LUS, another name for BAAL (q. V. ), or the legendary godof Assyria and Chaldea. 

BEL`VEDERE, name given a gallery of the Vatican at Rome, especiallythat containing the famous statue of Apollo, and applied topicture-galleries elsewhere. 

BELZO`NI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, a famous traveller and explorer inEgypt, born at Padua, of poor parents; a man of great stature; figured asan athlete in Astley's Circus, London, and elsewhere, first of all inLondon streets; applied himself to the study of mechanics; visited Egyptas a mechanician and engineer at the instance of Mehemet Ali; commencedexplorations among its antiquities, sent to the British Museum trophiesof his achievements; published a narrative of his operations; opened anexhibition of his collection of antiquities in London and Paris;undertook a journey to Timbuctoo, was attacked with dysentery, and diedat Gato (1778-1823). 

BEM, JOSEPH, a Polish general, born in Galicia; served in the Frencharmy against Russia in 1812; took part in the insurrection of 1830;joined the Hungarians in 1848; gained several successes against Austriaand Russia, but was defeated at Temesvar; turned Mussulman, and was madepasha; died at Aleppo, where he had gone to suppress an Arabinsurrection; he was a good soldier and a brave man (1791-1850). 

BEMBA, a lake in Africa, the highest feeder of the Congo, of an ovalshape, 150 m. Long and over 70 m. Broad, 3000 ft. Above the sea-level. 

BEMBO, PIETRO, cardinal, an erudite man of letters and patron ofliterature and the arts, born at Venice; secretary to Pope Leo X. ;historiographer of Venice, and librarian of St. Mark's; made cardinal byPaul III. , and bishop of Bergamo; a fastidious stylist and a sticklerfor purity in language (1470-1547). 

BEN LAWERS, a mountain in Perthshire, 3984 ft. High, on the W. OfLoch Tay. 

BEN LEDI, a mountain in Perthshire, 2873 ft. High, 4½ m. NW. OfCallander. 

BEN LOMOND, a mountain in Stirlingshire, 3192 ft. High, on the E. OfLoch Lomond. 

BEN NEVIS, the highest mountain in Great Britain, in SW. Inverness-shire, 4406 ft. High, and a sheer precipice on the NE. 1500 ft. High, and with an observatory on the summit supported by the ScottishMeteorological Society. 

BEN RHYDDING, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 15 m. NW. Of Leeds, with a thoroughly equipped hydropathic establishment, muchresorted to. 

BENARES (219), the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an importanttown in the NW. Provinces; is on the Ganges, 420 m. By rail NW. OfCalcutta. It presents an amazing array of 1700 temples and mosques withtowers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laidwith continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the cityitself is narrow, crocked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousand pilgrimsvisit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also agovernment college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railwaybridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods, jewellery, and gems; while its brass-work, "Benares ware, " is famous. 

BENBOW, JOHN, admiral, born at Shrewsbury; distinguished himself inan action with a Barbary pirate; rose rapidly to the highest post in thenavy; distinguished himself well in an engagement with a French fleet inthe W. Indies; he lost a leg, and at this crisis some of his captainsproved refractory, so that the enemy escaped, were tried bycourt-martial, and two of them shot; the wound he received and hisvexation caused his death. He was a British tar to the backbone, and of aclass extinct now (1653-1702). 

BENCOOLEN, a town and a Dutch residency in SW. Of Sumatra; exportspepper and camphor. 

BENDER, a town in Bessarabia, remarkable for the siege which CharlesXII. Of Sweden sustained there after his defeat at Pultowa. 

BENEDEK, LUDWIG VON, an Austrian general, born in Hungary;distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1848-1849; was defeated by thePrussians at Sadowa; superseded and tried, but got off; retired to Grätz, where he died (1804-1871). 

BENEDETTI, COUNT VINCENT, French diplomatist, born at Bastia, inCorsica; is remembered for his draft of a treaty between France andPrussia, published in 1870, and for his repudiation of all responsibilityfor the Franco-German war; _b_. 1817. 

BENEDICT, the name of fourteen popes: B. I. , from 574 to 575;B. II. , from 684 to 685; B. III. , from 855 to 858; B. IV. , from 900 to 907; B. V. , FROM 964 TO 965; B. VI. , from 972 to974; B. VII. , from 975 to 984; B. VIII. , from 1012 to 1024;extended the territory of the Church by conquest, and effected certainclerical reforms; B. IX. , from 1033 to 1048, a licentious man, anddeposed; B. X. , from 1058 to 1059; B. XI. , from 1303 to 1304;B. XII. , from 1334 to 1342; B. XIII. , from 1724 to 1730;B. XIV. , from 1740 to 1758. Of all the popes of this name it wouldseem there is only one worthy of special mention. 

BENEDICT XIV. , a native of Bologna, a man of marked scholarship andability; a patron of science and literature, who did much to purify themorals and elevate the character of the clergy, and reform abuses in theChurch. 

BENEDICT, BISCOP, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born in Northumbria; made twopilgrimages to Rome; assumed the tonsure as a Benedictine monk inProvence; returned to England and founded two monasteries on the Tyne, one at Wearmouth and another at Jarrow, making them seats of learning;_b_. 628. 

BENEDICT, ST. , the founder of Western monachism, born near Spoleto;left home at 14; passed three years as a hermit, in a cavern nearSubiaco, to prepare himself for God's service; attracted many to hisretreat; appointed to an abbey, but left it; founded 12 monasteries ofhis own; though possessed of no scholarship, composed his "RegulaMonachorum, " which formed the rule of his order; represented in art asaccompanied by a raven with sometimes a loaf in his bill, or surroundedby thorns or by howling demons (480-543). See BENEDICTINES. 

BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS, musician and composer, native of Stuttgart;removed to London in 1835; author of, among other pieces, the "Gipsy'sWarning, " the "Brides of Venice, " and the "Crusaders"; conducted theperformance of "Elijah" in which Jenny Lind made her first appearancebefore a London audience, and accompanied her as pianist to America in1850 (1806-1885). 

BENEDICTINES, the order of monks founded by St. Benedict andfollowing his rule, the cradle of which was the celebrated monastery ofMonte Casino, near Naples, an institution which reckoned among itsmembers a large body of eminent men, who in their day rendered immenseservice to both literature and science, and were, in fact, the onlylearned class of the Middle Ages; spent their time in diligentlytranscribing manuscripts, and thus preserving for posterity the classicliterature of Greece and Rome. 

BENEDICTUS, part of the musical service at Mass in the RomanCatholic Church; has been introduced into the morning service of theEnglish Church. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY, exemption of the persons of clergymen fromcriminal process before a secular judge. 

BE`NEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD, a German philosopher and professor inBerlin of the so-called empirical school, that is, the Baconian; anopponent of the methods and systems of Kant and Hegel; confined hisstudies to psychology and the phenomena of consciousness; was more aBritish thinker than a German (1798-1854). 

BENENGE`LI, an imaginary Moorish author, whom Cervantes credits withthe story of "Don Quixote. "

BÉNETIER, the vessel for holding the holy water in Roman Catholicchurches. 

BENEVENTO (20), a town 33 m. NE. Of Naples, built out of and amidthe ruins of an ancient one; also the province, of which Talleyrand wasmade prince by Napoleon. 

BENEVOLENCE, the name of a forced tax exacted from the people bycertain kings of England, and which, under Charles I. , became soobnoxious as to occasion the demand of the PETITION OF RIGHTS (q. V. ), that no tax should be levied without consent of Parliament; firstenforced in 1473, declared illegal in 1689. 

BENFEY, THEODOR, Orientalist, born near Göttingen, of Jewish birth;a great Sanskrit scholar, and professor of Sanskrit and ComparativePhilology at his native place; author of "Lexicon of Greek Roots, ""Sanskrit Grammar, " &c. (1809-1881). 

BENGAL (76, 643), one of the three Indian presidencies, but moreparticularly a province lying in the plain of the Lower Ganges and thedelta of the Ganges-Brahmaputra, with the Himalayas on the N. At the baseof the mountains are great forests; along the seaboard dense jungles. Theclimate is hot and humid, drier at Behar, and passing through everygradation up to the snow-line. The people are engaged in agriculture, raising indigo, jute, opium, rice, tea, cotton, sugar, &c. Coal, iron, and copper mines are worked in Burdwân. The manufactures are of cottonand jute. The population is mixed in blood and speech, but Hindusspeaking Bengali predominate. Education is further advanced thanelsewhere; there are fine colleges affiliated to Calcutta University, andmany other scholastic institutions. The capital, Calcutta, is the capitalof India; the next town in size is Patna (165). 

BENGA`ZI (7), the capital of Barca, on the Gulf of Sidra, in N. Africa, and has a considerable trade. 

BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT, a distinguished Biblical scholar andcritic, born at Würtemberg; best known by his "Gnomon Novi Testamenti, "being an invaluable body of short notes on the New Testament; devotedhimself to the critical study of the text of the Greek Testament(1687-1752). 

BENGUE`LA, a fertile Portuguese territory in W. Africa, S. OfAngola, with considerable mineral wealth; has sunk in importance sincethe suppression of the slave-trade. 

BENICIA, the former capital of California, 30 m. NE. Of SanFrancisco; has a commodious harbour and a U. S. Arsenal. 

BENI-HASSAN, a village in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of theNile, above Minieh, with remarkable catacombs that have been excavated. 

BENI-ISRAEL (i. E. Sons of Israel), a remarkable people, few innumber, of Jewish type and customs, in the Bombay Presidency, and thathave existed there quite isolatedly for at least 1000 years, with alanguage of their own, and even some literature; they do not mingle withthe Jews, but they practise similar religious observances. 

BENIN`, a densely populated and fertile country in W. Africa, between the Niger and Dahomey, with a city and river of the name; formspart of what was once a powerful kingdom; yields palm-oil, rice, maize, sugar, cotton, and tobacco. 

BENI-SOUEF`, a town in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, 70 m. Above Cairo; a centre of trade, with cotton-mills and quarries ofalabaster. 

BENJAMIN, Jacob's youngest son, by Rachel, the head of one of thetwelve tribes, who were settled in a small fertile territory betweenEphraim and Judah; the tribe to which St. Paul belonged. 

BENNETT, JAMES GORDON, an American journalist, born at Keith, Scotland; trained for the Catholic priesthood; emigrated, a poor lad of19, to America, got employment in a printing-office in Boston asproof-reader; started the _New York Herald_ in 1835 at a low price asboth proprietor and editor, an enterprise which brought him great wealthand the success he aimed at (1795-1872). 

BENNETT, JAMES GORDON, son of preceding, conductor of the _Herald_;sent Stanley out to Africa, and supplied the funds. 

BENNETT, SIR STERNDALE, an English musical composer and pianist, born at Sheffield, whose musical genius recommended him to Mendelssohnand Schumann; became professor of Music in Cambridge, and conductor ofthe Philharmonic Concerts; was president of the Royal Academy of Music(1816-1873). 

BENNETT, WM. , a High-Churchman, celebrated for having provoked thedecision that the doctrine of the Real Presence is a dogma notinconsistent with the creed of the Church of England (1804-1886). 

BEN`NINGSEN, COUNT, a Russian general, born at Brunswick; enteredthe Russian service under Catherine II. ; was commander-in-chief at Eylau, fought at Borodino, and victoriously at Leipzig; he died at Hanover, whither he had retired on failure of his health (1745-1826). 

BENTHAM, GEORGE, botanist, born near Plymouth, nephew of Jeremy andeditor of his works, besides a writer on botany (1800-1884). 

BENTHAM, JEREMY, a writer on jurisprudence and ethics, born inLondon; bred to the legal profession, but never practised it; spent hislife in the study of the theory of law and government, his leadingprinciple on both these subjects being utilitarianism, or what is calledthe greatest happiness principle, as the advocate of which he is chieflyremembered; a principle against which Carlyle never ceased to protest asa philosophy of man's life, but which he hailed as a sign that the crisiswhich must precede the regeneration of the world was come; a lowerestimate, he thought, man could not form of his soul than as "a deadbalance for weighing hay and thistles, pains and pleasures, &c. , " anestimate of man's soul which he thinks mankind will, when it wakes upagain to a sense of itself, be sure to resent and repudiate (1748-1832). 

BENTINCK, LORD GEORGE, statesman and sportsman, a member of thePortland family; entered Parliament as a Whig, turned Conservative on thepassing of the Reform Bill of 1832; served under Sir Robert Peel; assumedthe leadership of the party as a Protectionist when Sir Robert Peelbecame a Free-trader, towards whom he conceived a strong personalanimosity; died suddenly; the memory of him owes something to the memoirof his life by Lord Beaconsfield (1802-1848). 

BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH, Indian statesman, governorof Madras in 1806, but recalled for an error which led to the mutiny atVellore; but was in 1827 appointed governor-general of India, which hegoverned wisely, abolishing many evils, such as Thuggism and Suttee, andeffecting many beneficent reforms. Macaulay held office under him. Hereturned to England in 1835, became member for Glasgow in 1837, and diedbefore he made any mark on home politics (1774-1839). 

BENTINCK, WILLIAM, a distinguished statesman, first Earl ofPortland, born in Holland; a favourite, friend, and adviser of WilliamIII. , whom he accompanied to England, and who bestowed on him for hisservices great honours and large domains, which provoked ill-will againsthim; retired to Holland, after the king died in his arms, but returnedafterwards (1648-1709). 

BENTIVOGLIO, an Italian family of princely rank, long supreme inBologna; B. , Guido, cardinal, though a disciple of Galileo, was one ofthe Inquisitors-General who signed his condemnation (1579-1641). 

BENTLEY, RICHARD, scholar and philologist, born in Yorkshire; fromthe first devoted to ancient, especially classical, learning; rose toeminence as an authority on literary criticism, his "Dissertation uponthe Epistles of Phalaris, " which he proved to be a forgery, commendinghim to the regard and esteem of all the scholars of Europe, a work whichmay be said to have inaugurated a new era in literary historicalcriticism (1662-1742). 

BENUË, an affluent of the Niger, 300 m. Long, falling into it 230 m. Up, described by Dr. Barth and explored by Dr. Baikic, and offers greatfacilities for the prosecution of commerce. 

BENVOLIO, a cantankerous, disputatious gentleman in "Romeo andJuliet. "

BENYOW`SKY, COUNT, a Hungarian, fought with the Poles againstRussia; taken prisoner; was exiled to Kamchatka; escaped with thegovernor's daughter; came to France; sent out to Madagascar; was electedking by the natives over them; fell in battle against the French(1741-1786). 

BENZENE, a substance compounded of carbon and hydrogen, obtained bydestructive distillation from coal-tar and other organic bodies, used asa substitute for turpentine and for dissolving grease. 

BENZOIN, a fragrant concrete resinous juice flowing from astyrax-tree of Sumatra, used as a cosmetic, and burned as incense. 

BEOWULF, a very old Anglo-Saxon romance consisting of 6356 shortalliterative lines, and the oldest extant in the language, recording theexploits of a mythical hero of the name, who wrestled Hercules-wise, atthe cost of his life, with first a formidable monster, and then a dragonthat had to be exterminated or tamed into submission before the race hebelonged to could live with safety on the soil. 

BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE, a celebrated French song-writer, born atParis, of the lower section of the middle class, and the first of hiscountrymen who in that department rose to the high level of a true lyricpoet; his first struggles with fortune were a failure, but LucienBonaparte took him up, and under his patronage a career was opened up forhim; in 1815 appeared as an author, and the sensation created wasimmense, for the songs were not mere personal effusions, but in stirringaccord with, and contributed to influence, the great passion of thenation at the time; was, as a Republican--which brought him into troublewith the Bourbons--a great admirer of Napoleon as an incarnation of thenational spirit, and contributed not a little to the elevation of hisnephew to the throne, though he declined all patronage at his hands, refusing all honours and appointments; has been compared to Burns, but helacked both the fire and the humour of the Scottish poet. "His poeticalworks, " says Professor Saintsbury, "consist entirely of chansonspolitical, amatory, bacchanalian, satirical, philosophical after afashion, and of almost every other complexion that the song can possiblytake" (1780-1859). 

BERAR` (896), one of the central provinces of India, E. Of Bombay;it occupies a fertile, well-watered valley, and yields large quantitiesof grain, and especially cotton. 

BERAT, FRÉDÉRIC, a French poet and composer, author of a greatnumber of popular songs (1800-1853). 

BERBER, native language spoken in the mountainous parts of Barbary. 

BERBER (8), a town in Nubia, on the Nile, occupied by the English;starting-point of caravans for the Red Sea; railway was begun to Suakim, but abandoned. 

BER`BERAH, the seaport of Somaliland, under Britain, with an annualfair that brings together at times as many as 30, 000 people. 

BERBERS (3, 000), a race aboriginal to Barbary and N. Africa, of aproud and unruly temper; though different from the Arab race, are of thesame religion. 

BERBICE, the eastern division of British Guiana; produces sugar, cocoa, and timber. 

BERBRUGGER, a French archæologist and philologist; wrote on Algiers, its history and monuments (1801-1869). 

BERCHTA, a German Hulda, but of severer type. See BERTHA. 

BERCY, a commune on the right bank of the Seine, outside Paris, included in it since 1860; is the great mart for wines and brandies. 

BERE`ANS, a sect formed by John Barclay in 1778, who regard theBible as the one exclusive revelation of God. 

BERENGER, or BERENGA`RIUS, OF TOURS, a distinguishedtheologian, born at Tours; held an ecclesiastical office there, and wasmade afterwards archdeacon of Angers; ventured to deny the doctrine oftransubstantiation, a denial for which he was condemned by successivecouncils of the Church, and which he was compelled more than oncepublicly to retract, though he so often and openly recalled hisretractation that the pope, notwithstanding the opposition of theorthodox, deemed it prudent at length to let him alone. After this heceased to trouble the Church, and retired to an island on the Loire, where he gave himself up to quiet meditation and prayer (998-1088). 

BERENGER I. , king of Italy, grandson of Louis the Débonnaire, anable general; provoked the jealousy of the nobles, who dreaded theabridgment of their rights, which led to his assassination at their handsin 934. B. II. , king of Italy, grandson of the preceding, wasdethroned twice by the Emperor Otho, who sent him a prisoner to Bamberg, where he died, 966. 

BERENGER, THOMAS, a French criminalist and magistrate (1785-1866). 

BERENI`CE, a Jewish widow, daughter of Herod Agrippa, with whomTitus was fascinated, and whom he would have taken to wife, had not theRoman populace protested, from their Anti-Jewish prejudice, against it. The name was a common one among Egyptian as well as Jewish princesses. 

BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR, VISCOUNT, an English general, natural sonof the first Marquis of Waterford; distinguished himself in many amilitary enterprise, and particularly in the Peninsular war, for which hewas made a peer; he was a member of the Wellington administration, andmaster-general of the ordnance (1770-1854). 

BERESI`NA, a Russian river, affluent of the Dnieper, into which itfalls after a course of 350 m. ; it is serviceable as a water conveyancefor large rafts of timber to the open sea, and is memorable for thedisastrous passage of the French in their retreat from Moscow in 1812. 

BEREZOV`, a town in Siberia, in the government of Tobolsk; a placeof banishment. 

BERG, DUCHY OF, on right bank of the Rhine, between Düsseldorf andCologne, now part of Prussia; Murat was grand-duke of it by Napoleon'sappointment. 

BER`GAMO (42), a Lombard town, in a province of the same name, and34 m. NE. Of Milan, with a large annual fair in August, the largest inItaly; has grindstone quarries in the neighbourhood. 

BERGASSE, French jurisconsult, born at Lyons; celebrated for hisquarrel with Beaumarchais; author of an "Essay on Property" (1750-1832). 

BERGEN (52), the old capital of Norway, on a fjord of the name, opento the Gulf Stream, and never frozen; the town, consisting of woodenhouses, is built on a slope on which the streets reach down to the sea, and has a picturesque appearance; the trade, which is considerable, is infish and fish products; manufactures gloves, porcelain, leather, etc. ;the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM (11), a town in N. Brabant, once a strong place, andmuch coveted and frequently contested for by reason of its commandingsituation; has a large trade in anchovies. 

BER`GENROTH, GUSTAV ADOLPH, historian, born in Prussia; held a Stateoffice, but was dismissed and exiled because of his sympathy with therevolutionary movement of 1848; came to England to collect materials fora history of the Tudors; examined in Simancas, in Spain, under greatprivations, papers on the period in the public archives; made of these acollection and published it in 1862-68, under the title of "Calendar ofLetters, Despatches, &c. , relating to Negotiations between England andSpain" (1813-1869). 

BERGERAC (11), a manufacturing town in France, 60 m. E. Of Bordeaux, celebrated for its wines; it was a Huguenot centre, and suffered greatlyin consequence. 

BERGERAC, SAVINIEN CYRANO DE, an eccentric man with comic power, aGascon by birth; wrote a tragedy and a comedy; his best work a fictionentitled "Histoire Comique des États et Empires de la Lune et du Soleil";fought no end of duels in vindication, it is said, of his preposterouslylarge nose (1619-1655). 

BERGHAUS, HEINRICH, a geographer of note, born at Clèves; served inboth the French and Prussian armies as an engineer, and was professor ofmathematics at Berlin; his "Physical Atlas" is well known (1797-1884). 

BERGHEM, a celebrated landscape-painter of the Dutch school, born atHaarlem (1624-1683). 

BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF, a Swedish chemist, studied under Linnæus, andbecame professor of Chemistry at Upsala; discovered oxalic acid; was thefirst to arrange and classify minerals on a chemical basis (1735-1784). 

BERI, a town in the Punjab, 40 m. NW. Of Delhi, in a trading centre. 

BERKELEY, a town in Gloucestershire, famous for its cattle. 

BERKELEY, GEORGE, bishop of Cloyne, born in Kilkenny; aphilanthropic man, who conducted in a self-sacrificing spirit practicalschemes for the good of humanity, which failed, but the interest in whomhas for long centred, and still centres, in his philosophic teaching, hisown interest in which was that it contributed to clear up our idea of Godand consolidate our faith in Him, and it is known in philosophy asIdealism; only it must be understood, his idealism is not, as it wasabsurdly conceived to be, a denial of the existence of matter, but is anassertion of the doctrine that the universe, with every particular in it, _as man sees it and knows it_, is not the creation of matter but thecreation of mind, and a reflex of the Eternal Reason that creates anddwells in both it and him; for as Dr. Stirling says, "the object can onlybe known in the subject, and therefore is subjective, and if subjective, ideal. " The outer, as regards our knowledge of it, is within; such isBerkeley's fundamental philosophical principle, and it is a principleradical to the whole recent philosophy of Europe (1684-1753). 

BERKSHIRE (238), a midland county of England, with a fertile, well-cultivated soil on a chalk bottom, in the upper valley of theThames, one of the smallest but most beautiful counties in the country. In the E. Part of it is Windsor Forest, and in the SE. Bagshot Heath. Itis famous for its breed of pigs. 

BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ VON, surnamed "The Iron Hand, " a brave butturbulent noble of Germany, of the 15th and 16th centuries, the story ofwhose life was dramatised by Goethe, "to save, " as he said, "the memoryof a brave man from darkness, " and which was translated from the Germanby Sir Walter Scott. 

BERLIN` (1, 579), capital of Prussia and of the German empire; standson the Spree, in a flat sandy plain, 177 m. By rail SE. Of Hamburg. Theroyal and imperial palaces, the great library, the university, nationalgallery and museums, and the arsenal are all near the centre of the city. There are schools of science, art, agriculture, and mining; technical andmilitary academies; a cathedral and some old churches; zoological andbotanical gardens. Its position between the Baltic and North Seas, theSpree, the numerous canals and railways which converge on it, render it amost important commercial centre; its staple trade is in grain, cattle, spirits, and wool. Manufactures are extensive and very varied; the chiefare woollens, machinery, bronze ware, drapery goods, and beer. 

BERLIN DECREE, a decree of Napoleon of Nov. 21, 1806, declaringBritain in a state of blockade, and vessels trading with it liable tocapture. 

BERLIOZ, HECTOR, a celebrated musical composer and critic, born nearGrenoble, in the dep. Of Isère, France; sent to study medicine in Paris;abandoned it for music, to which he devoted his life. His best knownworks are the "Symphonie Fantastique, " "Romeo and Juliet, " and the"Damnation of Faust"; with the "Symphonie, " which he produced while hewas yet but a student at the Conservatoire in Paris, Paganini was sostruck that he presented him with 20, 000 francs (1803-1869). 

BER`MONDSEY, a busy SE. Suburb of London, on the S. Bank of theThames. 

BERMOO`THES, the Bermudas. 

BERMU`DAS (15), a group of 400 coral islands (five inhabited) inmid-Atlantic, 677 m. SE. Of New York; have a delightful, temperateclimate, and are a popular health resort for Americans. They produce afine arrowroot, and export onions. They are held by Britain as a valuablenaval station, and are provided with docks and fortifications. 

BERNADOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE JULES, a marshal of France, born at Pau;rose from the ranks; distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolutionand the Empire, though between him and Napoleon there was constantdistrust; adopted by Charles XIII. , king of Sweden; joined the Allies asa naturalised Swede in the war against France in alliance with Russia;became king of Sweden himself under the title of Charles XIV. , to thematerial welfare, as it proved, of his adopted country (1764-1844). 

BERNARD, CLAUDE, a distinguished French physiologist, born at St. Julien; he studied at Paris; was Majendie's assistant and successor inthe College of France; discovered that the function of the pancreas isthe digestion of ingested fats, that of the liver the transformation intosugar of certain elements in the blood, and that there are nervouscentres in the body which act independently of the great cerebro-spinalcentre (1813-1878). 

BERNARD, ST. , abbot of Clairvaux, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy;pronounced one of the grandest figures in the church militant; studied inParis, entered the monastery of Citeaux, founded in 1115 a monastery atClairvaux, in Champagne; drew around him disciples who rose to eminenceas soldiers of the cross; prepared the statutes for the Knights-Templar;defeated Abelard in public debate, and procured his condemnation; founded160 monasteries; awoke Europe to a second crusade; dealt death-blows allround to no end of heretics, and declined all honours to himself, contentif he could only awake some divine passion in other men; represented inart as accompanied by a white dog, or as contemplating an apparition ofthe Virgin and the Child, or as bearing the implements of Christ'spassion (1091-1174). Festival, Aug. 20. 

BERNARD, SIMON, a French engineer, born at Dôle; distinguished assuch in the service of Napoleon, and for vast engineering works executedin the United States, in the construction of canals and forts(1779-1839). 

BERNARD OF MENTHON, an ecclesiastic, founder of the monasteries ofthe Great and the Little St. Bernard, in the passage of the Alps(923-1008). Festival, June 15. 

BERNARD OF MORLAIX, a monk of Cluny, of the 11th century; wrote apoem entitled "De Contemptu Mundi, " translated by Dr. Neale, including"Jerusalem the Golden. "

BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, commonly called Saint-Pierre simply, acelebrated French writer, born at Havre; author of "Paul and Virginia, "written on the eve of the Revolution, called by Carlyle "the swan-song ofold dying France, " (1739-1814). 

BERNARDINE, ST. , OF SIENA, born at Massa Carrara, in Italy, of noblefamily; founder of the Observantines, a branch, and restoration on strictlines, of the Franciscan order; established 300 monasteries of the saidbranch; his works, written in a mystical vein, fill five folio vols. (1380-1444). 

BERNAUER, AGNES, wife of Duke Albrecht of Bavaria, whom his father, displeased at the marriage, had convicted of sorcery and drowned in theDanube. 

BERNE (47), a fine Swiss town on the Aar, which almost surrounds it, in a populous canton of the same name; since 1848 the capital of theSwiss Confederation; commands a magnificent view of the Bernese Alps; abusy trading and manufacturing city. 

BERNERS, JOHN BOUCHIER, LORD, writer or translator of romance; wasChancellor of the Exchequer in 1516, and governor of Calais from 1520;translated Froissart's "Huon of Bordeaux, " &c. 

BERNERS, JULIANA, writer on hunting and hawking; lived in the 14thcentury; said to have been prioress of a nunnery. 

BERNESE ALPS, a chain in the Middle Alps, of which the eastern halfis called the Bernese Oberland; form the watershed between the Aar andthe Rhône. 

BERNHARD, DUKE OF WEIMAR, a great German general; distinguishedhimself on the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' war; fought under thestandard of Gustavus Adolphus; held command of the left wing at thebattle of Lützen, and completed the victory after the fall of Gustavus;died at Neuburg, as alleged, without sufficient proof, by poison(1604-1639). 

BERNHARDT, SARAH, a dramatic artiste, born in Paris; of Jewishdescent, but baptized as a Christian; distinguished specially as atragédienne; of abilities qualifying her to shine in other departments ofthe profession and of art, of which she has given proof; _b_. 1844. 

BERNI, FRANCESCO, an Italian poet, born in Tuscany, who excelled inthe burlesque, to whom the Italian as a literary language owes much;remodelled Boiardo's "Orlando Innamorato" in a style surpassing that ofthe original. 

BERNIER, a French physician and traveller, born at Angers; physicianfor 12 years to Aurungzebe, the Great Mogul; published "Travels, " a workfull of interest, and a model of exactitude (1625-1688). 

BERNIER, THE ABBÉ, born in Mayenne, France; one of the principalauthors of the Concordat; promoted afterwards to be Bishop of Orleans(1762-1806). 

BERNI`NA, a mountain in the Swiss canton of Grisons, 13, 290 ft. High, remarkable for its extensive glaciers. 

BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, an Italian painter, sculptor, andarchitect, born at Naples; produced his "Apollo and Daphne" at eighteen, his masterpiece; was architect to the Pope, and designed the colonnade ofSt. Peter's; he died wealthy (1598-1680). 

BERNOUIL`LI, name of a Swiss family of mathematicians, born atBasel, though of Dutch origin--JAMES, JOHN, and DANIEL, ofwhom John is the most celebrated; was professor first at St. Petersburgand then at Basel; discovered the exponential calculus and the method ofintegrating rational fractions, as well as the line of swiftest descent(1667-1748). 

BERNSTORFF, COUNT, a celebrated statesman, diplomatist, andphilanthropist of Denmark; called the Danish Oracle by Frederick theGreat; founded an Agricultural Society and an hospital at Copenhagen, andobtained the emancipation of the serfs (1711-1772). 

BERNSTORFF, COUNT, a nephew of the preceding; also statesman anddiplomatist (1712-1772). 

BERNSTORFF, PIERRE, Danish minister, son of the preceding, aguardian of civil and political liberty (1735-1797). 

BERO`SUS, a priest of the temple of Belus in Babylon, who, 3rdcentury B. C. , translated into Greek certain records of Babylonishhistory, valuable fragments of which are preserved by Josephus andEusebius; these have been collected and published by W. Richter, inGermany. 

BERRI, an ancient province of France, forms dep. Of Indre and Cher, which became crown property in 1100 under Philippe I. , and a duchy in1630, giving title to a succession of French princes. 

BERRI, DUC DE, second son of Charles X. And father of Count deChambord, a benevolent man; assassinated by a fanatic, Louvel, as he wasleaving the Opera House (1778-1820). 

BERRI, DUCHESSE DE, dowager of preceding, distinguished herself byher futile efforts to restore the Bourbon dynasty in the reign of LouisPhilippe (1798-1890). 

BERRYER, PIERRE ANTOINE, an eminent French barrister, born at Paris;a red-hot Legitimist, which brought him into trouble; was member of theNational Assembly of 1848; inimical to the Second Empire, and openlyprotested against the _coup d'état_ (1790-1868). 

BER`SERKER, a Norse warrior who went into battle unharnessed, whencehis name (which means bare of sark or shirt of mail), and is said to havebeen inspired with such fury as to render him invulnerable andirresistible. 

BERT, PAUL, a French physiologist and statesman, born at Auxerre;was professor of Physiology at Paris; took to politics after the fall ofthe Empire; Minister of Public Instruction under Gambetta; sent governorto Tonquin; died of fever soon after; wrote a science primer for childrenentitled "La Première Année d'Enseignement Scientifique" (1833-1886). 

BERTHA, goddess in the S. German mythology, of the spinning-wheelprincipally, and of the household as dependent on it, in behalf of whichand its economical management she is often harsh to idle spinners; at herfestival thrift is the rule. 

BERTHA, ST. , a British princess, wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent;converted him to Christianity. 

BERTHE "au Grand Pied" (i. E. Long Foot), wife of Pepin the Short, and mother of Charlemagne, so called from her club foot. 

BERTHELIER, a Swiss patriot, an uncompromising enemy of the Duke ofSavoy in his ambition to lord it over Geneva. 

BERTHELOT, PIERRE EUGÈNE, a French chemist, born at Paris; professorin the College of France; distinguished for his researches in organicchemistry, and his attempt to produce organic compounds; the dyeing tradeowes much to his discoveries in the extraction of dyes from coal-tar; helaid the foundation of thermo-chemistry; _b_. 1827. 

BERTHIER, ALEXANDRE, prince of Wagram and marshal of France, born atVersailles; served with Lafayette in the American war, and rose todistinction in the Revolution; became head of Napoleon's staff, and hiscompanion in all his expeditions; swore fealty to the Bourbons at therestoration of 1814; on Napoleon's return retired with his family toBamberg; threw himself from a window, maddened at the sight of Russiantroops marching past to the French frontier (1753-1815). 

BERTHOLLET, COUNT, a famous chemist, native of Savoy, to whom we owethe discovery of the bleaching properties of chlorine, the employment ofcarbon in purifying water, &c. , and many improvements in themanufactures; became a senator and officer of the Legion of Honour underNapoleon; attached himself to the Bourbons on their return, and wascreated a peer (1744-1822). 

BERTHOUD, a celebrated clockmaker, native of Switzerland; settled inParis; invented the marine chronometer to determine the longitude at sea(1727-1807). 

BERTIN "l'Ainé, " or the Elder, a French journalist, born at Paris;founder and editor of the _Journal des Débats_, which he started in 1799;friend of Châteaubriand (1766-1841). 

BERTIN, PIERRE, introduced stenography into France, invented byTaylor in England (1751-1819). 

BERTIN, ROSE, milliner to Marie Antoinette, famed for her devotionto her. 

BERTINAZZI, a celebrated actor, born at Turin, long a favourite inParis (1710-1788). 

BERTRAND and RATON, two personages in La Fontaine's fable ofthe Monkey and the Cat, of whom R. Cracks the nut and B. Eats it. 

BER`TRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE, a French general, and faithfuladherent of Napoleon, accompanied him in all his campaigns, to and fromElba, as well as in his exile at St. Helena; conducted his remains backto France in 1840 (1770-1844). 

BERTRAND DE MOLLEVILLE, Minister of Marine under Louis XVI. ; a fierypartisan of royalty, surnamed the _enfant terrible_ of the monarchy(1744-1818). 

BERTON, PIERRE, French composer of operas (1726-1780). Henri, hisson, composed operas; wrote a treatise on harmony (1761-1844). 

BÉRULLE, CARDINAL, born at Troyes; founder of the order ofCarmelites, and of the Congregation of the Oratory (1576-1629). 

BERWICK, JAMES FITZ-JAMES, DUKE OF, a natural son of James II. , anaturalised Frenchman; defended the rights of his father; was presentwith him at the battle of the Boyne; distinguished himself in Spain, where he gained the victory of Almanza; was made marshal of France; fellat the siege of Philippsburg; left "Memoirs" (1670-1734). 

BERWICK, NORTH, a place on the S. Shore of the Forth, inHaddingtonshire; a summer resort, specially for the golfing links. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED (13), a town on the Scotch side of the Tweed, atits mouth, reckoned since 1835 in Northumberland, though at one timetreated as a separate county; of interest from its connection with theBorder wars, during which it frequently changed hands, till in 1482 theEnglish became masters of it. 

BERWICKSHIRE (32), a fertile Scottish county between theLammermoors, inclusive, and the Tweed; is divided into the Merse, arichly fertile plain in the S. , the Lammermoors, hilly and pastoral, dividing the Merse from Mid and East Lothian, and Lauderdale, of hill anddale, along the banks of the Leader; Greenlaw the county town. 

BERZE`LIUS, JOHAN JAKOB, Baron, a celebrated Swedish chemist, one ofthe creators of modern chemistry; instituted the chemical notation bysymbols based on the notion of equivalents; determined the equivalents ofa great number of simple bodies, such as cerium and silenium; discoveredsilenium, and shared with Davy the honour of propounding theelectro-chemical theory; he ranks next to Linnæus as a man of science inSweden (1779-1848). 

BESANÇON (57), capital of the dep. Of Doubs, in France; a verystrong place; fortified by Vauban; abounds in relics of Roman andmediæval times; watchmaking a staple industry, employing some 15, 000 ofthe inhabitants; manufactures also porcelain and carpets. 

BESANT, MRS. ANNIE, _née_ WOOD, born in London; of Irishdescent; married to an English clergyman, from whom she was legallyseparated; took a keen interest in social questions and secularism;drifted into theosophy, of which she is now an active propagandist; is aninteresting woman, and has an interesting address as a lecturer; _b_. 1847. 

BESANT, SIR WALTER, a man of letters, born at Portsmouth; eminentchiefly as a novelist of a healthily realistic type; wrote a number ofnovels jointly with James Rice, and is the author of "French Humourists, "as well as short stories; champion of the cause of Authors _versus_Publishers, and is chairman of the committee; _b_. 1838. 

BESENVAL, BARON, a Swiss, commandant of Paris under Louis XVI. ; aroyalist stunned into a state of helpless dismay at the first outbreak ofthe Revolution in Paris; could do nothing in the face of it but run forhis life (1722-1791). 

BESIKA BAY, a bay on the Asiatic coast, near the mouth of theDardanelles. 

BESME, a Bohemian in the pay of the Duke of Guise; assassinatedColigny, and was himself killed by Berteauville, a Protestant gentleman, in 1571. 

BESS, GOOD QUEEN, a familiar name of Queen Elizabeth. 

BESSARA`BIA (1, 688), a government in the SW. Of Russia, between theDniester and the Pruth; a cattle-breeding province; exports cattle, wool, and tallow. 

BESSAR`ION, JOHN, cardinal, native of Trebizond; contributed by hiszeal in Greek literature to the fall of scholasticism and the revival ofletters; tried hard to unite the Churches of the East and the West;joined the latter, and was made cardinal; too much of a Grecian torecommend himself to the popehood, to which he was twice over nearlyelevated (1395-1472). 

BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, a Prussian astronomer of prominentability, born at Minden; professor of Mathematics at Königsberg, anddirector of the Observatory; discovered--what was a greatachievement--the parallax of the fixed star 61 Cygne; his greatest work, "Fundamenta Astronomiæ, " on which he spent 10 years, a marvel, like allhe did, of patient toil and painstaking accuracy (1784-1846). 

BESSEMER, SIR HENRY, civil engineer and inventor, born at Charlton, Herts; of his many inventions the chief is the process, named after him, of converting pig-iron into steel at once by blowing a blast of airthrough the iron while in fusion till everything extraneous is expelled, and only a definite quantity of carbon is left in combination, a processwhich has revolutionised the iron and steel trade all over the world, leading, as has been calculated, to the production of thirty times asmuch steel as before and at one-fifth of the cost per ton (1813-1898). 

BESSEMER PROCESS. See BESSEMER. 

BESSIÈRES, JEAN BAPTISTE, DUKE OF ISTRIA, marshal of France, born at Languedoc, of humble parentage; rose from the ranks; a friend andone of the ablest officers of Napoleon, and much esteemed by him;distinguished himself in the Italian campaign, in Egypt, and at Marengo;was shot at Lützen the day before the battle (1768-1813). 

BESSUS, a satrap of Bactria under Darius, who assassinated hismaster after the battle of Arbela, but was delivered over by Alexander toDarius's brother, by whom he was put to death, 328 B. C. 

BESTIARY, a name given to a class of books treating of animals, viewed allegorically. 

BETHANY, village on E. Of the Mount of Olives, abode of Lazarus andhis sisters. 

BETHEL (i. E. House of God), a place 11 m. N. Of Jerusalem, sceneof Jacob's dream, and famous in the history of the patriarchs. 

BETHENCOURT, a Norman baron, in 1425 discovered and conquered theCanaries, and held them as a fief of the crown of Castile. 

BETHLEHEM (3), a village 6 m. S. Of Jerusalem, the birthplace ofJesus Christ and King David, with a convent containing the Church of theNativity; near it is the grotto where St. Jerome translated the Bibleinto Latin. 

BETHLEN-GABOR, prince of Transylvania, assumed the title of king ofHungary; assisted Bohemia in the Thirty Years' war (1580-1629). 

BETHNAL GREEN (129), an eastern suburb of London, a parliamentaryborough, a poor district, and scene of benevolent enterprises. 

BETTERTON, THOMAS, born at Westminster, a tragic actor, and as suchan interpreter of Shakespeare on, it is believed, the traditional lines. 

BETTINA, the Countess of Arnim, a passionate admirer of Goethe. 

BETTY, W. HENRY, a boy actor, known as the Infant Roscius; amassed afortune; lived afterwards retired (1791-1874). 

BEULE, a French statesman and archæologist; superintendedexcavations on the Acropolis of Athens; held office under Macmahon(1826-1874). 

BEUST, COUNT VON, a German statesman, born at Dresden; Minister forForeign Affairs in Saxony; of strong conservative leanings, friendly toAustria; became Chancellor of the Austro-Hungarian empire; adopted aliberal policy; sympathised with France in the Franco-German war;resigned office in 1871; left "Memoirs" (1809-1886). 

BEUTHEN (36), a manufacturing town in Prussian Silesia, in thecentre of a mining district. 

BEVERLEY (12), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, 8 m. NW. Of Hull, with a Gothic minster, which contains the tombs of the Percys. 

BEVERLEY, JOHN, a learned man, tutor to the Venerable Bede, archbishop of York, and founder of a college for secular priests atBeverley; was one of the most learned men of his time; _d_. 721. 

BEVIS OF SOUTHAMPTON, or HAMPTON, SIR, a famous knight ofEnglish mediæval romance, a man of gigantic stature, whose marvellousfeats are recorded in Drayton's "Polyolbion. "

BEWICK, THOMAS, a distinguished wood-engraver, born inNorthumberland, apprenticed to the trade in Newcastle; showed his artfirst in woodcuts for his "History of Quadrupeds, " the success of whichled to the publication of his "History of British Birds, " in which heestablished his reputation both as a naturalist, in the truest sense, andan artist (1753-1828). 

BEWICK, WILLIAM, a great wood-engraver; did a cartoon from the ElginMarbles for Goethe (1795-1866). 

BEYLE, MARIE HENRI, French critic and novelist, usually known by hispseudonym "De Stendal, " born at Grenoble; wrote in criticism "Del'Amour, " and in fiction "La Chartreuse de Parme" and "Le Rouge et leNoir"; an ambitious writer and a cynical (1788-1842). 

BEYPUR, a port in the Madras presidency, a railway terminus, withcoal and iron in the neighbourhood. 

BEYROUT (200), the most nourishing commercial city on the coast ofSyria, and the port of Damascus, from which it is distant 55 m. ; a veryancient place. 

BEZA, THEODORE, a French Protestant theologian, born in Burgundy, ofgood birth; professor of Greek at Lausanne; deputed from Germany tointercede for the Huguenots in France, persuaded the king of Navarre tofavour the Protestants; settled in Geneva, became the friend andsuccessor of Calvin; wrote a book, "De Hereticis a Civili MagistratuPuniendis, " in which he justified the burning of Servetus, and a "Historyof the Reformed Churches" in France; died at 86 (1519-1605). 

BEZANTS, Byzantine gold coins of varying weight and value, introduced by the Crusaders into England, where they were current tillthe time of Edward III. 

BÉZIERS (42), a manufacturing town in the dep. Of Hérault, 49 m. SW. Of Montpellier; manufactures silk fabrics and confectionary. 

BHAGALPUR` (69), a town in Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 265 m. NW. Of Calcutta. 

BHAGAVAD GÎTÂ, (i. E. Song of Krishna), a poem introduced into theMahâbhârata, divided into three sections, and each section into sixchapters, called Upanishads; being a series of mystical lecturesaddressed by Krishna to his royal pupil Arjuna on the eve of a battle, from which he shrunk, as it was with his own kindred; the whole conceivedfrom the point of view or belief, calculated to allay the scruples ofArjuna, which regards the extinction of existence as absorption in theDeity. 

BHAMO` (6), a town in Burmah, the chief centre of trade with China, conducted mainly by Chinese, and a military station, only 40 m. From theChinese frontier. 

BHARTPUR` (68), a town in Rajputana, in a native state of the name;yielding wheat, maize, cotton, sugar, with quarries of building stone; 30m. W. Of Agra; carries on an industry in the manufacture of chowries. 

BHARTRIHARI, Indian author of apothegms, who appears to have livedin the 11th century B. C. , and to have been of royal rank. 

BHILS, a rude pro-Aryan race of Central India, still untrained tosettled life; number 750, 000. 

BHOD-PA, name given to the aborigines of Thibet, and applied by theHindus to all the Thibetan peoples. 

BHOPAL` (952), a well-governed native state in Central India, underBritish protection, with a capital city (70) of the same name; under agovernment that has been always friendly to Britain. 

BHUTAN (20), an independent state in the Eastern Himalayas, withmagnificent scenery; subsidised by Britain; has a government like that ofThibet; religion the same, though the people are at a low stage ofcivilisation; the country exports horses, musk, and salt. 

BIAF`RA, BIGHT OF, a large bay in the Gulf of Guinea, in W. Africa;includes several islands, and receives into it the waters of the Calabarrivers. 

BIARD, AUGUSTE FRANÇOIS, French _genre_ painter, born at Lyons;journeyed round the world, sketching by the way; was successful inrendering burlesque groups (1800-1882). 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-place on the Bay of Biscay, 6 m. SW. Of Bayonne;became a place of fashionable resort by the visits of the EmpressEugenie. 

BIAS, one of the seven wise men of Greece, born at Priene, in Ionia;lived in the 6th century B. C. ; many wise sayings are ascribed to him;was distinguished for his indifference to possessions, which moth andrust can corrupt, and thieves break through and steal. 

BIBLE, THE (i. E. The Book _par excellence_, and not so much abook as a library of books), a collection of sacred writings divided intotwo parts, the Old Testament and the New; the Old, written in Hebrew, comprehending three groups of books, the Pentateuch, the Prophets, andthe Hagiographa, bearing on the religion, the history, the institutions, and the manners of the Jews; and the New, written in Greek, comprehendingthe Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles. The OldTestament was translated into Greek at Alexandria by 72 Jews, 280 B. C. , and is known as the Septuagint; and the whole book, Old and New, wastranslated into Latin in a grotto near Bethlehem by St. Jerome, A. D. 385-404, and is known as the Vulgate, after which the two came to beregarded by the Church as of equal divine authority and as sections ofone book. It may be permitted to note that the Bible is writtenthroughout, not in a speculative or a scientific, but a spiritualinterest, and that its final aim is to guide men in the way of life. Thespirit in which it is composed is the spirit of conviction; its essence, both in the root of it and the fruit of it, is faith, and that primarilyin a moral power above, and ultimately a moral principle within, bothequally divine. The one principle of the book is that loyalty to thedivine commands is the one foundation of all well-being, individual andsocial. 

BIBLIA PAUPERUM (i. E. Bible of the Poor), a book consisting ofsome 50 leaves, with pictures of scenes in the Life of Christ, andexplanatory inscriptions, printed, from wooden blocks, in the 15thcentury, and before the invention of printing by movable types. 

BIBULUS, a colleague of Julius Cæsar; a mere cipher, a _fainéant_. 

BICÊTRE, a hospital, originally a Carthusian monastery, in the S. Side of Paris, with a commanding view of the Seine and the city; sinceused for old soldiers, and now for confirmed lunatics. 

BICHÂT, MARIE FRANÇOIS XAVIER, an eminent French anatomist andphysiologist; physician to the Hôtel-Dieu, Paris; one of the first toresolve the structure of the human body into, as "Sartor" has it, "cellular, vascular, and muscular tissues;" his great work "AnatomieGénérale appliquée à la Physiologie et à la Medecine"; died at 31(1771-1802). 

BICKERSTAFF, ISAAC, an Irish dramatist of 18th century, whose namewas adopted as a _nom de plume_ by Swift and Steele. 

BICKERSTETH, EDWARD, English clergyman; author of severalevangelical works, and one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance(1786-1850). 

BICKERTON, SIR RICHARD, vice-admiral, served in several navalengagements, and died commander-in-chief at Plymouth in 1792. 

BIDDERY WARE, ware of tin, copper, lead, and zinc, made at Bidar, inIndia. 

BIDDING PRAYER, an exhortation to prayer in some special reference, followed by the Lord's Prayer, in which the congregation joins. 

BIDDLE, JOHN, a Socinian writer in the time of Charles I. And theCommonwealth; much persecuted for his belief, and was imprisoned, butreleased by Cromwell; regarded as the founder of English Unitarianism;author of a "Confession of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity"(1615-1662). 

BIDPAÏ, or PILPAÏ, the presumed author of a collection of Hindufables of ancient date, in extensive circulation over the East, andwidely translated. 

BIELA'S COMET, a comet discovered by Biela, an Austrian officer, in1826; appears, sometimes unobserved, every six years. 

BIELEFELD (39), a manufacturing town in Westphalia, with a largetrade in linen, and the centre of the trade. 

BIELU`KA, with its twin peaks, highest of the Altai Mountains, 11, 100 ft. 

BIENNE, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Berne; the Aar is led intoit when in flood, so as to prevent inundation below; on the shores of itare remains of lake-dwellings, and an island in it, St. Pierre, theretreat of Rousseau in 1765. 

BIFRÖST, a bridge in the Norse mythology stretching from heaven toearth, of firm solidity and exquisite workmanship, represented in therainbow, of which the colours are the reflections of the precious stones. 

BIGELOW, ERASTUS BRIGHAM, American inventor of weaving machines, born in Massachusetts (1814-1879). 

BIG-ENDIANS, a name given to the Catholics, as Little-endians is thename given to the Protestants, in the imaginary kingdom of Lilliput, ofwhich the former are regarded as heretics by the latter because theybreak their eggs at the big end. 

BIGGAR, a town in Lanarkshire, birthplace of Dr. John Brown and ofthe Gladstone ancestry. 

BIGLOW, imaginary author of poems in the Yankee dialect, written byJames Russell Lowell. 

BIJAPUR`, city in the presidency of Bombay, once the capital of anextensive kingdom, now deserted, but with remains of its formergreatness. 

BILBA`O (50), capital of the Basque prov. Of Biscay, in Spain; acommercial city of ancient date, famous at one time for its steel, specially in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a rapier was called a "bilbo. "

BILDERDIJK, WILLEM, Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam (1756-1831). 

BILE, a fluid secreted from the blood by the liver to aid indigestion, the secretion of which is most active after food. 

BILLAUD-VARENNES, JEAN NICOLAS, "a grim, resolute, unrepentant"member of the Jacobin Club; egged on the mob during the Septembermassacres in the name of liberty; was president of the Convention;assisted at the fall of Robespierre, but could not avert his own; wasdeported to Surinam, and content to die there rather than return toFrance, which Bonaparte made him free to do; died at Port-au-Prince(1756-1819). 

BILLAUT, ADAM, the carpenter poet, called "Maître Adam, " born atNevers, and designated "Virgile au Rabot" (a carpenter's plane); _d_. 1662. 

BILLINGS, ROBERT WILLIAM, architect, born in London; delineator ofold historical buildings; his great work "Baronial and EcclesiasticalAntiquities of Scotland, " richly illustrated; was engaged in therestoration of old buildings, as well as delineating them (1813-1874). 

BILLINGSGATE, a fish-market in London, below London Bridge; also aname given to low, coarse language indulged in there. 

BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH, _née_ WEICHSEL, a celebrated singer, born in London, of German descent; kept up her celebrity to the last;died at Venice in 1817. 

BILNEY, THOMAS, martyr, born in Norfolk, a priest who adopted thereformed doctrine; was twice arraigned, and released on promise not topreach, but could not refrain, and was at last burned as a heretic in1531. 

BILOCATION, the power or state, ascribed to certain of the saints, of appearing in two places at the same time. 

BIMETALLISM, the employment of two metals (gold and silver) in thecurrency of a country as legal tender at a fixed relative value, theratio usually proposed being 1 to 15½. 

BIMINI, a fabulous island with a fountain possessed of the virtue ofrestoring youth. 

BINET, a French littérateur, translator of Horace and Virgil(1732-1812). 

BINGEN, a manufacturing and trading town on the left bank of theRhine, in Grand-Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt, opposite which is the towerassociated with the myth of Bishop Hatto. 

BINGHAM, JOSEPH, an English divine, born at Wakefield; author of"Origines Ecclesiasticæ, " a laborious and learned work; lost his all inthe South-Sea Scheme and died (1668-1723). 

BIOGENESIS, name of the theory that derives life from life, andopposed to ABIOGENESIS (q. V. ). 

BIOLOGY, the science of animal life in a purely physical reference, or of life in organised bodies generally, including that of plants, inits varied forms and through its successive stages. 

BION, a Greek pastoral poet of 3rd century B. C. , born at Smyrna; acontemporary of Theocritus; settled in Sicily; was poisoned, it is said, by a rival; little of his poetry survives. 

BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE, an eminent French mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, born at Paris; professor of Physics in the College ofFrance; took part in measuring an arc of the meridian along with Arago;made observations on the polarisation of light, and contributed numerousmemoirs to scientific journals; wrote works on astronomy (1774-1862). 

BIRAGUE, RENÉ DE, cardinal and chancellor of France, born at Milan;charged, especially by contemporary historians, as the chief instigatorof the St. Bartholomew Massacre (1507-1583). 

BIRCH, SAMUEL, archæologist and Egyptologist, born in London; keeperof Oriental antiquities in the British Museum; had an extensive knowledgeof Egyptology, wrote largely, and contributed articles on that andkindred archæological subjects (1813-1885). 

BIRCH, THOMAS, antiquary, born in London; wrote a history of theRoyal Society (1705-1765). 

BIRCH-PFEIFFER, CHARLOTTE, actress, born in Stuttgart; acted inBerlin; wrote dramas (1800-1868). 

BIRD, EDWARD, an English _genre_ painter, born in Wolverhampton, settled in Bristol; among his works are the "Choristers Rehearsing, " the"Field of Chevy Chase, " and the "Day after the Battle, " pronounced hismasterpiece (1772-1819). 

BIRD, GOLDING, M. D. , a great authority in kidney disease, of whichhe himself died (1815-1854). 

BIRD, WILLIAM, a musician in the time of Elizabeth, composedmadrigals; "Non Nobis, Domine, " is ascribed to him (1563-1623). 

BIRD'S NEST, the nest of a species of swift, formed from a marineplant that has been first digested by a bird, and esteemed a great luxuryby the Chinese. 

BIREN, DUKE OF COURLAND, son of a peasant, favourite of the RussianEmpress Anne; held the reins of government even after her death; ruledwith great cruelty; was banished to Siberia, but recalled, and had hishonours restored to him, which in six years after he relinquished infavour of his eldest son (1687-1772). 

BIRKBECK, GEORGE, M. D. , a Yorkshireman, a zealous promoter all overthe country of mechanics' institutes, was founder of the LondonInstitute, in consociation with Brougham and others interested in thediffusion of useful knowledge (1776-1841). 

BIRKENHEAD (100), in Cheshire, on the Mersey, opposite Liverpool anda suburb of it; a town of rapid growth, due to the vicinity of Liverpool;has large shipbuilding-yards and docks. 

BIRKENHEAD, SIR JOHN, a political writer, several times imprisonedduring the Commonwealth for his obtrusive royalism (1615-1679). 

BIRMINGHAM (478), in the NW. Of Warwickshire, 112 m. NW. Of Londonby rail; is the chief town of the Midlands, and celebrated all over theworld for its metal ware. All kinds of engines and machinery, fine gold, silver, copper, and brass ware, cutlery and ammunition are made here;steel pens, buttons, nails, and screws are specialties. It is apicturesque town with many fine buildings, libraries, art gallery andmuseums, educational institutions, a cathedral, and a great town-hall, where the triennial musical festival is held. Of this town Burne-Joneswas a native, and Priestley, George Dawson, and Dale were dissentingministers. 

BIRNAM, a hill near Dunkeld, in Perthshire; contains part of aforest mentioned in "Macbeth. "

BIRON, a madcap lord in "Love's Labour's Lost. "

BIRON, BARON DE, marshal of France, born at Périgord; served bravelyunder Henry IV. ; though a Catholic, favoured the Huguenots; narrowlyescaped at the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; was killed at the siege ofÉpernay; carried a note-book with him everywhere, and so observant was hethat it passed into proverb, "You will find it in Biron's note-book"(1524-1592). 

BIRON, DUC DE, son of the preceding; served also bravely under HenryIV. ; but being a man of no principle and discontented with the reward hegot for his services, intrigued with the Duke of Savoy and with Spainagainst Henry; was arrested and sent to the Bastille, where, after trial, he was beheaded (1562-1602). 

BISCAY, BAY OF, a bay in the Atlantic, extending from Cape Ortegal, in Spain, to Cape Finisterre, in France, and 400 m. Broad, of depthvarying from 20 to 200 fathoms, and, under SW. Winds particularly, one ofthe stormiest of seas. 

BISCHOF, KARL GUSTAV, chemist, born at Nüremberg, professor at Bonn;experimented on the inflammable power of gas (1792-1870). 

BISCHOFF, THEODOR LUDWIG WILHELM, distinguished biologist, born atHanover; made a special study of embryology; was professor of Anatomy atHeidelberg, of Physiology at Giessen, and of both at Münich (1807-1882). 

BISHOP, originally an overseer of souls, eventually an overseer ofchurches, especially of a district, and conceived of by High-Churchmen asrepresenting the apostles and deriving his powers by transmission fromthem. 

BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY, an English composer, born in London, composer and director of music in Covent Garden Theatre for 14 years;produced 60 pieces, of which "Guy Mannering, " "The Miller and his Men, "are still in favour; was for a brief space professor of Music inEdinburgh University, and eventually held a similar chair in Oxford(1786-1855). 

BISHOP OF HIPPO, St. Augustine, as once in office there. 

BISHOP-AUCKLAND (10), a market-town 9 m. SW. Of Durham, where thebishop of Durham has his residence, a palatial structure; it hascoal-mines close by; manufactures machinery and cotton goods. 

BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO (188), an archipelago formerly called NewBritain, NE. Of New Guinea; under the protectorate of Germany. 

BISMARCK-SCHÖNHAUSEN, EDUARD LEOPOLD, PRINCE VON, born atSchönhausen; woke up into civil life by the events of 1848; took a boldstand against revolutionary ideas and measures; conceived the idea offreeing the several States of Germany from foreign control, and weldingthem into one under the crown of Prussia. Summoned in 1862 by KingWilliam to be his political adviser, his influence was at firstdistrusted, but the annexation of Sleswig-Holstein by force of arms in1863 raised him into general favour. His next feat, the humiliation ofAustria at Königgrätz in 1866, and the consequent erection of a GermanConfederation, with Prussia at its head, made him the idol of the nation. His treatment of Napoleon III. Provoked the latter into a declaration ofwar, and to an advance on the part of the French against Berlin. To thesurprise of nearly all Europe, the Germans proved to be a nation ofsoldiers, marshalled as army never was before, and beat the Frenchignominiously back from the Rhine. Count Bismarck had the satisfaction ofseeing the power of France, that still threatened, as well as that ofAustria, helpless at his feet, the German empire restored under aHohenzollern king, and himself installed as chancellor of the monarch hehad served so well. Nothing he did after this--though he reformed thecoinage, codified the law, established protection, increased the army, and repressed Socialism--equalled this great feat, and for this agrateful nation must ever honour his name. If he ceased to be chancellorof Germany on the accession of William II. , it was because the young kingfelt he would have a freer hand with a minister more likely to be underhis control (1815-1898). 

BISSA`GOS, a group of some 20 volcanic islands off the coast ofSenegambia, with a large negro population; yield tropical products, andbelong now to Portugal. 

BISSEN, a Danish sculptor, born in Sleswig; a pupil of Thorwaldsen;intrusted by him to finish a statue he left unfinished at his death; heproduced some fine works, but his best known are his "Cupid Sharpeninghis Arrow" and "Atalanta Hunting" (1798-1868). 

BITHUR, a town on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m. AboveCawnpore, where Nana Sahib lived, and concocted the conspiracy whichdeveloped into the mutiny of 1857. 

BITHYNIA, a country in the NW. Of Asia Minor, anciently so called;the people of it were of Thracian origin. 

BITLIS (25), a high-lying town in Asiatic Turkey, 62 m. W. Of Van;stands in a valley 8470 ft. Above, the sea-level, with a population ofMohammedans and Armenians. 

BITUMEN, an inflammable mineral substance, presumably of vegetableorigin, called Naphtha when liquid and light-coloured, Petroleum whenless fluid and darker, Maltha when viscid, and Asphalt when solid. 

BITZIUS, a Swiss author, composed stories of Swiss life under the_nom de plume_ of Jeremias Gotthelf, fascinating from their charmingsimplicity and truth; he is much admired by Ruskin; was by profession aProtestant pastor, the duties of which he continued to discharge till hisdeath (1797-1854). 

BIZERTA (10), a seaport of Tunis, northernmost town in Africa, 38 m. NW. Of the capital, with an excellent harbour. 

BIZET, GEORGES, an operatic composer, born at Paris; his greatestwork "Carmen"; died of heart-disease shortly after its appearance(1838-1875). 

BJÖRNSEN, a Norwegian author, born at Kvikne; composed tales, dramas, and lyrics, all of distinguished merit and imbued with apatriotic spirit; his best play "Sigurd the Bastard"; an active andzealous promoter of liberalism, sometimes extreme, both in religion andpolitics; his writings are numerous, and they rank high; his songs beinghighly appreciated by his countrymen; _b_. 1832. 

BLACK, JOSEPH, a celebrated chemist, born at Bordeaux, of Scotchparents; the discoverer of what has been called latent heat, but what isreally transformed energy; professor of Chemistry, first in Glasgow, thenin Edinburgh, where his lectures were very popular; his discoveries inchemistry were fruitful in results (1728-1799). 

BLACK, WILLIAM, novelist, born in Glasgow; started life as ajournalist in connection with the _Morning Star_; has written severalnovels, over 30 in number, about the West Highlands of Scotland, rich inpicturesque description; the best known and most admired, "A Daughter ofHeth, " the "Madcap Violet, " "Macleod of Dare, " "The Strange Adventures ofa Phæton, " and "A Princess of Thule. " "But when are you going to write abook, Mr. Black?" said Carlyle to him one day (1841-1898). 

BLACK ART, name given to the presumed power of evoking evil spirits. 

BLACK ASSIZE, a plague at Oxford in 1557, which carried off 300victims; caught at the assize from the prisoners under trial. 

BLACK DEATH, a name given to a succession of fatal epidemics thatdevastated the world from China to Ireland in the 14th century, believedto be the same as the Oriental plague, though attended with peculiarsymptoms; the most serious was that of 1348, which, as is reckoned, stripped England alone of one-third of its inhabitants. 

BLACK FOREST (488), a wooded mountain chain 4000 ft. High (so calledfrom the black pines that cover it), which runs parallel with the Rhine, and E. Of it, through Würtemberg and Baden, from the Swiss frontier toCarlsruhe; is remarkable for its picturesque scenery and its mineralwealth; it possesses many health resorts, as Baden-Baden and Wildbad, where are mineral springs; silver, copper, cobalt, lead, and iron arewrought in many places; the women and children of the region makearticles of woodwork, such as wooden clocks, &c. 

BLACK FRIARS, monks of the Dominican order; name of a district inLondon where they had a monastery. 

BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, a confined apartment 13 ft. Square, intowhich 146 English prisoners were crammed by the orders of Surajah Dowiaon the 19th June 1756; their sufferings were excruciating, and only 23survived till morning. 

BLACK LANDS, lands in the heart of Russia, extending between theCarpathians and the Urals, constituting one-third of the soil, andconsisting of a layer of black earth or vegetable mould, of from 3 to 20ft. In thickness, and a chief source, from its exhaustless fertility, ofthe wealth of the country. 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday in 1351, remarkable for the extremedarkness that prevailed, and an intense cold, under which many died. 

BLACK PRINCE, Prince of Wales, son of Edward III. , so called, it issaid, from the colour of his armour; distinguished himself at Crécy, gained the battle of Poitiers, but involved his country in furtherhostilities with France; returned to England, broken in health, to die(1330-1376). 

BLACK ROD, GENTLEMAN USHER OF, an official of the House of Lords, whose badge of office is a black rod surmounted by a gold lion; summonsthe Commons to the House, guards the privileges of the House, &c. 

BLACK SATURDAY, name given in Scotland to Saturday, 4th August 1621;a stormy day of great darkness, regarded as a judgment of Heaven againstActs then passed in the Scottish Parliament tending to establishEpiscopacy. 

BLACK SEA, or EUXINE, an inland sea, lying between Europe andAsia, twice the size of Britain, being 700 m. In greatest length and 400m. In greatest breadth; communicates in the N. With the Sea of Azov, andin the SW. , through the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and theDardanelles, with the Mediterranean. It washes the shores of Turkey, Rumelia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Asia Minor; receives the waters of theDanube, Dneister, Bug, and Don, from Europe, and the Kizil-Irmak andSakaria from Asia--three times as much as is received by theMediterranean. It has but one island, Adassi, off the mouths of theDanube; no reefs or shoals; hence in summer navigation is very safe. Inwinter it is harassed by severe storms. Among the chief ports are Odessa, Kherson, Batoum, Trebizond, and Sinope; the first two are ice-bound inJanuary and February. For three centuries the Turks excluded all othernations from its waters; but the Russians (1774), Austrians (1784), French and English (1802) secured trading rights. Russia and Turkey keepfleets in it, but other warships are excluded. Its waters are fresherthan those of the ocean, and it has no noticeable tides. 

BLACK WATCH, two Highland regiments, the 42nd and 73rd, so calledfrom the dark colour of the tartan; raised originally for thepreservation of the peace in the Highlands. 

BLACKBURN (120), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 21 m. NW. OfManchester, a centre of the cotton industry, and the greatest in theworld; is the birthplace of Hargreaves, the inventor of thespinning-jenny. 

BLACKHEATH, a common 7 m. SE. Of London, once a favourite haunt ofhighwaymen, now a place of holiday resort for Londoners; for longprovided the only golfing-course in England. 

BLACKIE, JOHN STUART, a man of versatile gifts and warm humansympathies, born in Glasgow; bred to the bar, but devoted to literarypursuits; studied German; executed a metrical translation of Goethe's"Faust, " Part I. ; filled the chair of Humanity in Aberdeen, andafterwards that of Greek in Edinburgh; was a zealous educationalreformer; took an active interest in everything affecting the welfare andhonour of Scotland; founded a Celtic Chair in Edinburgh University; spokemuch and wrote much in his day on manifold subjects; Æschylus, andHomer's "Iliad" in verse; among his works, which are numerous, "Self-Culture" is the most likely to survive him longest (1809-1895). 

BLACKLOCK, THOMAS, a clergyman, born in Annan, blind from earlyinfancy; after occupying a charge for two years, set up as a teacher inEdinburgh; was influential in inducing Burns to abandon his intention toemigrate, and may be credited, therefore, with saving for his country andhumanity at large one of the most gifted of his country's sons(1721-1791). 

BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE, novelist, born in Berks; bred to thebar; has written several novels, the best known "Lorna Doone, " which, though coldly received at first, became highly popular; he is pronouncedunrivalled in his day as a writer of rustic comedy; _b_. 1825. 

BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD, physician, born in Wilts; the mostvoluminous of poetasters, published four long worthless poems, besidesessays and psalms, &c. , and made himself the butt of all the wits of theperiod; _d_. 1729. 

BLACKPOOL (23), a watering-place on the coast of Lancashire, 18 m. NW. Of Preston, sometimes called the "Brighton of the North. "

BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent jurist and judge, born inLondon, the son of a silk-mercer; was fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, and in 1746 called to the bar; became first Vinerian professor of Law atOxford; had Jeremy Bentham for one of his pupils; author of thewell-known "Commentaries on the Laws of England, " an authority on thesubject and a work that has appeared in many editions (1723-1780). 

BLACKWELL, ALEXANDER, adventurer, born in Aberdeen; studiedmedicine; took to printing; thrown into prison for debt; was supported byhis wife; on his release went to Sweden, was patronised by the king;convicted of conspiracy, and beheaded in 1747. 

BLACKWELL, ELIZABETH, a lady doctor, born in Bristol, and the firstto hold a medical diploma in the United States; graduated in 1849; wasadmitted into the Maternity Hospital in Paris, and to St. Bartholomew'sin London, and has since distinguished herself as a social reformer; _b_. 1821. 

BLACKWOOD, SIR HENRY, British admiral, much trusted by Nelson;distinguished at Aboukir Bay and Trafalgar; was present at Nelson'sdeath; held subsequently high naval positions (1770-1832). 

BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM, born in Edinburgh, originator of _Blackwood'sMagazine_; originally a bookseller; started _Maga_, as it was called, in1817, his principal literary advisers being Professor Wilson andLockhart; conducted it as editor till his death (1776-1834). JOHN, his third son, his successor, no less distinguished in the cause ofliterature (1818-1879). 

BLAEU, WILLEM JANZSOON, Dutch cartographer, born at Alkmaar; histerrestrial and celestial globes have been admired for their excellenceand accuracy (1571-1638). His son JAN edited a valuable atlas called"Atlas Major, " in 11 volumes; _d_. 1673. 

BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE, a French naturalist; devoted himself tomedicine; became assistant to Cuvier; succeeded him as professor ofComparative Anatomy; wrote largely on natural science, and particularlyon subjects connected with his appointment as a professor (1777-1850). 

BLAIR, HUGH, clergyman, born in Edinburgh; held in successionseveral charges in Scotland, and became professor of Rhetoric inEdinburgh University; author of "Lectures on Rhetoric" and "Sermons, "which latter are of the nature of moral essays rather than sermons, weremuch esteemed at one time for their polished style, and procured him apension of £200 from the king; he was a man of great critical acumen, andthe celebrated Schleiermacher did not think it beneath him to translatesome of them into German (1718-1800). 

BLAIR, ROBERT, author of "The Grave, " a thoughtful and cultured man, born in Edinburgh; minister of Athelstaneford, where he was succeeded byHome, the author of "Douglas. " His poem has the merit of having beenillustrated by William Blake (1699-1743). 

BLAKE, ROBERT, the great English admiral and "Sea King, " born atBridgewater; successful as a soldier under the Commonwealth, before hetried seamanship; took first to sea in pursuit of Prince Rupert and theroyalist fleet, which he destroyed; beat the Dutch under Van Tromp deRuyter and De Witt; sailed under the great guns of Tunis into theharbour, where he fired a fleet of Turkish pirates; and finally, hisgreatest feat, annihilated a Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz Bay under theshadow of the Peak of Teneriffe, "one of the fiercest actions ever foughton land or water" (1598-1657). 

BLAKE, WILLIAM, poet, painter, and engraver, born in London, where, with rare intervals, he spent his life a mystic from his very boyhood;apprenticed to an engraver, whom he assisted with his drawings; startedon original lines of his own as illustrator of books and a painter;devoted his leisure to poetry; wrote "Songs of Innocence, " "Marriage ofHeaven and Hell, " "Gates of Paradise, " and "Songs of Experience"; was anintensely religious man of deep spiritual insight, most vivid feeling andimagination; illustrated Young's "Night Thoughts, " Blair's "Grave, " andthe "Book of Job. " He was a man of stainless character but eccentrichabits, and had for wife an angel, Catherine Boucher (1757-1828). 

BLANC, CHARLES, a French art critic, brother of Louis Blanc(1813-1882). 

BLANC, JEAN JOSEPH LOUIS, a French Socialist, born at Madrid;started as a journalist, founded the _Revue du Progrès_, and publishedseparately in 1840 "Organisation of Labour, " which had already appearedin the _Revue_, a work which gained the favour of the working-classes;was member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and eventually of theNational Assembly; threatened with impeachment, fled to England; returnedto France on the fall of the Empire, and was elected to the Chamber ofDeputies in 1871; wrote an "elaborate and well-written" "History of theFrench Revolution"; died at Cannes (1811-1882). 

BLANC, MONT, the highest mountain in Europe, 15, 780 ft. , almostentirely within France; sends numerous glaciers down its slopes, the Merde Glace the chief. 

BLANCHARD, FRANÇOIS, a celebrated French aëronaut, inventor of theparachute; he fell from his balloon and was killed at the Hague(1738-1809). 

BLANCHARD, LAMAN, a prolific periodical and play writer, born atYarmouth; a man of a singularly buoyant spirit, crushed by calamities;died by suicide (1803-1845). 

BLANCHE OF CASTILE, wife of Louis VIII. Of France and mother of St. Louis; regent of France during the minority of her son and during hisabsence in crusade; governed with great discretion and firmness; died ofgrief over the long absence of her son and his rumoured intention to stayin the Holy Land (1186-1252). 

BLANCHET, THE ABBÉ, French littérateur; author of "Apologues andTales, " much esteemed (1707-1784). 

BLANDRATA, GIORGIO, Piedmontese physician, who for his religiousopinions was compelled to take refuge, first in Poland, then inTransylvania, where he sowed the seeds of Unitarianism (1515-1590). 

BLANQUI, ADOLPHE, a celebrated French publicist and economist, bornat Nice; a disciple of J. B. Say, and a free-trader; his principal work, "History of Political Economy in Europe" (1798-1854). 

BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE, a brother of the preceding, a Frenchrepublican of extreme views and violent procedure; would appear to haveposed as a martyr; spent nearly half his life in prison (1805-1881). 

BLARNEY-STONE, a stone in Castle Blarney, Cork, of difficult access, which is said to endow whoso kisses it with a fair-spoken tongue, hencethe application of the word. 

BLASIUS, ST. , bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia; the patron ofwool-combers; suffered martyrdom in 316. 

BLASPHEMY, defined by Ruskin as the opposite of euphemy, and aswishing ill to anything, culminating in wishing ill to God, as the heightof "ill-manners. "

BLATANT BEAST, Spenser's name for the ignorant, slanderous, clamourof the mob. 

BLAVATSKY, MME. , a theosophist, born in Russia; a great authority ontheosophy, the doctrines of which she professed she derived from thefountain-head in Thibet (1813-1891). 

BLEEK, FRIEDRICH, eminent German Biblical exegete and critic of theSchleiermacher school, born in Holstein; professor at Bonn; his chiefwork, "Commentary on the Hebrews, " a great work; others are Introductionsto the Old and to the New Testaments (1793-1859). 

BLEEK, WM. , son of preceding, a philologist; accompanied Colenso toNatal; author of "Comparative Grammar of the S. African Languages"(1827-1875). 

BLEFUSCU, an island separated from Lilliput by a strait 800 yardswide, inhabited by pigmies; understood to represent France. 

BLENHEIM, a village in Bavaria, near Augsburg; famous forMarlborough's victory in 1704, and giving name to it. 

BLENHEIM PARK, near Woodstock, Oxford, the gift, with the Woodstockestate, of the country to the Duke of Marlborough, for his militaryservices in the Spanish Succession war. 

BLESSINGTON, COUNTESS OF, an Irish lady celebrated for her beautyand wit; figured much in intellectual circles in London; had her salon atKensington; was on intimate terms with Byron, and published"Conversations with Byron, " and wrote several novels; being extravagant, fell into debt, and had to flee the country (1789-1849). 

BLICHER, STEEN STEENSEN, Danish poet of rural life (1782-1848). 

BLIGH, WM. , a naval officer; served under Captain Cook; commandedthe _Bounty_ at Tahiti, when his crew mutinied under his harsh treatment, and set him adrift, with 18 others, in an open boat, in which, afterincredible privations, he arrived in England; was afterwards governor ofN. S. Wales, but dismissed for his rigorous and arbitrary conduct(1753-1817). 

BLIMBER, MRS. CORNELIA, a prim school-matron in "Dombey & Son. "

BLIND, KARL, revolutionist and journalist, born at Mannheim; tookpart in the risings of 1848, and sentenced to prison in consequence of apamphlet he wrote entitled "German Hunger and German Princes, " butrescued by the mob; found refuge in England, where he interested himselfin democratic movements, and cultivated his literary as well as hispolitical proclivities by contributing to magazines, and otherwise; _b_. 1826. 

BLIND HARRY, a wandering Scottish minstrel of the 15th century;composed in verse "The Life of that Noble Champion of Scotland, SirWilliam Wallace. "

BLINKERT DUNE, a dune near Haarlem, 197 ft. Above the sea-level. 

BLOCH, MARCUS ELIESER, a naturalist, born at Anspach, of Jewishdescent; his "Ichthyology" is a magnificent national work, produced atthe expense of the wealthiest princes of Germany (1723-1799). 

BLOEMÆRT, a family of Flemish painters and engravers in 16th and17th centuries. 

BLOIS, capital of the deps. Of Loire and Cher, France, on the Loire, 35 m. S. Of Orleans; a favourite residence of Francis I. And Charles IX. , and the scene of events of interest in the history of France. 

BLOMEFLELD, FRANCIS, a clergyman, born at Norfolk; author of"Topographical History of the County of Norfolk" (1705-1751). 

BLOMFIELD, bishop of London, born at Bury St. Edmunds; Greekscholar; active in the Church extension of his diocese (1785-1857). 

BLONDEL, a troubadour of the 12th century; a favourite of RichardCoeur de Lion, who, it is said, discovered the place of Richard'simprisonment in Austria by singing the first part of a love-song whichRichard and he had composed together, and by the voice of Richard inresponding to the strain. 

BLONDIN, CHARLES, an acrobat and rope-dancer, born at St. Omer, France; celebrated for his feats in crossing Niagara Falls on thetight-rope; _b_. 1824. 

BLOOD, THOMAS, COLONEL, an Irish desperado, noted for his daringattempts against the life of the Duke of Ormonde, and for carrying offthe regalia in the Tower; unaccountably pardoned by Charles II. , andreceived afterwards into royal favour with a pension of £500 per annum. He was afterwards charged with conspiracy, and committed to the King'sBench, and released. 

BLOODY ASSIZES, the judicial massacres and cruel injusticesperpetrated by Judge Jeffreys during Circuit in 1685. 

BLOODY BONES, a hobgoblin feared by children. 

BLOODY STATUTE, statute of Henry VIII. Making it a crime involvingthe heaviest penalties to question any of the fundamental doctrines ofthe Romish Church. 

BLOOMFLELD, ROBERT, an English poet, born in Suffolk, by trade ashoemaker; author of the "Farmer's Boy, " a highly popular production, translated into French and Italian; spent his last days in ill-healthstruggling with poverty, which brought on dejection of mind (1766-1823). 

BLOUNT, CHARLES, a deist, born in London; assailant of revealedreligion; was involved in all the controversies of the time; died by hisown hand (1654-1693). 

BLOWPIPE, a contrivance by which a current of air is driven througha flame, and the flame directed upon some fusible substance to fuse orvitrify it. 

BLÜCHER, Prussian field-marshal, familiarly named "MarshalForwards, " born at Rostock; served first in the Swedish army, then in thePrussian; distinguished as a leader of cavalry, and met with varyingfortune; at the age of 70 commanded the centre of the Allied Army in1813; distinguished himself at Lützen and Leipzig; pursued the Frenchacross the Rhine; pressed forward to Paris at the time of Napoleon'sabdication; defeated by Napoleon at Ligny, 16th June 1815; arrived on thefield of Waterloo just as the French were preparing to make their lastcharge, and contributed to decide the fate of the day (1742-1819). 

BLUE MOUNTAINS, a range of thickly wooded mountains traversingJamaica from E. To W. , from 5000 to 7000 ft. In height; also a chain ofmountains in New South Wales of two parallel ranges, with a deep chasmbetween, and full of gloomy ravines and beetling precipices, the highest4100 ft. 

BLUE NOSE, a nickname given to an inhabitant of Nova Scotia or NewBrunswick. 

BLUEBEARD, a wealthy seigneur, the owner of a castle; marries abeautiful woman, and leaves her in charge of the keys of the apartmentsin his absence, with injunctions not to unlock any of the doors, aninjunction which she fails to respect, and finds to her horror theremains of his former wives locked up in one of them; her disobedience isdiscovered, and she is to prepare for death, but is rescued, as she lieswith her head on the block, by the timely arrival of her brothers, who atonce despatch the husband to his merited doom. 

BLUE-BOOKS, Parliamentary documents bound in _blue_ paper, as thecorresponding documents in France are in _yellow_; they have beenpublished regularly since the beginning of the 18th century, those of asingle session now forming a collection of some 60 folio volumes. 

BLUE-COAT SCHOOL, a name given to Christ's Hospital, London, foundedin the reign of Edward VI. , from the blue coats worn by the boys. 

BLUE-GOWN, in Scotland a beggar, a bedesman of the king, who wore ablue gown, the gift of the king, and had his license to beg. 

BLUE-STOCKING, a female pedant or _femme savante_, a name derivedfrom a learned coterie, formed in the 15th century, at Venice, who woreblue stockings as a badge. 

BLUFF HAL, or HARRY, Henry VIII. Of England. 

BLUM, a German politician, born at Cologne; tried by court-martialand shot for abetting a political movement in Vienna in 1848, aproceeding which created a wide-spread sensation at the time all overEurope; _b_. 1807. 

BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, a distinguished German naturalist andethnologist, born at Gotha; studied at Jena; became professor atGöttingen, an office he filled for 60 years; his works gave a greatimpulse to scientific research in all directions; the chief were"Institutiones Physiologicæ, " "Manual of Natural History, " "Manual ofComparative Anatomy and Physiology"; he made craniology a special study;was a great advocate for religious liberty (1752-1840). 

BLUMENTHAL, LEONARD VON, field-marshal in the Prussian army;distinguished in the wars with Denmark, Austria, and France; an eminentstrategist; _b_. 1810. 

BLUMI`NE, the siren that Calypsowise in "Sartor" seducedTeufelsdröckh at the commencement of his career, but who opened his eyesto see that it is not in sentiment, however fine, that the soul'scravings can find satisfaction. 

BLUNT, JOHN HENRY, D. D. , born at Chelsea; wrote largely ontheological and ecclesiastical subjects (1823-1884). 

BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR, a distinguished jurist, born at Zurich;an authority in international law; a liberal conservative both in Churchand State; founder and president of the Protestant Union called the_Protestantenverein_ (1808-1881). 

BOABDIL, or ABU-ABDALLAH, surnamed "The Unfortunate, " the lastMoorish king of Granada, from 1481 to 1492; expelled from his throne byFerdinand of Castile and Aragon; as he rode off he halted on a hillcalled "The Last Sigh of the Moor, " and wept as he looked back on theAlhambra, while his mother added to his bitterness with the cuttingsarcasm, "Weep as a woman for a throne you have not been able to defendas a man"; died shortly after in Africa, recklessly throwing away hislife on a field of battle. 

BOADICE`A, a British heroine, queen of the Iceni, who occupiedNorfolk and Suffolk; roused by indignity done to her and her people bythe Romans, gathered round her an army, who, with a murderous onslaught, attacked their settlements and destroyed them; but being attacked anddefeated in turn by Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor, she put, inher despair, an end to her life by poison, A. D. 61. Cowper made her thetheme of one of his poems. 

BOANERGES (i. E. Sons of Thunder), applied by Christ to the sonsof Zebedee for the vehemence of their zeal. 

BOAZ and JACHIN, two pillars of brass at the entrance ofSolomon's Temple, signifying respectively strength and stability. 

BOB`ADIL, CAPTAIN, a braggadocio in Ben Jonson's "Every Man in hisHumour. "

BOBÈCHE, a French theatrical clown, under the Empire and theRestoration, son of an upholsterer of the St. Antoine faubourg, the typeof the merry-andrew at country fairs. 

BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI, the celebrated Italian _raconteur_, born nearFlorence; showed early a passion for literature; sent by his father toNaples to pursue a mercantile career; gave himself up to story-telling inprose and verse; fell in love with Maria, a beautiful woman, daughter ofthe king, styled by him Fiammetta, for whom he wrote several of hisworks, and his great work, the "Decameron"; early formed a lifelongfriendship with Petrarch, along with whom he contributed to the revivaland study of classic literature; lectured on Dante in Florence;Petrarch's death deeply affected him, and he died the year after(1313-1375). 

BOCCHERINI, LUIGI, a celebrated Italian musical composer, born atLucca; was associated with Manfredi, the violinist; his works werenumerous; appears to have lived in poverty and obscurity (1740-1805). 

BOCHART, SAMUEL, a Protestant divine, born at Rouen; pastor at Caen;a geographer and an Orientalist; wrote a treatise on sacred geography;celebrated for a nine-days' discussion with the Jesuit Verin (1599-1667). 

BODE, JOHANN ELERT, an astronomer, born at Hamburg; was professor ofAstronomy and director of Observatory at Berlin; produced a number ofastronomical works, one of his best, "An Introduction to the Knowledge ofthe Starry Heavens;" gave name to the law of the planetary distances, called Bode's Law, although it was observed by Kepler long before his day(1747-1826). 

BODEL, a celebrated troubadour of the 13th century, born at Arras. 

BODENSEE, another name for the Lake of Constance, well called thefilter of the Rhine. 

BODIN, JEAN, a publicist and diplomatist, born at Angers; author of"The Republic, " in six books, published at first in French and then inLatin, which summed up all the political philosophy of his time, andcontributed to prepare the way for subsequent speculations; was theprecursor of Hobbes and Montesquieu (1530-1596). 

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, the university library of Oxford, founded, orrather restored, by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1593; enlarged from time to timeby bequests, often munificent. It possesses 400, 000 printed volumes and30, 000 MSS. 

BODLEY, SIR THOMAS, born at Exeter; employed on embassies byElizabeth on the Continent, where he collected a number of valuablebooks; bequeathed them and his fortune to the university library ofOxford, named after him (1545-1613). 

BODMER, JOHANN JACOB, a distinguished Swiss critic, born nearZurich; the first, by study of the masters in literature of Greece andRome, France, England, and Italy, to wake up Germany to a sense of itspoverty in that line, and who aided, along with others, in theinauguration of a new era, which he did more by his republication of theMinnesingers and part of the "Nibelungen Lied" than by his advocacy(1698-1783). 

BODMIN (5), the county town of Cornwall, supersedes Truro ascapital; an important agricultural centre; has large annual fairs forcattle, horses, and sheep. 

BODONI, an Italian printer; settled at Parma, where his press wasset up in the ducal palace, whence issued magnificent editions of theclassics, Horace, Virgil, Tacitus, Tasso, and, last of all, Homer. He wasoften tempted to Rome, but he refused to quit Parma and the patronage ofthe ducal house there (1740-1813). 

BÖDTCHER, LUDWIG, a Danish lyric poet, born at Copenhagen; livedchiefly in Italy (1793-1874). 

BOECE, HECTOR, a humanist and Scottish historian, born at Dundee;professor of Philosophy at Paris; friend of Erasmus; was principal ofuniversity at Aberdeen; wrote "History of Bishops of Mortlach andAberdeen, " and "History of Scotland" in excellent Latin (1465-1536). 

BOECKH, PHILIP AUGUST, classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe;professor of Ancient Literature in Berlin; a classic of the first rank, and a contributor on a large scale to all departments of Greek classicallearning; was an eminently learned man, and an authority in differentdepartments of learning (1785-1867). 

BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, sculptor, born in Vienna, of Hungarianparentage; settled in England; executed a colossal statue of the Queen atWindsor, a seated statue of Carlyle on the Thames Embankment, a statue ofBunyan at Bedford, &c. ; patronised by the Queen and royal family; buriedin St. Paul's by the Queen's desire (1785-1869). 

BOEHME, JACOB, a celebrated German mystic, born at Görlitz; of animaginatively meditative turn from boyhood as a neat-herd, and afterwardsin his stall as a shoemaker; spent his whole life in meditation on divinethings; saw in the Bible a revelation of these as in no other book;seemed to have eyes given him to see visions of these things himself, forwhich he felt he had no organ to express, and which he conveyed to othersin mystical, apocalyptical speech; a thinker very fascinating to allminds of the seer class. He was subject to persecution, as all of hisstamp are, by the men of the letter, and bore up with the meekness whichall men of his elevation of character ever do--"quiet, gentle, andmodest, " as they all are to the very core, in his way of thinking; andhis philosophy would seem to have anticipated the secret of Hegel, whoacknowledges him as one of the fathers of German philosophy. He leftwritings which embody a scheme of mystical theology, setting forth thetrinity in unity of the Hegelian system, that is, viewing the divine asit is in itself, as it comes out in nature, and as it returns to itselfin the human soul (1575-1624). 

BOEHMER, a German historian, born at Frankfort; author of works onthe Carlovingian period of history (1795-1863). 

BOEO`TIA, a country of ancient Greece, N. Of the Gulf of Corinth;the natives, though brave, were mere tillers of the soil under a heavyatmosphere, innocent of culture, and regarded as boors and dullards bythe educated classes of Greece, and particularly of Athens, and yetHesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch were natives of Boeotia. 

BOERHAAVE, a great physician, born near Leyden, and son of a pastor;ultimately professor of Medicine and Botany there, as well as ofChemistry; chairs of which he filled and adorned with the greatestdistinction; his reputation spread over Europe, and even as far asChina--a letter from which bore the simple address, "To M. Boerhaave, Europe, " and found him; his system was adopted by the profession, andpatients from far and wide came to consult him--among others, PopeBenedict VIII. And Peter the Great; his character was as noble as hisabilities were great; his principal works were "Institutiones Medicæ, ""Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis, " "Libellus de MateriaMedica, " and "Institutiones Chemicæ" (1668-1738). 

BOERS (i. E. Peasants engaged in tillage), Dutch colonists of anindependent republican temper, who in the 17th century squatted in S. Africa; gave themselves to agriculture and cattle-rearing; settled atlength in the Transvaal in a self-governed community by themselves. 

BOËTHIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS, a Roman statesman, born atRome, of Consular rank, a profoundly learned man, held the highestoffices, Consul among others, under Theodoric the Goth; his integrity andopposition to injustice procured him enemies, who accused him of treason;he was cast into prison, and finally put to death; wrote in prison his"De Consolatione Philosophiæ, " in five parts, employing verse and prosealternately, which King Alfred translated into Anglo-Saxon; he wascanonised as a martyr, and his influence was great during the Middle Ages(470-524). 

BOEUF, FRONT DE, a character in "Ivanhoe. "

BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON, religious writer; wrote hymns and anautobiography; is best known as the author of the "Golden Treasury"(1690-1744). 

BOGDANOVITCH, a Russian poet, called by his countrymen the "RussianAnacreon"; his best-known poem "Psyche" (1743-1803). 

BOGERMANN, JOHANN, Dutch divine, translated the Bible into Dutch, and was President of the Synod of Dort (1576-1633). 

BOGOTA` (100), capital of the United State of Colombia, situated ona remarkable, almost mountain-encircled, plateau, on the river Bogotá, 65m. SE. Of its port, Honda, the highest navigable point of the Magdalena, is 8600 ft. Above sea-level, and has a spring-like climate. It isregularly built, with innumerable churches, a mint, university, library, and observatory, and several schools. Though the country is fertile andthe mountains rich in coal, iron, salt, and precious metals, itssituation and the want of a railway hinder trade. 

BOG-TROTTER, a name given to the Scottish moss-troopers, now tocertain Irish for their agility in escaping over bogs. 

BOGUE, DAVID, born in Berwickshire, a Congregational minister; oneof the founders of the London Foreign Missionary, the Foreign Bible, andthe Religious Tract Societies (1750-1825). 

BOHEMIA (5, 843), the most northerly province in Austria, two-thirdsthe size of Scotland; is encircled by mountains, and drained by the upperElbe and its tributaries. The Erzgebirge separate it from Saxony; theRiesengebirge, from Prussia; the Böhmerwald, from Bavaria; and theMoravian Mountains, from Moravia. The mineral wealth is varied and great, including coal, the most useful metals, silver, sulphur, and porcelainclay. The climate is mild in the valleys, the soil fertile; flax and hopsthe chief products; forests are extensive. Dyeing, calico-printing, linenand woollen manufactures, are the chief industries. The glassware iswidely celebrated; there are iron-works and sugar-refineries. The transittrade is very valuable. The people are mostly Czechs, of the Slavonicrace, Roman Catholics in religion; there is a large and influentialGerman minority of about two millions, with whom the Czechs, who aretwice as numerous, do not amalgamate; the former being riled at theofficial use of the Czech language, and the latter agitating for theelevation of the province to the same status as that of Hungary. Education is better than elsewhere in Austria; there is a university atPrague, the capital. In the 16th century the crown was united with theAustrian, but in 1608 religious questions led to the election of theProtestant Frederick V. This was followed by the Thirty Years' War, theextermination of the Protestants, and the restoration of the AustrianHouse. 

BOHEMIAN, name given to one who lives by his wits and shunsconventionality. 

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a fraternity of an extreme sect of the Hussites, organised as United Brethren in 1455; broken up in the Thirty Years' War, met in secret, and were invited, under the name of Moravians orHerrnhuters, by Count Zinzendorf to settle on his estate. 

BOHEMOND, first prince of Antioch, son of Robert Guiscard; set outon the first crusade; besieged and took Antioch; was besieged in turn bythe Saracens, and imprisoned for two years; liberated, he collectedtroops and recaptured the city (1056-1111). 

BOHLEN, VON, a German Orientalist, professor at Königsberg(1796-1840). 

BONN, HENRY GEORGE, an enterprising publisher, a German, born inLondon; issued a series of works identified with his name (1796-1884). 

BÖHTLINGK, OTTO, Sanskrit scholar, a German, born in St. Petersburg;author, among other works, of a Sanskrit dictionary in 7 vols. ; _b_. 1815. 

BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA, Count of Scandiano, surnamed the "Flower ofChivalry"; an Italian poet, courtier, diplomatist, and statesman; authorof "Orlando Innamorato" (1456), the model of Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso, "which eclipsed it (1434-1494). 

BOIELDIEU, ADRIEN FRANÇOIS, a distinguished French musical composerof operas; author of the "Calife de Bagdad, " "Télémaque, " and "La DameBlanche, " reckoned his masterpiece; called the French Mozart (1775-1834). 

BOIGNE, COUNT DE, a French soldier of fortune, born at Chambéry;served under France, Russia, East India Company, and the prince of theMahrattas, to whom he rendered signal service; amassed wealth, which hedealt out generously and for the benefit of his country (1751-1830). 

BOII, an ancient people of Gaul, occupying territory between theAllier and the Loire. 

BOILEAU, NICOLAS (surnamed Despréaux, to distinguish him from hisbrother), poet and critic, born in Paris; brought up to the law, butdevoted to letters, associating himself with La Fontaine, Racine, andMolière; author of "Satires" and "Epistles, " "L'Art Poétique, " "LeLutrin, " &c. , in which he attached and employed his wit against the badtaste of his time; did much to reform French poetry, as Pascal did toreform the prose, and was for long the law-giver of Parnassus; was animitator of Pope, but especially of Horace (1636-1711). 

BOISARD, a French fabulist of remarkable fecundity (1743-1831). 

BOIS-GUILLEBERT, a French economist, cousin of Vauban; advocate offree trade; _d_. 1714. 

BOIS-LE-DUC (27), capital of North Brabant, 45 m. SE. Of Amsterdam, and with a fine cathedral; seat of an archbishop. 

BOISMONT, THE ABBÉ, one of the best French pulpit orators of the18th century (1715-1786). 

BOISROBERT, THE ABBÉ, a French poet, one of the first members of theFrench Academy; patronised by Richelieu (1592-1662). 

BOISSONADE, JEAN FRANÇOIS, a French Greek scholar; for a timecarried away by the revolutionary movement, but abandoned politics forletters (1774-1857). 

BOISSIERE, a French lexicographer (1806-1885). 

BOISSY D'ANGLAS, COUNT, a member and president of the Convention inParis, noted for his firmness and coolness during the frenzy of theRevolution: one day the Parisian mob burst in upon the Convention, shotdead a young deputy, Féraud, "sweeping the members of it before them tothe upper-bench . .. Covered, the president sat unyielding, like a rock inthe beating of seas; they menaced him, levelled muskets at him, heyielded not; they held up Féraud's bloody head to him; with grave, sternair he bowed to it, and yielded not"; became a senator and commander ofthe Legion of Honour under Napoleon; was made a peer by Louis XVIII. (1756-1826). 

BOISTE, a French lexicographer (1765-1824). 

BOKHA`RA (1, 800), a Mohammedan State in Central Asia, N. OfAfghanistan, nominally independent; but the Khan is a vassal of the Czar. The surface is arid, and cultivation possible only near the rivers-theOxus, Zarafshan, and Karshi. In the sands of the Oxus, gold and salt arefound. Rice, cotton, and cereals are grown; silk, cotton-thread, jewellery, cutlery, and firearms are manufactured. The people are of Turkand Persian origin. The capital, Bokhara (70), is on the plain of theZarafshan, a walled, mud-built city, 8 or 9 m. In circumference, withnumerous colleges and mosques, the centre of learning and religious lifein Central Asia. It has important trade and large slave markets. 

BOLAN` PASS, a high-lying, deep, narrow gorge, extending betweenQuetta (Beluchistan) and Kandahar (Afghanistan), sloping upwards at aninclination of 90 ft. A mile; is traversed by a torrent. 

BOLESLAUS, the name of several dukes of Poland, of whom the mostfamous is Boleslaus I. The Great, who ruled from 992 to 1025. 

BOLEYN, ANNE, or BULLEN, second wife of Henry VIII. And motherof Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thoman Bullen (afterwards Earl ofWiltshire); after a three years' residence at the French Court becamemaid of honour to Queen Katherine; attracted the admiration of Henry; wasmarried to him, and became queen; charged with adultery and conspiracy, was found guilty and beheaded; was of the Reformed faith; her marriagewith Henry had important bearings on the English Reformation (1507-1536). 

BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST. JOHN, VISCOUNT, English statesman, orator, and political writer, born at Battersea; Prime Minister of Queen Anne inthe Tory interest, after her dismissal of the Whigs; on the accession ofGeorge I. Fled to France and joined the Pretender; was impeached andattainted; returned in 1723 to his estates, but denied a seat in theHouse of Lords, an indignity which he resented by working the overthrowof Walpole; was the friend of Pope and Swift, and the author of "Letters"bearing upon politics and literature. "Bolingbroke, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "is a rhetorician pure and simple, but the subjects of hisrhetoric were not the great and perennial subjects, but puny ephemeralforms of them--the partisan and personal politics of his day, thesingularly shallow form of infidelity called Deism and the like; and histime deprived him of many, if not most, of the rhetorician's most tellingweapons. The 'Letter to Windham, ' a sort of apologia, and the 'Ideal of aPatriot King, ' exhibit him at his best. " It was he who suggested to Popehis "Essay on Man" (1678-1751). 

BOLIVAR, SIMON, surnamed the Liberator, general and statesman, bornat Caracas; a man of good birth and liberal education; seized with thepassion for freedom during a visit to Madrid and Paris, devoted himselfto the cause of S. American independence; freed from the yoke of SpainVenezuela and New Grenada, which, in 1819, he erected into a republicunder the name of Colombia; achieved in 1824 the same for Upper Peru, henceforth called Bolivia, after his name; accused of aspiring to theDictatorship, he abdicated, and was preparing to leave the country whenhe died of fever, with the sage reflection on his lips, "The presence ofa soldier, however disinterested he may be, is always dangerous in aState that is new to freedom"; he has been called the Washington of S. America (1783-1830). 

BOLIVIA (1, 500), an inland republic of S. America, occupying loftytablelands E. Of the Andes, and surrounded by Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Chili. The S. Is chiefly desert; in the N. Are LakeTiticaca and many well-watered valleys. The very varied heights affordall kinds of vegetation, from wheat and maize to tropical fruits. In thelower plains coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cinchona are cultivated. Themost important industry is mining: gold, silver, copper, and tin. Tradeis hampered by want of navigable rivers, but helped by railways fromChili, Peru, and Argentina. Silver is the chief export; manufacturedgoods are imported. The country has been independent since 1825; it lostits sea provinces in the war with Chili, 1879-83. The capital is Sucre(12), but La Pay (45) and Cochabamba (14) are larger towns. 

BOLLAND, JOHN, a Jesuit of Antwerp, born in Belgium; compiled fivevols. Of the Lives of the Saints called "Acta Sanctorum, " which wascontinued by others, called after him "Bollandists. "

BOLLANDISTS, a succession of Jesuits who produced the Lives of theSaints, now extended to sixty vols. 

BOLOGNA (147), an ancient walled city of Italy, on a fertile plain, at the foot of the Lower Apennines, 83 m. N. Of Florence; has many finebuildings, a university, one of the oldest in Europe, schools of musicand art, libraries, and art collections. There are some silk and otherindustries, and considerable trade. 

BOLOGNA, JOHN OF, one of the most celebrated sculptors of art in histime, born at Douai, settled at Florence (1524-1608). 

BOLOR-TAGH, a high tableland in Central Asia, stretching from theHindu Kush mountains northwards to the Tian Shan. 

BOLSE`NA, a small town in Italy, on the E. Shore of Lake Bolsena. 

BOLSENA, a lake with clear water in a hollow crater of a volcano, and abounding with fish, but with an unwholesome atmosphere. 

BOLTON (115), manufacturing town of Lancashire. 

BOLTON ABBEY, an old abbey in Yorkshire, 6 m. E. Of Skipton; wasfounded by the Augustinian canons. 

BOMA, a station on the Lower Congo, in the Congo Independent State;once a great slave mart. 

BOMARSUND, a fortress of the island of Aland occupied by Russia, destroyed by the Anglo-French fleet in 1854; the Russians bound not torestore it. 

BOMBA, nickname of Ferdinand II. , late king of the Two Sicilies, given him, it is alleged, from his calling upon his soldiers to bombardhis people during an insurrection. 

BOMBASTES FURIOSO, an opera by Thomas Rhodes in ridicule of thebombastic style of certain tragedies in vogue. 

BOMBAY (26, 960), the western Presidency of India, embraces 26British districts and 19 feudatory states. N. Of the Nerbudda River thecountry is flat and fertile; S. Of it are mountain ranges and tablelands. In the fertile N. Cotton, opium, and wheat are the staple products. Inthe S. , salt, iron, and gold are mined; but coal is wanting. The climateis hot and moist on the coast and in the plains, but pleasant on theplateaux. Cotton manufacture has developed extensively and cotton cloths, with sugar, tea, wool, and drugs are exported. Machinery, oil, coal, andliquors are imported. BOMBAY (822), the chief city, stands on anisland, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificentharbour and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, andis one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it themost important commercial centre in the East, as it already is in thecotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and itsmerchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of theancient fire-worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It cameto England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife ofCharles II. , who leased it to the East India Company for £10 a year. Itsprosperity began when the Civil War in America afforded it an opening forits cotton. 

BON GAULTIER, _nom de plume_ assumed by Professor Aytoun and SirTheodore Martin. 

BONA (30), a seaport in Algeria, in the province of Constantine, ona bay of the Mediterranean, with an excellent harbour and a growingtrade; is much improved since its occupation by the French in 1832. Nearit are the ruins of Hippo, the episcopal city of Augustine. 

BONA, an ascetic writer, surnamed the Fénélon of Italy, one offeuillant order of monks (1609-1674). 

BONA DEA (the good goddess), a Roman goddess of fertility, worshipped by women; her priests vestals and her worship by rites fromwhich men were excluded. Her symbol was a serpent, but the name underwhich she was worshipped is not known. 

BONALD, VICOMTE DE, a French publicist, a violent royalist andultramontanist; looked upon the Catholic religion and the royal authorityas fundamental to the stability of the social fabric, and was opposed tothe law of divorce, which led to its alteration. He denied that languagewas innate, but revealed, and that causation was inherent in matter(1758-1840). 

BONAPARTE, name of a celebrated family of Italian origin settled inCorsica; the principal members of it were: CHARLES MARIE, born atAjaccio, 1744; died at Montpellier, 1785; married, 1767. MARIE-LÆTITIARAMOLINO, born at Ajaccio, 1750; died at Rome, 1836; of this union wereborn eight children: JOSEPH, became king of Naples, 1806; king of Spainfrom 1808 to 1813; retired to United States after Waterloo; returned toEurope, and died at Florence, 1844. NAPOLEON I. (q. V. ). LUCIEN, _b_. 1775; became president of the Council of the Five Hundred, and prince ofCanino; died in Viterbo, 1840. MARIE-ANNE-ELIZA, _b_. 1777; married FelixBacciochi, who became prince of Lucca; died at Trieste, 1826. LOUIS, _b_. 1778; married Hortense de Beauharnais; father of Napoleon III. ; king ofHolland (from 1806 to 1810); died at Leghorn, 1846. MARIE PAULINE, _b_. 1780; married General Leclerc, 1801; afterwards, in 1803, Prince CamilleBorghese; became Duchess of Guastalla; died at Florence, 1825. CAROLINE-MARIE, _b_. 1782; married Marat in 1800; became Grand-duchess ofBerg and Clèves, then queen of Naples; died at Florence, 1839. Jerome, _b_. 1784, king of Westphalia (from 1807 to 1813); marshal of France in1850; married, by second marriage, Princess Catherine of Würtemburg; diedin 1860; his daughter, the Princess Mathilde, _b_. 1820, and his son, Prince Napoleon, called Jerome, _b_. 1822, married Princess Clothilde, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, of which marriage was born Prince VictorNapoleon in 1862. 

BONAR, HORATIUS, a clergyman of the Free Church of Scotland, and acelebrated hymn writer, born at Edinburgh (1808-1889). 

BONAVENTURA, ST. , cardinal, surnamed the Seraphic Doctor, his realname John Fidenza, born in Tuscany; entered the Franciscan Order; waschosen general of the Order and papal legate at the Council of Lyons in1274, during the session of which he died; was a mystic in theology;ascribed knowledge of the truth to union with God, such as existedbetween man and his Maker prior to the Fall, a state which could berecovered only by a life of purity and prayer; his writings were admiredby Luther (1221-1274). 

BONCHAMP, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE, French general, born in Anjou, servedin the American war; became one of the chiefs of the Vendéan army; fellat the battle of Cholet, and when dying, relented over the blood alreadyshed; ordered the release of 5000 prisoners which his party, in theirrevenge, was about to massacre; _d_. 1793. 

BOND, WILLIAM, a distinguished American astronomer (1789-1815), whowith his son, GEORGE PHILLIPS, discovered a satellite of Neptune andan eighth satellite of Saturn (1826-1865). 

BONDU (30), a country of Senegambia, a dependency of France; yieldsmaize, cotton, fruits. 

BONE, HENRY, a celebrated enamel painter, especially in miniature onivory; born at Truro (1755-1834). 

BONER, ULRICH, a German fabulist and Dominican monk of the 14thcentury, author of "Der Edelstein" (The Jewel), a book of fables. 

BONHEUR, ROSA, a celebrated French animal painter, born at Bordeaux;brought up in poverty from ill-fortune; taught by her father; exhibitedwhen she was 19; her best-known works are the "Horse Fair" and the "HayHarvest in Auvergne, " "Ploughing with Oxen, " considered her masterpiece;through the Empress Eugenie she received the Cross of the Legion ofHonour; during the siege of Paris her studio was spared by order of theCrown Prince; _b_. 1822. 

BONHOMME, JACQUES, a name of contempt given by the nobility ofFrance to the peasants in the 14th century. 

BONIFACE, the name of nine popes. B. I. , pope from 418 to 422, assumedthe title of First Bishop of Christendom; B. II. , pope from 530 to 532;B. III. , pope for 10 months, from 607 to 608; B. IV. , pope from 608 to614; B. V. , pope from 617 to 625; B. VI. , pope in 896; B. VII. , pope from974 to 985; B. VIII. , pope from 1294 to 1303, a strenuous assertor of thepapal supremacy over all princes, and a cause of much turmoil in Europe, provoked a war with Philip the Fair of France, who arrested him atAnagni, and though liberated by the citizens died on his way to Rome; B. IX. , pope from 1389 to 1405, the first pope to wear the Triple Crown. 

BONIFACE, ST. , the Apostle of Germany, born in Devonshire, his realname Winfried; consecrated Pepin le Bref; was made Primate of Germany;was, with 53 companions, massacred by the barbarians of Friesland, whomhe sought to convert (680-755). 

BONIN`, a group of rocky islands SE. Of Japan, and since 1878subject to it. 

BONINGTON, RICHARD, an eminent English landscape painter ofexceptional precocity, born near Nottingham; painted the "Ducal Palace"and "Grand Canal" at Venice, his masterpieces (1801-1828). 

BONIVARD, FRANÇOIS DE, a Genevese patriot and historian, twiceimprisoned by Charles III. , a Duke of Savoy, for his sympathy with thestruggles of the Genevese against his tyranny, the second time for sixyears in the Castle of Chillon; immortalised by Lord Byron in his"Prisoner of Chillon"; he was released at the Reformation, and adoptedProtestantism (1496-1571). 

BONN (38), a Prussian town on the Rhine, SE. Of Cologne, an oldRoman station, with a famous university; the birthplace of Beethoven, with a monument to his memory; it is a stronghold of the old Catholics. 

BONNAT, JOSEPH LEON, a French painter, born at Bayonne; imitated fora time the religious paintings of the old masters, but since 1862 hasfollowed a style of his own; "Christ at the Cross" in the Palais deJustice, Paris, is his work; _b_. 1833. 

BONNER, EDMUND, bishop of London, born at Worcester; was chaplain toWolsey; sided with Henry VIII. Against the Pope; fell into disgrace underEdward VI. ; was restored by Mary, whom he served in her Anti-Protestantzeal; affected to welcome Elizabeth to the throne; was again deposed andimprisoned for refusing to take the oath of supremacy under Elizabeth;died in the Marshalsea Prison: he does not deserve all the odium that hasbeen heaped on his memory; he was faithful as a bishop, consistent in hisconduct, and bore the indignities done him with manly fortitude(1495-1569). 

BONNET, CHARLES DE, Swiss naturalist and philosopher, born atGeneva; his studies as a naturalist gave a materialistic cast to hisphilosophy; though he did not deny the existence of mind, still less thatof its sovereign Author, he gave to material impressions a dominantinfluence in determining its manifestations (1720-1793). 

BONNET-PIECE, a gold coin of James V. Of Scotland, so called fromthe king being represented on it as wearing a bonnet instead of a crown. 

BONNEVAL, CLAUDE-ALEXANDRE, COMTE DE. See ACHMED PASHA. 

BONNIE DUNDEE, Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee. 

BONPLAND, AIMÉ, a French botanist and traveller, born at Rochelle;companion of Alexander von Humboldt in his S. American scientificexplorations; brought home a large collection of plants, thousands ofspecies of them new to Europe; went out again to America, arrested by Dr. Francia in Paraguay as a spy, kept prisoner there for about nine years;released, settled in the prov. Of Corrientes, where he died; wroteseveral works bearing on plants (1773-1858). 

BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE, a Swiss publicist and judge, born atBerne; wrote on anthropology, psychology, &c. (1745-1832). 

BONTEMPS, ROGER, a French personification of a state of leisure andfreedom from care. 

BONZE, a Buddhist priest in China, Japan, Burmah, &c. 

BOOLE, English mathematician, born at Lincoln; mathematicalprofessor at Cork; author of "Laws of Thought, " an original work, and"Differential Equations" (1815-1864). 

BOOMERANG, a missile of hard curved wood used by the Australianaborigines of 2½ ft. Long; a deadly weapon, so constructed that, thoughthrown forward, it takes a whirling course upwards till it stops, when itreturns with a swoop and falls in the rear of the thrower. 

BOONE, DANIEL, a famous American backwoodsman; _d_. 1822, aged 84. 

BOÖTES (the ox-driver or waggoner), a son of Ceres; inventor of theplough in the Greek mythology; translated along with his ox to become aconstellation in the northern sky, the brightest star in which isArcturus. 

BOOTH, BARTON, English actor, acted Shakespearean, characters andHamlet's ghost (1681-1733). 

BOOTH, JOHN WILKES, son of an actor, assassinated Lincoln, and wasshot by his captors (1839-1865). 

BOOTH, WILLIAM, founder and general of the Salvation Army, born inNottingham; published "In Darkest England"; a man of singularself-devotion to the religious and social welfare of the race; _b_. 1839. 

BOOTHIA, a peninsula of British N. America, W. Of the Gulf ofBoothia, and in which the N. Magnetic pole of the earth is situated;discovered by Sir John Boss in 1830. 

BOOTON, an island in the Malay Archipelago, SE. Of Celebes; subjectto the Dutch. 

BOPP, FRANZ, a celebrated German philologist and Sanskrit scholar, born at Mayence; was professor of Oriental Literature and GeneralPhilology at Berlin; his greatest work, "A Comparative Grammar ofSanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slave, Gothic, and German";translated portions of the "MAHÂBHÂRATA, " q. V. (1791-1867). 

BORA, KATHARINA, the wife of Luther, born in Meissen, originally anun, who, with eight others, was at Luther's instance released from herconvent; proved "a pious and faithful wife" to Luther, as he says of her, and became the mother to him of six children, three sons and threedaughters (1499-1552). 

BORDA, a French mathematician and physicist, born at Dax, in thedep. Of Landes, served in both army and navy; one of those employed inmeasuring an arc of the meridian to establish the metric system in France(1733-1799). 

BORDEAUX (256), a great industrial and commercial city, and chiefseat of the wine trade in France and the third seaport on the Garonne;cap. Of the dep. Of Gironde; the birthplace of Rosa Bonheur and RichardII. , his father, the Black Prince, having had his seat here as governorof Aquitaine. There are sugar-refineries, potteries, foundries, glass andchemical works. The cod-fishing industry has its base here. A cathedraldates from the 11th century. There are schools of science, art, theology, medicine, and navigation, a library, museum, and rich picture-gallery. 

BORDER MINSTREL, Sir Walter Scott. 

BORDERS, THE, the shifting boundary between Scotland and Englandbefore the Union, a centre of endless fighting and marauding on theopposite sides for centuries. 

BORDONE, an Italian painter, born at Treviso, a pupil of Titian andGiorgione; his most celebrated picture, "The Gondolier presenting theRing of St. Mark to the Doge" (1500-1570). 

BORE, a watery ridge rushing violently up an estuary, due to astrong tidal wave travelling up a gradually narrowing channel. Bores arecommon in the estuary of the Ganges and other Asiatic rivers, in those ofBrazil, and at the mouth of the Severn, in England. 

BOREAS, the god of the north wind, and son of the Titan Astræus andof Aurora. 

BORGHESE, name of a family of high position and great wealth inRome: Camillo, having become Pope in 1605 under the title of Paul V. ; andPrince Borghese having married Pauline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, whoseparated himself from her on the fall of her brother (1775-1832); thepalace of the family one of the finest in Rome, and has a rich collectionof paintings. 

BORGHESI, COUNT, an Italian savant skilled in numismatics(1781-1860). 

BORGIA, CÆSAR, fourth son of Pope Alexander VI. ; was made cardinalat the age of 17, an honour he relinquished to become a soldier, in whichcapacity it is alleged he gave himself up to deeds of inhumanity, whichhave made his name a synonym for every action that is most crafty, revolting, and cruel; a portrait of him by Raphael, in the Borghesegallery, is a masterpiece. Notwithstanding the execration in which hismemory is held, he is reputed to have been just as a ruler in his owndomain, and a patron of art and literature; _d_. 1507. 

BORGIA, FRANCESO, third general of the Order of the Jesuits, a posthe filled with great zeal as well as prudent management; was beatified byUrban VIII. , and canonised by Clement IX. , 1671 (1510-1572). 

BORGIA, LUCRETIA, sister of Cæsar Borgia, born at Rome; her fatherannulled her first marriage, and gave her to a nephew of the king ofNaples, who was murdered by her brother's assassins, when she married theDuke of Ferrara; was celebrated for her beauty and her patronage ofletters, though she has been accused of enormities as well as her brother(1480-1523). 

BORGU, fertile and densely-peopled state in Africa, traversed by theNiger, subject to the Royal Niger Company, in one of the chief towns ofwhich Mungo Park lost his life. 

BORLASE, WILLIAM, antiquary and naturalist, born in St. Just, Cornwall; author of "Observations on the Antiquities of Cornwall" and"Natural History of Cornwall"; was vicar in his native parish(1696-1772). 

BORN, BERTRAND, one of the most celebrated troubadours of the 12thcentury, born in Périgord; aggravated the quarrel between Henry II. OfEngland and his sons; is placed by Dante in the "Inferno. "

BORNE, LUDWIG, a political writer, born at Frankfort, of Jewishparentage; disgusted with the state of things in Germany, went to Parisafter the Revolution there of 1830; was disappointed with the result, andturned Radical; he and Heine were at deadly feud (1787-1837). 

BORNEO (1, 800), an island in the Malay Archipelago, the thirdlargest in the globe, Australia and New Guinea being larger; its length800 m. , and its breadth 700, covered with mountains in the interior, Kinabalu the highest (13, 000 ft. ); has no volcanoes; bordered all roundwith wide plains and low marshy ground; rich in vegetation and inminerals, in gold and precious stones; its forests abound with valuabletimber, teak, ebony, &c. ; all tropical crops and spices are cultivated;the population is Dyak, Malay, and Chinese; possessed in great part bythe Dutch, and in the north part by the British. 

BORNHOLM (35), an island belonging to Denmark, in the Baltic; has nogood harbour; agriculture, cattle-breeding, and fishing the occupation ofthe inhabitants. 

BORNU (5, 000), a Mohammedan State in the Central Soudan, W. And S. Of Lake Tehad; famed for a breed of horses; population mostly negroes;the ruling race of Arab descent, called Shuwas; climate hot and unhealthyin the low ground, but temperate in the high. 

BORO BUDOR, the ruin of a magnificent Buddhist temple in Java, ornamented with figures of Buddha and scenes in his life, withrepresentations of battles, processions, chariot races, &c. 

BORODINO, a village 70 m. W. Of Moscow; the scene of a bloody battlebetween Napoleon and the Russians, Sept. 7, 1812. 

BORORO, a large Brazilian nation between Cuyaba and Goyaz. 

BOROUGH, in Scotland BURGH, is in its modern sense primarily atown that sends a representative to Parliament; but it is further an areaof local government, exercising police, sanitary, and sometimeseducational, supervision, and deriving its income from rates levied onproperty within its bounds, and in Scotland sometimes from "common good"and petty customs. Its charter may be held from the Crown or granted byParliament. 

BOROUGH ENGLISH, descent of lands to a youngest son. 

BOROWLASKI, COUNT, a Polish dwarf, of perfect symmetry, though onlythree feet in height; attained the age of 98. 

BORROME`AN ISLANDS, four islands in Lago Maggiore, of which threewere converted into gardens by Count Borromeo in 1671, on one of whichstands a palace of the Borromeos, enriched with fine paintings and otherworks of art. 

BORROME`O, ST. CARLO, cardinal and archbishop of Milan, a prominentmember of the Council of Trent, and contributed to the TridentineCatechism; conspicuous by his self-sacrificing offices during a plague inthe city of which he was the archbishop (1538-1584). 

BORROMEO, FREDERIGO, nephew and successor of the preceding, of equalstatus in the Church, and similar character (1584-1631). 

BORROW, GEORGE HENRY, traveller and philologist, born in Norfolk;showed early a passion for adventure and a facility in languages; wasappointed agent for the Bible Society in Russia and Spain; in hisfondness for open-air life, associated much with the gipsies; wrote anaccount of those in Spain, and a famous book, entitled "The Bible InSpain"; wrote "Lavengro, " his masterpiece (a gipsy designation applied tohim, meaning "word-master, " which he was), which is chieflyautobiography (1803-1831). 

BORROWDALE, a valley in the Lake District, W. Cumberland, celebratedfor its beautiful scenery. 

BORTHWICK CASTLE, a ruined peel tower, 13 m. SE. Of Edinburgh, whereQueen Mary and Bothwell spent four days together in June 1567. 

BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French traveller andnaturalist (1780-1846). 

BOSCAWEN, EDWARD, a British admiral, known from his fearlessness as"Old Dreadnought"; distinguished himself in engagements at Puerto Bello, Cathagena, Cape Finisterre, and the Bay of Lagos, where, after a "seahunt" of 24 hours, he wrecked and ruined a fine French fleet, eager toelude his grasp (1711-1761). 

BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH, an Italian mathematician and astronomer, born at Ragusa; entered the Order of the Jesuits; was professor in Pavia, and afterwards at Milan; discovered the equator of the sun and the periodof its rotation; advocated the molecular theory of physics, with whichhis name is associated; died insane (1701-1787). 

BOSIO, BARON, a celebrated Italian sculptor; patronised in France(1769-1845). 

BOSNA-SERAI (38), capital of Bosnia, and seat of authority. 

BOSNIA (1, 200), a province in NW. Of the Balkan Peninsula, underAustria-Hungary; the inhabitants of Servian nationality. 

BOS`PHORUS (Ox-ford), a channel 17 m. Long and from 3 to ½ m. Broad, and about 30 fathoms deep, strongly defended by forts, extending from theSea of Marmora to the Black Sea; subject to Turkey. It derives its namefrom the channel which, according to the Greek myth, Zeus, in the form ofan ox, crossed into Europe with Europa on his back. 

BOS`QUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH, a marshal of France, distinguishedin Algiers and the Crimea; was wounded at the storming of the Malakoff(1810-1861). 

BOS`SUET, JACQUES BÉNIGNE, bishop of Meaux, born at Dijon, surnamedthe "Eagle of Meaux, " of the see of which he became bishop; one of thegreatest of French pulpit orators, and one of the ablest defenders of thedoctrines of the Catholic Church; the great aim of his life theconversion of Protestants back to the Catholic faith; took a leading partin establishing the rights of the Gallican clergy, or rather of theCrown, as against the claims of the Pope; proved himself more atime-server than a bold, outspoken champion of the truth; conceived aviolent dislike to Madame Guyon, and to Fénélon for his defence of herand her Quietists; and he is not clear of the guilt of the Revocation ofthe Edict of Nantes; wrote largely; his "Discourse on Universal History"is on approved lines, and the first attempt at a philosophy of history;his Funeral Orations are monuments of the most sublime eloquence; whilehis "Politique founded on Holy Scripture" is a defence of the divineright of kings. "Bossuet, " says Professor Saintsbury, "was more of aspeaker than a writer. His excellence lies in his wonderful survey andgrasp of the subject, in the contagious enthusiasm and energy with whichhe attacks his point, and in his inexhaustible metaphors andcomparisons. .. . Though he is always aiming at the sublime, he scarcelyever oversteps it, or falls into the bombastic or ridiculous. .. . The mostunfortunate incident of his life was his controversy with Fénélon"(1627-1704). 

BOSSUT, CHARLES, French mathematician, born near Lyons, _confrère_of the Encyclopaedists; his chief work "L'Histoire Générale desMathématiques"; edited Pascal's works (1730-1814). 

BOSTON (19), a Lincolnshire seaport, on the Witham, 30 m. SE. OfLincoln; exports coal, machinery, corn, and wool, and imports timber andgeneral goods. There is a large cattle and sheep market, also canvas andsail-cloth works. Fox, the martyrologist, was a native. It has a spaciouschurch, which is a conspicuous landmark and beacon at sea. 

BOSTON (561), on Massachusetts Bay, is the capital of Massachusettsand the chief city of New England, one of the best-built andbest-appointed cities of the Union. With an excellent harbour and eightconverging railways it is an emporium of trade, and very wealthy. Sugar, wool, hides, and chemicals are imported; farm produce, cattle, cotton, and tobacco exported; boot and shoe making is one of many variedindustries. The many educational institutions and its interest inliterature and art have won for it the title of American Athens. Amongfamous natives were Franklin, Poe, and Emerson; while most American menof letters have been associated with it. The Boston riots of 1770 and1773 were the heralds of the revolution, and the first battle was foughtat Bunker Hill, not far off, now included in it. 

BOSTON, THOMAS, a Scottish divine, born at Duns, educated atEdinburgh, became minister of Ettrick; author of the "Fourfold State, " apopular exposition of Calvinism, and "The Crook in the Lot, " both at onetime much read and studied by the pious Presbyterian burghers andpeasantry of Scotland; the former an account of the state of man, firstin innocence, second as fallen, third as redeemed, and fourth as inglory. He was a shrewd man and a quaint writer; exercised a greatinfluence on the religious views of the most pious-minded of hiscountrymen (1676-1732). 

BOSTON TEA-PARTY, the insurgent American colonists who, disguised asIndians, boarded, on Dec. 16, 1773, three English ships laden with tea, and hurled several hundred chests of it into Boston harbour, "making itblack with unexpected tea. "

BOSWELL, JAMES, the biographer of Johnson, born at Edinburgh, showedearly a penchant for writing and an admiration for literary men; fell inwith Johnson on a visit to London in 1763, and conceived for him the mostdevoted regard; made a tour with him to the Hebrides in 1773, the"Journal" of which he afterwards published; settled in London, and wascalled to the English bar; succeeded, in 1782, to his father's estate, Auchinleck, in Ayrshire, with an income of £1600 a year. Johnson dying in1784, Boswell's "Life" of him appeared five years after, a work unique inbiography, and such as no man could have written who was not ahero-worshipper to the backbone. He succumbed in the end to intemperatehabits, aggravated by the death of his wife (1740-1795). 

BOSWELL, SIR ALEXANDER, son and heir of the preceding, an antiquary;mortally wounded in a duel with James Stuart of Dunearn, who had impugnedhis character, for which the latter was tried, but acquitted (1775-1822). 

BOSWORTH, a town in Leicestershire, near which Richard III. Lostboth crown and life in 1485, an event which terminated the Wars of theRoses and led to the accession of the Tudor dynasty to the throne ofEngland in the person of Henry VII. 

BOSWORTH, JOSEPH, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, born in Derbyshire; becameprofessor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford; was the author of an Anglo-SaxonGrammar and Dictionary (1789-1876). 

BOTANY BAY, an inlet in New South Wales, 5 m. S. Of Sydney;discovered by Captain Cook in 1770; so called, by Sir Joseph Banks, fromthe variety and beauty of its flora; was once an English convictsettlement. 

BOTH, JOHN AND ANDREW, Flemish painters of the 17th century, theformer a landscape and the latter a figure painter; worked frequently onthe same canvas. 

BOTHNIA, a prov. Of Sweden, divided into E. And W. By a gulf of thename. 

BOTHWELL, a village in Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 8 m. SE. OfGlasgow; scene of a battle between Monmouth and the Covenanters in 1679. 

BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, Earl of, one of the envoys sent in 1560 toconvey Mary, Queen of Scots, from France home; was made Privy Councillorthe year after; had to flee to France for an act of conspiracy; wasrecalled by Mary on her marriage with Darnley; was a great favourite withthe queen; was believed to have murdered Darnley, though when tried, wasacquitted; carried off Mary to Dunbar Castle; pardoned; was made Duke ofOrkney, and married to her at Holyrood; parted with her at Carberry Hill;fled to Norway, and was kept captive there at Malmöe; after ten years ofmisery he died, insane, as is believed (1525-1577). 

BOTOCUDOS, a wandering wild tribe in the forests of Brazil, near thecoast; a very low type of men, and at a very low stage of civilisation;are demon-worshippers, and are said to have no numerals beyond _one_. 

BO-TREE, a species of Ficus, sacred to the Buddhists as the treeunder which Buddha sat when the light of life first dawned on him. SeeBUDDHA. 

BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE, an Italian political historian, born inPiedmont; his most important work is his "History of Italy from 1789 to1814"; was the author of some poems (1766-1837). 

BOTTA, PAUL ÉMILE, Assyriologist, born at Turin, son of thepreceding; when consul at Mosul, in 1843, discovered the ruins ofNineveh; made further explorations, published in the "Memoire del'Ecriture Cunéiform Assyrienne" and "Monuments de Ninive" (1802-1870). 

BÖTTGER, an alchemist who, in his experiments on porcelain, inventedthe celebrated Meissen porcelain (1682-1719). 

BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, or ALESSANDRO, a celebrated painter of theFlorentine school; began as a goldsmith's apprentice; a pupil of FraLippo Lippi; the best-known examples of his art are on religioussubjects, though he was no less fascinated with classical--mythologicalconceptions; is distinguished for his attention to details and fordelicacy, particularly in the drawing of flowers; and it is a rose on thepetticoat of one of his figures, the figure of Spring, which Ruskin hasreproduced on the title-page of his recent books, remarking that "no onehas ever yet drawn, or is likely to draw, roses as he has done;. .. Heunderstood, " he adds, "the thoughts of heathens and Christians equally, and could in a measure paint both Aphrodité and the Madonna" (1447-1515). 

BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUSTE, German archæologist, was a voluminous writeron antiquities, especially classical (1760-1835). 

BOTTOM, a weaver in the interlude in "Midsummer-Night's Dream, "whom, with his ass's head, Titania falls in love with under the influenceof a love-potion. 

BOTZARIS, one of the heroes of the war of Greek independence(1789-1823). 

BOUCHARDON, a celebrated French sculptor (1698-1762). 

BOUCHER, a French painter, born at Paris (1703-1770). 

BOUCHER DE PERTHES, French naturalist and anthropologist, born inArdennes (1783-1868). 

BOUCICAULT, DION, a dramatic writer, author of popular Irish pieces, as "The Colleen Bawn" and "The Shaughraun" (1822-1890). 

BOUCICAUT, MARSHAL DE, one of the bravest and noblest of Frenchsoldiers, born at Tours; distinguished in several famous battles; wastaken captive by the English at Agincourt; died in England (1364-1421). 

BOUFFLERS, CHEVALIER DE, field-marshal of France, courtier andauthor (1737-1815). 

BOUFFLERS, MARQUIS DE, marshal of France, distinguished for hisdefence of Namur (1695) and of Lille (1708), and his masterly retreatfrom Malplaquet (1645-1711). 

BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE, a French navigator, born in Paris;voyaged round the world, which occupied him two years and a half; his"Travels" had a remarkably stimulating effect on the imaginations of the"philosophies, " as described by him in "Un Voyage autour du Monde"(1729-1811). 

BOUGH, SAM, landscape painter, born at Carlisle, and settled inEdinburgh for 20 years (1822-1878). 

BOUGUER, PIERRE, French physicist, born in Brittany; wrote on opticsand the figure of the earth (1698-1758). 

BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE, a distinguished French painter, born atRochelle in 1825; his subjects both classical and religious, as well asportraits. 

BOUHOUR, LE PÈRE, French littérateur, born at Paris (1628-1702). 

BOUILLÉ, MARQUIS DE, a French general, born in Auvergne, distinguished inthe Seven Years' War, in the West Indies and during the Revolution; "lastrefuge of royalty in all straits"; favoured the flight of Louis XVI. ; a"quick, choleric, sharp-discerning, stubbornly-endeavouring man, withsuppressed-explosive resolution, with valour, nay, headlong audacity;muzzled and fettered by diplomatic pack-threads, . .. An intrepid, adamantine man"; did his utmost for royalty, failed, and quitted France;died in London, and left "Memoirs of the French Revolution" (1759-1800). See for the part he played in it, CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION. "

BOUILLON, district in Belgium, originally a German duchy; belongedto Godfrey, the crusader, who pledged it to raise funds for the crusade. 

BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS, a French dramatist, born near Tours, nicknamed, from his sentimentality "poète lacrymal" (1763-1842). 

BOULAINVILLIERS, a French historian, author of a "History ofMahomet" (1658-1722). 

BOULAK (20), the port of Cairo, on the Nile. 

BOULAN`GER, JEAN MARIE, a French general, born at Rennes; of notefor the political intrigues with which he was mixed up during the lastyears of his life, and the dangerous popular enthusiasm which he excited;accused of peculation; fled the country, and committed suicide atBrussels (1837-1891). 

BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, a French statesman, distinguished as anorator; took part in the redaction of the Civil Code; was a faithfuladherent of Napoleon (1761-1840). Henri, a son, vice-president of theRepublic from 1849 to 1851 (1797-1858). 

BOULDER, a large mass or block of rock found in localities often farremoved from the place of its formation, and transported thither on theice of the Glacial Age. 

BOULEVARD, the rampart of a fortified city converted into apromenade flanked by rows of trees and a feature of Paris in particular, though the boulevard is not always on the line of a rampart. 

BOULOGNE, BOIS DE, a promenade between Paris and St. Cloud, muchfrequented by people of fashion, and a favourite place of recreation; itrivals that of the Champs Elysées. 

BOULOGNE-SUR-MER (46), a fortified seaport in France, on the EnglishChannel, in the dep. Of Pas-de-Calais, 27 m. SW. Of Calais, one of theprincipal ports for debarkation from England; where Napoleon collected in1803 a flotilla to invade England; is connected by steamer withFolkestone, and a favourite watering-place; the chief station of theNorth Sea fisheries; is the centre of an important coasting trade, andlikely to become a naval station. 

BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE (32), a town on the right bank of the Seine, 5 m. SW. Of Paris, from which it is separated by the Bois-de-Boulogne. 

BOULTON, MATTHEW, an eminent engineer, born at Birmingham; enteredinto partnership with James Watt, and established with him a manufactoryof steam-engines at Soho, on a barren heath near his native place;contributed to the improvement of the coinage (1728-1809). 

"BOUNTY, " MUTINY OF THE, a mutiny which took place on the ship_Bounty_, on the 28th April 1789, bound from Otaheite to the West Indies, on the part of 25 of the crew, who returned to Otaheite after setting thecaptain (Bligh) adrift with others in an open boat. Bligh reached Englandafter a time, reported the crime, to the seizure at length of certain ofthe offenders and the execution of others. Those who escaped founded acolony on Pitcairn Island. 

BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SOTER, a French general, born at Pau, servedin the Crimean War and in Italy, suffered disastrously in theFranco-German War, and attempted suicide; served for a time underGambetta, afterwards retired; _b_. 1816. 

BOURBON, a family of French origin, hailing from Bourbonnais, members of which occupied for generations the thrones of France, Naples, and Spain, and who severally ruled their territories under a more or lessoverweening sense of their rights as born to reign. Two branches, both ofwhich trace back to Henry IV. , held sway in France, one beginning withLouis XIV. , eldest son of Louis XIII. , and the other, called the Orleans, with Philip of Orleans, second son of Louis XIII. , the former ending withCharles X. And his family, and the latter ending with Louis Philippe andhis line. The branches of the family ruling in Spain and Naples beganwith Philip VI. , grandson of Louis XIV. , the former branch still (1899)in power, the latter ending with Francis II. In 1860. 

BOURBON, CHARLES DE, styled the Constable de Bourbon, acquiredimmense wealth by the death of an elder brother and by his marriage, andlived in royal state; was for his daring in the field named Constable ofFrance by Francis I. ; offended at some, perhaps imaginary, injusticeFrancis did him, he clandestinely entered the service of the EmperorCharles V. , defeated the French at Pavia, and took Francis captive;parted from Charles, laid siege to Rome, and fell in the assault, mortally wounded, it is said, by Benvenuto Cellini (1489-1527). 

BOURBONNAIS, ancient province in the centre of France, being theduchy of Bourbon; united to the crown in 1531; cap. Moulins. 

BOURDALOUE, LOUIS, a French Jesuit, born at Bourges, called the"king of preachers, and preacher of kings"; one of the most eloquentpulpit orators of France; did not suffer by comparison with Bossuet, hiscontemporary, though junior; one of the most earnest and powerful of hissermons, the one entitled "The Passion, " is deemed the greatest. Hissermons are ethical in their matter from a Christian standpoint, carefully reasoned, and free from ornament, but fearless anduncompromising (1632-1704). 

BOURDON, SEBASTIAN, a French painter, born at Montpellier; his_chef-d'oeuvre_ "The Crucifixion of St. Peter, " executed for the churchof Notre Dame (1616-1671). 

BOURDON DE L'OISE, a French revolutionist, member of the Convention;banished to Guiana, where he died in 1791. 

BOURGELAT, a famous French veterinary surgeon, born at Lyons, andfounder of veterinary colleges at Lyons in 1762; was an authority onhorse management, and often consulted on the matter (1712-1779). 

BOURGEOIS, SIR FRANCIS, painter to George III. ; left his collectionto Dulwich College, and £10, 000 to build a gallery for them (1756-1811). 

BOURGEOISIE, the name given in France to the middle class, professional people, and merchants, as distinguished from the nobles andthe peasants, but applied by the Socialists to the capitalists asdistinct from the workers. 

BOURGES (43), a French town in the dep. Of Cher; birthplace of LouisXI. And Bourdaloue. 

BOURGET, PAUL, an eminent French novelist and essayist, born atAmiens; a subtle analyst of character, with a clear and elegant style, onwhich he bestows great pains; his novels are what he calls"psychological, " and distinct from the romantist and naturalistic; _b_. 1852. 

BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE, a Flemish visionary and fanatic; resolvedreligion into emotion; brought herself into trouble by the wild fanciesshe promulgated, to the derangement of others as well as herself(1615-1680). 

BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE, a French marshal; at theRevolution joined the Bourbons on the frontiers; served the royal causein La Vendée; held high commands under Napoleon; commanded under Ney onNapoleon's return from Elba; deserted on the eve of Waterloo to LouisXVIII. ; gave evidence against Ney to his execution; commanded theexpedition against Algiers; refused allegiance to Louis Philippe on hisaccession, and was dismissed the service (1773-1846). 

BOURNE, HUGH, founder of the Primitive Methodists, and a zealouspropagator of their principles; he was a carpenter by trade, and heappears to have wrought at his trade while prosecuting his mission, whichhe did extensively both in Britain and America (1772-1852). 

BOURNEMOUTH (38), a town in Hants, on Poole Bay, 37 m. SW. OfSouthampton, with a fine sandy beach; a great health resort; is ofrecent, and has been of rapid, growth. 

BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET, secretary of Napoleon, and aschool friend, born at Sens; held the post for five years, but dismissedfor being implicated in disgraceful money transactions; joined theBourbons at the Restoration; the Revolution of 1830 and the loss of hisfortune affected his mind, and he died a lunatic at Caen; wrote "Memoirs"disparaging to Napoleon (1769-1834). 

BOUSSA, a town in Central Africa, capital of a State of the samename, where Mungo Park lost his life as he was going up the Niger. 

BOUSTROPHE`DON, an ancient mode of writing from right to left, andthen from left to right, as in ploughing a field. 

BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH, a German philosopher and professor ofPhilosophy at Göttingen; a disciple of Kant, then of Jacobi, andexpounder of their doctrines; wrote "History of Poetry and Eloquenceamong the Modern Races" (1766-1828). 

BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD, an English traveller, born at Bristol; senton a mission to Guinea, and penetrated as far as Coomassie; wrote aninteresting account of it in his "Mission to Ashanti" (1791-1824). 

BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL, American mathematician, born at Salem, Massachusetts; a practical scientist; published "Practical Navigation, "translated the "Mécanique Céleste" of Laplace, accompanied with anelaborate commentary (1773-1838). 

BOWDLER, THOMAS, an English physician; edited expurgated editions ofShakespeare and Gibbon in the interest of moral purity; added inconsequence a new term to the English language, Bowdlerism (1754-1825). 

BOWDOIN, JAMES, an American statesman, born in Boston, of Frenchextraction; a zealous advocate of American independence; author of"Discourse on the Constitution of the United States" (1727-1790). 

BOWEN, RICHARD, a gallant British naval commander, distinguishedhimself in several engagements, and by his captures of the enemy's ships;killed by grape-shot at the storming of Santa Cruz, at the moment whenNelson was wounded (1761-1797). 

BOWER, WALTER, abbot of Inchcolm, Scottish chronicler; continuedFordun's History down to the death of James I. In 1437 from 1153(1385-1449). 

BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE, a poet, born in Northamptonshire; hissonnets, by their "linking, " as Professor Saintsbury has it, "of nature'saspect to human feeling, " were much admired by Coleridge, and theirappearance is believed to have inaugurated a new era in English poetry, as developed in the Lake School (1762-1850). 

BOWLING, TOM, a typical British sailor in "Roderick Random. "

BOWLING, SIR JOHN, linguist and political writer, born at Exeter;friend and disciple of Bentham as well as editor of his works; firsteditor of _Westminster Review_; at the instance of the English Governmentvisited the Continental States to report on their commercial relations;became governor of Hong-Kong; ordered the bombardment of Canton, whichcaused dissatisfaction at home (1792-1872). 

BOWYER, WILLIAM, printer and scholar, born in London; wrote on theorigin of printing, and published an edition of the Greek New Testamentwith notes (1699-1777). 

"BOX AND COX, " a farce by J. M. Morton, remarkable for a successfulrun such as is said to have brought the author £7000. 

BOY BISHOP, a boy chosen on 6th December, St. Nicholas' Day, generally out of the choir, to act as bishop and do all his episcopalduties, except celebrate mass. For the term of his office, which varied, he was treated as bishop, and if he died during his tenure of it wasburied with episcopal honours. The term of office was limited in 1279 to24 hours. 

BOYARS, the old nobility of Russia, whose undue influence in theState was broken by Peter the Great; also the landed aristocracy ofRoumania. 

BOYCE, WILLIAM, composer, chiefly of church music, born in London;published a collection of the "Cathedral Music of the Old EnglishMasters"; composed "Hearts of Oak, " a naval song sung by ships' crews atone time before going into action (1710-1779). 

BOYCOTT, CAPTAIN, an Irish landlord's agent in Connemara, with whomthe population of the district in 1880 refused to have any dealings onaccount of disagreements with the tenantry. 

BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON, a Scottish clergyman and writer;bred for the bar, but entered the Church; known to fame as A. K. H. B. ;author of "Recreations of a Country Parson, " which was widely read, andof Reminiscences of his life; died at Bournemouth by mischance ofswallowing a lotion instead of a sleeping-draught (1825-1899). 

BOYD, ZACHARY, a Scottish divine; regent of a Protestant college atSamur, in France; returned to Scotland in consequence of the persecutionof the Huguenots; became minister of Barony Parish, Glasgow, and rectorof the University; preached before Cromwell after the battle of Dunbar;author of the "Last Battell of the Soule in Death" and "Zion's Flowers, "being mainly metrical versions of Scripture, called "Boyd's Bible"(1585-1653). 

BOYDELL, JOHN, an English engraver and print-seller, famous for his"Shakespeare Gallery, " with 96 plates in illustration of Shakespeare, andthe encouragement he gave to native artists; he issued also Hume's"History of England, " with 196 plates in illustration (1719-1804). 

BOYER, BARON, French anatomist and surgeon; attendant on Napoleon, afterwards professor in the University of Paris; wrote works on anatomyand surgical diseases, which continued for long text-books on thosesubjects; was a man of very conservative opinions (1757-1833). 

BOYER, JEAN PIERRE, president of Hayti, born at Port-au-Prince of anegress and a Creole father; secured the independence of the country;held the presidency for 25 years from 1818, but suspected of consultinghis own advantage more than that of the country, was driven from power bya revolution in 1843; retired to Paris, where he spent the rest of hislife and died (1776-1850). 

BOYLE, CHARLES, fourth Earl of Orrery, distinguished for theconnection of his name with the Bentley controversy, and for itsconnection with an astronomical contrivance by one Graham to illustratethe planetary system (1676-1731). 

BOYLE, RICHARD, first and great Earl of Cork, distinguished amongIrish patriots and landlords for what he did to improve his estates anddevelop manufactures and the mechanical arts in Ireland, also for thehonours conferred upon him for his patriotism; when Cromwell saw how hisestates were managed he remarked, that had there been one like him inevery province in Ireland rebellion would have been impossible(1566-1643). 

BOYLE, THE HON. ROBERT, a distinguished natural philosopher, born atLismore, of the Orrery family; devoted his life and contributed greatlyto science, especially chemistry, as well as pneumatics; was one of theoriginators of the "Royal Society"; being a student of theology, foundedby his will an endowment for the "Boyle Lectures" in defence ofChristianity against its opponents and rivals; refused the presidentshipof the Royal Society, and declined a peerage (1626-1691). 

BOYLE LECTURES, the lectureship founded by the Hon. Robert Boyle in1691, and held for a tenure of three years, the endowment being £50 perannum; the lecturer must deliver eight lectures in defence ofChristianity, and some of the most eminent men have held the post. 

BOYLE'S LAW, that the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure. 

BOYNE, a river in Ireland, which flows through Meath into the IrishSea; gives name to the battle in which William III. Defeated the forcesof James II. On 30th July 1690. 

BOZ, a _nom de plume_ under which Dickens wrote at first, being hisnickname when a boy for a little brother. 

BOZZY, Johnson's familiar name for Boswell. 

BRABANT, in mediæval times was an important prov. Of the LowCountries, inhabitants Dutch, cap. Breda; is now divided between Hollandand Belgium. It comprises three provs. , the N. Or Dutch Brabant; Antwerp, a Belgian prov. , inhabitants Flemings, cap. Antwerp; and S. Brabant, alsoBelgian, inhabitants Walloons, cap. Brussels; the whole mostly a plain. 

BRACTON, HENRY DE, an English "justice itinerant, " a writer onEnglish law of the 13th century; author of "De Legibus et ConsuetudinibusAngliæ, " a "Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England, " and the firstattempt of the kind; _d_. 1268. 

BRADAMANTE, sister to Rinaldo, and one of the heroines in "OrlandoFurioso"; had a lance which unhorsed every one it touched. 

BRADDOCK, EDWARD, British general, born in Perthshire; entered theColdstream Guards, and became major-general in 1754; commanded a body oftroops against the French in America, fell in an attempt to invest FortDuquesue, and lost nearly all his men (1695-1755). 

BRADDON, MISS (Mrs. John Maxwell), a popular novelist, born inLondon; authoress of "Lady Audley's Secret, " "Aurora Floyd, " and some 50other novels; contributed largely to magazines; _b_. 1837. 

BRADFORD (216), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, on a tributary ofthe Aire, 9 m. W. Of Leeds; it is the chief seat of worsted spinning andweaving in England, and has an important wool market; coal and iron minesare at hand, and iron-works and machinery-making are its other industries. Also the name of a manufacturing town on the Avon, in Wilts. 

BRADLAUGH, CHARLES, a social reformer on secularist lines, born inLondon; had a chequered career; had for associate in the advocacy of hisviews Mrs. Annie Besant; elected M. P. For Northampton thrice over, butnot allowed to sit till he took the oath, which he did in 1886; diedrespected by all parties in the House of Commons; wrote the "Impeachmentof the House of Brunswick" (1833-1891). 

BRADLEY, JAMES, astronomer, born in Gloucestershire; professor ofAstronomy at Oxford, and astronomer-royal at Greenwich; discovered theaberration of light and the nutation of the earth's axis; made 60, 000astronomical observations (1693-1762). 

BRADSHAW, GEORGE, an engraver of maps in Manchester; published mapsillustrative of certain canal systems, and did the same service forrailways, which developed into the well-known "Railway Guide"(1830-1863). 

BRADSHAW, JOHN, president of the High Court of Justice for trial ofCharles I. , born at Stockport; bred for the bar; a friend of Milton; athorough republican, and opposed to the Protectorate; became president ofthe Council on Cromwell's death; was buried in Westminster; his body wasexhumed and hung in chains at the Restoration (1586-1659). 

BRADWARDIN, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, surnamed "DoctorProfundus" from his treatise "De Causa Dei" against Pelagianism; chaplainto Edward III. ; was present at Crécy and at the taking of Calais; died ofthe black death shortly after his consecration (1290-1348). 

BRADWARDINE, the name of a baron and his daughter, the heroine of"Waverley. "

BRAEMAR`, a Scottish Highland district SW. Of Aberdeenshire; muchfrequented by tourists, and resorted to for summer country quarters. 

BRAG, JACK, a pretender who ingratiates himself with people abovehim. 

BRAGA (23), a city, 34 m. NE. Of Oporto, Portugal; the residence ofthe Primate; the capital of Minho. 

BRAGANZA, capital of Traz-os-Montes, in Portugal; gives name to theruling dynasty of Portugal, called the House of Braganza, the eighth dukeof Braganza having ascended the throne in 1640, on the liberation ofPortugal from the yoke of Spain. 

BRAGI, the Norse god of poetry and eloquence, son of Odin andFrigga; represented as an old man with a long flowing beard andunwrinkled brow, with a mild expression of face; received in Valhalla theheroes who fell in battle. 

BRAHAM, JOHN, a celebrated tenor singer, the most so in Europe ofhis day, and known all over Europe; was particularly effective inrendering the national songs; born in London, of Jewish parents; composedoperas, which, however, were only dramas interspersed with songs. Scottdescribed him as "a beast of an actor, but an angel of a singer"(1774-1856). 

BRAHÉ, TYCHO, a Swedish astronomer, of noble birth; spent his lifein the study of the stars; discovered a new star in Cassiopeia; had anobservatory provided for him on an island in the Sound by the king, wherehe made observations for 20 years; he was, on the king's death, compelledto retire under persecution at the hand of the nobles; accepted aninvitation of the Kaiser Rudolf II. To Prague, where he continued hiswork and had Kepler for assistant and pupil (1546-1601). 

BRAHMA, in the Hindu religion and philosophy at one time the formlessspirit of the Universe, from which all beings issue and into which theyall merge, and as such is not an object of worship, but a subject ofmeditation; and at another the creator of all things, of which VISHNU (q. V. ) is the preserver AND SIVA (q. V. ) the destroyer, killing that he maymake alive. See TRIMURTI. 

BRAHMAN, or BRAHMIN, one of the sacred caste of the Hindus thatboasts of direct descent from, or immediate relationship with, Brahma, the custodians and mediators of religion, and therefore of high-priestlyrank. 

BRAHMANAS, treatises on the ceremonial system of Brahminism, withprescriptions bearing upon ritual, and abounding in legends andspeculations. 

BRAHMAPUTRA (i. E. Son of Brahma), a river which rises in Tibet, circles round the E. Of the Himalayas, and, after a course of some 1800m. , joins the Ganges, called the Sampo in Tibet, the Dihong in Assam, andthe Brahmaputra in British India; it has numerous tributaries, bringsdown twice as much mud as the Ganges, and in the lower part of its courseoverflows the land, particularly Assam, like an inland sea. 

BRAHMINISM, the creed and ritual of the Brahmans, or that social, political, and religious organisation which developed among the Aryans inthe valley of the Ganges under the influence of the Brahmans. Accordingto the religious conception of this class, Brahma, or the universalspirit, takes form or incarnates himself successively as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, which triple incarnation constitutes a trimurti or trinity. Inthis way Brahma, the first incarnation of the universal spirit, had foursons, from whom issued the four castes of India--Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras--all the rest being outcasts or pariahs. SeeCASTE. 

BRAHMO-SOMAJ (i. E. Church of God), a secession from traditionalHinduism, originated in 1830 by Rammohun Roy, and developed by ChunderSen; founded on theistic, or rather monotheistic, i. E. Unitarian, principles, and the rational ideas and philosophy of Europe, as well as aprofession of a sense of the brotherhood of man no less than the unity ofGod. 

BRAHMS, JOHANNES, a distinguished composer, born at Hamburg; ofgreat promise from a boy; settled in Vienna; has no living rival; theappearance of compositions of his an event in the musical world;approaches Beethoven as no other does; distinguished as a performer aswell as a composer; _b_. 1833. 

BRAIDWOOD, JAMES, born in Edinburgh; director of the London firebrigade; distinguished for his heroism on the occasion of great firesboth in Edinburgh and London (1790-1861). 

BRAILLE, a blind Frenchman, invented printing in relief for theblind (1809-1852). 

BRAINERD, American missionary to the Red Indians, born inConnecticut; his Life was written by Jonathan Edwards, in whose house hedied (1718-1747). 

BRAMAH, JOSEPH, an engineer, born in Barnsley, Yorkshire; author ofmany mechanical inventions, 18 of which were patented, among others thehydraulic press, named after him (1748-1814). 

BRAMANTE, DONATO, architect; laid the foundation of St. Peter's atRome, which he did not live to complete (1444-1514). 

BRAMBLE, MATTHEW, a gouty humorist in "Humphrey Clinker"; of afretful temper, yet generous and kind, who has a sister, MISSTABITHA, an ungainly maiden at forty-five, and of anything but asweet temper. 

BRAMHALL, JOHN, archbishop of Armagh, born in Yorkshire, ahigh-handed Churchman and imitator of Laud; was foolhardy enough once toengage, nowise to his credit, in public debate with such a dialecticianas Thomas Hobbes on the questions of necessity and free-will (1594-1663). 

BRAMWELL, SIR FREDERICK, civil engineer, president of the BritishAssociation in 1888, and previously of Association of Engineers; _b_. 1818. 

BRAN, name given to Fingal's dog. 

BRAND, JOHN, antiquary, born in Durham, wrote a "PopularAntiquities" (1744-1784). 

BRANDAN, ST. , ISLAND OF, an island reported of by St. Brandan aslying W. Of the Canary Islands, and that figured on charts as late as1755, in quest of which voyages of discovery were undertaken as recentlyas the beginning of the 18th century, up to which time it was believed toexist. 

BRANDE, chemist, born in London; author of "Manual of Chemistry" andother works (1788-1866). 

BRANDENBURG (2, 542), in the great northern plain of Germany, is acentral Prussian province, and the nucleus of the Prussian kingdom; mostof it a sandy plain, with fertile districts and woodlands here and there. 

BRANDENBURG, THE HOUSE OF, an illustrious German family dating fromthe 10th century, from which descended the kings of Prussia. 

BRANDES, GEORGE, a literary critic, born at Copenhagen, of Jewishparents; his views of the present tendency of literature in Europeprovoked at first much opposition in Denmark, though they were receivedwith more favour afterwards; the opposition to his views were such thathe was forced to leave Copenhagen, but, after a stay in Berlin, hereturned to it in 1862, with the support of a strong party in his favour. 

BRANDT, a Swedish chemist; chanced on the discovery in 1669 ofphosphorus while in quest of a solvent to transmute metals, such assilver, into gold; _d_. 1692. 

BRANDT, SEBASTIAN, a satirical writer, born at Strassburg; author ofthe "Narrenschiff" or "Ship of Fools, " of which there have been manytranslations and not a few imitations (1458-1521). 

BRANDY NAN, a nickname for Queen Anne, from her fondness for brandy. 

BRANDYWINE CREEK, a small river in Delaware; scene of a victory ofthe British over the Americans in 1777. 

BRANGTONS, THE, a vulgar, evil-spoken family in Miss Burney's"Evelina. "

BRANT, JOSEPH, Indian chief who sided with the British in theAmerican war; a brave and good man; _d_. 1807. 

BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLES, a French chronicler, contemporaryof Montaigne, born in Périgord; led the life of a knight-errant, andwrote Memoirs remarkable for the free-and-easy, faithful, and vividdelineations of the characters of the most celebrated of hiscontemporaries (1527-1614). 

BRASIDAS, a Spartan general, distinguished in the Peloponnesian war;his most celebrated action, the defeat at the expense of his life, in 422B. C. , of the flower of the Athenian army at Amphipolis, with a smallbody of helots and mercenaries. 

BRASS, SAMPSON, a knavish attorney in "Old Curiosity Shop"; affectedfeeling for his clients, whom he fleeced. 

BRASSES, sepulchral tablets of a mixed metal, called latten, inlaidin a slab of stone, and insculpt with figures and inscriptions of amonumental character; the oldest in England is at Stoke d'Abernon, inSurrey. 

BRASSEY, THOMAS, a great railway contractor, born in Cheshire;contracted for the construction of railways in all parts of the world(1805-1870). 

BRAUN, AUGUSTE EMIL, German archæologist, born at Gotha; worksnumerous, and of value (1809-1856). 

BRAVEST OF THE BRAVE, Marshal Ney, so called from his fearlessnessin battle; Napoleon had on one occasion said, "That man is a lion. "

BRAXY, an inflammatory disease in sheep, due to a change in foodfrom succulent to dry; and the name given to the mutton of sheep affectedwith it. 

BRAY, a Berkshire village, famous for Simon Aleyn, its vicar from1540 to 1588, who, to retain his living, never scrupled to change hisprinciples; he lived in the reigns of Charles II. , James II. , WilliamIII. , Queen Anne, and George I. 

BRAZEN AGE, in the Greek mythology the age of violence, thatsucceeded the weak Silver Age. See AGES. 

BRAZIL (14, 000), the largest South American State, almost equal toEurope, occupies the eastern angle of the continent, and comprises theAmazon basin, the tablelands of Matto Grosso, the upper basin of theParaguay, and the maritime highlands, with the valleys of the Paraná andSan Francisco. Great stretches of the interior are uninhabitable swampand forest lands; forests tenanted by an endless variety ofbrilliant-plumed birds and insects; the coasts are often humid andunhealthy, but the upper levels have a fine climate. Almost all thecountry is within the tropics. The population at the seaports is mostlywhite; inland it is negro, mulatto, and Indian. Vegetable products areindescribably rich and varied; timber of all kinds, rubber, cotton, andfruit are exported; coffee and sugar are the chief crops. The vastmineral wealth includes diamonds, gold, mercury, and copper. Most of thetrade is with Britain and America. The language is Portuguese; thereligion, Roman Catholic; education is very backward, and governmentunsettled. Discovered in 1500, and annexed by Portugal; the Portugueseking, expelled by the French in 1808, fled to his colony, which was madea kingdom 1815, and an empire in 1822. The emperor, Pedro II. , was drivenout in 1889, and a republic established on the federal system, which hasbeen harassed ever since by desultory civil war. The capital is RioJaneiro; Bahia and Pernambuco, the other seaports. 

BRAZIL-WOOD, a wood found in Brazil, of great value for dyeing red, the colouring principle being named Brasilin. 

BRAZZA (22), an island in the Adriatic, belonging to Austria; isrichly wooded; noted for its wines; yields marble. 

BRAZZA, PIERRE SAVORGNAN DE, explorer, born in Rome; acquired landN. Of the Congo for France, and obtained a governorship; _b_. 1852. 

BREADFRUIT-TREE, a South Sea island tree producing a fruit which, when roasted, is used as bread. 

BRÉAL, MICHEL, a French philologist, born at Landau; translator intoFrench of Bopp's "Comparative Grammar"; _b_. 1832. 

BRÈCHE-DE-ROLAND, a gorge in the dep. Of the Haute-Pyrénées, which, according to tradition, Charlemagne's Paladin of the name of Roland cleftwith one stroke of his sword when he was beset by the Gascons. 

BRECHIN, a town in Forfarshire, W. Of Montrose, on the S. Esk, witha cathedral and an old round tower near it, 85 ft. High, the only one ofthe kind in Scotland besides being at Abernethy. 

BREDA (23), fortified town, the capital of N. Brabant; a place ofhistorical interest; Charles II. Resided here for a time during hisexile, and issued hence his declaration prior to his restoration. 

BREECHES BIBLE, the Geneva Bible, so called from its rendering inGen. Iii. 7, in which "aprons" is rendered "breeches. "

BREECHES REVIEW, the _Westminster_, so called at one time, from onePlace, an authority in it, who had been a leather-breeches maker atCharing Cross. 

BRÉGNET, a French chronometer-maker, born at Neuchâtel; a famousinventor of astronomical instruments (1747-1823). 

BREHM, ALFRED EDMUND, German naturalist; his chief work"Illustrirtes Thierleben" (1829-1884). 

BREHON LAWS, a body of judge-created laws that for long formed thecommon law of Ireland, existed from prehistoric times till Cromwell'sconquest. The origin of the code is unknown, and whether it was at firsttraditional; many manuscript redactions of portions exist still. 

BREMEN (126), the chief seaport of Germany, after Hamburg; is on theWeser, 50 m. From its mouth, and is a free city, with a territory lessthan Rutlandshire. Its export and import trade is very varied; half thetotal of emigrants sail from its docks; it is the head-quarters of theNorth German Lloyd Steamship Company. Textiles, tobacco, and paperindustries add to its prosperity; was one of the principal cities of theHanseatic League. 

BREMER, FREDRIKA, a highly popular Swedish novelist, born inFinland; "The Neighbours, " "The President's Daughter, " and "Strife andPeace, " are perhaps her best stories; has been called the Jane Austen ofSweden. 

BREMER, SIR JAMES, rear-admiral; distinguished in the Burmese andChinese wars (1786-1850). 

BREMERHAVEN, the port of Bremen, on the estuary of the Weser, founded for the accommodation of large vessels in 1830, with a largehospice for emigrants. 

BRENDAN, ST. , an Irish saint, born at Tralee, celebrated for hisvoyages in quest of "a land beyond human ken" and his discovery of "aparadise amid the waves of the sea"; founded a monastery at Clonfert;died in 577, in his ninety-fourth year. 

BRENNER PASS, pass on the central Tyrolese Alps, 6853 ft. High, between Innsbruck and Botzen, crossed by a railway, which facilitatestrade between Venice, Germany, and Austria. 

BRENNUS, a Gallic chief, who, 300 B. C. , after taking and pillagingRome, invested the Capitol for so long that the Romans offered him athousand pounds' weight of gold to retire; as the gold was being weighedout he threw his sword and helmet into the opposite scale, adding _Vævictis_, "Woe to the conquered, " an insolence which so roused Camillus, that he turned his back and offered battle to him and to his army, andtotally routed the whole host. 

BRENTA, an Italian river; rises in the Tyrol, waters Bassano, anddebouches near Venice. 

BRENTANO, CLEMENS, poet of the romanticist school, born atFrankfort-on-the-Main, brother of Goethe's Bettina von Arnim; was aroving genius (1778-1849). 

BRENTFORD, market-town in Middlesex, on the Brent, 10 m. W. OfLondon, that figures in history and literature. 

BRENZ, JOHANN, the reformer of Würtemberg, and one of the authors ofthe Würtemberg Confession, as well as a catechism extensively used(1499-1570). 

BRESCIA (43), a city of Lombardy, on the Mella and Garza, 50 m. E. Of Milan; has two cathedrals, an art gallery and library, a Roman templeexcavated in 1822, and now a classical museum; its manufactures arewoollens, silks, leather, and wine. 

BRESLAU (335), the capital of Silesia, second city in Prussia; animportant commercial and manufacturing centre, and has a first-classfortress; is on the Oder, 150 m. By rail SE. Of Frankfort; it stands inthe centre of the Baltic, North Sea, and Danube trade, and has a largewoollen industry and grain market; there are a cathedral, university, andlibrary. 

BRESSAY, one of the Shetland Isles, near Lerwick, with one of thebest natural harbours in the world. 

BREST (76), a strongly-fortified naval station in the extreme NW. OfFrance; one of the chief naval stations in France, with a magnificentharbour, and one of the safest, first made a marine arsenal by Richelieu;has large shipbuilding yards and arsenal; its industries are chieflyrelated to naval equipment, with leather, waxcloth, and papermanufactures. 

BRÉTON, JULES ADOLPHE, a French _genre_ and landscape painter, bornat Courrières, in Pas-de-Calais, 1827. 

BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, Spanish poet and dramatist; wrote comediesand satires in an easy, flowing style (1800-1873). 

BRETEUIL, BARON DE, an ex-secretary of Louis XVI. (1733-1807). 

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, a Dutch branch of the "Friends of God, "founded at Deventer by Gerard Groote. 

BRETSCHNEIDER, HENRY GOTTFRIED VON, a German satirical writer, bornat Gera; led a bohemian life; served in the army; held political posts;composed, besides satirical writings, "Almanach der Heiligen auf dasJahr, 1788, " "Wallers Leben und Sitten, " and the comic epic, "Graf Esau"(1739-1810). 

BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB, a German rationalistic theologian;much regarded for his sound judgment in critical matters; his theologicalwritings are of permanent value; his chief works, "Handbuch derDogmatik, " and an edition of Melanchthon's works. 

BRETWALDA, a title apparently of some kind of acknowledged supremacyamong the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the leader in war. 

BREUGHEL, a family of Butch painters, a father and two sons, thefather, Peter, called "OLD" B. (1510-1570); a son, John, "VELVET"B. , either from his dress or from the vivid freshness of his colours(1560-1625); and the other, Peter, "HELLISH" B. , from his fondnessfor horrible subjects (1559-1637). 

BREVET`, a commission entitling an officer in the army to a nominalrank above his real rank. 

BREVIARY, a book containing the daily services in the Roman CatholicChurch and corresponding to the English Prayer-Book; differs from the"Missal, " which gives the services connected with the celebration of theEucharist, and the "Pontifical, " which gives those for special occasions. 

BREWER, JOHN SHERREN, historian, professor of English Literature inKing's College, London; author of "Calendar of Letters and Papers ofHenry VIII. 's Reign, " his work the sole authority on Henry's early reign(1810-1879). 

BREWER OF GHENT, Jacob Arteveld. 

BREWSTER, SIR DAVID, an eminent Scottish natural philosopher, bornat Jedburgh; edited the "Edinburgh Encyclopædia, " in the pages of whichCarlyle served his apprenticeship; specially distinguished for hisdiscoveries in light, his studies in optics, and for his opticalinventions, such as the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope; connected withmost scientific associations of his time; wrote largely on scientific andother subjects, e. G. , a Life of Newton, as well as Lives of Euler, Kepler, and others of the class; Principal of the United Colleges of St. Andrews, and afterwards of Edinburgh, being succeeded at St. Andrews byJames David Forbes, who years before defeated him as candidate for theNatural Philosophy chair in Edinburgh; bred originally for the Church, and for a time a probationer (1781-1868). 

BREWSTER, WILLIAM, leader of the Pilgrim Fathers in the _Mayflower_, who conveyed them to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620; had been aclergyman of the Church of England. 

BRIAN BOROIHME, an Irish chief, who early in the 10th centuryestablished his rule over a great part of Ireland, and made great effortsfor the civilisation of the country; died defeating the Danes atClontarf, being, it is said, the twenty-fifth battle in which he defeatedthem. 

BRIANÇON, the highest town in France, 4300 ft. Above sea-level, 42m. SE. From Grenoble, with a trade in cutlery. 

BRIAREUS, a Uranid with 50 heads and 100 arms, son of Ouranos andGaia, i. E. Heaven and Earth, whom Poseidon cast into the sea andburied under Etna, but whom Zeus delivered to aid him against the Titans;according to another account, one of THE GIANTS (q. V. ). 

BRICE, ST. , bishop of Tours in the beginning of the 5th century, anddisciple of St. Martin. Festival, Nov. 19. 

BRICE'S, ST. , a day in 1002 on which a desperate attempt was made tomassacre all the Danes in England and stamp them wholly out, an attemptwhich was avenged by the Danish king, Sweyn. 

BRICK, JEFFERSON, an American politician in "Martin Chuzzlewit. "

BRIDE OF THE SEA, Venice, so called from a ceremony in which herespousals were celebrated by the Doge casting a ring into the Adriatic. 

BRIDEWELL, a house of correction in Blackfriars, London, so calledfrom St. Bridget's well, near it. 

BRIDGE OF ALLAN, a village on Allan water, 3 m. N. Of Stirling, witha mild climate and mineral waters. 

BRIDGE OF SIGHS, a covered way in Venice leading from the DucalPalace to the State prison, and over which culprits under capitalsentence were transported to their doom, whence the name. 

BRIDGENORTH, MAJOR RALPH, a Roundhead in "Peveril of the Peak. "

BRIDGEPORT (48), a thriving manufacturing town and seaport ofConnecticut, U. S. , 58 m. NE. From New York. 

BRIDGET, MRS. , a character in "Tristram Shandy. "

BRIDGET, ST. , an Irish saint, born at Dundalk; entered a monasteryat 14; founded monasteries; takes rank in Ireland with St. Patrick andSt. Columba. Festival, Feb. 1 (453-523). Also the name of a Swedish saintin the 14th century; founded a new Order, and 72 monasteries of theOrder. 

BRIDGETON, a manufacturing town in New Jersey, 38 m. S. OfPhiladelphia. 

BRIDGETOWN (21), capital of Barbadoes, seat of the government, thebishop, a college, &c. ; it has suffered frequently from hurricane andfever. 

BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RD DUKE OF, celebrated for hisself-sacrificing devotion to the improvement and extension of canalnavigation in England, embarking in it all his wealth, in which he wasaided by the skill of Brindley; he did not take part in politics, thoughhe was a supporter of Pitt; died unmarried (1736-1803). 

BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON, 8TH EARL OF, educated for theChurch, bequeathed £8000 for the best work on natural theology, which histrustees expended in the production of eight works by different eminentmen, called "Bridgewater Treatises, " all to be found in Bohn's ScientificLibrary (1758-1829). 

BRIDGMAN, LAURA, a deaf, dumb, and blind child, born in NewHampshire, U. S. ; noted for the surprising development of intellectualfaculty notwithstanding these drawbacks; Dickens gives an account of herin his "American Notes" (1829-1889). 

BRIDGWATER, a seaport town in Somersetshire, 29 m. SW. Of Bristol. 

BRIDLEGOOSE, JUDGE, a judge in Rabelais' "Pantagruel, " who decidedcases by the throw of dice. 

BRIDLINGTON, a watering-place in Yorkshire, 6 m. SW. Of FlamboroughHead, with a chalybeate spring. 

BRIDPORT, VISCOUNT, a British admiral, distinguished in severalengagements (1797-1814). 

BRIEG (20), a thriving, third, commercially speaking, town inPrussian Silesia, 25 m. SE. Of Breslau. 

BRIENNE, JEAN DE, descendant of an old French family; elected kingof Jerusalem, then emperor of Constantinople; _d_. 1237. 

BRIENZ, LAKE OF, lake in the Swiss canton of Bern, 8 m. Long, 2 m. Broad, over 800 ft. Above sea-level, and of great depth in certain parts, abounding in fish. Town of, a favourite resort for tourists. 

BRIEUC, ST. , (19), a seaport and an episcopal city in the dep. OfCôtes-du-Nord, France. 

BRIGADE, a body of troops under a general officer, called brigadier, consisting of a number of regiments, squadrons, or battalions. 

BRIGANTES, a powerful British tribe that occupied the countrybetween the Humber and the Roman Wall. 

BRIGGS, HENRY, a distinguished English mathematician; first Savilianprofessor at Oxford; made an important improvement on the system oflogarithms, which was accepted by Napier, the inventor, and is the systemnow in use (1561-1631). 

BRIGHAM YOUNG, the chief of the Mormons (1801-1877). 

BRIGHT, JAMES FRANCK, historian, Master of University College, Oxford; author of "English History for the Use of Public Schools, " a bookof superior literary merit; _b_. 1832. 

BRIGHT, JOHN, English statesman, son of a Lancashire cotton spinner, born near Rochdale; of Quaker birth and profession; engaged inmanufacture; took an early interest in political reform; he joined theAnti-Corn-Law League on its formation in 1839, and soon was associatedwith Cobden in its great agitation; entering Parliament in 1843, he was astrong opponent of protection, the game laws, and later of the Crimeanwar; he advocated financial reform and the reform of Indianadministration; and on the outbreak of the American Civil War supportedthe North, though his business interests suffered severely; he wasclosely associated with the 1867 Reform Act, Irish ChurchDisestablishment 1869, and the 1870 Irish Land Act; his Ministerialcareer began in 1868, but was interrupted by illness; in 1873, and againin 1881, he was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; he seceded fromGladstone's Government on the Egyptian policy in 1882, and strenuouslyopposed Home Rule in 1886; in 1880 he was Lord Rector of GlasgowUniversity; he was a man of lofty and unblemished character, an animatedand eloquent orator; at his death Mr. Gladstone pronounced one of thenoblest eulogiums one public man has ever paid to another (1811-1889). 

BRIGHTON (128), a much-frequented watering-place in Sussex, 50 m. S. Of London, of which it is virtually a suburb; a place of fashionableresort ever since George IV. Took a fancy to it; a fine parade extendsalong the whole length of the sea front; has many handsome edifices, asplendid aquarium, a museum, schools of science and art, public libraryand public gallery; the principal building is the Pavilion or MarinePalace, originally built for George IV. Also the name of a suburb ofMelbourne. 

BLIGHT'S DISEASE, a disease in the kidneys, due to several diseasedconditions of the organ, so called from Dr. Richard Bright, who firstinvestigated its nature. 

BRIL BROTHERS, MATTHEW AND PAUL, landscape painters, born atAntwerp; employed in the 16th century by successive Popes to decorate theVatican at Rome; of whom Paul, the younger, was the greater artist; hisbest pictures are in Rome. 

BRILLAT-SAVARIN, a French gastronomist, author of "Physiologie duGoût, " a book full of wit and learning, published posthumously; wasprofessionally a lawyer and some time a judge (1755-1825). 

BRIN`DISI (15), a seaport of Southern Italy, on the Adriatic coast;has risen in importance since the opening of the Overland Route as apoint of departure for the East; it is 60 hours by rail from London, andthree days by steam from Alexandria; it was the port of embarkation forGreece in ancient times, and for Palestine in mediæval. 

BRINDLEY, JAMES, a mechanician and engineer, born in Derbyshire;bred a millwright; devoted his skill and genius to the construction ofcanals, under the patronage of the Duke of Bridgewater, as the greatestservice he could render to his country; regarded rivers as mere "feedersto canals" (1716-1772). 

BRINK, JAN TEN, a Dutch writer, distinguished as a critic in thedepartment of belles-lettres; _b_. 1834. 

BRINVILLIERS, MARQUISE DE, notorious for her gallantries and forpoisoning her father, brother, and two sisters for the sake of theirproperty; was tortured and beheaded; the poison she used appears to havebeen the Tofana poison, an art which one of her paramours taught her(1630-1676). See AQUA TOFANA. 

BRISBANE (49), capital of Queensland, on the Brisbane River, 25 m. From the sea, 500 m. N. Of Sydney, is the chief trading centre andseaport of the Colony; it has steam communication with Australian portsand London, and railway communication with Sydney, Melbourne, andAdelaide; prosperity began when the colony was opened to free settlementin 1842; it was dissociated from New South Wales and the cityincorporated in 1859. 

BRISBANE, ADMIRAL SIR CHARLES, a naval officer of distinction underLords Hood and Nelson; captured in 1796 Dutch warships, three ships ofthe line among them, in Saldanha Bay, and in 1807 the island of Curaçoa;was made governor of St. Vincent (1769-1829). 

BRISBANE, SIR JAMES, naval officer, brother of the preceding, servedunder Lord Howe and under Nelson at Copenhagen (1774-1829). 

BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MACDOUGALL, British general, a man of scienceand an astronomer, born near Largs, Ayrshire; saw service as a soldier;was appointed governor of New South Wales to the profit of the colony;gave name to the capital of Queensland; catalogued over 7000 stars;succeeded Scott as president of the Royal Society (1773-1860). 

BRISE`IS, a young virgin priestess, who fell to the lot of Achillesamong the spoil of a victory, but whom Agamemnon carried off from him, whereupon he retired to his tent and sullenly refused to take any furtherpart in the war, to its prolongation, in consequence, as Homer relates, for ten long years; the theme of the "Iliad" being the "wrath ofAchilles" on this account, and what it led to. 

BRISSAC, the name of a noble family which supplied several marshalsto France. 

BRISSON, HENRI, French publicist and journalist; after holdingpresidentships in the Chamber became premier in 1885, but resigned aftera few months; formed a Radical administration in 1898, which wasshort-lived; _b_. 1835. 

BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, JEAN PIERRE, a French revolutionary, born atChartres, son of a pastry-cook; bred to the bar, took to letters; becamean outspoken disciple of Rousseau; spent some time in the Bastille;liberated, he went to America; returned on the outbreak of theRevolution, sat in the National Assembly, joined the Girondists; becameone of the leaders, or rather of a party of his own, named after himBrissotins, midway between the Jacobins and them; fell under suspicionlike the rest of the party, was arrested, tried and guillotined(1754-1793). 

BRISTOL (286), on the Avon, 6 m. From its mouth, and 118 m. W. OfLondon, is the largest town in Gloucestershire, the seventh in England, and a great seaport, with Irish, W. Indian, and S. American trade; itmanufactures tobacco, boots and shoes; it has a cathedral, two colleges, a library and many educational institutions; by a charter of Edward III. It forms a county in itself. 

BRISTOL CHANNEL, an inlet in SW. Of England, between S. Wales andDevon and Cornwall, 8 m. In length, from 5 to 43 in breadth, and with adepth of from 5 to 40 fathoms; is subject to very high tides, and as suchdangerous to shipping; numerous rivers flow into it. 

BRITANNIA, a name for Britain as old as the days of Cæsar, andinhabited by Celts, as Gaul also was. 

BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, a railway bridge spanning the MenaiStrait, designed by Robert Stephenson, and completed in 1850; consists ofhollow tubes of wrought-iron plates riveted together, and took five yearsin erecting. 

BRITANNICUS, the son of Claudius and Messalina, poisoned by Nero. 

BRITISH ARISTIDES, name applied to Andrew Marvell from hiscorresponding incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION, an association, of Sir David Brewster'ssuggestion, of men of all departments of science for the encouragement ofscientific research and the diffusion of scientific knowledge, whichholds its meetings annually under the presidency of some distinguishedscientist, now in this, now in that selected central city of the country;it is divided into eight sections--mathematical, chemical, geological, biological, geographical, economic, mechanical, and anthropological. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA (98), a western fertile prov. Of British America, extending between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, and from theUnited States on the S. To Alaska on the N. , being 800 m. Long and fourtimes the size of Great Britain; rich in timber and minerals; rain isabundant, and cereals do well. 

BRITISH LION, the name given to John Bull when roused by opposition. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, a national institution in London for the collectionof MSS. , books, prints and drawings, antiquities, and objects of naturalhistory, ethnology, &c. ; founded as far back as 1700, though not opened, in Montagu House as it happened, for the public benefit till 1759. 

BRITOMART, is a lady knight in the "Faërie Queene, " representingchastity with a resistless magic spear. 

BRITTANY (3, 162), an old French prov. , land of the Bretons, comprising the peninsula opposite Devon and Cornwall, stretching westwardbetween the Bays of Cancale and Biscay, was in former times a duchy; athird of its inhabitants still retain their Breton language. 

BRITTON, JOHN, topographer and antiquary, born in Wiltshire inhumble position; author of "Beauties of Wiltshire, " instalment of a workembracing all the counties of England and Wales; his principal works, andworks of value, are "Antiquities of Great Britain" and "CathedralAntiquities of England"; his chief work is 14 volumes; the "Antiquitiesin Normandy" did much to create an interest in antiquarian subjects(1771-1857). 

BRIXTON, a southern suburb of London, on the Surrey side, a districtof the city that has of late years extended immensely. 

BROAD ARROW, a stamp like an arrow-head to indicate governmentproperty. 

BROAD BOTTOM MINISTRY, a coalition of great weight under Mr. Pelham, from Nov. 1744 to Mar. 1755, so called from the powerful partiesrepresented in it. 

BROAD CHURCH, that section of the Church which inclines to liberalopinions in theology, and is opposed to the narrowing of either spirit orform, perhaps to an undue degree and to the elimination of elementsdistinctive of the Christian system. 

BROADS, THE NORFOLK, are a series of inland lakes in the E. OfNorfolkshire, which look like expansions of the rivers; they arefavourite holiday resorts on account of the expanse of strange scenery, abundant vegetation, keen air, fishing and boating attractions. 

BROB`DINGNAG, an imaginary country in "Gulliver's Travels, "inhabited by giants, each as tall "as an ordinary spire-steeple";properly a native of the country, in comparison with whom Gulliver was apigmy "not half so big as a round little worm plucked from the lazyfinger of a maid. "

BROCA, PAUL, an eminent French surgeon, anthropologist, and one ofthe chief French evolutionists; held a succession of importantappointments, and was the author of a number of medical works(1824-1880). 

BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, a mineralogist and geologist, born in Paris;director of the St. Gobin manufactory (1773-1810). 

BROCHS, dry-stone circular towers, called also Picts' towers andDuns, with thick Cyclopean walls, a single doorway, and open to the sky, found on the edge of straths or lochs in the N. And W. Of Scotland. 

BROCKEN, or BLOCKSBERG, the highest peak (3740 ft. ) of the HarzMts. , cultivated to the summit; famous for a "SPECTRE" so called, long an object of superstition, but which is only the beholder's shadowprojected through, and magnified by, the mists. 

BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD, a German publisher, born at Dortmund; aman of scholarly parts; began business in Amsterdam, but settled inLeipzig; publisher of the famous "Conversations Lexikon, " and a greatmany other important works (1772-1823). 

BROCOLIANDO, a forest in Brittany famous in Arthurian legend. 

BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN, surgeon, born in Wiltshire; professor ofsurgery; for 30 years surgeon in St. George's Hospital; was medicaladviser to three sovereigns; president of the Royal Society (1783-1862). 

BRODIE, WILLIAM, a Scottish sculptor, born in Banff; did numerousbusts and statues (1815-1881). 

BROGLIE, ALBERT, son of the following, a Conservative politician andlittérateur, author of "The Church and the Roman Empire in the 4thcentury"; _b_. 1821

BROGLIE, CHARLES VICTOR, DUC DE, a French statesman, born at Paris;a Liberal politician; was of the party of Guizot and Royer-Collard; heldoffice under Louis Philippe; negotiated a treaty with England for theabolition of slavery; was an Orleanist, and an enemy of the SecondEmpire; retired after the _coup d'état_ (1785-1870). 

BROGLIE, VICTOR FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, marshal of France, distinguishedin the Seven Years' War, being "a firm disciplinarian"; was summoned byroyalty to the rescue as "war god" at the outbreak of the Revolution;could not persuade his troops to fire on the rioters; had to "mount andride"; took command of the Emigrants in 1792, and died at Münster(1718-1804). 

BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, rear-admiral, born at Ipswich, celebrated for the action between his ship _Shannon_, 38 guns, and theAmerican ship _Chesapeake_, 49 guns, in June 1813, in which he boardedthe latter and ran up the British flag; one of the most brilliant navalactions on record, and likely to be long remembered in the naval annalsof the country (1776-1841). 

BROMBERG (41), a busy town on the Brahe, in Prussian Posen; being afrontier town, it suffered much in times of war. 

BROME, ALEXANDER, a cavalier, writer of songs and lampoons instinctwith wit, whim, and spirit; and of his songs some are amatory, somefestive, and some political (1626-1666). 

BROME, RICHARD, an English comic playwright, contemporary with BenJonson, and a rival; originally his servant; his plays are numerous, andwere characterised by his enemies as the sweepings of Jonson's study;_d_. 1652. 

BROMINE, an elementary fluid of a dark colour and a disagreeablesmell, extracted from bittern, a liquid which remains after theseparation of salt. 

BROMLEY (21), a market-town in Kent, 10 m. SE. Of London, where thebishops of Rochester had their palace, and where there is a home calledWarner's College for clergymen's widows. 

BROMPTON, SW. District of London, in Kensington, now called S. Kensington; once a rustic locality, now a fashionable district, withseveral public buildings and the Oratory. 

BRÖNDSTED, PETER OLAF, a Danish archæologist; author of "Travels andResearches in Greece, " where by excavations he made importantdiscoveries; his great work "Travels and Archæological Researches inGreece" (1780-1842). 

BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE, French botanist, son of the succeeding, thefirst to discover and explain the function of the pollen in plants(1801-1876). 

BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE, a French chemist and zoologist, collaborateurwith Cuvier, born at Paris; director of the porcelain works at Sèvres;revived painting on glass; introduced a new classification of reptiles;author of treatises on mineralogy and the ceramic arts (1770-1847). 

BRONTE (16), a town in Sicily, on the western slope of Etna, whichgave title of duke to Nelson. 

BRONTË, the name of three ladies, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne, daughters of a Yorkshire clergyman of Irish extraction: CHARLOTTE, born at Thornton, Yorkshire; removed with her father, at the age of four, to Haworth, a moorland parish, in the same county, where she lived mostof her days; spent two years at Brussels as a pupil-teacher; on herreturn, in conjunction with her sisters, prepared and published a volumeof poems under the pseudonyms respectively of "Currer, Ellis, and ActonBell, " which proved a failure. Nothing daunted, she set to novel writing, and her success was instant; first, "Jane Eyre, " then "Shirley, " and then"Villette, " appeared, and her fame was established. In 1854 she marriedher father's curate, Mr. Nicholls, but her constitution gave way, and shedied (1816-1855). EMILY (Ellis), two years younger, poet rather thannovelist; wrote "Wuthering Heights, " a remarkable production, showingstill greater genius, which she did not live to develop. ANNE(Acton), four years younger, also wrote two novels, but very ephemeralproductions. 

BRONZE AGE, the age in the history of a race intermediate betweenthe Stone Age and the Iron, and in some cases overlapping these two, whenweapons and tools were made of bronze. 

BRONZI`NO, a Florentine painter, painted both in oil and fresco; agreat admirer of Michael Angelo; his famous picture, "Descent of Christinto Hell" (1502-1572). 

BROOK FARM, an abortive literary community organised on Fourier'sprinciples, 8 m. From Boston, U. S. , by George Ripley in 1840; NathanielHawthorne was one of the community, and wrote an account of it. 

BROOKE, HENRY, Irish dramatist and novelist, born in co. Cavan;author of the "Fool of Quality, " a book commended by John Wesley and muchlauded by Charles Kingsley, and the only one of his works that survives;wrote, among other things, a poem called "Universal Beauty, " and a playcalled "Gustavus Vasa" (1703-1783). 

BROOKE, SIR JAMES, rajah of Sarawak, born at Benares, educated inEngland; entered the Indian army; was wounded in the Burmese war, returned in consequence to England; conceived the idea of suppressingpiracy and establishing civilisation in the Indian Archipelago; sailed ina well-manned and well-equipped yacht from the Thames with that object;arrived at Sarawak, in Borneo; assisted the governor in suppressing aninsurrection, and was made rajah, the former rajah being deposed in hisfavour; brought the province under good laws, swept the seas of pirates, for which he was rewarded by the English government; was appointedgovernor of Labuan; finally returned to England and died, being succeededin Sarawak by a nephew (1803-1868). 

BROOKE, STOPFORD, preacher and writer, born in Donegal; after otherclerical appointments became incumbent of Bedford Chapel, Bloomsbury, andQueen's chaplain; from conscientious motives seceded from the Church, butcontinued to preach in Bloomsbury; wrote the "Life of Robertson ofBrighton, " a "Primer of English Literature, " "History of English Poetry, ""Theology in the English Poets, " and "Life of Milton, " all works inevidence of critical ability of a high order; _b_. 1832. 

BROOKLYN (806), a suburb of New York, on Long Island, though rankingas a city, and the fourth in the Union; separated from New York by theEast River, a mile broad, and connected with it by a magnificentsuspension bridge, the largest in the world, as well as by some 12 linesof ferry boats plied by steam; it is now incorporated in Greater NewYork; has 10 m. Of water front, extensive docks and warehouses, and doesan enormous shipping trade; manufactures include glass, clothing, chemicals, metallic wares, and tobacco; there is a naval yard, dock, andstorehouse; the city is really a part of New York; has many finebuildings, parks, and pleasure grounds. 

BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY, novelist and journalist, born inLondon; was on the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_; sent to Russia toinquire into and report on the condition of the peasantry and labouringclasses there, as well as in Syria and Egypt; his report published in his"Russians of the South"; formed a connection with _Punch_ in 1851, writing the "Essence of Parliament, " and succeeded Mark Lemon as editorin 1870; he was the author of several works (1816-1874). 

BROSSES, CHARLES DE, a French archæologist, born at Dijon; wroteamong other subjects on the manners and customs of primitive andprehistoric man (1709-1777). 

BROSSETTE, a French littérateur, born at Lyons; friend of Boileau, and his editor and commentator (1671-1743). 

BROTHERS, RICHARD, a fanatic, born in Newfoundland, who believed andpersuaded others to believe that the English people were the ten losttribes of Israel (1757-1824). 

BROUGHAM, HENRY, LORD BROUGHAM AND VAUX, born in Edinburgh, andeducated at the High School and University of that city; was admitted tothe Scotch bar in 1800; excluded from promotion in Scotland by hisliberal principles, he joined the English bar in 1808, speedily acquireda reputation as a lawyer for the defence in Crown libel actions, and, byhis eloquence in the cause of Queen Caroline, 1820, won universal popularfavour; entering Parliament in 1810, he associated with the Whigopposition, threw himself into the agitation for the abolition ofslavery, the cause of education, and law reform; became Lord Chancellorin 1830, but four years afterwards his political career closed; he was asupporter of many popular institutions; a man of versatile ability anduntiring energy; along with Horner, Jeffrey, and Sidney Smith, one of thefounders of the _Edinburgh Review_, also of London University, and theSociety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; a writer on scientific, historical, political, and philosophical themes, but his violence andeccentricity hurt his influence; spent his last days at Cannes, where hedied (1778-1868). 

BROUGHTON, LORD. See HOBHOUSE. 

BROUGHTON, RHODA, novelist, her best work "Not Wisely but Too Well";wrote also "Cometh Up as a Flower, " "Red as a Rose is She, " &c. ; _b_. 1840. 

BROUGHTON, WILLIAM ROBERT, an English seaman, companion ofVancouver; discovered a portion of Oceania (1763-1822). 

BROUGHTY FERRY (9), a watering-place, with villas, near Dundee, anda favourite place of residence of Dundee merchants. 

BROUSSA (37), a city in the extreme NW. Of Asiatic Turkey, at thefoot of Mt. Olympus, 12 m. From the Sea of Marmora; the capital of theTurkish empire till the taking of Constantinople in 1453; abounds inmosques, and is celebrated for its baths. 

BROUSSAIS, JOSEPH VICTOR, a French materialist, founder of the"physiological school" of medicine; resolved life into excitation, anddisease into too much or too little (1772-1838). 

BROUSSEL, a member of the Parlement of Paris, whose arrest, in 1648, was the cause of, or pretext for, the organisation of the Fronde. 

BROUSSON, a French Huguenot who returned to France after theRevocation of the Edict of Nantes, and was broken on the wheel, 1698. 

BROUWER, a Dutch painter, mostly of low, vulgar life, which, asfamiliar with it, he depicted with great spirit (1605-1638). 

BROWN, AMY, the first wife of the Duc de Berri, born in England, died in France; the Pope, in 1816, annulled her marriage, but declaredher two daughters legitimate (1783-1876). 

BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, an American novelist, born in Philadelphia, of Quaker connection; his best-known fictions are "Wieland, " "EdgarHuntly, " &c. (1771-1810). 

BROWN, FORD MADOX, an English painter, born at Calais; his subjectsnearly all of a historical character, one of which is "Chaucer recitinghis Poetry at the Court of Edward III. "; anticipated Pre-Raphaelitism(1821-1893). 

BROWN, SIR GEORGE, British general, born near Elgin, distinguishedboth in the Peninsular and in the Crimean war, was severely wounded atInkerman, when in command of the Light Division (1790-1863). 

BROWN, HENRY KIRKE, an American sculptor, did a number of statues, acolossal one of Washington among them (1814-1886). 

BROWN, JOHN, American slavery abolitionist; settled in Kansas, andresolutely opposed the project of making it a slave state; in theinterest of emancipation, with six others, seized on the State armoury atHarper's Ferry in hope of a rising, entrenched himself armed in it, wassurrounded, seized, tried, and hanged (1800-1859). 

BROWN, JOHN, of Haddington, a self-educated Scotch divine, born atCarpow, near Abernethy, Perthshire, son of a poor weaver, left an orphanat 11, became a minister of a Dissenting church in Haddington; a man ofconsiderable learning, and deep piety; author of "Dictionary of theBible, " and "Self-interpreting Bible" (1722-1787). 

BROWN, JOHN, M. D. , great-grandson of the preceding, born at Biggar, educated in Edinburgh High School and at Edinburgh University, was apupil of James Syme, the eminent surgeon, and commenced quiet practice inEdinburgh; author of "Horæ Subsecivæ, " "Rab and his Friends, " "PetMarjorie, " "John Leech, " and other works; was a fine and finely-culturedman, much beloved by all who knew him, and by none more than by JohnRuskin, who says of him, he was "the best and truest friend of all mylife. .. . Nothing can tell the loss to me in his death, nor the grief tohow many greater souls than mine that had been possessed in patiencethrough his love" (1810-1882). 

BROWN, JOHN, M. D. , founder of the Brunonian system of medicine, born at Bunkle, Berwickshire; reduced diseases into two classes, thoseresulting from redundancy of excitation, and those due to deficiency ofexcitation; author of "Elements of Medicine" and "Observations on the Oldand New Systems of Physic" (1735-1788). See BROUSSAIS. 

BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON, three middle-class Englishmen on theirtravels abroad, as figured in the pages of _Punch_, and drawn by RichardDoyle. 

BROWN, MOUNT (16, 000 ft. ), the highest of the Rocky Mts. , in N. America. 

BROWN, OLIVER MADOX, son of Ford Madox, a youth of great promiseboth as an artist and poet; died of blood-poisoning (1855-1874). 

BROWN, RAWDON, historical scholar, spent his life at Venice in thestudy of Italian history, especially in its relation to English history, which he prosecuted with unwearied industry; his great work, work of 20years' hard labour, "Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts relating toEnglish Affairs existing in the Archives of Venice and Northern Italy, "left unfinished at his death; died at Venice, where he spent a great partof his life, where Ruskin found him and conceived a warm friendship forhim (1803-1883). 

BROWN, ROBERT, a distinguished botanist, born at Montrose, son of anEpiscopal clergyman; accompanied an expedition to survey the coast ofAustralia in 1801, returned after four years' exploration, with 4000plants mostly new to science, which he classified and described in his"Prodromus Floræ Novæ Hollandiæ"; became librarian to, and finallypresident of, the Linnean Society; styled by Humboldt _botanicorum facileprinceps_; he was a man of most minute and accurate observation, and of awide range of knowledge, much of which died along with him, out of thefear of committing himself to mistakes (1773-1858). 

BROWN, SAMUEL, M. D. , chemist, born in Haddington, grandson of JohnBrown of Haddington, whose life was devoted, with the zeal of a mediævalalchemist, to a reconstruction of the science of atomics, which he didnot live to see realised: a man of genius, a brilliant conversationistand an associate of the most intellectual men of his time, among thenumber De Quincey, Carlyle, and Emerson; wrote "Lay Sermons on the Theoryof Christianity, " "Lectures on the Atomic Theory, " and two volumes of"Essays, Scientific and Literary" (1817-1856). 

BROWN, THOMAS, Scottish psychologist, born in Kirkcudbrightshire, bred to medicine; professor of Moral Philosophy in the University ofEdinburgh, colleague and successor to Dugald Stewart; his lectures, allimprovised on the spur of the moment, were published posthumously;"Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind" established a sixth sense, which he called the "muscular. " He was a man of precocious talent, and adevoted student, to the injury of his health and the shortening of hislife; he was obliged from ill-health to resign his professorship after 10years (1778-1820). 

BROWN WILLY, the highest peak (1368 ft. ) in Cornwall. 

BROWNE, CHARLES FARRAR, a humorist and satirist, known by thepseudonym of "Artemus Ward, " born in Maine, U. S. ; his first literaryeffort was as "showman" to an imaginary travelling menagerie; travelledover America lecturing, carrying with him a whimsical panorama asaffording texts for his numerous jokes, which he brought with him toLondon, and exhibited with the same accompaniment with unbounded success;he spent some time among the Mormons, and defined their religion assingular, but their wives plural (1834-1867). 

BROWNE, HABLOT KNIGHT, artist, born in London; illustrated Dickens'sworks, "Pickwick" to begin with, under the pseudonym of "Phiz, " as wellas the works of Lever, Ainsworth, Fielding, and Smollett, and theAbbotsford edition of Scott; he was skilful as an etcher and anarchitectural draughtsman (1815-1882). 

BROWNE, ROBERT, founder of the Brownists, born in Rutland; the firstseceder from the Church of England, and the first to found a Church ofhis own on Congregational principles, which he did at Norwich, though hisproject of secession proved a failure, and he returned to the EnglishChurch; died in jail at Northampton, where he was imprisoned forassaulting a constable; he may be accounted the father of theCongregational body in England (1540-1630). 

BROWNE, SIR THOMAS, physician and religious thinker, born in London;resided at Norwich for nearly half a century, and died there; wasknighted by Charles II. ; "was, " Professor Saintsbury says, "the greatestprose writer perhaps, when all things are taken together, in the wholerange of English"; his principal works are "Religio Medici, " "Inquiriesinto Vulgar Errors, " and "Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, a Discourse of theSepulchral Urns found in Norfolk"; "all of the very first importance inEnglish literature, . .. " adds the professor, "the 'Religio Medici' thegreatest favourite, and a sort of key to the others;" "a man, " saysColeridge, "rich in various knowledge, exuberant in conceptions andconceits, contemplative, imaginative, often truly great, and magnificentin his style and diction. .. . He is a quiet and sublime enthusiast, with astrong tinge of the fantastic. He meditated much on death and thehereafter, and on the former in its relation to, or leading on to, thelatter" (1605-1682). 

BROWNE WILLIAM, English pastoral poet, born at Tavistock; author of"Britannia's Pastorals" and "The Shepherd's Pipe, " a collection ofeclogues and "The Inner Temple and Masque, " on the story of Ulysses andCirce, with some opening exquisitely beautiful verses, "Steer hither, steer, " among them; was an imitator of Spenser, and a parallel has beeninstituted between him and Keats (1590-1645). 

BROWNIE, a good-natured household elf, believed in Scotland torender obliging services to good housewives, and his presence an evidencethat the internal economies were approved of, as he favoured goodhusbandry, and was partial to houses where it was observed. 

BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT, _née_ BARRETT, poetess, born atCarlton Hall, Durham; a woman of great natural abilities, which developedearly; suffered from injury to her spine; went to Torquay for her health;witnessed the death by drowning of a brother, that gave her a shock theeffect of which never left her; published in 1838 "The Seraphim, " and in1844 "The Cry of the Children"; fell in with and married Robert Browningin 1846, who immediately took her abroad, settling in Florence; wrote in1850 "Sonnets from the Portuguese, " in 1851 "Casa Guidi Windows, " and in1856 "Aurora Leigh, " "a novel in verse, " and in 1860 "Poems beforeCongress"; ranks high, if not highest, among the poetesses of England;she took an interest all through life in public affairs; her work ismarked by musical diction, sensibility, knowledge, and imagination, whichno poetess has rivalled (1806-1861). 

BROWNING, ROBERT, poet, one of the two greatest in the Victorianera, born in Camberwell; early given to write verses; prepared himselffor his literary career by reading through Johnson's Dictionary; hisfirst poem "PAULINE" (q. V. ) published in 1833, which wasfollowed by "Paracelsus" in 1835, "Sordello" in 1840; after a time, inwhich he was not idle, appeared, with some of his "Dramatic Romances andLyrics, " in 1855 his "Men and Women, " and in 1868 "THE RING AND THEBOOK" (q. V. ), his longest poem, and more analytic than poetic;this was succeeded by a succession of others, finishing up with"Asolando, " which appeared the day he died at Venice; was a poet of greatsubtlety, deep insight, creative power, and strong faith, of a genius andlearning which there are few able to compass the length and breadth of;lies buried in Westminster Abbey; of Browning it has been said byProfessor Saintsbury, "Timor mortis non conturbabat, 'the fear of deathdid not trouble him. ' In the browner shades of age as well as in thespring of youth he sang, not like most poets, Love and Death, but Loveand Life. .. . 'James Lee, ' 'Rabbi Ben Ezra, ' and 'Prospice' are among thegreatest poems of the century. " His creed was an optimism of thebrightest, and his restful faith "it is all right with the world"(1812-1889). 

BROWN-SÉQUARD, physiologist, born in Mauritius, of Americanparentage; studied in Paris; practised in New York, and became aprofessor in the Collège de France; made a special study of the nervoussystem and nervous diseases, and published works on the subject; _b_. 1818. 

BRUANT, a French architect, born in Paris; architect of theInvalides and the Salpétrière; _d_. 1697. 

BRUAT, a French admiral, commanded the French fleet at the Crimea(1796-1885). 

BRUCE, a family illustrious in Scottish history, descended from aNorman knight, Robert de Bruis, who came over with the Conqueror, and whoacquired lands first in Northumberland and then in Annandale. 

BRUCE, JAMES, traveller, called the "Abyssinian, " born at KinnairdHouse, Stirlingshire, set out from Cairo in 1768 in quest of the sourceof the Nile: believed he had discovered it; stayed two years inAbyssinia, and returned home by way of France, elated with his success;felt hurt that no honor was conferred on him, and for relief from thechagrin wrote an account of his travels in five quarto vols. , the generalaccuracy of which, as far as it goes, has been attested by subsequentexplorers (1730-1794). 

BRUCE, MICHAEL, a Scotch poet, born near Loch Leven, in poorcircumstances, in the parish of Portmoak; studied for the Church; died ofconsumption; his poems singularly plaintive and pathetic; his title tothe authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" has been matter of contention(1746-1767). 

BRUCE, ROBERT, rival with John Baliol for the crown of Scotland onthe death of Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, against whose claim EdwardI. Decided in favour of Baliol (1210-1295). 

BRUCE, ROBERT, son of the preceding, earl of Carrick, throughMarjory his wife; served under Edward at the battle of Dunbar for oneinstance; sued for the Scottish crown in vain (1269-1304). 

BRUCE, ROBERT, king of Scotland, son of the preceding, did homagefor a time to Edward, but joined the national party and became one of aregency of four, with Comyn for rival; stabbed Comyn in a quarrel atDumfries, 1306, and was that same year crowned king at Scone; wasdefeated by an army sent against him, and obliged to flee to Rathlin, Ireland; returned and landed in Carrick; cleared the English out of allthe fortresses except Stirling, and on 24th June 1314 defeated theEnglish under Edward II. At Bannockburn, after which, in 1328, theindependence of Scotland was acknowledged as well as Bruce's right to thecrown; suffering from leprosy, spent his last two years at CardrossCastle, on the Clyde, where he died in the thirty-third year of his reign(1274-1329). 

BRUCIN, an alkaloid, allied in action to strychnine, though muchweaker, being only a twenty-fifth of the strength. 

BRÜCKENAU, small town in Bavaria, 17 m. NW. Of Kissingen, withmineral springs good for nervous and skin diseases. 

BRUCKER, historian of philosophy, born at Augsburg, and a pastorthere; author of "Historia Critica Philosophiæ" (1696-1770). 

BRUEYS, DAVID AUGUSTIN DE, French dramatist, born at Aix, an abbéconverted by Bossuet, and actively engaged in propagating the faith;managed to be joint editor with Palaprat in the production of plays(1650-1725). 

BRUGES (49), cap. Of W. Flanders, in Belgium, intersected by canalscrossed by some 50 bridges, whence its name "Bridges"; one of thesecanals, of considerable depth, connecting it with Ostend; though many ofthem are now, as well as some of the streets, little disturbed bytraffic, in a decayed and a decaying place, having once had a populationof 200, 000; has a number of fine churches, one specially noteworthy, thechurch of Notre Dame; it has several manufactures, textile and chemical, as well as distilleries, sugar-refineries, and shipbuilding yards. 

BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL, a German Egyptologist, born at Berlin; wasassociated with Mariette in his excavations at Memphis; became directorof the School of Egyptology at Cairo; his works on the subject arenumerous, and of great value; _b_. 1827. 

BRÜHL, HEINRICH, COUNT VON, minister of Augustus III. , king ofPoland, an unprincipled man, who encouraged his master, and indulgedhimself, in silly foppery and wasteful extravagance, so that when theSeven Years' War broke out he and his master had to flee from Dresden andseek refuge in Warsaw (1700-1763). 

BRUIN, the bear personified in the German epic of "Reynard the Fox. "

BRUMAIRE, the 18th (i. E. The 9th November 1799, the foggy month), the day when Napoleon, on his return from Egypt, overthrew the Directoryand established himself in power. 

BRUMMELL, BEAU, born in London, in his day the prince of dandies;patronised by the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. ; quarrelled withthe prince; fled from his creditors to Calais, where, reduced todestitution, he lived some years in the same reckless fashion; settled atlength in Caen, where he died insane (1778-1805). 

BRUNCK, an able French Hellenist, classical scholar, and critic, born at Strassburg; edited several classical works, played a perilouspart in the French Revolution; was imprisoned, and, on his release, hadto sell his library in order to live (1729-1803). 

BRUNE, G. MARIE, French marshal, saw service in the Vendéan war andin Italy, distinguished himself under Napoleon in Italy and Holland;submitted to Bourbons in 1814; joined Napoleon on his return from Elba;was appointed to a post of command in the S. Of France, but had tosurrender after Waterloo, and was attacked by a mob of Royalists atAvignon as he was setting out for Paris, and brutally murdered and hisbody thrown into the Rhône (1763-1815). 

BRUNEL, SIR ISAMBARD, engineer, born in Rouen, entered the Frenchnavy, emigrated to the United States; was chief engineer of New York;settled in England, became block-maker to the Royal Navy; constructed theThames tunnel, begun in 1825 and finished in 1843 (1759-1849). 

BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM, son of the preceding, assisted his fatherin his engineering operations, in particular the Thames tunnel; wasengineer of the Great Western Railway; designed the _Great Western_steamship, the first to cross the Atlantic; was the first to apply thescrew propeller to steam navigation; designed and constructed the _GreatEastern_; constructed bridges and naval docks (1806-1859). 

BRUNELLESCHI, Italian architect, born in Florence, bred a goldsmith, studied at Rome; returned to his native city, built the Duomo of theCathedral, the Pitti Palace, and the churches of San Lorenzo and SpiritoSanto (1377-1444). 

BRUNETIÈRE, French critic, connected with the _Revue des DeuxMondes_ and now editor; a very sound and sensible critic; his chief work, begun in the form of lectures in 1890, entitled "L'Évolution des Genresde l'Histoire de la Littérature Française"; according to Prof. Saintsbury, promises to be one of the chief monuments that the really"higher" criticism has yet furnished; _b_. 1849. 

BRUNETTO-LATINI, an Italian writer, who played an important partamong the Guelfs, and was obliged to flee to Paris, where he had Dantefor a pupil (1220-1294). 

BRUNHILDA, a masculine queen in the "Nibelungen Lied" who offered tomarry the man that could beat her in feats of strength, was deceived bySiegfried into marrying Gunther, and meditated the death of Siegfried, who had married her rival Chriemhilda, which she accomplished by the handof Hagen. Also a queen of Austrasia, who, about the 7th century, had alifelong quarrel with Fredegunde, queen of Neustria, the other divisionof the Frankish world, which at her death she seized possession of for atime, but was overthrown by Clothaire II. , Fredegunde's son, and draggedto death at the heels of an infuriated wild horse. 

BRUNI, LEONARDO, Italian humanist, born at Arezzo, hence calledAretino; was papal secretary; settled in Florence, and wrote a history ofit; did much by his translations of Greek authors to promote the study ofGreek (1369-1444). 

BRÜNN (95), Austrian city, capital of Moravia, beautifully situated, 93 m. N. Of Vienna, with large manufactures; woollens the staple of thecountry; about one-half of the population Czechs. 

BRUNNOW, COUNT VON, a Russian diplomatist, born at Dresden;represented Russia in several conferences, and was twice ambassador atthe English Court (1797-1875). 

BRUNO, GIORDANO, a bold and fervid original thinker, born at Nola, in Italy; a Dominican monk, quitted his monastery, in fact, was forheterodoxy obliged to flee from it; attached himself to Calvin for atime, went for more freedom to Paris, attacked the scholastic philosophy, had to leave France as well; spent two years in England in friendshipwith Sir Philip Sidney, propagated his views in Germany and Italy, wasarrested by the Inquisition, and after seven years spent in prison wasburned as a heretic; he was a pantheist, and regarded God as the livingomnipresent soul of the universe, and Nature as the living garment ofGod, as the Earth-Spirit does in Goethe's "Faust"--a definition of Naturein relation to God which finds favour in the pages of "Sartor Resartus";_d_. 1600. 

BRUNO, ST. , born at Cologne, retired to a lonely spot near Grenoblewith six others, where each lived in cells apart, and they met only onSundays; founder of the Carthusian Order of Monks, the first house ofwhich was established in the desert of Chartreuse (1030-1101). Festival, Oct. 6. 

BRUNO THE GREAT, third son of Henry the Fowler; archbishop ofCologne, chancellor of the Empire, a great lover of learning, andpromoter of it among the clergy, who he thought should, before all, represent and encourage it (928-965). 

BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, a system which regards and treats diseases as dueto defective or excessive excitation, as sthenic or asthenic. SeeBROWN, JOHN. 

BRUNSWICK (404), a N. German duchy, made up of eight detached parts, mostly in the upper basin of the Weser; is mountainous, and contains partof the Harz Mts. ; climate and crops are those of N. Germany generally. BRUNSWICK (101), the capital, a busy commercial town, once a memberof the Hanseatic League, and fell into comparative decay after the decayof the League, on the Oker, 140 m. SW. Of Berlin; an irregularly builtcity, it has a cathedral, and manufactures textiles, leather, andsewing-machines. 

BRUNSWICK, CHARLES WILLIAM, DUKE OF, Prussian general, commanded thePrussian and Austrian forces levied to put down the French Revolution;emitted a violent, blustering manifesto, but a Revolutionary army underDumouriez and Kellermann met him at Valmy, and compelled him to retreatin 1792; was beaten by Davout at Auerstädt, and mortally wounded(1735-1806). 

BRUNSWICK, FREDERICK WILLIAM, DUKE OF, brother of Queen Caroline;raised troops against France, which, being embarked for England, tookpart in the Peninsular war; fell fighting at Ligny, two days before thebattle of Waterloo (1771-1815). 

BRUSSELS (477), on the Senne, 27 m. S. Of Antwerp, is the capital ofBelgium, in the heart of the country. The old town is narrow and crooked, but picturesque; the town-hall a magnificent building. The new town iswell built, and one of the finest in Europe. There are many parks, boulevards, and squares; a cathedral, art-gallery, museum and library, university and art schools. It is Paris in miniature. The manufacturesinclude linen, ribbons, and paper; a ship-canal and numerous railwaysfoster commerce. 

BRUTUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS, the founder of Republican Rome, in the 6thcentury B. C. ; affected idiocy (whence his name, meaning stupid); itsaved his life when Tarquin the Proud put his brother to death; but whenTarquin's son committed an outrage on Lucretia, he threw off hisdisguise, headed a revolt, and expelled the tyrant; was elected one ofthe two first Consuls of Rome; sentenced his two sons to death forconspiring to restore the monarchy; fell repelling an attempt to restorethe Tarquins in a hand-to-hand combat with Aruns, one of the sons of thebanished king. 

BRUTUS, MARCUS JUNIUS, a descendant of the preceding, and son ofCato Uticensis's sister; much beloved by Cæsar and Cæsar's friend, butpersuaded by Cassius and others to believe that Cæsar aimed at theoverthrow of the republic; joined the conspirators, and was recognised byCæsar among the conspirators as party to his death; forced to flee fromRome after the event, was defeated at Philippi by Antony and Augustus, but escaped capture by falling on a sword held out to him by one of hisfriends, exclaiming as he did so, "O Virtue, thou art but a name!" (85-42B. C. ). 

BRUYÈRE, a French writer, author of "Charactères de Théophraste, " asatire on various characters and manners of his time (1644-1696). 

BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS, American statesman, born in Salem, Illinois; bred to the bar and practised at it; entered Congress in 1890as an extreme Free Silver man; lost his seat from his uncompromisingviews on that question; was twice nominated for the Presidency inopposition to Mr McKinley, but defeated; _b_. 1860. 

BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN, American poet; his poems were popular inAmerica, the chief, "The Age, " published in 1821; was 50 years editor ofthe _New York Evening Post_; wrote short poems all through his life, someof the later his best (1794-1878). 

BRYCE, JAMES, historian and politician, born at Belfast; Fellow ofOriel College, Oxford; bred to the bar; for a time professor of Civil Lawat Oxford; entered Parliament in 1880; was member of Mr. Gladstone's lastcabinet; his chief literary work, "The Holy Roman Empire, " a work of highliterary merit; _b_. 1838. 

BRYDGES, SIR SAMUEL EGERTON, English antiquary, born at WoottonHouse, in Kent; called to the bar, but devoted to literature; was M. P. For Maidstone for six years; lived afterwards and died at Geneva; wrotenovels and poems, and edited old English writings of interest(1762-1837). 

BUBASTIS, an Egyptian goddess, the Egyptian Diana, the wife of Ptah;and a city in Lower Egypt, on the eastern branch of the Nile. 

BUCCANEERS, an association, chiefly English and French, of piraticaladventurers in the 16th and 17th centuries, with their head-quarters inthe Caribbean Sea, organised to plunder the ships of the Spaniards inresentment of the exclusive right they claimed to the wealth of the S. American continent, which they were carrying home across the sea. 

BUCCLEUCH, a glen 18 m. SW. Of Selkirk, with a stronghold of theScott family, giving the head the title of earl or duke. 

BUCEN`TAUR, the state galley, worked by oars and manned by 168rowers, in which the Doge of Venice used to sail on the occasion of theannual ceremony of wedding anew the Adriatic Sea by sinking a ring init. 

BUCEPH`ALUS (i. E. Ox-head), the horse which Alexander the Great, while yet a youth, broke in when no one else could, and on which he rodethrough all his campaigns; it died in India from a wound. The town, Bucephala, on the Hydaspes, was built near its grave. 

BUCER MARTIN, a German Reformer, born at Strassburg; originally aDominican, adopted the Reformed faith, ministered as pastor and professorin his native place, differed in certain matters from both Luther andZwingli, while he tried to reconcile them; invited by Cranmer to England, he accepted the invitation, and became professor of Divinity atCambridge, where he died, but his bones were exhumed and burned a fewyears later (1491-1551). 

BUCH, LEOPOLD VON, a German geologist, a pupil of Werner andfellow-student of Alexander von Humboldt, who esteemed him highly;adopted the volcanic theory of the earth; wrote no end of scientificmemoirs (1774-1853). 

BUCHAN, a district in the NE. Of Aberdeenshire, between the riversDeveron and Ythan; abounds in magnificent rock scenery. The Comyns wereearls of it till they forfeited the title in 1309. 

BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS, born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, chaplain inBarrackpur under the East India Company, vice-provost of the College atFort William, Calcutta; one of the first to awaken an interest in Indiaas a missionary field; wrote "Christian Researches in Asia" (1756-1815). 

BUCHANAN, GEORGE, a most distinguished scholar and humanist, born atKillearn, Stirlingshire; educated at St. Andrews and Paris; professor forthree years in the College at St. Barbe; returned to Scotland, becametutor to James V. 's illegitimate sons; imprisoned by Cardinal Beaton forsatires against the monks, escaped to France; driven from one place toanother, imprisoned in a monastery in Portugal at the instance of theInquisition, where he commenced his celebrated Latin version of thePsalms; came back to Scotland, was appointed in 1562 tutor to Queen Mary, in 1566 principal of St. Leonard's College, in St. Andrews, in 1567moderator of the General Assembly in 1570 tutor to James VI. , and hadseveral offices of State conferred on him; wrote a "History of Scotland, "and his book "De Jure Regni, " against the tyranny of peoples by kings;died in Edinburgh without enough to bury him; was buried at the publicexpense in Greyfriars' churchyard; when dying, it is said he asked hishousekeeper to examine his money-box and see if there was enough to buryhim, and when he found there was not, he ordered her to distribute whatthere was among his poor neighbours and left it to the city to bury himor not as they saw good (1506-1582). 

BUCHANAN, JAMES, statesman of the United States, was ambassador inLondon in 1853, made President in 1856, the fifteenth in order, at thetime when the troubles between the North and South came to a head, favoured the South, retired after his Presidentship into private life(1791-1868). 

BUCHANAN, ROBERT, a writer in prose and verse, born in Warwickshire, educated at Glasgow University; his first work, "Undertones, " a volume ofverse published by him in 1863, and he has since written a goodly numberof poems, some of them of very high merit, the last "The Wandering Jew, "which attacks the Christian religion; besides novels, has writtenmagazine articles, and one in particular, which involved him in sometrouble; _b_. 1841. 

BUCHANITES, a fanatical sect who appeared in the W. Of Scotland in1783, named after a Mrs. Buchan, who claimed to be the woman mentioned inRev. Xii. 

BUCHAREST (220), capital of Roumania, picturesquely situated on theDambovitza, a tributary of the Danube, in a fertile plain, 180 m. Fromthe Black Sea; is a meanly built but well-fortified town, with thereputation of the most dissolute capital in Europe; there is a Catholiccathedral and a university; it is the emporium of trade between theBalkan and Austria; textiles, grain, hides, metal, and coal are the chiefarticles in its markets. 

BUCHEZ, JOSEPH, a French historian, politician, and Socialist;joined the St. Simonian Society, became a Christian Socialist, and acollaborateur in an important historical work, the "Parliamentary Historyof the French Revolution"; figured in political life after the Revolutionof 1848, but retired to private life after the establishment of theEmpire (1796-1865). 

BÜCHNER, LUDWIG, physician and materialist, born at Darmstadt;lectured at Tübingen University; wrote a book entitled "Kraft und Stoff, "i. E. Force and Matter, and had to retire into private practice as aphysician on account of its materialistic philosophy, which he insistedon teaching (1824-1899). 

BUCHON, a learned Frenchman; wrote chronologies of French history(1791-1846). 

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF, favourite of James I. AndCharles I. , born in Leicestershire; rose under favour of the former tothe highest offices and dignities of the State; provoked by his conductwars with Spain and France; fell into disfavour with the people; wasassassinated at Portsmouth by Lieutenant Felton, on the eve of hisembarking for Rochelle (1592-1628). 

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF, son of the preceding; servedunder Charles I. In the Civil War, was at the battle of Worcester; becameminister of Charles II. ; a profligate courtier and an unprincipled man(1627-1688). 

BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK, traveller and journalist, born in Falmouth;conducted a journal in Calcutta, and gave offence to the East IndiaCompany by his outspokenness; had to return to England, where his causewas warmly taken up; by his writings and speeches paved the way for theabolition of the Company's charter (1784-1855). 

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (185), English S. Midland county, lying E. OfOxford, W. Of Bedford and Hertford, is full of beautiful and variedscenery; hill, dale, wood, and water. The Thames forms the southernboundary, the Ouse flows through the N. , and the Thame through thecentre. The Chiltern Hills cross the county. Agriculture is theprevailing industry; dairy produce, cattle and poultry feeding, and sheeprearing the sources of wealth. The county town is BUCKINGHAM (3), onthe Ouse, 60 m. NW. Of London. 

BUCKLAND, FRANCIS (FRANK), naturalist, son of the succeeding, bredto medicine; devoted to the study of animal life; was inspector of salmonfisheries; wrote "Curiosities of Natural History, " "Familiar History ofBritish Fishes, " &c. ; contributed largely to the journals, such as the_Field_, and edited _Land and Water_, which he started in 1866(1826-1880). 

BUCKLAND, WILLIAM, a distinguished geologist, born at Tiverton; hada predilection from boyhood for natural science; awoke in OxfordUniversity an interest in it by his lectures on mineralogy and geology;his pen was unceasingly occupied with geological subjects; exertedhimself to reconcile the teachings of science with the accounts inGenesis; was made Dean of Westminster by Sir Robert Peel; his intellectgave way in 1850, and he remained in mental weakness till his death(1784-1856). 

BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE, editor of the _Times_, born near Bath; studiedat Oxford, where he distinguished himself; is a Fellow of All Souls'College; became editor in 1884, having previously belonged to theeditorial staff; _b_. 1854. 

BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS, an advanced thinker, born in Lee, in Kent; indelicate health from his infancy, too ambitious for his powers, thoughthimself equal to write the "History of Civilisation in England, " inconnection with that of Europe, tried it, but failed; visited the Eastfor his health, and died at Damascus; his theory as regards thedevelopment of civilisation is, that national character depends onmaterial environment, and that progress depends upon the emancipation ofrationality, an extremely imperfect reading and rendering of the elementsat work, and indeed a total omission of nearly all the more vital ones;he was distinguished as a chess-player (1822-1862). 

BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN, an able comic actor and popular dramatist, born in London; for a long period the lessee of the Haymarket Theatre, London (1802-1870). 

BUDA-PESTH (506), a twin city, the capital of Hungary, on theDanube; Buda (Ger. Ofen) on the right bank and Pesth on the left, the twocities being connected by a suspension bridge, the former on a rockyelevation and the latter on level ground; a great commercial centre. 

BUDASTIS, an ancient town in Lower Egypt, where festivals in honourof Bacchus used to be held every year. 

BUDDHA, GAUTAMA, or SAKYA-MUNI, the founder of Buddhism aboutthe 5th century B. C. , born a Hindu, of an intensely contemplativenature, the son of a king, who did everything in his power to tempt himfrom a religious life, from which, however, in his contemplation of thevanity of existence, nothing could detain him; retired into solitude atthe age of 30, as Sakyamuni, i. E. Solitary of the Sakyas, his tribe;consulted religious books, could get no good out of them, till, by-and-by, he abstracted himself more and more from everything external, when at the end of ten years, as he sat brooding under the Bo-tree alonewith the universe, soul with soul, the light of truth rose full-orbedupon him, and he called himself henceforth and gave himself out asBuddha, i. E. The Enlightened; now he said to himself, "I know it all, "as Mahomet in his way did after him, and became a preacher to others ofwhat had proved salvation to himself, which he continued to do for 40years, leaving behind him disciples, who went forth without sword, likeChrist's, to preach what they, like Christ's, believed was a gospel toevery creature. 

BUDDHISM, the religion of Buddha, a religion which, eschewing allspeculation about God and the universe, set itself solely to the work ofsalvation, the end of which was the merging of the individual in theunity of being, and the "way" to which was the mortification of allprivate passion and desire which mortification, when finished, was theBuddhist Nirvâna. This is the primary doctrine of the Buddhist faith, which erelong became a formality, as all faiths of the kind, or of thishigh order, ever tend to do. Buddha is not answerable for this, but hisfollowers, who in three successive councils resolved it into a system offormulæ, which Buddha, knowing belike how the letter killeth and only thespirit giveth life, never attempted to do. Buddha wrote none himself, butin some 300 years after his death his teachings assumed a canonical form, under the name of Tripitaka, or triple basket, as it is called. Buddhismfrom the first was a proselytising religion; it at one time overran thewhole of India, and though it is now in small favour there, it is, insuch form as it has assumed, often a highly beggarly one, understood tobe the religion of 340 millions of the human race. 

BUDE-LIGHT, a very brilliant light produced by introducing oxygeninto the centre of an Argand burner, so called from the place of theinventor's abode. 

BUDWEIS (28), a Bohemian trading town on the Moldau, 133 m. NW. OfVienna. 

BUENOS AYRES (543), capital of the Argentine Republic, stands on theright bank of the broad but shallow river Plate, 150 m. From theAtlantic; it is a progressing city, improving in appearance, with acathedral, several Protestant churches, a university and military school, libraries and hospitals; printing, cigar-making, cloth and bootmanufacture are the leading industries; it is the principal Argentineport, and the centre of export and import trade; the climate does notcorrespond with the name it bears; a great deal of the foreign trade isconducted through Monte Video, but it monopolises all the inland trade. 

BUFFALO (256), a city of New York State, at the E. End of Lake Erie, 300 m. Due NW. Of New York; is a well-built, handsome, and healthy city;the railways and the Erie Canal are channels of extensive commerce ingrain, cattle, and coal; while immense iron-works, tanneries, breweries, and flour-mills represent the industries; electric power for lighting, traction, &c. , is supplied from Niagara. 

BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE, a great French naturalist, born at Montbard, in Burgundy; his father one of the _noblesse de robe_;studied law at Dijon; spent some time in England, studying the Englishlanguage; devoted from early years to science, though more to the displayof it, and to natural science for life on being appointed intendant ofthe Jardin du Roi; assisted, and more than assisted, by Daubenton andothers, produced 15 vols. Of his world-famous "Histoire Naturelle"between the years 1749 and 1767. The saying "Style is the man" isascribed to him, and he has been measured by some according to his ownstandard. Neither his style nor his science is rated of any high valuenow: "Buffon was as pompous and inflated as his style" (1707-1780). 

BUGEAUD, THOMAS, marshal of France, born at Limoges; served underNapoleon; retired from service till 1830; served under Louis Philippe;contributed to the conquest of Algiers; was made governor, and createdduke for his victory over the forces of the emperor of Morocco at thebattle of Isly in 1844; his motto was _Ense et aratro_, "By sword andplough" (1784-1849). 

BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN, a German Reformer, a convert of Luther's andcoadjutor; helpful to the cause as an organiser of churches and schools(1485-1558). 

BUGGE, Norwegian philologist, professor at Christiania; _b_. 1833. 

BUHL, ornamental work for furniture, which takes its name from theinventor (see INFRA), consisted in piercing or inlaying metal withtortoise-shell or enamel, or with metals of another colour; much infashion in Louis XIV. 's reign. 

BUHL, CHARLES ANDRÉ, an Italian cabinet-maker, inventor of the workwhich bears his name (1642-1732). 

BUKOWINA (640), a small prov. And duchy in the E. OfAustria-Hungary; rich in minerals, breeds cattle and horses. 

BULGARIA, with Eastern Roumelia (3, 154), constitutes a Balkanprincipality larger than Ireland, with hills and fertile plains in theN. , mountains and forests in the S. ; Turkey is the southern boundary, Servia the western, the Danube the northern, while the Black Sea washesthe eastern shores. The climate is mild, the people industrious; thechief export is cereals; manufactures of woollens, attar of roses, wineand tobacco, are staple industries; the chief import is live stock. SOFIA (50), the capital, is the seat of a university. VARNA(28), on the Black Sea, is the principal port. Bulgaria was cut out ofTurkey and made independent in 1878, and Eastern Roumelia incorporatedwith it in 1885. 

BULL, an edict of the Pope, so called from a leaden seal attached toit. 

BULL, GEORGE, bishop of St. Davids, born at Wells; a stanchChurchman; wrote "Harmonia Apostolica" in reconciliation of the teachingsof Paul and James on the matter of justification, and "Defensio FideiNicenæ, " in vindication of the Trinity as enunciated in the ATHANASIANCREED (q. V. ), and denied or modified by Arians, Socinians, andSabellians (1634-1709). 

BULL, JOHN, a humorous impersonation of the collective Englishpeople, conceived of as well-fed, good-natured, honest-hearted, justice-loving, and plain-spoken; the designation is derived fromArbuthnot's satire, "The History of John Bull, " in which the Church ofEngland figures as his mother. 

BULL, OLE BORNEMANN, a celebrated violinist, born in Bergen, Norway, pupil of Paganini; was a wise man at making money, but a fool in spendingit (1810-1880). 

BULL RUN, a stream in Virginia, U. S. , 25 m. From Washington, wherethe Union army was twice defeated by the Confederate, July 1861 andAugust 1862. 

BULLANT, a French architect and sculptor; built the tombs ofMontmorency, Henry II. , and Catherine de Medicis, as well as wrought atthe Tuileries and the Louvre (1510-1578). 

BULLER, CHARLES, a politician, born in Calcutta, pupil of ThomasCarlyle; entered Parliament at 24, a Liberal in politics; helddistinguished State appointments; died in his prime, universally belovedand respected (1806-1848). 

BULLER, GENERAL SIR REDVERS HENRY, served in China, Ashanti, SouthAfrica, Egypt, and the Soudan, with marked distinction in the 60th King'sRoyal Rifles; has held staff appointments, and was for a short timeUnder-Secretary for Ireland; _b_. 1839. 

BULLINGER, HEINRICH, a Swiss Reformer, born in Aargau; friend andsuccessor of Zwingli; assisted in drawing up the Helvetic Confession; wasa correspondent of Lady Jane Grey (1504-1575). 

BULLS AND BEARS, in the Stock Exchange, the bull being one who buysin the hope that the value may rise, and the bear one who sells in thehope that it may fall. See BEAR. 

BÜLOW, BERNARD VON, Foreign Secretary of the German empire; earlyentered the Foreign Office, and has done important diplomatic work inconnection with it, having been secretary to several embassies and chargéd'affaires to Greece during the Russo-Turkish war; _b_. 1850. 

BÜLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, BARON VON, a Prussian general; served hiscountry in the war with Revolutionary France; defeated the French underthe Empire in several engagements, and contributed to the victory atWaterloo, heading the column that first came to Wellington's aid at thedecisive moment (1755-1816). 

BÜLOW, GUIDO VON, a famous pianist, pupil of Liszt (1830-1894). 

BULOZ, a French littérateur, born near Geneva; originator of the_Revue des Deux Mondes_ (1803-1877). 

BULWER, HENRY LYTTON, an experienced and successful diplomatist, served the Liberal interest; was party to the conclusion of severalimportant treaties; wrote several works, "An Autumn in Greece, " a "Lifeof Byron, " &c. (1801-1872). 

BUMBLE, MR. , a beadle in "Oliver Twist. "

BUNAU, a German historian, author of a "History of the Seven Years'War" (1697-1762). 

BUNCOMBE, a district in N. Carolina, for the ears of theconstituency of which a dull speech was some years ago delivered in theU. S. Congress, whence the phrase to "talk Buncombe, " i. E. To pleaseone's constituency. 

BUNDELKHAND (2, 000), a territory in NW. Provinces, India, betweenthe Chambal and the Jumna; has been extensively irrigated at great labourand expense. 

BUNKER HILL, an eminence 112 ft. , now included in Boston, the sceneon 19th June 1775 of the first great battle in the American War ofIndependence. 

BUNSBY, JACK, commander of a ship in "Dombey & Son, " regarded as anoracle by Captain Cuttle. 

BUNSEN, BARON VON, a diplomatist and man of letters, born atKorbach; in Waldeck; studied at Marburg and Göttingen; became acquaintedwith Niebuhr at Berlin; studied Oriental languages under Silvestre deSacy at Paris; became secretary, under Niebuhr, to the Prussian embassyat Rome; recommended himself to the king, and succeeded Niebuhr; becameambassador in Switzerland and then in England; was partial to Englishinstitutions, and much esteemed in England; wrote the "Church of theFuture, " "Hippolytus and his Age, " &c. (1791-1860). 

BUNSEN, ROBERT WILLIAM, a distinguished German chemist, born atGöttingen, settled as professor of Chemistry at Heidelberg; invented thecharcoal pile, the magnesian light, and the burner called after him;discovered the antidote to arsenic, with hydrate of iron and theSPECTRUM ANALYSIS (q. V. ); _b_. 1811. 

BUNSEN BURNER, a small gas-jet above which is screwed a brass tubewith holes at the bottom of it to let in air, which burns with the gas, and causes at the top a non-luminous flame; largely used in chemicaloperations. 

BUNYAN, JOHN, author of the "Pilgrim's Progress, " born in Elstow, near Bedford, the son of a tinker, and bred himself to that humble craft;he was early visited with religious convictions, and brought, after atime of resistance to them, to an earnest faith in the gospel of Christ, his witness for which to his poor neighbours led to his imprisonment, animprisonment which extended first and last over twelve and a half years, and it was towards the close of it, and in the precincts of Bedford jail, in the spring of 1676, that he dreamed his world-famous dream; heretwo-thirds of it were written, the whole finished the year after, andpublished at the end of it; extended, it came out eventually in twoparts, but it is the first part that is the Pilgrim's Progress, andensures it the place it holds in the religious literature of the world;encouraged by the success of it--for it leapt into popularity at abound--Bunyan wrote some sixty other books, but except this, hismasterpiece, not more than two of these, "Grace Abounding" and the "HolyWar, " continue to be read (1628-1688). 

BUONTALENTI, an Italian artist, born at Florence, one of thegreatest, being, like Michael Angelo, at once architect, painter, andsculptor (1536-1608). 

BURBAGE, RICHARD, English tragedian, born in London, associate ofShakespeare, took the chief rôle in "Hamlet, " "King Lear, " "RichardIII. , " &c. (1562-1618). 

BURCHELL, MR. , a character in the "Vicar of Wakefield, " noted forhis habit of applying "fudge" to everything his neighbours affected tobelieve. 

BURCKHARDT, Swiss historian and archæologist, born at Bâle, authorof "Civilisation in Italy during the Renaissance"; _b_. 1818. 

BURCKHARDT, JOHN LUDVIG, traveller, born at Lausanne, sent out fromEngland by the African Association to explore Africa; travelled by way ofSyria; acquired a proficiency in Arabic, and assumed Arabic customs;pushed on to Mecca as a Mussulman pilgrim--the first Christian to risksuch a venture; returned to Egypt, and died at Cairo just as he waspreparing for his African exploration; his travels were published afterhis death, and are distinguished for the veracious reports of things theycontain (1784-1817). 

BURDER, GEORGE, Congregational minister, became secretary to theLondon Missionary Society, author of "Village Sermons, " which were oncewidely popular (1752-1832). 

BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS, a popular member of Parliament, marriedSophia, the youngest daughter of Thomas Coutts, a wealthy London banker, and acquired through her a large fortune; becoming M. P. , he resolutelyopposed the government measures of the day, and got himself into serioustrouble; advocated radical measures of reform, many of which have sincebeen adopted; was prosecuted for a libel; fined £1000 for condemning thePeterloo massacre, and imprisoned three months; joined the Conservativeparty in 1835, and died a member of it (1770-1844). 

BURDETT-COUTTS, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE ANGELA GEORGINA, BARONESS, daughter of Sir Francis, inherited the wealth of Thomas Coutts, hergrandfather, which she has devoted to all manner of philanthropic as wellas patriotic objects; was made a peeress in 1871; received the freedom ofthe city of London in 1874, and in 1881 married Mr. William LehmanAshmead-Bartlett, an American, who obtained the royal license to assumethe name of Burdett-Coutts; _b_. 1804. 

BUREAU, a name given to a department of public administration, hencebureaucracy, a name for government by bureaux. 

BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST, a German lyric poet, author of the ballads"Lenore, " which was translated by Sir Walter Scott, and "The WildHuntsman, " as well as songs; led a wild life in youth, and a very unhappyone in later years; died in poverty (1747-1794). 

BURGKMAIR, HANS, painter and engraver, born at Augsburg; celebratedfor his woodcuts, amounting to nearly 700 (1473-1531). 

BURGOS (34), ancient cap. Of Old Castile, on the Arlanzon, 225 m. N. Of Madrid by rail; boasts a magnificent cathedral of the Early Pointedperiod, and an old castle; was the birthplace of the Cid, and once auniversity seat; it has linen and woollen industries. 

BURGOYNE, JOHN, English general, and distinguished as the last sentout to subdue the revolt in the American colonies, and, after a victoryor two, being obliged to capitulate to General Gates at Saratoga, fellinto disfavour; defended his conduct with ability and successfullyafterwards; devoted his leisure to poetry and the drama, the "Heiress" inthe latter his best (1723-1792). 

BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN, field-marshal, joined the Royal Engineers, served under Abercromby in Egypt, and under Sir John Moore and Wellingtonin Spain; was present at the battles of Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman inthe Crimea; was governor of the Tower (1782-1871). 

BURGUNDY was, prior to the 16th century, a Teutonic duchy of varyingextent in the SE. And E. Of France; annexed to France as a province inthe 6th century; the country is still noted for its wines. 

BURHANPUR (32), a town in the Central Provinces of India, in theNimar district, 280 m. NE. Of Bombay; was at one time a centre of theMogul power in the Deccan, and a place of great extent; is now incomparative decay, but still famous, as formerly, for its muslins, silks, and brocades. 

BURIDAN, JEAN, a scholastic doctor of the 14th century, born inArtois, and famous as the reputed author, though there is no evidence ofit in his works, of the puzzle of the hungry and thirsty ass, calledafter him Buridan's Ass, between a bottle of hay and a pail of water, afavourite illustration of his in discussing the freedom of the will. 

BURKE, EDMUND, orator and philosophic writer, born at Dublin, andeducated at Dublin University; entered Parliament in 1765; distinguishedhimself by his eloquence on the Liberal side, in particular by hisspeeches on the American war, Catholic emancipation, and economicalreform; his greatest oratorical efforts were his orations in support ofthe impeachment of Warren Hastings; he was a resolute enemy of the FrenchRevolution, and eloquently denounced it in his "Reflections, " a weightyappeal; wrote in early life two small but notable treatises, "AVindication of Natural Society, " and another on our ideas of the "Sublimeand Beautiful, " which brought him into contact with the philosophicintellects of the time, and sometime after planned the "Annual Register, "to which he was to the last chief contributor. "He was, " says ProfessorSaintsbury, "a rhetorician (i. E. An expert in applying the art ofprose literature to the purpose of suasion), and probably the greatestthat modern times has ever produced" (1730-1797). 

BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD, genealogist, born in London, of Irishdescent, author of the "Peerage and Baronetage of the United Kingdom";produced, besides editing successive editions of it, a number of works onaristocratic genealogies (1815-1892). 

BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA, Australian explorer, born in Galway; conductedan expedition across Australia, but on the way back both he and hiscompanion Wells perished, after terrible sufferings from privation anddrought (1820-1861). 

BURKE, WILLIAM, a notorious murderer, native of Ireland; executed in1828 for wholesale murders of people in Edinburgh by suffocation, afterintoxicating them with drink, whose bodies he sold for dissection to anEdinburgh anatomist of the name of Knox, whom the citizens mobbed; he hadan accomplice as bad as himself, who, becoming informer, got off. 

BURKITT, WILLIAM, Biblical expositor, born in Suffolk; author of"Expository Notes on the New Testament, " once held in high esteem(1650-1703). 

BURLEIGH, WILLIAM CECIL, LORD, a great statesman, born inLincolnshire; bred to the legal profession, and patronised and promotedby the Protector Somerset; managed to escape the Marian persecution;Queen Elizabeth recognised his statesman-like qualities, and appointedhim chief-secretary of state, an office which, to the glory of the queenand the good of the country, he held for forty years, till his death. Hisadministration was conducted in the interest of the commonweal withoutrespect of persons, and nearly all his subordinates were men of honour aswell as himself (1520-1598). 

BURLINGAME, ANSON, American diplomatist; sent ambassador to China, and returned as Chinese envoy to the American and European courts;concluded treaties between them and China (1820-1870). 

BURMA (9, 606), a vast province of British India, lying E. Of the Bayof Bengal, and bounded landward by Bengal, Tibet, China, and Siam; thecountry is mountainous, drained by the Irawadi, Salween, and SittangRivers, whose deltas are flat fertile plains; the heights on the Chinesefrontier reach 15, 000 ft; the climate varies with the elevation, but ismostly hot and trying; rice is the chief crop; the forests yield teak, gum, and bamboo; the mines, iron, copper, lead, silver, and rubies. LowerBurma is the coast-land from Bengal to Siam, cap. Rangoon, and was seizedby Britain in 1826 and 1854. Upper Burma, cap. Mandalay, an empire nearlyas large as Spain, was annexed in 1886. 

BURN, RICHARD, English vicar, born in Westmoreland; compiled severallaw digests, the best known his "Justice of the Peace" and"Ecclesiastical Law" (1709-1785). 

BURNABY, COLONEL, a traveller of daring adventure, born at Bedford, a tall, powerful man; Colonel of the Horse Guards Blue; travelled inSouth and Central America, and with Gordon in the Soudan; was chieflydistinguished for his ride to Khiva in 1875 across the steppes ofTartary, of which he published a spirited account, and for his travelsnext year in Asia Minor and Persia, and his account of them in "OnHorseback through Asia Minor"; killed, pierced by an Arab spear, at AbuKlea as he was rallying a broken column to the charge; he was a daringaëronaut, having in 1882 crossed the Channel to Normandy in a balloon(1842-1885). 

BURNAND, FRANCIS COWLEY, editor of _Punch_; studied for the Church, and became a Roman Catholic; an expert at the burlesque, and author of aseries of papers, entitled "Happy Thoughts, " which give evidence of amost keen, observant wit: _b_. 1836. 

BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD, artist, born at Birmingham, of Welshdescent; came early under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, and all along produced works imbued with the spirit of it, which is atonce mystical in conception and realistic in execution; he was one of theforemost, if not the foremost, of the artists of his day; imbued withideas that were specially capable of art-treatment; William Morris and hewere bosom friends from early college days at Oxford, and used to spendtheir Sunday mornings together (1831-1898). 

BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER, born at Montrose, his father a cousin ofRobert Burns; was an officer in the Indian army; distinguished for theservices he rendered to the Indian Government through his knowledge ofthe native languages; appointed Resident at Cabul; was murdered, alongwith his brother and others, by an Afghan mob during an Insurrection(1805-1841). 

BURNET, GILBERT, bishop of Salisbury, born at Edinburgh, of an oldAberdeen family; professor of Divinity in Glasgow; afterwards preacher atthe Rolls Chapel, London; took an active part in supporting the claims ofthe Prince of Orange to the English throne; was rewarded with abishopric, that of Salisbury; wrote the "History of the Reformation, " an"Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, " the "History of His Own Times";he was a Whig in politics, a broad Churchman in creed, and a man ofstrict moral principle as well as Christian charity; the most famous ofhis works is his "History of His Own Times, " a work which Pope, Swift, and others made the butt of their satire (1643-1715). 

BURNET, JOHN, engraver and author, born at Fisherrow; engravedWilkie's works, and wrote on art (1784-1868). 

BURNET, THOMAS, master of the Charterhouse, born in Yorkshire, author of the "Sacred Theory of the Earth, " eloquent in descriptiveparts, but written wholly in ignorance of the facts (1635-1715). 

BURNETT, FRANCES HODGSON, novelist, born in Manchester, resident fora time in America; wrote "That Lass o' Lowrie's, " and other stories ofLancashire manufacturing life, characterised by shrewd observation, pathos, and descriptive power; _b_. 1849. 

BURNEY, CHARLES, musical composer and organist, born at Shrewsbury;a friend of Johnson's; author of "The History of Music, " and the fatherof Madame d'Arblay; settled in London as a teacher of music (1726-1814). 

BURNEY, CHARLES, son of preceding, a great classical scholar; left afine library, purchased by the British Museum for £13, 500 (1757-1817). 

BURNEY, JAMES, brother of preceding, rear-admiral, accompanied Cookin his last two voyages; wrote "History of Voyages of Discovery"(1750-1821). 

BURNLEY (87), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 27 m. N. OfManchester; with cotton mills, foundries, breweries, &c. 

BURNOUF, EUGENE, an illustrious Orientalist, born in Paris;professor of Sanskrit in the College of France; an authority on Zend orZoroastrian literature; edited the text of and translated the "BhâgavataPurána, " a book embodying Hindu mythology; made a special study ofBuddhism; wrote an introduction to the history of the system (1801-1852). 

BURNS, JOHN, politician and Socialist, born at Vauxhall, of humbleparentage; bred to be an engineer; imbibed socialistic ideas from afellow-workman, a Frenchman, a refugee of the Commune from Paris; becamea platform orator in the interest of Socialism, and popular among theworking class; got into trouble in consequence; was four times electedmember of the London County Council for Battersea; and has been twiceover chosen to represent that constituency in Parliament; _b_. 1858. 

BURNS, ROBERT, celebrated Scottish poet, born at Alloway, near Ayr, in 1759, son of an honest, intelligent peasant, who tried farming in asmall way, but did not prosper; tried farming himself on his father'sdecease in 1784, but took to rhyming by preference; driven desperate inhis circumstances, meditated emigrating to Jamaica, and published a fewpoems he had composed to raise money for that end; realised a few poundsthereby, and was about to set sail, when friends and admirers ralliedround him and persuaded him to stay; he was invited to Edinburgh; hispoems were reprinted, and money came in; soon after he married, and tooka farm, but failing, accepted the post of exciseman in Dumfries; fellinto bad health, and died in 1796, aged 37. "His sun shone as through atropical tornado, and the pale shadow of death eclipsed it at noon. .. . Tothe ill-starred Burns was given the power of making man's life morevenerable, but that of wisely guiding his own life was not given. .. . Andthat spirit, which might have soared could it but have walked, soon sankto the dust, its glorious faculties trodden under foot in the blossom;and died, we may almost say, without ever having lived. " See Carlyle's"Miscellanies" for by far the justest and wisest estimate of both the manand the poet that has yet by any one been said or sung. He is at his bestin his "Songs, " he says, which he thinks "by far the best that Britainhas yet produced. .. . In them, " he adds, "he has found a tune and wordsfor every mood of man's heart; in hut and hall, as the heart unfoldsitself in many-coloured joy and woe of existence, the _name_, the _voice_of that joy and that woe, is the name and voice which Burns has giventhem. "

BURRA-BURRA, a copper-mine in S. Australia, about 103 m. NE. OfAdelaide. 

BURRARD INLET, an inlet of river Fraser, in British Columbia, forming one of the best harbours on the Pacific coast. 

BURRITT, ELIHU, a blacksmith, born in Connecticut; devoted to thestudy of languages, of which he knew many, both ancient and modern; bestknown as the unwearied Advocate of Peace all over America and a greatpart of Europe, on behalf of which he ruined his voice (1810-1879). 

BURROUGHS, JOHN, popular author, born in New York; a farmer, acultured man, with a great liking for country life and natural objects, on which he has written largely and _con amore_; _b_. 1837. 

BURRUS, a Roman general, who with Seneca had the conduct of Nero'seducation, and opposed his tyrannical acts, till Nero, weary of hisexpostulations, got rid of him by poison. 

BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of students in the interest of Germanliberation and unity; formed in 1813, and broken up by the Government in1819. 

BURSLEM (31), a pottery-manufacturing town in Staffordshire, and the"mother of the potteries"; manufactures porcelain and glass. 

BURTON, JOHN HILL, historian and miscellaneous writer, born atAberdeen; an able man, bred for the bar; wrote articles for the leadingreviews and journals, "Life of Hume, " "History of Scotland, " "TheBook-Hunter, " "The Scot Abroad, " &c. ; characterised by Lord Rosebery as a"dispassionate historian"; was Historiographer-Royal for Scotland(1809-1881). 

BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS, traveller, born in Hertfordshire;served first as a soldier in Scind under Sir C. Napier; visited Mecca andMedina as an Afghan pilgrim; wrote an account of his visit in his"Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage, &c. "; penetrated Central Africaalong with Captain Speke, and discovered Lake Tanganyika; visited Utah, and wrote "The City of the Saints"; travelled in Brazil, Palestine, andWestern Africa, accompanied through many a hardship by his devoted wife;translated the "Arabian Nights"; his works on his travels numerous, andshow him to have been of daring adventure (1821-1890). 

BURTON, ROBERT, an English clergyman, born in Leicestershire;Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford; lived chiefly in Oxford, spending histime in it for some 50 years in study; author of "The Anatomy ofMelancholy, " which he wrote to alleviate his own depression of mind, abook which is a perfect mosaic of quotations on every conceivable topic, familiar and unfamiliar, from every manner of source (1576-1640). SeeANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY. 

BURTON-ON-TRENT (46), a town in Staffordshire; brews and exportslarge quantities of ale, the water of the place being peculiarly suitablefor brewing purposes. 

BURY (56), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 10 m. NW. OfManchester; originally but a small place engaged in woollen manufacture, but cotton is now the staple manufacture in addition to paper-works, dye-works, &c. 

BURY ST. EDMUNDS, or ST. EDMUNDSBURY (16), a market-town inSuffolk, 26 m. NW. Of Ipswich, named from Edmund, king of East Anglia, martyred by the Danes in 870, in whose honour it was built; famous forits abbey, of the interior life of which in the 12th century there is amatchlessly graphic account in CARLYLE'S "PAST AND PRESENT. "

BUSA`CO, a mountain ridge in the prov. Of Beira, Portugal, whereWellington with 40, 000 troops beat Masséna with 65, 000. 

BUSBY, RICHARD, distinguished English schoolmaster, born at Lutton, Lincolnshire; was head-master of Winchester School; had a number ofeminent men for his pupils, among others Dryden, Locke, and South(1606-1695). 

BÜSCHING, ANTON FRIEDRICH, a celebrated German geographer; his"Erdbeschreibung, " the first geographical work of any scientific merit;gives only the geography of Europe (1724-1793). 

BUSHIRE (27), the chief port of Persia on the Persian Gulf, and agreat trading centre. 

BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, aborigines of South-west Africa; arude, nomadic race, at one time numerous, but now fast becoming extinct. 

BUSHRANGERS, in Australia a gang made up of convicts who escaped tothe "bush, " and there associated with other desperadoes; at one timecaused a great deal of trouble in the colony by their maraudings. 

BUSIRIS, a king of Egypt who used to offer human beings insacrifice; seized Hercules and bound him to the altar, but Herculessnapped the bonds he was bound with, and sacrificed him. 

BUSK, HANS, one of the originators of the Volunteer movement, bornin Wales; author of "The Rifle, and How to Use it" (1815-1882). 

BUSKIN, a kind of half-boot worn after the custom of hunters as partof the costume of actors in tragedy on the ancient Roman stage, and asynonym for tragedy. 

BUTE, an island in the Firth of Clyde, about 16 m. Long and from 3to 5 broad, N. Of Arran, nearly all the Marquis of Bute's property, withhis seat at Mount Stuart, and separated from the mainland on the N. By awinding romantic arm of the sea called the "Kyles of Bute. "

BUTE, JOHN STUART, THIRD EARL OF, statesman, born of an old Scotchfamily; Secretary of State, and from May 1762 to April 1763 PrimeMinister under George III. , over whom he had a great influence; was veryunpopular as a statesman, his leading idea being the supremacy of theking; spent the last 24 years of his life in retirement, devoting himselfto literature and science (1712-1792). 

BUTE, MARQUIS OF, son of the second marquis, born in Bute; admittedto the Roman Catholic Church in 1868; devoted to archæological studies, and interested in university education; _b_. 1849. 

BUTLER, ALBAN, hagiographer, born in Northampton; head of thecollege at St. Omer; wrote "Lives of the Saints" (1710-1773). 

BUTLER, CHARLES, an English barrister, born in London; wrote"Historical Account of the Laws against the Catholics" (1750-1832). 

BUTLER, JOSEPH, an eminent English divine, born at Wantage, inBerks; born a Dissenter; conformed to the Church of England; becamepreacher at the Rolls, where he delivered his celebrated "Sermons, " thefirst three of which contributed so much to the stability of moralscience; was raised, in virtue of his merits alone, to the see ofBristol; made dean of St. Paul's, and finally bishop of Durham; his greatwork, "The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitutionand Course of Nature, " the aim of which is twofold--first, to show thatthe objections to revealed religion are equally valid against theconstitution of nature; and second, to establish a conformity between thedivine order in revelation and the order of nature; his style is far frominteresting, and is often obscure (1692-1752). 

BUTLER, SAMUEL, a master of burlesque, born at Strensham, inWorcestershire, the son of a small farmer; the author of "Hudibras, " apoem of about 10, 000 octosyllabic lines, in which he subjects to ridiculethe ideas and manners of the English Puritans of the Civil War and theCommonwealth; it appeared in three parts, the first in 1663, the secondsoon after, and the third in 1678; it is sparkling with wit, yet is hardreading, and few who take it up read it through; was an especialfavourite with Charles II. , who was never weary of quoting from it. "Itrepresents, " says Stopford Brooke, "the fierce reaction that (at theRestoration) had set in against Puritanism. It is justly famed, " he adds, "for wit, learning, good sense, and ingenious drollery, and, inaccordance with the new criticism, is absolutely without obscurity. It isoften as terse as Pope's best work; but it is too long; its wit weariesus at last, and it undoes the force of its attacks on the Puritans by itsexaggeration" (1612-1680). 

BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER, a philosophical writer, born near Clonmel, Ireland; professor of Moral Philosophy at Dublin; author of "Lectures onthe History of Ancient Philosophy" (1814-1848). 

BUTT, CLARA, operatic singer, born in Sussex; made her _début_ inLondon at the Albert Hall in the "Golden Legend, " and in "Orfeo" at theLyceum, ever since which appearances she has been much in demand as asinger; _b_. 1872. 

BUTT, ISAAC, Irish patriot, distinguished for his scholarship atDublin University; became editor of the _Dublin University Magazine_;entered Parliament, and at length took the lead of the "Home Rule" party, but could not control it, and retired (1813-1879). 

BUTTMANN, PHILIPP, a German philologist, born atFrankfort-on-the-Main; professor of Philology in Berlin; best known byhis "Greek Grammar" (1764-1829). 

BUXTON, a high-lying town in Derbyshire, noted for its calcareousand chalybeate springs, and a resort for invalids; is also famous for itsrock crystals, stalactite cavern, and fine scenery. 

BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, a philanthropist, born in Essex, a tallman of energetic character; entered life as a brewer, and made hisfortune; was conspicuous for his interest in benevolent movements, suchas the amelioration of criminal law and the abolition of slavery;represented Weymouth in Parliament from 1818 to 1837; was made a baronetin 1840; he was Wilberforce's successor (1786-1845). 

BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, once governor of S. Australia, grandsonof the preceding; educated at Harrow and Cambridge; a Liberal inpolitics, and member for King's Lynn from 1865 to 1868; a philanthropistand Evangelical Churchman; _b_. 1837. 

BUXTORF, a celebrated Hebraist, born in Westphalia, member of afamily of Orientalists; professor of Hebrew for 39 years at Basle; wasknown by the title, "Master of the Rabbis" (1564-1629). 

BYBLIS, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Miletus, in love withher brother Caunus, whom she pursued into far lands, till, worn out withsorrow, she was changed into a fountain. 

BYNG, GEORGE, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON, admiral, favoured the Prince ofOrange, and won the navy over to his interest; commanded the squadronthat took Gibraltar in 1704: conquered the Spaniards off Cape Passaro;was made First Lord of the Admiralty in 1727, an office he held till hisdeath (1663-1733). 

BYNG, JOHN, admiral, fourth son of the preceding; having failed tocompel the French to raise the blockade of Minorca, was recalled, indeference to popular clamour, and being tried and condemned as guilty oftreason, was shot at Portsmouth, a fate it is now believed he did notdeserve, and which he bore like a man and a Christian (1704-1757). 

BYROM, JOHN, poet and stenographer, born near Manchester; invented asystem of shorthand, now superseded, and which he had the sole right ofteaching for 21 years; contributed as "John Shadow" to the _Spectator_;author of the pastoral, "My Time, O ye Muses, was Happily Spent"; hispoetry satirical and genial (1692-1763). 

BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, SIXTH LORD, an English poet, born in London, son of Captain Byron of the Guards, and Catherine Gordon of Gight, Aberdeenshire; spent his boyhood at Aberdeen under his mother, now awidow, and was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, spending, when at thelatter, his vacations in London, where his mother had taken a house;wrote "Hours of Idleness, " a poor first attempt, which called forth asevere criticism in the _Edinburgh Review_, and which he satirised in"English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, " and soon afterwards left Englandand spent two years in foreign travel; wrote first part of "ChildeHarold, " "awoke one morning and found himself famous"; produced the"Giaour, " "Bride of Abydos, " "Hebrew Melodies, " and other work. In hisschool days he had fallen in love with Mary Chaworth, but she had notreturned his affection, and in 1815 he married Miss Millbank, an heiress, who in a year left him never to return, when a storm raised against himon account of his private life drove him from England, and he never cameback; on the Continent, moved from place to place, finished "ChildeHarold, " completed several short poems, and wrote "Don Juan"; threwhimself into revolutionary movements in Italy and Greece, risked his allin the emancipation of the latter, and embarking in it, died atMissolonghi in a fit, at the age of 36. His poems, from the character ofthe passion that breathed in them, made a great impression on his age, but the like interest in them is happily now passing away, if not alreadypast; the earth is looking green again once more, under the breath, it isbelieved, of a new spring-time, or anyhow, the promise of such. See"Organic Filaments" in "Sartor Resartus" (1788-1824). 

BYRON, HENRY JAMES, dramatist, born in Manchester, wrote "Our Boys"(1834-1884). 

BYRON, JOHN, naval officer, grandfather of the poet, nicknamed fromhis misfortunes "Foul-weather Jack"; accompanied Anson in his voyageround the world, but was wrecked in his ship the _Wager_; suffered almostunexampled hardships, of which he wrote a classical account on his safereturn home; he rose to the rank of admiral, and commanded the squadronin the West Indies during the American war; died in England (1723-1786). 

BYRSA, a celebrated citadel of Carthage. 

BYZANTINE ART, a decorative style of art patronised by the Romansafter the seat of empire was removed to the East; it has been describedby Mr. Fairholt as "an engraftment of Oriental elaboration of detail uponclassic forms, ending in their debasement. "

BYZANTINE EMPIRE, called also the Eastern, the Lower, or the GreekEmpire; dates from 395 A. D. , when, by the death of Theodosius, the Romanempire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, theEastern section falling to the share of the former, who established theseat of his government at Byzantium; the empire included Syria, AsiaMinor, Pontus, Egypt in Africa, and Ancient Greece, and it lasted withvaried fortune for ten centuries after the accession of Arcadius, tillConstantinople was taken by the Turks in 1453. 

BYZANTIUM, the ancient name of Constantinople; founded by Greekcolonists in 667 B. C. 

C

CAABA, an ancient Arab temple, a small square structure in the grandmosque of Mecca, with a mysterious black stone, probably an aerolite, built in it, on which all pilgrims who visit the shrine imprint a kiss;"the Keblah of all Moslem, the eyes of innumerable praying men beingturned towards it from all the quarters of the compass five times a day. "

CABAL`, a secret intriguing faction in a State, a name applied to ajunto of five ministers of Charles II. In power from 1668 to 1673, theinitials of whose names go to make up the word; their names wereClifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale; derived fromCABALA (q. V. ). 

CAB`ALA, a secret science alleged to have been divinely imparted toMoses and preserved by tradition, by means of which the Rabbis affectedto interpret the pretended mystic sense of the words, letters, and veryaccents of the Hebrew Scriptures, a science which really owes itsexistence to a dissatisfaction in the rabbinical mind with thetraditional literal interpretation, and a sense that there is more inScripture than meets the ear. The name comes from a Hebrew wordsuggesting "to receive, " and denotes "that which is received" ortradition. 

CABALLERO, FERNAN, the _nom de plume_ of Cecilia Boehl, a popularSpanish authoress, born in Switzerland, of German descent; a collector offolk tales; wrote charmingly; told stories of Spanish, particularlyAndalusian, peasant life (1797-1877). 

CABANEL, ALEXANDRE, a French painter, born at Montpellier(1828-1889). 

CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE, a celebrated French medical man, bornin Cosnac, in the dep. Of Charente Inférieure, a pronounced materialistin philosophy, and friend of Mirabeau; attended him in his last illness, and published an account of it; his materialism was of the grossest;treated the soul as a nonentity; and held that the brain secretes thoughtjust as the liver secretes bile (1757-1808). 

CABEL, a celebrated painter of the Dutch school, born at Ryswick(1631-1698). 

CABET, ÉTIENNE, a French communist, born in Dijon; a leader of theCarbonari; provoked prosecution, and fled to England; wrote a history ofthe First Revolution, in which he defended the Jacobins; author of the"Voyage en Icarie, " in description of a communistic Utopia, which becamethe text-book of a communistic sect called "Icarians, " a body of whom heheaded to carry out his schemes in America, first in Texas and then atNauvoo, but failed; died at St. Louis broken-hearted (1788-1856). 

CABI`RI, certain mysterious demonic beings to whom mystic honourswere paid in Lemnos and elsewhere in Greece, in connection withnature-worship, and especially with that of DEMETER andDIONYSUS (q. V. ). 

CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON, a journalist, born at New Orleans, haswritten interestingly on, and created an interest in, Creole life inAmerica; _b_. 1844. 

CABOT, GIOVANNI, a Venetian pilot, born at Genoa, settled inBristol, entered the service of Henry VII. , and discovered part of themainland of N. America, at Labrador, about 1497: _d_. 1498. 

CABOT, SEBASTIAN, son of the preceding, born either in Venice orBristol; accompanied his father to N. America; sought service as anavigator, first in Spain then in England, but failed; returned to Spain;attempted under Charles V. To plant colonies in Brazil with no success, for which he was imprisoned and banished; was the first to notice thevariation of the magnetic needle, and to open up to England trade withRussia (1474-1557). 

CABRAL, PEDRO ALVAREZ, a Portuguese navigator, sailing for theIndies, drifted on the coast of Brazil, on which he planted thePortuguese flag, 1500, and of which he is accounted by some thediscoverer, continued his course, and established a factory at Calicut in1501 (1460-1526). 

CABRE`RA, one of the Balearic Isles, used as a penal settlement bySpain, produces wild olives. 

CABRERA, a Spanish general, born at Tortosa, Catalonia, a zealoussupporter of the claims of Don Carlos, took up arms in his behalf; diedin England; he was an unscrupulous adversary (1810-1877). 

CABUL`, or KABUL (50), cap. Of a province of the name inAfghanistan, in a mild climate, on an elevated plateau of greatfertility, 6000 ft. In height, on the high route between Central Asia andthe Punjab, a great highway of trade, and a depôt for European goods. 

CACCIA, Italian fresco-painter, did altar-pieces; his best work, "Deposition from the Cross, " at Novara; _d_. 1625. 

CACERAS (350), a Spanish province in the N. Of Estremadura; the namealso of its capital (14), famous for its bacon and sausages, as theprovince is for cattle-rearing. 

CACHAR (313), a great tea-growing district in Assam. 

CACHE, name given in Canada to a hole in the ground for hidingprovisions when they prove cumbersome to carry. 

CACHET, LETTRE DE, a warrant issued in France before the Revolution, under the royal seal, for the arrest and imprisonment of a person, oftenobtained to gratify private ends; abolished in 1790. 

CA`CUS, a mythological brigand of gigantic stature who occupied acave in Mount Aventine, represented by Virgil as breathing smoke andflames of fire; stole the oxen of Hercules as he was asleep, draggingthem to his cave tail foremost to deceive the owner; strangled byHercules in his rage at the deception quite as much as the theft. 

CADASTRE, a register of the landed proprietors of a district, andthe extent of their estates, with maps illustrative called CadastralMaps. 

CADE, JACK, an Irish adventurer, headed an insurrection in Kent, in1450, in the reign of Henry VI. ; encamped with his following onBlackheath; demanded of the king redress of grievances; was answered byan armed force, which he defeated; entered the city, could not preventhis followers from plundering; the citizens retaliating, he had to flee, but was overtaken and slain. 

CADEMOSTO, a Venetian in the service of Portugal, discovered theCape de Verde Islands in 1457; wrote the first book giving an account ofmodern voyages, published posthumously (1432-1480). 

CADIZ (62), one of the chief commercial ports in Spain, inAndalusia; founded by the Phoenicians about 1100 B. C. ; called Gades bythe Romans; at the NW. Extremity of the Isle of Leon, and separated fromthe rest of the island by a channel crossed by bridges; it is 7 m. FromXeres and 50 m. From Gibraltar, and carries on a large export trade. 

CAD`MUS, a semi-mythological personage, founder of Thebes, inBoeotia, to whom is ascribed the introduction of the Greek alphabet fromPhoenicia and the invention of writing; in the quest of his sisterEuropa, was told by the oracle at Delphi to follow a cow and build a citywhere she lay down; arrived at the spot where the cow lay down, he sent, with a view to its sacrifice, his companions to a well guarded by adragon, which devoured them; slew the dragon; sowed its teeth, whichsprang up into a body of armed men, who speared each other to death, allbut five, who, the story goes, became the forefathers of Thebes. 

CADOUDAL, GEORGES, a brave man, chief of the CHOUANS (q. V. ), born in Brittany, the son of a farmer; tried hard and took up armsto restore the Bourbons in the teeth of the Republic, but was defeated;refused to serve under Bonaparte, who would fain have enlisted him, having seen in him "a mind cast in the true mould"; came over fromLondon, whither he had retired, on a secret mission from Charles X. ; wassuspected of evil designs against the person of Bonaparte; arrested, and, after a short trial, condemned and executed, having confessed hisintention to overthrow the Republic and establish Louis XVIII. On thethrone (1769-1804). 

CADUCEUS, the winged rod of Hermes, entwined with two serpents;originally a simple olive branch; was in the hands of the god possessedof magical virtues; it was the symbol of peace. 

CÆDMON, an English poet of the 7th century, the fragment of a hymnby whom, preserved by Bede, is the oldest specimen extant of Englishpoetry; wrote a poem on the beginning of things at the call of a voicefrom heaven, saying as he slept, "Cædmon, come sing me some song"; andthereupon he began to sing, as Stopford Brooke reports, the story ofGenesis and Exodus, many other tales in the sacred Scriptures, and thestory of Christ and the Apostles, and of heaven and hell to come. 

CAEN (45), a fine old Norman town, capital of Calvados, about 80 m. SE. Of Cherbourg; lace the chief manufacture; the burial-place of Williamthe Conqueror, and the native place of Charlotte Corday; it is awell-built town, and has fine old public buildings, a large library, anda noble collection of pictures. 

CAER`LEON, a small old town in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 2½ m. NE. Of Newport; celebrated by Tennyson in connection with Arthurian legend;it is a very ancient place, and contains relics of Roman times. 

CÆSALPINUS, Italian natural philosopher, born at Arezzo; wasprofessor of botany at Pisa; was forerunner of Harvey and Linnæus;discovered sex in plants, and gave hints on their classification(1519-1603). 

CÆSAR, name of an old Roman family claiming descent from the TrojanÆneas, which the emperors of Rome from Augustus to Nero of rightinherited, though the title was applied to succeeding emperors and to theheirs-apparent of the Western and the Eastern Empires; it survives in thetitles of the Kaiser of Germany and the Czar of Russia. 

CÆSAR, CAIUS JULIUS, pronounced the greatest man of antiquity, bybirth and marriage connected with the democratic party; early provokedthe jealousy of Sulla, then dictator, and was by an edict of proscriptionagainst him obliged to quit the city; on the death of Sulla returned toRome; was elected to one civic office after another, and finally to theconsulship. United with Pompey and Crassus in the First Triumvirate (60B. C. ); was appointed to the government of Gaul, which he subdued afternine years to the dominion of Rome; his successes awoke the jealousy ofPompey, who had gone over to the aristocratic side, and he was recalled;this roused Cæsar, and crossing the Rubicon with his victorious troops, he soon saw all Italy lying at his feet (49 B. C. ); pursued Pompey, whohad fled to Greece, and defeated him at Pharsalia (48 B. C. ); wasthereupon elected dictator and consul for five years, distinguishinghimself in Egypt and elsewhere; returned to Rome (47 B. C. ); conceivedand executed vast schemes for the benefit of the city, and became theidol of its citizens; when he was assassinated on the Ides (the 15th) ofMarch, 44 B. C. , in the fifty-sixth year of his age; _b_. 100 B. C. 

CÆSAREA, a Syrian seaport, 30 m. N. Of Joppa, built in honour ofAugustus Cæsar by Herod the Great, now in ruins, though a place of notein the days of the Crusades. Also C. PHILIPPI, at the source of theJordan, whence Christ, on assuring Himself that His disciples werepersuaded of His divine sonship, turned to go up to Jerusalem, and so byHis sacrifice perfect their faith in Him. 

CAGLIARI (44), the cap of Sardinia, and the chief port, on the S. Coast, was a colony of Jews from the time of Tiberius till 1492, whencethey were expelled by the Spaniards; lies on the slopes of a hill, thesummit of which is 300 ft. High, and is on the site of an ancientCarthaginian town. 

CAGLIARI, PAOLO, proper name of PAUL VERONESE (q. V. ). 

CAGLIOSTRO, COUNT ALESSANDRO DI, assumed name of an arch-impostor, his real name being Giuseppe Balsamo, born in Palermo, of poor parents;early acquired a smattering of chemistry and medicine, by means of whichhe perpetrated the most audacious frauds, which, when detected in oneplace were repeated with even more brazen effrontery in another; marrieda pretty woman named Lorenza Feliciani, who became an accomplice;professed supernatural powers, and wrung large sums from his dupeswherever they went, after which they absconded to Paris and lived inextravagance; here he was thrown into the Bastille for complicity in theDIAMOND NECKLACE AFFAIR (q. V. ); on his wife turning informer, he was consigned to the tender mercies of the Inquisition, and committedto the fortress of San Leone, where he died at 52, his wife havingretired into a convent (1743-1795). See CARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES"for an account of his character and career. 

CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARQUIS OF, Italian architect, born at Milan; hisgreatest work, the "Arco della Pace, " of white marble, in his nativecity, the execution of which occupied him over 30 years (1762-1833). 

CAGOTS, a race in the SW. Of France of uncertain origin; treated asoutcasts in the Middle Ages, owing, it has been supposed, to some taintof leprosy, from which, it is argued, they were by their manner of lifein course of time freed. 

CAHORS (13), a town in the dep. Of Lot, in the S. Of France, 71 m. N. Of Toulouse, with interesting Roman and other relics of antiquity. 

CAIAPHAS, the High-Priest of the Jews who condemned Christ to deathas a violator of the law of Moses. 

CAIAPOS, a wild savage race in the woods of Brazil, hard to persuadeto reconcile themselves to a settled life. 

CAICOS, a group of small islands connected with the Bahamas, butannexed to Jamaica since 1874. 

CAILLE, LOUIS DE LA, astronomer, studied at the Cape of Good Hope, registered stars of the Southern Hemisphere, numbering 9000, beforeunknown; calculated the table of eclipses for 1800 years (1713-1762). 

CAILLET, a chief of the Jacquerie, a peasant insurrection in Francein 1358, taken prisoner and tortured to death. 

CAILLIAUD, French mineralogist, born in Nantes, travelled in Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia, collecting minerals and making observations(1787-1869). 

CAILLIÉ, RENÉ, French traveller in Africa, born in Poitou, the firstEuropean to penetrate as far as Timbuctoo, in Central Africa, which hedid in 1828; the temptation was a prize of 10, 000 marks offered by theGeographical Society of Paris, which he received with a pension of 1000besides (1799-1839). 

CAIN, according to Genesis, the first-born of Adam and Eve, andtherefore of the race, and the murderer of his brother Abel. 

CAIN, THOMAS HENRY HALL, eminent novelist, born in Cheshire, of Manxblood; began life as architect and took to journalism; author of a numberof novels bearing on Manx life, such as the "Deemster" and the "Manxman";his most recent novel, the "Christian, " his greatest but most ambiguouswork, and much challenged in England, though less so in America; it hasbeen translated into most of the languages of Europe, where the verdictis divided; _b_. 1853. 

ÇA IRA, "It will go on, " a popular song in France during theRevolution, said to have been a phrase of Benjamin Franklin's, which hewas in the habit of using in answering inquirers about the progress ofthe American revolution by his friends in France. 

CAIRD, EDWARD, brother of the following, interpreter of Kant andHegel; succeeded Jowett as master of Balliol; has written on the"Evolution of Religion, " and edited the lectures and sermons of hisbrother; _b_. 1825. 

CAIRD, JOHN, an eloquent Scotch preacher, born at Greenock, Principal of Glasgow University, famous for a sermon entitled "TheReligion of Common Life" preached before the Queen at Crathie in 1855;made a special study of the philosophy of religion, and wrote eloquentlyon it, more especially the Christian version of it (1820-1898). 

CAIRN, a heap of stones often, though not always, loosely throwntogether, generally by way of a sepulchral monument, and it would seemsometimes in execration of some foul deed. 

CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOT, a political economist of the school of JohnStuart Mill with modifications, born in co. Louth, Ireland; professorsuccessively in Dublin, Galway, and London; author of works on politicaleconomy (1823-1875). 

CAIRNGORM, a yellowish-brown variety of rock-crystal, so called frombeing found, among other places, on one of the Scottish Grampians, inAberdeenshire, so named. 

CAIRNS, HUGH MACCALMONT, EARL, lawyer and politician, born in co. Down, Ireland; called to the English bar; entered Parliament, representing Belfast; became Lord Chancellor under Disraeli's governmentin 1868, and again in 1874; took an active interest in philanthropicmovements (1819-1885). 

CAIRO (400), cap. Of Egypt, and largest city in Africa, on the rightbank of the Nile, just above the Delta, 120 m. SE. Of Alexandria, coversan extensive area on a broad sandy plain, and presents a strangeagglomeration of ancient and modern elements. The modern city is thefourth founded in succession on the same site, and remains of the formercities are included in it, old walls, gateways, narrow streets, andlatticed houses, palaces, and 400 mosques. These, though much spoiled bytime and tourists, still represent the brightest period of Saracenic art. The most modern part of the city consists of broad boulevards, withEuropean-built villas, hotels, &c. , and has all the advantages of moderncivic appliances. There is a rich museum, and university with 2000students. Extensive railway communication and the Nile waterway induce alarge transport trade, but there is little industry. The population ismixed; the townsfolk are half Arab, half Egyptian, while Copts, Turks, Jews, Italians, and Greeks are numerous; it is a centre of Mohammedanlearning, and since 1882 the centre of British influence in Egypt. 

CAITHNESS (37), a level, except in the W. And S. , bare, and somewhatbarren, county in the NE. Of Scotland, 43 m. By 28 m. , with a bold androcky coast; has flagstone quarries; fishing the chief industry, of whichWick is the chief seat; the inhabitants are to a great extent ofScandinavian origin, and English, not Gaelic, is the language spoken. 

CAJETAN, CARDINAL, general of the Dominicans, born in Gaeta;represented the Pope at the Diet of Augsburg, and tried in vain topersuade Luther to recant; wrote a Commentary on the Bible, and on the"Summa Theologiæ" of Aquinas. 

CALABAR`, a district under British protection on the coast of UpperGuinea, the country flat and the climate unhealthy. 

CALABAR BEAN, seed of an African bean, employed in medicine, knownas the Ordeal Bean, as, being poisonous, having been used to test theinnocence of people charged with witchcraft. 

CALABRIA (1, 500), a fertile prov. Embraced in the SW. Peninsula ofItaly, and traversed by the Apennines, with tunny and anchovy fisheries;yields grains and fruits, and a variety of minerals; is inhabited by arace of somewhat fiery temper; is much subject to earthquakes. 

CALAIS (56), a fortified seaport in France, on the Strait of Dover, where it is 21 m. Across; was in possession of the English from 1347 to1558, and the last town held by them on French soil; is the chieflanding-place for travellers from England to the Continent, and hasconsiderable export trade, as well as cotton and tulle manufactures. 

CALAMY, EDMUND, a Presbyterian divine, born in London; favourable toRoyalty, but zealously opposed to Episcopacy, against which hevigorously protested with his pen; opposed the execution of Charles I. And the protectorate of Cromwell; made chaplain to Charles II. After theRestoration; refused a bishopric, which he could not, on conscientiousgrounds, accept (1600-1666). 

CALAMY, EDMUND, a grandson of the preceding, an eminentNonconformist minister in London, on whom, for the high esteem in whichhe was held, honorary degrees were conferred by the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen universities (1671-1732). 

CALAS, JEAN, a tradesman of Toulouse, whose son committed suicide, and who was charged with murdering him to prevent his going over to theCatholic Church; was tried, convicted, and sentenced to torture and deathon the wheel (1762); after which his property was confiscated, and hischildren compelled to embrace the Catholic faith, while the widow escapedinto Switzerland. Voltaire, to his immortal honour, took up her case, proved to the satisfaction of the legal authorities in France theinnocence of the victims, got the process revised, and Louis XV. To granta sum of money out of the royal bounty for the benefit of the family. 

CALAVE`RAS, an inland county of California, E. Of San Francisco, rich in minerals, with copper and gold mines. 

CALCHAS, the soothsayer who accompanied Agamemnon to the siege ofTroy; enjoined the sacrifice of Iphigenia to propitiate the gods, foretold the length or the war, and advised the construction of thewooden horses, a device by means of which Troy was surprised and taken. 

CALCULUS, DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL, in mathematics, is the methodby which we discuss the properties of continuously varying quantities. The nature of the method and the necessity for it may be indicated by asimple example; e. G. The motion of a train in a track, or the motionof a planet in its orbit. If we know the successive positions of themoving body at successive short intervals of time, the rules of thedifferential calculus enable us to calculate the speed, the change ofspeed, the change of direction of motion (i. E. The curvature of thepath), and the effective force acting on the body. Conversely, given theforce at every point, and the initial position and velocity, the rules ofthe integral calculus assist us in calculating the position and velocityof the body at any future time. Expressed somewhat crudely, thedifferential calculus has to do with the _differentials_ (increments ordecrements) of varying quantities; while the integral calculus is aprocess of summation or _integration_ of these differentials. 

CALCUTTA (900), on the left bank of the Hooghly, the largest andwesternmost branch of the Ganges delta, about 80 m. From the sea; is thecapital of Bengal and the Indian Empire, and the residence of theGovernor-General; the Government buildings, Bishop's College (now anengineering school) High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St. Paul's cathedral, and many other English Buildings have earned for it thename "city of palaces"; but the native quarters, though being improved, are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo; an esplanade, numerousquays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to theamenities; there are extensive dockyards, warehouses, iron-works, timberyards, and jute mills; extensive railway and steamboat communicationsmake it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia; ships of 5000 tons enterthe docks; founded in 1686, Calcutta was captured by Surajah Dowlah, andthe "Black Hole" massacre perpetrated in 1756; became the capital ofIndia in 1772, and has suffered frequently from cyclones; the populationare two-thirds Hindus, less than a third Mohammedan, and 4½ per cent. Christian. 

CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH, artist, born in Chester; exercised his artchiefly in book illustrations, which were full of life, and instinct witha kindly, graceful humour; though professionally untrained, his abilitiesas an artist were promptly and generously recognised by the Academy; hesuffered from ill-health, and died in Florida, whither he had gone torecruit (1846-1886). 

CALDER, SIR ROBERT, British naval officer; served bravely in severalnaval engagements; was tried by court-martial, and reprimanded for notfollowing up a victory which he had gained, a sentence which wasafterwards found to be unjust; attained afterwards the rank of admiral(1745-1818). 

CALDERON DE LA BARCA, the great Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid;entered the army, and served in Italy and Flanders, producing the whiledramas which were received with great enthusiasm; took holy orders, andbecame a canon of Toledo, but to the last continued to write poems andplays; he was a dramatist of the first order, and has been ranked by themore competent critics among the foremost of the class in both ancientand modern times (1600-1681). 

CALDERWOOD, DAVID, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Dalkeith; becameminister of Crailing; first imprisoned, and then banished for resistingthe attempts of James VI. To establish Episcopacy in Scotland; wrote abook, "Altare Damascenum, " in Holland, whither he had retired, being asearching criticism of the claims of the Episcopacy; returned on thedeath of the king, and wrote a "History of the Kirk" (1575-1650). 

CALEDONIA, the Roman name for Scotland N. Of the Wall of Antoninus, since applied poetically to the whole of Scotland. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, a canal across the NW. Of Scotland, executed byTelford, for the passage of ships between the Atlantic and the North Sea, 60 m. Long, 40 m. Of which consist of natural lakes; begun 1803, finished1823; cost £1, 300, 000; has 28 locks; was constructed for the benefit ofcoasting vessels to save the risks they encountered in the PentlandFirth. 

CALENDS, the first day of the Roman month, so called as the day onwhich the feast days and unlucky days of the month were announced. 

CAL`GARY, the capital of Alberta, in NW. Territory of Canada. 

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, an American statesman, born in S. Carolina, of Irish descent; all through his public life in high civic position;leader of "the States rights" movement, in vindication of the doctrinethat the Union was a mere compact, and any State had a right to withdrawfrom its conditions; and champion of the slave-holding States, regardingslavery as an institution fraught with blessing to all concerned. Hischief work is a treatise on the "Nature of Government" (1789-1850). 

CALIBAN, a slave in Shakespeare's "Tempest, " of the grossestanimality of nature. 

CALICUT (66), chief town on the Malabar coast, in the MadrasPresidency of India, the first port at which Vasco da Gama landed in1498, whence the cotton cloth first imported from the place got the name"calico. "

CALIFORNIA (1, 208), the most south-westerly State in the AmericanUnion; occupies the Pacific seaboard between Oregon and Mexico, and isbounded landward by Nevada and Arizona. It is the second largest State, larger by a quarter than the United Kingdom. In the N. The rainfall isexcessive, and winters severe; in the S. There is little rain, and adelightful climate. Wheat is the most important product; the grape andall manner of fruits grow luxuriantly. Mineral wealth is great: it is theforemost State for gold and quicksilver; lead, silver, copper, iron, sulphur, coal, and many other minerals abound. The industries includebrandy and sugar manufactures, silk-growing, shipbuilding, and fishing. All products are exported, eastward by the great Central, Union, andSouthern Pacific railroads; and seaward, the chief port being SanFrancisco, the largest city, as Sacramento is the capital of the State. The Yosemite Valley, in the Sierra Nevada, through which falls the MercedRiver, is the most wonderful gorge in the world. Captured from Mexico in1847, the discovery of gold next year raised great excitement, andbrought thousands of adventurers from all over the world. Constituted aState in 1850, the original lawlessness gradually gave way to regularadministration, and progress has since been steady and rapid. 

CALIFORNIA, LOWER (30), an extensive, mountainous, dry, and scarcelyhabitable peninsula, stretching southward from the State, in Mexicanterritory; agriculture is carried on in some of the valleys, and pearland whale fisheries support some coast towns. 

CALIGULA, Roman emperor from A. D. 37 to 41, youngest son ofGermanicus and Agrippina, born at Antium; having ingratiated himself withTiberius, was named his successor; ruled with wisdom and magnanimity atfirst, while he lived in the unbridled indulgence of every lust, butafter an illness due to his dissipation, gave way to the most atrociousacts of cruelty and impiety; would entertain people at a banquet and thenthrow them into the sea; wished Rome had only one head, that he mightshear it off at a blow; had his horse installed as consul in mockery ofthe office; declared himself a god, and had divine honours paid to him, till a conspiracy was formed against him on his return from an expeditioninto Gaul, when he was assassinated (12-41). 

CALIPH, the title adopted by the successors of Mahomet, as supremein both civil and religious matters. The principal caliphates are: (1)the Caliphate of the East, established by Abubekr at Mecca, transferredto Bagdad by the Abassides (632-1258); (2) the Caliphate of Cordova, established at Cordova by Abderrahman (756-1031); (3) the Caliphate ofEgypt, established by the Fatimites (909-1171). It was at Bagdad thatMoslem civilisation achieved its final development. 

CALISTO, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia; changed by Juno into ashe-bear, and placed by Jupiter among the stars. 

CALIXTUS, the name of three popes: C. I. , Pope from 218 to 222;C. II. , pope from 1119 to 1124; C. III. , Pope from 1455 to1458. 

CALIXTUS, GEORGE, a Lutheran theologian of an eminently toleranttype, born at Sleswick; travelled for four years in Germany, Belgium, England, and France; accused of heresy, or rather apostasy, for theliberal spirit in which he had learned in consequence to treat bothCatholics and Calvinists, and for considering the Apostles' Creed a broadenough basis for Christian union and communion, which might embrace both;his friends, however, stood by him, and he retained the position he heldin the Lutheran Church (1586-1656). 

CALLA`O (32), a port in Peru, 7 m. From Lima, with a fine harbourthe safest on the coast, if not in the world; its prosperity depends ontrade, which is less than it was before the annexation of the nitratefields to Chile. 

CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, an eminent musical composer, born atKensington; was a pupil of Händel's, and is celebrated for his gleecompositions (1766-1821). SIR AUGUSTUS WALL, landscape painter, brother; was knighted for his eminent skill as an artist (1779-1841). LADY MARIA, wife of Sir Augustus, author of "Little Arthur's Historyof England" (1779-1842). 

CALLERNISH, a district in the W. Of the island of Lewis, 10 m. FromStornoway; noted for its circles of standing stones, from 10 to 17 ft. Inheight, the whole in cruciform arrangement. 

CALLIC`RATES, along with Ictinos, architect of the Parthenon inAthens. 

CALLIM`ACHUS, Greek architect, inventor of the Corinthian order, 4thcentury B. C. 

CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet, born in Cyrena; taught grammar andbelles-lettres at Alexandria; was keeper of the library there; of hiswritings, which are said to have been on a variety of subjects and verynumerous, only a few epigrams and hymns remain; was admired by Catullus, Ovid, and Propertius, and flourished in the 3rd century B. C. 

CALLI`OPE, the muse of epic poetry and eloquence, is representedwith a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a paper roll. SeeMUSES. 

CALLIS`THENES, a disciple of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexanderthe Great to India, and was put to death by his order for remonstratingwith him on his adoption of the manners and style of the potentates ofthe East, but professedly on a charge of treason. 

CALLIS`TRATUS, an Athenian orator, who kindled in Demosthenes apassion for his art; his Spartan sympathies brought him to grief, and ledto his execution as a traitor. 

CALLOT, JACQUES, engraver and etcher, born at Nancy; his etchings, executed many of them at the instance of the Grand-duke of Tuscany andLouis XIII. Of France, amounted to 1600 pieces, such as those of thesieges of Breda and Rochelle, which are much admired, as also those ofthe gipsies with whom he associated in his youth (1593-1633). 

CALMET, AUGUSTINE, a learned Benedictine and biblical scholar, bornin Lorraine, but known in England by his "Historical, Critical, andChronological Dictionary of the Bible, " the first published book of itskind of any note, and much referred to at one time as an authority; hewrote also a "Commentary on the Bible" in 23 vols. , and a "UniversalHistory" in 17 vols. (1672-1757). 

CALMS, THE, tracts of calm in the ocean, on the confines of thetrade winds, and which lasts for weeks at a time. 

CALOMAR`DE, DUKE, a Spanish statesman; minister of Ferdinand VII. ; aviolent enemy of liberal principles and measures, and a reactionary;obnoxious to the people; arrested for treachery, escaped into France bybribing his captors (1773-1842). 

CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, French financier under Louis XVI. , born at Douay; a man of "fiscal genius; genius for persuading, before allthings for borrowing"; succeeded Necker in 1783 as comptroller-general ofthe finances in France; after four years of desperate attempts atfinancial adjustment, could do nothing but convoke the Notables in 1787;could give no account of his administration that would satisfy them; wasdismissed, and had to quit Paris and France; "his task to raise the windand the winds, " says Carlyle, "and he did it, " referring to theRevolution he provoked; was permitted by Napoleon to return to France, where he died in embarrassed circumstances (1734-1802). 

CALORIC, the name given by physicists to the presumed subtle elementwhich causes heat. 

CALORIUS, ABRAHAM, a fiery Lutheran polemic, a bitter enemy ofGeorge Calixtus (1612-1686). 

CALOTYPE, a process of photography invented by Fox Talbot in 1840, by means of the action of light on nitrate of silver. 

CALPË, Gibraltar, one of the PILLARS OF HERCULES (q. V. ). 

CALPURNIA, the last wife of Julius Cæsar, daughter of the consulPiso, who, alive to the danger of conspiracy, urged Cæsar to stay at homethe day he was assassinated. 

CALTAGIRONE (28), a city 38 m. SW. Of Catania; the staple industryis pottery and terra-cotta ware. 

CAL`UMET, among the American Indians a pipe for smoking, which ifaccepted when offered, was an emblem of peace, and if rejected, adeclaration of war. 

CALVADOS (428), a maritime dep. In N. Of France, skirted bydangerous rocks of the same name, with a fertile soil and a moistclimate. 

CALVAERT, DENIS, a painter, born at Antwerp; settled at Bologna, where he founded a school, from whence issued many eminent artists, amongothers Guidi Reni, Domenichino, and Albani; his masterpiece, "St. Michael" in St. Peter's, Bologna (1555-1619). 

CALVARY, the place of the crucifixion, identified with a hill on theN. Of Jerusalem, looked down upon from the city, with a cliff on whichcriminals were cast down prior to being stoned; also name given toeffigies of the crucifixion in Catholic countries, erected for devotion. 

CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART, a clever English parodist, Fellow ofChrist's Church, Oxford; wrote "Fly-Leaves" and "Verses andTranslations"; his parodies among the most amusing of the century, flavoured by the author's scholarship (1831-1884). 

CALVERT, GEORGE and CECIL, father and son, Lords Baltimore;founders, under charter from James I. , of Maryland, U. S. 

CALVIN, JOHN, or CAUVIN, the great Reformer, born at Noyon, inPicardy; devoted for a time to the law, was sent to study at theuniversity of Orleans, after having mastered Latin as a boy at Paris;became acquainted with the Scriptures, and acquired a permanentlytheological bent; professed the Protestant faith; proceeded to Paris;became the centre of a dangerous religious excitement; had to flee forhis life from France; retired to Basel, where he studied Hebrew and wrotehis great epoch-making book, the "Institutes of the Christian Religion";making after this for Strassburg, he chanced to pass through Geneva, wasarrested as by the hand of God to stay and help on God's work in theplace, but proceeded with such rigour that he was expelled, thoughrecalled after three years; on his return he proposed and established hissystem of Church government, which allowed of no license in faith anymore than conduct, as witness the burning of Servetus for denying thedoctrine of the Trinity; for twenty years he held sway in Geneva, and forso long he was regarded as the head of the Reformed Churches in Scotland, Switzerland, Holland, and France. Besides his "Institutes, " he found timeto write Commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible; was a man ofmasculine intellect and single-hearted devotion to duty, as ever in the"Great Taskmaster's" eye. His greatest work was his "Institutes, "published in Basel in 1535-36. It was written in Latin, and four yearsafter translated by himself into French. "In the translated form, " saysProf. Saintsbury, "it is beyond all question the first serious work ofgreat literary merit not historical in the history of French prose. .. . Considering that the whole of it was written before the author of it wasseven-and-twenty, it is perhaps the most remarkable work of itsparticular kind to be anywhere found; the merits of it being those offull maturity and elaborate preparation rather than of youthfulexuberance" (1509-1564). 

CALVINISM, the theological system of Calvin, the chiefcharacteristic of which is that it assigns all in salvation to thesovereign action and persistent operation of Divine grace. 

CALVO, CHARLES, an Argentine publicist, born at Buenos Ayres in1824; author of "International Law, Theoretical and Practical. "

CALYPSO, in the Greek mythology a nymph, daughter of Atlas, queen ofthe island of Ogygia, who by her fascinating charms detained Ulyssesbeside her for 7 of the 10 years of his wanderings home from Troy; shedied of grief on his departure. 

CAMARILLA, a name of recent origin in Spain for a clique of privatecounsellors at court, who interpose between the legitimate ministers andthe crown. 

CAMBACÉRÈS, JEAN JACQUES RÉGIS DE, Duke of Parma, born atMontpellier; bred to the legal profession, took a prominent part as alawyer in the national Convention; after the Revolution of the 18thBrumaire, was chosen second consul; was sincerely attached to Napoleon;was made by him High Chancellor of the Empire as well as Duke of Parma;his "Projet de Code" formed the basis of the _Code Napoléon_ (1753-1824). 

CAMBAY (31), a town and seaport N. Of Bombay, on a gulf of the samename, which is fast silting up, in consequence of which the place, once aflourishing port, has fallen into decay. 

CAMBO`DIA (1, 500), a small kingdom in Indo-China, occupying an areaas large as Scotland in the plains of the Lower Mekong. The coast-line iswashed by the Gulf of Siam; the landward boundaries touch Siam, Annam, and French Cochin-China; in the N. Are stretches of forest and hills inwhich iron and copper are wrought; a branch of the Mekong flows backwardand forms the Great Lake; most of the country is inundated in the rainyseason, and rice, tobacco, cotton, and maize are grown in the tracts thusirrigated; spices, gutta-percha, and timber are also produced; there areiron-works at Kompong Soai; foreign trade is done through the portKampot. The capital is Pnom-Penh (35), on the Mekong. The kingdom wasformerly much more extensive; remarkable ruins of ancient grandeur arenumerous; it has been under French protection since 1863. 

CAMBRAI (17), a city in the dep. Of Nord, in France, on the Scheldt;famous for its fine linen fabrics, hence called _cambrics_. Fénélon wasarchbishop here, in the cathedral of which is a monument to his memory. 

CAMBRIA, the ancient name of Wales, country of the Kymry, a Celticrace, to which the Welsh belong. 

CAMBRIDGE (44), county town of Cambridgeshire, stands in flatcountry, on the Cam, 28 m. NE. Of London; an ancient city, withinteresting archæological remains; there are some fine buildings, theoldest round church in England, Holy Sepulchre, and a Roman Catholicchurch. The glory of the city is the University, founded in the 12thcentury, with its colleges housed in stately buildings, chapels, libraries, museums, &c. , which shares with Oxford the academic prestigeof England. It lays emphasis on mathematical, as Oxford on classical, culture. Among its eminent men have been Bacon, Newton, Cromwell, Pitt, Thackeray, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Wordsworth, and Tennyson. 

CAMBRIDGE (70), a suburb of Boston, U. S. , one of the oldest townsin New England; seat of Harvard University; the centre of the book-makingtrade; here Longfellow resided for many years. 

CAMBRIDGE, FIRST DUKE OF, seventh and youngest son of George III. ;served as volunteer under the Duke of York, and carried a marshal'sbaton; was made viceroy of Hanover, which he continued to be till, in1837, the crown fell to the Duke of Cumberland (1774-1850). 

CAMBRIDGE, SECOND DUKE OF, son of the preceding and cousin to theQueen, born in Hanover; served in the army; became commander-in-chief in1856 on the resignation of Viscount Hardinge; retired in 1895, and wassucceeded by Lord Wolseley; _b_. 1819. 

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY contains 17 colleges: Peterhouse, founded 1257;Clare College, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville and Caius, 1348; TrinityHall, 1350; Corpus Christi, 1352; King's, 1441; Queens', 1448; St. Catherine's, 1473; Jesus, 1496; Christ's, 1505; St John's, 1511;Magdalene, 1519; Trinity, 1546; Emmanuel, 1584; Sidney Sussex, 1598; andDowning, 1800. Each college is a corporation by itself, governed bystatutes sanctioned by the crown, and capable of holding landed or otherproperty. 

CAMBRIDGESHIRE (188), an inland agricultural county, nine-tenths ofits surface under cultivation; famed for its butter and cheese; veryflat, marshy in the N. , with a range of chalk-hills, the Gog-Magog in theS. ; is rich in Roman remains. 

CAMBRONNE, French general, born at Nantes; served under the Republicand the Empire; accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814; commanded adivision of the Old Guard at Waterloo; fought to the last; thoughsurrounded by the enemy and summoned to surrender, refused, and was takenprisoner; is credited with the saying, _La Garde meurt, et ne se rendpas_, "The Guard dies, but does not surrender" (1770-1842). 

CAMBUS`CAN, king of Tartary, identified with Genghis Khan, who had awonderful steed of brass, magically obedient to the wish of the rider, together with a magical mirror, sword, and ring. 

CAMBY`SES, king of Persia, succeeded his father, the great Cyrus;invaded and subdued Egypt, but afterwards suffered serious reverses, andin the end gave himself up to dissipation and vindictive acts of cruelty, from which not only his subjects suffered, but the members of his ownfamily; _d_. 54 B. C. 

CAMBYSES, KING, a ranting character in a play called "The LamentableTragedy"; referred to by Falstaff in I Henry IV. , Act ii. Sc. 4. 

CAMDEN (58), a busy town in New Jersey, U. S. , on the left bank ofthe Delaware, opposite Philadelphia; the terminus of six railways. 

CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, FIRST EARL OF, a distinguished British lawyerand statesman, chief-justice of the King's Bench in George I. 's reign, and ultimately Lord Chancellor of England; opposed, as judge in the case, the prosecution of Wilkes as illegal, and as a statesman the policy andaction of the government towards the American colonies; he was createdearl in 1786 (1713-1794). 

CAMDEN, WILLIAM, a learned English antiquary, the first and mostfamous born in London; second master, and eventually head-master inWestminster School, during which time he gave proof of his antiquarianknowledge, which led to his appointment as Clarencieux king-at-arms;author of "Britannia, " a historical and topographical account of theBritish Isles, his most widely known work, and "Annals of Elizabeth'sReign, " both, as all the rest of his works, written in Latin; he has beensurnamed the Strabo and the Pausanias of England (1551-1623). 

CAMELOT, a place in Somerset, where, it is presumed, King Arthurheld his court, and where entrenchments of an old town are still to beseen. 

CAMENÆ, in the Roman mythology a set of nymphs endowed withsemi-prophetic powers, and sometimes identified with the Muses. 

CAMEO, a precious stone cut in relief; consists generally of two orthree different colours, the upper cut in relief and the under formingthe ground. 

CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument or contrivance, by means ofwhich the image of an object may be made to appear on a light or whitesurface. 

CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical contrivance, by means of which the imagesof external objects are exhibited distinctly on a surface in the focus ofthe lens. 

CAMERARIUS, a distinguished scholar, born at Bamberg; active as aGerman Reformer; played a prominent part in the religious struggles ofhis time; friend and biographer of Melanchthon; collaborated with him indrawing up the Augsburg Confession (1500-1574). 

CAMERON, JOHN, a learned divine, born in Glasgow, who held severalprofessorial appointments on the Continent; was for a time Principal ofGlasgow University; his knowledge was so extensive that he was styled a"walking library, " but he fell in disfavour with the people for hisdoctrine of passive obedience, and he died of a wound inflicted by anopponent of his views (1579-1625). 

CAMERON, RICHARD, a Scotch Covenanter of the 17th century, born inFalkland, Fife; a ringleader of the persecuted Presbyterians, took toarms along with sixty others in defence of his rights; was surprised by abody of dragoons at AIRDS MOSS (q. V. ), and after a brave fightslain, his head and hands cut off, and fixed on the Netherbow Port, atthe head of the Canongate, Edinburgh, in 1680. 

CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT, African explorer, born near Weymouth;traversed Africa all the way from east to west (1873-75); he was on thetrack of important discoveries, but his explorations were cut short bythe natives; wrote "Across Africa" (1844-1894). 

CAMERONIANS (1), a Presbyterian body in Scotland who derived theirname from Richard Cameron, contended like him for the faith to which thenation by covenant had bound itself, and even declined to take the oathof allegiance to sovereigns such as William III. And his successors, whodid not explicitly concede to the nation this right. (2) Also a Britishregiment, originally raised in defence of Scottish religious rights; forlong the 26th Regiment of the British line, now the Scottish Rifles. 

CAMEROON, (1) a river in W. Africa, falling by a wide estuary intothe Bight of Biafra, known as the oil river, from the quantities ofpalm-oil exported; (2) a mountain range, a volcanic group, the highestpeak nearly 14, 000 ft. , NW. Of the estuary; (3) also a German colony, extending 199 m. Along the coast. 

CAMILLA, (1) a virgin queen of the Volsci, one of the heroines inthe "Æneid, " noted for her preternatural fleetness on the racecourse, and her grace; (2) also a sister of the HORATII (q. V. ), killedby her brother because she wept at the death of her affiancé, one of theCURIATII (q. V. ), whom the Horatii slew. 

CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, a famous patrician of early Rome; tookVeii, a rival town, after a ten years' siege; retired into voluntaryexile at Ardea on account of the envy of his enemies in Rome; recalledfrom exile, saved Rome from destruction by the Gauls under Brennus, wasfive times elected dictator, and gained a succession of victories overrival Italian tribes; died at eighty of the plague, in 365 B. C. , lamented by the whole nation, and remembered for generations after as oneof the noblest heroic figures in Roman history. 

CAMISARDS, Huguenots of the Cévennes, who took up arms by thousandsin serious revolt against Louis XIV. , in which others joined, under JeanCavalier their chief, after, and in consequence of, the revocation of theEdict of Nantes (1685); so called because they wore a _camiso_ (Fr. A_chemise_), a blouse over their armour; were partly persuaded and partlycompelled into submission by Marshal Villars in 1704. 

CAMOËNS, the poet of Portugal, born at Lisbon, studied at Coimbra;fell in passionate love with a lady of high rank in Lisbon, as she withhim, but whom he was not allowed to marry; left Lisbon, joined the army, and fought against the Moors; volunteered service in India, arrived atGoa, and got into trouble with the Portuguese authorities; was banishedto Macao, and consoled himself by writing his "Lusiad"; coming home helost everything but his poem; died neglected and in poverty; the title ofthe poem is properly "The Lusiads, " or the Lusitanians, i. E. ThePortuguese, and is their national epic, called, not inaptly, the "Epos ofCommerce"; it has been translated into most European languages, and intoEnglish alone no fewer than six times (1524-1580). 

CAMORRA, a secret society in Naples with wide ramifications, whichat one time had by sheer terrorism considerable political influence inthe country; when steps were taken by Francis II. To suppress it, themembers of it joined the revolutionary party, and had their revenge inthe expulsion eventually of the Bourbons from Italy. 

CAMPAGNA, (1) an unhealthy flat district round Rome, co-extensivewith ancient Latium, infested with malaria; (2) a town in Italy, inSalerno, with a cathedral, and a trade in wine, oil, and fruit. 

CAMPAIGN, THE, poem by Addison in celebration of Marlborough'svictory at Blenheim. 

CAMPAN, MME. DE, born at Paris, faithful friend and confidante ofMarie Antoinette; after the Revolution opened a boarding-school at St. Germain; became under Napoleon matron of an institution for daughters ofofficers of the Legion of Honour; wrote the "Private Life of MarieAntoinette" (1752-1822). 

CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO, an Italian philosopher of the transitionperiod, originally a Dominican monk, born in Calabria; contemporary ofBacon; aimed, like him, at the reform of philosophy; opposedscholasticism, fell back upon the ancient systems, and devoted himself tothe study of nature; was persecuted all along by the Church, and spent 27years of his life in a Neapolitan dungeon; released, he retired toFrance, and enjoyed the protection of Richelieu; he was the author ofsonnets as well as philosophical works (1568-1639). 

CAMPANIA, an ancient prov. In the W. Of Italy, of great fertility, and yields corn, wine, and oil in great abundance; Capua was the capital, the chief towns of which now are Naples, Salerno, and Gaeta; it was afavourite resort of the wealthy families of ancient Rome. 

CAMPANILE, a tower for bells constructed beside a church, but notattached to it; very common in Italian cities, the leaning tower of Pisabeing one, and that of Florence one of the most famous. 

CAMPBELL, a celebrated Scottish Highland clan, the members of whichhave played an important role in English and Scottish history. 

CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER, an Anti-Calvinistic Baptist, born in Antrim;emigrated to America in 1807, and founded a sect called the "Disciples ofChrist"; disowned creeds, and owned no authority in religion but theBible; the sect has upwards of 5000 meeting-houses in America, and overhalf a million members. Campbell executed a translation of the NewTestament, in which he employed the words "immercer" and "immersion" for"baptist" and "baptism" (1788-1866). 

CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, LORD CLYDE, born in Glasgow, son of a carpenternamed Macliver; entered the army, and rose rapidly; served in China andthe Punjab; commanded the Highland Brigade in the Crimea; won the day atAlma and Balaclava; commanded in India during the Mutiny; relievedLucknow, and quelled the rebellion; was made field-marshal, with apension of £2000, and created Lord Clyde; he was one of the bravestsoldiers of England (1792-1863). 

CAMPBELL, GEORGE, a Scotch divine, Principal of Aberdeen University;wrote "Philosophy of Rhetoric, " and an able reply to Hume's argumentagainst miracles, entitled "Dissertation on Miracles" (1709-1796). 

CAMPBELL, JOHN, Lord Chancellor of England, born at Cupar-Fife; ason of the manse; destined for the Church, but took the study of law; wascalled to the bar; did journalistic work and law reports; was a Whig inpolitics; held a succession of offices both on the Bench and in theCabinet; wrote the "Lives of the Chancellors" and the "Lives of the ChiefJustices" (1779-1861). 

CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, born at Islay, author of, among other works, "Popular Tales of the West Highlands, orally collected, " a collection allhis own, and a remarkable one for the enthusiasm and the patrioticdevotion it displays (1822-1885). 

CAMPBELL, JOHN MACLEOD, a Scotch clergyman, born in Argyll; deposedfrom the ministry of the Scotch Church in 1831 for his liberaltheological sentiments; a saintly man, whose character alone should haveprotected him from such an indignity; his favourite theme was theself-evidencing character of revelation, while the doctrine for which hewas deposed, the Fatherhood of God, is being now adopted as the centralprinciple of Scotch theology; he continued afterwards to ply his vocationas a minister of Christ in a quiet way to some quiet people like himself, and before his death a testimonial and address in recognition of hisworth was presented to him by representatives of nearly every religiouscommunity in Scotland (1801-1872). 

CAMPBELL, THOMAS, poet, born in Glasgow; studied with distinction atthe University; when a student of law in Edinburgh wrote "The Pleasuresof Hope"; the success of the work, which was great, enabled him to travelon the Continent, where he wrote the well-known lines, "Ye Mariners ofEngland, " "Hohenlinden, " and "The Exile of Erin"; married, and settled inLondon, where he did writing, lecturing, and some more poetry, inparticular "The Last Man"; after settling in London a pension of £200 wasawarded him through the influence of Fox; he wrote in prose as well asverse; he was elected Rector of Glasgow University in 1827, and again inthe following year: buried in Westminster (1777-1844). 

CAMPBELTOWN, a town in Kintyre, Argyllshire, with a fine harbour; isa great fishing centre; and has over 20 whisky distilleries. 

CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH, German educationist; disciple of Basedow, and author of educational works (1746-1818). 

CAMPEACHY (12), a Mexican seaport on a bay of the same name;manufactures cigars. 

CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO, cardinal; twice visited England as legate, thelast time in connection with the divorce between Henry VIII. AndCatherine, with the effect of mortally offending the former and being ofno real benefit to the latter, whom he would fain have befriended; hismission served only to embitter the relations of Henry with the see ofRome (1474-1539). 

CAMPER, PETER, a Dutch anatomist, born at Leyden; held sundryprofessorships; made a special study of the facial angle in connectionwith intelligence; he was an artist as well as a scientist, and a patronof art (1722-1789). 

CAMPERDOWN, a tract of sandy hills on the coast of N. Holland, nearwhich Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Winter in 1797. 

CAMPHUYSEN, a Dutch landscape painter of the 17th century, famousfor his moonlight pieces. 

CAMPI, a family of painters, distinguished in the annals of Italianart at Cremona in the 16th century. 

CAMPINE, a vast moor of swamp and peat to the E. Of Antwerp, beingnow rendered fertile by irrigation. 

CAMPION, EDMUND, a Jesuit, born in London; a renegade from theChurch of England; became a keen Catholic propagandist in England; wasarrested for sedition, of which he was innocent, and executed; was in1886 beatified by Pope Leo XIII. (1540-1581). 

CAMPO-FORMIO, a village near Udine, in Venetia, where a treaty wasconcluded between France and Austria in 1797, by which the Belgianprovinces and part of Lombardy were ceded to France, and certain VenetianStates to Austria in return. 

CAMPO SANTO (_Holy Ground_), Italian and Spanish name for aburial-place. 

CAMPOS (13), a trading city of Brazil, in the prov. Of Rio Janeiro. 

CAMPVERE, now called VERE, on the NE. Of the island ofWalcheren; had a Scotch factory under Scotch law, civil andecclesiastical. 

CAMUS, bishop of Belley, born at Paris; a violent enemy of themendicant monks (1582-1663). 

CAMUS, a learned French jurisconsult, member of the NationalConvention; a determined enemy of the Court party in France; voted forthe execution of the king as a traitor and conspirator; was conservatorof the national records, and did good service in preserving them(1740-1804). 

CANAAN, originally the coast land, but eventually the whole, ofPalestine W. Of the Jordan. 

CANAANITES, a civilised race with towns for defence; dependent onagriculture; worshippers of the fertilising powers of nature; and theoriginal inhabitants of Palestine, from which they were never whollyrooted out. 

CANADA (5, 000), which with Newfoundland forms British North America, occupies the northern third of the continent, stretches from the Atlanticto the Pacific, from the United States to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean;nearly as large as Europe, it comprises a lofty and a lower tableland W. And E. Of the Rocky Mountains, the peninsulas of Labrador and NovaScotia, and between these a vast extent of prairie and undulating land, with rivers and lakes innumerable, many of them of enormous size andnavigable, constituting the finest system of inland waterways in theworld; the Rocky Mountains rise to 16, 000 ft. , but there are severalgorges, through one of which the Canadian Pacific railroad runs; thechief rivers are the Fraser, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, and St. Lawrence;Great Slave, Great Bear, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario are the largest lakes; the climate is varied, very coldin the north, very wet west of the Rockies, elsewhere drier than inEurope, with hot summers, long, cold, but bracing and exhilaratingwinters; the corn-growing land is practically inexhaustible; the finestwheat is grown without manure, year after year, in the rich soil ofManitoba, Athabasca, and the western prairie; the forests yield maple, oak, elm, pine, ash, and poplar in immense quantities, and steps aretaken to prevent the wealth of timber ever being exhausted; gold, coal, iron, and copper are widely distributed, but as yet not much wrought;fisheries, both on the coasts and inland, are of great value; agricultureand forestry are the most important industries; the chief trade is donewith England and the United States; the twelve provinces, Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, BritishColumbia, Manitoba, Keewatin, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, andAthabasca, each with its own Parliament, are united under the DominionGovernment; the Governor-General is the Viceroy of the Queen; theDominion Parliament meets at Ottawa, the federal capital; nearly everyprovince has its university, that of Toronto being the most important;the largest town is Montreal; Toronto, Quebec, Hamilton, and Halifax areall larger than the capital; taken possession of by France in 1534, settlement began at Quebec in 1608; by the treaty of Utrecht, 1703, Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland passed to England; the rest ofFrench territory was ceded to England in 1763; constituted at differenttimes, the various provinces, except Newfoundland, were finallyconfederated in 1871. 

CANALETTO, ANTONIO, a Venetian painter, famous for his pictures ofVenice and handling of light and shade (1697-1768). 

CANALETTO, BERNARDO BELLOTTO, nephew and pupil of preceding;distinguished for his perspective and light and shade (1720-1780). 

CANARIS, CONSTANTINE, a Greek statesman, did much to free andconsolidate Greece, more than any other statesman (1790-1877). 

CANARY ISLANDS (288), a group of mountainous islands in theAtlantic, off the NW. African coast, belonging to Spain, with rockycoasts, and wild, picturesque scenery; on the lower levels the climate isdelightful, and sugar, bananas, and dates grow; farther up there arezones where wheat and cereals are cultivated; the rainfall is low, andwater often scarce; sugar, wine, and tobacco are exported; the islandsare a health resort of growing favour. 

CANCAN, the name of an ungraceful and indecent dance practised inthe Paris dancing saloons. 

CANDIA (12), the ancient name of Crete, now the name of the capital, in the centre of the N. Coast. 

CANDIDE, a philosophic romance by Voltaire, and written in ridiculeof the famous maxim of Leibnitz, "All for the best in the best of allpossible worlds"; it is a sweeping satire, and "religion, politicalgovernment, national manners, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty, all come in for a sneer. "

CANDLEMAS, a festival in commemoration of the purification of theVirgin, held on February 2, celebrated with lighted candles; an old Romancustom in honour of the goddess Februa. 

CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, a Scottish ecclesiastic, born in Edinburgh;distinguished, next to Chalmers, for his services in organising the FreeChurch of Scotland; was an able debater and an eloquent preacher(1806-1873). 

CANDOLLE. See DE CANDOLLE. 

CANDOUR, MRS. , a slanderess in Sheridan's "Rivals. "

CANEA (12), chief commercial town in Crete, on NW. Coast; trades inwax, oil, fruit, wool, and silk. 

CANINA, LUIGI, Italian architect; wrote on the antiquities of Rome, Etruria, &c. (1795-1856). 

CANNÆ, ancient town in Apulia, near the mouth of the Aufidus, whereHannibal, in a great battle, defeated the Romans in 216 B. C. , butfailing to follow up his success by a march on Rome, was twitted byMaherbal, one of his officers, who addressing him said, "You know how toconquer, Hannibal, but not how to profit by your victory. "

CANNES (15), a French watering-place and health resort on theMediterranean, in the SE. Of France, where Napoleon landed on his returnfrom Elba. 

CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL, grandson of the succeeding; afterservice in cabinet offices, was made Governor-General of India, 1856, insuccession to Lord Dalhousie; held this post at the time of the Mutiny in1857; distinguished himself during this trying crisis by his discretion, firmness, and moderation; became viceroy on the transfer of thegovernment to the crown in 1858; died in London without issue, and thetitle became extinct (1812-1862). 

CANNING, GEORGE, a distinguished British statesman and orator, bornin London; studied for the bar; entered Parliament as a protégé of Pitt, whom he strenuously supported; was rewarded by an under-secretaryship;married a lady of high rank, with a fortune; satirised the Whigs by hispen in his "Anti-Jacobin"; on the death of Pitt became minister ofForeign Affairs; under Portland distinguished himself by defeating theschemes of Napoleon; became a member of the Liverpool ministry, and oncemore minister of Foreign Affairs; on the death of Liverpool was madePrime Minister, and after a period of unpopularity became popular byadopting, to the disgust of his old colleagues, a liberal policy; was notequal to the opposition he provoked, and died at the age of 57(1770-1827). 

CANO, ALONZO, a celebrated artist, born at Granada; surnamed theMichael Angelo of Spain, having been painter, sculptor, and architect(1601-1667). 

CANO, SEBASTIAN DEL, a Spanish navigator, the first to sail roundthe world; perished on his second voyage to India (1460-1526). 

CANON, the name given to the body of Scripture accepted by theChurch as of divine authority. 

CAÑON OF COLORADO, a gorge in Arizona through which the ColoradoRiver flows, the largest and deepest in the world, being 300 m. Long, with a wall from 3000 to 6000 ft. In perpendicular height. 

CANONISATION, in the Romish Church, is the solemn declaration by thePope that a servant of God, renowned for his virtue and for miracles hehas wrought, is to be publicly venerated by the whole Church, termedSaint, and honoured by a special festival. A preparatory stage isbeatification, and the beatification and canonisation of a saint arepromoted by a long, tedious, and costly process, much resembling a suitat law. 

CANOPUS, the blue vault of heaven with its stars, revered andworshipped by the son of the sandy desert as a friend and guide to him, as he wanders over the waste at night alone. 

CANOSA (18), a town in Apulia, abounding in Roman remains, on thesite of ancient Canusium. 

CANOSSA, a town NW. Of Bologna, in the courtyard of the castle ofwhich the Emperor Henry IV. Stood three days in the cold, in January1077, bareheaded and barefooted, waiting for Pope Gregory VII. To removefrom him the sentence of excommunication. 

CANOVA, ANTONIO, a great Italian sculptor, born in Venetia; gaveearly proof of his genius; his first great work, and which establishedhis fame, was the group of "Theseus and the Minotaur, " which wasby-and-by succeeded by his "Cupid and Psyche, " distinguished by atenderness and grace quite peculiar to him, and erelong by "Perseus withthe Head of Medusa, " perhaps the triumph of his art; his works werenumerous, and brought him a large fortune, which he made a generous useof (1757-1822). 

CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS, marshal of France; served for some 20 years inAlgeria; was a supporter of Napoleon III. , and a tool; commanded in theCrimea, first under, and then in succession to St. Arnaud; fought inItaly against Austria; was shut up in Metz with Bazaine, and madeprisoner; became a member of the senate under the Republic (1809-1895). 

CANT, affectation of thinking, believing, and feeling what one inhis heart and reality does not, of which there are two degrees, insincereand sincere; insincere when one cants knowing it, and sincere when onecants without knowing it, the latter being of the darker and deeper dye. 

CANT, ANDREW, a Scotch Presbyterian minister, who had an equal zealfor the Scotch covenant and the cause of Charles Stuart (1610-1664). Ason of his was Principal of Edinburgh University from 1675 to 1685. 

CANTABRI, the original inhabitants of the N. Of Spain; presumed tobe the ancestors of the Basques. 

CANTACUZE`NUS, JOHN, emperor of the East; an able statesman, whoacting as regent for the heir, had himself crowned king, but was drivento resign at length; retired to a monastery on Mount Athos, where hewrote a history of his time; died in 1411, 100 years old. 

CANTARINI, SIMONE, an Italian painter, born at Pesaro; a pupil ofGuido and a rival, but only an imitator from afar (1612-1648). 

CANTERBURY (23), in E. Kent, on the Stour, by rail 62 m. SE. OfLondon; is the ecclesiastical capital of England; the cathedral wasfounded A. D. 597 by St. Augustin; the present building belongs tovarious epochs, dating as far back as the 11th century; it contains manyinteresting monuments, statues, and tombs, among the latter that ofThomas à Becket, murdered in the north transept, 1170; the cloisters, chapter-house, and other buildings occupy the site of the old monastichouses; the city is rich in old churches and ecclesiastical monuments;there is an art gallery; trade is chiefly in hops and grain. Kit Marlowewas a native. 

CANTERBURY (128), a district in New Zealand, in the centre of theSouth Island, on the east side of which are the Canterbury Plains orDowns, a great pasture-land for sheep of over three million acres. 

CANTERBURY TALES, a body of tales by Chaucer, conceived of asrelated by a small company of pilgrims from London to the shrine ofThomas à Becket at Canterbury. They started from the Tabard Inn atSouthwark, and agreed to tell each a tale going and each another comingback, the author of the best tale to be treated with a supper. None ofthe tales on the homeward journey are given. 

CANTICLES, a book in the Bible erroneously ascribed to Solomon, andcalled in Hebrew the Song of Songs, about the canonicity andinterpretation of which there has been much debate, though, as regardsthe latter, recent criticism inclines, if there is any unity in it atall, to the conclusion that it represents a young maiden seduced into theharem of Solomon, who cannot be persuaded to transfer to the king theaffection she has for a shepherd in the northern hills of Galilee, hersole beloved; the aim of the author presumed by some to present acontrast between the morals of the south and those of the north, injustification possibly of the secession. It was for long, and is by somestill, believed to be an allegory in which the Bridegroom representsChrist and the Bride His Church. 

CANTON (1, 800), chief commercial city and port of Southern China;stands on a river almost on the seaboard, 90 m. NW. Of Hong-Kong, and isa healthy town, but with a heavy rainfall; it is surrounded by walls, hasnarrow crooked streets, 125 temples, mostly Buddhist, and two pagodas, 10and 13 centuries old respectively; great part of the population live inboats on the river; the fancy goods, silk, porcelain, ivory, and metalwork are famous; its river communication with the interior has fosteredan extensive commerce; exports, tea, silk, sugar, cassia, &c. 

CANTON, JOHN, an ingenious experimentalist in physics, andparticularly in electricity, born at Stroud; discovered the means ofmaking artificial magnets and the compressibility of water (1718-1772). 

CANTÙ, CÆSARE, an Italian historian, born in Lombardy; imprisoned bythe Austrian government for his bold advocacy of liberal views, but atlength liberated; wrote, among a number of other works, literary as wellas historical, a "Universal History" in 35 vols. (1807-1895). 

CANUTE, or CNUT, THE DANE, called the Great, son of Sweyn, kingof Denmark; invaded England, and after a success or two was elected kingby his fleet; the claim was repudiated by the Saxons, and he had to flee;returned in 1015, and next year, though London held out for a time, carried all before him; on the death of his sole rival became undisputedking of England, and ruled it as an Englishman born, wisely, equitably, and well, though the care of governing Denmark and Norway lay on hisshoulders as well; died in England, and was buried in Winchester Minster;every one is familiar with the story of the rebuke he administered to thecourtiers by showing how regardless the waves of the sea were of theauthority of a king (994-1035). 

CAPE BRETON (92), the insular portion of the prov. Of Nova Scotia atits eastern extremity, 100 m. Long and 85 broad; is covered with forestsof pine, oak, &c. , and exports timber and fish. 

CAPE COAST CASTLE (11), capital of the Gold Coast colony. 

CAPE COLONY (1, 527), comprises the extremity of the Africancontinent south of the Orange River and Natal, and is nearly twice thesize of the United Kingdom; the Nieuwveld Berge, running E. And W. , divides the country into two slopes, the northern slope long and gradualto the Orange River, the southern shorter and terraced to the sea;two-thirds of the country is arid plain, which, however, only requiresirrigation to render it very fertile; the climate is dry and healthy, buthot in summer; the prevalent vegetation is heath and bulbous plants. Sheep and ostrich farming are the chief industries; wool, goats' hair, ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds from Kimberley and copper fromNamaqualand are the chief exports; two-thirds of the people are ofAfrican race, chiefly Kaffirs, who flourish under British rule; theremainder are of Dutch, English, French, and German origin; Cape Town isthe capital, Kimberley and Port Elizabeth the only other large towns, butthere are many small towns; roads are good; railway and telegraphcommunication is rapidly developing. The government is in the hands of agovernor, appointed by the crown, assisted by an executive council offive and a parliament of two houses; local government is in vogue allover the country; education is well cared for; the university of the Capeof Good Hope was founded in 1873. Discovered by the Portuguese Diaz in1486, the Cape was taken possession of by the Dutch in 1652, from whom itwas captured by Great Britain in 1805. Various steps towardsself-government culminated in 1872. In recent years great tracts to theN. Have been formally taken under British protection, and the policy ofextending British sway from the Cape to Cairo is explicitly avowed. 

CAPE HORN, a black, steep, frowning rock at the SE. Extremity of theFuegean Islands; much dreaded at one time by sailors. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a cape in South Africa, discovered by Diaz in1486; called at first "Cape of Storms, " from the experience of the firstnavigators; altered in consideration of the promised land reached beyond. 

CAPE TOWN (84), capital of Cape Colony, situated at the head ofTable Bay, on the SW. Coast, with Table Mountain rising behind it; is aregularly built, flat-roofed, imposing town, with handsome buildings andextensive Government gardens; well drained, paved, and lit, and with agood water supply. The Government buildings and law courts, museum andart gallery, bank and exchange, are its chief architectural features. Ithas docks, and a graving dock, and is a port of call for vessels of allnations, with a thriving commerce. 

CAPE VERDE ISLANDS (110), a group of mountainous, volcanic islands, belonging to Portugal, 350 m. From Cape Verde, on the W. Of Africa, ofwhich 10 are inhabited, the largest and most productive Santiago and St. Vincent, with an excellent harbour, oftenest visited. These islands areunhealthy, and cattle-breeding is the chief industry. 

CAPELL, EDWARD, an inspector of plays, born at Bury St. Edmunds;spent 20 years in editing the text of Shakespeare, in three vols. , withnotes and various readings (1713-1781). 

CAPELLA, a reddish star of the first magnitude in the northernconstellation of Auriga. 

CAPELLA, an encyclopædist, born in North Africa in the 5th century;author of a work called the "Satiricon, " a strange medley of curiouslearning. 

CAPERCAILZIE, the wood-grouse, a large game-bird found in fir woodsin mountainous districts, and highly esteemed for table. 

CAPERNAUM, a town on the N. Side of the Sea of Galilee, the centreof Christ's labours, the exact site of which is uncertain. 

CAPET, the surname of Hugh, the founder, in 987, of the thirddynasty of French kings, which continued to rule France till 1328, thoughthe name is applied both to the Valois dynasty, which ruled till 1589, and the Bourbon, which ruled till 1848, Louis XVI. Having been officiallydesignated as a Capet at his trial, and under that name sentenced to theguillotine. 

CAPGRAVE, JOHN, Augustine friar, wrote "Chronicle of England, " andvoluminously both in French and English (1393-1464). 

CAPISTRANO, GIOVANNI DA, an Italian Franciscan, a rabid adversary ofthe Hussites, aided John Hunniades in 1456 in defending Belgrade againstthe Turks (1385-1456). 

CAPITOL, a temple and citadel erected by Tarquin on the CapitolineHill, one of the seven hills of Rome, and where victors who were voted atriumph were crowned; terminated at its southern extremity by TarpeianRock, from which criminals guilty of treason were precipitated; hence thesaying, "The Tarpeian Rock is near the Capitol, " to denote the closeconnection between glory and disgrace. 

CAPITULARIES, collections of royal edicts issued by the Frankishkings of the Carlovingian dynasty, with sanction of the nobles, for thewhole Frankish empire, as distinct from the laws for the separate peoplescomprising it, the most famous being those issued or begun by Charlemagneand St. Louis. 

CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT OF, born in Corfu; entered the Russiandiplomatic service; played a prominent part in the insurrection of theGreeks against Turkey; made President of the Greek Republic; assassinatedat Nauplia from distrust of his fidelity (1776-1831). 

CAPO D'ISTRIA, a port of a small island in the government ofTrieste, connected with the mainland by a causeway half a mile in length. 

CAPPADOCIA, an ancient country in the heart of Asia Minor, of variedpolitical fortune; a plateau with pastures for immense flocks. 

CAPRARA, CARDINAL, born at Bologna, legate of Pius VII. In France, concluded the "Concordat" of 1801 (1733-1810). 

CAPRE`RA, a small, barren island off the N. Coast of Sardinia, thehome of Garibaldi, where he died, and his burial-place. 

CAPRI, a small island at the entrance from the S. Of the bay ofNaples, with a capital of the same name on the eastern side; a favouriteretreat of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, and noted for its fine airand picturesque scenery. 

CAPRIVI, COUNT, born in Berlin, entered the army in 1849; held chiefposts in the Austrian and Franco-German wars; in 1890 succeeded Bismarckas Imperial Chancellor; resigned in 1894 (1831-1899). 

CAPUA (11), a fortified city in Campania, on the Volturno, 27 m. N. Of Naples, where, or rather near which, in a place of the same name, Hannibal, at the invitation of the citizens, retired with his army tospend the winter after the battle of Cannæ, 216 B. C. , and where, fromthe luxurious life they led, his soldiers were enervated, after which itwas taken by the Romans, destroyed by the Saracens in 840, and the moderncity built in its stead. 

CAPUCHINS, monks of the Franciscan Order, founded in 1526, so calledfrom a cowl they wear; they were a mendicant order, and were twice oversuppressed by the Pope, though they exist still in Austria andSwitzerland. 

CAPULETS, a celebrated Ghibelline family of Verona at mortal feudwith that of the Montagues, familiar to us through Shakespeare's "Romeoand Juliet, " Romeo being of the latter and Juliet of the former. 

CAPYBA`RA, the water-hog, the largest rodent extant, in appearancelike a small pig. 

CARACALLA, a Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus, born at Lyons;his reign (211-217) was a series of crimes, follies, and extravagances;he put to death 20, 000 persons, among others the jurist Papinianus, andwas assassinated himself by one of his guards. 

CARACAS or CARRACAS (72), the cap. Of Venezuela, stands at analtitude 3000 ft. Above the level of the sea; subject to earthquakes, inone of which (1812) 12, 000 perished, and great part of the city wasdestroyed; it contains the tomb of Bolivar. 

CARACCI or CARRACCI, a family of painters, born at Bologna:LUDOVICO, the founder of a new school of painting, the principle ofwhich was eclecticism, in consequence of which it is known as theEclectic School, or imitation of the styles of the best masters(1555-1619); ANNIBALE, cousin and pupil, did "St. Roche distributingAlms, " and his chief, "Three Marys weeping over Christ"; went to Rome andpainted the celebrated Farnese gallery, a work which occupied him fouryears (1560-1609); AGOSTINO, brother of above, assisted him in thefrescoes of the gallery, the "Communion of St. Jerome" his greatest work(1557-1602). 

CARACTACUS, a British chief, king of the Silures, maintained agallant struggle against the Romans for nine years, but was overthrown byOstorius, 50 A. D. , taken captive, and led in triumphal processionthrough Rome, when the Emperor Claudius was so struck with his dignifieddemeanour, that he set him and all his companions at liberty. 

CARADOC, a knight of the Round Table, famous for his valour and thechastity and constancy of his wife. 

CARAFFA, a distinguished Neapolitan family, which gave birth to anumber of distinguished ecclesiastics, Paul IV. One of them. 

CARAGLIO, an eminent Italian engraver, born at Verona, engraved ongems and medals as well as copper-plate, after the works of the greatmasters (1500-1570). 

CARAVAGGIO, an Italian painter, disdained the ideal and the idealstyle of art, and kept generally to crass reality, often in its grossestforms; a man of a violent temper, which hastened his end; a painting byhim of "Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus" is in the National Gallery, London (1569-1609). 

CARAVANSERAI, a large unfurnished inn, with a court in the middlefor the accommodation of caravans and other travellers at night in theEast. 

CARBOHYDRATES, a class of substances such as the sugars, starch, &c. , consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter in theproportion in which they exist in water. 

CARBONARI (lit. _charcoal burners_), a secret society that, in thebeginning of the 19th century, originated in Italy and extended itselfinto France, numbering hundreds of thousands, included Lord Byron, SilvioPellico, and Mazzini among them, the object of which was the overthrow ofdespotic governments; they were broken up by Austria, and absorbed by theYoung Italy party. 

CARDAN, JEROME, Italian physician and mathematician, born at Pavia;was far-famed as a physician; studied and wrote on all manner of knownsubjects, made discoveries in algebra, believed in astrology, left acandid account of himself entitled "De Vita Propria"; was the author of"Cardan's Formula" a formula for the solution of cubic equations; he issaid to have starved himself to death so as to fulfil a prophecy he hadmade as to the term of his life (1501-1576). 

CARDIFF (129), county town of Glamorganshire, S. Wales, on the riverTaff, the sea outlet for the mineral wealth and products of the district, a town that has risen more rapidly than any other in the kingdom, havinghad at the beginning of the century only 2000 inhabitants; it has auniversity, a number of churches, few of them belonging to the Church ofEngland, and has also three daily papers. 

CARDIGAN, EARL OF, a British officer; commanded the Light CavalryBrigade in the Crimean war, and distinguished himself in the famouscharge of the Six Hundred, which he led; his favourite regiment, the 11thHussars, on the equipment of which he lavished large sums of money(1797-1868). 

CARDIGANSHIRE (62), a county in S. Wales, low-lying on the coast, level towards the coast, and mountainous in the interior, but withfertile valleys. 

CARDINAL VIRTUES, these have been "arranged by the wisest men of alltime, under four general heads, " and are defined by Ruskin as "Prudenceor Discretion (the spirit which discerns and adopts rightly), Justice(the spirit which rules and divides rightly), Fortitude (the spirit thatpersists and endures rightly), and Temperance (the spirit which stops andrefuses rightly). These cardinal and sentinel virtues, " he adds, "are notonly the means of protecting and prolonging life itself, but are thechief guards or sources of the material means of life, and the governingpowers and princes of economy. "

CARDINALISTS, name given to the partisans in France of Richelieu andMazarin. 

CARDUCCI, Florentine artists, brothers, of the 17th century; didtheir chief work in Spain. 

CARDUCCI, GIOSUE, an Italian poet and critic; author of "Hymn toSatan, " "Odi Barbari, " "Commentaries on Petrarch, " &c. ; _b_. 1837. 

CAREW, THOMAS, English courtier poet; his poems, chiefly masks andlyrics (1589-1639). 

CAREY, HENRY, English poet and musician, excelled in ballads;composed "Sally in Our Alley"; _d_. 1743. 

CAREY, SIR ROBERT, warden of the Border Marches under Elizabeth;present at her deathbed rode off post-haste on the occurrence of thedeath with the news to Edinburgh to announce it to King James(1560-1639). 

CAREY, WILLIAM, celebrated Baptist missionary, born inNorthamptonshire; founder of the Baptist Missionary Society, and itsfirst missionary; founded the mission at Serampore and directed itsoperations, distributing Bibles and tracts by thousands in nativelanguages, as well as preparing grammars and dictionaries; was 29 yearsOriental professor in the College of Fort William. Calcutta (1761-1834). 

CARGILL, DONALD, a Scotch Covenanter, born in Perthshire; wasminister of the Barony Parish, Glasgow; fought at Bothwell Brig; sufferedat the Cross of Edinburgh for daring to excommunicate the king; died withthe faith and courage of a martyr (1619-1681). 

CARIA, a SW. Country in Asia Minor, bordering on the Archipelago, ofwhich the Mæander is the chief river. 

CARIBBEAN SEA, an inland sea of the Atlantic, lying between theGreat Antilles and South America, subject to hurricanes; it correspondsto the Mediterranean in Europe, and is the turning-point of the GulfStream. 

CARIBS, a race of American Indians, originally inhabiting the WestIndies, now confined to the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea, as faras the mouth of the Amazon; they are a fine race, tall, and ofruddy-brown complexion, but have lost their distinctive physique byamalgamation with other tribes; they give name to the Caribbean Sea. 

CARINTHIA (361), since 1849 crownland of Austria, near Italy; is amountainous and a mineral country; rears cattle and horses; manufactureshardware and textile fabrics; the principal river is the Drave; capital, Klagenfurt. 

CARISBROOKE, a village in the Isle of Wight, in the castle of which, now in ruins, Charles I. Was imprisoned 13 months before his trial; itwas at one time a Roman station. 

CARLÉN, EMILIA, Swedish novelist; her novels, some 30 in number, treat of the everyday life of the lower and middle classes (1807-1883). 

CARLETON, WILLIAM, Irish novelist; his first work, and thefoundation of his reputation, "Traits and Stories of the IrishPeasantry, " followed by others of a like class (1794-1860). 

CARLI, Italian archæologist, numismatist, and economist, born atCapo d'Istria; wrote as his chief work on political economy; president ofthe Council of Commerce at Milan (1720-1795). 

CARLILE, RICHARD, English Radical and Freethinker, born inDevonshire; a disciple of Tom Paine's, and propagandist of his views witha zeal which no prosecution could subdue, although he time after timesuffered imprisonment for it, as well as those who associated themselveswith him, his wife included; his principal organ was "The Republican, "the first twelve volumes of which are dated from his prison; he was amartyr for the freedom of the press, and in that interest did not sufferin vain (1790-1843). 

CARLISLE (39), county town of Cumberland, on the Eden; a greatrailway centre; with an old castle of historical interest, and acathedral founded by William Rufus and dedicated to Henry I. 

CARLISLE, GEORGE FREDERICK WILLIAM HOWARD, EARL OF, a Whig inpolitics; supported the successive Whig administrations of his time, andbecame eventually Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland under Palmerston(1802-1864). 

CARLISTS, a name given in France to the partisans of Charles X. (1830), and especially in Spain to those of Don Carlos (1833), and thoseof his grandson (1873-1874). 

CARLOMAN, son of Charles Martel, and brother of Pepin le Bref, kingof Austrasia from 741 to 747; abdicated, and retired into a monastery, where he died. 

CARLOMAN, son of Pepin le Bref, and brother of Charlemagne, king ofAustrasia, Burgundy, and Provence in 768; _d_. 771. 

CARLOMAN, king of France conjointly with his brother Louis III. ;_d_. 884. 

CARLOS, DON, son of Philip II. Of Spain, born at Valladolid, andheir to the throne, but from incapacity, or worse, excluded by his fatherfrom all share in the government; confessed to a priest a design toassassinate some one, believed to be his father; was seized, tried, andconvicted, though sentence against him was never pronounced; died shortlyafter; the story of Don Carlos has formed the subject of tragedies, especially one by Schiller, the German poet (1545-1568). 

CARLOS, DON, the brother of Ferdinand VII. Of Spain, on whose deathhe laid claim to the crown as heir, against Isabella, Ferdinand'sdaughter who by the Salic law, though set aside in her favour by herfather, had, he urged, no right to the throne; his cause was taken up bya large party, and the struggle kept up for years; defeated at length heretired from the contest, and abdicated in favour of his son(1785-1855). 

CARLOS, DON, grandson of the preceding, and heir to his rights;revived the struggle in 1870, but fared no better than his grandfather;took refuge in London; _b_. 1848. 

CARLOVINGIANS, or KARLINGS, the name of the second dynasty ofFrankish kings, in succession to the Merovingian, which had become_fainéant_; bore sway from 762 to 987, Pepin le Bref the first, and LouisV. The last; Charlemagne was the greatest of the race, and gave name tothe dynasty. 

CALLOW (40), an inland county in Leinster, Ireland; also the countytown. 

CARLOWITZ, a town on the Danube, 30 m. NW. Of Belgrade, where atreaty was concluded in 1699 between Turkey and other European powers, very much to the curtailment of the territories of the former. 

CARLSBAD (10), a celebrated watering-place in Bohemia, ofaristocratic resort, the springs being the hottest in Europe, the watervarying from 117° to 165°; population nearly trebled in the season; theinhabitants are engaged in industries which minister to the tastes of thevisitors and their own profit. 

CARLSCRONA (21), a Swedish town, strongly fortified, on the Baltic, with a spacious harbour, naval station, and arsenal; it is built on fiverocky islands united by dykes and bridges. 

CARLSRUHE (73), the capital of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, a greatrailway centre; built in the form of a fan, its streets, 32 in number, radiating so from the duke's palace in the centre. 

CARLSTADT, a German Reformer, associated for a time with Luther, butparted from him both on practical and dogmatical grounds; succeededZwingli as professor at Basel (1483-1541). 

CARLTON CLUB, the Conservative club in London, so called, as erectedon the site of Carlton House, demolished in 1828, and occupied by GeorgeIV. When he was Prince of Wales. 

CARLYLE, ALEXANDER, surnamed Jupiter Carlyle, from his noble headand imposing person, born in Dumfriesshire; minister of Inveresk, Musselburgh, from 1747 to his death; friend of David Hume, Adam Smith, and Home, the author of "Douglas"; a leader of the Moderate party in theChurch of Scotland; left an "Autobiography, " which was not published till1860, which shows its author to have been a man who took things as hefound them, and enjoyed them to the full as any easy-going, culturedpagan (1722-1805). 

CARLYLE, THOMAS, born in the village of Ecclefechan, Annandale, Dumfriesshire; son of James Carlyle, a stone-mason, and afterwards asmall farmer, a man of great force, penetration, and integrity ofcharacter, and of Margaret Aitken, a woman of deep piety and warmaffection; educated at the parish school and Annan Academy; entered theUniversity of Edinburgh at the age of 14, in the Arts classes;distinguished himself early in mathematics; enrolled as a student in thetheological department; became a teacher first in Annan Academy, then atKirkcaldy; formed there an intimate friendship with Edward Irving; threwup both school-mastering and the church; removed to Edinburgh, and tookto tutoring and working for an encyclopedia, and by-and-by to translatingfrom the German and writing criticisms for the Reviews, the latter ofwhich collected afterwards in the "Miscellanies, " proved "epoch-making"in British literature, wrote a "Life of Schiller"; married Jane Welsh, adescendant of John Knox; removed to Craigenputtock, in Dumfriesshire, "the loneliest nook in Britain, " where his original work began with"Sartor Resartus, " written in 1831, a radically spiritual book, and asymbolical, though all too exclusively treated as a speculative, and anautobiographical; removed to London in 1834, where he wrote his "FrenchRevolution" (1837), a book instinct with the all-consuming fire of theevent which it pictures, and revealing "a new moral force" in theliterary life of the country and century; delivered three courses oflectures to the _élite_ of London Society (1837-1840), the last of them"Heroes and Hero-Worship, " afterwards printed in 1840; in 1840 appeared"Chartism, " in 1843 "Past and Present, " and in 1850 "Latter-DayPamphlets"; all on what he called the "Condition-of-England-Question, "which to the last he regarded, as a subject of the realm, the mostserious question of the time, seeing, as he all along taught and felt, the social life affects the individual life to the very core; in 1845 hedug up a hero literally from the grave in his "Letters and Speeches ofOliver Cromwell, " and after writing in 1851 a brief biography of hismisrepresented friend, John Sterling, concluded (1858-1865) his life'stask, prosecuted from first to last, in "sore travail" of body and soul, with "The History of Friedrich II. Of Prussia, called Frederick theGreat, " "the last and grandest of his works, " says Froude; "a book, " saysEmerson, "that is a Judgment Day, for its moral verdict on men andnations, and the manners of modern times"; lies buried beside his ownkindred in the place where he was born, as he had left instructions tobe. "The man, " according to Ruskin, his greatest disciple, and atpresent, as would seem, the last, "who alone of all our masters ofliterature, has written, without thought of himself, what he knew to beneedful for the people of his time to hear, if the will to hear had beenin them . .. The solitary Teacher who has asked them to be (before all)brave for the help of Man, and just for the love of God" (1795-1881). 

CARMAGNOLE, a Red-republican song and dance. 

CARMARTHENSHIRE (30), a county in S. Wales, and the largest in thePrincipality; contains part of the coal-fields in the district; capitalCarmarthen, on the right bank of the Towy, a river which traverses thecounty. 

CARMEL, a NW. Extension of the limestone ridge that bounds on the S. The Plain of Esdraëlon, in Palestine, and terminates in a rockypromontory 500 ft. High; forms the southern boundary of the Bay of Acre;its highest point is 1742 ft. Above the sea-level. 

CARMELITES, a monastic order, originally an association of hermitson Mount Carmel, at length mendicant, called the Order of Our Lady ofMount Carmel, i. E. The Virgin, in consecration to whom it was foundedby a pilgrim of the name Berthold, a Calabrian, in 1156. The Order issaid to have existed from the days of Elijah. 

CARMEN SYLVA, the _nom-de-plume_ of Elizabeth, queen of Roumania;lost an only child, and took to literature for consolation; has taken anactive interest in the elevation and welfare of her sex; _b_. 1843. 

CARMONTEL, a French dramatist; author of little pieces under thename of "Proverbes" (1717-1806). 

CARNAC, a seaside fishing-village in the Bay of Quibéron, in thedep. Of Morbihan, France, with interesting historical records, particularly Celtic, many of them undecipherable by the antiquary. 

CARNARVON, a maritime county in N. Wales, with the highest mountainsand grandest scenery in the Principality, and a capital of the same nameon the Menai Strait, with the noble ruins of a castle, in which EdwardII. , the first Prince of Wales, was born. 

CARNARVON, HENRY HOWARD, Earl of, Conservative statesman; heldoffice under Lord Derby and Disraeli; was a good classical scholar; wrotethe "Druses of Mount Lebanon" (1831-1890). 

CARNATIC, an old prov. In the Madras Presidency of India thatextended along the Coromandel coast from Cape Comorin, 600 m. N. 

CARNEADES, a Greek philosopher, born at Cyrene; his whole philosophya polemic against the dogmatism of the Stoics, on the alleged ground ofthe absence of any criterion of certainty in matters of either science ormorality; conceded that truth and virtue were admirable qualities, but hedenied the reality of them; sent once on an embassy to Rome, hepropounded this doctrine in the ears of the Conscript Fathers, upon whichCato moved he should be expelled from the senate-house and sent back toAthens, where he came from (213-129 B. C. ). 

CARNEGIE, ANDREW, ironmaster, born in Dunfermline, the son of aweaver; made a large fortune by his iron and steel works at Pittsburg, U. S. , out of which he has liberally endowed institutions and libraries, both in America and his native country; _b_. 1835. 

CARNIOLA (500), a crownland of the Austrian empire, SW. Of Austria, on the Adriatic, S. Of Carinthia; contains quicksilver mines, second onlyto those of Almaden, in Spain; the surface is mountainous, and the soilis not grain productive, though in some parts it yields wine and finefruit. 

CARNIVAL, in Roman Catholic countries the name given to a season offeasting and revelry immediately preceding Lent, akin to the Saturnaliaof the Romans. 

CARNOT, LEONARD SADI, son of Nicolas, founder of thermo-dynamics; inhis "Reflexions sur la Puissance du Feu" enunciates the principle ofReversibility, considered the most important contribution to physicalscience since the time of Newton (1796-1832). See DR. KNOTT'S"PHYSICS. "

CARNOT, MARIE FRANÇOIS, civil engineer and statesman, born atLimoges, nephew of the preceding; Finance Minister in 1879 and 1887;became President in 1887; was assassinated at Lyons by an anarchist in1894. 

CARNOT, NICOLAS, French mathematician and engineer, born at Nolay, in Burgundy; a member of the National Convention; voted for the death ofthe king; became member of the Committee of Public Safety, and organiserof the armies of the Republic, whence his name, the "organiser ofvictory"; Minister of War under Napoleon; defender of Antwerp in 1814;and afterwards Minister of the Interior (1753-1823). 

CARO, ANNIBALE, an Italian author and poet, notable for his classicstyle (1507-1566). 

CARO, MARIE, a French philosopher, born at Poitiers; a popularlecturer on philosophy, surnamed _le philosophe des dames_; wrote onmysticism, materialism, and pessimism (1826-1887). 

CAROLINA, NORTH, one of the original 13 States of N. America, on theAtlantic, about the size of England, S. Of Virginia, 480 m. From E. To W. And 180 m. From N. To S. ; has a fertile, well-watered subsoil in the highlands; is rich in minerals and natural products; the mountains arecovered with forests, and the manufactures are numerous. 

CAROLINA, SOUTH, S. Of N. Carolina, is alluvial with swamps, 100 m. Inland from the coast, is well watered; produces rice and cotton in largequantities and of a fine quality. 

CAROLINE ISLANDS (36), a stretch of lagoon islands, 2000 m. From E. To W. , belonging to Spain, N. Of New Guinea and E. Of the PhilippineIslands; once divided into eastern, western, and central; the soil of thewestern is fertile, and there is plenty of fish and turtle in thelagoons. 

CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK, queen of George IV. And daughter of the Dukeof Brunswick; married George, then Prince of Wales, in 1795; gave birthto the Princess Charlotte the year following, but almost immediatelyafter her husband abandoned her; she retired to a mansion at Blackheath;was allowed to go abroad after a time; on the accession of her husbandshe was offered a pension of £50, 000 if she stayed out of the country, but rejected it and claimed her rights as queen; was charged withadultery, but after a long trial acquitted; on the day of the coronationsought admission to Westminster Abbey, but the door was shut against her;she died a fortnight after (1768-1821). 

CARON, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, under the first Empire; head of theBelford conspiracy in 1820 under the Restoration; executed 1822. 

CARPACCIO, VITTORE, a Venetian painter of great celebrity, particularly in his early pieces, for his truth of delineation, hisfertile imagination, and his rich colouring; his works are numerous, andhave nearly all of them sacred subjects; an Italian critic says of him, "He had truth in his heart" (1450-1522). 

CARPATHIANS, a range of wooded mountains in Central Europe, 880 m. Long, which, in two great masses, extend from Presburg to Orsova, both onthe Danube, in a semicircle round the greater part of Hungary, particularly the whole of the N. And E. , the highest of them Negoi, 8517ft. , they are rich in minerals, and their sides clothed with forests, principally of beech and pine. 

CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE, sculptor, born at Valenciennes; adorned byhis art, reckoned highly imaginative, several of the public monuments ofParis, and the façade of the Opera House (1827-1875). 

CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, a broad, deep gulf in the N. Of Australia;contains several islands, and receives several rivers. 

CARPENTER, MARY, a philanthropist, born at Exeter, daughter of Dr. Lant Carpenter, Unitarian minister; took an active part in theestablishment of reformatory and ragged schools, and a chief promoter ofthe Industrial Schools Act; her philanthropic efforts extended to India, which, in her zeal, she visited four times, and she was the founder ofthe National Indian Association (1807-1877). 

CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, biologist, brother of the preceding;author, among other numerous works, of the "Principles of General andComparative Physiology" (1838); contributed to mental physiology; heldseveral high professional appointments in London; inaugurated deep-seasoundings, and advocated the theory of a vertical circulation in theocean (1813-1877). 

CARPI, GIROLAMO DA, Italian painter and architect, born at Ferrara;successful imitator of Correggio (1501-1556). 

CARPI, UGO DA, Italian painter and wood engraver; is said to haveinvented engraving in chiaroscuro (1486-1530). 

CARPINI, a Franciscan monk, born in Umbria; headed an embassy fromPope Innocent IV. To the Emperor of the Mogul Tartars to persuade him outof Europe, which he threatened; was a corpulent man of 60; travelled fromLyons to beyond Lake Baikal and back; wrote a report of his journey inLatin, which had a quieting effect on the panic in Europe (1182-1252). 

CARPIO, a legendary hero of the Moors of Spain; is said to haveslain Roland at Roncesvalles. 

CARPOC`RATES, a Gnostic of Alexandria of the 2nd century, whobelieved in the transmigration of the soul and its final emancipationfrom all external bonds and obligations, by means of concentratedmeditation on the divine unity, and a life in conformity therewith; wasthe founder of a sect called after his name. 

CARRARA (11), a town in N. Italy, 30 m. NW. Of Leghorn; famous forits quarries of white statuary marble, the working of which is its stapleindustry; these quarries have been worked for 2000 years, are 400 innumber, and employ as quarrymen alone regularly over 3000 men. 

CARREL, ARMAND, French publicist, born at Rouen; a man of highcharacter, and highly esteemed; editor of the _National_, which heconducted with great ability, and courage; died of a wound in a duel withÉmile de Girardin (1800-1836). 

CARRICK, the southern division of Ayrshire. See AYRSHIRE. 

CARRICKFERGUS (9), a town and seaport N. Of Belfast Lough, 9½ m. From Belfast, with a picturesque castle. 

CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the most blood-thirsty of the FrenchRevolutionists, born near Aurillac; an attorney by profession; sent on amission to La Vendée; caused thousands of victims to be drowned, beheaded, or shot; was guillotined himself after trial by a Revolutionarytribunal (1756-1794). See NOYADES. 

CARRIÈRE, MORITZ, a German philosopher and man of letters, born inHesse, author of works on æsthetics and art in its relation to cultureand the ideal; advocated the compatibility of the pantheistic with thedeistic view of the world (1817-1893). 

CARROL, LEWIS, pseudonym of C. L. DODGSON (q. V. ), theauthor of "Alice in Wonderland, " with its sequel, "Through theLooking-Glass. "

CARSE, the name given in Scotland to alluvial lands bordering on ariver. 

CARSON, KIT, American trapper, born in Kentucky; was of service tothe States in expeditions in Indian territories from his knowledge of thehabits of the Indians (1809-1878). 

CARSTAIRS, WILLIAM, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Cathcart, nearGlasgow; sent to Utrecht to study theology; recommended himself to theregard of the Prince of Orange, and became his political adviser;accompanied him to England as chaplain in 1688, and had no small share inbringing about the Revolution; controlled Church affairs in Scotland; wasmade Principal of Edinburgh University; was chief promoter of the Treatyof Union; was held in high esteem by his countrymen for his personalcharacter as well as his public services; was a most sagacious man(1649-1715). 

CARSTENS, ASMUS JAKOB, Danish artist, born in Sleswig; on theappearance of his great picture, "The Fall of the Angels, " rose at onceinto fame; was admitted to the Berlin Academy; afterwards studied themasters at Rome; brought back to Germany a taste for art; was the meansof reviving it; treated classical subjects; quarrelled the Academy; diedin poverty at Rome (1754-1798). 

CARTAGENA (86), a naval port of Spain, on the Mediterranean, with acapacious harbour; one of the oldest towns in it, founded by theCarthaginians; was once the largest naval arsenal in Europe. Also capital(12) of the Bolivar State in Colombia. 

CARTE, THOMAS, historian, a devoted Jacobite, born near Rugby; wrotea "History of England, " which has proved a rich quarry of facts forsubsequent historians (1686-1754). 

CARTE-BLANCHE, a blank paper with a signature to be filled up withsuch terms of an agreement as the holder is authorised to accept in nameof the person whose signature it bears. 

CARTER, ELIZABETH, an accomplished lady, born at Deal, friend of Dr. Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others; a great Greek and Italianscholar; translated Epictetus and Algarotti's exposition of Newton'sphilosophy; some of her papers appear in the _Rambler_ (1717-1806). 

CARTERET, JOHN, EARL GRANVILLE, eminent British statesman, orator, and diplomatist, entered Parliament in the Whig interest; his firstspeech was in favour of the Protestant succession; after service asdiplomatist abroad, was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, in whichcapacity he was brought into contact with Swift, first as an enemy but atlength as a friend, and proved a successful viceroy; in Parliament washead of the party opposed to Sir Robert Walpole and of the subsequentadministration; his foreign policy has been in general approved of; hadthe satisfaction of seeing, which he was instrumental in securing, theelder Pitt installed in office before he retired; was a "fiery, emphaticman" (1690-1763). 

CARTERET, PHILIP, English sailor and explorer, explored in theSouthern Seas, and discovered several islands, Pitcairn's Island amongthe number; _d_. 1796. 

CARTHAGE, an ancient maritime city, on a peninsula in the N. OfAfrica, near the site of Tunis, and founded by Phoenicians in 850 B. C. ;originally the centre of a colony, it became the capital of a wide-spreadtrading community, which even ventured to compete with, and at one timethreatened, under Hannibal, to overthrow, the power of Rome, in a seriesof protracted struggles known as the Punic Wars, in the last of which itwas taken and destroyed by Publius Cornelius Scipio in 146 B. C. , after asiege of two years, though it rose again as a Roman city under theCæsars, and became a place of great importance till burned in A. D. 698by Hassan, the Arab; the struggle during the early part of its historywas virtually a struggle for the ascendency of the Semitic people overthe Aryan race in Europe. 

CARTHUSIANS, a monastic order of a very severe type, founded by St. Bruno in 1086, each member of which had originally a single cell, eventually one consisting of two or three rooms with a garden, all ofthem opening into one corridor; they amassed considerable wealth, butwere given to deeds of benefaction, and spent their time in study andcontemplation, in consequence of which they figure not so much in theoutside world as many other orders do. 

CARTIER, a French navigator, born at St. Malo, made three voyages toN. America in quest of a North-West passage, at the instance of FrancisI. ; took possession of Canada in the name of France, by planting theFrench flag on the soil (1494-1554). 

CARTOONS, drawings or designs made on stiff paper for a fresco orother paintings, transferred by tracing or pouncing to the surface to bepainted, the most famous of which are those of Raphael. 

CARTOUCHE, a notorious captain of a band of thieves, born in Paris, who was broken on the wheel alive in the Place de Grève (1698-1721). 

CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, inventor of the powerloom and the cardingmachine, born in Nottinghamshire; bred for the Church; his invention, atfirst violently opposed, to his ruin for the time being, is nowuniversally adopted; a grant of £10, 000 was made him by Parliament inconsideration of his services and in compensation for his losses; he hada turn for versifying as well as mechanical invention (1743-1823). 

CARTWRIGHT, JOHN, brother of the preceding; served in the navy andthe militia, but left both services for political reasons; took to thestudy of agriculture, and the advocacy of radical political reform muchin advance of his time (1740-1824). 

CARUS, KARL GUSTAV, a celebrated German physiologist, born atLeipzig; a many-sided man; advocate of the theory that health of body andmind depends on the equipoise of antagonistic principles (1789-1869). 

CARY, HENRY FRANCIS, translator of Dante, born at Gibraltar; histranslation is admired for its fidelity as well as for its force andfelicity (1772-1844). 

CARYATIDES, draped female figures surmounting columns and supportingentablatures; the corresponding male figures are called Atlantes. 

CASA, Italian statesman, Secretary of State under Pope Paul IV. ;wrote "Galateo; or, the Art of Living in the World" (1503-1556). 

CASABIANCA, LOUIS, a French naval officer, born in Corsica, who, atthe battle of Aboukir, after securing the safety of his crew, blew up hisship and perished along with his son, who would not leave him(1755-1798). 

CASA`LE (17), a town on the Po; manufactures silk twist. 

CASANOVA, painter, born in London, of Venetian origin; paintedlandscapes and battle-pieces (1727-1806). 

CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, a clever Venetian adventurer and scandalousimpostor, of the Cagliostro type, who insinuated himself into the goodgraces for a time of all the distinguished people of the period, including even Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others; died in Bohemiaafter endless roamings and wrigglings, leaving, as Carlyle would say, "the smell of brimstone behind him"; wrote a long detailed, brazen-facedaccount of his career of scoundrelism (1725-1798). 

CASAS, BARTOLOMEO DE LAS, a Spanish prelate, distinguished for hisexertions in behalf of the Christianisation and civilisation of theIndians of S. America (1474-1566). 

CASAUBON, ISAAC, an eminent classical scholar and commentator, bornin Geneva; professor of Greek at Geneva and Montpellier, and afterwardsof belles-lettres at Paris, invited thither by Henry IV. , who pensionedhim; being a Protestant he removed to London on Henry's death, whereJames I. Gave him two prebends; has been ranked with Lepsius and Scaligeras a scholar (1559-1614). 

CASAUBON, MERIC, son of preceding; accompanied his father toEngland; held a church living under the Charleses; became professor ofTheology at Oxford, and edited his father's works (1599-1671). 

CASCADE MOUNTAINS, a range in Columbia that slopes down toward thePacific from the Western Plateau, of which the Rocky Mountains form theeastern boundary; they are nearly parallel with the coast, and above 100m. Inland. 

CASERTA (35), a town in Italy, 20 m. From Naples, noted for amagnificent palace, built after plans supplied by Vanvitelli, one of thearchitects of St. Peter's at Rome. 

CASHEL, a town in Tipperary, Ireland, 49 m. NE. Of Cork; a bishop'ssee, with a "Rock" 300 ft. High, occupied by interesting ruins; it wasformerly the seat of the kings of Munster. 

CASHMERE or KASHMIR (2, 543), a native Indian State, borderingupon Tibet, 120 m. Long and 80 m. Wide, with beautiful scenery and adelicious climate, in a valley of the Himalayas, forming the basin of theUpper Indus, hemmed in by deep-gorged woods and snow-peaked mountains, and watered by the Jhelum, which spreads out here and there near it intolovely lakes; shawl weaving and lacquer-work are the chief occupations ofthe inhabitants. 

CASIMIR, the name of five kings of Poland; the most eminent, CasimirIII. , called the Great, after distinguishing himself in wars against theTeutonic Knights, was elected king in 1333; recovered Silesia fromBohemia in two victories; defeated the Tartars on the Vistula, andannexed part of Lithuania; formed a code of laws, limiting both the royalauthority and that of the nobles (1309-1370). 

CASIMIR-PERIER, president of the French Republic, born in Paris; aman of moderate views and firm character; was premier in 1893; succeededCarnot in 1894; resigned 1895, because, owing to misrepresentation, theoffice had become irksome to him; _b_. 1847. 

CASINO, a club-house or public building in Continental townsprovided with rooms for social gatherings, music, dancing, billiards, &c. 

CASIRI, a Syro-Maronite religious, and a learned Orientalist(1710-1791). 

CASPARI, KARL PAUL, German theologian, born at Dessau; professor atChristiania (1814-1892). 

CASPIAN SEA, an inland sea, partly in Europe and partly in Asia, thelargest in the world, being 600 m. From N. To S. And from 270 to 130 m. In breadth, with the Caucasus Mts. On the W. And the Elburz on the S. , isthe fragment of a larger sea which extended to the Arctic Ocean; shallowin the N. , deep in the S. ; the waters, which are not so salt as theocean, abound in fish, especially salmon and sturgeon. 

CASS, LEWIS, an eminent American statesman, a member of theDemocratic party, and openly hostile to Great Britain; though in favourof slave-holding, a friend of Union; wrote a "History of the U. S. Indians" (1782-1867). 

CASSAGNAC, GRANIER DE, a French journalist; at first an Orleanist, became a supporter of the Empire; started several journals, which alldied a natural death; edited _Le Pays_, a semi-official organ; embroiledhimself in duels and lawsuits without number (1806-1880). 

CASSAGNAC, PAUL, son of preceding; editor of _Le Pays_ and thejournal _L'Autorité_; an obstinate Imperialist; _b_. 1843. 

CASSANDER, king of Macedonia, passed over in the succession by hisfather Antipater; allied himself with the Greek cities; invaded Macedoniaand ascended the throne; married Thessalonica, the sister of Alexanderthe Great, but put Alexander's mother to death, thus securing himselfagainst all rival claimants; left his son Philip as successor(354-297 B. C. ). 

CASSANDRA, a beautiful Trojan princess, daughter of Priam andHecuba, whom Apollo endowed with the gift of prophecy, but, as she hadrejected his suit, doomed to utter prophecies which no one would believe, as happened with her warnings of the fate and the fall of Troy, whichwere treated by her countrymen as the ravings of a lunatic; her name isapplied to any one who entertains gloomy forebodings. 

CASSANO, a town in the S. Of Italy; also a town near Milan, scene ofa French victory under Vendôme in 1705, and a French defeat under Moreauin 1799. 

CASSATION, COURT OF, a court of highest and last appeal in France, appointed in the case of appeal to revise the forms of a procedure in aninferior court; it consists of a president and vice-president, 49 judges, a public prosecutor called the _procureur-général_, and sixadvocates-general; it consists of three sections: first, one to determineif the appeal should be received; second, one to decide in civil cases;and third, one to decide in criminal cases. 

CASSEL (72), capital of Hesse-Cassel, an interesting town, 120 m. From Frankfort-on-Main; it is the birthplace of Bunsen. 

CASSELL, JOHN, the publisher, born in Manchester; a self-made man, who knew the value of knowledge and did much to extend it (1817-1865). 

CASSIANUS, JOANNUS, an Eastern ascetic; came to Constantinople, andbecame a pupil of Chrysostom, who ordained him; founded two monasteriesin Marseilles; opposed the extreme views of Augustine in regard to graceand free-will, and human depravity; and not being able to go the lengthof Pelaganism, adopted SEMI-PELAGIANISM, q. V. (360-448). 

CASSINI, name of a family of astronomers of the 17th and 18thcenturies, of Italian origin; distinguished for their observations anddiscoveries affecting the comets, the planets, and the moon; theysettled, father and son and grandson, in Paris, and became in successiondirectors of the observatory of Paris, the last of whom died in 1864, after completing in 1793 a great topographical map of France begun by hisfather. 

CASSIODO`RUS, a Latin statesman and historian, born in Calabria;prime minister of Theodoric the Great and his successor; retired into amonastery about 70, and lived there nearly 30 years; wrote a history ofthe Goths, and left letters of great historical value (468-568). 

CASSIOPE`IA, queen of Ethiopia, mother of Andromeda, placed afterdeath among the constellations; a constellation well north in thenorthern sky of five stars in the figure of a W. 

CASSIQUIA`RI, a remarkable river in Venezuela, which, like a canal, connects the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon, with the Orinoco. 

CASSITER`IDES, islands in the Atlantic, which the Phoenician sailorsvisited to procure tin; presumed to have been the Scilly Islands orCornwall, which they adjoin. 

CASSIUS, CAIUS, chief conspirator against Cæsar; won over Brutus tojoin in the foul plot; soon after the deed was done fled to Syria, madehimself master of it; joined his forces with those of Brutus at Philippi;repulsed on the right, thought all was lost; withdrew into his tent, andcalled his freedmen to kill him; Brutus, in his lamentation over him, called him the "last of the Romans"; _d_. 42 B. C. 

CASSIUS, SPURIUS, a Roman, thrice chosen consul, first time 502B. C. ; subdued the Sabines, made a league with the Latins, promoted anagrarian law, the first passed, which conceded to the plebs a share inthe public lands. 

CASSIVELLAUNUS, a British warlike chief, who unsuccessfully opposedCæsar on his second invasion of Britain, 52 B. C. ; surrendered afterdefeat, and became tributary to Rome. 

CASTALIA, a fountain at the foot of Parnassus sacred to the Muses;named after a nymph, who drowned herself in it to escape Apollo. 

CASTANET, bishop of Albi; procured the canonisation of St. Louis(1256-1317). 

CASTAÑOS, a Spanish general; distinguished for his victory over theFrench under Dupont, whom he compelled to surrender and sign thecapitulation of Baylen, in 1808; after this he served under Wellington inseveral engagements, and was commander of the Spanish army, ready, ifrequired, to invade France in 1815 (1758-1852). 

CASTE, rank in society of an exclusive nature due to birth ororigin, such as prevails among the Hindus especially. Among them thereare originally two great classes, the twice-born and the once-born, _i. E_. Those who have passed through a second birth, and those who have not;of the former there are three grades, Brahmans, or the priestly caste, from the mouth of Brahma; Kshatriyas, or the soldier caste, from thehands of Brahma; and Vaisyas, or the agricultural caste, from the feet ofBrahma; while the latter are of one rank and are menial to the other, called Sudras, earth-born all; notwithstanding which distinction oftenmembers of the highest class sink socially to the lowest level, andmembers of the lowest rise socially to the highest. 

CASTEL, RENÉ-RICHARD, French poet and naturalist (1758-1832). 

CASTELAR, EMILIO, a Spanish republican, born in Cadiz; an eloquentman and a literary; appointed dictator of Spain in 1873, but not beingequal to the exigency in the affairs of the State, resigned, and made wayfor the return of monarchy, though under protest; wrote a history of the"Republican Movement in Europe" among other works of political interest;_b_. 1832. 

CASTELLAMARE (15), a port on the coast of Italy, 115 m. SE. OfNaples, the scene of Pliny's death from the eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79. It takes its name from a castle built on it by the Emperor FrederickII. ; has a cathedral, arsenal, and manufactures. 

CASTELLIO, Protestant theologian, a protégé of Calvin's for a time, till he gave expression to some heretical views, which led to a rupture;he ventured to pronounce the Song of Solomon a mere erotic poem(1515-1563). 

CASTIGLIONE, a town of Sicily, on N. Slope of Etna, 35 m. SW. OfMessina; famed for hazel nuts. 

CASTIGLIONE, COUNT, an accomplished Italian, born in Mantua; authorof "II Cortegiano, " a manual for courtiers, called by the Italians inadmiration of it "The Golden Book"; had spent much of his time in courtsin England and Spain, as well as Rome, and was a courtly man (1478-1529). 

CASTILE, a central district of Spain, divided by the mountains ofCastile into Old Castile (1, 800) in the N. , and New Castile (3, 500) inthe S. : the former consisting of a high bare plateau, bounded bymountains on the N. And on the S. , with a variable climate, yields wheatand good pasturage, and is rich in minerals; the latter, also tableland, has a richer soil, and yields richer produce, breeds horses and cattle, and contains besides the quicksilver mines of Almaden. Both were at onetime occupied by the Moors, and were created into a kingdom in the 11thcentury, and united to the crown of Spain in 1469 by the marriage ofFerdinand and Isabella. 

CASTLE GARDEN, the immigration depôt of New York where immigrantsland, report themselves, and are advised where to settle or find work. 

CASTLE OF INDOLENCE, a poem of Thomson's, a place in which thedwellers live amid luxurious delights, to the enervation of soul andbody. 

CASTLEFORD (14), a town 10 m. SE. Of Leeds, with extensiveglass-works, especially bottles. 

CASTLEREAGH, LORD, entered political life as a member of the IrishParliament, co-operated with Pitt in securing the Union, after which heentered the Imperial Parliament, became War Minister (1805), till theill-fated Walcheren expedition and a duel with Canning obliged him toresign; became Foreign Secretary in 1812, and the soul of the coalitionagainst Napoleon; represented the country in a congress after Napoleon'sfall; succeeded his father as Marquis of Londonderry in 1821, andcommitted suicide the year following; his name has been unduly defamed, and his services to the country as a diplomatist have been entirelyoverlooked (1769-1822). 

CASTLES IN SPAIN, visionary projects. 

CASTLETOWN, a seaport in the Isle of Man, 11 m. SW. Of Douglas, andthe former capital. 

CASTLEWOOD, the heroine in Thackeray's "Esmond. "

CASTOR AND POLLUX, the Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus by Leda;great, the former in horsemanship, and the latter in boxing; famed fortheir mutual affection, so that when the former was slain the latterbegged to be allowed to die with him, whereupon it was agreed they shouldspend a day in Hades time about; were raised eventually to become starsin the sky, the Gemini, twin signs in the zodiac, rising and settingtogether; this name is also given to the electric phenomenon calledST. ELMO'S FIRE (q. V. ). 

CASTREN, MATHIAS ALEXANDER, an eminent philologist, born in Finland, professor of the Finnish Language and Literature in Helsingfors;travelled all over Northern Europe and Asia, and left accounts of theraces he visited and their languages; translated the "KALEVALA"(q. V. ) the epic of the Finns; died prematurely, worn out with hislabours (1813-1852). 

CASTRES (22), a town in the dep. Of Tarn, 46 m. E. Of Toulouse; wasa Roman station, and one of the first places in France to embraceCalvinism. 

CASTRO, GUILLEN DE, a Spanish dramatist, author of the play of "TheCid, " which gained him European fame; he began life as a soldier, gotacquainted with Lope de Vega, and took to dramatic composition(1569-1631). 

CASTRO, INEZ DE, a royal heiress of the Spanish throne in the 14thcentury, the beloved wife of Don Pedro, heir of the Portuguese throne;put to death out of jealousy of Spain by the latter's father, but on hisaccession dug out of her grave, arrayed in her royal robes, and crownedalong with him, after which she was entombed again, and a magnificentmonument erected over her remains. 

CASTRO, JUAN DE, a Portuguese soldier, born at Lisbon, distinguishedfor his exploits in behalf of Portugal; made viceroy of the PortugueseIndies, but died soon after in the arms of Francis Xavier (1500-1548). 

CASTRO, VACA DE, a Spaniard, sent out by Charles V. As governor ofPeru, but addressing himself to the welfare of the natives rather thanthe enrichment of Spain, was recalled, to pine and die in prison in 1558. 

CASTROGIOVANNI (18), a town in a strong position in the heart ofSicily, 3270 ft. Above the sea-level; at one time a centre of the worshipof Ceres, and with a temple to her. 

CASTRUCCIO-CASTRACANI, Duke of Lucca, and chief of the Ghibellineparty in that town, the greatest war-captain in Europe in his day; lordof hundreds of strongholds; wore on a high occasion across his breast ascroll, inscribed, "He is what God made him, " and across his backanother, inscribed, "He shall be what God will make"; _d_. 1328, "crushedbefore the moth. "

CATACOMBS, originally underground quarries, afterwards used asburial-places for the dead, found beneath Paris and in the neighbourhoodof Rome, as well as elsewhere; those around Rome, some 40 in number, arethe most famous, as having been used by the early Christians, not merelyfor burial but for purposes of worship, and are rich In monuments of artand memorials of history. 

CATALANI, ANGELICA, a celebrated Italian singer and prima donna, born near Ancona; began her career in Rome with such success that it ledto engagements over all the chief cities of Europe, the enthusiasm whichfollowed her reaching its climax when she came to England, where, on herfirst visit, she stayed eight years; by the failure of an enterprise inParis she lost her fortune, but soon repaired it by revisiting thecapitals of Europe; died of cholera in Paris (1779-1840). 

CATALONIA (1, 900), old prov. Of Spain, on the NE. ; has a mostfertile soil, which yields a luxuriant vegetation; chief seat ofmanufacture in the country, called hence the "Lancashire of Spain"; thepeople are specially distinguished from other Spaniards for theirintelligence and energy. 

CATAMAR`CA (ISO), NW. Prov. Of the Argentine Republic; rich inminerals, especially copper. 

CATA`NIA (123), an ancient city at the foot of Etna, to the S. , on aplain called the Granary of Sicily; has been several times devastated bythe eruptions of Etna, particularly in 1169, 1669, and 1693; manufacturessilk, linen, and articles of amber, &c. , and exports sulphur, grain, andfruits. 

CATANZA`RO (20), a city in Calabria, 6 m. From the Gulf ofSquillace, with an old castle of Robert Guiscard. 

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, Kant's name for the self-derived moral law, "universal and binding on every rational will, a commandment of theautonomous, one and universal reason. "

CATEGORIES are either classes under which all our Notions of thingsmay be grouped, or classes under which all our Thoughts of things may begrouped; the former called Logical, we owe to Aristotle, and the lattercalled Metaphysical, we owe to Kant. The Logical, so derived, that groupour notions, are ten in number: Substance or Being, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time, Position, Possession, Action, Passion. TheMetaphysical, so derived, that group our thoughts, are twelve in number:(1) as regards _quantity_, Totality, Plurality, Unity; (2) as regards_quality_, Reality, Negation, Limitation; (3) as regards _relation_, Substance, Accident, Cause and Effect, Action and Reaction; (4) asregards _modality_, Possibility and Impossibility, Existence andNonexistence, Necessity and Contingency. John Stuart Mill resolves thecategories into five, Existence, Co-existence, Succession, Causation, andResemblance. 

CATESBY, MARK, an English naturalist and traveller, wrote a naturalhistory of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas (1680-1750). 

CATESBY, ROBERT, born in Northamptonshire, a Catholic of good birth;concerned in the famous Gunpowder Plot; shot dead three days after itsdiscovery by officers sent to arrest him (1573-1605). 

CATH`ARI, OR CATHARISTS, i. E. Purists or puritans, a sect ofpresumably Gnostic derivation, scattered here and there under differentnames over the S. And W. Of Europe during the Middle Ages, who held theManichæan doctrine of the radically sinful nature of the flesh, and thenecessity of mortifying all its desires and affections to attain purityof soul. 

CATHARINE, ST. , OF ALEXANDRIA, a virgin who, in 307, sufferedmartyrdom after torture on the wheel, which has since borne her name; isrepresented in art as in a vision presented to Christ by His Mother asher sole husband, who gives her a ring. Festival, Nov. 25. 

CATHARINE I. , wife of Peter the Great and empress of Russia, daughter of a Livonian peasant; "a little stumpy body, very brown, . .. Strangely chased about from the bottom to the top of the world, . .. Hadonce been a kitchen wench"; married first to a Swedish dragoon, becameafterwards the mistress of Prince Menschikoff, and then of Peter theGreat, who eventually married her; succeeded him as empress, withMenschikoff as minister; for a time ruled well, but in the end gaveherself up to dissipation, and died (1682-1727). 

CATHARINE II. THE GREAT, empress of Russia, born at Stettin, daughter of Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst; "a most-clever, clear-eyed, stout-hearted woman"; became the wife of Peter III. , a scandalous mortal, who was dethroned and then murdered, leaving her empress; ruled well forthe country, and though her character was immoral and her reign despoticand often cruel, her efforts at reform, the patronage she accorded toliterature, science, and philosophy, and her diplomatic successes, entitle her to a high rank among the sovereigns of Russia; she reignedfrom 1763 to 1796, and it was during the course of her reign, and underthe sanction of it, that Europe witnessed the three partitions of Poland(1729-1796). 

CATHARINE DE' MEDICI, daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, wife of HenryII. Of France, and mother of his three successors; on the accession ofher second son, Charles IX. --for the reign of her first, Francis II. , wasvery brief--acted as regent during his minority; joined heart and soulwith the Catholics in persecuting the Huguenots, and persuaded her son toissue the order which resulted in the massacre of St. Bartholomew; on hisdeath, which occurred soon after, she acted as regent during the minorityof her third son, Henry III. , and lived to see both herself and himdetested by the whole French people, and this although she was during herascendency the patroness of the arts and of literature (1519-1589). 

CATHARINE OF ARAGON, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella ofSpain, and wife of Henry VIII. , her brother-in-law as widow of Arthur, from whom, and at whose instance, after 18 years of married life, andafter giving birth to five children, she was divorced on the plea that, as she had been his brother's wife before, it was not lawful for him tohave her; after her divorce she remained in the country, led an austerereligious life, and died broken-hearted. The refusal of the Pope tosanction this divorce led to the final rupture of the English Church fromthe Church of Rome, and the emancipation of the nation from priestlytyranny (1483-1536). 

CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, the wife of Charles II. Of England, of theroyal house of Portugal; was unpopular in the country as a Catholic andneglected by her husband, on whose death, however, she returned toPortugal, and did the duties ably of regent for her brother Don Pedro(1638-1705). 

CATHARINE OF SIENNA, born at Sienna, a sister of the Order of St. Dominic, and patron saint of the Order; celebrated for her ecstasies andvisions, and the marks which by favour of Christ she bore on her body ofHis sufferings on the Cross (1347-1380). Festival, April 30. Besides her, are other saints of the same name. 

CATHARINE OF VALOIS, daughter of Charles VI. Of France, and wife ofHenry V. Of England, who, on his marriage to her, was declared heir tothe throne of France, with the result that their son was afterwards, while but an infant, crowned king of both countries; becoming a widow, she married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, whereby a grandson of hissucceeded to the English throne as Henry VII. , and the first of theTudors (1401-1438). 

CATHARINE PARR, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. And the daughter of aWestmoreland knight; was of the Protestant faith and obnoxious to theCatholic faction, who trumped up a charge against her of heresy andtreason, from which, however, she cleared herself to the satisfaction ofthe king, over whom she retained her ascendency till his death; _d_. 1548. 

CATHARINE THEOT, a religious fanatic, born in Avranches; gaveherself out as the Mother of God; appeared in Paris in 1794, and declaredRobespierre a second John the Baptist and forerunner of the Word; theCommittee of Public Safety had her arrested and guillotined. 

CATHAY, the name given to China by mediæval writers, which it stillbears in Central Asia. 

CATHCART, EARL, a British general and diplomatist, born inRenfrewshire; saw service in America and Flanders; distinguished himselfat the bombardment of Copenhagen; represented England at the court ofRussia and the Congress of Vienna (1755-1843). 

CATHCART, SIR GEORGE, a lieutenant-general, son of the preceding;enlisted in the army; served in the later Napoleonic wars; was present atQuatre-Bras and Waterloo; was governor of the Cape; brought the Kaffirwar to a successful conclusion; served in the Crimea, and fell atInkerman (1794-1854). 

CATHEDRAL, the principal church in a diocese, and which contains thethrone of the bishop as his seat of authority; is of a rank correspondingto the dignity of the bishop; the governing body consists of the dean andchapter. 

CATHELINEAU, JACQUES, a famous leader of the Vendéans in theirrevolt against the French Republic on account of a conscription in itsbehalf; a peasant by birth; mortally wounded in attacking Nantes; he isremembered by the peasants of La Vendée as the "Saint of Anjou"(1759-1793). 

CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, the name given to the emancipation in 1829 ofthe Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom from disabilities whichprecluded their election to office in the State, so that they areeligible now to any save the Lord Chancellorship of England and officesrepresentative of royalty. 

CATHOLIC EPISTLES, the name, equivalent to encyclical, given tocertain epistles in the New Testament not addressed to any community inparticular, but to several, and given eventually to all not written bySt. Paul. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY, a title given by the Pope to several Spanishmonarchs for their zeal in the defence of the Catholic faith. 

CATILINE, or LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA, a Roman patrician, anable man, but unscrupulously ambitious; frustrated in his ambitiousdesigns, he formed a conspiracy against the State, which was discoveredand exposed by Cicero, a discovery which obliged him to leave the city;he tried to stir up hostility outside; this too being discovered byCicero, an army was sent against him, when an engagement ensued, inwhich, fighting desperately, he was slain, 62 B. C. 

CATINAT, NICOLAS, a marshal of France, born in Paris; one of thegreatest military captains under Louis XIV. ; defeated the Duke of Savoytwice over, though defeated by Prince Eugene and compelled to retreat;was an able diplomatist as well as military strategist (1637-1712). 

CATLIN, GEORGE, a traveller among the North American Indians, andauthor of an illustrated work on their life and manners; spent eightyears among them (1796-1872). 

CATO DIONYSIUS, name of a book of maxims in verse, held in highfavour during the Middle Ages; of unknown authorship. 

CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO MAJOR, surnamed Censor, Priscus, and Sapiens, born at Tusculum, of a good old family, and trained torustic, frugal life; after serving occasionally in the army, removed toRome; became in succession censor, ædile, prætor, and consul; served inthe second Punic war, towards the end of it, and subjugated Spain; was aRoman of the old school; disliked and denounced all innovations, ascensor dealt sharply with them; sent on an embassy to Africa, was sostruck with the increasing power and the threateningly evil ascendency ofCarthage, that on his return he urged its demolition, and in every speechwhich he delivered afterwards he ended with the words, _Ceterum censeoCarthaginem esse delendam_, "But, be that as it may, my opinion isCarthage must be destroyed" (234-149 B. C. ). 

CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO THE YOUNGER, or UTICENSIS, great-grandson of the former, and a somewhat pedantic second edition ofhim; fortified himself by study of the Stoic philosophy; conceived adistrust of the public men of the day, Cæsar among the number; preferredPompey to him, and sided with him; after Pompey's defeat retired toUtica, whence his surname, and stabbed himself to death rather than fallinto the hands of Cæsar (95-46 B. C. ). 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, an insignificant, abortive plot, headed byone Thistlewood, to assassinate Castlereagh and other ministers of thecrown in 1820; so called from their place of meeting off the EdgewareRoad, London. 

CATRAIL, an old Roman earthwork, 50 m. Long, passing S. From nearGalashiels, through Selkirk and Roxburgh, or from the Cheviots; it isknown by the name of the "Devil's Dyke. "

CATS, JACOB, a Dutch poet and statesman, venerated in Holland as"Father Cats"; his works are written in a simple, natural style, andabound in wise maxims; he did service as a statesman; twice visitedEngland as an envoy, and was knighted by Charles I. (1577-1660). 

CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains, of steep ascent, and withrocky summits, in New York State, W. Of the Hudson, none of themexceeding 4000 feet; celebrated as the scene of Rip Van Winkle's longslumber; belong to the Appalachians. 

CATTEGAT, an arm of the sea, 150 m. In length and 84 of greatestwidth, between Sweden and Jutland; a highway into the Baltic, all butblocked up with islands; is dangerous to shipping on account of thestorms that infest it at times. 

CATTERMOLE, GEORGE, artist, born in Norfolk; illustrated Britton's"English Cathedrals, " "Waverley Novels, " and the "Historical Annual" byhis brother; painted mostly in water-colour; his subjects chiefly fromEnglish history (1800-1868). 

CATTLE PLAGUE, or RINDERPEST, a disease which affectsruminants, but especially bovine cattle; indigenous to the East, Russia, Persia, India, and China, and imported into Britain only by contagion ofsome kind; the most serious outbreaks were in 1865 and 1872. 

CATULLUS, CAIUS VALERIUS, the great Latin lyric poet, born atVerona, a man of wealth and good standing, being, it would seem, of theequestrian order; associated with the best wits in Rome; fell in lovewith Clodia, a patrician lady, who was the inspiration, both in peace andwar, of many of his effusions, and whom he addresses as Lesbia; the deathof a brother affected him deeply, and was the occasion of the productionof one of the most pathetic elegies ever penned; in the civic strife ofthe time he sided with the senate, and opposed Cæsar to the length ofdirecting against him a coarse lampoon (84-54 B. C. ). 

CAUCA, a river in Colombia, S. America, which falls into theMagdalena after a northward course of 600 m. 

CAUCASIA, a prov. Of Russia, geographically divided intoCis-Caucasia on the European side, and Trans-Caucasia on the Asiatic sideof the Caucasus, with an area about four times as large as England. 

CAUCASIAN RACE, a name adopted by Blumenbach to denote theIndo-European race, from the fine type of a skull of one of the racefound in Georgia. 

CAUCASUS, an enormous mountain range, 750 m. In length, extendingfrom the Black Sea ESE. To the Caspian, in two parallel chains, withtablelands between, bounded on the S. By the valley of the Kur, whichseparates it from the tableland of Armenia; snow-line higher than that ofthe Alps; has fewer and smaller glaciers; has no active volcanoes, thoughabundant evidence of volcanic action. 

CAUCHON, bishop of Beauvais, infamous for the iniquitous part heplayed in the trial and condemnation of Joan of Arc; _d_. 1443. 

CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, mathematician, born in Paris; wrote largelyon physical subjects; his "Memoir" on the theory of the waves suggestedthe undulatory theory of light; professor of Astronomy at Paris; declinedto take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III. , and retired (1789-1857). 

CAUCUS, a preliminary private meeting to arrange and agree on somemeasure or course to propose at a general meeting of a political party. 

CAUDINE FORKS, a narrow mountain gorge in Samnium, in which, duringthe second Samnite war, a Roman army was entrapped and caught by theSamnites, who obliged them to pass under the yoke in token ofsubjugation, 321 B. C. 

CAUDLE, MRS. , an imaginary dame, a conception of Douglas Jerrold, famous for her "Curtain Lectures" all through the night for 30 years toher husband Mr. Job Caudle. 

CAUL, a membrane covering the head of some children at birth, towhich a magical virtue was at one time ascribed, and which, on thataccount, was rated high and sold often at a high price. 

CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND DE, a French general and statesman of theEmpire, a faithful supporter of Napoleon, who conferred on him a peerage, with the title of Duke of Vicenza, of which he was deprived at theRestoration; represented Napoleon at the Congress of Châtillon(1772-1827). 

CAUS, SALOMON DE, a French engineer, born at Dieppe; discovered theproperties of steam as a motive force towards 1638; claimed by Arago asthe inventor of the steam-engine in consequence. 

CAUSALITY, the philosophic name for the nature of the relationbetween cause and effect, in regard to which there has been muchdiversity of opinion among philosophers. 

CAUTERETS, a fashionable watering-place in the dep. Of theHautes-Pyrénées, 3250 ft. Above the sea, with sulphurous springs of veryancient repute, 25 in number, and of varying temperature. 

CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGÈNE, a distinguished French general, born inParis; appointed governor of Algeria in 1849, but recalled to be head ofthe executive power in Paris same year; appointed dictator, suppressedthe insurrection in June, after the most obstinate and bloody strugglethe streets of Paris had witnessed since the first Revolution; stoodcandidate for the Presidency, to which Louis Napoleon was elected; wasarrested after the _coup d'état_, but soon released; never gave in hisadherence to the Empire (1802-1857). 

CAVALCASELLE, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian writer on art; joint-authorwith J. A. Crowe of works on the "Early Flemish Painters" and the"History of Painting in Italy"; chief of the art department under theMinister of Public Instruction in Rome; _b_. 1820. 

CAVALIER, JEAN, leader of the CAMISARDS (q. V. ), born atRibaute, in the dep. Of Gard; bred a baker; held his own againstMontreval and Villars; in 1704 concluded peace with the latter onhonourable terms; haughtily received by Louis XIV. , passed over toEngland; served against France, and died governor of Jersey (1679-1740). 

CAVALIERS, the royalist partisans of Charles I. In England inopposition to the parliamentary party, or the Roundheads, as they werecalled. 

CAVALLO, a distinguished Italian physicist, born at Naples(1749-1809). 

CAVAN (111), inland county S. Of Ulster, Ireland, with a poor soil;has minerals and mineral springs. 

CAVE, EDWARD, a London bookseller, born in Warwickshire; projectedthe Gentleman's Magazine, to which Dr. Johnson contributed; was the firstto give Johnson literary work, employing him as parliamentary reporter, and Johnson was much attached to him; he died with his hand in Johnson's(1691-1754). 

CAVE, WILLIAM, an English divine; author of works on the Fathers ofthe Church and on primitive Christianity, of high repute at one time(1637-1713). 

CAVENDISH, the surname of the Devonshire ducal family, traceableback to the 14th century. 

CAVENDISH, GEORGE, the biographer of Wolsey; never left him while helived, and never forgot him or the lesson of his life after he was dead;this appears from the vivid picture he gives of him, though written 30years after his death (1500-1561). 

CAVENDISH, LORD FREDERICK, brother of the ninth Duke of Devonshire, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and a Liberal; was madeChief-Secretary for Ireland in 1882, but chancing to walk home oneevening through the Phoenix Park, he fell a victim, stabbed to the heart, of a conspiracy that was aimed at Mr. Burke, an unpopular subordinate, who was walking along with him, and came to the same fate. Eight monthsafter, 20 men were arrested as concerned in the murder, when one of the20 informed; five of them were hanged; the informer Carey was afterwardsmurdered, and his murderer, O'Donnel, hanged (1836-1882). 

CAVENDISH, HENRY, natural philosopher and chemist, born at Nice, ofthe Devonshire family; devoted his entire life to scientificinvestigations; the first to analyse the air of the atmosphere, determinethe mean density of the earth, discover the composition of water, andascertain the properties of hydrogen; was an extremely shy, retiring man;born rich and died rich, leaving over a million sterling (1731-1810). 

CAVENDISH, SPENCER COMPTON, ninth Duke of Devonshire, for long knownin public life as Marquis of Hartington; also educated at TrinityCollege, and a leader of the Liberal party; served under Gladstone tillhe adopted Home Rule for Ireland, but joined Lord Salisbury in theinterest of Union, and one of the leaders of what is called theLiberal-Unionist party; _b_. 1833. 

CAVENDISH, THOMAS, an English navigator, fitted out three vessels tocruise against the Spaniards; extended his cruise into the Pacific;succeeded in taking valuable prizes, with which he landed in England, after circumnavigating the globe; he set out on a second cruise, whichended in disaster, and he died in the island of Ascension broken-hearted(1555-1592). 

CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, English courtier and cavalier in the reigns ofJames I. And Charles I. ; joined Charles II. In exile; returned at theRestoration; was made Duke of Newcastle; wrote on horsemanship(1592-1676). 

CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, first Duke of Devonshire; friend and protectorof Lord William Russell; became a great favourite at court, and wasraised to the dukedom (1640-1707). 

CAVIARE, the roe (the immature ovaries) of the common sturgeon andother kindred fishes, caught chiefly in the Black and Caspian Seas, andprepared and salted; deemed a great luxury by those who have acquired thetaste for it; largely imported from Astrakhan. 

CAVOUR, COUNT CAMILLO BENSO DE, one of the greatest of modernstatesmen, born the younger son of a Piedmontese family at Turin; enteredthe army, but was precluded from a military career by his liberalopinions; retired, and for 16 years laboured as a private gentleman toimprove the social and economic condition of Piedmont; in 1847 he threwhimself into the great movement which resulted in the independence andunification of Italy; for the next 14 years, as editor of _IlRisorgimento_, member of the chamber of deputies, holder of variousportfolios in the government, and ultimately as prime minister of thekingdom of Sardinia, he obtained a constitution and representativegovernment for his country, improved its fiscal and financial condition, and raised it to a place of influence in Europe; he co-operated with theallies in the Crimean war; negotiated with Napoleon III. For theexpulsion of the Austrians from Italy, and so precipitated the successfulwar of 1859; he encouraged Garibaldi in the expedition of 1860, whichliberated Sicily and Southern Italy, and saw the parliament of 1861summoned, and Victor Emmanuel declared king of Italy; but the strain ofhis labours broke his health, and he died a few months later (1810-1861). 

CAWNPORE (188), a city on the right bank of the Ganges, in theNorth-Western Provinces of India, 40 m. SW. Of Lucknow, and 628 NW. OfCalcutta; the scene of one of the most fearful atrocities, perpetrated byNana Sahib, in the Indian Mutiny in 1857. 

CAXTON, WILLIAM, the first English printer, born in Kent, bred amercer, settled for a time in Bruges, learned the art of printing there, where he printed a translation of the "Recuyell of the Historyes ofTroyes, " and "The Game and Playe of Chesse"; returning to England, set upa press in Westminster Abbey, and in 1477 issued "Dictes and Sayings ofthe Philosophers, " the first book printed in England, which was soonfollowed by many others; he was a good linguist, as well as a devotedworkman (1422-1491). 

CAYENNE (10), cap. And port of French Guiana, a swampy, unhealthyplace, rank with tropical vegetation; a French penal settlement since1852. 

CAYLA, COUNTESS OF, friend and confidante of Louis XVIII. (1784-1850). 

CAYLEY, ARTHUR, an eminent English mathematician, professor atCambridge, and president of the British Association in 1883 (1821-1895). 

CAYLEY, CHARLES BAGOT, a linguist, translated Dante into the metreof the original, with annotations, besides metrical versions of the"Iliad, " the "Prometheus" of Æschylus, the "Canzoniere" of Petrarch, &c. (1823-1883). 

CAYLUS, COUNT, a distinguished archæologist, born in Paris; authorof a "Collection of Antiquities of Egypt, Etruria, " &c. , with excellentengravings (1692-1765). 

CAYLUS, MARQUISE DE, born in Poitou, related to Mme. De Maintenon;left piquant souvenirs of the court of Louis XIV. And the house of St. Cyr (1672-1729). 

CAZALÈS, a member of French Constituent Assembly, a dragoon captain, a fervid, eloquent orator of royalism, who "earned thereby, " saysCarlyle, "the shadow of a name" (1758-1805). 

CAZOTTE, author of the "Diable Amoureux"; victim as an enemy of theFrench Revolution; spared for his daughter's sake for a time, butguillotined at last; left her a "lock of his old grey hair" (1720-1792). 

CEAN-BERMUDEZ, a Spanish writer on art; author of a biographicaldictionary of the principal artists of Spain (1749-1834). 

CEARA (35), cap. Of the prov. (900) of the name, in N. Of Brazil. 

CE`BES, a Greek philosopher, disciple and friend of Socrates, reputed author of the "Pinax" or Tablet, a once popular book on thesecret of life, being an allegorical representation of the temptationsthat beset it. 

CECIL, ROBERT, EARL OF SALISBURY, succeeded his father, LordBurleigh, as first Minister under Elizabeth, and continued in officeunder James I. , whose friendship he sedulously cultivated before hisaccession, and who created him earl (1565-1612). See BURLEIGH, LORD. 

CECILIA, ST. , a Roman virgin and martyr, A. D. 230, patron saint ofmusic, especially church music, and reputed inventor of the organ;sometimes represented as holding a small organ, with her head turnedheavenwards as if listening to the music of the spheres, and sometimes asplaying on an organ and with a heavenly expression of face. Festival, Nov. 22. 

CECROPS, the mythical first king and civiliser of Attica and founderof Athens with its citadel, dedicated by him to Athena, whence the nameof the city. 

CEDAR RAPIDS (25), a manufacturing town in Iowa, U. S. ; a greatrailway centre. 

CELADON, poetical name for a languid swain, all sighs and longings. 

CELÆNO, name of one of the HARPIES (q. V. ). 

CELEBES (1, 000), an island in the centre of the Eastern Archipelago, third in size, in the shape of a body with four long limbs, traversed bymountain chains, and the greater part of it a Dutch possession, though itcontains a number of small native states; it yields among its mineralproducts gold, copper, tin, &c. ; and among its vegetable, tea, coffee, rice, sugar, pepper, &c. ; capital. Macassar. 

CÉLESTE, MME. , a dancer, born in Paris; made her _début_ in NewYork; in great repute in England, and particularly in the States, whereshe in her second visit realised £40, 000 (1814-1882). 

CELESTIAL EMPIRE, China, as ruled over by a dynasty appointed byHeaven. 

CELESTINE, the name of five Popes: C. I. , Pope from 422 to 432; C. II. , Pope from 1143 to 1144; C. III. , Pope from 1191 to 1198; C. IV. , Pope for 18 days in 1241; C. V. , Pope in 1294, a hermit for 60 years;nearly 80 when elected against his wish; abdicated in five months;imprisoned by order of Boniface VIII. ; _d_. 1296; canonised 1313. 

CELESTINES, an order of monks founded by Celestine V. Before he waselected Pope in 1354; they followed the rule of the Benedictine Order, and led a contemplative life. 

CELLINI, BENVENUTO, a celebrated engraver, sculptor, and goldsmith, a most versatile and erratic genius, born at Florence; had to leaveFlorence for a bloody fray he was involved in, and went to Rome; wroughtas a goldsmith there for 20 years, patronised by the nobles; killed theConstable de Bourbon at the sack of the city, and for this receivedplenary indulgence from the Pope; Francis I. Attracted him to his courtand kept him in his service five years, after which he returned toFlorence and executed his famous bronze "Perseus with the Head ofMedusa, " which occupied him four years; was a man of a quarrelsometemper, which involved him in no end of scrapes with sword as well astongue; left an autobiography, from its self-dissection of the deepestinterest to all students of human nature (1500-1571). 

CELSIUS, a distinguished Swedish astronomer, born at Upsala, andprofessor of Astronomy there; inventor of the Centigrade thermometer(1701-1744). 

CELSUS, a celebrated Roman physician of the age of Augustus, andperhaps later; famed as the author of "De Medicina, " a work oftenreferred to, and valuable as one of the sources of our knowledge of themedicine of the ancients. 

CELSUS, a philosopher of the 2nd century, and notable as the firstassailant on philosophic grounds of the Christian religion, particularlyas regards the power it claims to deliver from the evil that is inherentin human nature, inseparable from it, and implanted in it not by God, butsome inferior being remote from Him; the book in which he attackedChristianity is no longer extant, only quotations from it scattered overthe pages of the defence of Origen in reply. 

CELTIBE`RI, an ancient Spanish race occupying the centre of thepeninsula, sprung from a blending of the aborigines and the Celts, whoinvaded the country; a brave race, divided into four tribes;distinguished in war both as cavalry and infantry, and whom the Romanshad much trouble in subduing. 

CELTS. The W. Of Europe was in prehistoric times subjected to twoinvasions of Aryan tribes, all of whom are now referred to as Celts. Theearlier invaders were Goidels or Gaels; they conquered the Ivernian andIberian peoples of ancient Gaul, Britain, and Ireland; their successors, the Brythons or Britons pouring from the E. , drove them to thewesternmost borders of these countries, and there compelled them to makecommon cause with the surviving Iberians in resistance; in the easternparts of the conquered territories they formed the bulk of thepopulation, in the W. They were in a dominant minority; study oflanguages in the British Isles leads to the conclusion that the Irish, Manx, and Scottish Celts belonged chiefly to the earlier immigration, while the Welsh and Cornish represent the latter; the true Celtic type istall, red or fair, and blue-eyed, while the short, swarthy type, so longconsidered Celtic, is now held to represent the original Iberian races. 

CENCI, THE, a Roman family celebrated for their crimes andmisfortunes as well as their wealth. FRANCESCO CENCI was twicemarried, had had twelve children by his first wife, whom he treatedcruelly; after his second marriage cruelly treated the children of hisfirst wife, but conceived a criminal passion for the youngest of them, abeautiful girl named BEATRICE, whom he outraged, upon which, beingunable to bring him to justice, she, along with her stepmother and abrother, hired two assassins to murder him; the crime was found out, andall three were beheaded (1599); this is the story on which Shelleyfounded his tragedy, but it is now discredited. 

CENIS, MONT, one of the Cottian Alps, over which Napoleonconstructed a pass 6884 ft. High in 1802-10, through which a tunnel 7½ m. Long passes from Modane to Bardonnêche, connecting France with Italy; theconstruction of this tunnel cost £3, 000, 000, and Napoleon's pass a tenthof the sum. 

CENSORS, two magistrates of ancient Rome, who held office at firstfor five years and then eighteen months, whose duty it was to keep aregister of the citizens, guard the public morals, collect the publicrevenue, and superintend the public property. 

CEN`TAURS, a savage race living between Pelion and Ossa, inThessaly, and conceived of at length by Pindar as half men and halfhorses, treated as embodying the relation between the spiritual and theanimal in man and nature, in all of whom the animal prevails over thespiritual except in Chiron, who therefore figures as the trainer of theheroes of Greece; in the mythology they figure as the progeny ofCentaurus, son of IXION (q. V. ) and the cloud, their mothersbeing mares. 

CENTRAL AMERICA (3, 000), territory of fertile tableland slopinggradually to both oceans, occupied chiefly by a number of smallrepublics, lying between Tehuantepec and Panama in N. America; itincludes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, St. Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and a few adjoining fractions of territory. 

CENTRAL INDIA (10, 000), includes a group of feudatory States lyingbetween Rajputana in the N. And Central Provinces in the S. 

CENTRAL PROVINCES (12, 944), States partly British and partly native, occupying the N. Of the Deccan, and lying between the Nerbudda and theGodavary. 

CEOS, one of the Cyclades, a small island 13 m. By 8 m. , yieldsfruits; was the birthplace of Simonides and Bacchylides. 

CEPHALONIA (80), the largest of the Ionian Islands, 30 m. Long, theancient Samos; yields grapes and olive oil. 

CEPHALUS, king of Thessaly, who having involuntarily killed his wifeProcris, in despair put himself to death with the same weapon. 

CERAM` (195), the largest of S. Moluccas; yields sago, which ischiefly cultivated and largely exported. 

CERBERUS, the three-headed or three-throated monster that guardedthe entrance to the nether world of Pluto, could be soothed by music, andtempted by honey, only Hercules overcame him by sheer strength, dragginghim by neck and crop to the upper world. 

CERES, the Latin name for DEMETER (q. V. ); also the name ofone of the asteroids, the first discovered, by Piazzi, in 1801. 

CERI`GO (14), an Ionian island, the southernmost, the ancientCythera; yields wine and fruits. 

CERINTHUS, a heresiarch of the first century, whom, according totradition, St. John held in special detestation, presumably as denyingthe Father and the Son. 

CERRO DE PASCO, a town in Peru, 14, 200 ft. Above the sea-level, withthe richest silver mine in S. America. 

CERUTTI, a Jesuit, born at Turin; became a Revolutionary in France;pronounced the funeral oration at the grave of Mirabeau in 1789. 

CERVANTES-SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE, the author of "Don Quixote, " born atAlcalá de Henares; was distinguished in arms before he becamedistinguished in letters; fought in the battle of Lepanto like a veryhero, and bore away with him as a "maimed soldier" marks of his share inthe struggle; sent on a risky embassy, was captured by pirates andremained in their hands five years; was ransomed by his family at a costwhich beggared them, and it was only when his career as a soldier closedthat he took himself to literature; began as a dramatist before hedevoted himself to prose romance; wrote no fewer than 30 dramas; thefirst part of the work which has immortalised his name appeared in 1605, and the second in 1615; it took the world by storm, was translated intoall the languages of Europe, but the fortune which was extended to hisbook did not extend to himself, for he died poor, some ten days beforehis great contemporary, William Shakespeare; though carelessly written, "Don Quixote" is one of the few books of all time, and is as fresh to-dayas when it was first written (1547-1616). 

CERVIN, MONT, the French name for the Matterhorn, 705 ft. , thesummit of the Pennine Alps, between Valais and Piedmont. 

CESAREWITCH, the eldest son and heir of the Czar of Russia. 

CE`SARI, GIUSEPPE, sometimes called ARPINO, an eminent Italianpainter; painted a series of frescoes in the Conservatorio of theCapitol, illustrative of events in the history of Rome (1568-1640). 

CESAROTTI, an Italian poet, translator of the "Iliad" and "Ossian"into Italian (1730-1808). 

CESTUS, a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women, specially the girdleof Aphrodité, so emblazoned with symbols of the joys of love that nosusceptible soul could resist the power of it; it was borrowed by Hera tocaptivate Zeus. 

CETINJE, the capital of Montenegro, in a valley 2000 ft. High;smallest of capital cities, with a population under 2000. 

CETTE (36), a seaport, trading, and manufacturing town, on a tongueof land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, 23 m. SW. OfMontpellier, with a large safe harbourage. 

CE`UTA (12), a port opposite Gibraltar belonging to Spain, on thecoast of Morocco, guarded by a fort on one of the Pillars of Hercules, overlooking it; of importance as a military and convict station. 

CÉVENNES, a range of low mountains on the eastern edge of thecentral plateau of France, separating the basin of the Rhône from thoseof the Loire and Garonne; average height from 3000 to 4000 ft. ; the chiefscene of the dragonnades against the Huguenots under Louis XIV. 

CEYLON (3, 008), a pear-shaped island about the size of Scotland, separated from India, to which it geographically belongs, and SE. Ofwhich it lies, by Palk Strait, 32 m. Broad; comprises a lofty, centraltableland with numerous peaks, the highest Tallagalla, 8000 ft. , and abroad border of well-watered plains. It was an ancient centre ofcivilisation; the soil is everywhere fertile; the climate is hot, butmore equitable than on the mainland; the chief products are tea, cinnamon, and tobacco; the forests yield satin-wood, ebony, &c. ; thecocoa-nut palm abounds; there are extensive deposits of iron, anthracite, and plumbago; precious stones, sapphires, rubies, amethysts, &c. , are inconsiderable quantities; the pearl fisheries are a valuable governmentmonopoly. The chief exports are tea, rice, cotton goods, and coals. Two-thirds of the people are Singhalese and Buddhists, there are 6000Europeans. The island is a crown colony, the largest in the BritishEmpire, administered by a governor with executive and legislativecouncils; the capital and chief port is Colombo (127). 

CHABAS, FRANÇOIS, a French Egyptologist, born in Briançon; his workshave contributed much to elucidate the history of the invasion andrepulsion of the Hyksos in Egypt (1817-1882). 

CHABOT, a member of the National Convention of France, a "disfrockedCapuchin, " adjured "Heaven, " amid enthusiasm, "that at least they mayhave done with kings"; guillotined (1759-1794). 

CHACKTAW INDIANS. See CHOCKTAW. 

CHAD, LAKE, a shallow lake in the Sahara, of varied extent, according as the season is dry or rainy, at its largest covering an areaas large as England, and abounding in hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, &c. , as well as waterfowl and fish. 

CHADBAND, REV. MR. , a character in "Bleak House. "

CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN, an English social reformer, born in Manchester, associated with measures bearing upon sanitation and the improvement ofthe poor-laws, and connected with the administration of them (1801-1890). 

CHÆRONEA, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon defeated theAthenians, and extinguished the liberties of Greece. 

CHALAIS, COUNT DE, a favourite of Louis XIII. , accused of conspiracyagainst Richelieu, arrested at Nantes, and beheaded (1599-1626). 

CHALAZA, one of the two filaments attached to the ends of the yokeof an egg to steady it in the albumen. 

CHALCEDON, a city of Bithynia, at the entrance of the ThracianBosphorus, where the fourth Council of the Church was held in 451, whichdefined the orthodox conception of Christ as God-man. 

CHALCIDICÉ, the 3-fingered peninsula of the Balkan territorystretching into the Ægean Sea. 

CHALCIS, the ancient capital of Euboea or Negropont. 

CHALDEA, ancient name for Babylonia. 

CHALIER, a Piedmontese, head of the party of the Mountain at Lyons;his execution the signal for an insurrection at Lyons against theConvention (1747-1793). 

CHALLENGER EXPEDITION, a scientific expedition sent out by theBritish Government in the _Challenger_ in 1872 in the interest ofscience, and under the management of scientific experts, to variousstations over the globe, to explore the ocean, and ascertain all mannerof facts regarding it open to observation, an expedition which concludedits operations in 1876, of which as many as 50 volumes of reports havebeen compiled. 

CHALLIS, JAMES, an astronomer, born in Essex, noted the position ofthe planet Neptune before its actual discovery (1803-1882). 

CHALLONER, RICHARD, a Roman Catholic bishop, born at Lewes; azealous Catholic, author of "Garden of the Soul, " a popular devotionalbook, as well as several controversial books (1691-1781). 

CHALMERS, ALEXANDER, a miscellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen;settled in London; edited the "British Essayists" in 45 vols. , and authorof "A General Biographical Dictionary. "

CHALMERS, GEORGE, an English publicist, born at Fochabers, author of"An Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Britain" (1742-1825). 

CHALMERS, THOMAS, a celebrated Scotch ecclesiastic and pulpitorator, born at Anstruther, Fife; studied for the Church, and entered theministry; after he did so was for some years more engrossed with physicalstudies and material interests than spiritual, but he by-and-by woke upto see and feel that the spiritual interest was the sovereign one, and tothe promotion of that he henceforth devoted himself body and soul; it wasfor the sake of the spiritual he took the interest he did in theecclesiastical affairs of the nation, and that the Church might havescope and freedom to discharge its spiritual functions was one chiefruling passion of his life, and it is no wonder he bent all his energieson a movement in the Church to secure this object; he was not much of ascholar or even a theologian, but a great man, and a great force in thereligious life of his country; though the first pulpit-orator of his day, and though he wrote largely, as well as eloquently, he left no writingsworthy of him except the "Astronomical Discourses" perhaps, to perpetuatehis memory; he was distinguished for his practical sagacity, and was anexpert at organisation; in his old age he was a most benignant, venerable-looking man: "It is a long time, " wrote Carlyle to his mother, just after a visit he had paid him a few days before he died--"it is along time since I have spoken to so _good_ and really pious-hearted andbeautiful old man" (1780-1847). 

CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE (25), capital of the French dep. Of Marne, 100 m. E. Of Paris, where Attila was defeated by the Romans and Goths in 451;Napoleon III. Formed a camp near it for the training of troops. 

CHÂLONS-SUR-SAÔNE (24), a trading centre some 80 m. N. Of Lyons;manufactures machinery, glass, paper, and chemicals. 

CHAINS, chief town of the French dep. Of Haute Vienne, where RichardCoeur de Lion was mortally wounded in 1199 by a shot with an arrow. 

CHAM, the pseudonym of the French caricaturist Amédee de Noé, famousfor his humorous delineations of Parisian life (1819-1884). 

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, an association of merchants to promote andprotect the interests of trade, particularly of the town or the districtto which they belong. 

CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, a French legislative assembly, elected now byuniversal suffrage. 

CHAMBERLAIN, RIGHT HON. JOSEPH, born in London, connected as abusiness man with Birmingham; after serving the latter city in amunicipal capacity, was elected the parliamentary representative in 1876;became President of the Board of Trade under Mr. Gladstone in 1880, andchief promoter of the Bankruptcy Bill; broke with Mr. Gladstone on hisHome Rule measure for Ireland, and joined the Liberal-Unionists;distinguished himself under Lord Salisbury as Colonial Secretary; _b_. 1836. 

CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM, an English writer, born in Kendal, author of acyclopædia which bears his name, and which formed the basis of subsequentones, as Johnson confessed it did of his Dictionary (1680-1750). 

CHAMBERS, GEORGE, an English marine painter, born at Whitby; _d_. 1840. 

CHAMBERS, ROBERT, brother of the succeeding and in the same line oflife, but of superior accomplishments, especially literary andscientific, which served him well in editing the publications issued bythe firm; was the author of a great many works of a historical, biographical, and scientific, as well as literary interest; wrote the"Vestiges of Creation, " a book on evolutionary lines, which made no smallstir at the time of publication, 1844, and for a time afterwards, theauthorship of which he was slow to own (1802-1871). 

CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, born at Peebles; apprenticed to a booksellerin Edinburgh, and commenced business on his own account in a small way;edited with his brother the "Gazetteer of Scotland"; started, in 1832, _Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ to meet a demand of the time for popularinstruction in company with his brother founded a great printing andpublishing establishment, from which there has issued a number ofvaluable works in the interest especially of the propagation of usefulknowledge of all kinds; was a distinguished Edinburgh citizen, and didmuch for the expansion and improvement of the city (1800-1883)

CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, architect, born at Stockholm, of Scotchorigin; architect of Somerset House; was of the Johnson circle of wits(1726-1796)

CHAMBÉRY (19), chief town of dep. Of Savoy, in a beautiful district;is the ancient capital, and contains the castle, of the dukes of Savoy;manufactures cloth, wines, soap, and textile fabrics; is also a summerresort. 

CHAMBEZE, a head-stream of the Congo, N. Of lake Nyassa. 

CHAMBORD, spacious château in the dep. Of Loire-et-Cher, France, built by Francis I. ; after being long a residence for royalty and peopleof distinction, was presented in 1821 to the Duc de Bordeaux, the Comtede Chambord. 

CHAMBORD, COMTE DE, Duc de Bordeaux, son of the Duc de Berri andgrandson of Charles X. , born at Paris; exiled in 1830, he retired to thechâteau of Frohsdorf, in Austria, where he died without issue; his fatherand grandfather being dead, the monarchical party resolved to attempt arestoration in his behalf in 1872, but he refused to adopt the tricolorflag of the Revolution, and the scheme was abandoned, a like opportunityoffering itself twice before being let slip (1820-1883). 

CHAMBRE ARDENTE, a name given to certain courts of justiceestablished to try certain cases that required to be sharply dealt with;they were held at night, and even when held in the daytime with lightedtorches; a court of the kind was instituted for trial of the Huguenots in1530, and again in 1680 and 1716. 

CHAMFORT, a French wit and littérateur, born in Auvergne; took tothe Revolution, but offended the leaders, and being threatened witharrest committed suicide, "cutting and slashing with frantic, uncertainhand, gaining, not without difficulty, the refuge of death"; he was aborn cynic, and was famous for his keen insight into human nature and hissharp criticisms of it, summed up in a collection of maxims he left, aswell as for his anecdotes in incisive portraiture of character. "He was aman, " says Professor Saintsbury, "soured by his want of birth, health, and position, and spoilt by hanging on to the great persons of his time. But for a kind of tragi-comic satire, a _soeva indignatio_, taking theform of contempt for all that is exalted and noble, he has no equal inliterature except Swift" (1741-1794). 

CHAMILLARD, Minister of Finance and of War under Louis XIV. ;"distinguished himself by his incapacity" (1651-1721). 

CHAMISSO, ADALBERT VON, a German naturalist and littérateur born inFrance, but educated in Berlin; is famous for his poetical productions, but especially as the author of "Peter Schlemihl, " the man who lost hisshadow, which has been translated into nearly every European language; hewrote several works on natural history (1781-1838). 

CHAMOUNI, OR CHAMONIX, a village in the dep. Of Haute-Savoie, 33 m. SE. Of Geneva, in a valley forming the upper basin of the Arve, famousfor its beauty and for its glaciers; it is from this point that theascent of Mont Blanc is usually made. 

CHAMOUSSET, a French philanthropist, born in Paris; the originatorof mutual benefit societies (1717-1773). 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of France, 180 m. Long by 150 broad, annexed to the Crown 1286, and including the deps. Of Aube, Haute-Marne, Marne, and Ardennes; the province where the wine of the name isprincipally manufactured. 

CHAMP-DE-MARS, a large space, of ground in Paris, between the frontof the École Militaire and the left bank of the Seine; the site of recentExpositions, and the scene of the Federation Féte, 14th July 1790. 

CHAMPLAIN`, a beautiful lake between the States of New York andVermont; it is 100 m. In length, and from 1 m. At its S. End to 14 m. Atits N. End broad. 

CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE, a French navigator, born at Brouage, inSaintonge, was founder of Quebec, and French Governor of Canada; wrote anaccount of his voyages (1570-1635). 

CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS, a celebrated French Egyptologist, bornin Figeac, dep. Of Lot; early gave himself to the study of Coptic andEgyptian antiquities; was the first to decipher the hieroglyphics ofancient Egypt, a great discovery; conducted a scientific expedition toEgypt in 1828, and returned in 1830 with the fruits of his researches; achair of Egyptology was in consequence instituted in the College ofFrance, and he was installed as the first professor; his writings on thescience, of which he laid the foundation, are numerous (1790-1832). 

CHAMPS-ELYSÉES, a Parisian promenade between the Place de laConcorde and the Arc de Triomphe. 

CHANCELLOR, RICHARD, an English seaman, voyaging in northern parts, arrived in the White Sea, and travelled to Moscow, where he concluded acommercial treaty with Russia on behalf of an English company; wrote aninteresting account of his visit; after a second visit, in which hevisited Moscow, was wrecked on the coast of Aberdeenshire in 1556. 

CHANDERNAGORE (25), a small town and territory on the Hooghly, 22 m. N. Of Calcutta, belonging to France. 

CHANDLER, RICHARD, a learned Hellenistic archæologist, born inHants; travelled in Asia Minor and Greece, along with two artists, toexamine and describe the antiquities; the materials collected werepublished in his "Ionian Antiquities, " "Travels in Asia Minor, " &c. (1738-1810). 

CHANDOS, an English title inherited by the Grenville family, ofNorman origin. 

CHANDOS, JOHN, a celebrated English general in the 14th century; waspresent at Crécy, governor of English provinces in France ceded by treatyof Bretigny; defeated and took prisoner Du Guesclin of Auray; servedunder the Black Prince, and was killed near Poitiers, 1369. 

CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS, French general, born at Autun; distinguishedhimself in Algeria, was exiled after the _coup-d'état_, returned in 1870, served in the Franco-German war; surrendered at Metz, at the close of thewar came back, and assisted in reorganising the army (1793-1877). 

CHANNEL, THE ENGLISH, an arm of the Atlantic between France andEngland, 280 m. Long and 100 m. Wide at the mouth; the French call it _LaManche_ (the sleeve) from its shape. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS (92), a group of small islands off the NW. Coast ofFrance, of which the largest are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark;formerly part of the Duchy of Normandy, and now all that remains toBritain of her French dominions, being subject to it since 1066; have adelightful climate mild and bright, and varied and beautiful scenery;the soil is fertile; flowers and fruit are grown for export to Britain, also early potatoes for the London market; Guernsey pears and Jersey cowsare famous; valuable quarries of granite are wrought; the language isNorman-French. 

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, a Unitarian preacher and miscellaneouswriter, born at Newport, Rhode Island, U. S. ; a man of the most liberalsentiments, who shrank from being classed with any sect; ranked high inpoint of moral character; was a vigorous thinker, and eloquent with thepen; "a man of faithful, long-continued striving towards what is Best"(1780-1842). 

CHANSON DE GESTES (i. E. Songs of Deeds), poems of a narrativekind much in favour in the Middle Ages, relating in a legendary style thehistory and exploits of some famous hero, such as the "Chanson deRoland, " ascribed to Théroulde, a trouvère of the 9th century. 

CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS, an English sculptor, born in Derbyshire; wasapprenticed to a carver and gilder in Sheffield; displayed a talent fordrawing and modelling; received a commission to execute a marble bust forthe parish, church, which was so successful as to procure him further andfurther commissions; executed four colossal busts of admirals forGreenwich Hospital; being expert at portraiture, his busts werelikenesses; executed busts of many of the most illustrious men of thetime, among them of Sir Walter Scott, Wordsworth, Southey, andWellington, as well as of royal heads; made a large fortune, and left itfor the encouragement of art (1781-1841). 

CHANZY, a French general, born at Nouart, Ardennes; served inAlgeria; commanded the army of the Loire in 1870-71; distinguishedhimself by his brilliant retreat from Mans to Laval; was afterwardsGovernor-General in Algeria; died suddenly, to the regret of his country(1823-1883). 

CHAOS, a name in the ancient cosmogomy for the formless void out ofwhich everything at first sprang into existence, or the wide-spreadconfusion that prevailed before it shaped itself into order under thebreath of the spirit of life. 

CHAPELAIN, a French poet, protégé of Richelieu, born at Paris;composed a pretentious poem on Joan of Arc, entitled "Pucelle, " which waslaughed out of existence on the appearance of the first half, consistingof only 12 of the 24 books promised, the rest having never passed beyondthe MS. Stage (1595-1674). 

CHAPMAN, GEORGE, English dramatic poet, born at Hitchin, Hertfordshire; wrote numerous plays, both in tragedy and comedy, as wellas poems, of unequal merit, but his great achievement, and the one onwhich his fame rests, is his translation into verse of the works ofHomer, which, though not always true to the letter, is instinct withsomewhat of the freshness and fire of the original; his translation isreckoned the best yet done into English verse, and the best renderinginto verse of any classic, ancient or modern (1559-1634). 

CHAPPELL, musical amateur, collector and editor of old English airs, and contributor to the history of English national music; was one of thefounders of the Musical Hungarian Society, and the Percy Society(1809-1888). 

CHAPTAL, a distinguished French chemist and statesman, born atNogaret, Lozère; author of inventions in connection with the manufactureof alum and saltpetre, the bleaching and the dyeing of cotton; heldoffice under Napoleon, and rendered great service to the arts andmanufactures of his country (1756-1832). 

CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN, a French pathologist; made a special study ofnervous diseases, including hypnotism, and was eminent for his works inconnection therewith (1823-1893). 

CHARDIN, SIR JOHN, traveller, born in Paris; author of "Travels inIndia and Persia, " valuable for their accuracy (1643-1713). 

CHARENTE (360), a dep. Of France, W. Of the Gironde, capitalAngoulême; with vast chestnut forests; produces wines, mostly distilledinto brandy. 

CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE (456), a maritime dep. Of France, W. Of theformer; includes the islands of Rhé, Oléron, Aix, and Madame; capital, LaRochelle. 

CHARIVA`RI, a satirical journal, such as the English _Punch_;originally a discordant mock serenade. 

CHARLEMAGNE i. E. Charles or Karl the Great, the firstCarlovingian king of the Franks, son and successor of Pepin le Bref (theShort); became sole ruler on the death of his brother Carloman in 771; hesubjugated by his arms the southern Gauls, the Lombards, the Saxons, andthe Avares, and conducted a successful expedition against the Moors inSpain, with the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to theElbe; having passed over into Italy in support of the Pope, he was onChristmas Day 800 crowned Emperor of the West, after which he devotedhimself to the welfare of his subjects, and proved himself as great inlegislation as in arms; enacted laws for the empire called capitularies, reformed the judicial administration, patronised letters, and establishedschools; kept himself in touch and _au courant_ with everything over hisvast domain; he died and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (742-814). 

CHARLEROI (21), a manufacturing town in Hainault, Belgium, 35 m. SE. Of Brussels. 

CHARLES II. , surnamed THE BALD, son of Louis "le Débonnaire";after conquering his brother Lothaire at Fontenoy in 841, became by thetreaty of Verdun king of France, 843; was unable to defend his kingdomagainst the Normans; went to Italy, and had himself crowned emperor atRome: _d_. 877. 

CHARLES III. , surnamed THE SIMPLE, became king of France in893; his reign one long struggle against the Normans, which ended byconceding Normandy to Rollo; was conquered by Hugh Capet, a rival for thecrown, at Soissons, and dethroned in 922; died in captivity, 929. 

CHARLES IV. , THE FAIR, third son of Philip the Fair, king of Francefrom 1322 to 1328; lost to France Guienne, which was taken from him bythe English; was the last of the Capetians; _d_. 1328. 

CHARLES V. , THE WISE, son of John II. , king of France from 1361 to1380; recovered from the English almost all the provinces they hadconquered, successes due to his own prudent policy, and especially theheroism of Du Guesclin, De Clisson, and De Boucicaut; France owed to himimportant financial reforms, the extension of privileges to theuniversities, and the establishment of the first national library, intowhich were gathered together thousands of MSS. ; the Bastille was foundedin his reign. 

CHARLES VI. , THE WELL-BELOVED, king of France from 1380 to 1422, wasson and successor of Charles V. ; began his reign under the guardianshipof his uncles, who rifled the public treasury and provoked rebellion bytheir exactions; gained a victory at Rossbach over the Flemings, then inrevolt, and a little after dismissed his uncles and installed in theirstead the wise councillors of his father, whose sage, upright, andbeneficent administration procured for him the title of "Well-Beloved, " astate of things, however, which did not last long, for the harassments hehad been subjected to drove him insane, and his kingdom, torn in piecesby rival factions, was given over to anarchy, and fell by treaty ofTroyes almost entirely into the hands of the English conquerors atAgincourt (1368-1422). 

CHARLES VII. , THE VICTORIOUS, son of Charles VI. , became king ofFrance in 1422; at his accession the English held possession of almostthe whole country, and he indolently made no attempt to expel them, butgave himself up to effeminate indulgences; was about to lose his wholepatrimony when the patriotism of the nation woke up at the enthusiasticsummons of Joan of Arc; her triumphs and those of her associates weakenedthe English domination, and even after her death the impulse she gavecontinued to work, till at the end of 20 years the English were drivenout of France, and lost all they held in it except the town of Calais, along with Havre, and Guines Castle (1403-1461). 

CHARLES VIII. , king of France, son and successor of Louis XI. ;during his minority the kingdom suffered from the turbulence and revoltsof the nobles; married Anne of Brittany, heiress of the rich duchy ofthat name, by which it was added to the crown of France; sacrificed theinterests of his kingdom by war with Italy to support the claims ofFrench princes to the throne of Naples, which, though successful in amilitary point of view, proved politically unfruitful (1470-1498). 

CHARLES IX. , second son of Henry II. And Catharine de' Medici, became king of France in 1560; the civil wars of the Huguenots andCatholics fill up this reign; the first war concluded by the peace ofAmboise, during which Francis of Guise was assassinated; the secondconcluded by the peace of Longjumeau, during which Montmorency fell; thethird concluded by the peace of St. Germain, in which Condé andMoncontour fell, which peace was broken by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, into the perpetration of which Charles was inveigled by hismother and the Guises; incensed at this outrage the Huguenots commenced afourth war, and were undertaking a fifth when Charles died, haunted byremorse and in dread of the infinite terror (1550-1574). 

CHARLES X. , brother of Louis XVI. And Louis XVIII. , the latter ofwhom he succeeded on the throne of France in 1824; was unpopular inFrance as Duc d'Artois in the time of the Revolution, and had to flee thecountry at the outbreak of it, and stayed for some time as an exile inHolyrood, Edinburgh; on his accession he became no less unpopular fromhis adherence to the old régime; at an evil hour in 1830 he issuedordinances in defiance of all freedom, and after an insurrection of threedays in the July of that year had again to flee; abdicating in favour ofhis son, found refuge for a time again in Holyrood, and died at Görtz inhis eightieth year (1757-1837). 

CHARLES V. , (I. Of Spain), emperor of Germany, son of Philip, Archduke of Austria, born at Ghent; became king of Spain in 1516, on thedeath of his maternal grandfather Ferdinand, and emperor of Germany in1519 on the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I. , beingcrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1520; reigned during one of the mostimportant periods in the history of Europe; the events of the reign aretoo numerous to detail; enough to mention his rivalry with Francis I. OfFrance, his contention as a Catholic with the Protestants of Germany, theinroads of the Turks, revolts in Spain, and expeditions against thepirates of the Mediterranean; the ambition of his life was thesuppression of the Protestant Reformation and the succession of his sonPhilip to the Imperial crown; he failed in both; resigned in favour ofhis son, and retired into the monastery of St. Yuste, in Estremadura, near which he built a magnificent retreat, where, it is understood, notwithstanding his apparent retirement, he continued to take interest inpolitical affairs, and to advise in the management of them (1500-1558). 

CHARLES VI. , emperor of Germany from 1711 to 1740, as well as kingof Spain from 1703, was son of the Emperor Leopold I. , and father ofMaria Theresa. 

CHARLES XII. , king of Sweden, son of Charles XI. , a warlike prince;ascended the throne at the age of 15; had to cope with Denmark, Russia, and Poland combined against him; foiled the Danes at Copenhagen, theRussians at Narva, and Augustus II. Of Poland at Riga; trapped in Russia, and cooped up to spend a winter there, he was, in spring 1709, attackedby Peter the Great at Pultowa and defeated, so that he had to take refugewith the Turks at Bender; here he was attacked, captured, and conveyed toDemotica, but escaping, he found his way miraculously back to Sweden, andmaking peace with the Czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was killedby a musket-shot at the siege of Friedrickshall; "the last of the Swedishkings"; "his appearance, among the luxurious kings and knights of theNorth" at the time, Carlyle compares to "the bursting of a cataract ofbombshells in a dull ballroom" (1697-1718). 

CHARLES I. , king of England, third son of James I. , born atDunfermline; failing in his suit for the Infanta of Spain, marriedHenrietta Maria, a French princess, a devoted Catholic, who had greatinfluence over him, but not for good; had for public advisers Straffordand Laud, who cherished in him ideas of absolute power adverse to theliberty of the subject; acting on these ideas brought him into collisionwith the Parliament, and provoked a civil war; himself the first to throwdown the gauntlet by raising the royal standard at Nottingham; in the endof which he surrendered himself to the Scots army at Newark, whodelivered him to the Parliament; was tried as a traitor to his country, condemned to death, and beheaded, 30th January, at Whitehall (1600-1649). 

CHARLES II. , king of England, son of Charles I. , horn at St. James'sPalace, London; was at The Hague, in Holland, when his father wasbeheaded; assumed the royal title; was proclaimed King by the Scots;landed in Scotland, and was crowned at Scone; marching into England, wasdefeated by Cromwell at Worcester, 3rd September 1651; fled to France; bythe policy of General Monk, after Cromwell's death, was restored to hiscrown and kingdom in 1660, an event known as the Restoration; he was aneasy-going man, and is known in history as the "Merry Monarch"; his reignwas an inglorious one for England, though it is distinguished by thepassing of the Habeas Corpus Act, one of the great bulwarks of Englishliberty next to the Magna Charta (1630-1685). 

CHARLES, a French physicist, born at Beaugency; was the first toapply hydrogen to the inflation of balloons (1746-1823). 

CHARLES, ARCHDUKE, of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold II. Andyounger brother of Francis II. , one of the ablest generals of Austria inthe wars against the French Republic and the Empire; lost the battle ofWagram, after which, being wounded, he retired into private life(1771-1847). 

CHARLES ALBERT, king of Sardinia, succeeded Charles Felix in 1831;conceived a design to emancipate and unite Italy; in the pursuit of thisobject he declared war against Austria; though at first successful, wasdefeated at Novara, and to save his kingdom was compelled to resign infavour of his son Victor Emmanuel; retired to Oporto, and died of abroken heart (1798-1849). 

CHARLES EDWARD, the Young Pretender, grandson of James II. OfEngland, born at Rome, landed in Scotland (1745); issued a manifesto inassertion of his father's claims; had his father proclaimed king atEdinburgh; attacked and defeated General Cope at Prestonpans; marched atthe head of his adherents into England as far as Derby; returned, anddefeated the king's force at Falkirk, but retired before the Duke ofCumberland, who dispersed his army at Culloden; wandered about thereafterin disguise; escaped to France, and died at Florence (1721-1789). 

CHARLES MARTEL (i. E. "Charles the Hammer"), son of Pépind'Héristal and grandfather of Charlemagne; became mayor of the Palace, and as such ruler of the Franks; notable chiefly for his signal victoryover the Saracens at Poitiers in 732, whereby the tide of Mussulmaninvasion was once for all rolled back and the Christianisation of Europeassured; no greater service was ever rendered to Europe by any otherfighting man (689-741). 

CHARLES OF ANJOU, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples; lost Sicilyafter the Sicilian Vespers (1220-1285). 

CHARLES OF VALOIS, third son of Philip the Bold, one of the greatestcaptains of his age (1270-1324). 

CHARLES THE RASH, last Duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Good, born at Dijon; enemy of Louis XI. Of France, his feudal superior; wasambitious to free the duchy from dependence on France, and to restore itas a kingdom, and by daring enterprises tried hard to achieve this; onthe failure of the last effort was found lying dead on the field(1433-1477). 

CHARLES'S WAIN, the constellation of Ursa Major, a wagon without awagoner. 

CHARLESTON (56), the largest city in S. Carolina, and the chiefcommercial city; also a town in Western Virginia, U. S. , with a spaciousland-locked harbour; is the chief outlet for the cotton and rice of thedistrict, and has a large coasting trade. 

CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT, a designer and painter, born in Paris;famous for his sketches of military subjects and country life, in whichhe displayed not a little humour (1792-1845). 

CHARLEVILLE (17), a manufacturing and trading town in the dep. OfArdennes, France; exports iron, coal, wines, and manufactures hardwareand beer. 

CHARLEVOIX, a Jesuit and traveller, born at St. Quentin, exploredthe St. Lawrence and the Mississippi (1682-1761). 

CHARLOTTE, PRINCESS, daughter and only child of George IV. OfEngland, married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king ofBelgium; died after giving birth to a still-born boy, to the great griefof the whole nation (1796-1817). 

CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA, second wife of the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. , called the Princess Palatine (1652-1722). 

CHARLOTTENBURG (76), a town on the Spree, 3 m. W. Of Berlin, with apalace, the favourite residence of Sophie Charlotte, the grandmother ofFrederick the Great, and so named by her husband Frederick I. After herdeath; contains the burial-place of William I. , emperor of Germany. 

CHARLOTTETOWN (13), the capital of Prince Edward Island. 

CHARMETTES, a picturesque hamlet near Chambéry, a favourite retreatof Rousseau's. 

CHARNAY, a French traveller; a writer on the ancient civilisation ofMexico, which he has made a special study; _b_. 1828. 

CHARON, in the Greek mythology the ferryman of the ghosts of thedead over the Styx into Hades, a grim old figure with a mean dress and adirty beard, peremptory in exacting from the ghosts he ferried over theobolus allowed him for passage-money. 

CHARONDAS, a Sicilian law-giver, disciple of Pythagoras; is said tohave killed himself when he found he had involuntarily broken one of hisown laws (600 B. C. ). 

CHARRON, PIERRE, a French moralist and theologian, as well as pulpitorator, born in Paris; author of "Les Trois Vérités, " the unity of God, Christianity the sole religion, and Catholicism the only Christianity;and of a sceptical treatise "De la Sagesse"; a friend and disciple ofMontaigne, but bolder as more dogmatic, with less _bonhommie_ andoriginality, and much of a cynic withal (1541-1603). 

CHARTERHOUSE, a large London school, originally a Carthusianmonastery, and for a time a residence of the dukes of Norfolk. 

CHARTIER, ALAIN, an early scholarly French poet and prose writer ofnote, born at Bayeux; secretary to Charleses V. , VI. , and VII. Of France, whom Margaret, daughter of James I. Of Scotland and wife of Louis XI. , herself a poetess, once kissed as he lay asleep for the pleasure hispoems gave her; was a patriot, and wrote as one (1390-1458). 

CHARTISM, a movement of the working-classes of Great Britain forgreater political power than was conceded to them by the Reform Bill of1832, and which found expression in a document called the "People'sCharter, " drawn up in 1838, embracing six "points, " as they were called, viz. , Manhood Suffrage, Equal Electoral Districts, Vote by Ballot, AnnualParliaments, Abolition of a Property Qualification in the ParliamentaryRepresentation, and Payment of Members of Parliament, all which took theform of a petition presented to the House of Commons in 1839, and signedby 1, 380, 000 persons. The refusal of the petition gave rise to greatagitation over the country, which gradually died out in 1848. 

CHARTRES (23), the capital of the French dep. Of Eure-et-Lois, 55 m. SW. Of Paris; gave title of Duke to the eldest of the Orleanist Bourbons. 

CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, a monastery founded by St. Bruno in 1084 inthe dep. Of Isère, 14 m. NE. Of Grenoble; famous as the original place ofthe manufacture of the Chartreuse liqueur, held in much repute; it washonoured by a visit of Queen Victoria in 1887; Ruskin was disappointedwith both monks and monastery. 

CHARYBDIS. See SCYLLA. 

CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND, Chief-Justice of the United States; a greatanti-slavery advocate and leader of the Free-Soil party; aimed at thePresidency, but failed (1773-1808). 

CHASI`DIM, a party among the Jews identified with the Pharisees, their supreme concern the observance of their religion in its purity. 

CHASLES, MICHEL, an eminent French mathematician, and held one ofthe first in the century; on the faith of certain autographs, which wereafterwards proved to be forgeries, he in 1867 astonished the world byascribing to Pascal the great discoveries of Newton, but had to admit hewas deceived (1793-1880). 

CHASLES, PHILARÈTE, a French littérateur, born near Chartres, adisciple of Rousseau; lived several years in England, and wroteextensively on English subjects, Shakespeare, Mary Stuart, Charles I. , and Cromwell among the chief (1799-1873). 

CHASSÉ, DAVID HENDRIK, BARON, a Dutch soldier; served France underNapoleon, who called him "General Baïonnette, " from his zealous use ofthe bayonet; fought at Waterloo on the opposite side; as governor ofAntwerp, gallantly defended its citadel in 1832 against a French andBelgian force twelve times larger than his own (1765-1849). 

CHASSEPOT, a French breech-loading rifle named from the inventor. 

CHASSEURS, picked bodies of light cavalry and infantry in the Frenchservice, called respectively _Chasseurs-à-cheval_ and _Chasseurs-à-pied_. 

CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOSCOSEL DE, grandson of Bayard; conceived aninsane passion for Queen Mary, whom he accompanied to Scotland; wassurprised in her bedchamber, under her bed, and condemned to death, itbeing his second offence (1540-1562). 

CHAT MOSS, a large bog in Lancashire, 7 m. W. Of Manchester, whichis partly reclaimed and partly, through the ingenuity of GeorgeStephenson, traversed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. 

CHÂTEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ DE, eminent French littérateur, born inSt. Malo, younger son of a noble family of Brittany; travelled to N. America in 1791; returned to France on the arrest of Louis XVI. , andjoined the EMIGRANTS (q. V. ) at Coblenz; was wounded at thesiege of Thionville, and escaped to England; wrote an "Essay onRevolutions Ancient and Modern, " conceived on liberal lines; was temptedback again to France in 1800; wrote "Atala, " a story of life in the wildsof America, which was in 1802 followed by his most famous work, "Génie duChristianisme"; entered the service of Napoleon, but withdrew on themurder of the Duc d'Enghien; though not obliged to leave France, made ajourney to the East, the fruit of which was his "Itinéraire de Paris àJerusalem"; hailed with enthusiasm the restoration of the Bourbons in1814; supported the Bourbon dynasty all through, though he waveredsometimes in the interest of liberty; withdrew from public life on theelevation of Louis Philippe to the throne; he was no thinker, but he wasa fascinating writer, and as such exercised no small influence on theFrench literature of his day; he lived in a transition period, andhovered between legitimism and liberty, the revolution and reaction, andbelonged to the Romantic school of literature--was perhaps the father ofit in France (1766-1848). 

CHÂTEAUX EN ESPAGNE, castles in Spain, visionary projects. 

CHÂTELET, MARQUISE DE, a learned Frenchwoman, born at Paris, withwhom Voltaire kept up an intimate acquaintanceship (1706-1749). 

CHÂTELLERAULT (18), a town in the dep. Of Vienne, 24 m. NE. OfPoitiers; gave title to the Scottish regent, the Earl of Arran;manufactures cutlery and small-arms for the Government. 

CHATHAM (59), a town in Kent, on the estuary of the Medway, afortified naval arsenal; is connected with Rochester. 

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF, a great British statesman andorator, born in Cornwall; determined opponent of Sir Robert Walpole;succeeded in driving him from power, and at length installing himself inhis place; had an eye to the greatness and glory of England, summoned theEnglish nation to look to its laurels; saw the French, the rivals ofEngland, beaten back in the four quarters of the globe; driven at lengthfrom power himself, he still maintained a single regard for the honour ofhis country, and the last time his voice was heard in the Parliament ofEngland was to protest against her degradation by an ignoble alliancewith savages in the war with America; on this occasion he fell back in afaint into the arms of his friends around, and died little more than amonth after; "for four years" (of his life), says Carlyle, "king ofEngland; never again he; never again one resembling him, nor indeed canever be. " See SMELFUNGUS on his character and position inCarlyle's "Frederick, " Book xxi. Chap. I. (1708-1775). 

CHATHAM ISLANDS, a group of islands 360 m. E. Of New Zealand, andpolitically connected with it; the chief industry is the rearing ofcattle. 

CHATSWORTH, the palatial seat of the Duke of Devonshire, inDerbyshire, 8 m. W. Of Chesterfield, enclosed in a park, with gardens, 10m. In circumference. 

CHATTERTON, THOMAS, a poet of great promise, had a tragic fate, bornat Bristol, passed off while but a boy as copies of ancient MSS. , andparticularly of poems which he ascribed to one Rowley, a monk of the 17thcentury, what were compositions of his own, exhibiting a genius of nosmall literary, not to say lyric, power; having vainly endeavoured topersuade any one of their genuineness, though he had hopes of thepatronage of Sir Robert Walpole, he left Bristol for London, and madevehement efforts with his pen to bespeak regard, but failed; grewdesperate, and committed suicide at the early age of 18 (1752-1770). 

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, the great early English poet, and father ofEnglish poetry, the son of a vintner and taverner, born probably inLondon, where he lived almost all his days; when a lad, served as page inthe royal household; won the favour and patronage of the king, EdwardIII. And his son, John of Gaunt, who pensioned him; served in anexpedition to France; was made prisoner, but ransomed by the king; wasoften employed on royal embassies, in particular to Italy; heldresponsible posts at home; was thus a man of the world as well as a manof letters; he comes first before us as a poet in 1369; his poetic powersdeveloped gradually, and his best and ripest work, which occupied him atintervals from 1373 to 1400, is his "CANTERBURY TALES" (q. V. ), characterised by Stopford Brooke as "the best example of Englishstory-telling we possess"; besides which he wrote, among othercompositions, "The Life of St. Cecilia, " "Troilus and Cressida, " the"House of Fame, " and the "Legend of Good Women"; his influence on Englishliterature has been compared to that of Dante on Italian, and hisliterary life has been divided into three periods--the French, theItalian, and the English, according as the spirit of it was derived froma foreign or a native source (1340-1400). 

CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD, a violent member of the extreme party inthe French Revolution, could "recognise the suspect from the very face ofthem"; provoked the disgust of even Robespierre, and was arrested amidjeers and guillotined (1763-1794). 

CHAUTAUQUA, a summer resort on a lake of the name in the W. Of NewYork State, centre of a novel institution, which prescribes a four years'course of private readings, and grants diplomas to those who anywhereachieve it. 

CHAUVINISM, a name among the French for what is known as Jingoismamong the English, i. E. An extravagant zeal for the glory of one'scountry or party, from one _Chauvin_, who made threatening displays ofhis devotion to Napoleon after his fall in 1815. 

CHEDDAR, a village in Somersetshire, on the Mendip Hills, famous forits cheese. 

CHEKE, SIR JOHN, a zealous Greek scholar, born at Cambridge, andfirst regius professor of Greek there; did much to revive in England aninterest in Greek and Greek literature; was tutor to Edward VI. , whogranted him landed estates; favouring the cause of Lady Jane Grey on theaccession of Mary, left the country, was seized, and sent back; for fearof the stake abjured Protestantism, but never forgave himself, and diedsoon after; he introduced the mode of pronouncing Greek prevalent inEngland (1514-1557). 

CHELMSFORD (11), the county town of Essex, on the Chelmer. 

CHELSEA (96), a western suburb of London, on the N. Of the Thames;famous for its hospital for old and disabled soldiers, and the place ofresidence of sundry literary celebrities, among others Sir Thomas More, Swift, Steele, and Carlyle. 

CHELTENHAM (49), a healthy watering-place and educational centre inGloucestershire; first brought into repute as a place of fashionableresort by the visits of George III. To it; contains a well-equippedcollege, where a number of eminent men have been educated. 

CHELYUSKIN, CAPE, in Siberia, the most northerly point in theEastern hemisphere. 

CHEMICAL AFFINITY, the tendency elementary bodies have to combineand remain in combination. 

CHEMISM, in the Hegelian philosophy "the mutual attraction, interpenetration, and neutralisation of independent individuals whichunite to form a whole. "

CHEMISTRY, the science that treats of elementary bodies and theircombinations: _inorganic_, relating to physical compounds; _organic_, relating to vegetable and animal compounds. 

CHEMNITZ (160), a manufacturing town in Saxony, called the "SaxonManchester, " at the foot of the Erzgebirge, in a rich mineral district;manufactures cottons, woollens, silks, machinery, &c. 

CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, an eminent Lutheran theologian, born inBrandenburg, a disciple of Melanchthon; author of "Loci Theologici, " asystem of theology; took a leading part in procuring the adoption of the"Formula of Concord"; his chief work "Examen Concilii Tridentini"(1522-1586). 

CHEMOSH, the national god of the Moabites, akin to Moloch, and theirstay in battle, but an abomination to the children of Jehovah. 

CHEMULPO, a town on the W. Coast of Corea; a thriving town since itbecame a treaty-port in 1883. 

CHENAB`, an affluent on the left bank of the Indus, and one of thefive rivers, and the largest, which give name to the Punjab; is 750 m. Long. 

CHENERY, THOMAS, a journalist; became editor of the _Times_; wasdistinguished for his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew, and was one of theOld Testament revisers (1826-1884). 

CHÉNIER, MARIE-ANDRÉ, French poet, greatest in the 18th century, born at Constantinople; author of odes, idylls, and elegies, which placehim high among French poets; took part in the Revolution as a lover oforder as well as of liberty; offended Robespierre, and was guillotinedtwo days before the fall of Robespierre; as a poet he was distinguishedfor the purity of his style and his originality (1762-1794). 

CHENONCEAUX, a magnificent château near Amboise, in, France; builtby Francis I. For the Duchesse d'Etampes, afterwards the property of theCondés, and afterwards of Madame Dupont. 

CHENU, a French naturalist; author of an "Encyclopædia of NaturalHistory" (1808-1879). 

CHEOPHREN, king of Egypt, brother and successor of Cheops; built thesecond great pyramid. 

CHEOPS, king of Memphis, in Egypt, of the 4th dynasty; builder ofthe largest of the pyramids about 3000 B. C. 

CHEPSTOW (4), a port on the Wye, Monmouthshire, 17 m. N. Of Newport;with a tubular suspension bridge, and where the tides are higher thananywhere else in Britain. 

CHER, an affluent of the Loire below Tours; also the dep. In France(359) to which it gives name; an agricultural and pastoral district;capital Bourges. 

CHERBOURG (40), a French port and arsenal in the dep. Of Manche, opposite the Isle of Wight, 70 m. Distant, on the construction andfortifications of which immense sums were expended, as much as eightmillions; the fortifications were begun by Vauban. 

CHERBULIEZ, VICTOR, novelist, critic, and publicist, born at Geneva, of a distinguished family; professor of Greek at Geneva; holds a highplace, and is widely known, as a writer of a series of works of fiction;_b_. 1826. 

CHER`IBON (11), a seaport of Java, on the N. Of the island. 

CHERITH, a brook E. Of the Jordan, Elijah's hiding-place. 

CHEROKEES, a tribe of American Indians, numbering some 20, 000, inthe NW. Of the Indian Territory, U. S. ; civilised, self-governing, andincreasing; formerly occupied the region about the Tennessee River. 

CHERONE`A, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon conquered theAthenians and Thebans, 338 B. C. , and Sulla defeated Mithridates, 86 B. C. ;the birthplace of Plutarch, who is hence called the Cheronean Sage. 

CHERRA PUNJI (5), a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with theheaviest rainfall of any place on the globe. 

CHERSONE`SUS (i. E. Continent island), a name which the Greeksgave to several peninsulas, viz. , the Tauric C. , the Crimea, the ThracianC. , Gallipoli; the Cimbric C. , Jutland; the Golden C. , the MalayPeninsula. 

CHERTSEY (11), a very old town of Surrey, 21 m. SW. Of London, onthe right bank of the Thames. 

CHERUBIM, an order of angelic beings conceived of as accompanyingthe manifestations of Jehovah, supporting His throne and protecting Hisglory, guarding it from profane intrusion; winged effigies of themovershadowed the MERCY SEAT (q. V. ). 

CHERUBIM, a character in the "Mariage de Figaro"; also the 11thHussars, from their trousers being of a cherry colour. 

CHERUBINI, a celebrated musical composer, born at Florence;naturalised in France; settled in Paris, the scene of his greatesttriumphs; composed operas, of which the chief were "Iphigenia in Aulis, "and "Les deux Journeés; or, The Water-Carrier, " his masterpiece; also anumber of sacred pieces and requiems, all of the highest merit; there isa portrait of him by Ingres (1842) in the Louvre, representing the Museof his art extending her protecting hand over his head (1760-1842). 

CHÉRUEL, ADOLPHE, French historian, born at Rouen; author of"History of France during the Minority of Louis XIV. "; published the"Memoirs of Saint-Simon" (1809-1891). 

CHERUSCI, an ancient people of Germany, whose leader was Arminius, and under whom they defeated the Romans, commanded by Varus, in 9 A. D. 

CHESAPEAKE BAY, a northward-extending inlet on the Atlantic coast ofthe United States, 200 m. Long and from 10 to 40 m. Broad, cuttingMaryland in two. 

CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an English anatomist and surgeon, whose work, "Anatomy of the Human Body, " was long used as a text-book on that science(1688-1752). 

CHESHIRE (730), a western county of England, between the Mersey andthe Dee, the chief mineral products of which are coal and rock-salt, andthe agricultural, butter and cheese; has numerous manufacturing towns, with every facility for inter-communication, and the finest pasture-landin England. 

CHESHUNT (9), a large village in Hertfordshire, 14 m. N. Of London, with rose gardens, and a college founded by the Countess of Huntingdon. 

CHESIL BEACH, a neck of land on the Devonshire coast, 15 m. Long, being a ridge of loose pebbles and shingle. 

CHESNEY, C. CORNWALLIS, professor of Military History, nephew of thesucceeding, author of "Waterloo Lectures" (1826-1876). 

CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON, explorer, born in co. Down, Ireland;explored with much labour the route to India by way of the Euphrates, though his labours were rendered futile by the opposition of Russia;proved, by survey of the isthmus, the practicability of the Suez Canal(1798-1872). 

CHESTER (41), the county town of Cheshire, on the Dee, 16 m. SE. OfLiverpool; an ancient city founded by the Romans; surrounded by wallsnearly 2 m. Long, and from 7 to 8 ft. Thick, forming a promenade withparapets; the streets are peculiar; along the roofs of the lower storeysof the houses there stretch piazzas called "Rows, " at the original levelof the place, 16 ft. Wide for foot-passengers, approached by steps; itabounds in Roman remains, and is altogether a unique town. 

CHESTERFIELD (22), a town in Derbyshire, 21 m. N. Of Derby; in amineral district; manufactures cotton, woollen, and silk; has a canalconnecting it with the Trent. 

CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, EARL OF, statesman, orator, and man of letters, eldest son of the third earl, born in London; sat inthe House of Commons from 1716 to 1726; was an opponent of Walpole; heldoffice under the Pelhams; in 1748 retired from deafness, or perhapsdisgust, into private life; celebrated for his "Letters to his Son, "models of elegance, though of questionable morality, which it appears henever intended to publish, and for the scorn with which Dr. Johnsontreated him when he offered to help him, after he no longer needed any, in a letter which gave the death-blow to the patronage of literature; iscredited by Carlyle with having predicted the French Revolution; itshould be added, the "Letters" were printed by his son's widow(1694-1773). 

CHEVALIER, MICHEL, a celebrated French economist, born at Limoges;originally a Socialist of the St. Simonian school; for defendingSocialism was imprisoned, but recanted, and wrote ably against Socialism;was a free-trader and coadjutor of Cobden (1806-1879). 

CHEVALIER, SULPICE. See GAVARNI. 

CHEVALIER D'INDUSTRIE, one who lives by his wits, specially byswindling. 

CHEVALIER ST. GEORGE, the Pretender. 

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, a military fence composed of a beam or a bar armedwith long spikes, literally Friesland horses, having been first used inFriesland. 

CHEVERT, a French general, born at Verdun; "a bit of right soldierstuff"; distinguished himself in many engagements, and especially at thesiege of Prague in 1757 (1696-1773). 

CHEVIOT HILLS, a range on the borders of England and Scotland, extending 35 m. South-westwards, the highest in Northumberland 2676 ft. , the Carter Fell being 2020 ft. ; famous for its breed of sheep. 

CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGÈNE, a French chemist, born at Angers; an expertin the department of dyeing, and an authority on colours, as well as thechemistry of fats; was director in the dyeing department in the Gobelinsmanufactory; he lived to witness the centenary of his birth (1786-1889). 

CHEVREUSE, DUCHESSE DE, played an important part in the Fronde andin the plots against Richelieu and Mazarin; her Life has been written byVictor Cousin (1600-1679). 

CHEVRON, in heraldry an ordinary of two bands forming an angledescending to the extremities of the shield; representing the two raftersof a house, meeting at the top. 

CHEVY CHASE, the subject and title of a highly popular old Englishballad, presumed to refer to an event in connection with the battle ofOtterburn; there were strains in it which Sir Philip Sidney said movedhis heart more than with a trumpet. 

CHEYENNE INDIANS, a warlike tribe of Red Indians, now much reduced, and partially settled in the Indian Territory, U. S. ; noted for theirhorsemanship. 

CHEYNE, GEORGE, a physician and medical writer, born inAberdeenshire, in practice in London; suffered from corpulency, being 32stone in weight, but kept it down by vegetable and milk diet, which herecommended to others in the like case; wrote on fevers, nervousdisorders, and hygiene; wrote also on fluxions (1671-1743). 

CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY, an eminent Biblical scholar, born in London;Oriel Professor of Scripture Exegesis, Oxford, and canon of Rochester;author of numerous works on the Old Testament, particularly on "Isaiah"and the "Psalms, " in which he advocates conclusions in accord with moderncritical results; _b_. 1841. 

CHÉZY, DE, a French Orientalist, born at Neuilly; the first tocreate in France an interest in the study of Sanskrit (1773-1832). 

CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO, an Italian lyric poet, born at Savona;distinguished, especially for his lyrics; surnamed the "Pindar of Italy, "Pindar being a Greek poet whom it was his ambition to imitate(1552-1637). 

CHIA`NA, a small, stagnant, pestilential affluent of the Tiber, nowdeepened into a healthful and serviceable stream, connecting the Tiberwith the Arno. 

CHIAPAS, LAS (270), a Pacific State of Mexico, covered with forests;yields maize, sugar, cacao, and cotton. 

CHIAROSCURO, the reproduction in art of the effects of light andshade on nature as they mutually affect each other. 

CHIBCHAS or MUYSCAS, a civilised people, though on a lowerstage than the Peruvians, whom the Spaniards found established in NewGranada in the 16th century, now merged in the Spanish population; theyworship the sun. 

CHICA, an orange-red colouring matter obtained from boiling theleaves of the _Bignonia chica_, and used as a dye. 

CHICAGO (1, 700), the metropolis of Illinois, in the NE. Of theState, on the SW. Shore of Lake Michigan, is the second city in theUnion; its unparalleled growth, dating only from 1837--in 1832 a merelog-fort, and now covering an area of 180 sq. M. , being 21 m. In lengthand 10 m. In breadth--is due to its matchless facilities forcommunication. Situated in the heart of the continent, a third of theUnited States railway system centres in it, and it communicates with allCanada, and with the ocean by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River;laid out with absolute regularity, it has many magnificent buildings, enormously tall office "sky-scrapers, " and an unrivalled system of parksand avenues; there are a university, medical, commercial, and theologicalcolleges, an art institute, libraries, and observatory; it sufferedseverely from fire in 1871 and 1874; it is the greatest grain and porkmarket in the world, and its manufactures include almost every variety ofproduction; the population is a mixture of all European peoples;native-born Americans are a small minority, outnumbered by the Germansand almost equalled by the Irish. 

CHICARD, the harlequin of the modern French carnival, grotesquelydressed up. 

CHICHELEY, HENRY, archbishop of Canterbury, a scholar and statesman, often employed on embassies, a moderate churchman; accompanied Henry V. To Agincourt (1362-1442). 

CHICHESTER (9), a cathedral city in the W. Of Sussex, 17 m. NE. OfPortsmouth, with a port on the Channel 2 m. SW. Of it; chief trade inagricultural produce. 

CHICHEVACHE, a monster fabled to feed on good women, and starved, from the scarcity of them, to skin and bone, in contrast with anothercalled Bicorn, that fed on good men, who are more plentiful, and was fatand plump. 

CHICKASAWS, N. American Indians, allied to the Chocktaws, settled ina civilised state in the Indian Territory like the Cherokees. 

CHICLANA (12), a watering-place 12 m. SB. Of Cadiz, with mineralbaths. 

CHIEF, the upper part of an escutcheon cut off by a horizontal line. 

CHIEM-SEE, a high-lying lake in Upper Bavaria, 48 m. From Münich, adorned with three islands; famous for its fish. 

CHIEN DE JEAN DE NIVELLE, the dog that never came when it wascalled. See NIVELLE. 

CHIË`TI (22), a city in Central Italy, 78 m. NE. Of Rome, with afine Gothic cathedral. 

CHIGI, a distinguished Italian family, eminent in the Church. 

CHIGOE, an insect which infests the skin of the feet, multipliesincredibly, and is a great annoyance to the negro, who, however, ispretty expert in getting rid of it. 

CHIHUA`HUA (25), a town in Mexico; capital of a State (298), thelargest in Mexico, of the same name, with famous silver and also coppermines. 

CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES, an American scholar, born in Boston; professorof Anglo-Saxon and Early English Literature at Harvard; distinguished asthe editor of Spenser and of "English and Scottish Ballads, " "amonumental collection"; _b_. 1825. 

CHILD, LYDIA MARIA, an American novelist and anti-slavery advocate(1802-1880). 

CHILD, SIR JOSHUA, a wealthy London merchant, author of "Discourseon Trade, " with an appendix against usury; advocated the compulsorytransportation of paupers to the Colonies (1630-1699). 

CHILDE, the eldest son of a nobleman who has not yet attained toknighthood, or has not yet won his spurs. 

CHILDE HAROLD, a poem of Byron's, written between 1812 and 1819, representing the author himself as wandering over the world in quest ofsatisfaction and returning sated to disgust; it abounds in strikingthoughts and vivid descriptions; in his "Dernier Chant of C. H. "Lamartine takes up the hero where Byron leaves him. 

CHILDERBERT I. , son of Clovis, king of Paris, reigned from 511 to558. C. II. , son of Siegbert and Brunhilda, king of Austrasia, reigned from 575 to 596. C. III. , son of Thierri III. , reigned overall France from 695 to 711, under the mayor of the palace, Pépind'Héristal. 

CHILDERBRAND, a Frank warrior, who figures in old chronicles as thebrother of Charles Martel, signalised himself in the expulsion of theSaracens from France. 

CHILDÉRIC I. , the son of Merovig and father of Clovis, king of theFranks; _d_. 481. C. II. , son of Clovis II. , king of Austrasia in660, and of all France in 670; assassinated 673. C. III. , son of thepreceding, last of the Merovingian kings, from 743 to 752; was deposed byPepin le Bref; died in the monastery of St. Omer in 755. 

CHILDERMAS, a festival to commemorate the massacre of the childrenby Herod. 

CHILDERS, ROBERT C. , professor of Pâli and Buddhistic Literature inUniversity College, and author of Pâli Dictionary (1809-1876). 

CHILDREN OF THE WOOD, two children, a boy and girl, left to the careof an uncle, who hired two ruffians to murder them, that he might inherittheir wealth; one of the ruffians relented, killed his companion, andleft the children in a wood, who were found dead in the morning, aredbreast having covered their bodies with strawberry leaves; the unclewas thereafter goaded to death by the furies. 

CHILE (2, 867), the most advanced and stable of the S. AmericanStates, occupies a strip of country, 100 m. Broad, between the Andes andthe Pacific Ocean, and stretching from Cape Horn northward 2200 m. ToPeru, with Argentine and Bolivia on its eastern borders. The climate isnaturally various. In the N. Are rainless tracts of mountains rich incopper, manganese, silver, and other metals, and deserts with wonderfuldeposits of nitrate. In the S. Are stretches of pastoral land and virginforest, with excessive rains, and cold, raw climate. The central portionenjoys a temperate climate with moderate rainfall, and produces excellentwheat, grapes, and fruits of all kinds. The Andes tower above thesnow-line, Aconcagua reaching 23, 500 ft. The rivers are short and rapid, of little use for navigation. The coast-line is even in the N. , butexcessively rugged and broken in the S. , the most southerly regions beingweird and desolate. The people are descendants of Spaniards, mingled withAraucanian Indians; but there is a large European element in all thecoast towns. Mining and agriculture are the chief industries;manufactures of various kinds are fostered with foreign capital. Thechief trade is with Britain: exports nitre, wheat, copper, and iodine;imports, textiles, machinery, sugar, and cattle. Santiago (250) is thecapital; Valparaiso (150) and Iquique the principal ports. The governmentis republican; Roman Catholicism the State religion; education is fairlywell fostered; there is a university at Santiago. The country was firstvisited by Magellan in 1520. In 1540 Pedro Valdivia entered it from Peruand founded Santiago. During colonial days it was an annex of Peru. In1810 the revolt against Spain broke out. Independence was gained in 1826. Settled government was established in 1847. Since then a revolution in1851, successful wars with Spain 1864-66, with Bolivia and Peru 1879-81, and a revolution in 1891, have been the most stirring events in itshistory. 

CHILLIANWALLA, a village in the Punjab, 80 m. NW. Of Lahore, thescene in 1849 of a bloody battle in the second Sikh War, in which theSikhs were defeated by Gen. Gough; it was also the scene of a battlebetween Alexander the Great and Porus. 

CHILLINGHAM, a village in Northumberland, 8 m. SW. Of Belford, witha park attached to the castle, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville, containing a herd of native wild cattle. 

CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, an able English controversial divine, whothought forcibly and wrote simply, born at Oxford; championed the causeof Protestantism against the claims of Popery in a long-famous work, "TheReligion of Protestants the Safe Way to Salvation, " summing up hisconclusion in the oft-quoted words, "The Bible, the Bible alone, is thereligion of Protestants"; though a Protestant, he was not a Puritan or aman of narrow views, and he suffered at the hands of the Puritans as anadherent of the Royalist cause (1602-1643). 

CHILLON, CASTLE OF, a castle and state prison built on a rock, 62ft. From the shore, at the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva; surnamedthe Bastille of Switzerland, in which Bonivard, the Genevese patriot, was, as celebrated by Byron, incarcerated for six years; it is now anarsenal. 

CHILOË (77), a thickly wooded island off the coast, and forming aprovince, of Chile, 115 m. Long from N. To S. , and 43 m. Broad; inhabitedchiefly by Indians; exports timber; is said to contain vast deposits ofcoal. 

CHILTERN HILLS, a range of chalk hills extending about 70 m. NE. From the Thames in Oxfordshire through Bucks, from 15 to 20 m. Broad, thehighest Wendover, 950 ft. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a wardship of beech forests on the Chiltern Hillsagainst robbers, that at one time infested them; now a sinecure office, the acceptance of which enables a member of Parliament to resign his seatif he wishes to retire, the office being regarded as a Government one. 

CHIMÆRA, a fire-breathing monster of the Greek mythology, with agoat's body, a lion's head, and a dragon's tail; slain by Bellerophon, and a symbol of any impossible monstrosity. 

CHIMBORA`ZO, one of the loftiest peaks of the Andes, in Ecuador, 20, 700 ft. ; is an extinct volcano, and covered with perpetual snow. 

CHIMPANZEE, a large African ape, from 3 to 4 ft. In height, and moreallied in several respects to man than any other ape: it is found chieflyin W. Africa. 

CHINA (300, 000 to 400, 000), which, with Tibet, Mongolia (from whichit is separated by the Great Wall), and parts of Turkestan, forms theChinese Empire; is a vast, compact, and densely peopled country inEastern Asia; bounded on the N. By Mongolia; W. By Tibet and Burmah; S. By Siam, Annam, and the China Sea; and E. By the Pacific. In the W. Arelofty mountain ranges running N. And S. , from which parallel ranges runE. And W. , rising to greatest height in the S. Two great rivers traversethe country, the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang, the latter with manylarge lakes in its course, and bearing on its waters an innumerable fleetof boats and barges. Between the lower courses of these rivers lies theGreat Plain, one of the vastest and richest in the world, whose yellowsoil produces great crops with little labour and no manure. Thecoast-line is long and much indented, and out of it are bitten the gulfsof Pe-che-lee, the Yellow Sea, and Hang-chou. There are many smallislands off the coast; the mountainous Hainau is the only large one stillChinese. The climate in the N. Has a clear frosty winter, and warm rainysummer; in the S. It is hot. The country is rich in evergreens andflowering plants. In the N. Wheat, millet, and cotton are grown; in theS. Rice, tea, sugar, silk, and opium. Agriculture is the chief industry, and though primitive, it is remarkably painstaking and skilful. Forestshave everywhere been cleared away, and the whole country is marvellouslyfertile. Its mineral wealth is enormous. Iron, copper, and coal abound invast quantities; has coal-fields that, it is said, if they were worked, "would revolutionise the trade of the world. " The most importantmanufactures are of silk, cotton, and china. Commerce is as yet chieflyinternal; its inter-provincial trade is the largest and oldest in theworld. Foreign trade is growing, almost all as yet done with Britain andher Colonies. Tea and silk are exported; cotton goods and opium imported. About twenty-five ports are open to British vessels, of which the largestare Shanghai and Canton. There are no railways; communication inland isby road, river, and canals. The people are a mixed race of Mongol type, kindly, courteous, peaceful, and extremely industrious, and in their ownway well educated. Buddhism is the prevailing faith of the masses, Confucianism of the upper classes. The Government is in theory apatriarchal autocracy, the Emperor being at once father and high-priestof all the people, and vicegerent of heaven. The capital is Pekin (500), in the NE. Chinese history goes back to 2300 B. C. English intercoursewith the Chinese began in 1635 A. D. , and diplomatic relations betweenLondon and Pekin were established this century. The Anglo-Chinese wars of1840, 1857, and 1860 broke down the barrier of exclusion previouslymaintained against the outside world. The Japanese war of 1894-95betrayed the weakness of the national organisation; and the seizure ofFormosa by Japan, the Russo-Japanese protectorate over Manchuria andCorea, the French demand for Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, enforced lease ofKiao-chau to Germany, and of Wei-hai-wei to Britain (1898), seem toforebode the partition of the ancient empire among the more energeticWestern nations. 

CHINA, THE GREAT WALL OF, a wall, with towers and forts atintervals, about 2000 m. Long, from 20 to 30 ft. High, and 25 ft. Broad, which separates China from Mongolia on the N. , and traverses high hillsand deep valleys in its winding course. 

CHINAMPAS, floating gardens. 

CHINCHA ISLANDS, islands off the coast of Peru that had beds ofguano, often 100 ft. Thick, due to the droppings of penguins and othersea birds, now all but, if not quite, exhausted. 

CHINCHILLA, a rodent of S. America, hunted for its fur, which issoft and of a grey colour; found chiefly in the mountainous districts ofPeru and Chile. 

CHINESE GORDON, General Gordon, killed at Khartoum; so called forhaving, in 1851, suppressed a rebellion in China which had lasted 15years. 

CHINOOK, a tribe of Indians in Washington Territory, noted forflattening their skulls. 

CHINSURA, a Dutch-built town on the right bank of the Hoogly, 20 m. N. Of Calcutta, with a college; is famous for cheroots. 

CHINZ, a calico printed with flowers and other devices in differentcolours; originally of Eastern manufacture. 

CHIOGGIA (25), a seaport of Venetia, built on piles, on a lagoonisland at the mouth of the Brenta, connected with the mainland by abridge with 43 arches. 

CHIOS, or SCIO (25), a small island belonging to Turkey, in theGrecian Archipelago; subject to earthquakes; yields oranges and lemons ingreat quantities; claims to have been the birthplace of Homer. 

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS, a cabinet-maker, born in Worcestershire; famousin the last century for the quality and style of his workmanship; hiswork still much in request. 

CHIPPEWAYS, a Red Indian tribe, some 12, 000 strong, located inMichigan, U. S. , and in Canada adjoining; originally occupied the N. AndW. Of Lake Superior. 

CHIQUITOS, Indians of a low but lively type in Bolivia and Brazil. 

CHIRIQUI, an archipelago and a lagoon as well as province in CostaRica. 

CHIRON, a celebrated Centaur, in whose nature the animal element wassubject to the human, and who was intrusted with the education of certainheroes of Greece, among others Peleus and Achilles; was endowed with thegift of prophecy, and skilled in athletics as well as music and thehealing art. See CENTAURS. 

CHISLEHURST (6), a village in Kent, 10 m. SE. Of London, whereNapoleon III. Died in exile in 1873. 

CHISWICK (21), a suburb of London, 7 m. SW. Of St. Paul's; theChurch of St. Nicholas has monuments to several people of distinction. 

CHITIN, a white horny substance found in the exoskeleton of severalinvertebrate animals. 

CHITRAL, a State on the frontier of India, NW. Of Cashmere; since1895 occupied by the British; a place of great strategical importance. 

CHITTAGONG (24), a seaport in the Bay of Bengal, 220 m. E. OfCalcutta; exports rice, gum, tobacco, and jute. 

CHITTIM, the Bible name for Cyprus. 

CHIVALRY, a system of knighthood, for the profession of which thequalifications required were dignity, courtesy, bravery, generosity; theaim of which was the defence of right against wrong, of the weak againstthe strong, and especially of the honour and the purity of women, and thespirit of which was of Christian derivation; originally a militaryorganisation in defence of Christianity against the infidel. 

CHIVALRY, COURT OF, a court established by Edward III. , which tookcognisance of questions of honour and heraldry, as well as militaryoffences. 

CHLADNI, FRIEDRICH, a physicist, born at Wittenberg; one of theearliest investigators of the phenomena of sound; wrote also on aërolites(1756-1827). 

CHLOPICKI, JOSEPH, a Polish hero, born in Galicia; fought againstRussia under Napoleon; was chosen Dictator in 1830, but was forced toresign; fought afterwards in the ranks, and was severely wounded(1771-1854). 

CHLORAL, a colourless narcotic liquid, obtained at first by theaction of chlorine on alcohol; treated with water it produces _chloralhydrate_. 

CHLORINE, elementary, greenish-yellow gas obtained from common salt;powerful as a disinfectant, and a bleaching agent. 

CHLORIS, the wife of Zephyrus, the goddess of flowers. 

CHLOROFORM, a limpid, volatile liquid, in extensive use as ananæsthetic; produced by treating alcohol with chloride of lime. 

CHLOROPHYLL, the green colouring matter in plants, especially theleaves; due to the presence and action of light. 

CHLOROSIS, green sickness, a disease incident to young females at acritical period of life, causing a pale-greenish complexion. 

CHOCOLATE, a paste made by grinding the kernels of cocoa-nuts. 

CHOCKTAWS, or CHACTAWS, a tribe of American Indians, settled tocivilised life in the Indian Territory, U. S. ; the Chactaw Indian, withhis proud array of scalps hung up in his wigwam, is, with Carlyle, thesymbol of the pride of wealth acquired at the price of the lives of menin body and soul. 

CHOISEUL, DUC DE, minister of Louis XV. ; served his master invarious capacities; was rewarded with a peerage; effected many reforms inthe army, strengthened the navy, and aided in bringing about the familycompact of the Bourbons; exercised a great influence on the politics ofEurope; was nicknamed by Catharine of Russia _Le Cocher de l'Europe_, "the Driver of Europe"; but becoming obnoxious to Mme. Du Barry, "in whomhe would discern nothing but a wonderfully dizened scarlet woman, " wasdismissed from the helm of affairs, Louis's "last substantial man"(1719-1795). 

CHOISY, ABBÉ, a French writer, born in Paris; author of a "Historyof the Church" (1644-1724). 

CHOLERA MORBUS, an epidemic disease characterised by violentvomiting and purging, accompanied with spasms, great pain, and debility;originated in India, and has during the present century frequently spreaditself by way of Asia into populous centres of both Europe and America. 

CHOLET (15), a French manufacturing town, 32 m. SW. Of Angers. 

CHOLULA, an ancient city, 60 m. SE. Of Mexico; the largest city ofthe Aztecs, with a pyramidal temple, now a Catholic church. 

CHOPIN, a musical composer, born near Warsaw, of Polish origin; hisgenius for music early developed itself; distinguished himself as apianist first at Vienna and then in Paris, where he introduced themazurkas; became the idol of the _salons_; visited England twice, in 1837and 1848, and performed to admiration in London and three of theprincipal cities; died of consumption in Paris; he suffered much fromgreat depression of spirits (1809-1849). 

CHORLEY (23), a manufacturing town in N. Lancashire, 25 m. NE. OfLiverpool, with mines and quarries near it. 

CHORUS, in the ancient drama a group of persons introduced on thestage representing witnesses of what is being acted, and givingexpression to their thoughts and feelings regarding it; originally a bandof singers and dancers on festive occasions, in connection particularlywith the Bacchus worship. 

CHOSROËS I. , surnamed the Great, king of Persia from 531 to 579, awise and beneficent ruler; waged war with the Roman armies successfullyfor 20 years. CH. II. , his grandson, king from 590 to 625; madeextensive inroads on the Byzantine empire, but was defeated and drivenback by Heraclius; was eventually deposed and put to death. 

CHOUANS, insurrectionary royalists in France, in particularBrittany, during the French Revolution, and even for a time under theEmpire, when their head-quarters were in London; so named from theirmuster by night at the sound of the _chat-huant_, the screech-owl, anocturnal bird of prey which has a weird cry. 

CHRÉTIEN, or CHRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a French poet or trouvèreof the last half of the 12th century; author of a number of vigorouslywritten romances connected with chivalry and the Round Table. 

CHRIEMHILDE, a heroine in the "Niebelungen" and sister of Gunther, who on the treacherous murder of her husband is changed from a gentlewoman into a relentless fury. 

CHRISAOR, the sword of Sir Artegal in the "Faërie Queene"; itexcelled every other. 

CHRIST CHURCH, a college in Oxford, founded by Wolsey 1525; wasGladstone's college and John Ruskin's, as well as John Locke's. 

CHRISTABEL, a fragmentary poem of Coleridge's; characterised byStopford Brooke as, for "exquisite metrical movement and for imaginativephrasing, " along with "Kubla Khan, " without a rival in the language. 

CHRISTADELPHIANS, an American sect, called also Thomasites, whosechief distinctive article of faith is conditional immortality, that is, immortality only to those who believe in Christ, and die believing inhim. 

CHRISTCHURCH (16), capital of the province of Canterbury, NewZealand, 5 m. From the sea; Littleton the port. 

CHRISTIAN, the name of nine kings of Denmark, of whom the firstbegan to reign in 1448 and the last in 1863, and the following deservenotice: CHRISTIAN II. , conquered Sweden, but proving a tyrant, wasdriven from the throne by Gustavus Vasa in 1522, upon which his ownsubjects deposed him, an act which he resented by force of arms, in whichhe was defeated in 1531, his person seized, and imprisoned for life;characterised by Carlyle as a "rash, unwise, explosive man" (1481-1559). CHRISTIAN IV. , king from 1588 to 1648; took part on the Protestantside in the Thirty Years' War, and was defeated by Tilly; he was a goodruler, and was much beloved by his subjects; was rather unsteady in hishabits, it is said (1577-1648). CHRISTIAN IX. , king from 1863; sonof Duke William of Sleswick-Holstein, father of the Princess of Wales, George I. , king of Greece, and the dowager Empress of Russia; _b_. 1818. 

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a sect in the United States which acknowledgesthe Bible alone as the rule of faith and manners. 

CHRISTIAN KING, THE MOST, a title of the king of France conferred bytwo different Popes. 

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING (S. P. C. K. ), a religiousassociation in connection with the Church of England, under the patronageof the Queen and the presidency of the Archbishop of Canterbury, established 1698, the object of which is to disseminate a knowledge ofChristian doctrine both at home and abroad by means of churches, schools, and libraries, and by the circulation of Bibles and Christian literature. 

CHRISTIANIA (130), the capital of Norway, romantically situated atthe head of Christiania Fiord; the residence of the king and the seat ofgovernment; a manufacturing and trading city, but it is blocked upagainst traffic for four months in the year. 

CHRISTIANITY, BELIEF (q. V. ) that there is in Christ, as inno other, from first to last a living incarnation, a flesh and bloodembodiment, for salvation of the ever-living spirit of the ever-livingGod and Father of man, and except that by eating His flesh and drinkingHis blood, that is, except by participating in His divine-human life, orexcept in His spirit, there is no assurance of life everlasting to anyman; but perhaps it has never been defined all round with greater brevityand precision than it is by Ruskin in his "Præterita, " under theimpression that the time is come when one should say a firm wordconcerning it: "The total meaning of it, " he says, "was, and is, that theGod who made earth and its creatures, took, at a certain time upon theearth, the flesh and form of man; in that flesh sustained the pain anddied the death of the creature He had made; rose again after death intoglorious human life, and when the date of the human race is ended, willreturn in visible human form, and render to every mail according to hiswork. _Christianity is the belief in, and love of, God thus manifested_. Anything _less_ than this, " he adds, "the mere acceptance of the sayingsof Christ, or assertion of any less than divine power in His Being, maybe, for aught I know, enough for virtue, peace, and safety; but they donot make people Christians, or enable them to understand the heart of thesimplest believer in the old doctrine. "

CHRISTIANSAND (12), a town and seaport in the extreme S. Of Norway, with a considerable trade. 

CHRISTIE, WILLIAM HENRY MAHONEY, astronomer-royal, born at Woolwich, of Trinity College, Cambridge; author of "Manual of ElementaryAstronomy"; _b_. 1845. 

CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, daughter and only child of GustavusAdolphus; received a masculine education, and was trained in manlyexercises; governed the country well, and filled her court with learnedmen, but by-and-by her royal duties becoming irksome to her, she declaredher cousin as her successor, resigned the throne, and turned Catholic;her cousin dying, she claimed back her crown, but her subjects would notnow have her; she stayed for a time in France, but was obliged to leave;retired to Rome, where she spent 20 years of her life engaged inscientific and artistic studies, and died (1628-1689). 

CHRISTINA, MARIA, daughter of Francis I. Of Naples, and wife ofFerdinand VII. Of Spain, on whose death she acted for four years asregent, during the infancy of her daughter Isabella (1806-1878). 

CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, toxicologist, born at Edinburgh, andprofessor, first of Medical Jurisprudence and then of Materia Medica, inhis native city; wrote a "Treatise on Poison, " a standard work(1797-1882). 

CHRISTMAS, the festival in celebration of the birth of Christ nowcelebrated all over Christendom on 25th December, as coinciding with anold heathen festival celebrated at the winter solstice, the day of thereturn of the sun northward, and in jubilation of the prospect of therenewal of life in the spring. 

CHRISTOLOGY, the department of theology which treats of the personof Christ. 

CHRISTOPHE, HENRI, a negro, born in Grenada; one of the leaders ofthe insurgent slaves in Hayti, who, proving successful in arms againstthe French, became king under the title of Henry I. , but rulingdespotically provoked revolt, and shot himself through the heart; he wasa man of powerful physique; _b_. 1820. 

CHRISTOPHER, ST. , (the Christ-Bearer), according to Christian legenda giant of great stature and strength, who, after serving the devil for atime, gave himself up to the service of Christ by carrying pilgrimsacross a bridgeless river, when one day a little child, who happened tobe none else than Christ Himself, appeared to be carried over, but, strange to say, as he bore Him across, the child grew heavier andheavier, till he was nearly baffled in landing Him on the opposite shore. The giant represented the Church, and the increasing weight of the childthe increasing sin and misery which the Church has from age to age tobear in carrying its Christ across the Time-river; the giant isrepresented in art as carrying the infant on his shoulder, and as havingfor staff the stem of a large tree. 

CHRISTOPHER NORTH, the name assumed by JOHN WILSON (q. V. )in _Blackwood's Magazine_. 

CHRISTOPHER'S, ST. , (30), popularly called _St. Kitts_, one of theLeeward Islands, discovered by Columbus (1493), who named it afterhimself; belongs to England; has sugar plantations. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, the Blue-Coat School, London, was founded in1547, a large institution, on the foundation of which there are now 2170pupils instead of 1200 as formerly; entrance to it is gained partly bypresentation and partly by competition, and attached are numerousexhibitions and prizes; among the _alumni_ have been several noted men, such as Bishop Stillingfleet, Coleridge, Leigh Hunt, and Charles Lamb. 

CHROMATICS, that department of optics which treats of colours, andresolves the primary colours into three--red, yellow, and blue. 

CHRONICLERS, THE RHYMING, a series of writers who flourished inEngland in the 13th century, and related histories of the country inrhyme, in which the fabulous occupies a conspicuous place, among whichLayamon's "Brut" (1205) takes the lead. 

CHRONICLES I. And II. , two historical books of the OldTestament, the narratives of which, with additions and omissions, runparallel with those of Samuel and Kings, but written from a priestlystandpoint, give the chief prominence to the history of Judah as thesupport in Jerusalem of the ritual of which the priests were thecustodians; Ezra and Nehemiah are continuations. 

CHRYSËIS, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, a beautifulmaiden who fell among the spoils of a victory to Agamemnon, and becamehis slave, and whom he refused to restore to her father until a deadlyplague among the Greeks, at the hands of Apollo, whose priest her fatherwas, compelled him to give her up. 

CHRYSIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, and livedin Athens; specially skilled in dialectic; the last and greatestexpounder and defender of the philosophy of the Stoa, so pre-eminent, that it was said of him, "If Chrysippus were not, the Stoa were not"; issaid to have written 705 books, not one of which, however, has come downto us save a few fragments (280-208 B. C. ). See STOICISM. 

CHRYSOLO`RAS, a Grecian scholar, born at Constantinople, left hisnative country and lived in Florence, where he, in the 14th century, became a teacher of Greek literature, and contributed thereby to therevival of letters in Italy; _d_. 1415. 

CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN, that is, Mouth of Gold, so called from hiseloquence, born at Antioch; converted to Christianity from a mildpaganism; became one of the Fathers of the Church, and Patriarch ofConstantinople; he was zealous in suppressing heresy, as well ascorruption in the Church, and was for that reason thrice over subjectedto banishment; in the course of the third of which and while on the way, he died, though his remains was brought to Constantinople and theredeposited with great solemnity; he left many writings behindhim--sermons, homilies, commentaries, and epistles, of which his"Homilies" are most studied and prized (347-407). Festival, Jan. 27. 

CHUBB, THOMAS, an English Deist, born near Salisbury; he regardedChrist as a divine teacher, but held reason to be sovereign in matters ofreligion, yet was on rational grounds a defender of Christianity; had nolearning, but was well up in the religious controversies of the time, andbore his part in them creditably (1679-1746). 

CHUNDER SEN, one of the founders of the BRAHMO-SOMAJ (q. V. );he visited Europe in 1870, and was welcomed with open arms by therationalist class of Churchmen and Dissenters. 

CHUQUISA`CA (20), (i. E. Bridge of Gold), the capital of Bolivia, in a sheltered plain 9000 ft. Above the sea-level; is a cathedral city;has a mild climate; it was founded in 1538 by the Spaniards on the siteof an old Peruvian town. 

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM, dean of St. Paul's, born in Lisbon; ascholarly man; distinguished himself first as such by his "Essays andReviews, " wrote thoughtful sermons, and "A Life of Anselm, " also essayson eminent men of letters, such as Dante, Spenser, and Bacon (1815-1890). 

CHURCH, STATES OF THE, the Papal States, extending irregularly fromthe Po to Naples, of which the Pope was the temporal sovereign, now partof the kingdom of Italy. 

CHURCHILL, CHARLES, an English poet, born at Westminster; began lifeas a curate, an office which he was compelled to resign from his unseemlyways; took himself to the satire, first of the actors of the time in his"Rosciad, " then of his critics in his "Apology, " and then of Dr. Johnsonin the "Ghost"; he wrote numerous satires, all vigorous, his happiestbeing deemed that against the Scotch, entitled "The Prophecy of Famine";his life was a short one, and not wisely regulated (1731-1764). 

CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH, an English Conservative politician, thirdson of the 7th Duke of Marlborough, who, though a man of mark, and morethan once in office, could never heart and soul join any party and settledown to steady statesmanship; set out on travel, took ill on the journey, and came home in a state of collapse to die (1849-1895). 

CHUZZLEWIT, MARTIN, the hero of a novel by Dickens of the name. JAMES, a character in the same novel, a man distinguished for hismean and tyrannical character. 

CHUSAN (30 or 40), principal island in the Chusan Archipelago, 18 m. Long and 10 broad; near the estuary of the Yangtse-kiang, has been called"the Key of China. "

CHYLE, a fluid of a milky colour, separated from the chyme by theaction of the pancreatic juice and the bile, and which, being absorbed bythe lacteal vessels, is gradually assimilated into blood. 

CHYME, the pulpy mass into which the food is converted in thestomach prior to the separation in the small intestines of the chyle. 

CIALDINI, ENRICO, an Italian general and politician, born at Modena;distinguished himself in Spain against the Carlists, and both as asoldier and diplomatist in connection with the unification of Italy(1811-1892). 

CIBBER, COLLEY, actor and dramatist, of German descent; was managerand part-proprietor of Drury Lane; wrote plays, one in particular, whichprocured for him the post of poet-laureate, which he held till his death;was much depreciated by Pope; wrote an "Apology for his Life, " the mostamusing autobiography in the language (1671-1757). 

CIBRARIO, LUIGI, an Italian historian and statesman, born at Turin;he held office under Charles Albert of Sardinia (1802-1870). 

CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a Roman orator, statesman, and man ofletters, born near Arpinum, in Latium; trained for political life partlyat Rome and partly at Athens; distinguished himself as the first oratorat the Roman bar when he was 30, and afterwards rose through thesuccessive grades of civic rank till he attained the consulship in 63B. C. ; during this period he acquired great popularity by his exposure anddefeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, by which he earned the title of_Father of his Country_, though there were those who condemned his actionand procured his banishment for a time; on his recall, which wasunanimous, he took sides first with Pompey, then with Cæsar afterPharsalia, on whose death he delivered a Philippic against Antony; wasproscribed by the second triumvirate, and put to death by Antony'ssoldiers; he was the foremost of Roman orators, the most elegant writerof the Latin language, and has left behind him orations, letters, andtreatises, very models of their kind; he was not a deep thinker, and hisphilosophy was more eclectic than original (100-43 B. C. ). 

CICERO OF GERMANY, John III. , Elector of Brandenburg, "could speak'four hours at a stretch, in elegantly flowing Latin, ' with a fair shareof meaning in it too" (1455-1499). 

CICOGNARA, COUNT, an Italian writer, born at Ferrara; author of a"History of Sculpture" (1767-1834). 

CID CAMPEADOR, a famed Castilian warrior of the 11th century, bornat Burgos; much celebrated in Spanish romance; being banished fromCastile, in the interest of which he had fought valiantly, he became afree-lance, fighting now with the Christians and now with the Moors, tillhe made himself master of Valencia, where he set up his throne andreigned, with his faithful wife Ximena by his side, till the news of adefeat by the Moors took all spirit out of him, and he died of grief. Faithful after death, his wife had his body embalmed and carried to hisnative place, on the high altar of which it lay enthroned for 10 years;his real name was Don Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar, and the story of his lovefor Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece, "The Cid. "

CIGOLI, a Florentine painter, called the Florentine Correggio, whomhe specially studied in the practice of his art; "The Apostle Healing theLame, " in St. Peter's, is by him, as also the "Martyrdom of St. Stephen, "in Florence (1559-1613). 

CILICIA, an ancient province in S. Of Asia Minor. 

CILICIAN GATES, the pass across Mount Taurus by which Alexander theGreat entered Cilicia. 

CIMABU`E, a Florentine painter, and founder of the Florentineschool, which ranked among its members such artists as Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci; was the first to leave the stifftraditional Byzantine forms of art and copy from nature and the livingmodel, though it was only with the advent of his great disciple Giottothat art found beauty in reality, and Florence was made to see the divinesignificance of lowly human worth, at sight of which, says Ruskin, "allItaly threw up its cap"; his "Madonna, " in the Church of Santa Maria, hasbeen long regarded as a marvel of art, and of all the "Mater Dolorosas"of Christianity, Ruskin does not hesitate to pronounce his at Assisi thenoblest; "he was the first, " says Ruskin, "of the Florentines, first ofEuropean men, to see the face of her who was blessed among women, andwith his following hand to make visible the Magnificat of his heart"(1240-1302). 

CIMAROSA, DOMENICO, a celebrated Italian composer; composed between20 and 30 operas, mostly comic, his masterpiece being "II MatrimoneoSegreto"; he was imprisoned for sympathising with the principles of theFrench Revolution, and treated with a severity which shortened his life;said by some to have been poisoned by order of Queen Caroline of Naples(1754-1801). 

CIMBER, a friend of Cæsar's who turned traitor, whose act ofpresenting a petition to him was the signal to the conspirators to takehis life. 

CIMBRI, a barbarian horde who, with the Teutons, invaded Gaul in the2nd century B. C. ; gave the Romans no small trouble, and were all butexterminated by Marius in 101 B. C. ; believed to have been a Celtic race, who descended on Southern Europe from the N. 

CIMERIANS, an ancient people N. Of the shores of the Black Sea, fabled to inhabit a region unvisited by a single ray of the sun. 

CIMON, an Athenian general, son of Miltiades; distinguished himselfin the struggle of Athens against Persia in 466 B. C. ; gained twovictories over the Persians in one day, one by land and another by sea, was banished by the democratic party, and after four years recalled tocontinue his victories over his old foes, and died at Cyprus(510-449 B. C. ). 

CINCINNATI (326), the metropolis of Ohio, stands on the Ohio River, opposite Covington and Newport, by rail 270 m. SE. Of Chicago; the citystands on hilly ground, and is broken and irregular; there are many finebuildings, among them a Roman Catholic cathedral, and large parks; thereis a university, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), schools ofmedicine, law, music, and art, an observatory, zoological garden, andlarge libraries; it is a centre of culture in the arts; manufacturesinclude clothing, tobacco, leather, moulding and machine shops; there issome boat-building and printing; but the most noted trade is in pork andgrain; is the greatest pork market in the world; a third of thepopulation is of German origin. 

CINCINNATUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS, an old hero of the Roman republic, distinguished for the simplicity and austerity of his manners; was consulin 460 B. C. , and on the defeat of a Roman army by the Æqui, called tothe dictatorship from the plough, to which he returned on the defeat ofthe Æqui; he was summoned to fill the same post a second time, when hewas 80, on the occasion of the conspiracy of Mælius, with the likesuccess. 

CINCINNATUS, THE ORDER OF, an American order founded by officers ofthe revolutionary army at its dissolution in 1753; was denounced byFranklin as anti-republican in its spirit and tendency; it still survivesin a feeble way; the order is hereditary. 

CINCINNATUS OF THE AMERICANS, George Washington. 

CINDERELLA (the little cinder-girl), the youngest member of a familywho must drudge at home while her elder sisters go to balls, till one daya fairy befriends her and conveys her to a ball, where she shines as thecentre of attraction, and wins the regard of a prince. On quitting thehall she leaves a slipper behind her, by means of which she is identifiedby the prince, who finds that hers is the only foot that the slipper willfit, and marries her. The story in one version or another is a veryancient and wide-spread one. 

CINEAS, the minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; was the ablestorator of his time, and his master was in the habit of saying of him, that his eloquence had gained him more cities than his own arms; sent ona mission to Rome, the senate refused to hear him, lest his eloquenceshould prove too fascinating. 

CINGALESE, a native of Ceylon. 

CINNA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman patrician, a friend and supporterof Marius; drove Sulla from Rome and recalled Marius from exile;participated in the murders which followed his recall, and after thedeath of Marius was assassinated when organising an expedition againstSulla, 84 B. C. 

CINNABAR, a sulphide of mercury from which the mercury of commerceis obtained. 

CINQ-MARS, HENRI, MARQUIS DE, a French courtier, a favourite ofLouis XIII. ; a man of handsome figure and fascinating manners; died onthe scaffold for conspiring with his friend De Thou against Richelieu(1620-1642). 

CINQUÉ CENTO (lit. Five hundred), the Renaissance in literatureand art in the 16th century, the expression 5 hundred standing for 15hundred. 

CINQUE PORTS, the five ports of Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, andSandwich, to which were added Winchelsea and Rye, which possessed certainprivileges in return for supplying the royal power with a navy; the LordWarden of the Cinque Ports is only an honorary dignity. 

CINTRA, a Portuguese town, 17 m. NW. Of Lisbon, where a muchreprobated convention between the French under Marshal Junot and theEnglish under Sir Hew Dalrymple was signed in 1808, whereby the formerwere let off with all their arms and baggage on condition of evacuatingPortugal. 

CIPANGO, an island on the Eastern Ocean, described by Marco Polo asa sort of El Dorado, an object of search to subsequent navigators, and anattraction among the number to Columbus, it is said. 

CIPRIANI, an Italian painter and etcher, born in Florence; settledin London; was an original member of the Royal Academy, and designed thediploma (1727-1785). 

CIRCARS, THE, a territory in India along the coast of the Bay ofBengal, from 18 to 100 m. Wide; ceded first to the French and in 1766 tothe East India Company, now of course under the Crown, and forming partof the Madras Presidency. 

CIRCASSIA, a territory on the Western Caucasus, now subject toRussia; celebrated for the sturdy spirit of the men and the beauty of thewomen; the nobles professing Mohammedanism and the lower classes acertain impure form of Christianity; they are of the Semite race, andresemble the Arabs in their manners. 

CIRCE, a sorceress who figures in the "Odyssey. " Ulysses havinglanded on her isle, she administered a potion to him and his companions, which turned them into swine, while the effect of it on himself wascounteracted by the use of the herb moly, provided for him by Hermesagainst sorcery; she detained him with her for years, and disenchantedhis companions on his departure. 

CIRCEAN POISON, a draught of any kind that is magically and fatallyinfatuating, such as the effect often of popular applause. 

CIRCUITS, districts outside of London into which England is dividedfor judicial purposes, for the trial of civil as well as criminal casesconnected with them; are seven in number--the Midland, the Oxford, theNorth-Eastern, the South-Eastern, the Northern, the Western, and NorthWales and South Wales; the courts are presided over by a judge sent fromLondon, or by two, and are held twice a year, or oftener if the number ofcases require it. 

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, the course of the blood from the heartthrough the arteries to the minute vessels of the body, and from theselast through the veins back to the heart again. 

CIRCUMCISION, the practice of cutting away the foreskin, chiefly ofmales, as observed by the Jews and the Mohammedans, as well as othernations of remote antiquity; regarded by some as a mark of belonging tothe tribe, and by others as a sacrifice in propitiation by blood. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION OFFICE, a name employed by Dickens in "Little Dorrit"to designate the wearisome routine of public business. 

CISALPINE GAUL, territory occupied by Gauls on the Italian or southside of the Alps. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC, a republic so called on both sides of the Po, formed out of his conquests by Napoleon, 1797; became the ItalianRepublic in 1802, with Milan for capital, and ceased to exist after thefall of Napoleon. 

CISLEITHANIA, Austria proper as distinguished from Hungary, which iscalled Transleithania, on account of the boundary between them beingformed by the river Leitha. 

CISTERCIANS, a monastic order founded by Abbot Robert in 1098 atCiteaux, near Dijon; they followed the rule of St. Benedict, who reformedthe Order after it had lapsed; became an ecclesiastical republic, andwere exempt from ecclesiastical control; contributed considerably to theprogress of the arts, if little to the sciences. 

CITHÆRON, a wood-covered mountain on the borders of Boeotia andAttica; famous in Greek legend. 

CITIES OF REFUGE, among the Jews; three on the E. And three on theW. Of the Jordan, in which the manslayer might find refuge from theavenger of blood. 

CITIES OF THE PLAIN, Sodom and Gomorrah, with adjoining cities underthe like doom. 

CITIZEN KING, Louis Philippe of France, so called as elected by thecitizens of Paris. 

CITY OF BELLS, Strasburg. 

CITY OF CHURCHES, Brooklyn, now incorporated with New York. 

CITY OF DESTRUCTION, Bunyan's name for the world as under divinejudgment. 

CITY OF GOD, Augustine's name for the Church as distinct from thecities of the world, and the title of a book of his defining it. 

CITY OF PALACES, Calcutta and Rome. 

CITY OF THE PROPHET, Medina, where Mahomet found refuge when drivenout of Mecca by the Koreish and their adherents. 

CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, Rome, as built on seven hills--viz. , theAventine, Coelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal, andViminal. 

CITY OF THE SUN, BAALBEK (q. V. ); and a work by Campanella, describing an ideal republic, after the manner of Plato and Sir ThomasMore. 

CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN, Athens. 

CIUDAD REAL (royal city) (13), a Spanish town in a province of thesame name, 105 m. S. Of Madrid, where Sebastian defeated the Spaniards in1809. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO (8), a Spanish town near the Portuguese frontier, 50m. SW. Of Salamanca; stormed by Wellington, after a siege of 11 days, in1812, for which brilliant achievement he earned the title of Earl inEngland, and Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo in Spain. 

ÇIVA, or SIVA, the third member of the Hindu Trinity, thedestroyer of what Vishnu is the preserver and Brahma is the creator, isproperly Brahma undoing what he has made with a view to reincarnation. 

CIVIL LAW, a system of laws for the regulation of civilisedcommunities formed on Roman laws, digested in the pandects of Justinian. 

CIVIL LIST, the yearly sum granted by the Parliament of England atthe commencement of each reign for the support of the royal household, and to maintain the dignity of the Crown: it amounts now to £385, 000. 

CIVIL SERVICE, the paid service done to the State, exclusive of thatof the army and navy. 

CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, a Batavian chief who revolted against Vespasian, but on defeat was able to conclude an honourable peace. 

CIVITA VECCHIA (11), a fortified port on the W. Coast of Italy, 40m. NW. Of Rome, with a good harbour, founded by Trajan; exports wheat, alum, cheese, &c. 

CLACKMANNANSHIRE (28), the smallest county in Scotland, lies betweenthe Ochils and the Forth; rich in minerals, especially coal. 

CLAIR, ST. , a lake 30 m. Long by 12 broad, connecting Lake Erie withLake Huron. 

CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE, a French mathematician and astronomer, bornat Paris, of so precocious a genius, that he was admitted to the Academyof Sciences at the age of 18; published a theory of the figure of theearth, and computed the orbit of Halley's comet (1713-1765). 

CLAIRVAUX, a village of France, on the Aube, where St. Bernardfounded a Cistercian monastery in 1115, and where he lived and wasburied; now used as a prison or reformatory. 

CLAIRVOYANCE, the power ascribed to certain persons in a mesmericstate of seeing and describing events at a distance or otherwiseinvisible. 

CLAN, a tribe of blood relations descended from a common ancestor, ranged under a chief in direct descent from him, and having a commonsurname, as in the Highlands of Scotland; at bottom a militaryorganisation for defensive and predatory purposes. 

CLAN-NA-GAEL, a Fenian organisation founded at Philadelphia in 1870, to secure by violence the complete emancipation of Ireland from Britishcontrol. 

CLAPHAM, a SW. Suburb of London, in the county of Surrey, 4 m. FromSt. Paul's, and inhabited by a well-to-do middle-class community, originally of evangelical principles, and characterised as the _ClaphamSet_. 

CLAPPERTON, CAPTAIN HUGH, an African explorer, born at Annan; bredin the navy, joined two expeditions into Central Africa to ascertain thelength and course of the Niger, but got no farther than Sokoto, where hewas attacked with dysentery and died (1788-1827). 

CLÄRCHEN, a female character in Goethe's "Egmont. "

CLARE (124), a county in Munster, Ireland; also an island at themouth of Clew Bay, county Mayo. 

CLARE, JOHN, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, born nearPeterborough; wrote "Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery, " whichattracted attention, and even admiration, and at length with othersbrought him a small annuity, which he wasted in speculation; fell intodespondency, and died in a lunatic asylum (1793-1864). 

CLARE, ST. , a virgin and abbess, born at Assisi; the founder of theOrder of Poor Clares (1193-1253). Festival, Aug. 12. 

CLAREMONT, a mansion in Surrey, 14 m. SW. Of London, built by LordClive, where Princess Charlotte lived and died, as also Louis Philippeafter his flight from France; is now the property of the Queen, and theresidence of the Duchess of Albany. 

CLARENCE, DUKE OF, brother of Edward IV. ; convicted of treason, hewas condemned to death, and being allowed to choose the manner of hisdeath, is said to have elected to die by drowning in a butt of Malmseywine (1459-1478). 

CLARENCEUX, or CLARENCIEUX, the provincial king-at-arms, whosejurisdiction extends from and includes all England S. Of the Trent. 

CLARENDON, a place 2 m. SE. Of Salisbury, where the magnates ofEngland, both lay and clerical, met in 1164 under Henry II. And issued aset of ordinances, called the _Constitutions of Clarendon_, 16 in number, to limit the power of the Church and assert the rights of the crown inecclesiastical affairs. 

CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, Earl of, sat in the Short Parliament and theLong on the popular side, but during the Civil War became a devotedRoyalist; was from 1641 one of the chief advisers of the king; on thefailure of the royal cause, took refuge first in Jersey, and then inHolland with the Prince of Wales; contributed to the Restoration; cameback with Charles, and became Lord Chancellor; fell into disfavour, andquitted England in 1667; died at Rouen; wrote, among other works, a"History of the Great Rebellion, " dignifiedly written, though oftencarelessly, but full of graphic touches and characterisations especiallyof contemporaries; it has been called an "epical composition, " as showinga sense of the central story and its unfolding. "Few historians, " addsProf. Saintsbury, "can describe a given event with more vividness. Notone in all the long list of the great practitioners of the art has suchskill in the personal character" (1608-1674). 

CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS, EARL OF, a Whig statesman; served as acabinet minister under Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell twice, LordAberdeen, Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone; held the office of ForeignSecretary under the three preceding; was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland atthe time of the potato failure, and represented Britain at the Congressof Paris; died in harness, deeply lamented both at home and abroad(1800-1870). 

CLARÉTIE, JULES, a French journalist, novelist, dramatic author, andcritic, born at Limoges; has published some 40 volumes of _causeries_, history, and fiction; appointed Director of the Theatre Français in 1893;_b_. 1840. 

CLARISSA HARLOWE, the heroine of one of Richardson's novels, exhibiting a female character which, as described by him, is pronouncedto be "one of the brightest triumphs in the whole range of imaginativeliterature, " is described by Stopford Brooke "as the pure and ideal starof womanhood. "

CLARK, SIR ANDREW, an eminent London physician, born near Cargill, in Perthshire, much beloved, and skilful in the treatment of diseasesaffecting the respiratory and digestive organs (1826-1893). 

CLARK, SIR JAMES, physician to the Queen, born in Cullen; anauthority on the influence of climate on chronic and pulmonary disease(1788-1870). 

CLARK, THOMAS, chemist, born in Ayr; discovered the phosphate ofsoda, and the process of softening hard water (1801-1867). 

CLARKE, ADAM, a Wesleyan divine, of Irish birth; a man ofconsiderable scholarship, best known by his "Commentary" on the Bible;author also of a "Bibliographical Dictionary" (1762-1832). 

CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN, a friend of Lamb, Keats, and Leigh Hunt;celebrated for his Shakespearian learning; brought out an annotatedShakespeare, assisted by his wife; lectured on Shakespeare characters(1787-1877). 

CLARKE, DR. SAMUEL, an English divine, scholar and disciple ofNewton, born at Norwich; author, as Boyle lecturer, of a famous"Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, " as also independentlyof "The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion"; as a theologian heinclined to Arianism, and his doctrine of morality was that it wascongruity with the "eternal fitness of things" (1675-1729). 

CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL, a celebrated English traveller, born inSussex; visited Scandinavia, Russia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Greece; brought home 100 MSS. To enrich the libraryof Cambridge, the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, and thesarcophagus of Alexander, now in the British Museum; his "Travels" werepublished in six volumes (1769-1822). 

CLARKE, HENRI, Duc de Feltre, of Irish origin, French marshal, andminister of war under Napoleon; instituted the prevotal court, a _pro renata_ court without appeal (1767-1818). 

CLARKE, MARY COWDEN, _née_ Novello, of Italian descent, wife ofCharles Cowden, assisted her husband in his Shakespeare studies, andproduced amid other works "Concordance to Shakespeare, " a work whichoccupied her 16 years (1809-1898). 

CLARKE, WILLIAM GEORGE, English man of letters; Fellow of TrinityCollege, Cambridge; edited the "Cambridge Shakespeare, " along with Mr. Aldis Wright (1821-1867). 

CLARKSON, THOMAS, philanthropist, born in Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire;the great English anti-slavery advocate, and who lived to see in 1833 thefinal abolition in the British empire of the slavery he denounced, inwhich achievement he was assisted by the powerful advocacy in Parliamentof Wilberforce (1760-1846). 

CLASSIC RACES, the English horse-races at Newmarket--Derby, theOaks, and the St. Leger. 

CLASSICS, originally, and often still, the standard authors in theliterature of Greece or Rome, now authors in any literature thatrepresent it at its best, when, as Goethe has it, it is "vigorous, fresh, joyous, and healthy, " as in the "Nibelungen, " no less than in the"Iliad. "

CLAUDE, JEAN, a French Protestant controversial divine, a powerfulantagonist of Bossuet and other Catholic writers, allowed only 24 hoursto escape on the eve of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, thoughother Protestant ministers were allowed 15 days (1619-1687). 

CLAUDE LORRAINE, a great landscape painter, born in Lorraine, ofpoor parents, and apprenticed to a pastry-cook; went as such to Rome;became servant and colour-grinder to Tassi, who instructed him in hisart; by assiduous study of nature in all her aspects attained to fame;was eminent in his treatment of aërial perspective, and an artist whom itwas Turner's ambition to rival; he was eminent as an etcher as well as apainter; Turner left one of his finest works to the English nation oncondition that it should hang side by side of a masterpiece of Claude, which it now does; his pictures are found in every gallery in Europe, anda goodly number of them are to be met with in England; there are in theSt. Petersburg gallery four pieces of exquisite workmanship, entitled"Morning, " "Noon, " "Evening, " and "Twilight" (1600-1682). 

CLAUDIAN, a Latin epic poet of the 4th century, born in Alexandria, panegyrist of Stilicho on his victory over Alaric; a not unworthysuccessor of Catullus and Propertius, though his native tongue was Greek. 

CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, a Roman decemvir and patrician in 451 B. C. ;outraged Virginia, a beautiful plebeian damsel, whom her father, ondiscovering of the crime, killed with a knife snatched from a butcher'sstall, rousing thereby the popular rage against the decemvir, who wascast into prison, where he put an end to himself, 449 B. C. 

CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, censor in 312-307 B. C. ; wrought important changesin the Roman constitution; set on foot the construction of the Appian Wayand the Appian Aqueduct, named after him. 

CLAUDIUS I, TIBERIUS DRUSUS, surnamed GERMANICUS, brother ofTiberius, emperor of Rome from 41 to 54, born at Lyons; after spending 50years of his life in private, occupying himself in literary study, was, on the death of Caligula, raised very much against his wish by thesoldiers to the imperial throne, a post which he filled with honour tohimself and benefit to the State; but he was too much controlled by hiswives, of whom he had in succession four, till the last of them, Agrippina, had him poisoned to make way for her son Nero. 

CLAUDIUS II. , surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor from 268 to 270;an excellent prince and a good general; distinguished himself by hisability and courage against the Goths and other hordes of barbarians. 

CLAUSEL, BERTRAND, marshal of France, born at Mirepoix; served underNapoleon in Holland, Italy, Austria, and Spain; was defeated atSalamanca, executing thereafter a masterly retreat; left France forAmerica in 1815 on the fall of Napoleon, to whom he was devoted; returnedin 1830, became commander-in-chief in Algeria, and ultimately governor(1772-1842). 

CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON, a Prussian general, born at Burg;distinguished himself against Napoleon in Russia in 1812; an authority onthe art of war, on which he wrote a treatise in three volumes, entitled"Vom Krieg" (1780-1831). 

CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF, an eminent German physicist, born at Köslin, inPomerania; professor of Natural Philosophy at Bonn; speciallydistinguished for his contributions to the science of thermo-dynamics, and the application of mathematical methods to the study, as also toelectricity and the expansion of gases (1822-1888). 

CLAVERHOUSE, JOHN GRAHAM OF, VISCOUNT DUNDEE, commenced life as asoldier in France and Holland; on his return to Scotland in 1677 wasappointed by Charles II. To the command of a troop to suppress theCovenanters; was defeated at Drumclog 1679, but by the help of Monmouthhad his revenge at Bothwell Brig; affected to support the Revolution, butintrigued in favour of the Stuarts; raised in Scotland a force in theirbehalf; was met at Killiecrankie by General Mackay, where he fell(1643-1689). 

CLAVIÈRE, Minister of Finance in France after Necker, born atGeneva; projector of the _Moniteur_; friend of Mirabeau; committedsuicide in prison (1735-1793). 

CLAVIJE`RO, a Jesuit missionary, born in Vera Cruz; laboured for 40years as missionary in Mexico; on the suppression of his Order went toItaly, and wrote a valuable work on Mexico (1718-1793). 

CLAVIGO, a drama by Goethe in five acts, the first work to which heput his name; was received with disfavour. 

CLAVILEÑO, Don Quixote's wooden horse. 

CLAY, HENRY, an American statesman, born in Virginia; bred for thebar, and distinguished for his oratory; was for many years Speaker of theHouse of Representatives; was a supporter of war with Britain in 1812-15, and party to the treaty which ended it; was an advocate of protection;aspired three times unsuccessfully to the Presidency; his public careerwas a long one, and an honourable (1777-1852). 

CLEAR THE CAUSEWAY RIOTS, bickerings in the streets of Edinburgh in1515 between the rival factions of Angus and Arran, to the utter rout ofthe former, or the Douglas party. 

CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Troas, of the 3rdcentury B. C. ; wrought as a drawer of water by night that he might earnhis fee as pupil of Zeno's by day; became Zeno's successor and the headof his school; regarded "pleasure as a remission of that moral energy ofthe soul, which alone is happiness, as an interruption to life, and as anevil, which was not in accordance with nature, and no end of nature. "

CLEAR, CAPE, a headland S. Of Clear Island, most southerly point ofIreland, and the first land sighted coming from America. 

CLEARCHUS, a Spartan general who accompanied Cyrus on his expeditionagainst Artaxerxes; commanded the retreat of the Ten Thousand; was put todeath by Tissaphernes in 401 B. C. , and replaced by Xenophon. 

CLEARING-HOUSE, a house for interchanging the respective claims ofbanks and of railway companies. 

CLEISHBOTHAM, JEDEDIAH, an imaginary editor in Scott's "Tales of MyLandlord. "

CLELIA, a Roman heroine, who swam the Tiber to escape from Porsenna, whose hostage she was; sent back by the Romans, she was set at liberty, and other hostages along with her, out of admiration on Porsenna's partof both her and her people. 

CLEMENCEAUX, GEORGES BENJAMIN, French politician, born in La Vendée;bred to medicine; political adversary of Gambetta; proprietor of _LaJustice_, a Paris journal; an expert swordsman; _b_. 1841. 

CLEMENCET, CHARLES, a French Benedictine, born near Autun; one ofthe authors of the great chronological work, "Art de Vérifier les Dates, "and wrote the history of the Port Royal (1703-1778). 

CLEMENCIN, DIEGO, a Spanish statesman and littérateur; his mostimportant work a commentary on "Don Quixote. "

CLEMENS, SAMUEL LANGHORNE, an American humorist with the pseudonymof "Mark Twain, " born at Florida, Missouri, U. S. ; began his literarycareer as a newspaper reporter and a lecturer; his first book "TheJumping Frog"; visited Europe, described in the "Innocents Abroad";married a lady of fortune; wrote largely in his peculiar humorous vein, such as the "Tramp Abroad"; produced a drama entitled the "Gilded Age, "and compiled the "Memoirs of General Grant"; _b_. 1835. 

CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS, one of the Greek Fathers of the Church, of the2nd and 3rd centuries; had Origen for pupil; brought up in Greekphilosophy; converted in manhood to Christianity from finding in hisappreciation of knowledge over faith confirmations of it in hisphilosophy, which he still adhered to; his "Stromata" or "Miscellanies"contain facts and quotations found nowhere else. 

CLEMENT, the name of 14 popes: C. I. , Pope from 91 to 100; oneof the Apostolic Fathers; wrote an Epistle to the Church of Corinth, withreferences to the Canonical books. C. II. , Pope from 1046 to 1047. C. III. , pope from 1187 to 1191. C. IV. , Pope from 1265 to1268. C. V. , Bertrand de Goth, Pope from 1305 to 1314; transferredthe seat of the Papacy to Avignon, and abolished the Order of the KnightsTemplars. C. VI. Pope from 1342 to 1352; resided at Avignon. C. VII. , Giulio de Medici, Pope from 1523 to 1534; celebrated for hisquarrels with Charles V. And Henry VIII. , was made prisoner in Rome bythe Constable of Bourbon; refused to sanction the divorce of Henry VIII. , and brought about the schism of England from the Holy See. C. VIII. , Popefrom 1592 to 1605; a patron of Tasso's; readmitted Henry IV. To theChurch and the Jesuits to France. C. IX. , Pope from 1667 to 1669. C. X. , pope from 1670 to 1676. C. XI. , Pope from 1700 to 1721; as FrancescoAlbani opposed the Jansenists; issued the bull _Unigenitus_ against them;supported the Pretender and the claims of the Stuarts. C. XII. , Pope from1738 to 1740. C. XIII. , Pope from 1758 to 1769. C. XIV. , Pope from 1769to 1774, Ganganelli, an able, liberal-minded, kind-hearted, and uprightman; abolished the Order of the Jesuits out of regard to the peace of theChurch; his death occurred not without suspicions of foul-play. 

CLEMENT, French critic, born at Dijon, surnamed by Voltaire from hisseverity the "Inclement" (1742-1812). 

CLEMENT, a French manufacturer and savant, born near Dijon; authorof a memoir on the specific heat of the gases (1779-1841). 

CLEMENT, JACQUES, a Dominican monk; assassinated Henry III. OfFrance in 1589. 

CLEMENT, ST. , St. Paul's coadjutor, the patron saint of tanners; hissymbol an anchor. 

CLEMENTI, MUZIO, a musical composer, especially of pieces for thepianoforte, born in Rome; was the father of pianoforte music; one of theforemost pianists of his day; was buried in Westminster (1752-1832). 

CLEMENTINE, THE LADY, a lady, accomplished and beautiful, inRichardson's novel, "Sir Charles Grandison, " in love with Sir Charles, who marries another he has no partiality for. 

CLEOBULUS, one of the seven sages of Greece; friend of Plato; wrotelyrics and riddles in verse, 530 B. C. 

CLEOM`BROTUS, a philosopher of Epirus, so fascinated with Plato's"Phædon" that he leapt into the sea in the expectation that he wouldthereby exchange this life for a better. 

CLEOME`DES, a Greek astronomer of the 1st or 2nd century; author ofa treatise which regards the sun as the centre of the solar system andthe earth as a globe. 

CLEOMENES, the name of three Spartan kings. 

CLEOMENES, an Athenian sculptor, who, as appears from an inscriptionon the pedestal, executed the statue of the Venus de Medici towards 220B. C. 

CLEON, an Athenian demagogue, surnamed the Tanner, from hisprofession, which he forsook that he might champion the rights of thepeople; rose in popular esteem by his victory over the Spartans, butbeing sent against Brasidas, the Spartan general, was defeated and fellin the battle, 422 B. C. ; is regarded by Thucydides with disfavour, andby Aristophanes with contempt, but both these writers were of thearistocracy, and possibly prejudiced, though the object of theirdisfavour had many of the marks of the vulgar agitator, and stands forthe type of one. 

CLEOPA`TRA, Queen of Egypt, a woman distinguished for her beauty, her charms, and her amours; first fascinated Cæsar, to whom she bore ason, and whom she accompanied to Rome, and after Cæsar's death took MarkAntony captive, on whose fall and suicide at Actium she killed herself byapplying an asp to her arm, to escape the shame of being taken to Rome tograce the triumph of the victor (69-30 B. C. ). 

CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE, an obelisk of 186 tons weight and 68½ ft. High, brought from Alexandria to London in 1878, and erected on the ThamesEmbankment, London. 

CLERC, or LECLERC, JEAN, a French theologian of the Arminianschool, born at Geneva; a prolific author; wrote commentaries on all thebooks of the Old Testament, on lines since followed by the Rationalistschool or Neologians of Germany (1657-1736). 

CLERFAYT, COMTE DE, an Austrian general, distinguished in the SevenYears' War; commanded with less success the Austrian army against theFrench armies of the Revolution (1733-1798). 

CLERK, JOHN, OF ELDIN, of the Penicuik family, an Edinburghmerchant, first suggested the naval manoeuvre of "breaking the enemy'slines, " which was first successfully adopted against the French in 1782(1728-1812). 

CLERK, JOHN, son of preceding, a Scottish judge, under the title ofLord Eldin, long remembered in Edinburgh for his wit (1757-1832). 

CLERKENWELL (66), a parish in Finsbury, London, originally anaristocratic quarter, now the centre of the manufacture of jewellery andwatches. 

CLERMONT, ROBERT, COMTE DE, sixth son of St. Louis, head of thehouse of Bourbon. 

CLERMONT FERRAND (45), the ancient capital of Auvergne and chieftown of the dep. Puy-de-Dôme; the birthplace of Pascal, Gregory of Tours, and Dessaix, and where, in 1095, Pope Urban II. Convoked a council anddecided on the first Crusade; it has been the scene of seven ChurchCouncils. 

CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Marquis, minister of France under the Restorationof the Bourbons (1779-1865). 

CLERY, Louis XVI. 's valet, who waited on him in his last hours, andhas left an account of what he saw of his touching farewell with hisfamily. 

CLEVELAND, a hilly district in the North Riding of Yorkshire, richin iron-stone. 

CLEVELAND (381), the second city of Ohio, on the shores of LakeErie, 230 m. NE. Of Cincinnati; is built on a plain considerably abovethe level of the lake; the winding Cuyahoga River divides it into twoparts, and the industrial quarters are on the lower level of its banks;the city is noted for its wealth of trees in the streets and parks, hencecalled "The Forest City, " and for the absence of tenement houses; it hasa university, several colleges, and two libraries; it is the terminus ofthe Ohio Canal and of seven railways, and the iron ore of Lake Superiorshores, the limestone of Lake Erie Islands, and the Ohio coal are broughttogether here, and every variety of iron manufacture carried on; there isa great lumber market, and an extensive general trade. 

CLEVELAND, GROVER, President of the United States, born in NewJersey, son of a Presbyterian minister; bred for the bar; becamePresident in the Democratic interest in 1885; unseated for his free-tradeleaning by Senator Harrison, 1889; became the President a second time in1893; retired in 1897. 

CLEVELAND, JOHN, partisan of Charles I. ; imprisoned for abetting theRoyalist cause against the Parliament, but after some time set at libertyin consequence of a letter he wrote to Cromwell pleading that he was apoor man, and that in his poverty he suffered enough; he was a poet, andused his satirical faculty in a political interest, one of his satiresbeing an onslaught on the Scots for betraying Charles I. ; _d_. 1650. 

CLÈVES (10), a Prussian town 46 m. NW. Of Düsseldorf, once thecapital of a duchy connected by a canal with the Rhine; manufacturestextile fabrics and tobacco. 

CLICHY (30), a manufacturing suburb of Paris, on the NW. And rightbank of the Seine. 

CLIFFORD, GEORGE, Earl of Cumberland, a distinguished navalcommander under Queen Elizabeth, and one of her favourites (1558-1605). 

CLIFFORD, JOHN, D. D. , Baptist minister in London, author of "IsLife Worth Living?" _b_. 1836. 

CLIFFORD, PAUL, a highwayman, the subject of a novel by BulwerLytton, who was subdued and reformed by the power of love. 

CLIFTON (13), a fashionable suburb of Bristol, resorted to as awatering-place; romantically situated on the sides and crest of highcliffs, whence it name. 

CLIMACTERIC, THE GRAND, the 63rd year of a man's life, and theaverage limit of it; a climacteric being every seven years of one's life, and reckoned critical. 

CLINKER, HUMPHRY, the hero of Smollett's novel, a poor waif, reducedto want, who attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble, marries Mrs. Bramble'smaid, and proves a natural son of Mr. Bramble. 

CLINTON, GEORGE, American general and statesman; was governor of NewYork; became Vice-President in 1804 (1739-1812). 

CLINTON, SIR HENRY, an English general; commanded in the Americanwar; censured for failure in the war; wrote an exculpation, which wasaccepted (1738-1795). 

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES, a distinguished chronologist, author of "FastiHellenici" and "Fasti Romani" (1781-1852). 

CLIO, the muse of history and epic poetry, represented as seatedwith a half-opened scroll in her hand. 

CLISSON, OLIVIER DE, constable of France under Charles VI. ;companion in arms of Du Gueselin, and victor at Roosebeke (1326-1407). 

CLISTHENES, an Athenian, uncle of Pericles, procured the expulsionof Hippias the tyrant, 510 B. C. , and the establishment ofOSTRACISM (q. V. ). 

CLITUS, a general of Alexander, and his friend, who saved his lifeat the battle of Granicus, but whom, at a banquet, he killed when heatedwith wine, to his inconsolable grief ever afterwards. 

CLIVE, ROBERT, LORD CLIVE AND BARON PLASSEY, the founder of thedominion of Britain in India, born in Shropshire; at 19 went out a clerkin the East India Company's service, but quitted his employment in thatcapacity for the army; distinguishing himself against the rajah ofTanjore, was appointed commissary; advised an attack on Arcot, in theCarnatic, in 1751; took it from and held it against the French, afterwhich, and other brilliant successes, he returned to England, and wasmade lieutenant-colonel in the king's service; went out again, andmarched against the nabob Surajah Dowlah, and overthrew him at the battleof Plassey, 1757; established the British power in Calcutta, and wasraised to the peerage; finally returned to England possessed of greatwealth, which exposed him to the accusation of having abused his power;the accusation failed; in his grief he took to opium, and committedsuicide (1725-1774). 

CLODIUS, a profligate Roman patrician; notorious as the enemy ofCicero, whose banishment he procured; was killed by the tribune Milo, 52B. C. 

CLODOMIR, the second son of Clovis, king of Orleans from 511 to 524;fell fighting with his rivals; his children, all but one, were put todeath by their uncles, Clotaire and Childebert. 

CLOOTZ, ANACHARSIS, Baron Jean Baptiste de Clootz, a FrenchRevolutionary, born at Clèves; "world-citizen"; his faith that "a worldfederation is possible, under all manner of customs, provided they holdmen"; his pronomen Anacharsis suggested by his resemblance to an ancientScythian prince who had like him a cosmopolitan spirit; was one of thefounders of the worship of Reason, and styled himself the "orator of thehuman race"; distinguished himself at the great Federation, celebratedon the Champ de Mars, by entering the hall on the great Federation Day, June 19, 1790, "with the human species at his heels"; was guillotinedunder protest in the name of the human race (1755-1794). 

CLORINDA, a female Saracen knight sent against the Crusaders, whomTancred fell in love with, but slew on an encounter at night; beforeexpiring she received Christian baptism at his hands. 

CLOTAIRE I. , son and successor of Clovis, king of the Franks from558; cruel and sanguinary; along with Childebert murdered the sons of hisbrother Clodomir. C. II. , son of Chilpéric and Fredigonda, king ofthe Franks from 613 to 628; caused Brunhilda to be torn in pieces. C. III. , son of Clovis II. , King of Neustria and Burgundy from 656 to670. C. IV. , king of ditto from 717 to 720. 

CLOTHES, Carlyle's name in "Sartor Resartus" for the guises whichthe spirit, especially of man, weaves for itself and wears, and by whichit both conceals itself in shame and reveals itself in grace. 

CLOTHO, that one of the three Fates which spins the thread of humandestiny. 

CLOTILDA, ST. , the wife of Clovis I. ; persuaded her husband toprofess Christianity; retired into a monastery at Tours when he died(475-545). Festival, June 3. 

CLOUD, ST. , the patron saint of smiths. 

CLOUD, ST. , or CLODOALD, third son of Clodomir, who escaped thefate of his brothers, and retired from the world to a spot on the leftbank of the Seine, 6 m. SW. Of Paris, named St. Cloud after him. 

CLOUDS, THE, the play in which Aristophanes exposes Socrates toridicule. 

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH, a lyric poet, born at Liverpool; son of acotton merchant; educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, whom he held in thehighest regard; was at Oxford, as a Fellow of Oriel, at the time of theTractarian movement, which he arrayed himself against, and at lengthturned his back upon and tore himself away from by foreign travel; on hisreturn he was appointed examiner in the Education Office; falling illfrom overwork he went abroad again, and died at Florence; he was allalive to the tendencies of the time, and his lyrics show his sense ofthese, and how he fronted them; in the speculative scepticism of the timehis only refuge and safety-anchor was duty; Matthew Arnold has written inhis "Thyrsis" a tribute to his memory such as has been written over few;his best-known poem is "The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich" (1819-1861). 

CLOVIS I. , king of the Franks, son of Childéric I. ; conqueredthe Romans at Soissons 486, which he made his centre; marriedCLOTILDA (q. V. ) 493; beat the Germans near Cologne 496, byassistance, as he believed, of the God of Clotilda, after which he wasbaptized by St. Remi at Rheims; and overthrew the Visigoths under AlaricII. Near Poitiers in 507, after which victories he made Paris hiscapital. C. II. , son of Dagobert; was king of Neustria and Burgundyfrom 638 to 656. C. ILL, son of Thierry III. , and king of ditto from691 to 695, and had Pépin d'Héristal for mayor of the palace. 

CLUNY (3), a town in the dep. Of Saône-et-Loire, on an affluent ofthe Saône; renowned in the Middle Ages for its Benedictine abbey, foundedin 910, and the most celebrated in Europe, having been the motherestablishment of 2000 others of the like elsewhere; in ecclesiasticalimportance it stood second to Rome, and its abbey church second to noneprior to the erection of St. Peter's; a great normal school wasestablished here in 1865. 

CLUSIUM, the ancient capital of Etruria and Porsenna's. 

CLUTHA, the largest river in New Zealand, in Otago, very deep andrapid, and 200 m. Long. 

CLUTTERBUCK, the imaginary author of the "Fortunes of Nigel, " andthe patron to whom the "Abbot" is dedicated. 

CLYDE, a river in the W. Of Scotland which falls into a large inletor firth, as it is called, the commerce on which extends over the world, and on the banks of which are shipbuilding yards second to none in anyother country; it is deepened as far as Glasgow for ships of a heavytonnage. 

CLYDE, LORD. See CAMPBELL, COLIN. 

CLYTEMNESTRA, the wife of Agamemnon, and the mother of Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes; killed her husband, and was killed by her son, Orestes, seven years after. 

CLYTIE, a nymph in love with Apollo, god of the sun, who did notrespond to her; but, with all the passion he durst show to her, turnedher into a sunflower. 

COANZA, a W. African river, which rises in the Mossamba Mountains, falling into the sea after a course of 600 m. ; owing to falls isnavigable for only 140 m. From its mouth. 

COAST RANGE, a range in the U. S. , W. Of the Sierra Nevada, parallelto it, with the Sacramento Valley between. 

COBBETT, WILLIAM, a political and miscellaneous writer, born atFarnham, Sussex; commenced life as a farm labourer, and then as copyingclerk; enlisted, and saw seven years' service in Nova Scotia; beingdischarged, travelled in France and America; on his return started the_Weekly Register_, at first Tory, then Radical; published a libel againstthe Government, for which he was imprisoned; on his release issued his_Register_ at a low price, to the immense increase of its circulation;vain attempts were made to crush him, against which he never ceased toprotest; after the passing of the Reform Bill he got into Parliament, butmade no mark; his writings were numerous, and include his "Grammar, " his"Cottage Economy, " his "Rural Rides, " and his "Advice to Young Men"; hispolitical opinions were extreme, but his English was admirable(1762-1835). 

COBBLER POET, HANS SACHS (q. V. ). 

COBDEN, RICHARD, a great political economist and the Apostle of FreeTrade, born near Midhurst, Sussex; became partner in a cotton-tradingfirm in Manchester; made a tour on the Continent and America in theinterest of political economy; on the formation of the Corn-Law League in1838, gave himself heart and soul to the abolition of the Corn Laws;became Member of Parliament for Stockport in 1841; on the conversion ofSir Robert Peel to Free-Trade principles saw these laws abolished in1846; for his services in this cause he received the homage of hiscountry as well as of Continental nations, but refused all civic honours, and finished his political career by negotiating a commercial treaty withFrance (1804-1865). 

COBENTZELL, COMTE DE, an Austrian diplomatist, born at Brussels;negotiated the treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville; founded theAcademy of Sciences at Brussels (1753-1808). 

COBLENZ (32), a fortified city, manufacturing and trading town, inPrussia, at the junction of the Rhine and the Moselle, so called as atthe confluence of the two; opposite it is Ehrenbreitstein. 

COBURG (18), capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the Itz, the old castle on a height 500 ft. Above the town; gave shelter toLuther in 1530, and was besieged by Wallenstein. 

COBURG, field-marshal of Austria; vanquished Dumouriez atNeerwinden; was conquered by Moreau and Jourdan (1737-1815). 

COCAINE, an alkaloid from the leaf of the coca plant, used as ananæsthetic. 

COCCEIUS, or KOCH, JOHANN, a Dutch divine, professor at Leyden;held that the Old Testament was a type or foreshadow of the New, and wasthe founder of the federal theology, or the doctrine that God enteredinto a threefold compact with man, first prior to the law, second underthe law, and third under grace (1603-1669). 

COCCEJI, HENRY, learned German jurist, born at Bremen; an authorityon civil law; was professor of law at Frankfurt (1644-1719). 

COCCEJI, SAMUEL, son of the preceding; Minister of Justice andChancellor of Prussia under Frederick the Great; a prince of lawyers, and"a very Hercules in cleansing law stables" as law-reformer (1679-1755). 

COCHABAMBA (14), a high-lying city of Bolivia, capital of adepartment of the name; has a trade in grain and fruits. 

COCHIN (722), a native state in India N. Of Travancore, cooped upbetween W. Ghâts and the Arabian Sea, with a capital of the same name, where Vasco da Gama died; the first Christian church in India was builthere, and there is here a colony of black Jews. 

COCHIN-CHINA (2, 034), the region E. Of the Mekong, or Annam proper, called HIGH COCHIN-CHINA (capital Hué), and LOW COCHIN-CHINA, aState S. Of Indo-China, and S. Of Cambodia and Annam; belonging toFrance, with an unhealthy climate; rice the chief crop; grows also teak, cotton, &c. ; capital Saigon. 

COCHLÆUS, JOHANN, an able and bitter antagonist of Luther's; _d_. 1592. 

COCHRANE, the name of several English naval officers of theDundonald family; SIR ALEXANDER FORRESTER INGLIS (1758-1832); SIRTHOMAS JOHN, his son (1798-1872); and THOMAS, LORD. SeeDUNDONALD. 

COCK LANE GHOST, a ghost which was reported in a lane of the name inSmithfield, London, in 1762, to the excitement of the public, due to agirl rapping on a board in bed. 

COCKAIGNE, an imaginary land of idleness and luxury, from asatirical poem of that name (_coquina_, a kitchen), where the monks livein an abbey built of pasties, the rivers run with wine, and the geese flythrough the air ready roasted. The name has been applied to London andParis. 

COCKATRICE, a monster with the wings of a fowl, the tail of adragon, and the head of a cock; alleged to have been hatched by a serpentfrom a cock's egg; its breath and its fatal look are in mediæval art theemblem of sin. 

COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER, Lord Chief-Justice of England from 1859;called to the bar in 1829; became Liberal member for Southampton in 1847, and Solicitor-General in 1850; was prosecutor in the Palmer case, judgein the Tichborne, and an arbitrator in the _Alabama_ (1802-1880). 

COCKBURN, ALISON, author of "Flowers of the Forest"; in her day theleader of Edinburgh society; was acquainted with Burns, and recognised inhis boyhood the genius of Scott (1713-1795). 

COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, an English admiral, born in London; rose byrapid stages to be captain of a frigate; took an active part in theexpedition to the Scheldt, in the defence of Cadiz, and of the coast ofSpain; was second in command of the expedition against the United States;returned to England in 1815, and was selected to convey Napoleon to St. Helena (1771-1853). 

COCKBURN, HENRY, LORD, an eminent Scotch judge, born in Edinburgh;called to the bar in 1800; one of the first contributors to the_Edinburgh Review_; was Solicitor-General for Scotland in 1830, andappointed a judge four years after; was a friend and colleague of LordJeffrey; wrote Jeffrey's Life, and left "Memorials of His Own Time" and"Journals"; he was a man of refined tastes, shrewd common-sense, quiethumour, and a great lover of his native city and its memories; describedby Carlyle as "a bright, cheery-voiced, hazel-eyed man; a Scotch dialectwith plenty of good logic in it, and of practical sagacity; a gentleman, and perfectly in the Scotch type, perhaps the very last of that peculiarspecies" (1779-1854). 

COCKER, EDWARD, an arithmetician, and a schoolmaster by profession;wrote an arithmetic, published after his death, long the text-book on thesubject, and a model of its kind; gave rise to the phrase "according toCocker" (1631-1672). 

COCKNEY, a word of uncertain derivation, but meaning one born andbred in London, and knowing little or nothing beyond it, and betrayinghis limits by his ideas, manners, and accent. 

COCKNEY SCHOOL, a literary school, so called by Lockhart, asinspired with the idea that London is the centre of civilisation, andincluding Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, and others. 

COCKPIT OF EUROPE, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles betweenthe Powers of Europe. 

COCKTON, HENRY, a novelist, born in London, author of "ValentineVox" (1807-1853). 

COCLES, HORATIUS, a Roman who defended a bridge against the army ofPorsenna till the bridge was cut down behind him, when he leapt into theriver and swam across scatheless amid the darts of the enemy. 

COCOS ISLANDS, a group of 20 small coral islands about 700 m. SW. OfSumatra. 

COCYTUS, a dark river which environed Tartarus with bitter and muddywaters. 

CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD, a British admiral; entered the navy at 13;served under Howe at Brest, in the capacity of captain of the _Orion_ atTrafalgar, in the Walcheren expedition, in North America, and at Navarinoin 1827, when the Turkish fleet was destroyed; served also in Parliamentfrom 1832 to 1839, when he was appointed Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth(1770-1851). 

CODRINGTON, SIR WILLIAM JOHN, a British general; served in theCrimean war, and Commander-in-Chief after the death of General Simpson(1800-1884). 

CODRUS, the last king of Athens; sacrificed his life to fulfil anoracle, which promised victory to the side whose king fell in anengagement between the Athenians and Dorians in 1132 B. C. 

COEHOORN, BARON VAN, a Dutch military engineer; fortified Namur, anddefended it against Vauban; was successful in besieging many towns duringthe war of the Spanish Succession; author of a treatise on fortification(1641-1704). 

COELEBS (a bachelor), the title of a novel by Hannah More. 

COELE-SYRIA (the Howe of Syria), or EL BUKA'A, a valley betweenthe Lebanons, about 100 m. Long by 10 m. Broad. 

COELIAN, one of the seven hills of Rome, S. Of the Capitoline. 

COELLO, the name of two Spanish painters in the 16th and 17thcenturies, whose works are in the Escurial. 

COEUR, JACQUES, a rich merchant of Bourges, financier to CharlesVII. , for whom he provided the sinews of war against the English, but whobanished him at the instigation of detractors; he was reinstated underLouis XI. (1400-1456). 

COEUR DE LION (lion-hearted), a surname on account of their couragegiven to Richard I. Of England (1151), Louis VIII. Of France (1181), andBoselas I. Of Poland (960). 

COGITO, ERGO SUM, "I think, therefore I am. " Descartes' principle ofcertainty, and on which, as on a stable basis, he reared his wholephilosophy. See DESCARTES. "Alas, poor cogitator, " Carlyleexclaims, "this takes us but a little way. Sure enough, I am; and latelywas not; but Whence? How? Whereto?"

COGNAC (17), a French town in the dep. Of Charente, birthplace ofFrancis I. ; famous for its vines and the manufacture of brandy. 

COGNIET, a French painter, author of "Tintoret painting his DeadDaughter" (1794-1880). 

COILA, a poetic name for Kyle, the central district of Ayrshire. 

COIMBATORE (46), a town of strategic importance in the MadrasPresidency, 30 m. SW. Of Madras, situated in a gorge of the Ghâts, 1437ft. Above the sea-level, in a district (2, 004) of the same name. 

COIMBRA (14), a rainy town in Portugal, of historical interest, 110m. NNE. Of Lisbon, with a celebrated university, in which George Buchananwas a professor, where he was accused of heresy and thrown into prison, and where he translated the Psalms into Latin. 

COKE, coal with a residue of carbon and earthy matter after thevolatile constituents are driven off by heat in closed spaces. 

COKE, SIR EDWARD, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born at Milcham, Norfolk; being a learned lawyer, rose rapidly at the bar and in officesconnected therewith; became Lord Chief-Justice in 1613; was deposed in1617 for opposing the king's wishes; sat in his first and thirdParliaments, and took a leading part in drawing up the Petition ofRights; spent the last three years of his life in revising his works, his"Institutes, " known as "Coke upon Littleton, " and his valuable "Reports"(1549-1634). 

COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French statesman, of Scotch descent, bornin Rheims, the son of a clothier; introduced to Louis XIV. By Mazarin, then first minister; he was appointed Controller-General of the Financesafter the fall of Fouquet, and by degrees made his influence felt in allthe departments of State affairs; he favoured, by protectionistmeasures--free trade not yet being heard of--French industry andcommerce; was to the French marine what Louvois was to the army, andencouraged both arts and letters; from 1671 his influence began todecline; he was held responsible for increased taxation due to LouisXIV. 's wars, while the jealousy of Louvois weakened his credit at Court;he became so unpopular that on his death his body was buried at night, but a grateful posterity has recognised his services, and done homage tohis memory as one of the greatest ministers France ever had (1619-1683). 

COLBURN, ZERAH, an American youth, with an astonishing power ofcalculation, born in Vermont, and exhibited as such, a faculty which helost when he grew up to manhood (1804-1840). 

COLCHESTER (35), the largest town in Essex, 51 m. From London, onthe right bank of the Colne, of great antiquity, and with Roman remains;has been long famous for its oyster fishery; has silk manufactures; isthe port of outlet of a large corn-growing district. 

COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, LORD, English statesman; sometime ChiefSecretary of Ireland, and Speaker of the House of Commons; raised to thepeerage in response to an address of the House of Commons (1757-1829). 

COLCHIS, a district on the E. Of the Black Sea, and S. Of Caucasus, where the Argonauts, according to Greek tradition, found and conqueredthe Golden Fleece; the natives had a reputation for witchcraft andsorcery. 

COLDSTREAM GUARDS, one of the three regiments of Foot Guards; wasraised by General Monk in Scotland in 1660, and marched under him fromColdstream to place Charles II. On the throne; originally called Monk'sregiment. 

COLE, HENRY an English ecclesiastical zealot, who held handsomepreferments under Henry VIII. And Mary, but was stripped of them underEdward VI. And Elizabeth. 

COLE, KING, a legendary jovial British king, celebrated in song. 

COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS, a celebrated Indianist, born in London;served under the East India Company, and devoted his spare time to Indianliterature; studied the Sanskrit language, wrote on the Vedas, translatedthe "Digest of Hindu Law" compiled by Sir William Jones, compiled aSanskrit Dictionary, and wrote various treatises on the law andphilosophy of the Hindus; he was one of the first scholars in Europe toreveal the treasures that lay hid in the literature of the East(1765-1837). 

COLENSO, DR. , an English clergyman and mathematician; was appointedbishop of Natal in 1845; applied himself to the study of the Zululanguage, and translated parts of the Bible and Prayer-book into it;calling in question the accuracy and Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, was deposed by his metropolitan, which deposition was declared null andvoid by the Privy Council; besides his theological work, producedtext-books on arithmetic and algebra; died at Durban, Natal; he favouredthe cause of the Zulus against the Boers, and did his utmost to avert theZulu war (1814-1883). 

COLERIDGE, HARTLEY, an English man of letters, eldest son of SamuelTaylor Coleridge, born at Clevedon, Somerset; lived with his father inthe Lake District, and grew up in the society of Wordsworth, De Quincey, and others; gained a Fellowship at Oxford, but forfeited it throughintemperance; tried school-mastering at Ambleside, but failed, and tookto literature, in which he did some excellent work, both in prose andpoetry, though he led all along a very irregular life; had his father'sweaknesses, and not a little of his ability; his best memorials as a poetare his sonnets, of which two have been especially admired, "The Soul ofMan is Larger than the Sky, " and "When I Survey the Course I have Run"(1796-1849). 

COLERIDGE, HENRY NELSON, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and agreat admirer; editor of many of his works, his "Table Talk" in especial(1800-1843). 

COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE, LORD, an English lawyer, cousin of HartleyColeridge; after serving in inferior appointments, appointed LordChief-Justice of England in 1880; when at the bar he was prominent inconnection with Tichborne case. 

COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR, an English judge, nephew of SamuelTaylor Coleridge; was editor of the _Quarterly_, edited "Blackstone, "&c. ; wrote a "Memoir of the Rev. John Keble" (1790-1876). 

COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR, poet, philosopher, and critic, born inDevonshire; passionately devoted to classical and metaphysical studies;educated at Christ's Hospital; had Charles Lamb for schoolmate; atCambridge devoted himself to classics; falling into debt enlisted as asoldier, and was, after four months, bought off by his friends; gavehimself up to a literary life; married, and took up house nearWordsworth, in Somersetshire, where he produced the "Ancient Mariner, ""Christabel, " and "Remorse"; preached occasionally in Unitarian pulpits;visited Germany and other parts of the Continent; lectured in London in1808; when there took to opium, broke off the habit in 1816, and went tostay with the Gillmans at Highgate as their guest, under whose roof, after four years' confinement to a sick-room, he died; among his workswere "The Friend, " his "Biographia Literaria, " "Aids to Reflection, " &c. , published in his lifetime, and "Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit, ""Literary Remains, " and "Table Talk" after his death; he was a man ofsubtle and large intellect, and exercised a great influence on thethinkers of his time, though in no case was the influence a decisive one, as it had the most opposite effects on different minds; his philosophywas hazy, and his life was without aim, "once more the tragic story of ahigh endowment with an insufficient will" (1772-1834). See Carlyle'sestimate of him in the "Life of Sterling. "

COLERIDGE, SARAH, poetess, only daughter of preceding; her solepoem, "Phantasmion"; left "Letters" of interest (1803-1852). 

COLES, COWPER PHIPPS, an English naval captain and architect;entered the navy at 11; distinguished himself at Sebastopol; designer ofthe turret-ship the _Captain_, which capsized off Finisterre, himself onboard, and drowned with a crew of 500 men (1819-1870). 

COLET, JOHN, dean of St. Paul's, a patron of learning, a friend andscholar of Erasmus, a liberal and much persecuted man; far in advance ofhis time; founded and endowed St. Paul's School; wrote a number of works, chiefly theological, and "Letters to Erasmus"' (1466-1519). 

COLET, LOUISE, a French literary lady, born at Aix; wrote numerousworks for the young (1808-1876). 

COLIGNY, GASPARD DE, French admiral, born at Châtillon; a leader ofthe Huguenots; began his life and distinguished himself as a soldier;when the Guises came into power he busied himself in procuring tolerationfor the Huguenots, and succeeded in securing in their behalf what isknown as the Pacification of Amboise, but on St. Bartholomew's Eve hefell the first victim to the conspiracy in his bed; was thrown out of thewindow, and exposed to every manner of indignity in the streets, thoughit is hard to believe that the Duke of Guise, as is said, demeanedhimself to kick the still living body (1517-1572). 

COLIMA (25), capital of a State of the same name in Mexico. 

COLIN CLOUT, the name Spenser assumes in the "Shepherd's Calendar. "

COLIN TAMPON, the nickname of a Swiss, as John Bull of anEnglishman. 

COLISE`UM, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, begun under Vespasianand finished under Titus; it rose from the area by 80 tiers of seats, andcould contain 80, 000 spectators; it was here the gladiators fought withwild beasts, and also the early Christians. 

COLLATINUS, the nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, the husband ofLucretia, and with Brutus, her avenger, the first consul of Rome. 

COLLECTIVISM, the Socialistic doctrine that industry should becarried on by capital as the joint property of the community. 

COLLÈGE DE FRANCE, an institution founded at Paris by Francis I. In1530, where instruction is given to advanced students in severaldepartments of knowledge. 

COLLIER, ARTHUR, an English metaphysician, born in Wilts; studiedDescartes and Malebranche, and who, anticipating Berkeley, published a"Demonstration of the Non-Existence and the Impossibility of an ExternalWorld" (1680-1732). See BERKELEY. 

COLLIER, JEREMY, an English non-juring divine, refused to take oathat the Revolution; was imprisoned for advocating the rights of theStuarts; had to flee the country at length, and was outlawed; wrote witheffect against "The Profaneness and Immorality of the Stage, " as well asan "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain, " and a translation of the"Meditations of Marcus Aurelius" (1650-1726). 

COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE, a Shakespearian commentator and critic; wrote agreat deal on various subjects, but got into trouble by his emendationsof Shakespeare (1789-1883). 

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, LORD, a celebrated English admiral, enteredthe navy at 13; his career was intimately connected all along with thatof Nelson; succeeded in command when Nelson fell at Trafalgar, and whenhe died himself, which happened at sea, his body was brought home andburied beside Nelson's in St. Paul's Cathedral (1740-1810). 

COLLINS, ANTHONY, an English deist, an intimate friend of Locke; hisprincipal works were "Discourse on Freethinking, " "Philosophical Inquiryinto Liberty and Necessity, " and "Grounds and Reasons of the ChristianReligion, " which gave rise to much controversy; he was a necessitarian, and argued against revelation (1676-1729). 

COLLINS, MORTIMER, a versatile genius, born at Plymouth; wrotepoems, novels, and essays; was the author of "Who was the Heir?" and"Sweet Anne Page"; was a tall, handsome man, fond of athletics, adelightful companion, and dear to his friends (1827-1876). 

COLLINS, WILKIE, English novelist, son of the succeeding, born inLondon; tried business, then law, and finally settled to literature; hisnovel "The Woman in White" was the first to take with the public, and waspreceded and succeeded by others which have ensured for him a high placeamong the writers of fiction (1824-1889). 

COLLINS, WILLIAM, a gifted and ill-fated English poet, born atChichester; settled in London; fell into dissipated habits and straitenedcircumstances; had £2000 left him by an uncle, but both health andspirits were broken, and he died in mental imbecility; his "Odes" havenot been surpassed, among which the most celebrated are the "Odes to thePassions, " to "Simplicity, " and to "Evening" (1720-1756). 

COLLINS, WILLIAM, R. A. , a distinguished English painter, born inLondon; he made his reputation by his treatment of coast and cottagescenes, and though he tried his skill in other subjects, it was in thesubjects he started with that he achieved his greatest triumphs; amonghis best-known works are "The Blackberry Gatherers, " "As Happy as aKing, " "The Fisherman's Daughter, " and "The Bird-Catchers" (1788-1847). 

COLLINSON, PETER, an English horticulturist, to whom we are indebtedfor the introduction into the country of many ornamental shrubs(1694-1768). 

COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, a violent French Revolutionary, originally a tragic actor, once hissed off the Lyons stage, "tearing apassion to rags"; had his revenge by a wholesale butchery there; marched209 men across the Rhône to be shot; by-and-by was banished beyond seasto Cayenne, and soon died there (1750-1790). 

COLLYER, JOSEPH, an eminent stipple engraver, born in London(1768-1827). 

COLMAN, GEORGE, an English dramatist, born at Florence; bred for andcalled to the bar; author of a comedy entitled "The Jealous Wife, " alsoof "The Clandestine Marriage"; became manager of Drury Lane, then of theHaymarket (1733-1794). 

COLMAN, GEORGE, son of the preceding, and his successor in theHaymarket; author of "The Iron Chest, " "John Bull, " "The Heir at Law, "&c. (1762-1836). 

COLMAR (30), the chief town of Upper Alsace, on the Lauch, on aplain near the Vosges, 42 m. SW. Of Strasburg; passed into the hands ofthe French by treaty of Ryswick in 1697, was ceded to Germany in 1871. 

COLOCETRONIS, a Greek patriot, born in Messina, distinguishedhimself in the War of Independence, which he chiefly contributed to carrythrough to a successful issue (1770-1843). 

COLOGNE (282), in German KÖLN, capital of Rhenish Prussia, anda fortress of first rank, on the left bank of the Rhine, 175 m. SE. OfRotterdam; is a busy commercial city, and is engaged in eau-de-Cologne, sugar, tobacco, and other manufactures. It has some fine old buildings, and a picture gallery; but its glory is its great cathedral, founded inthe 9th century, burnt in 1248, since which time the rebuilding wascarried on at intervals, and only completed in 1880; it is one of themasterpieces of Gothic architecture. 

COLOGNE, THE THREE KINGS OF, the three Magi who paid homage to theinfant Christ, and whose bones were consigned to the archbishop in 1164;they were called Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar. 

COLOMBIA (4, 000), a federal republic of nine States, occupying theisthmus of Panama and the NW. Corner of S. America, between Venezuela andEcuador. The country, nearly three times the size of France, though ithas only a ninth of the population, comprises in the W. Three chains ofthe Andes and the plateaus between them, in the E. Plains well watered bytributaries of the Orinoco. The upper valleys of the Magdalena and Caucaare the centres of population, where the climate is delightful, and graingrows. Every climate is found in Colombia, from the tropical heats of theplains to the Arctic cold of the mountains. Natural productions are asvarious: the exports include valuable timbers and dye-woods, cinchonabark, coffee, cacao, cotton, and silver ore. Most of the trade is withBritain and the United States. Manufactures are inconsiderable. Themineral wealth is very great, but little wrought. The Panama Railway, from Colon to Panama, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, andis a most important highway of commerce. The people are descendants ofSpaniards and Indians; education is meagre, but compulsory; the StateChurch is Roman Catholic. The capital is Bogotá. Panama and Cartagena thechief ports. 

COLOMBO (126), the capital of Ceylon, and the chief port on the W. Coast; it is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and on the other by alake and moat; is supplied with water and gas; has many fine buildings;has a very mixed population, and has belonged to Britain since 1796;communicates with Kandy by railway. 

COLON, a town at the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railway. SeeASPINWALL. 

COLONNA, an illustrious Italian family, to which belonged popes, cardinals, and generals. 

COLONNA, VICTORIA, a poetess, married to a member of the abovefamily, who consoled herself for his early death by cultivating herpoetic gift; one of her most devoted friends was Michael Angelo(1490-1547). 

COLONNE, EDOUARD, musical conductor, born at Bordeaux, conductor ofwhat are known as "Colonne Concerts"; _b_. 1838. 

COLONUS, a demos of Attica, a mile NW. Of Athens, the birthplace ofSophocles. 

COLOPHON, an Ionian city in Asia Minor, N. Of Ephesus, is supposedto give name to the device at the end of books, the cavalry of the placebeing famous for giving the finishing stroke to a battle. 

COLORA`DO (412), an inland State of the American Union, traversed bythe Rocky Mountains, and watered by the upper reaches of the S. Platteand Arkansas Rivers, is twice as large as England. The mountains are thehighest in the States (13, 000 to 14, 000 ft. ), are traversed by loftypasses through which the railways run, have rich spacious valleys orparks among them, and have great deposits of gold, silver, lead, andiron. There are also extensive coal-beds; hence the leading industriesare mining and iron working. The eastern portion is a level, treelessplain, adapted for grazing. Agriculture, carried on with irrigation, suffers from insect plagues like the Colorado potato beetle. The climateis dry and clear, and attracts invalids. Acquired partly from France in1804, and the rest from Mexico in 1848; the territory was organised in1861, and admitted to the Union in 1876. The capital is Denver (107). There is a small Spanish-speaking population in the S. 

COLOSSÆ, a city in the S. Of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, and the site ofone of the earliest Christian churches. 

COLOSSIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, by St. Paul, directed mainly againsttwo errors of that early date, that the fleshly nature of man is noadequate vehicle for the reception and revelation of the divine nature, and that for redemption recourse must be had to direct mortification ofthe flesh. 

COLOSSUS, any gigantic statue, specially one of Apollo in bronze, 120 ft. High, astride over the mouth of the harbour at Rhodes, reckonedone of the seven wonders of the world, erected in 280 B. C. , destroyed byan earthquake 56 years after, and sold to a Jew centuries later for oldmetal; besides this are celebrated the statue of Memnon at Thebes, theColossi of Athene in the Parthenon at Athens, and of Zeus at Olympia andat Tarentum, as well as others of modern date; for instance, Germania, 112 ft. High, in the Niederwald, and Liberty enlightening the World, 160ft. High, in New York harbour. 

COLOT, the name of a family of French surgeons in the 16th and 17thcentury, distinguished for their skill in operating in the case of stone. 

COLOUR-BLINDNESS, inability, still unaccounted for, to distinguishbetween colours, and especially between red and green, more common amongmen than women; a serious disqualification for several occupations, suchas those connected with the study of signals. 

COLOUR-SERGEANT, a sergeant whose duty is to guard the colours andthose who carry them. 

COLQUHOUN, JOHN, a noted sportsman and writer on sport in Scotland, born in Edinburgh (1805-1885). 

COLSTON, EDWARD, an English philanthropist, founded and endowed aschool in Bristol for the education of 100 boys, as well as almshouseselsewhere (1636-1721). 

COLT, SAMUEL, the inventor of the revolver, born in Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. ; having difficulty in raising money to carry out hisinvention it proved a commercial failure, but being adopted by theGovernment in the Mexican war it proved a success, since which time ithas been everywhere in use (1814-1862). 

COLUMBA, ST. , the apostle of Christianity to the Scots, born inDonegal; coming to Scotland about 563, in his forty-second year, foundeda monastery in Iona, and made it the centre of his evangelisticoperations, in which work he was occupied incessantly till 596, when hishealth began to fail, and he breathed his last kneeling before the altar, June 9, 597. 

COLUMBAN, ST. , an Irish missionary, who, with twelve companions, settled in Gaul in 585; founded two monasteries, but was banished for theoffence of rebuking the king; went to Italy, founded a monastery atBobbio, where he died 616. 

COLUMBIA, a district of 70 sq. M. In the State of Maryland, U. S. , in which Washington, the capital of the Union, stands. 

COLUMBIA, BRITISH (100), the most westerly province in Canada, liesbetween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the United States andAlaska, and is four times the size of Great Britain. It is a mountainouscountry, rugged and picturesque, containing the highest peaks on thecontinent, Mount Hooker, 15, 700 ft. , and Mount Brown, 16, 000 ft, with arichly indented coast-line, off which lie Queen Charlotte Islands andVancouver. The chief river is the Frazer, which flows from the Lakeregion southwards through the centre and then westward to the Gulf ofGeorgia; the upper waters of the Columbia flow southward through the E. Of the State. The climate resembles that of northern England, but is insome parts very rainy. The chief industries are lumbering--the forestsare among the finest in the world, fishing--the rivers abound in salmonand sturgeon, and mining--rich deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, antimony, and many other valuable minerals are found; there aregreat coal-fields in Vancouver. In Vancouver and in the river valleys ofthe mainland are extensive tracts of arable and grazing land; but neitheragriculture nor manufactures are much developed. Made a Crown colony in1858, it joined the Dominion as a province in 1871. The completion of theCanadian Pacific Railway in 1885 joined it to the eastern provinces. Thecapital is Victoria (17), in the S. Of Vancouver. 

COLUMBUS (125), capital of Ohio, U. S. , a manufacturing town. 

COLUMBUS, BARTHOLOMEW, cosmographer, brother of ChristopherColumbus; accompanied him to St. Domingo, and became governor; _d_. 1514. 

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, discoverer of America, on Oct. 12, 1492, after two months of great peril and, in the end, mutiny of his men, bornin Genoa; went to sea at 14; cherished, if he did not conceive, the ideaof reaching India by sailing westward; applied in many quarters forfurtherance; after seven years of waiting, was provided with three smallvessels and a crew of 120 men; first touched land at the Bahamas, visitedCuba and Hayti, and returned home with spoils of the land; was hailed andhonoured as King of the Sea; he made three subsequent visits, and on thethird had the satisfaction of landing on the mainland, which SebastianCabot and Amerigo Vespucci had reached before him; he became at last thevictim of jealousy, and charges were made against him, which so cut himto the heart that he never rallied from the attack, and he died atValladolid, broken in body and in soul; Carlyle, in a famous passage, salutes him across the centuries: "Brave sea-captain, Norse sea-king, Columbus my hero, royalist sea-king of all" (1438-1506). 

COLUMELLA, JUNIUS, a Latin writer of the 1st century, born at Cadiz;author of "De Re Rustica, " in 12 books, on the same theme as Virgil's"Georgics, " viz. , agriculture and gardening; he wrote also "DeArboribus, " on trees. 

COLU`THUS, a Greek epic poet of 6th century, born in Egypt; wrotethe "Rape of Helen. "

COLVIN, SIDNEY, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, SladeProfessor of Art at Cambridge, born at Norwood; contributor to thejournals on art and literature; has written Lives of Keats and Landor;friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, and his literary executor; _b_. 1845. 

COMACCHIO (10), a walled town, 30 m. SE. Of Ferrara; famous forfish, specially eel-culture in a large lagoon adjoining, 90 in. Incircumference. 

COMBE, ANDREW, M. D. , a physician and physiologist, born inEdinburgh; studied under Spurzheim in Edinburgh and Paris, but on hisreturn to his native city was seized with pulmonary consumption, whichrendered him a confirmed invalid, so that he had to spend his wintersabroad; was eminent as a physician; was a believer in phrenology;produced three excellent popular works on Physiology, Digestion, and theManagement of Infancy (1797-1847). 

COMBE, GEORGE, brother of the preceding, born in Edinburgh; trainedto the legal profession; like his brother, he became, under Spurzheim, astanch phrenologist and advocate of phrenology; but his ablest andbest-known work was "The Constitution of Man, " to the advocacy of theprinciples of which and their application, especially to education, hedevoted his life; he married a daughter of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons(1788-1858). 

COMBE, WILLIAM, born in Bristol; author of the "Three Tours of Dr. Syntax"; inherited a small fortune, which he squandered by an irregularlife; wrote some 86 works (1741-1823). 

COMBERMERE, VISCOUNT, a British field-marshal, born in Denbighshire;served in Flanders, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in India; was presentat the siege of Seringapatam; was sent to Spain in 1808; distinguishedhimself in the Peninsula, and particularly at Talavera; received apeerage in 1827; was made commander-in-chief in India, and Constable ofthe Tower in succession to Wellington in 1832 (1773-1865). 

COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS, a Moravian educational reformer, particularlyas regards the acquisition of languages in their connection with thethings they denote; his two most famous books are his "Janua Linguarum"and his "Orbis Sensualium Pictus"; his principle at bottom was, wordsmust answer to and be associated with things and ideas of things, aprinciple still only very partially adopted in education, and that onlyat the most elementary stages. 

COMET, a member of the solar system under control of the sun, consisting of a bright nucleus within a nebulous envelope, generallyextended into a tail on the rear of its orbit, which is extremelyeccentric, pursuing its course with a velocity which increases as itapproaches the sun, and which diminishes as it withdraws from it; thesebodies are very numerous, have their respective periods of revolution, which have been in many cases determined by observation. 

COMINES, a French town in the dep. Of Nord, France, 15 m. SW. OfCourtrai. 

COMINES, PHILIPPE DE, a French chronicler, born at Comines; was ofFlemish origin; served under Charles the Bold, then under Louis XI. AndCharles VIII. ; author of "Memoires, " in seven vols. , of the reigns ofthese two monarchs, which give a clear and faithful picture of the timeand the chief actors in it, but with the coolest indifference as to themoral elements at work, with him the end justifying the means, andsuccess the measure of morality (1443-1509). 

COMITIA, constitutional assemblies of the Roman citizens forelecting magistrates, putting some question to the vote of the people, the declaration of war, &c. 

COMITY OF NATIONS, the name given for the effect given in onecountry to the laws and institutions of another in dealing with a nativeof it. 

COMMANDITE, SOCIÉTÉ EN, partnership in a business by a supply offunds, but without a share in the management or incurring furtherliability. 

COMMELIN, ISAAC, Dutch historian; wrote the "Lives of theStadtholders William I. And Maurice" (1598-1676). 

COMMENTARIES OF JULIUS CÆSAR, his memoirs of the Gallic and CivilWars, reckoned the most perfect model of narration that in suchcircumstances was ever written, and a masterpiece. 

COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, a committee of nine created by theFrench Convention, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of theexecutive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thingonly, in the fall of 260, 000 aristocrats' heads"; notable, therefore, forits excesses in that line; was not suppressed till Oct. 19, 1796, on theadvent of the Directory to power. 

COM`MODUS, LUCIUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, son and successor ofMarcus Aurelius; carefully trained, but on his father's death threw upthe reins and gave himself over to every form of licentiousness; poisonadministered by his mistress Marcia being slow in operating, he wasstrangled to death by a hired athlete in 162. 

COMMON LAW is law established by usage and confirmed by judicialdecision. 

COMMON-SENSE, PHILOSOPHY OF, the philosophy which rests on theprinciple that the perceptions of the senses reflect things as theyactually are irrespectively of them. 

COMMUNE, THE, a revolutionary power installed in Paris after the"admonitory" insurrection of March 18, 1871, and overthrown in the end ofMay. 

COMMUNISM, community of property in a State. 

COMNE`NUS, name of a dynasty of six emperors of Constantinople. 

COMO, LAKE OF, one of the chief lakes of Lombardy and the third insize, at the foot of the Pennine Alps, 80 m. Long and 2½ at greatestbreadth; is traversed by the Adda, and is famed for the beauty and richvariety of its scenery. 

COMORIN, CAPE, a low sandy point, the most southerly of India, fromwhich the seaman is beckoned off by a peak 18 m. Inland. 

COMORO ISLES (63), an archipelago of four volcanic islands at the N. Of the channel of Mozambique; under the protectorate of France since1886; the people are Mohammedans, and speak Arabic. 

COMPARETTI, an Italian philologist; his writings are numerous; _b_. 1835. 

COMPIÈGNE (14), a quiet old town in the dep. Of Oise, 50 m. NE. OfParis; has some fine old churches, but the chief edifice is the palace, built by St. Louis and rebuilt by Louis XIV. , where the marriage ofNapoleon to Maria Louisa was celebrated; here Joan of Arc was madeprisoner in 1430, and Louis Napoleon had hunting ground. 

COMPTON, HENRY, bishop of London, son of the Earl of Northampton;fought bravely for Charles I. ; was colonel of dragoons at theRestoration; left the army for the Church; was made bishop; crownedWilliam and Mary when the archbishop, Sancroft, refused; _d_. 1713. 

COMRIE (8), a village in Perthshire, on the Earn, 20 m. W. Of Perth, in a beautiful district of country; subject to earthquakes from time totime; birthplace of George Gilfillan. 

COMTE, AUGUSTE, a French philosopher, born at Montpellier, thefounder of POSITIVISM (q. V. ); enough to say here, it consistedof a new arrangement of the sciences into Abstract and Concrete, and anew law of historical evolution in science from a theological through ametaphysical to a positive stage, which last is the ultimate and crowningand alone legitimate method, that is, observation of phenomena and theirsequence; Comte was first a disciple of St. Simon, but he quarrelled withhim; commenced a "Cours de Philosophie Positive" of his own, in sixvols. ; but finding it defective on the moral side, he instituted aworship of humanity, and gave himself out as the chief priest of a newreligion, a very different thing from Carlyle's hero-worship (1795-1857). 

COMUS, the Roman deity who presided over festive revelries; thetitle of a poem by Milton, "the most exquisite of English or any masks. "

COMYN, JOHN (the Black Comyn), Lord of Badenoch, a Scottish noble ofFrench descent, his ancestor, born at Comines, having come over with theConqueror and got lands given him; was one of the competitors for theScottish crown in 1291, and lost it. 

COMYN, JOHN (the Red Comyn), son of the preceding; as one of thethree Wardens of Scotland defended it against the English, whom hedefeated at Roslin; but in 1304 submitted to Edward I. , and falling undersuspicion of Bruce, was stabbed by him in a monastery at Dumfries in1306. 

CONCEPCION (24), a town in Chile, S. Of Valparaiso, with its port, Talcahuano, 7 m. Off, one of the safest and most commodious in thecountry, and ranks next to Valparaiso as a trading centre. 

CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, an order of nuns founded in Portugal in1484; at first followed the rule of the Cistercians, but afterwards thatof St. Clare. 

CONCIERGERIE, a prison in the Palais de Justice, Paris. 

CONCLAVE, properly the room, generally in the Vatican, where thecardinals are confined under lock and key while electing a Pope. 

CONCORD, a town in U. S. , 23 m. NW. Of Boston; was the residence ofEmerson, Thoreau, and Hawthorne; here the first engagement took place inthe American war in 1775. 

CONCORD (17), capital of New Hampshire, U. S. , a thriving tradingplace. 

CONCORDAT, THE, a convention of July 15, 1801, between Bonaparte andPius V. , regulative of the relations of France with the Holy See. 

CONCORDE, PLACE DE LA, a celebrated public place, formed by LouisXV. In 1748, adorned by a statue of him; at the Revolution it was calledPlace de la Revolution; here Louis XVI. And his queen were guillotined. 

CONCORDIA, the Roman goddess of peace, to whom Camillus the dictatorin 367 B. C. Dedicated a temple on the conclusion of the strife betweenthe patricians and plebeians. 

CONDÉ, HENRY I. , PRINCE OF, fought in the ranks of the Huguenots, but escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew by an oath of abjuration(1552-1588). 

CONDÉ, HOUSE OF, a collateral branch of the house of Bourbon, themembers of which played all along a conspicuous rôle in the history ofFrance. 

CONDÉ, LOUIS I. , PRINCE OF, founder of the house of Condé, a brave, gallant man, though deformed; distinguished himself in the wars betweenHenry II. And Charles V. , particularly in the defence of Metz; affrontedat court, and obnoxious to the Guises, he became a Protestant, and joinedhis brother the king of Navarre; became the head of the party, and wastreacherously killed after the battle of Jarnac; he had been party, however, to the conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed a death-blow at theGuises (1530-1569). 

CONDÉ, LOUIS II. , PRINCE OF, named "the Great Condé, " born at Paris;was carefully educated; acquired a taste for literature, which stood himin good stead at the end of his career; made his reputation by hisvictory over the Spaniards at Recroi; distinguished himself at Fribourg, Nordlingen, and Lens; the settlement of the troubles of the Frondealienated him, so that he entered the service of Spain, and servedagainst his country, but was by-and-by reconciled; led the French army tosuccess in Franche-Comté and Holland, and soon after retired toChantilly, where he enjoyed the society of such men as Molière, Boileau, and La Bruyère, and when he died Bossuet pronounced a funeral orationover his grave (1621-1686). 

CONDÉ, LOUIS JOSEPH, PRINCE DE, born at Chantilly; served in theSeven Years' War; attended in the antechamber in the palace when LouisXV. Lay dying; was one of the first to emigrate on the fall of theBastille; seized every opportunity to save the monarchy; was declared atraitor to the country, and had his estates confiscated for threateningto restore Louis XVI. ; organised troops to aid in the Restoration;settled at Malmesbury, in England, during the Empire; returned to Francewith Louis XVIII. (1736-1818). 

CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT, a French philosopher, born at Grenoble, of good birth; commenced as a disciple of Locke, but went further, forwhereas Locke was content to deduce empirical knowledge from sensationand reflection, he deduced reflection from sensation, and laid thefoundation of a sensationalism which, in the hands of his successors, went further still, and swamped the internal in the external, and whichis now approaching the stage of self-cancelling zero; he lived as arecluse, and had Rousseau and Diderot for intimate friends (1715-1780). 

CONDITIONAL IMMORTALITY, the doctrine that only believers in Christhave any future existence, a dogma founded on certain isolated passagesof Scripture. 

CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE, a French mathematician and philosopher, bornnear St. Quentin; contributed to the "Encyclopédie"; was of theEncyclopedist school; took sides with the Revolutionary party in theinterest of progress; voted with the Girondists usually; suspected by theextreme party; was not safe even under concealment; "skulked round Parisin thickets and stone-quarries; entered a tavern one bleared May morning, ragged, rough-bearded, hunger-stricken, and asked for breakfast; having aLatin Horace about him was suspected and haled to prison, breakfastunfinished; fainted by the way with exhaustion; was flung into a dampcell, and found next morning lying dead on the floor"; his works arevoluminous, and the best known is his "Exquisse du Progrès de l'EspritHumain"; he was not an original thinker, but a clear expositor(1743-1794). 

CONDOTTIE`RI, leaders of Italian free-lances, who in the 14th and15th centuries lived by plunder or hired themselves to others for a sharein the spoils. 

CONFEDERATE STATES, 11 Southern States of the American Union, whichseceded in 1861 on the question of slavery, and which occasioned a civilwar that lasted till 1865. 

CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, a confederation of 16 German States, which in 1806 dissolved their connection with Germany and leagued withFrance, and which lasted till disaster overtook Napoleon in Russia, andthen broke up; the Germanic Confederation, or union of all the States, took its place, till it too was dissolved by the defeat of Austria in1866, and which gave ascendency to Prussia and ensured the erection ofthe German empire on its ruins. 

CONFERENCE, a stated meeting of Wesleyan ministers for thetransaction of the business of their Church. 

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, are statements of doctrine very similar toCreeds, but usually longer and polemical, as well as didactic; they arein the main, though not exclusively, associated with Protestantism; the16th century produced many, including the _Sixty-seven Articles_ of theSwiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523; the _Augsburg Confession_of 1530, the work of Luther and Melanchthon, which marked the breach withRome; the _Tetrapolitan Confession_ of the German Reformed Church, 1530;the _Gallican Confession_, 1559; and the _Belgic Confession_ of 1561. InBritain the _Scots Confession_, drawn up by John Knox in 1560; the_Thirty-nine Articles_ of the Church of England in 1562; the _IrishArticles_ in 1615; and the _Westminster Confession of Faith_ in 1647;this last, the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, has by itsforce of language, logical statement, comprehensiveness, and dependenceon Scripture, commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of allEnglish-speaking peoples, and is the most widely recognised Protestantstatement of doctrine; it has as yet been modified only by the UnitedPresbyterian Church of Scotland, which adopted a Declaratory Statementregarding certain of its doctrines in 1879, and by the Free Church ofScotland, which adopted a similar statement in 1890. 

CONFESSIONS OF ROUSSEAU, memoirs published after his death in 1788, in which that writer makes confession of much that was good in him andmuch that was bad. 

CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE, an account which that Father of theChurch gives of the errors of his youth and his subsequent conversion. 

CONFUCIUS, the Latin form of the name of the great sage of China, Kung Futsze, and the founder of a religion which is based on the worshipand practice of morality as exemplified in the lives and teachings of thewise men who have gone before, and who, as he conceived, have made theworld what it is, and have left it to posterity to build upon the samebasis; while he lived he was held in greater and greater honour bymultitudes of disciples, till on his death he became an object ofworship, and even his descendants came to be regarded as a kind of sacredcaste; he flourished about 550 B. C. 

CONGÉ D'ÉLIRE, a warrant granted by the Crown to the dean andchapter of a cathedral to elect a particular bishop to a vacant see. 

CONGO, the second in length and largest in volume of the Africanrivers, rises NE. Of the Muchinga Mountains in Rhodesia, flows SW. Through Lake Bangueola, then N. To the equator; curving in a greatsemicircle it continues SW. , passes in a series of rapids through thecoast range, and enters the S. Atlantic by an estuary 6 m. Broad. Itbrings down more water than the other African rivers put together. Thelargest affluents are the Kassai on the left, and the Mobangi on theright bank; 110 m. Are navigable to ocean steamers, then the cataractsintervene, and 250 m. Of railway promote transit; the upper river is 2 to4 m. Broad, and navigable for small craft up to Stanley Falls, 1068 m. The name most associated with its exploration is H. M. Stanley; duringits course of 3000 m. It bears several names. 

CONGO, FRENCH (5, 000), a continuous and connected territoryextending westward along the right bank of the Congo from Brazzaville tothe mouth of the Mobangi, and as far as 4° N. Run N. Behind theCameroons, and along the E. Of Shari to Lake Tchad. 

CONGO FREE STATE embraces most of the basin of the Congo, touchingBritish territory in Uganda and Rhodesia, with a very narrow outlet tothe Atlantic at the river mouth. It is under the sovereignty of LeopoldII. Of Belgium, who, in 1890, made over his rights to Belgium with powerto annex the State in 1900. It is nine times the size of Great Britain, and continual native unrest gives great trouble to its administrators. Its waters are open to all nations, and traders exchange manufacturedgoods for ivory, palm-oil, coffee and caoutchouc, bees-wax and fruits. The climate is tropical, on the lower levels malarial. The population isfrom 20 to 40 millions. The centre of administration is Boma, 80 m. Fromthe sea. 

CONGREGATIONALISM, the ecclesiastical system which regards eachcongregation of believers in Christ a church complete in itself, and freefrom the control of the other Christian communities, and which extends toeach member equal privileges as a member of Christ's body. It took itsrise in England about 1571, and the most prominent name connected withits establishment is that of ROBERT BROWN (q. V. ), who secededfrom the Church of England and formed a church in Norwich in 1580. Thebody was called Brownists after him, and Separatists, as well as"Independents. " The several congregations are now united in what iscalled "The Congregational Union of England and Wales. "

CONGRESS is a diplomatic conference at which the representatives ofsovereign States discuss matters of importance to their severalcountries, the most celebrated of which are those of Münster andOsnabrück, which issued in the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, at the endof the Thirty Years' War; of Rastadt, at the end of Spanish SuccessionWar, in 1797; of Vienna, at the end of Napoleon's wars, in 1815; ofParis, in 1856, at the end of Russian War; and of Berlin, in 1878, at theend of Russo-Turkish war; but the name has come to be applied in federalrepublics to the legislative assembly which directs national as distinctfrom State concerns. In the United States, Congress consists of theSenate, elected by the State legislatures and the House ofRepresentatives, elected directly by the people. It meets on the firstMonday in December, and receives the President's message for the year. Itimposes taxes, contracts loans, provides for national defence, declareswar, looks after the general welfare, establishes postal communication, coins money, fixes weights and measures, &c. &c. , but it is prohibitedfrom preferential treatment of the several States, establishing orinterfering with religion, curtailing freedom of speech, or pursuingtowards any citizen, even under legal forms, a course of conduct which isunjust or even oppressive. 

CONGRESS, the Belgian Constituent Assembly, 1830-1831. 

CONGREVE, RICHARD, author of political tracts, was a pupil of Dr. Arnold's, and a disciple of Comte in philosophy; _b_. 1818. 

CONGREVE, WILLIAM, English comic dramatist, born near Leeds; entereda student of the Middle Temple, but soon abandoned law for literature;the "Old Bachelor" first brought him into repute, and a commissionershipof substantial value; the production of "Love for Love" and the "MourningBride, " a stilted tragedy, added immensely to his popularity, but hiscomedy "The Way of the World" being coldly received, he gave up writingplays, and only wrote a few verses afterwards; he was held in greatesteem by his contemporaries, among others Dryden, Pope, and Steele(1670-1729). 

CONGREVE, SIR WILLIAM, an English artillery officer, inventor of therocket which bears his name (1772-1828). 

CONINGSBY, a novel by Disraeli. 

CONINGTON, JOHN, classical scholar and professor of Latin at Oxford, born at Boston, translator of the "Æneid" of Virgil, "Odes, Satires, andEpistles" of Horace, and 12 books of the "Iliad" into verse, as well asof other classics; his greatest work is his edition of "Virgil"(1823-1869). 

CONISBURGH CASTLE, an old round castle referred to in "Ivanhoe, " 5in. SW. Of Doncaster. 

CONISTON WATER, a lake 5 m. Long and ½ m. Broad, at the foot ofConiston Fells, in Lancashire, with Brantwood on the E. Side of it, theresidence of John Ruskin. 

CONKLING, ROSCOE, an American politician, a leading man on theRepublican side; was a member of the House of Representatives, and alsoof the Senate; retired from politics, and practised law at New York(1828-1888). 

CONNAUGHT (724), a western province of Ireland, 105 m. Long and 92m. Broad, divided into five counties; is the smallest and most barren ofthe provinces, but abounds in picturesque scenery; the people are pureCelts. 

CONNAUGHT, DUKE OF, the third son of Queen Victoria, bred for thearmy, has held several military appointments; was promoted to the rank ofgeneral in 1893, and made commander-in-chief at Aldershot; _b_. 1850. 

CONNECTICUT (746), southernmost of the New England States, is washedby Long Island Sound, has New York on the W. , Rhode Island on the E. , andMassachusetts on the N. It is the third smallest State, rocky and unevenin surface, unfertile except in the Connecticut River valley. Streamsabound, and supply motive-power for very extensive manufactures ofclocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, smallwares, textiles, and firearms. There are iron-mines in the NW. , stone-quarries, lead, copper, and cobaltmines. Climate is healthy, changeable, and in winter severe. Education isexcellently provided for. Yale University, at New Haven, is thoroughlyequipped; there are several divinity schools, Trinity College atHartford, and the Wesleyan University at Middleton. The capital isHartford (53); New Haven (81) is the largest town and chief port. Theoriginal colony was a democratic secession from Massachusetts in 1634. The constitution of 1639 was the first written democratic constitution onrecord. Its present constitution as a State dates from 1818. 

CONNECTICUT, a river in the United States which rises on theconfines of Canada, and, after a course of 450 m. , falls into theAtlantic at Long Island. 

CONNEMARA, a wild district with picturesque scenery in W. Of co. Galway, Ireland. 

CONOLLY, JOHN, physician, born in Lincolnshire, studied atEdinburgh, settled in London, distinguished for having introduced andadvocated a more rational and humane treatment of the insane (1794-1866). 

CONRAD, CADET OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN, served under theillustrious Barbarossa; proved a capable young fellow under him; marriedthe heiress of the Vohburgs; was appointed Burggraf of Nürnberg, 1170, and prince of the empire; "he is the lineal ancestor of Frederick theGreat, twentieth in direct ascent, let him wait till nineteengenerations, valiantly like Conrad, have done their part, Conrad willfind he has come to this, " that was realised in Frederick and his time. 

CONRAD, MARQUIS OF TYRE, threw himself into Tyre when beset bySaladin, and held it till Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustusarrived; was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain in1192. 

CONRAD I. , count of Franconia, elected on the extinction of theCarlovingian line Emperor of the Germans, which he continued to be from911 to 915; fell wounded in battle with the Huns, egged on by a rival. 

CONRAD II. , the Salic, of the same family as the preceding; electedEmperor of Germany in 1024; reigned 15 years, extending the empire, suppressing disorders, and effecting reforms. 

CONRAD III. , founder of the Hohenstaufen dynasty; elected Emperor ofGermany in 1138; had Henry the Proud, as head of the German Guelfs, forrival; crushed him at Weinsberg; joined Louis VII. Of France on a thirdcrusade, and returning, overthrew the Guelfs again, leaving Barbarossa ashis heir; _d_. 1152. 

CONRAD OF THÜRINGIA, a proud, quick, fiery-tempered magnate, seizedthe archbishop of Mainz once, swung him round, and threatened to cut himin two; stormed, plundered, and set fire to an imperial free town for anaffront offered him; but admonished of his sins became penitent, andreconciled himself by monastic vow to the Pope and mankind about 1234. 

CONRADIN THE BOY, or CONRAD V. , the last representative of theHohenstaufen dynasty of Romish Kaisers, had fallen into the Pope'sclutches, who was at mortal feud with the empire, and was put to death byhim on the scaffold at Naples, October 25, 1265, the "bright and brave"lad, only 16, "throwing out his glove (in symbolic protest) amid the darkmute Neapolitan multitudes" that idly looked on. See CARLYLE'S"FREDERICK THE GREAT" FOR THE CONRADS. 

CONSALVI, Italian cardinal and statesman, born at Rome, secretary ofPius VII. ; concluded the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801; represented thePope at the Congress of Vienna; was a liberal patron of literature, science, and arts; continued minister of the Pope till his death(1757-1824). 

CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK, a brilliant Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp;rose to popularity among his countrymen by his great national romance the"Lion of Flanders, " a popularity which soon extended all over Europe; hiswritings display great descriptive power and perfect purity of sentiment(1812-1883). 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS, the collective name of members of the RomanSenate, and addressed as such, fathers as seniors and conscripts asenrolled. 

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, the doctrine that, however it may betransformed or dissipated, no fraction of energy is ever lost, that theamount of force, as of matter, in the universe, under all mutationremains the same. 

CONSERVATISM, indisposition to change established laws and customsthat have wrought beneficially in the past and contributed to the welfareof the country; in practical politics often a very different thing, andregarded by Carlyle in his time "a portentous enbodied sham; accursed ofGod, and doomed to destruction, as all lies are. "

CONSIDÉRANT, VICTOR PROSPER, a French Socialist and disciple ofFourier; founded a colony in Texas on Fourier's principles, which proveda failure; wrote much in advocacy of his principles, of which the mostimportant is "La Destinée Sociale"; _b_. 1808. 

CONSOLS, the Consolidated Fund, loans to Government made atdifferent times and at different rates of interest, consolidated forconvenience into one common loan, bearing interest at 3 per cent. , reduced in 1830 to 2¾, and in 1893 to 2½. 

CONSTABLE, a high officer of State in the Roman empire, in France, and in England, charged at one time with military, judicial, andregulative functions. 

CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD, Edinburgh publisher, born in Carnbee, Fife;started as a bookseller near the Cross in Edinburgh; published the _ScotsMagazine_, the _Edinburgh Review_, and the "Encyclopædia Britannica, " andfrom 1802 to 1826 the works of Sir Walter Scott, when the bankruptcyconnected with the publication of these so affected him that it ruinedhis health, though he lived after the crash came to start the"Miscellany" which bears his name (1774-1827). 

CONSTABLE, HENRY, English poet, author of sonnets, 28 in number, under the title of "Diana" (1560-1612). 

CONSTABLE, JOHN, an eminent landscape-painter, born in Suffolk; hisworks were more generously appreciated in France than in his own country, as they well might be, where they had not, as in England, to standcomparison with those of Turner; but he is now, despite the depreciationof Ruskin, becoming recognised among us as one of our foremostlandscapists, and enormous prices have been given of late for his bestpictures; some of his best works adorn the walls of the National Gallery;Ruskin allows his art is original, honest, free from affectation, andmanly (1776-1837). 

CONSTABLE DE BOURBON, Charles, Duc de Bourbon, a brilliant militaryleader, and a powerful enemy of Francis I. ; killed when leading theassault on Rome (1489-1527). 

CONSTANCE (16), a city of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, on the S. Bankof the Rhine, at its exit from the lake; famous for the seat of thecouncil (1414-1418) which condemned John Huss and Jerome of Prague todeath; long famous for its linen manufacture. 

CONSTANCE, LAKE, or BODENSEE, partly in Germany and partly inSwitzerland; is about 44 m. Long and 9 m. Broad at most; is traversed bythe Rhine from W. To E. , is 1306 ft. Above sea-level; is surrounded byvineyards, cornfields, and wooded slopes; its waters are hardly everfrozen, and often rise and fall suddenly. 

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN, a highly popular French painter of the Realisticschool, born at Paris; his first picture was "Hamlet and the King";afterwards he took chiefly to Oriental subjects, which afforded the bestscope for his talent; occupies a high place in the modern French school, and has been promoted to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honour;_b_. 1845. 

CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, HENRY BENJAMIN DE, a French politician, ofliberal constitutional principles, born at Lausanne, of Huguenot parents;settled in Paris at the commencement of the Revolution, where hedistinguished himself by his political writings and speeches; wasexpelled from France in 1802, along with Mme. De Staël, for denouncingthe military ascendency of Napoleon; lived for a time at Weimar in thesociety of Goethe and Schiller; translated Schiller's "Wallenstein";returned to France in 1814; declared for the Bourbons, and pled in favourof constitutional liberty; he was a supporter of Louis Philippe, and arationalist in religion, and declared himself opposed to the supernaturalelement in all religions (1760-1830). 

CONSTANTIA, a wine district of Cape Colony under E. Flank of TableMountain. 

CONSTANTINE (50), inland city of Algeria, on a rocky height;leather-working its staple industry. 

CONSTANTINE, the name of 13 emperors who reigned at Rome orByzantium between 306 and 1453. 

CONSTANTINE I. , called the Great, born in Moesia, son of ConstantiusChlorus by Helena; on the death of his father at York, where heaccompanied him, was proclaimed Emperor by the troops; this title beingchallenged by Maximian, his father-in-law, and Maxentius, hisbrother-in-law, he took up arms against first the one and then the other, and defeated them; when one day he saw a cross in the sky with the words_By this Conquer_ in Greek, under this sign, known as the _labarum_, which he adopted as his standard, he accordingly marched straight toRome, where he was acknowledged Emperor by the Senate in 312; andthereafter an edict was issued named of Milan, granting toleration to theChristians; he had still to extend his empire over the East, and havingdone so by the removal of Lucinius, he transferred the seat of his empireto Byzantium, which hence got the name of Constantinople, i. E. Constantine's city; had himself baptized in 337 as a Christian, afterhaving three years before proclaimed Christianity the State religion(274-337). 

CONSTANTINE NICOLAIEVITCH, second son of the Czar Nicholas I. ; wasappointed grand-admiral while but a boy; had command of the Baltic fleetduring the Crimean war; came under suspicion of sinister intriguing;became insane, and died in seclusion (1827-1892). 

CONSTANTINE PAULOVITCH, Grand-duke of Russia, son of Paul I. ;distinguished himself at Austerlitz; was commander-in-chief in Poland, where he ruled as despot; waived his right to the throne in favour of hisbrother Nicholas (1779-1831). 

CONSTANTINE XIII. , Palæologus, the last of the Greek emperors; hadto defend Constantinople against a besieging force of 300, 000 underMahomet II. , and though he defended it bravely, the city was taken bystorm, and the Eastern empire ended in 1543. 

CONSTANTINOPLE (1, 000), capital of the Turkish empire, on theBosphorus, situated on a peninsula washed by the Sea of Marmora on the S. And by the Golden Horn on the N. , on the opposite side of which creek liethe quarters of Galata and Pera, one of the finest commercial sites inthe world; it became the capital of the Roman empire under Constantinethe Great, who gave name to it; was capital of the Eastern empire fromthe days of Theodosius; was taken by the crusaders in 1204, and byMahomet II. In 1452, at which time the Greek and Latin scholars fled thecity, carrying the learning of Greece and Rome with them, an event whichled to the revival of learning in Europe, and the establishment of a newera--the Modern--in European history. 

CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, or THE PALE, Roman emperor; after astruggle of three years reunited Britain with the empire, which had beentorn from it by Allectus; was equally successful against the Alemanni, defeating them with great loss; died at York, on an expedition againstthe Picts; was succeeded by Constantine, his son (250-305). 

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, the legislative body which the NationalAssembly of France resolved itself into in 1789, a name it assumed fromthe task it imposed on itself, viz. , of making a constitution, a taskwhich, from the nature of it proved impossible, as a constitution is anentity which grows, and is not made, _nascitur, non fit_. 

CONSUELO, the heroine of George Sand's novel of the name, hermasterpiece; the impersonation of the triumph of moral purity overmanifold temptations. 

CONSUL, (1) one of the two magistrates of Rome elected annuallyafter the expulsion of the kings, and invested with regal power; (2) achief magistrate of the French Republic from 1799 to 1804; (3) onecommissioned to protect, especially the mercantile rights of the subjectsof a State in foreign country. 

CONSULATE, name given to the French Government from the fall of theDirectory till the establishment of the Empire. At first there were threeprovisional consuls, Bonaparte, Siéyès, and Roger Ducos; then threeconsuls for ten years, Bonaparte, Cambacérès, and Lebrun, which wasdissolved with the establishment of the Empire on the 20th May 1804. 

CONTARI`NI, an illustrious Venetian family, which furnished eightDoges to the Republic, as well as an array of men eminent in the Church, statecraft, generalship, art, and letters. 

CONTE, NICOLAS JACQUES, a French painter; distinguished for hismechanical genius, which was of great avail to the French army in Egypt(1755-1805). 

CONTI, an illustrious French family, a younger branch of the houseof Bourbon-Condé, all more or less distinguished as soldiers; FRANÇOISLOUIS especially, who was a man of supreme ability both in war andscience, and had the merit to be elected king of Poland (1664-1709). 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, Napoleon's scheme for interdicting all commercebetween the Continent and Great Britain, carried out with various issuestill the fall of Napoleon. See BERLIN and MILAN DECREES. 

CONTRAT, SOCIAL, Rousseau's theory of society that it is based onmere contract, each individual member of it surrendering his will to thewill of all, under protection of all concerned, a theory which led to theconclusion that the rule of kings is an usurpation of the rights of thecommunity, and which bore fruit as an explosive in the Revolution at theend of the century. 

CONVENTION, NATIONAL, a revolutionary convention in France which, onSeptember 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed theRepublic, condemned the king to death, succeeded in crushing theroyalists of La Vendée and the south, in defeating all Europe leaguedagainst France, and in founding institutions of benefit to France to thisday; it was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory. 

CONVERSATIONS LEXICON, a popular German encyclopædia of 16 vols. , started in 1796, and since 1808 published by Brockhaus, in Leipzig. 

CONVERSION, "the grand epoch for a man, " says Carlyle, "properly theone epoch; the turning-point, which guides upwards, or guides downwards, him and his activities for evermore. "

CONVOCATION, an assemblage of the English clergy, with little or nolegislative power, summoned and prorogued by an archbishop underauthority of the Crown; one under the Archbishop of Canterbury, held atCanterbury, and one under the Archbishop of York, held at York, consisting each of two bodies, an Upper of bishops, and an Under oflesser dignitaries and inferior clergy, in separate chambers, though theyoriginally met in one. 

CONWAY, a port in Carnarvon, on the river Conway, with a massivecastle, one of those built by Edward I. To keep Wales in check; is afavourite summer resort, and is amid beautiful scenery. 

CONWAY, HUGH, the _nom de plume_ of Frederick Fargus, born inBristol; bred to the auctioneer business; author of "Called Back, " ahighly sensational novel, and a success; gave up his business and settledin London, where he devoted himself to literature, and the production ofsimilar works of much promise, but caught malarial fever at Monte Carloand died (1847-1885). 

CONWAY, MONCURE, an American writer, born in Virginia; began life asa Unitarian preacher; came to England as a lecturer on war; became leaderof the advanced school of thought, so called; was a great admirer ofEmerson, and wrote, among other works, "Emerson at Home and Abroad"; _b_. 1832. 

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL, an English clergyman, devoted to thestudy of geology and palæontology, and a Bampton lecturer (1787-1857). 

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN, son of the preceding; author, along withDean Howson, of the "Life and Epistles of St. Paul, " and of an "Essay onChurch Parties" (1815-1857). 

COOK, DUTTON, novelist, dramatic author, and critic; born in London, and bred a solicitor; contributed to several periodicals, and the"Dictionary of National Biography" (1822-1883). 

COOK, EDWARD T. , journalist, born at Brighton; educated at Oxford;had been on the editorial staff of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the_Westminster Gazette_, became, in 1893, editor of the _Daily News_; is anenthusiastic disciple of Ruskin; wrote "Studies on Ruskin"; _b_. 1857. 

COOK, ELIZA, a writer of tales, verses, and magazine articles; bornin Southwark; daughter of a merchant; conducted, from 1849 to 1854, ajournal called by her name, but gave it up from failing health; enjoyed apension of £100 on the Civil List till her death; was the authoress of"The Old Arm-Chair" and "Home in the Heart, " both of which were greatfavourites with the public, and did something for literature andphilanthropy by her _Journal_ (1818-1889). 

COOK, JAMES, the distinguished English navigator, born at Marton, Yorkshire; was the son of a farm labourer; began sea-faring on board amerchantman; entered the navy in 1755, and in four years became a master;spent some nine years in survey of the St. Lawrence and the coasts ofNewfoundland; in 1768, in command of the _Endeavour_, was sent out withan expedition to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772 as commanderof two vessels on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas; on his return, receiving further promotion, he set out on a third voyage of fartherexploration in the Pacific, making many discoveries as far N. As BehringStrait; lost his life, on his way home, in a dispute with the natives, atOwhyhee, in the Sandwich Islands, being savagely murdered, a fate whichbefell him owing to a certain quickness of temper he had displayed, otherwise he was a man of great kindness of heart, and his men werewarmly attached to him (1728-1779). 

COOK, JOSEPH, a popular lecturer, born near New York; deliveredMonday Lectures at Boston in the discussion of social questions, and thealleged discrepancy between science and religion or revelation; _b_. 1838. 

COOK, MOUNT, the highest point, 12, 350 ft. , in the Southern Alps, Canterbury Island, New Zealand. 

COOK STRAIT, strait between the North and the South Island, NewZealand. 

COOKE, SIR ANTONY, an eminent scholar, tutor to Edward VI. ; of hisdaughters, one was married to Lord Burleigh and another to Sir NicholasBacon, who became the mother of Lord Bacon (1506-1576). 

COOKE, BENJAMIN, composer, born in London; organist in WestminsterAbbey; author of "How Sleep the Brave, " "Hark! the Lark, " and otherglees, as well as some excellent church music (1739-1793). 

COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK, an actor, famous for his representation ofRichard III. ; stood in his day next to Kemble in spite of his intemperatehabits (1756-1811). 

COOKE, T. P. , an actor in melodrama; began life at sea; took to thestage; his most popular representations were William in "Black-eyedSusan" and Long Tom Coffin in the "Pilot" (1786-1864). 

COOLGARDIE, a mining district and head-quarters of rich gold-fieldsin W. Australia. 

COOLIES, labourers from India and China, who now emigrate in largenumbers, especially from China, often to where they are not wanted, andwhere they, as in the British Colonies and the United States, are muchdisliked, as they bring down the wages of native labourers. 

COOMASSIE, the capital of the negro kingdom of Ashanti, 130 m. NNW. Of Cape Coast Castle; once a large populous place; was much reduced afterits capture by Wolseley in 1874, though it is being rebuilt. 

COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY. See SHAFTESBURY. 

COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, English surgeon, born in Norfolk; was great inanatomy and a skilful operator, stood high in the medical profession;contributed much by his writings to raise surgery to the rank of ascience; was eminent as a lecturer as well as a practitioner (1768-1841). 

COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, an American novelist, born in Burlington, New Jersey; having a passion for the sea, he entered the navy as amidshipman in 1808, but in three years resigned his commission, married, and settled to literature; his novels, which are well known, achievedinstant popularity, made him a great favourite with boys, in which heshowed himself an expert in the narration of events, the description ofscenes, as well as in the delineation of character; he came tologgerheads with the newspaper press, had recourse to actions for libel, conducted his own cases himself, and was always successful (1789-1851). 

COOPER, THOMAS, a self-taught man, born in Leicester; bred ashoemaker; became a schoolmaster, a Methodist preacher, and then ajournalist; converted to Chartism; was charged with sedition, andcommitted to prison for two years; wrote here "Purgatory of Suicides";after liberation went about lecturing on politics and preachingscepticism; returning to his first faith, he lectured on the Christianevidences, and wrote an autobiography (1805-1892). 

COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, a distinguished animal-painter, born inCanterbury; struggled with adversity in early life: rose to be supreme inhis own department of art; he has written an account of his career; _b_. 1803. 

COOPERAGE, a system of barter which has for some time gone on in theNorth Seas, consisting of exchange of spirits and tobacco for other goodsor money, a demoralising traffic, which endeavours are now being made tosuppress. 

COOPER'S HILL, a hill of slight elevation near Runnymede, with aGovernment civil engineering college, originally for the training for theservice in India, now for education in other departments of theGovernment service, forestry especially. 

COORG (173), an inland high-lying province, about the size of Kent, on the eastern slope of the W. Ghâts, on the SW. Border of Mysore, underthe Indian Government; it is covered with forests, infested with wildanimals; the natives, a fine race, are distinguished for their loyalty tothe British. 

COOTE, SIR EYRE, a general, born in co. Limerick, Ireland;distinguished himself at Plassey; gained victories over the French inIndia; afterwards routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo; died at Madras(1726-1783). 

COPE, CHARLES WEST, a painter, born at Leeds; his pictures have forsubjects historical or dramatic scenes, and were very numerous; executedthe frescoes that adorn the Peers' corridor at Westminster; was professorof Painting to the Royal Academy (1811-1890). 

COPE, SIR JOHN, a British general; was in command at Prestonpans, and defeated by the Pretender there in 1745, in connection with which hisname is remembered in Scotland as not having been ready when theHighlanders attacked him, by the song "Heigh! Johnnie Cowp, are ye waukenyet?" _d_. 1760. 

COPENHAGEN (380), the capital of Denmark, and the only large town init; lies low, and is built partly on the island of Seeland and partly onthe island of Amager, the channel between which forms a commodiousharbour; is a thriving place of manufacture and of trade, as its name"Merchants' Haven" implies; has also a university, an arsenal, andnumerous public buildings. 

COPERNICUS, NICOLAS, founder of modern astronomy, born at Thorn, inPoland, and educated at Cracow and Bologna; became canon of Frauenburg, on the Frisches Haff; studied medicine; was doctor to a wealthy uncle, with whom he lived, and became his heir when he died; his chief interestlay in the heavenly bodies, and his demonstrations regarding theirmovements, which yet he deferred publishing till he was near his end; andindeed it was only when he was unconscious and dying that the firstprinted copy of the work was put into his hands; it was entitled "DeOrbium Revolutionibus, " and was written in proof of the great firstprinciple of astronomy, that the sun is the centre of the solar system, and that the earth and planets circle round it; the work was dedicated toPope Paul III. , and was received with favour by the Catholic Church, though, strange to say, it was denounced by Luther and Melanchthon ascontrary to the Scriptures of truth (1473-1543). 

COPIAPÓ, a river, a village, a city, and a district in Chile. 

COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, portrait and historical painter, born inBoston, U. S. ; painted Washington's portrait at the age of eighteen; cameto England in 1776, having previously sent over for exhibition sundry ofhis works; painted portraits of the king and the queen; began thehistorical works on which his fame chiefly rests, the most widely knownperhaps of which is the "Death of Chatham, " now in the National Gallery(1737-1815). 

COPPÉE, FRANÇOIS, a poet, born in Paris; has produced severalvolumes of poetry, excellent dramas in verse, and tales in prose; hispoetry is the poetry of humble life, and "has given poetic pleasure, " asProfessor Saintsbury says, "to many who are not capable of receiving itotherwise, while he has never sought to give that pleasure by unworthymeans"; _b_. 1842. 

COPPER CAPTAIN, a Brummagem captain; the name given to Percy inBeaumont and Fletcher's play, "Rule a Wife and Have a Wife. "

COPPER NOSE, name given to Oliver Cromwell, from a brownish tinge onhis nose. 

COPPERHEADS, secret foes in one's own camp, so called from a set ofserpents which conceal their purpose to attack. 

COPPERMINE, a river in NW. Canada which falls into the Arctic Oceanafter a broken course of 250 m. 

COPPET, a Swiss village in the Canton de Vaud, on the Lake ofGeneva; celebrated as the abode of Mme. De Staël, her burial-place andthat of Necker, her father. 

COPTS, the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians, who areMonophysites in belief, some regarding the Patriarch of Alexandria andsome the Pope as their head; they adhere to the ancient ritual, areprelatic, sacramentarian, and exclusive; they speak Arabic, theiroriginal Coptic being as good as dead, though the grammar is taught inthe schools. 

COPYRIGHT, the sole right of an author or his heirs to publish awork for a term of years fixed by statute, a book for 42 years, or theauthor's lifetime and 7 years after, whichever is longer; copyrightcovers literary, artistic, and musical property. By the Act an authormust present one copy of his work, if published, to the British Museum, and one copy, if demanded, to the Bodleian Library, Oxford; theUniversity Library, Cambridge; the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; andTrinity College Library, Dublin. 

COQUELIN, BENOIT CONSTANT, a noted French actor, born at Boulogne;played in classical pieces and others, composed for himself in theThéâtre Français from 1860 to 1886; since then in London, S. America, andthe United States; without a rival in the broader aspects of comedy; _b_. 1841. 

COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a pastor of the French Reformed Church, born inParis, where he preached eloquently from 1830 till his death; was electedin 1848 deputy for the Seine to the national Assembly, but retired frompolitical life after the _coup d'état_; wrote a reply to Strauss(1795-1858). 

COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a Protestant pastor, son of preceding, born atAmsterdam; celebrated for his liberal and tolerant views, too much so forM. Guizot; edited Voltaire's letters on toleration; his chief work, "JeanCalas et sa Famille" (1820-1875). 

COQUIMBO (14), capital of a mining province of Chile (176) of thename; exports minerals and cattle. 

CORAÏS, a distinguished Hellenist, born in Smyrna, of the mercantileclass; settled in Paris, where he devoted himself to awakening aninterest in Greek literature and the cause of the Greeks (1748-1833). 

CORAM, THOMAS, English philanthropist, the founder of the FoundlingHospital, born at Lyme Regis; a man of varied ventures by sea and land;settled in London; was touched by the sufferings of the poor, where, withwarm support from Hogarth, he founded the said institution; his charityso impoverished him that he ended his days as an object of charityhimself, being dependent on a small annuity raised by subscription(1667-1751). 

CORATO (30), a town in a fertile region in S. Italy, 25 m. W. OfBari. 

CORBLE-STEPS, or CROW-STEPS, steps ascending the gable of ahouse, common in old Scotch gables as well as in the Netherlands andelsewhere in old towns. 

COR`BULO, a distinguished general under Claudius and Nero, whoconquered the Parthians; Nero, being jealous of him, invited him toCorinth, where he found a death-warrant awaiting him, upon which heplunged his sword into his breast and exclaimed, "Well deserved!" in 72A. D. 

CORCY`RA, an Ionian island, now CORFU (q. V. ). 

CORDAY, CHARLOTTE, a French heroine, born at St. Saturnin, of goodbirth, granddaughter of Corneille; well read in Voltaire and Plutarch;favoured the Revolution, but was shocked at the atrocities of theJacobins; started from Caen for Paris as an avenging angel; sought outMarat, with difficulty got access to him, stabbed him to the heart as hesat "stewing in slipper-bath, " and "his life with a groan gushed out, indignant, to the shades below"; when arrested, she "quietlysurrendered"; when questioned as to her motive, she answered, "I killedone man to save a hundred thousand"; she was guillotined next day(1763-1793). 

CORDELIA, the youngest and favourite daughter of King Lear. 

CORDELIERS, (1) the strictest branch of the Franciscan Order ofMonks, so called from wearing a girdle of knotted cord; (2) also a clubduring the French Revolution, founded in 1789, its prominent members, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and Marat; was a secession from the JacobinClub, which was thought lukewarm, and met in what had been a convent ofthe Cordeliers monks; it expired with Danton. 

CORDERIUS, a grammarian, born in Normandy; being a Protestantsettled in Geneva and taught; author of Latin "Colloquies, " once veryfamous (1478-1567). 

CORDILLERAS, the name of several chains of mountains in S. America. 

CORDITE, a smokeless powder, invented by Sir F. A. Abel, beingcomposed principally of gun-cotton and glycerine. 

CORDON BLUE, formerly the badge of the Order of the Holy Ghost, nowthe badge of highest excellence in a cook. 

CORDOUAN, a lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde. 

COR`DOVA (70), a city on the Paraná, in the Argentine; also a town(48) in Andalusia, Spain, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, in aprovince of the name, 80 m. NE. Of Seville; once a Moorish capital, andfamous for its manufacture of goat leather; has a cathedral, once amagnificent mosque. 

COREA (6, 511), an Eastern Asiatic kingdom occupying the mountainouspeninsula between the Yellow and Japan Seas, in the latitude of Italy, with Manchuria on its northern border, a country as large as GreatBritain. The people, an intelligent and industrious race, are Mongols, followers of Confucius and Buddha. After being for 300 years tributary toChina, it passed under Japanese influence, and by the Chinese defeat inthe war with Japan, 1894-95, was left independent. The climate ishealthy, but subject to extremes; rivers are ice-bound for four months. Wheat, rice, and beans are grown. There are gold, silver, iron, and coalmines, and great mineral wealth. There are extensive manufactures ofpaper, and some silk industry. Three ports are open to foreigners; butmost of the trade is with Japan; exports hides, beans, and paper; importscotton goods. The capital is Seoul (193). 

CORELLI, ARCANGELO, an Italian musical composer, celebrated for hisskill on the violin; his compositions mark a new musical epoch; he hasbeen called the father of instrumental music (1653-1713). 

CORELLI, MARIE, a novelist, a prolific authoress, and very popular;her first work "The Romance of Two Worlds, " one of her latest "TheSorrows of Satan"; _b_. 1864. 

CORFE CASTLE, a village in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, round acastle now in ruins, and the scene of martyrdoms and murders not a few inits day. 

CORFU (78), the most northerly of the Ionian Islands and thelargest, 40 m. Long, from 4 to 18 broad; was under the protection ofBritain, 1815-64; has since belonged to Greece; has a capital (79) of thesame name. 

CORIN`NA, a poetess of ancient Greece, born in Boeotia; friend andrival of Pindar; only a few fragments of her poetry remain. 

CORINNE, the heroine and title of a novel of Mme. De Staël's, herprincipal novel, in which she celebrates the praises of the great men andgreat masterpieces of Italy; her heroine is the type of a woman inspiredwith poetic ideas and the most generous sentiments. 

CORINTH, an ancient city of Greece, and one of the most flourishing, on an isthmus of the name connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland;a great centre of trade and of material wealth, and as a centre of luxurya centre of vice; the seat of the worship of Aphrodité, a very differentgoddess from Athene, to whom Athens was dedicated. 

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, two epistles of St. Paul to the Churchhe had established in Corinth, the chief object of which was to cleanseit of certain schisms and impurities that had arisen, and to protestagainst the disposition of many in it to depart from simple gospel whichthey had been taught. 

CORIOLA`NUS, a celebrated Roman general of patrician rank, whorallied his countrymen when, in besieging Corioli, they were being drivenback, so that he took the city, and was in consequence called Coriolanus;having afterwards offended the plebs, he was banished from the city; tookrefuge among the people he had formerly defeated; joined cause with them, and threatened to destroy the city, regardless of every entreaty to spareit, till his mother, his wife, and the matrons of Rome overcame him bytheir tears, upon which he withdrew and led back his army to Corioli, prepared to suffer any penalty his treachery to them might expose him. 

CORIOLI, a town of ancient Latium, capital of the Volsci. 

CORK (73), a fine city, capital of a county (436) of the same namein Munster, Ireland, on the Lee, 11 m. From its mouth; with a magnificentharbour, an extensive foreign trade, and manufactures of various kinds. 

CORMENIN, a French statesman and jurist, born at Paris; had greatinfluence under Louis Philippe; his pamphlets, signed _Timon_, made nosmall stir; left a work on administrative law in France (1788-1886). 

CORMONTAIGNE, a celebrated French engineer, born at Strasburg;successor of Vauban (1696-1752). 

CORNARO, an illustrious patrician family in Venice, from which forcenturies several Doges sprung. 

CORN-CRACKER, the nickname of a Kentucky man. 

CORNEILLE, PIERRE, the father of French tragedy, born at Rouen, theson of a government legal official; was bred for the bar, but he neithertook to the profession nor prospered in the practice of it, so gave it upfor literature; threw himself at once into the drama; began bydramatising an incident in his own life, and became the creator of thedramatic art in France; his first tragedies are "The Cid, " which indeedis his masterpiece, "Horace, " "Cinna, " "Polyeucte, " "Rodogune, " and "LeMenteur"; in his verses, which are instinct with vigour of conception aswell as sublimity of feeling, he paints men as they should be, virtuousin character, brave in spirit, and animated by the most exaltedsentiments. Goethe contrasts him with Racine: "Corneille, " he says, "delineated great men; Racine, men of eminent rank. " "He rarely provokesan interest, " says Professor Saintsbury, "in the fortunes of hischaracters; it is rather in the way that they bear their fortune, andparticularly in a kind of haughty disdain for fortune itself. .. He showsan excellent comic faculty at times, and the strokes of irony in hisserious plays have more of true humour in them than appears in almost anyother French dramatist" (1606-1684). 

CORNEILLE, THOMAS, younger brother of the preceding, a dramatist, whose merits were superior, but outshone by those of his brother(1625-1709). 

CORNELIA, the daughter of Scipio Africanus and the mother of theGRACCHI (q. V. ), the Roman matron who, when challenged by arival lady to outshine her in wealth of gems, proudly led forth her sonssaying, "These are my jewels"; true to this sentiment, it was as themother of the Gracchi she wished to be remembered, and is remembered, inthe annals of Rome. 

CORNELIUS, PETER VON, a distinguished German painter, born atDüsseldorf; early gave proof of artistic genius, which was carefullyfostered by his father; spent much time as a youth in studying andcopying Raphael; before he was 20 he decorated a church at Neuss withcolossal figures in chiaroscuro; in 1810 executed designs for Goethe's"Faust"; in the year after went to Rome, where, along with others, herevived the old art of fresco painting, in which he excelled his rivals;the subjects of these were drawn from Greek pagan as well as Christiansources, his "Judgment" being the largest fresco in the world; thethought which inspires his cartoons, critics say, surpasses his power ofexecution; it should be added, he prepared a set of designs to illustratethe "Nibelungen" (1787-1867). 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, a university in Ithaca, New York State, foundedin 1868 at a cost of £152, 000, named after its founder, Ezra Cornell; itsupports a large staff of teachers, and gives instruction in alldepartments of science, literature, and philosophy; it provides educationto sundry specified classes free of all fees, as well as means of earningthe benefits of the institution to any who may wish to enjoy them. 

CORN-LAWS, laws in force in Great Britain regulating the import andexport of corn for the protection of the home-producer at the expense ofthe home-consumer, and which after a long and bitter struggle betweenthese two classes were abolished in 1846. 

CORN-LAW RHYMER, THE, EBENEZER ELLIOTT (q. V. ) who, in avolume of poems, denounced the corn-laws and contributed to theirabolition. 

CORNO, MONTE, the highest peak of the Apennines, 9545 ft. 

CORNWALL (322), a county in the SW. Extremity of England, forming apeninsula between the English and the Bristol Channels, with a ruggedsurface and a rocky coast, indented all round with more or less deep baysinclosed between high headlands; its wealth lies not in the soil, butunder it in its mines, and in the pilchard, mackerel, and other fisheriesalong its stormy shores; the county town is Bodmin (5), the largestPenzance (12), and the mining centre Truro (11). 

CORNWALL, BARRY, the _nom de plume_ of B. W. PROCTER (q. V. ). 

CORNWALLIS, LORD, an English general and statesman; saw service inthe Seven Years' and the American Wars; besieged in the latter at YorkTown, was obliged to capitulate; became Governor-General of India, andforced Tippoo Sahib to submit to humiliating terms; as Lord-Lieutenant ofIreland crushed the rebellion of '98; re-appointed Governor-General ofIndia; died there (1738-1805). 

COROMANDEL COAST, E. Coast of Hindustan, extending from the Krishnato Cape Comorin. 

CORONATION CHAIR, a chair inclosing a stone carried off by Edward I. From Scone in 1296, on which the sovereigns of England are crowned. 

COROT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a celebrated French landscape-painter, born atParis; was 26 years of age before he began to apply himself to art, whichhe did by study in Italy and Rome, returning to Paris in 1827, where hebegan to exhibit, and continued to exhibit for nearly 50 years; it waslong before his pieces revealed what was in him and the secret of hisart; he appeared also as a poet as well as a painter, giving free play tohis emotions and moving those of others (1796-1875). 

CORPS LÉGISLATIF, the lower house of the French legislature, consisting of deputies. 

CORPUSCULAR PHILOSOPHY, the philosophy which accounts for physicalphenomena by the position and the motions of corpuscles. 

CORR, ERIN, an eminent engraver, born in Brussels, of Irish descent;spent 10 years in engraving on copper-plate Rubens's "Descent from theCross" (1793-1862). 

CORRECTOR, ALEXANDER THE, Alexander Cruden, who believed he had adivine mission to correct the manners of the world. 

CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA, an illustrious Italian painter, bornat Correggio, in Modena; founder of the Lombard school, and distinguishedamong his contemporaries for the grace of his figures and the harmony ofhis colouring; he has been ranked next to Raphael, and it has been saidof him he perfected his art by adding elegance to truth and grandeur; heis unrivalled in chiaroscuro, and he chose his subjects from pagan aswell as Christian legend (1494-1534). 

CORRIB, LOUGH, an irregularly shaped lake in Galway and Mayo, 25 m. Long and from 1 to 6 m. Broad, with stone circles near it. 

CORRIENTES (300), a province of the Argentine Republic, between theParaná and the Uruguay; also its capital (18), surrounded byorange-groves; so called from the currents that prevail in the river, along which steamers ply between it and Buenos Ayres. 

CORRUGATED IRON, in general, sheet-iron coated with zinc. 

CORSAIR, THE, a poem of Byron's, in which the author paints himselfin heroic colours as an adventurer who drowns reflection in theintoxication of battle. 

CORSICA (288), an island belonging to France, in the Mediterranean, ceded to her by Genoa in 1768, but by position, race, and languagebelongs to Italy; has been subject by turns to the powers that insuccession dominated that inland sea; is 116 m. Long and 52 broad; itabounds in mountains, attaining 9000 ft. ; covered with forests andthickets, which often serve as shelter for brigands; it affords goodpasturage, and yields olive-oil and wine, as well as chesnuts, honey, andwax. 

CORSICA PAOLI, a native of Corsica, who vainly struggled to achievethe independence of his country, and took refuge in England, where heenjoyed the society of the Johnson circle, and was much esteemed. SeePAOLI. 

CORSSEN, WILLIAM PAUL, a learned German philologist, born at Bremen;made a special study of the Latin languages, and especially the Etruscan, which he laboured to prove was cognate with that of the Romans and of theraces that spoke it (1820-1875). 

CORT, an eminent Dutch engraver, went to Venice, lived with Titian;engraved some of his pictures; went to Rome and engraved Raphael's"Transfiguration"; executed over 150 plates, all displaying greataccuracy and refinement (1536-1578). 

CORTES, the name given in Spain and Portugal to the NationalAssembly, consisting of nobles and representatives of the nation. 

CORTES, a Spanish soldier and conqueror of Mexico, born inEstremadura; went with Velasquez to Cuba; commanded the expedition toconquer Mexico, and by burning all his ships that conveyed his men, cutoff all possibility of retreat; having conquered the tribes that he meton landing, he marched on to the capital, which, after a desperatestruggle, he reduced, and laid waste and then swept the country, by allwhich he added to the wealth of Spain, but by his cruelty did dishonourto the chivalry of which Spain was once so proud (1485-1547). 

CORTONA, PIETRO DA, an Italian painter, born at Cortona, in Tuscany, and eminent as an architect also; decorated many of the finest buildingsin Rome (1596-1669). 

CORUÑA (34), a fortified town on NW. Of Spain, with a commodiousharbour, where Sir John Moore fell in 1809 while defending theembarkation of his army against Soult, and where his tomb is. 

CORVÉE, obligation as at one time enforced in France to rendercertain services to Seigneurs, such as repairing of roads, abolished bythe Contituent Assembly. 

CORYAT, THOMAS, an English traveller and wit, who, in his"Crudities, " quaintly describes his travels through France and Italy(1577-1617). 

CORYBANTES, priests of CYBELE (q. V. ), whose religiousrites were accompanied with wild dances and the clashing of cymbals. 

CORYDON, a shepherd in Virgil, name for a lovesick swain. 

CORYPHÆUS, originally the leader of the chorus in a Greek drama, nowa leader in any dramatic company, or indeed in any art. 

COS (10), an island in the Ægean Sea, birthplace of Hippocrates andApelles. 

COSENZA (18), a town in Calabria, in a deep valley, where Alaricdied. 

COSIN, JOHN, a learned English prelate, Dean of Peterborough, deposed by the Puritans for his ritualistic tendencies; exiled for 10years in Paris; returned at the Restoration, and was made Bishop ofDurham, where he proved himself a Bishop indeed, and a devoted supporterof the Church which he adorned by his piety (1594-1672). 

COSMAS, ST. , Arabian physician and patron of surgeons, brother ofSt. Damian; suffered martyrdom in 303. Festival, Sept. 27. 

COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES (i. E. Voyager to India), an Egyptian monkof the 6th century, born in Alexandria, singular for his theory of thesystem of the world, which, in opposition to the Ptolemaic system, heviewed as in shape like that of the Jewish Tabernacle, with Eden outside, and encircled by the ocean, a theory he advanced as in conformity withScripture. 

COSMO I. , Grand-duke of Tuscany, head of the Republic of Florence, of which he made himself absolute master, a post he held in defiance ofall opposition, in order to secure the independence of the state hegoverned, as well as its internal prosperity (1519-1574). 

COSMOGRAPHY, any theory which attempts to trace the system of thingsback to its first principle or primordial element or elements. 

COSQUIN, EMMANUEL, a French folk-lorist, and author of "PopularTales of Lorraine, " in the introduction to which he argues for the theorythat the development as well as the origin of such tales is historicallytraceable to India; _b_. 1841. 

COSSACKS, a military people of mixed origin, chiefly Tartar andSlav, who fought on horseback, in their own interest as well as that ofRussia, defending its interests in particular for centuries past in manya struggle, and forming an important division of the Russian army. 

COSTA RICA (262), a small republic of Central America; it is mostlytableland; contains many volcanoes; is chiefly agricultural, though richin minerals. 

COSTARD, a clown in "Love's Labour Lost, " who apes the affectedcourt-wits of the time in a misappropriate style. 

COSTELLO, LOUISA STUART, an English authoress; her descriptivepowers were considerable, and her novels had a historical groundwork(1799-1870). 

COSTER, _alias_ LAURENS JANSZOON, born at Haarlem, to whom hiscountrymen, as against the claims of Gutenberg, ascribe the invention ofprinting (1370-1440). 

COSWAY, RICHARD, a distinguished miniature portrait-painter, born atTiverton; Correggio his model (1740-1821). 

CÔTE D'OR, a range of hills in the NE. Of France, connecting theCévennes with the Vosges, which gives name to a department (376) famedfor its wines. 

COTENTIN, a peninsula NW. Of Normandy, France, jutting into theEnglish Channel, now forms the northern part of the dep. La Manche, thefatherland of many of the Norman conquerors of England. 

COTES, ROGER, an English mathematician of such promise, that Newtonsaid of him, "If he had lived, we should have known something"(1682-1716). 

CÔTES DU NORD (618), a dep. Forming part of Brittany; the chiefmanufacture is linen. 

COTIN, THE ABBÉ, a French preacher, born in Paris; a butt of thesarcasm of Molière and Boileau (1604-1682)

COTMAN, JOHN SELL, an English painter, born at Norwich; madeTurner's acquaintance; produced water-colour landscapes, growing inrepute; has been pronounced "the most gifted of the Norwich School"(1782-1842). 

COTOPAXI, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, the highest and mostactive in the world, nearly 20, 000 ft. , 35 m. SE. Of Quito; it rises in aperfect cone, 4400 ft. Above the plateau of Quito. 

COTSWOLD HILLS, in Gloucestershire, separating the Lower Severn fromthe sources of the Thames; they are of limestone rock, 50 m. Long, andextend N. And S. 

COTTA, CAIUS, a distinguished Roman orator, 1st century B. C. ;mentioned with honour by Cicero. 

COTTA, German publisher, born at Stuttgart; established in Tübingen;published the works of Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Herder, and others ofnote among their contemporaries (1764-1832). 

COTTIAN ALPS, the range N. Of the Maritime between France and Italy. 

COTTIN, SOPHIE, a celebrated French authoress; wrote, among otherromances, the well-known and extensively translated "Elizabeth; or, theExiles of Siberia, " a wildly romantic but irreproachably moral tale(1773-1807). 

COTTLE, JOSEPH, a publisher and author; started business in Bristol;published the works of Coleridge and Southey on generous terms; wrote inhis "Early Recollections" an exposure of Coleridge that has been severelycriticised and generally condemned (1770-1853). 

COTTON, BISHOP, born at Chester; eminent as a master at Rugby underDr. Arnold, and as head-master at Marlborough College; was appointedBishop of Calcutta, an office he fulfilled zealously; was drowned in theGanges; he figures as "the young master" in "Tom Brown's School-days"(1813-1866). 

COTTON, CHARLES, a poet, born in Staffordshire; his poetry was ofthe burlesque order, and somewhat gross; chiefly famous for histranslation of "Montaigne's Essays"; was friend and admirer of IsaakWalton, and wrote a supplement to his "Angler" (1630-1687). 

COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, a distinguished antiquary, and founder ofthe Cottonian Library, now in the British Museum, born at Denton; was afriend of Camden, and assisted him in his great work; was a greatbook-collector; was exposed to persecution for his presumed share in thepublication of an obnoxious book, of which the original was found in hiscollection; had his books, in which he prided himself, taken from him, inconsequence of which he pined and died (1571-1631). 

COUCY, an old noble family of Picardy, who had for device, "Roi nesuis, ne duc, ne comte aussi; je suis le sire de Coucy. " RAOUL, acourt-poet of the family in the 12th century, lost his life at the siegeof Acre in the third crusade. 

COULOMB, a learned French physicist and engineer, born at Angoulême;the inventor of the torsion balance, and to whose labours manydiscoveries in electricity and magnetism are due; lived through theFrench Revolution retired from the strife (1736-1806). 

COUNCILS, CHURCH, assemblies of bishops to decide questions ofdoctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. They are oecumenical, national, or provincial, according as the bishops assembled represented the wholeChurch, a merely national one, or a provincial section of it. Eastern:Nice, 325 (at which Arius was condemned), 787; Constantinople, 381 (atwhich Apollinaris was condemned), 553, 680, 869; Ephesus, 431 (at whichNestorius was condemned); Chalcedon, 451 (at which Eutyches wascondemned). Western: Lateran, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1274; Synod ofVienne, 1311; Constance, 1414; Basel, 1431-1443; Trent, 1545-1563;Vatican, 1869. 

COURAYES, a French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic who pled on behalf ofAnglican orders; was censured; fled to England, where he was welcomed, and received academic honours (1681-1777). 

COURBET, a French vice-admiral, born at Abbeville; distinguishedhimself by his rapid movements and brilliant successes in the East(1827-1885). 

COURBET, GUSTAVE, French painter, born at Ornans; took tolandscape-painting; was head of the Realistic school; joined the Communein 1871; his property and pictures were sold to pay the damage done, andespecially to restore the Vendôme Column; died an exile in Switzerland(1819-1877). 

COURIER, PAUL LOUIS, a French writer, born at Paris; began life as asoldier, but being wounded at Wagram, retired from the army, and gavehimself to letters; distinguished himself as the author of politicalpamphlets, written with a scathing irony such as has hardly beensurpassed, which brought him into trouble; was assassinated on his estateby his gamekeeper (1772-1825). 

COURLAND (637), a partly wooded and partly marshy province ofRussia, S. Of the Gulf of Riga; the population chiefly German, andProtestants; agriculture their chief pursuit. 

COURT DE GÉBELIN, a French writer, born at Nîmes, author of a workentitled "The Primitive World analysed and compared with the ModernWorld" (1725-1784). 

COURTNEY, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, no match for Wickliffein debate, but had his revenge in persecuting his followers (1341-1396). 

COURTOIS, JACQUES, a French painter of battle-pieces; became aJesuit, died a monk (1621-1676). 

COURTRAIS (29), a Belgian town on the Lys. 

COUSIN, VICTOR, a French philosopher, born in Paris; founder of aneclectic school, which derived its doctrines partly from the Scottishphilosophy and partly from the German, and which Dr. Chalmers in hisclass-room one day characterised jocularly as neither Scotch nor German, but just half seas over; he was a lucid expounder, an attractivelecturer, and exerted no small influence on public opinion in France; hada considerable following; retired from public life in 1848, and died atCannes; he left a number of philosophic works behind him, the best knownamong us "Discourses on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good"(1792-1867). 

COUSIN MICHAEL, a disparaging designation of our German kindred, asslow, heavy, unpolished, and ungainly. 

COUSIN-MONTAUBAN, a French general, commanded the Chinese expeditionof 1860, and, after a victory over the Chinese, took possession of Pekin(1796-1878). 

COUSINS, SAMUEL, a mezzotint engraver, born at Exeter; engraved"Bolton Abbey, " "Marie Antoinette in the Temple, " and a number of platesafter eminent painters; left a fund to aid poor artists (1801-1880). 

COUSTON, the name of three eminent French sculptors: NICOLAS(1658-1733); GUILLAUME, father (1678-1746); and GUILLAUME, son(1716-1777). 

COUTHON, GEORGES, a violent revolutionary, one of a triumvirate withRobespierre and St. Just, who would expel every one from the Jacobin Clubwho could not give evidence of having done something to merit hanging, should a counter-revolution arrive; was paralysed in his limbs fromhaving had to spend a night "sunk to the middle in a cold peat bog" toescape detection as a seducer; trapped for the guillotine; tried to makeaway with himself under a table, but could not (1756-1794). 

COUTTS, THOMAS, a banker, born in Edinburgh, his father having beenLord Provost of that city; joint-founder and eventually sole manager ofthe London banking house, Coutts & Co. ; left a fortune of £900, 000(1735-1822). 

COUVADE, a custom among certain races of low culture in which afather before and after childbirth takes upon himself the duties andcares of the mother. 

COUZA, PRINCE, born at Galatz, hereditary prince of Moldavia andWallachia; reigned from 1858 to 1860; died in exile, 1873. 

COVENANT, SOLEMN LEAGUE AND, an engagement, with representativesfrom Scotland, on the part of the English Parliament to secure to theScotch the terms of their National Covenant, and signed by honourablemembers in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, September 25, 1643, on thecondition of assistance from the Scotch in their great struggle with theking. 

COVENANT, THE NATIONAL, a solemn engagement on the part of theScottish nation subscribed to by all ranks of the community, the firstsignature being appended to it in the Greyfriars' Churchyard, Edinburgh, on February 28, 1638, to maintain the Presbyterian Church and to resistall attempts on the part of Charles I. To foist Episcopacy upon it; itwas ratified by the Scottish Parliament in 1640, and subscribed byCharles II. In 1650 and 1651. 

COVENANTERS, a body of strict Presbyterians who held out against thebreach of the Solemn League and Covenant. 

COVENT GARDEN, properly Convent Garden, as originally the garden ofWestminster Abbey, the great fruit, flower, and vegetable market ofLondon; is one of the sights of London early on a summer morning. 

COVENTRY (55), a town in Warwickshire, 18½ m. SE. Of Birmingham;famous for the manufacture of ribbons and watches, and recently the chiefseat of the manufacture of bicycles and tricycles; in the old streets aresome quaint old houses; there are some very fine churches and a number ofcharitable institutions. 

COVENTRY, SIR JOHN, a member of the Long Parliament; when, as amember of Parliament in Charles II. 's reign, he made reflections on theprofligate conduct of the king, he was set upon by bullies, who slit hisnose to the bone; a deed which led to the passing of the Coventry Act, which makes cutting and maiming a capital offence (1640-1682). 

COVERDALE, MILES, translator of the English Bible, born inYorkshire; his translation was the first issued under royal sanction, being dedicated to Henry VIII. ; done at the instance of Thomas Cromwell, and brought out in 1535, and executed with a view to secure the favour ofthe authorities in Church and State, displaying a timid hesitancyunworthy of a manly faith in the truth; both he and his translationnevertheless were subjected to persecution, 2500 copies of the latter, printed in Paris, having been seized by the Inquisition and committed tothe flames (1487-1568). 

COVERLEY, SIR ROGER DE, member of the club under whose auspices the_Spectator_ is professedly edited; represents an English squire of QueenAnne's reign. 

COWELL, JOHN, an English lawyer, author of "Institutes of the Lawsof England" and of a law dictionary burnt by the common hangman formatter in it derogatory to the royal authority; _d_. 1611. 

COWEN, FREDERICK HYMEN, a popular English composer, born inKingston, Jamaica; his works consist of symphonies, cantatas, oratories, as well as songs, duets, &c. ; is conductor of the Manchester SubscriptionConcerts in succession to Sir Charles Hallé; _b_. 1852. 

COWES, a watering-place in the N. Of the Isle of Wight, separated bythe estuary of Medina into E. And W. ; engaged in yacht-building, and thehead-quarters of the Royal Yacht Club. 

COWLEY, ABRAHAM, poet and essayist, born in London; a contemporaryof Milton, whom he at one time outshone, but has now fallen into neglect;he was an ardent royalist, and catered to the taste of the court, which, however, brought him no preferment at the Restoration; he was a master ofprose, and specially excelled in letter-writing; he does not seem to haveadded much to the literature of England, except as an essayist, and inthis capacity has been placed at the head of those who cultivated thatclear, easy, and natural style which culminated in Addison (1618-1667). 

COWLEY, HENRY WELLESLEY, EARL, an eminent diplomatist, brother ofthe Duke of Wellington; served as a diplomatist in Vienna, Constantinople, and Switzerland, and was ambassador to France from 1852to 1867 (1804-1884). 

COWPER, WILLIAM, a popular English poet, born at GreatBerkhampstead, Hertford, of noble lineage; lost his mother at six, andcherished the memory of her all his days; of a timid, sensitive nature, suffered acutely from harsh usage at school; read extensively in theclassics; trained for and called to the bar; was appointed at 32 a clerkto the House of Lords; qualifying for the duties of the appointmentproved too much for him, and he became insane; when he recovered, heretired from the world to Huntingdon beside a brother, where he formed anintimacy with a family of the name of Unwin, a clergyman in the place; onMr. Unwin's death he removed with the family to Olney, inBuckinghamshire, where he lived as a recluse and associated with the Rev. John Newton and Mrs. Unwin; shortly after he fell insane again, andcontinued so for two years; on his recovery he took to gardening andcomposing poems, his first the "Olney Hymns, " the melancholy beingcharmed away by the conversation of a Lady Austin, who came to live inthe neighbourhood; it was she who suggested his greatest poem, the"Task"; then followed other works, change of scene and associates, thedeath of Mrs. Unwin, and the gathering of a darker and darker cloud, tillhe passed away peacefully; it is interesting to note that it is to thisperiod his "Lines to Mary Unwin" and his "Mother's Picture" belong(1731-1800). 

COX, DAVID, an eminent landscape painter, rated by some next toTurner, born at Birmingham; began his art as a scene-painter; painted asa landscapist first in water-colour, then in oil; many of his best worksare scenes in N. Wales; his works have risen in esteem and value; anambition of his was to get £100 for a picture, and one he got only £20for brought £3602 (1793-1830). 

COX, SIR GEORGE, an English mythologist, specially distinguished forresolving the several myths of Greece and the world into idealisations ofsolar phenomena; he has written on other subjects, all of interest, andis engaged with W. T. Brande on a "Dictionary of Science, Literature, andArt"; _b_. 1827. 

COXCIE, MICHAEL, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin(1497-1592). 

COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS, librarian, became assistant-librarian of theBodleian Library, Oxford, in 1838, and ultimately head-librarian in 1860;under his direction the catalogue, consisting of 720 folio volumes, wascompleted; held this post till his death; has edited several works ofvalue; is one of Dean Burgon's "Twelve Good Men" (1811-1881). 

COXE, WILLIAM, a historical writer, heavy but painstaking, born inLondon; wrote "History of the House of Austria" and the "Memoirs ofMarlborough, " and on "Sir Robert Walpole and the Pelham Administrations"(1747-1828). 

COXWELL, a celebrated English aëronaut; bred a dentist; took toballooning; made 700 ascents; reached with Glaisher an elevation of 7 m. ;_b_. 1819. 

COZENS, JOHN ROBERT, a landscape painter, a natural son of Peter theGreat; pronounced by Constable the greatest genius that ever touchedlandscape, and from him Turner confessed he had learned more than fromany other landscapist; his mind gave way at last, and he died insane(1752-1801). 

CRABBE, GEORGE, an English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk;began life as apprentice to an apothecary with a view to the practice ofmedicine, but having poetic tastes, he gave up medicine for literature, and started for London with a capital of three pounds; his firstproductions in this line not meeting with acceptance, he was plunged inwant; appealing in vain for assistance in his distress, he fell in withBurke, who liberally helped him and procured him high patronage, underwhich he took orders and obtained the living of Trowbridge, which he heldfor life, and he was now in circumstances to pursue his bent; hisprincipal poems are "The Library, " "The Village, " "The Parish Register, ""The Borough, " and the "Tales of the Hall, " all, particularly the earlierones, instinct with interest in the lives of the poor, "the sacrifices, temptations, loves, and crimes of humble life, " described with the most"unrelenting" realism; the author in Byron's esteem, "though Nature'ssternest painter, yet the best" (1754-1832). 

CRACOW (75), a city in Galicia, the old capital of Poland; where theold Polish kings were buried, and the cathedral of which contains thegraves of the most illustrious of the heroes of the country andThorwaldsen's statue of Christ; a large proportion of the inhabitants areJews. 

CRADLE MOUNTAIN, a mountain in the W. Of Tasmania. 

CRAIG, JOHN, a Scottish Reformer, educated at St. Andrews, andoriginally a Dominican monk; had been converted to Protestantism by studyof Calvin's "Institutes, " been doomed to the stake by the Inquisition, but had escaped; the coadjutor in Edinburgh of Knox, and his successor inhis work, and left a confession and catechism (1512-1580). 

CRAIG, SIR THOMAS, an eminent Scottish lawyer, author of a treatiseon the "Jus Feudale, " which has often been reprinted, as well as threeothers in Latin of less note; wrote in Latin verse a poem on Queen Mary'smarriage to Darnley (1538-1608). 

CRAIGENPUTTOCK, a craig or whinstone hill of the puttocks (smallhawks), "a high moorland farm on the watershed between Dumfriesshire andGalloway, 10 m. From Dumfries, " the property for generations of a familyof Welshes, and eventually that of their heiress, Jane Welsh Carlyle, "the loneliest spot in all the British dominions, " which the Carlylesmade their dwelling-house in 1828, where they remained for seven years, and where "Sartor" was written. "It is certain, " Carlyle says of it longafter, "that for living and thinking in I have never since found in theworld a place so favourable. .. . How blessed, " he exclaims, "might poormortals be in the straitest circumstances if their wisdom and fidelity toheaven and to one another were adequately great!"

CRAIK, GEORGE LITTLE, an English author, born in Fife, educated atSt. Andrews; settled early in London as a littérateur; was associatedwith Charles Knight in his popular literary undertakings; was author ofthe "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, " and the "History ofEnglish Literature and Learning"; edited "Pictorial History of England, "contributed to "Penny Cyclopædia, " and became professor of EnglishLiterature, Queen's College, Belfast (1799-1866). 

CRAIK, MRS. , _née_ MULOCK, born at Stoke-upon-Trent; authoressof "John Halifax, Gentleman, " her chief work, which has had, andmaintains, a wide popularity; married in 1865 a nephew and namesake ofthe preceding, a partner of the publishing house of Macmillan & Co. ;wrote for the magazines, besides some 14 more novels (1826-1887). 

CRAIL, a little old-fashioned town near the East Neuk of Fife, whereJames Sharp was minister; a decayed fishing-place, now a summer resort. 

CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST, a distinguished German composer and pianist(1771-1858). 

CRANACH, LUCAS, a celebrated German painter, born at Kronach, in thebishopric of Bamberg; was patronised by Frederick the Wise, Elector ofSaxony, whom he accompanied in 1493 to the Holy Land; was engraver aswell as painter, skilled in portraiture as well as in historical scenes;was intimately associated with the German reformers Luther andMelanchthon, whose portraits he painted among others; the works of histhat remain are chiefly altar-pieces; his chief work is the "Crucifixion"in Weimar, where he died (1472-1553). 

CRANE, ICHABOD, a tall, lean, lank, Yankee schoolmaster in Irving's"Legend of Sleepy Hollow. "

CRANE, WALTER, poet and painter; has published various illustratedbooks and poems illustrated by himself, and is an authority on decorativeart; _b_. 1845. 

CRANMER, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Nottinghamshire;educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; recommended himself to Henry VIII. By favouring his divorce, writing in defence of it, and pleading for itbefore the Pope, the latter in vain, as it proved; on his return waselevated to the archbishopric, in which capacity he proved a zealouspromoter of the Reformation, by having the Bible translated andcirculated, and by the suppression of monasteries; pronounced sentence ofdivorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn;by these and other compliances he kept the favour of Henry, but on theaccession of Mary he was committed to the Tower and persuaded to recant, and even signed a recantation, but on being called to recant in public, and refusing to do so, he was dragged to the stake, thrust his right handinto the flames, and exclaimed, "Oh, this unworthy hand" (1489-1566). 

CRANNOGE, a species of lake-dwelling and stronghold, of whichremains are found in Scotland and Ireland. 

CRAPAUD, JEAN, a nickname of the Frenchmen. 

CRASHAW, RICHARD, a minor poet, born in London; bred for the EnglishChurch; went to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic; fell intopecuniary difficulties, but was befriended by Cowley and recommended to apost; was an imitator of George Herbert, and his poems were of the sameclass, but more fantastical; his principal poems were "Steps to theTemple" and the "Delights of the Muses"; both Milton and Pope areindebted to him (1616-1650). 

CRASSUS, LUCIUS LICINIUS, the greatest Roman orator of his day, became consul 55 B. C. ; during his consulship a law was passed requiringall but citizens to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social War(140-91 B. C. ). 

CRASSUS, MARCUS LICINIUS, the triumvir with Pompey and Cæsar; wasavaricious, and amassed great wealth; appointed to the province of Syria, provoked out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he wastreacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, and pouredmelted gold into his mouth, saying as he did so, "Now sate thyself withthe metal of which thou wert so greedy when alive" (115-53 B. C. ). 

CRATES, a Greek cynic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes; 4th centuryB. C. 

CRATINUS, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; limited the actors ina piece to three, and the first to introduce into the drama attacks onpublic men, wrote also satires on vice (519-424 B. C. ). 

CRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher of Mytilene, contemporary ofPompey and Cicero; soothed the sunken spirit of the former after thedefeat at Pharsalia with the consolations of philosophy. 

CRATYLUS, a dialogue of Plato's on the connection between languageand thought. 

CRAWFORD, MARION, a novelist, born in Tuscany, of American origin, son of the succeeding; spent a good deal of his early years in India, andnow lives partly in New York and partly in Italy; his works, which arenumerous, are chiefly novels, his first "Mr. Isaacs" (1882), original andstriking; an able writer, and a scholarly; _b_. 1854. 

CRAWFORD, THOMAS, an American sculptor, studied at Rome underThorwaldsen; his "Orpheus in Search of Eurydice" brought him into notice, and was followed by an array of works of eminent merit; died in Londonfrom a tumour on the brain, after being struck with blindness(1814-1857). 

CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, EARL OF, better known as Lord Lindsay, andas the author of "Letters from the Holy Land, " "Progression byAntagonism, " and "Sketches of the History of Christian Art"; died atFlorence, and was entombed at Dunecht, whence his body was abstracted andfound again in a wood near by after a seven months' search (1812-1880). 

CRAYER, CASPAR DE, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp;pictures and altar-pieces by him are to be seen in Brussels and Ghent(1582-1669). 

CREAKLE, MR. , a bullying schoolmaster in "David Copperfield. "

CREASY, SIR EDWARD, chief-justice of Ceylon, author of "The FifteenDecisive Battles of the World, " "Rise and Progress of the BritishConstitution, " &c. (1812-1878). 

CREATIN, a substance found in the muscles of vertebrate animals, butnever in invertebrate. 

CRÉBILLON, a French dramatist, born at Dijon, bred to the law, devoted to literature and the composition of tragedies, of which heproduced several, mostly on classical subjects, such as "Atreus andThyestes, " "Electra, " of unequal merit, though at times of great power;he ranked next Voltaire among the dramatists of the time (1674-1762). 

CRÉCY, a French village, 12 m. NE. Of Abbeville, where Edward III. , with 30, 000, defeated the French with 68, 000, and destroyed the flower ofthe chivalry of France, Aug. 26, 1346. 

CRÉDIT FONCIER, a system of credit originating in France on thesecurity of land, whereby the loan is repayable so that principal andinterest are extinguished at the same time. 

CREECH, WILLIAM, an Edinburgh bookseller, for 40 years the chiefpublisher in the city; published the first Edinburgh edition of Burns'spoems (1745-1815). 

CREEKS, a tribe of American Indians settled in Indian territory. 

CREIGHTON, MANDELL, bishop of London, born at Carlisle; previouslybishop of Peterborough; has written on Simon de Montfort, on Wolsey, andon the Tudors and the Reformation, but his great work is the "History ofthe Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, " a work of greatvalue; _b_. 1843. 

CRÉMIEUX, a French advocate and politician, born at Nîmes, of Jewishbirth; a member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and of theNational Defence in 1870; took a deep interest in the destiny of his race(1796-1880). 

CREMONA, old town on the Po, in Lombardy, 46 m. SE. Of Milan;interesting for its churches, with their paintings and frescoes; noted atone time for the manufacture of violins. 

CREMORNE (37), gardens in Chelsea; a popular place of amusement, nowclosed. 

CREOLE STATE, Louisiana, U. S. 

CRESCENT CITY, New Orleans, U. S. , as originally occupying a convexbend of the Mississippi. 

CRESCENTINI, a celebrated Italian soprano (1769-1846). 

CRESCENTIUS, a patrician of Rome who, in the 10th century, sought todestroy the imperial power and restore the republic; on this he wasdefeated by Otho III. , to whom he surrendered on promise of safety, butwho hanged and beheaded him; Stephano, his widow, avenged this treacheryby accepting Otho as her lover, and then poisoning him. 

CRESPI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian painter; copied the works of Correggio, Caracci, and other masters (1665-1747). 

CRESWELL, SIR CRESWELL, judge, born in Newcastle; representedLiverpool in Parliament; was raised to the bench by Peel, and, on theestablishment of the Divorce Court, was in 1858 named first judge(1794-1863). 

CRESWICK, THOMAS, an English landscape painter, born in Sheffield;simple, pleasantly-suggestive, and faithfully-painted scenes from naturewere the subjects of his art; was employed a good deal in bookillustrations (1811-1869). 

CRETE or CANDIA (295), a mountainous island in theMediterranean, 160 m. Long and from 7 to 30 m. Broad; in nominalsubjection to Turkey after 1669, it was in perpetual revolt. The risingof 1895 led to the intervention of the great powers of Europe, and theTurkish troops having been withdrawn in 1898 under pressure from GreatBritain, Russia, France, and Italy, Prince George of Greece was appointedHigh Commissioner, ruling on behalf of these powers. Turkey still retainsthe nominal suzerainty. 

CRETINISM, a disease prevalent in valleys as those of the Alps, characterised by mental imbecility, and associated with abnormal andarrested physical development. 

CREUSA, a wife of Æneas, fell behind her husband, lost her way inescaping from Troy, and perished. 

CREUSOT, LE (18), a town in the dep. Saône-et-Loire, near Autun, which owes its importance to the large iron-works established there; is adistrict rich in coal and iron. 

CREUZER, a learned German philologist, born at Marburg; becameprofessor of Ancient History and Philology at Heidelberg; his chief work, and one by which he is most widely known, "Symbolik und Mythologie derAlten Völker, besonders der Griechen, " "Symbolism and Mythology ofAncient Peoples, especially the Greeks"; left an autobiography(1771-1858). 

CREWE (29), a town in Cheshire, 43 m. SE. Of Liverpool, a greatrailway junction, and where the London and North-Western Railway Companyhave their works. 

CRICHTON, JAMES, surnamed The Admirable, a Scotchman of gentle, evennoble birth, educated at St. Andrews, had George Buchanan for tutor;early developed the most extraordinary gifts of both body and mind;travelled to Paris, Rome, Venice, Milan, and Mantua; astonished every oneby his strength and skill as an athlete, and his dexterity and agility indebate; at Mantua he became tutor to the son of the Duke, when one nighthe was attacked in the streets by a band of masked men, whom he overcameby his skill, recognised his pupil among them, and presented to him hissword, upon which, it is said, the young man immediately ran him throughwith it (1560-1585). 

CRIEFF (5), a town in Perthshire, at the foot of the Grampians, 18m. W. Of Perth, amid exquisite scenery; has a climate favourable forinvalids. 

CRILLON, a French military captain, born at Mars, in Provence;distinguished himself through five reigns, those of Henry II. , FrancisII. , Charles IX. , Henry III. , and Henry IV. , of the last of whom hebecame companion in arms, who designated him _Le brave des braves_, andwho wrote to him this famous note after the victory of Arques: "Wherewere you, brave Crillon? we have conquered, and you were not there. "(1541-1615). 

CRIMEA (250), a peninsula in the S. Of Russia, almost surrounded bythe Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, being connected with the mainland bythe narrow isthmus of Perekop; has a bold and precipitous coast 650 m. Inlength; is barren in the N. , but fertile and fruitful in the S. ;population chiefly Russians and Tartars. 

CRIMEAN WAR, a war carried on chiefly in the Crimea, on the part ofTurkey aided by Britain and France, in which Sardinia eventually joinedthem, against the encroachments of Russia in the E. , and which wasproclaimed against Russia, March 24, 1854, and ended by the fall ofSebastopol, September 8, 1855, the treaty of peace following having beensigned at Paris, March 1856. 

CRINAN CANAL, a canal for vessels of light burden, 9 m. Long, fromLoch Fyne, in Argyllshire, constructed to avoid sailing round the Mull ofKintyre, thereby saving a distance of 115 m. 

CRISPI, FRANCESCO, an Italian statesman, born in Sicily; co-operatedwith Garibaldi in the Sicilian Revolution, and since active as a memberof the Government in the kingdom of Italy; _b_. 1819. 

CRISPIN, the patron saint of shoemakers, of noble birth, who withhis brother had to flee from persecution in Rome to Gaul, where theysettled at Soissons; preached to the people and supported themselves byshoemaking; they finally suffered martyrdom in 287. Festival, Oct. 25. 

CRITIAS, a pupil of Socrates, who profited so little by his master'steaching that he became the most conspicuous for his cruelty and rapacityof all the thirty tyrants set up in Athens by the Spartans(450-402 B. C. ). 

CRITON, a rich Athenian, friend and disciple of Socrates; supportedhim by his fortune, but could not persuade him to leave the prison, though he had procured the means of escape. 

CROA`TIA AND SLAVONIA (2, 201), a Hungarian crownland, lying betweenthe Drave and Save, tributaries of the Danube, and stretching westward tothe Adriatic. It is half as large as Ireland, wooded and mountainous, with marshy districts along the river courses. The soil is fertile, growing cereals, fibres, tobacco, and grapes; silkworms and bees are asource of wealth; horses, cattle, and swine are raised in large numbers. The province is poor in minerals, and lacks a harbour. The people areSlavs, of Roman Catholic faith; backward in education, but showing signsof progress. 

CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD, novelist, born near New Galloway, Kirkcudbright; bred for the Church, and for some time Free Churchminister at Penicuik, Midlothian, a charge he resigned in 1895, havingpreviously published a volume of sketches entitled "The StickitMinister, " which was so received as to induce him to devote himself toliterature, as he has since done with more or less success; _b_. 1859. 

CROESUS, the last of the kings of Lydia, in the 6th century B. C. ;celebrated for his wealth, so that his name became a synonym for a manoverwhelmed by the favours of fortune; being visited by Solon, he askedhim one day if he knew any one happier than he was, when the sageanswered, "No man can be counted happy till after death. " Of the truth ofthis Croesus had ere long experience; being condemned to death by Cyrus, who had defeated him and condemned him to be burnt, and about to be ledto the burning pile, he called out thrice over the name of Solon; whenCyrus, having learned the reason, moved with pity, ordered his release, retained him among his counsellors, and commended him when dying to thecare of his son. 

CROKER, JOHN WILSON, a politician and man of letters, born inGalway, though of English descent; bred for the bar; wrote in advocacy ofCatholic emancipation; represented Downpatrick in Parliament; was in 1809appointed Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he held for 20 years; wasone of the founders of the _Quarterly Review_, to which, it is said, hecontributed 200 articles; edited Boswell's "Life of Johnson" with Notes;was an obstinate Tory, satirised by Disraeli and severely handled byMacaulay; founded the Athenæum Club (1780-1857). 

CROKER, T. CROFTON, Irish folk-lorist, born in Cork; held awell-paid clerkship in the Admiralty; collected and published stories, legends, and traditions of the S. Of Ireland; he wrote with a humourwhich was heartily Irish; his most original work being "The Adventures ofBarney Mahoney"; he was a zealous antiquary; he was a brilliantconversationalist (1798-1854). 

CROLL, JAMES, a geologist, born near Coupar-Angus; contributedmaterially to geology by his study of the connection between alterationsof climate and geological changes (1821-1890). 

CROLY, GEORGE, a versatile author; designed for the Church; took toliterature, and wrote in all kinds, poetry, biography, and romance; hisbest romance "Salathiel"; died rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook(1780-1860). 

CROMARTY, a county in the N. Of Scotland, consisting of tenfragments scattered up and down Ross-shire; the county town, thebirthplace of Hugh Miller, being on the N. Side of Cromarty Firth, whichopens eastward into the Moray Firth, and forms a large harbour 1 m. Longand 7 broad, protected at the mouth by two beetling rocks called Sutors, one on each side, 400 and 463 ft. High. 

CROME, JOHN, usually called Old Crome, a landscape-painter, born inNorwich, of poor parents; began as a house-painter and then adrawing-master; one of the founders of the Norwich Society of Artists;took his subjects from his native county, and treated them with fidelityto nature; his pictures have risen in value since his death (1768-1821). 

CROMPTON, SAMUEL, inventor of the spinning-mule, born near Bolton;for five years he worked at his project, and after he got it into shapewas tormented by people prying about him and trying to find out hissecret; at last a sum was raised by subscription to buy it, and he gotsome £60 for it, by which others became wealthy, while he had to spend, and end, his days in comparative poverty, all he had to subsist on beinga life annuity of £63 which some friends bought him (1753-1827). 

CROMWELL, OLIVER, Lord-Protector of the commonwealth of England, born at Huntingdon, the son of Robert Cromwell, the younger son of SirHenry Cromwell, and of Elizabeth Steward, descended from the royal familyof Scotland, their third child and second boy; educated at Huntingdon andafterwards at Cambridge; left college at his father's death, and occupiedhimself in the management of his paternal property; entered Parliament in1629, and represented Cambridge in 1640, where to oppose the king he, bycommission in 1642 from Essex, raised a troop of horse, famous afterwardsas his "Ironsides"; with these he distinguished himself, first at MarstonMoor in 1644, and next year at Naseby; crushed the Scots at Preston in1648, who had invaded the country in favour of the king, now in the handsof the Parliament, and took Berwick; sat at trial of the king and signedhis death-warrant, 1649; sent that same year to subdue rebellion inIreland, he sternly yet humanely stamped it out; recalled from Ireland, he set out for Scotland, which had risen up in favour of Charles II. , andtotally defeated the Scots at Dunbar, Sept. 3, 1650, after which Charlesinvaded England and the Royalists were finally beaten at Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651, upon which his attention was drawn to affairs of government;taking up his residence at Hampton Court, his first step was to dissolvethe Rump, which he did by military authority in 1653; a new Parliamentwas summoned, which also he was obliged to dismiss, after being declaredLord-Protector; from this time he ruled mainly alone, and wherever hispower was exercised, beyond seas even, it was respected; at last hiscares and anxieties proved too much for him and wore him out, he fell illand died, Sept. 3, 1658, the anniversary of his two great victories atDunbar and Worcester; they buried him in Westminster, but his body wasdug up at the Restoration, hanged at Tyburn, and buried under thegallows; such treatment his body was subjected to after he was gone, andfor long after he was no less ignobly treated by several succeedinggenerations as a hypocrite, a fanatic, or a tyrant; but now, thanks toCarlyle, he is come to be regarded as one of the best and wisest rulersthat ever sat on the English throne (1599-1658). See "Cromwell's Lettersand Speeches, " edited by Carlyle. 

CROMWELL, RICHARD, son of the Protector; appointed to succeed him;was unequal to the task, and compelled to abdicate, April 26, 1659;retired into private life; went after the Restoration for a time abroad;returned under a feigned name, and lived and died at Cheshunt(1626-1712). 

CROMWELL, THOMAS, minister of Henry VIII. , and _malleus monachorum_, the "mauler of the monks, " born at Putney; the son of a blacksmith; led alife of adventure for eight or nine years on the Continent; settled inEngland about the beginning of Henry's reign; came under notice ofWolsey, whose confidant he became, and subordinate agent in suppressingthe smaller monasteries; on his master's fall rose into favour with Henryby suggesting he should discard the supremacy of the Pope, and assume thesupremacy of the Church himself; attained, in consequence, the highestrank and authority in the State, for the proposal was adopted, with theresult that the Crown remains the head of ecclesiastical authority inEngland to this day; the authority he thus acquired he employed in sohigh-handed a fashion that he lost the favour of both king and people, till on a sudden he was arrested on charges of treason, was condemned todeath, and beheaded on Tower Hill (1485-1540). 

CRONSTADT (42), the port of St. Petersburg, at the mouth of theNeva; a strongly fortified place, and the greatest naval station in thecountry; it is absolutely impregnable. 

CROOKES, WILLIAM, an eminent chemist and physicist, born in London;distinguished for researches in both capacities; discovered the metalthallium, and invented the radiometer; _b_. 1832. 

CROSS, MRS. , George Eliot's married name. 

CROSS, SOUTHERN, a bright constellation in the southern hemisphere, consisting of four stars. 

CROSS, VICTORIA, a naval and military decoration instituted in 1854;awarded for eminent personal valour in the face of the enemy. 

CROSS FELL, one of the Pennine range of mountains in the N. OfEngland, 2892 ft. , on the top of which five counties meet. 

CROSSE, ANDREW, electrician, born at Somersetshire; made severaldiscoveries in the application of electricity; he was a zealousscientist, and apt to be over-zealous (1784-1855). 

CROSSRAGUEL, an abbey, now in ruins, 2 m. SW. Of Maybole, Ayrshire, where John Knox held disputation with the abbot, and of which in his"History of the Reformation" he gives a humorous account (1562). 

CROTCH, WILLIAM, musical composer of precocious gifts, and writer inmusic, born in Norwich; became, in 1797, professor of Music in Oxford, and in 1822 Principal of the Royal Academy; his anthems are well known(1775-1847). 

CROTONA, an ancient large and flourishing Greek city, Magna Græcia, in Italy; the residence of the philosopher Pythagoras and the athleteMilo. 

CROWE, EYRE EVANS, historian and miscellaneous writer, born inHants; editor of the _Daily News_; author of the "History of France" and"Lives of Eminent Foreign Statesmen" (1799-1868). 

CROWE, SIR JAMES ARCHER, writer on art and a journalist, born inLondon, son of the preceding; is associated with Cavalcaselle in severalworks on art and famous artists; _b_. 1825. 

CROWNE, JOHN, playwright, born in Nova Scotia, a contemporary andrival of Dryden; supplied the stage with plays for nearly 30 years(1640-1705). 

CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI, bishop of the Niger Territory; an African bybirth; was captured to be sold as a slave, but released by an Englishcruiser; baptized a Christian in 1825; joined the first Niger Expeditionin 1841; sent out as a missionary in 1843; appointed bishop in 1864, theduties of which he discharged faithfully, zealously, and well(1810-1891). 

CROYDON (103), the largest town in Surrey, on the Wandle, 10 m. SW. Of London Bridge, and practically now a suburb of London. 

CRUDEN, ALEXANDER, author of a "Complete Concordance of the HolyScriptures, " with which alone his name is now associated; born inAberdeen; intended for the Church, but from unsteadiness of intellectnot qualified to enter it; was placed frequently in restraint; appears tohave been a good deal employed as a press corrector; gave himself out as"Alexander the Corrector, " commissioned to correct moral abuses(1701-1770). 

CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE, a richly gifted English artist, born in London, of Scotch descent; the first exhibition of his talent was in theillustration of books for children, but it was in the line of humoroussatire he chiefly distinguished himself; and he first found scope for hisgifts in this direction in the political squibs of William Hone, afaculty he exercised at length over a wide area; the works illustrated byhim include, among hundreds of others, "Grimm's Stories, " "PeterSchlemihl, " Scott's "Demonology, " Dickens's "Oliver Twist, " andAinsworth's "Jack Shepherd"; like Hogarth, he was a moralist as well asan artist, and as a total abstainer he consecrated his art at length todramatise the fearful downward career of the drunkard; his greatest work, done in oil, is in the National Gallery, the "Worship of Bacchus, " whichis a vigorous protestation against this vice (1792-1878). 

CRUSADES, THE, military expeditions, organised from the 11th centuryto the 13th, under the banner of the Cross for the recovery of the HolyLand from the hands of the Saracens, to the number of eight. _The First_(1096-1099), preached by Peter the Hermit, and sanctioned by the Councilof Clermont (1095), consisted of two divisions: one, broken into twohordes, under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless respectively, arrived decimated in Syria, and was cut to pieces at Nicæa by the sultan;while the other, better equipped and more efficiently organised, laidsiege to and captured in succession Nicæa, Antioch, and Jerusalem, whereGodfrey of Bouillon was proclaimed king. _The Second_ (1147-1149), preached by St. Bernard, consisting of two armies under Conrad III. OfGermany and Louis VII. Of France, laid siege in a shattered state toDamascus, and was compelled to raise the siege and return a mere remnantto Europe. _The Third_ (1189-1193), preached by William, archbishop ofTyre, and provoked by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, of which onedivision was headed by Barbarossa, who, after taking Iconium, was drownedwhile bathing in the Orontes, and the other, headed by Philippe Augustusand Richard Coeur de Lion, who jointly captured Acre and made peace withSaladin. _The Fourth_ (1202-1204), under sanction of Pope Innocent III. , and undertaken by Baldwin, count of Flanders, having got the length ofVenice, was preparing to start for Asia, when it was called aside toConstantinople to restore the emperor to his throne, when, upon his deathimmediately afterwards, the Crusaders elected Baldwin in his place, pillaged the city, and left, having added it to the domain of the Pope. _The Fifth_ (1217-1221), on the part of John of Brienne, king ofJerusalem, and Andrew II. , king of Hungary, who made a raid upon Egyptagainst the Saracens there, but without any result. _The Sixth_(1228-1229), under conduct of Frederick II. Of Germany, as heir throughJohn of Brienne to the throne of Jerusalem, who made a treaty with thesultan of Egypt, whereby the holy city, with the exception of the Mosqueof Omar, was made over to him as king of Jerusalem. _The Seventh_(1248-1254), conducted by St. Louis in the fulfilment of a vow, in whichLouis was defeated and taken prisoner, and only recovered his liberty bypayment of a heavy ransom. _The Eighth_ (1270), also undertaken by St. Louis, who lay dying at Tunis as the towns of Palestine fell one afteranother into the hands of the Saracens. The Crusades terminated with thefall of Ptolemaïs in 1291. 

CRUSOE, ROBINSON, the hero of Defoe's fiction of the name, ashipwrecked sailor who spent years on an uninhabited island, and iscredited with no end of original devices in providing for his wants. SeeSELKIRK. 

CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER, a Hungarian traveller and philologist, born in Körös, Transylvania; in the hope of tracing the origin of theMagyar race, set out for the East in 1820, and after much hardship by theway arrived in Thibet, where, under great privations, though aided by theEnglish Government, he devoted himself to the study of the Thibetanlanguage; in 1831 settled in Calcutta, where he compiled his ThibetanGrammar and Dictionary, and catalogued the Thibetan works in the libraryof the Asiatic Society; died at Darjeeling just as he was setting out forfresh discoveries (1784-1836). 

CTESIAS, Greek physician and historian of Persia; was present withArtaxerxes Mnemon at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B. C. , and stayedafterwards at the Persian court, where he got the materials for hishistory, of which only a few fragments are extant. 

CTESIPHON, an Athenian who, having proposed that the city shouldconfer a crown of gold on Demosthenes, was accused by Æschines ofviolating the law in so doing, but was acquitted after an eloquentoration by Demosthenes in his defence. 

CUBA (1, 500), the largest of the West India Islands, 700 m. Long andfrom 27 m. To 290 m. In breadth; belonged to Spain, but is now under theprotection of the United States; is traversed from E. To W. By a range ofmountains wooded to the summit; abounds in forests--ebony, cedar, mahogany, &c. ; soil very fertile; exports sugar and tobacco; principaltown, Havana. 

CUBBIT, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent English engineer, born in Norfolk;more or less employed in most of the great engineering undertakings ofhis time (1785-1861). 

CUDWORTH, RALPH, an eminent English divine and philosopher, born inSomerset; his chief work, a vast and discursive one, and to which he oweshis fame, "The True Intellectual System of the Universe, " in which heteaches a philosophy of the Platonic type, which ascribes more to theabiding inner than the fugitive outer of things; he defends revealedreligion on grounds of reason against both the atheist and thematerialist; his candour and liberality exposed him to muchmisconstruction, and on that account was deemed a latitudinarian. "Hestands high among our early philosophers for his style, which, if notexactly elegant and never splendid, is solid and clear" (1617-1688). 

CUENCA, a fine old city in Spain, 83 m. E. Of Madrid; also ahigh-lying city of Ecuador, over 100 m. S. Of Quito, with a delightfulclimate; both in provinces of the same name. 

CUJAS, or CUJACIUS, a celebrated French jurist, born atToulouse; devoted to the study of Roman law in its historicaldevelopment, and the true founder of the Historical school in thatdepartment (1522-1590). 

CULDEES, fraternities of uncertain origin and character scattered upand down Ireland, and especially Scotland, hardly at all in England, fromthe 9th or 10th to the 14th century; instituted, as would appear, to keepalive a religious spirit among themselves and disseminate it among theirneighbours, until on the establishment of monastic orders in the countrythey ceased to have a separate existence and lost their individuality inthe new communities, as well as their original character; they appear tohave been originally, whatever they became at length, something likethose fraternities we find later on at Deventer, in Holland, with whichThomas à Kempis was connected, only whereas the former sought to plantChristianity, the latter sought to purify it. The name disappears after1332, but traces of them are found at Dunkeld, St. Andrews, Brechin, andelsewhere in Scotland; in Ireland they continued in Armagh to theReformation, and were resuscitated for a few years in the 17th century. 

CULLEN, PAUL, Cardinal, Catholic primate of Ireland, born inKildare; was an extreme Ultramontanist; vigorously opposed all secretsocieties in the country with revolutionary aims, as well as the systemof mixed education then in force (1803-1878). 

CULLEN, WILLIAM, physician, born at Hamilton; studied in Glasgow;held successively the chairs of Chemistry, the Institutes of Medicine, and Medicine in Edinburgh University; author of several medical works;did much to advance the science of medicine; the celebrated Dr. Black wasone of his pupils in chemistry (1710-1790). 

CULLODEN, a moor, 5 m. NE. Of Inverness, where the Duke ofCumberland defeated Prince Charles in 1746, and finally wrecked theStuart cause in the country. 

CULPEPER, NICHOLAS, a herbalist, born in London, who practisedmedicine and associated therewith the art of the astrologer as well asthe faith of a Puritan; was a character and a phenomenon of his time(1616-1654). 

CULVERWEL, NATHANIEL, an English author, born in Middlesex; educatedat Cambridge, and one of the Platonist school there; wrote "Light ofNature, " "Spiritual Optics, " "Worth of Souls, " &c. , works which evincevigour of thinking as well as literary power (1633-1651). 

CUMÆ, a considerable maritime city of Campania, now in ruins;alleged to be the earliest Greek settlement in Italy; famous as theresidence of the SIBYL (q. V. ), and a place of luxurious resortfor wealthy Romans. 

CUMBERLAND (250), a county in N. Of England, of mountain and dale, with good agricultural and pasture land, and a rich coal-field on thecoast, as well as other minerals in the interior. 

CUMBERLAND, DR. RICHARD, bishop of Peterborough, born in London, educated at Cambridge, wrote several works, the chief "An Inquiry intothe Laws of Nature, " in reply to Hobbes, in which he elevates thetendency to produce happiness into something like a moral principle;wrought hard, lived to a great age, and is credited with the saying, "Better wear out than rust out" (1631-1718). 

CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, dramatist, great-grandson of the preceding; wasa prolific writer for the stage; the play "The West Indian, " whichestablished his reputation, was his best (1732-1811). 

CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, second son of George II. , wasdefeated at Fontenoy by the French in 1745; defeated the Pretender nextyear at Culloden; earned the title of "The Butcher" by his crueltiesafterwards; was beaten in all his battles except this one (1721-1765). 

CUMBRIA, a country of the Northern Britons which, in the 6thcentury, extended from the Clyde to the Dee, in Cheshire. 

CUMMING, GORDON, the African lion-hunter, of Celtic origin; servedfor a time in the army; wrote an account of his hunting exploits in his"Five Years of a Hunter's Life" (1820-1866). 

CUMMING, JOHN, a Scotch clergyman, popular in London, born atFintray, in Aberdeenshire; of a highly combative turn, and ratherfoolhardy in his interpretations of prophecy (1807-1881). 

CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL, founder of Cunard Line of Steamships, born inHalifax, Nova Scotia (1787-1865). 

CUNAXA, a town in Babylonia, on the Euphrates, 60 m. N. Of Babylon. 

CUNCTATOR, a name given to Fabius Maximus on account of thetantalising tactics he adopted to wear out his adversary Hannibal. 

CUNE`IFORM, an epithet applied to the wedge-shaped characters inwhich the Assyrian and other ancient monumental inscriptions are written. 

CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN, poet and man of letters, born in the parish ofKeir, Dumfriesshire; bred to the mason craft, but devoted his leisurehours to study and the composition of Scottish ballads, which, whenpublished, gained him the notice of Sir Walter Scott; in 1810 he went toLondon, where he wrote for periodicals, and obtained employment asassistant to Chantrey the sculptor, in which post he found leisure tocultivate his literary proclivities, collating and editing tales andsongs, editing Burns with a Life, and writing the Lives of famousartists, and died in London; "a pliant, _Naturmensch_, " Carlyle found himto be, "with no principles or _creed_ that he could see, but excellentold _habits_ of character" (1784-1842). 

CUNNINGHAM, PETER, son of the preceding, author of the "Life ofDrummond of Hawthornden, " "Handbook of London, " &c. (1816-1867). 

CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM, a Scotch divine, born in Hamilton, well read inthe Reformation and Puritan theology, a vigorous defender of Scottishorthodoxy, and a stanch upholder of the independence of the Church ofState control; was a powerful debater, and a host in any controversy inwhich he embarked (1805-1861). 

CUPID, or AMOR, the god of love, viewed as a chubby little boy, armed with bow and arrows, and often with eyes bandaged. 

CUPID AND PSYCHE, an allegorical representation of the trials of thesoul on its way to the perfection of bliss, being an episode in the"Golden Ass" of Apuleius. See PSYCHE. 

CURAÇA`O (26), one of Antilles, in the West Indies, belonging to theDutch, 36 m. Long by about 8 broad; yields, along with other West Indianproducts, an orange from the peel of which a liqueur is made in Holland. 

CURÉ OF MEUDON, Rabelais. 

CURE`TES, priests of Cybele, in Crete, whose rites were celebratedwith clashing of cymbals. 

CURETON, WILLIAM, Syriac scholar, born in Shropshire, assistant-keeper of MSS. At the British Museum; applied himself to thestudy and collation of Syriac MSS. , and discovered, among other relics, aversion of the Epistle of Ignatius; was appointed canon of Westminster(1808-1864). 

CURIATII, three Alban brothers who fought with the three HoratiiRoman brothers, and were beaten, to the subjection of Alba to Rome. 

CURLE, EDMUND, a London bookseller, notorious for the issue oflibellous and of obscene publications, and for prosecutions he wassubjected to in consequence (1675-1747). 

CURLING, a Scottish game played between rival clubs, belonginggenerally to different districts, by means of cheese-shaped stones hurledalong smooth ice, the rules of which are pretty much the same as those inbowling. 

CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT, an Irish orator and wit, born in co. Cork;became member of Parliament in 1784; though a Protestant, employed allhis eloquence to oppose the policy of the Government towards Ireland, together with the Union; retired on the death of Pitt; was Master of theRolls for a time; was Irish to the core (1750-1817). 

CURRIE, JAMES, a Liverpool physician, born in Kirkpatrick-Fleming, Dumfriesshire; was the earliest biographer and editor of Burns, in 4vols. , a work he undertook for behoof of his widow and family, and whichrealised £1400, involved no small labour, was done _con amore_, and donewell (1756-1805). 

CURRIE, SIR PHILIP, her Majesty's ambassador at Constantinople since1893; has been connected with the Foreign Office since 1854; had beenattaché at St. Petersburg, and was secretary to Lord Salisbury; _b_. 1834. 

CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM, an American writer, born in Rhode Island, distinguished as contributor or editor in connection with severalAmerican journals and magazines; _b_. 1824. 

CURTIUS, a noble youth of Roman legend who leapt on horsebackfull-armed into a chasm in the Forum, which the soothsayers declaredwould not close unless at the sacrifice of what Rome held dearest, andwhich he did, judging that the wealth of Rome lay in its citizens, andtradition says the chasm thereupon immediately closed. 

CURTIUS, ERNST, a German archæologist and philosopher, born atLübeck; travelled in Greece and Asia Minor; contributed much by hisresearches to the history of Greece, and of its legends and works of art;his jubilee as a professor was celebrated in 1891, when he received thecongratulations of the Emperor William II. , to whose father he at onetime had acted as tutor; _b_. 1814. 

CURTIUS, GEORG, German philologist, born at Lübeck, brother of thepreceding; held professorial appointments in Prague, Kiel, and Berlin;one of the best Greek scholars in Germany, and contributed largely to theetymology and grammar of the Greek language (1820-1885). 

CURTIUS, QUINTUS RUFUS, a Roman historian of uncertain date; wrote ahistory of Alexander the Great in ten books, two of which have been lost, the rest surviving in a very fragmentary state. 

CURTMANTLE, a surname of Henry II. , from a robe he wore shorter thanthat of his predecessors. 

CURULE CHAIR, a kind of ivory camp-stool, mounted on a chariot, onwhich a Roman magistrate, if consul, prætor, censor, or chief edile, satas he was conveyed in state to the senate-house or some public function. 

CURWEN, JOHN, an Independent clergyman, born in Yorkshire; thefounder of the Tonic Sol-fa system in music; from 1864 gave himself up tothe advocacy and advancement of his system (1816-1880). 

CURZON, GEORGE NATHANIEL, LORD, English statesman, son of aclergyman, educated at Eton and Oxford; became Fellow of All Souls;became Under-Secretary for India in 1891; travelled in the East, andwrote on Eastern topics, on which he became an authority; was appointedViceroy of India in 1899; _b_. 1859. 

CUSHING, an American jurist and diplomatist (1800-1879). 

CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE, an American actress, born in Boston;represented, among other characters, Lady Macbeth, Rosalind, MegMerilees, and Romeo (1810-1876). 

CUSTINE, COUNT DE, a French general, born at Metz; seized andoccupied Mayence, 1792; was forced out of it by the Prussians and obligedto retreat; was called to account and sent to the guillotine;"unsuccessfulness, " his crime; "had fought in America; was a proud, braveman, and his fortune led him _hither_" (1746-1793)

CÜSTRIN, a strong little town, 68 or 70 m. E. Of Berlin, where youngFrederick the Great was kept in close confinement by his father. 

CUTCH, a native State in the Bombay Presidency, in the countrycalled Gujarat. 

CUTCH, RANN OF, a salt-water morass between Gujarat and Scinde, which becomes a lake during the SW. Monsoon. 

CUTHBERT, a monk of Jarrow, a disciple of Bede; was with him when hedied, and wrote in a letter a graphic and touching account of his death. 

CUTHBERT, ST. , born in Northumbria; originally a shepherd; saw avision in the night-watches of the soul of St. Aidan ascending to heaven, which determined his destiny, and he became a monk; entered the monasteryof Melrose, and eventually became prior, but devoted most of his time tomission-work in the surrounding districts; left Melrose to be prior ofLindisfarne, but longing for an austerer life, he retired to, and led thelife of a hermit on, an island by himself; being persuaded to come back, he acted as bishop of Lindisfarne, and continued to act as such for twoyears, but his previous longings for solitude returned, and he went backto a hermit life, to spend a short season, as it happened, in prayer andmeditation; when he died; what he did, and the memory of what he did, left an imperishable impression for good in the whole N. Of England andthe Scottish borders; his remains were conveyed to Lindisfarne, and erelong to Durham (635-687). 

CUTTACK (47), capital of a district in S. Of Bengal, at the apex ofthe delta formed by the Mahanuddy; noted for its gold and silver filigreework. 

CUVIER, GEORGES, a celebrated naturalist, born at Montebéliard, ofHuguenot ancestry; the creator of comparative anatomy and palæontology;was educated at Stuttgart, where he studied natural science; but theobservation of marine animals on the coast of Normandy, where he held atutorship, first led him to the systematic study of anatomy, and broughthim into correspondence with Geoffroy St. Hilaire and others, who invitedhim to Paris, where he prosecuted his investigations, matured his views, and became professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes, amember of the French Institute, and Permanent Secretary of the Academy ofSciences, and eventually a peer of France; his labours in the science towhich he devoted his life were immense, but he continued to the last adetermined opponent of the theory, then being broached and now in vogue, of a common descent (1769-1832). 

CUXHAVEN, a German watering-place at the mouth of the Elbe, on thesouthern bank. 

CUYP, ALBERT, a celebrated Dutch landscape-painter, son of JacobCuyp, commonly called Old Cuyp, also a landscapist, born at Dort; paintedscenes from the banks of the Meuse and the Rhine; is now reckoned a rivalof Claude, though he was not so in his lifetime, his pictures selling nowfor a high price; he has been praised for his sunlights, but these, alongwith Claude's, have been pronounced depreciatively by Ruskin as"colourless" (1605-1691). 

CUZCO (20), a town in Peru, about 11, 440 ft. Above the sea-level, the ancient capital of the Incas; still retains traces of its formerextent and greatness, the inhabitants reckoned as then numbering 200, 000, and the civilisation advanced. 

CYBELE, a nature-goddess worshipped in Phrygia and W. Asia, whoseworship, like that of the nature divinities generally, was accompaniedwith noisy, more or less licentious, revelry; identified by the Greekswith RHEA (q. V. ), their nature-goddess. 

CYCLADES, islands belonging to Greece, on the East or the ÆgeanSea, so called as forming a circle round Delos, the most famous of thegroup. 

CYCLIC POETS, poets who after Homer's death caught the contagion ofhis great poem and wrote continuations, additions, &c. 

CYCLOPEAN WALLS, a name given to structures found in Greece, AsiaMinor, Italy, and Sicily, built of large masses of unhewn stone andwithout cement, such as it is presumed a race of gigantic strength likethe Cyclops (3) must have reared. 

CYCLOPS, a name given to three distinct classes of mythologicalbeings: (1) a set of one-eyed savage giants infesting the coasts ofSicily and preying upon human flesh; (2) a set of Titans, also one-eyed, belonging to the race of the gods, three in number, viz. , Brontes, Steropes, and Arges--three great elemental powers of nature, subjected byand subject to Zeus; and (3) a people of Thrace, famed for their skill inbuilding. 

CYMBELINE, a legendary British king, and the hero of Shakespeare'sromance play of the name. 

CYNÆGIRUS, a brother of Æschylus; distinguished himself at Marathon;is famed for his desperate attempt to seize a retreating ship. 

CYNEWULF, a Saxon poet, flourished at the second half of the 8thcentury; seems to have passed through two phases, first as a glad-heartedchild of nature, and then as a devout believer in Christ; at the formerstage wrote "Riddles" and "Ode to the West Wind, " at the latter histhemes were the lives of Christ and certain Saints. 

CYNICS, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Antisthenes, whowas a disciple of Socrates, but carried away with him only part ofSocrates' teaching and enforced that as if it were the whole, dropped allregard for humanity and the universal reason, and taught that "virtue laywholly in the avoidance of evil, and those desires and greeds that bindus to enjoyments, " so that his disciples were called the "Capuchins ofthe Old World. " These in time went further than their master, andconceived a contempt for everything that was not self-derived; theyderived their name from the gymnasium in Athens, where their mastertaught. 

CYPRIAN, ST. , one of the Fathers of the Church, born at Carthage, about the year 200, converted to Christianity in 245; devoted himselfthereafter to the study of the Bible, with the help of Tertullian hisfavourite author; became bishop of Carthage in 248; on the outbreak ofthe Decian persecution had to flee for his life, ministering to his flockthe while by substitutes; on his return, after two years, he was involvedin the discussion about the reception of the lapsed; under the Valerianpersecution was banished; being recalled, he refused to sacrifice to thegods, and suffered martyrdom in 258; he was a zealous bishop of the HighChurch type, and the father of such, only on broader lines. Festival, Sept. 16. 

CYPRUS (21), a fertile, mountainous island in the Levant, capitalNicosia (12); geographically connected with Asia, and the third largestin the Mediterranean, being 140 m. Long and 60 m. Broad; government cededto Great Britain in 1878 by the Sultan, on condition of an annualtribute; is a British colony under a colonial governor or HighCommissioner; is of considerable strategic importance to Britain; yieldscereals, wines, cotton, &c. , and has 400 m. Of good road, and a largetransit trade. 

CYRENAICS, a sect of Greek philosophers, disciples of Aristippus, who was a disciple of Socrates, but who broke away from his master bydivorcing virtue from happiness, and making "pleasure, moderated byreason, the ultimate aim of life, and the supreme good. "

CYRE`NE, a town and Greek colony in Africa, E. Of Egypt, extensiveruins of which still exist, and which was the capital of the State, called Cyrenaica after it, and the birthland of several illustriousGreeks. 

CYRIL, ST. , surnamed the PHILOSOPHER, along with his brotherMethodius, the "Apostle of the Slavs, " born in Thessalonica; invented theSlavonic alphabet, and, with his brother's help, translated the Bibleinto the language of the Slavs; _d_. 868. Festival, March 9. 

CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA, ST. , born at Alexandria, and bishop there; anecclesiastic of a violent, militant order; persecuted the Novatians, expelled the Jews from Alexandria, quarrelled with the governor, exciteda fanaticism which led to the seizure and shameful murder of Hypatia; hada lifelong controversy with Nestorius, and got him condemned by theCouncil of Ephesus, while he himself was condemned by the Council atAntioch (608), and both cast into prison; after release lived at peace(376-444). Festival, Jan. 28. 

CYRIL OF JERUSALEM, ST. , patriarch of Jerusalem, elected 351, and aFather of the Greek Church; in the Arian controversy then raging was aSemi-Arian, and was persecuted by the strict Arians; joined the Niceneparty at the Council of Constantinople in 381; was an instructor inchurch doctrine to the common people by his catechisms (315-386). Festival, March 18. 

CYROPÆDIA, a work by Xenophon, being an idealistic account of the"education of Cyrus the Great. "

CYRUS, surnamed the GREAT, or the ELDER, the founder ofthe Persian empire; began his conquests by overthrowing his grandfatherAstyages, king of the Medes; subdued Croesus, king of Lydia; laid siegeto Babylon and took it, and finished by being master of all Western Asia;was a prince of great energy and generosity, and left the nations hesubjected and rendered tributary free in the observances of theirreligions and the maintenance of their institutions; this is the story ofthe historians, but it has since been considerably modified by study ofthe ancient monuments (560-529 B. C. ). 

CYRUS, surnamed the YOUNGER, second son of Darius II. ;conspired against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, was sentenced to death, pardoned, and restored to his satrapy in Asia Minor; conspired anew, raised a large army, including Greek mercenaries, marched against hisbrother, and was slain at Cunaxa, of which last enterprise and its fatean account is given in the "Anabasis" of Xenophon; _d_. 401 B. C. 

CYTHERA, the ancient name of Cerigo; had a magnificent temple toVenus, who was hence called Cytheræa. 

CZARTORYSKI, a Polish prince, born at Warsaw; passed his early yearsin England; studied at Edinburgh University; fought under Kosciuskoagainst the Russians, and was for some time a hostage in Russia; gainedfavour at the Court there, and even a high post in the State; in 1830threw himself into the revolutionary movement, and devoted all hisenergies to the service of his country, becoming head of the government;on the suppression of the revolution his estates were confiscated; heescaped to Paris, and spent his old age there, dying at 90 (1770-1861). 

CZECHS, a branch of the Slavonic family that in the later half ofthe 6th century settled in Bohemia; have a language of their own, spokenalso in Moravia and part of Hungary. 

CZERNO`WITZ (54), the capital of the Austrian province of Bukowina, on the Pruth. 

CZERNY, CHARLES, a musical composer and pianist, born at Vienna;had Liszt and Thalberg for pupils (1791-1857). 

CZERNY, GEORGE, leader of the Servians in their insurrection againstthe Turks; assisted by Russia carried all before him; when that help waswithdrawn the Turks gained the advantage, and he had to flee; returningafter the independence of Servia was secured, he was murdered at theinstigation of Prince Milosch (1766-1817). 

D

DACCA (82), a city 150 m. NE. Of Calcutta, on a branch of theBrahmaputra, once the capital of Bengal, and a centre of Mohammedanism;famous at one time for its muslins; the remains of its former grandeurare found scattered up and down the environs and half buried in thejungle; it is also the name of a district (2, 420), well watered, both forcultivation and commerce. 

DACIA, a Roman province, N. Of the Danube and S. Of the Carpathians. 

DACIER, ANDRÉ, a French scholar and critic, born at Castres, inLanguedoc; assisted by his wife, executed translations of variousclassics, and produced an edition of them known as the "Delphin Edition"(1651-1722). 

DACIER, MADAME, distinguished Hellenist and Latinist, wife of thepreceding, born in Saumur (1651-1720). 

DACOITS, gangs of semi-savage Indian brigands and robbers, often 40or 50 in a gang. 

DA COSTA, ISAAC, a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam, of Jewish parents;turned Christian, and after the death of Bilderdijk was chief poet ofHolland (1798-1860). 

DÆDALUS, an architect and mechanician in the Greek mythology;inventor and constructor of the Labyrinth of Crete, in which the Minotaurwas confined, and in which he was also imprisoned himself by order ofMinos, a confinement from which he escaped by means of wings fastened onwith wax; was regarded as the inventor of the mechanic arts. 

DAGHESTAN (529), a Russian province W. Of the Caspian Sea, traversedby spurs of the Caucasus Mountains; chief town Derbend. 

DAGO, a marshy Russian island, N. Of the Gulf of Riga, near theentrance of the Gulf of Finland. 

DAGOBERT I. , king of the Franks, son of Clotaire II. , reformed thelaws of the Franks; was the last of the Merovingian kings who knew how torule with a firm hand; the sovereign power as it passed from his handswas seized by the mayor of the palace; _d_. 638. 

DAGON, the national god of the Philistines, represented as half-man, sometimes half-woman, and half-fish; appears to have been a symbol to hisworshippers of the fertilising power of nature, familiar to them in thefruitfulness of the sea. 

DAGUERREOTYPE, a process named after its inventor, Louis Daguerre, aFrenchman, of producing pictures by means of the camera on a surfacesensitive to light and shade, and interesting as the first step inphotography. 

DAHL, a Norwegian landscape-painter, born at Bergen; died professorof Painting at Dresden (1788-1857). 

DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLPH, a U. S. Naval officer and commander; inventeda small heavy gun named after him; commanded the blockading squadron atCharleston (1809-1870). 

DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH, a German historian and politician, born at Wismar; was in favour of constitutional government; wrote a"History of Denmark, " "Histories of the French Revolution and of theEnglish Revolution"; left an unfinished "History of Frederick the Great"(1785-1860). 

DAHN, FELIX, a German jurist, historian, novelist, and poet, born inHamburg; a man of versatile ability and extensive learning; becameprofessor of German jurisprudence at Königsberg; _b_. 1834. 

DAHNA DESERT, the central division of the Arabian Desert. 

DAHOMEY (150), a negro kingdom of undefined limits, and under Frenchprotectorate, in W. Africa, N. Of the Slave Coast; the religious rites ofthe natives are sanguinary, they offer human victims in sacrifice; is anagricultural country, yields palm-oil and gold dust, and once a greatcentre of the slave-trade. 

DAÏRI, the Mikado's palace or his court, and sometimes the Mikadohimself. 

DAKO`TA, NORTH and SOUTH (400), three times as large asEngland, forming two States of the American Union; consist of prairieland, and extend N. From Nebraska as far as Canada, traversed by theMissouri; yield cereals, especially wheat, and raise cattle. 

DALAI-LAMA, chief priest of Lamaism, reverenced as a livingincarnation of deity, always present on earth in him. See LAMAISM. 

DALAYRAC, celebrated French composer; author of a number of comicoperas (1753-1809). 

DALBERG, BARON DE, an eminent member of a noble German family;trained for the Church; was a prince-bishop; a highly cultured man, heldin high esteem in the Weimar Court circles, and a friend of Goethe andSchiller; an ecclesiastic, as one might suppose, only in name(1744-1817). 

DALBERG, DUC DE, nephew of the preceding; contributed to politicalchanges in France in 1814, and accompanied Talleyrand to the Congress ofVienna (1773-1833). 

D'ALBRET, JEANNE, queen of Navarre, and mother of Henry IV. OfFrance; came to Paris to treat about the marriage of her son to CharlesIX. 's sister; died suddenly, not without suspicion of foul-play, aftersigning the treaty; she was a Protestant (1528-1572). 

D'ALEMBERT, a French philosopher, devoted to science, and especiallyto mathematics; along with Diderot established the celebrated"Encyclopédie, " wrote the Preliminary Discourse, and contributed largelyto its columns, editing the mathematical portion of it; trained to quietand frugality, was indifferent to wealth and honour, and a very saint ofscience; no earthly bribe could tear him away from his chosen path oflife (1717-1783). 

DALGARNO, LORD, a heartless profligate in the "Fortunes of Nigel. "

DALGETTY, DUGALD, a swaggering soldier of fortune in the "Legend ofMontrose, " who let out his services to the highest bidder. 

DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN-RAMSAY, MARQUIS OF, Governor-Generalof India, third son of the ninth Earl; as Lord Ramsay served inParliament as member for Haddingtonshire; on his father's death in 1838entered the House of Lords; held office under Sir Robert Peel and LordRussell; went to India as Governor-General in 1848; ruled vigorously, annexed territory, developed the resources of the country, projected andcarried out important measures for its welfare; his health, however, gaveway at the end of eight years, and he came home to receive the thanks ofthe Parliament, elevation in the peerage, and other honours, but reallyto end his days in pain and prostration; dying without male issue, he wassucceeded in the earldom by Fox Maule, Lord Panmure (1812-1860). 

DALKEITH (7), a grain-market town in Midlothian, 6 m. SE. OfEdinburgh, with a palace adjoining, a seat of the Duke of Buccleuch. 

DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN, an American diplomatist, born inPhiladelphia; represented the United States as ambassador at St. Petersburg and at London, and was from 1844 to 1849 Vice-President(1792-1864). 

DALMATIA (527), a crownland of Austria, lying along the NE. Coast ofthe Adriatic, and bounded on the land side by Croatia, Bosnia, andHerzegovina; half the land is pasture, only one-ninth of it arable, whichyields cereals, wine, oil, honey, and fruit. 

DALRI`ADS, a Celtic race who came over from Ireland to Argyllshire, and established a kingdom in the SW. Of Scotland, till King KennethMacalpin succeeded in 843, who obtained rule both over it and thenorthern kingdom of the Picts, and became the first king of Scotland. 

DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER, hydrographer to the Admiralty and the EastIndia Company, born at New Hailes, and brother of Lord Hailes; producedmany good maps (1737-1808). 

DALTON, JOHN, chemist and physicist, born near Cockermouth, of aQuaker family; took early an interest in meteorology, and kept throughlife a record of meteorological observations; taught mathematics andphysics in Manchester; made his first appearance as an author in 1793 ina volume of his observations and essays, and in 1808 published "A NewSystem of Chemical Philosophy, " which he finished in 1810; famous for hisexperiments on the elastic force of steam, for his researches on theproportional weights of simple bodies, for his discovery of the atomictheory, as also for his investigations on colour-blindness byexperimenting on himself and his brother, who along with himself wascolour-blind (1766-1844). 

DALTONISM, COLOUR-BLINDNESS (q. V. ). See DALTON, JOHN. 

DALZIEL, THOMAS, general, born in Linlithgowshire; being hand-idleat home, entered the Russian service against the Turks; returning at therequest of Charles II. , was appointed commander-in-chief in Scotland;suppressed a rising of the Covenanters at Pentland in 1666; never onceshaved his beard after the execution of Charles I. (1599-1685). 

DAMAN, a Portuguese settlement with a port of the same name inGujarat, India, 100 m. N. Of Bombay. 

DAM`ARALAND, a territory on the W. Coast of South Africa, N. OfNamaqualand; the chief industry is pastoral; the mountain districts, which are rich in minerals, particularly copper, are inhabited byDamaras, who are nomads and cattle-rearers; it is a German protectoratesince 1890. 

DAMAS, COLONEL COMTE DE, a devoted adherent of Louis XVI. , and oneof his convoys on his attempt at flight. 

DAMASCUS (220), the capital of Syria, one of the oldest cities inthe world; stands 2260 ft. Above the sea-level; is a great centre of thecaravan trade; is embosomed in the midst of gardens and orchards, henceits appearance as the traveller approaches it is most striking; itshistory goes as far back as the days of Abraham; it was the scene of twogreat events in human destiny--the conversion of St. Paul, and, accordingto Moslem tradition, a great decisive moment in the life of Mahomet, whenhe resolutely turned his back once for all on the pleasures of the world. 

DAMASUS, ST. , Pope from 366 to 384, a Spaniard; a zealous opponentof the Arians and a friend of St. Jerome, who, under his sanction, executed his translation of the Bible into the Vulgate; there was aDamasus II. , Pope in 1048. 

DAME AUX CAMÉLIAS, LA, a romance and a drama by Alexander Dumas_fils_, one of his best creations. 

DAMIEN, FATHER, a French priest, born at Louvain; devoted his lifeto nurse and instruct the lepers in an island of the Hawaian group, and, though after 12 years infected with the disease himself, continued tominister to them till his death (1841-1889). 

DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANÇOIS, the would-be assassin of Louis XV. , bornnear Arras; aimed at the king as he was entering his carriage at Trianon, but failed to wound him mortally; was mercilessly tortured to death; wasknown before as _Robert le Diable_; his motive for the act was neverknown (1715-1757). 

DAMIETTA (36), a town, the third largest, in Egypt, on an easternbranch of the Nile, 8 m. From its mouth; has a trade in grain, rice, hides, fish, &c. ; was taken by St. Louis in 1249, and restored on paymentof his ransom from captivity. 

DAMOCLES, a flatterer at the court of the elder Dionysius, tyrant ofSyracuse, whom, after one day extravagantly extolling the happiness ofkings, Dionysius set down to a magnificent banquet, but who, when seatedat it, looked up and saw a sword hanging over his head suspended by asingle hair; a lesson this which admonished him, and led him to changehis views of the happiness of kings. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS, two Pythagoreans of Syracuse of the days ofDionysius I. , celebrated for their friendship; upon the latter havingbeen condemned to death, and having got leave to go home to arrange hisaffairs beforehand, the former pledged his life for his return, when justas, according to his promise, he presented himself at the place ofexecution, Pythias turned up and prepared to put his head on the block;this behaviour struck the tyrant with such admiration, that he not onlyextended pardon to the offender, but took them both into his friendship. 

DAMPIER, WILLIAM, an English navigator and buccaneer; led a rovingand adventurous life, and parting company with his comrades, set off on acruise in the South Seas; came home and published a "Voyage Round theWorld"; this led to his employment in further adventures, in one of whichAlexander Selkirk accompanied him, but was wrecked on Juan Fernandez; inhis last adventure, it is said, he rescued Selkirk and brought him home(1652-1715). 

DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON, American journalist, member of BROOKFARM (q. V. ), and became editor of the _New York Tribune_, the_Sun_, and a cyclopædia: _b_. 1829. 

DANA, JAMES DWIGHT, American mineralogist and geologist, born atUtica, New York State; was associated as scientific observer withCommodore Wilkes on his Arctic and Antarctic exploring expeditions, onthe results of which he reported; became geological professor in YaleCollege; author of works on mineralogy and geology, as also on South Seavolcanoes (1813-1895). 

DANA, RICHARD HENRY, an American poet and critic; editor of the_North American Review_, author of the "Dying Raven, " the "Buccaneer, "and other poems (1787-1879). 

DANA, RICHARD HENRY, a son of the preceding, lawyer; author of "TwoYears before the Mast" (1815-1882). 

DANAË, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, confined by her fatherin an inaccessible tower of brass to prevent the fulfilment of an oraclethat she should be the mother of a son who would kill him, but Zeus foundaccess to her in the form of a shower of gold, and she became the motherof Perseus, by whose hand Acrisius met his fate. See PERSEUS. 

DANA`IDES, daughters of Danaüs, who, for murdering their husbands onthe night after marriage, were doomed in the nether world to theimpossible task of filling with water a vessel pierced with holes. SeeDANAÜS. 

DANAÜS, son of Belus, and twin-brother of Ægyptus, whom fearing, hefled from with his fifty daughters to Argos, where he was chosen king;by-and-by the fifty sons of Ægyptus, his brother, came to Argos to woo, and were wedded to, their cousins, whom their father provided each with adagger to murder her husband, which they did, all except Hypermnestra, whose husband, Lynceus, escaping, succeeded her father as king, to thedefeat of the old man's purpose in the crime. 

DANBY, FRANCIS, painter, born near Wexford; settled for a time inBristol, then in Switzerland, and finally at Exmouth; his works aremostly landscape, instinct with feeling, but some of them are historical, the subjects being taken from Scripture, as the "Passage of the Red Sea, "or from pagan sources, as "Marius among the Ruins of Carthage"(1793-1861). 

DANCE, GEORGE, English architect; was architect to the City ofLondon, and designed the Mansion House, his chief work (1700-1768). GEORGE, his son, built Newgate Prison (1740-1825). 

DANCE OF DEATH, an allegorical representation in a dramatic orpictorial form of Death, figuring, originally as a skeleton, andperforming his part as a chief actor all through the drama of life, andoften amid the gayest scenes of it; a succession of woodcuts by Holbeinin representation of this dance is well known. 

DANCING MANIA, an epidemic of frequent occurrence, especially inGerman towns, during the Middle Ages, of the nature of hysteria, showingitself in convulsive movements beyond the control of the will, and indelirious acts, sometimes violently suicidal; the most signal occurrenceof the mania was at Aix-la-Chapelle in July 1374. 

DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON, French dramatist, a prolific author; afavourite of Louis XIV. ; wrote comedies, chiefly on the follies of themiddle classes of the time (1661-1725). 

DANDIE DINMONT, a humorous, jovial store-farmer in "Guy Mannering. "

DANDIN, GEORGE, one of Molière's comedies, illustrative of the follya man commits when he marries a woman of higher rank than his own, Georgebeing his impersonation of a husband who has patiently to endure all theextravagant whims and fancies of his dame of a wife. 

DANDIN, PERRIN, a simple citizen in the "Pantagruel" of Rabelais, who seats himself judge-wise on the first stump that offers, and passesoffhand a sentence in any matter of litigation; a character who figuressimilarly in a comedy of Racine's, and in a fable of La Fontaine's. 

DAN`DOLO, a Venetian family that furnished four Doges to theRepublic, ENRICO being the most illustrious; chosen Doge in hiseighty-fourth year, assisted the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade withships; joined them, when blind and aged 90, in laying siege toConstantinople; led the attack by sea, and was the first to leap ashore;was offered the imperial crown, but declined it; died instead "despot" ofRoumania in 1205, at 97. 

DANEGELT, originally a tax imposed on land to buy off the Danes fromthe shores of England, and subsequently for other objects, such as thedefence of the coast; abolished by Henry II. , though re-imposedsubsequently under other names. 

DANELAGH, a district in the E. Of England, N. Of the Thames;dominated at one time more or less by the Danes; of vague extent. 

DANGEAU, MARQUIS, author of "Memoirs" affecting the court of LouisXIV. And its manners (1638-1720). 

D'ANGOULÊME, DUCHESSE, daughter of Louis XVI. And Marie Antoinette;was released from restraint after the execution of her parents inexchange for prisoners in the Royalist's hands; fled to Vienna, where shewas driven forth; married her cousin, to whom she was early betrothed;could find no place of safe refuge but in England; returned to France onNapoleon's exile to Elba, and headed a body of troops against him on hisreturn; after Waterloo, returned to France and stayed till July 1830, andlived to see Louis Philippe, in 1848, driven from the throne; Napoleoncalled her "the only man of her family"; left "Memoirs" (1778-1851). 

DANGS, THE, a forest district in the N. Of the Presidency of Bombay, occupied by fifteen wild tribes, each under a chief. 

DANIEL, a Hebrew of fine physique and rare endowment, who was, whilebut a youth, carried captive to Babylon, and trained for office in thecourt of the king; was found, after three years' discipline, to excel "inwisdom and understanding" all the magicians and enchanters of the realm, of which he gave such proof that he rose step by step to the highestofficial positions, first in the Babylonian and then in the Persianempire. He was a Hebrew prophet of a new type, for whereas the oldprophet had, for the most part, more regard to the immediate present andits outlooks, his eye reached forth into the future and foresaw invision, as his book has foretold in symbol, the fulfilment of the hopefor which the fathers of his race had lived and died. 

DANIEL, SAMUEL, English poet, born near Taunton; wrote dramas andsonnets; his principal production a "History of the Civil Wars" of Yorkand Lancaster, a poem in seven books; is called the "Well-EnglishedDaniel, " and is much admired for his style; in prose he wrote a "Historyof England, " and a "Defence of Rhyme, " which Swinburne pronounces to be"one of the most perfect examples of sound sense, of pure style, and ofjust judgment in the literature of criticism"; he is associated withWarner and Drayton as having given birth to "a poetry which has devoteditself to extol the glory of England" (1562-1619). 

DANIELL, JOHN FREDERICK, a distinguished chemist, born in London;professor of Chemistry in King's College, London; wrote "MeteorologicalEssays, " and "Introduction to Chemical Philosophy"; invented a hygrometerand an electric battery (1790-1845). 

DANIELL, WILLIAM, an eminent draughtsman; spent his early life inIndia; author of "Oriental Scenery, " in six folio vols. (1769-1837). 

DANITES, or Destroying Angels, a band of Mormons organised toprevent the entrance into Mormon territory of other than Mormonimmigrants, but whose leader, for a massacre they perpetrated, was in1827 convicted and shot. 

DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON, a distinguished German sculptor, born near Stuttgart, and educated by the Duke of Würtemberg, who hadbecome his patron; became professor of Sculpture in the Academy atStuttgart; his earlier subjects were from the Greek mythology, and hislater Christian, the principal of the latter being a colossal "Christ, "which he took eight years to complete; he executed besides busts ofcontemporaries, which are wonderful in expression, such as those ofSchiller, Lavater, and Glück; "Ariadne on the Panther" is regarded as hismasterpiece (1758-1841). 

DANTE ALIGHIERI, the great poet of Italy, "the voice of ten silentcenturies, " born in Florence; was of noble birth; showed early a greatpassion for learning; learned all that the schools and universities ofthe time could teach him "better than most"; fought as a soldier; didservice as a citizen; at thirty-five filled the office of chiefmagistrate of Florence; had, while but a boy of ten, "met a certainBeatrice Portinari, a beautiful girl of his own age and rank, and hadgrown up in partial sight of her, in some distant intercourse with her, "who became to him the ideal of all that was pure and noble and good;"made a great figure in his poem and a great figure in his life"; shedied in 1290; he married another, "not happily, far from happily; in somecivic Guelf-Ghibelline strife he was expelled the city, and his propertyconfiscated; tried hard to recover it, even 'with arms in his hand, ' butcould not, and was doomed, 'whenever caught, to be burned alive'; invitedto confess his guilt and return, he sternly answered: 'If I cannot returnwithout calling myself guilty, I will never return. '" From this moment hewas without home in this world; and "the great soul of Dante, homeless onearth, made its home more and more in that awful other world . .. Overwhich, this time-world, with its Florences and banishments, flutters asan unreal shadow. " Dante's heart, long filled with this, brooding over itin speechless thought and awe, bursts forth at length into "mysticunfathomable song, " and this, his "DIVINE COMEDY" (q. V. ), themost remarkable of all modern Books, is the result. He died afterfinishing it, not yet very old, at the age of 56. He lies buried in hisdeath-city Ravenna, "shutout from my native shores. " The Florentinesbegged back his body in a century after; the Ravenna people would notgive it (1265-1321). See CARLYLE'S "HEROES AND HERO-WORSHIP, " andDean Plumptre's "LIFE OF DANTE. "

DANTON, GEORGES JACQUES, "The Titan of the Forlorn Hope" of theFrench Revolution, born at Arcis-sur-Aube, "of good farmer people . .. Ahuge, brawny, black-browed man, with a waste energy as of a Hercules"; anadvocate by profession, "esurient, but with nothing to do; found Parisand his country in revolt, rose to the front of the strife; resolved todo or die"; the cause threatened, he threw himself again and again intothe breach defiant, his motto "to dare, and to dare, and again to dare, "so as to put and keep the enemy in fear; "Let my name be blighted, " hesaid, "what am I? The cause alone is great, and will live and notperish"; but the "SEA-GREEN" (q. V. ) viewed him with jealousy, held him suspect, had him arrested, brought before the RevolutionaryTribunal, the severity of whose proceedings under him he had condemned, and sentenced to the guillotine; a reflection of his in prison has beenrecorded: "Oh, it were better to be a poor fisherman than to meddle withgoverning of men. " "No weakness, Danton, " he said to himself on thescaffold, as his heart began to sink within him as he thought of hiswife. His last words were to Samson the headsman: "Thou wilt show my headto the people, it is worth showing"; words worthy of the brother ofMirabeau, who died saying, "I wish I could leave my head behind me, France needs it just now"; a man fiery-real, as has been said, genuine tothe core, with many sins, yet lacking that greatest of sins, cant. "Hewas, " says Mr. Belloc, "the most French, the most national, the nearestto the mother of all the Revolutionary group. He summed up France . .. When we study him, we see France" (1759-1794). See CARLYLE'S "FRENCHREVOLUTION. "

DANTZIG (116), the capital of W. Prussia, once a Hanse town, on theVistula, 4 m. From the mouth; one of the great ports and trading centresof Germany and in the N. Of Europe; it is traversed by canals, and manyof the houses are built on piles of wood; exports grain brought down theriver on timber rafts from the great grain country in the S. ; it is oneof the chief stations of the German navy. 

DANUBE, THE, the great south-eastward-flowing river of Europe, 1750m. In length, rises in the Black Forest, and is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower; the Upper extends as far as Pressburg, begins to benavigable to Ulm, flows NE. As far as Ratisbon, and then bends SE. PastVienna; the Middle extends from Pressburg to the Iron Gate, enclosingbetween its gorges a series of rapids, below Orsova; and the Lowerextends from the Iron Gate to the Black Sea. It receives numeroustributary rivers, 60 of them navigable, in its course; forms with themthe great water highway of the SE. Of Europe, and is of avail for trafficto all the races and nations whose territories it traverses; thenavigation of the river is free indeed to all nations. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES, Moldavia and Wallachia. 

DANVILLE, the name of several towns in the United States. 

D'ANVILLE, geographer to the king of France; left numerous valuablemaps and geographical works (1697-1782). 

DAPHNE (lit. A laurel), a nymph chased by Apollo, transformed intoa laurel as he attempts to seize her; henceforth sacred to the god. 

DAPHNIS, a Sicilian shepherd, the mythical inventor of pastoralpoetry. 

DAPSANG, the highest of the Karakorum Mountains. 

D'ARBLAY, MADAME, a distinguished novelist, daughter of Dr. Burney, the historian of music; authoress of "Evelina" and "Cecilia, " the firstnovels of the time, which brought her into connection with all herliterary contemporaries, Johnson in chief; left "Diary and Letters"(1752-1840). 

DARBOY, GEORGES, archbishop of Paris: was a defender of the Gallicanliberties of the Church; had been assiduous in offices of benevolenceduring the siege of Paris; was arrested as a hostage by the Communists, and shot (1813-1871). 

DARBY AND JOAN, a married couple celebrated for their mutualattachment. 

DARBYITES, the PLYMOUTH BRETHREN (q. V. ), from the name ofone of their founders, a man of scholarly ability and culture, and thechief expounder of their views (1800-1852). 

DARDANELLES, a strait extending between the Archipelago and the Seaof Marmora, anciently called the Hellespont, 40 m. Long, from 1 to 4broad; commanded by Turkey, both sides of the strait being stronglyfortified. 

DARDANUS, a son of Zeus and Electra, mythical ancestor of theTrojans; originally a king in Greece. 

DARFUR (500), a district in the Egyptian Soudan, in which vegetationis for the most part dormant all the year round, except from June toSeptember, when it is rank and rich; was snatched from Egypt by theMahdi, but is now restored. 

D'ARGENS, MARQUIS, born at Aix; disinherited owing to hismisconduct; turned author, and became a protégé of Frederick the Great, but lost caste with him too, and was deprived of his all once more(1704-1771). 

D'ARGENSON, COMTE, an eminent French statesman, head of the policein Paris; introduced _lettres de cachet_, and was a patron of the Frenchphilosophes; had the "Encyclopédie" dedicated to him; fell out of favourat Court, and had to leave Paris, but returned to die there (1696-1764). 

DARIC, a gold coin current in ancient Persia, stamped with an archerkneeling, and weighing little over a sovereign. 

DARIEN, GULF OF, an inlet of the Caribbean Sea, NW. Of S. America. For isthmus of, see PANAMA. 

DARIEN SCHEME, a project to plant a colony on the Atlantic side ofthe Isthmus, which was so far carried out that some 1200 left Scotland in1698 to establish it, but which ended in disaster, and created among theScotch, who were the chief sufferers, an animus against the English, whomthey blamed for the disaster, an animus which did not for long die out. 

DARIUS I. , eldest son of Hystaspes, king of the Persians; subduedsubject places that had revolted, reorganised the empire, carried hisconquests as far as India, subdued Thrace and Macedonia, declared waragainst the Athenians; in 492 B. C. Sent an expedition against Greece, which was wrecked in a storm off Athos; sent a second, which succeeded incrossing over, but was defeated in a famous battle at Marathon, 490 B. C. 

DARIUS II. , called OCHUS or NOTHUS, king of the Persians;subject to his eunuchs and his wife Parysatis; his reign was a successionof insurrections; he supported the Spartans against the Athenians, to theascendency of the former in the Peloponnesus; _d_. 405 B. C. 

DARIUS III. , surnamed CODOMANNUS, king of the Persians, ahandsome man and a virtuous; could not cope with Alexander of Macedon, but was defeated by him in successive engagements at Granicus, Issus, andArbela; was assassinated on his flight by BESSUS (q. V. ), one ofhis satraps, in 330 B. C. ; with him the Persian empire came to an end. 

DARJEELING (14), a sanitary station and health resort in the LowerHimalayas, and the administrative head-quarters of the district, 7167 ft. Above the level of the sea; it has greatly increased of late years. 

DARLEY, GEORGE, poet and critic, born in Dublin; author of "Sylvia"and "Nepenthe"; wrote some good songs, among them "I've been Roaming, "once very popular; much belauded by Coleridge; contributed to the_Athenæum_ (1795-1846). 

DARLING, a tributary of the Murray River, in Australia, nowstagnant, now flooded. 

DARLING, GRACE, a young maiden, daughter of the lighthouse keeper ofone of the Farne Islands, who with her father, amid great peril, savedthe lives of nine people from the wreck of the _Forfarshire_, on Sept. 7, 1838; died of consumption (1815-1842). 

DARLINGTON (38), a town in S. Of Durham, on the Tees, with largeiron and other works; a considerable number of the inhabitants belong tothe Society of Friends. 

DARMESTETER, JAMES, Orientalist, born in Lorraine, of Jewishdescent; a distinguished Zend scholar and authority in Zend literature;in the interpretation of the Zend and other ancient literatures was ofthe modern critical school (1849-1894). 

DARMSTADT (55), the capital of the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Darm, an affluent of the Rhine, 15 m. S. Of Frankfort; is dividedinto an old and a new town; manufactures tobacco, paper, carpets, chemicals, &c. 

DARNLEY, HENRY STUART, LORD, eldest son of the Earl of Lennox andgrand-nephew of Henry VIII. ; husband of Queen Mary; was murdered on Feb. 5, 1567, in Kirk-o'-Field, which stood on the site of the presentUniversity of Edinburgh. 

DARTMOOR, moor in Devonshire, a tableland of an average height of1200 ft. Above the sea-level, and of upwards of 120, 000 acres in extent, incapable of cultivation, but affording pasturage for sheep, of which itbreeds a small hardy race; it has rich veins of minerals; abounds inBritish remains, and contains a large convict prison. 

DARU, COMTE, a French administrator and littérateur, born atMontpellier; translated Horace when in prison during the Reign of Terror;served as administrator under Napoleon; on the return of the Bourbonsdevoted himself to letters, and wrote the "History of the Republic ofVenice" (1767-1829). 

DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT, great English naturalist and biologist, bornat Shrewsbury, grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father's side, and ofJosiah Wedgwood on his mother's; studied at Edinburgh and Cambridge; in1831 accompanied as naturalist without salary the _Beagle_ in her voyageof exploration in the Southern Seas, on the condition that he should havethe entire disposal of his collections, all of which he got, and which heultimately distributed among various public institutions; he was absentfrom England for five years, and on his return published in 1836 his"Naturalist's Voyage Round the World, " in 1839-43 accounts of the fruitsof his researches and observations in the departments of geology andnatural history during that voyage, in 1842 his treatise on the"Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, " and in 1859 his work on the"Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, " a work which hasproved epoch-making and gone far to revolutionise thought in thescientific study of, especially, animated nature, and is being applied tohigher spheres of being; this work was followed by others more or lessconfirmatory, finishing off with "The Descent of Man" in 1871, in whichhe traces the human race to an extinct quadrumanous animal related tothat which produced the orang-outang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla. Hemay be said to have taken evolution out of the region of pureimagination, and by giving it a basis of fact, to have set it up as areasonable working hypothesis. Prof. A. R. Wallace claims for Darwin"that he is the Newton of natural history, and has . .. By his discoveryof the law of natural selection and his demonstration of the greatprinciples of the preservation of useful variations in the struggle forlife, not only thrown a flood of light on the process of development ofthe whole organic world, but also established a firm foundation for thefuture study of nature. " He was buried in Westminster Abbey (1809-1882). 

DARWIN, ERASMUS, physician and natural philosopher, born inNottinghamshire; studied at Cambridge and Edinburgh; practised medicinein Lichfield, and finally settled in Derby; occupied his mind with thestudy of fanciful analogies in the different spheres of nature, andcommitted his views, often not without genuine poetic sentiment andmelody of expression, to verse, while in the views themselves there havebeen recognised occasional glimpses of true insight, and at times aforeshadow of the doctrine developed on strict scientific lines by hisillustrious grandson. His chief poetic works were the "Botanic Garden"and the "Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life, " deemed, in thephilosophy of them, not unworthy of criticism by such sane thinkers asPaley and Dugald Stewart (1731-1802). 

DARWINIAN THEORY, the theory established by Darwin that the severalspecies of plants and animals now in existence were not created in theirpresent form, but have been evolved by natural law of descent, withmodifications of structure, from cruder forms. See DARWIN, C. R. 

DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE, Icelandic scholar, born at St. Vincent, West Indies; studied at Oxford; from 1845 to 1870 was assistant-editor ofthe _Times_; has translated "The Prose, or Younger, Edda" and Norse talesand sagas; written also novels, and contributed to reviews and magazines;_b_. 1817. 

DASH, COUNTESS, the _nom de plume_ of the Viscountess de Saint-Mars, a French novelist, born at Poitiers; in straits for a living, tookdesperately to writing; treated of aristocratic life and its hollowartificialities and immoralities (1804-1872). 

DASHKOFF, a Russian princess of note; played a part in theconspiracy which ended in the elevation of Catharine II. To the throne;was a woman of culture; founded the Russian Academy; projected andassisted in the compilation of a Russian dictionary; died at Moscow(1744-1810). 

DATES OF EPOCH-MAKING EVENTS, the Ascendency in Athens of Pericles(445 B. C. ); the Fall of the Persian Empire (330 B. C. ); the Death ofAlexander the Great (323 B. C. ); the Reduction of Greece to a Romanprovince, and the Ruin of Carthage (146 B. C. ); the Battle of Actium (31B. C. ); Birth of Christ, 14th year of Augustus; Commencement of theMiddle Ages (395); Ruin of the Roman Empire by the Barbarians (476);Clovis, ruler of Gaul (509); the Flight of Mahomet (622); Charlemagne, Emperor of the West (800); Treaty of Verdun (843); the Crusades(1096-1291); Employment of Cannon at Crécy (1346); Invention of Printing(1436); Taking of Constantinople by Mahomet II. (1453); Discovery ofAmerica by Columbus (1492); Copernican System published (1500); Accessionof Leo X. As Pope (1513); the Reformation of Luther (1517); Publicationof Bacon's "Novum Organon" (1620); Publication of Descartes's "Discourseon Method" (1637); the Peace of Westphalia (1648); Reign of Louis XIV. Atits Height, and Peace of Nimeguen (1678); Publication of Newton's Theoryof Gravitation (1682); Watt's Invention of the Steam-Engine (1769);Independence of the United States (1776); _Coup d'état_ of 10th Brumaire(1799); Waterloo, and Congress of Vienna (1815); Introduction ofRailroads into England (1830); First Attempt at Electric Telegraphy inFrance (1837); Africa traversed by Livingstone (1852-1854); Publicationof Darwin's "Origin of Species" (1859); Opening of the Suez Canal (1869);Proclamation of the German Empire (1871); Congress of Berlin (1878). 

DAUBENTON, LOUIS JEAN MARIE, a French naturalist, born at Montbard;associated with Buffon in the preparation of the first 15 vols. Of his"Histoire Naturelle, " and helped him materially by the accuracy of hisknowledge, as well as his literary qualifications; contributed largely tothe "Encyclopédie, " and was 50 years curator of the Cabinet of NaturalHistory at Paris (1716-1799). 

DAUBENY, CHARLES, English chemist and botanist, author of "ADescription of Active and Extinct Volcanoes, " an "Introduction to theAtomic Theory, " and other works, all like the latter more or less relatedto chemistry (1795-1867). 

D'AUBIGNÉ, MERLE, a popular Church historian, born near Geneva;studied under Neander at Berlin; became pastor at Hamburg, court-preacherat Brussels, and professor of Church History at Geneva; his reputationrests chiefly on his "History of the Reformation in the SixteenthCentury" (1794-1872). 

D'AUBIGNÉ, THEODORE AGRIPPA, a historian, bred to the militaryprofession; held appointments under Henry IV. , on whose assassination hereturned to Geneva, where he wrote his "Histoire Universelle, " which hadthe honour to be burned by the common hangman in Paris; was a satiricalwriter; grandfather to Mme. De Maintenon (1550-1630). 

DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, a French landscape painter and skilfuletcher, born in Paris, attained distinction as an artist late in life(1817-1878). 

D'AUBUSSON, PIERRE, grand-master of the order of St. John ofJerusalem, of French origin; served under the Emperor Sigismund againstthe Turks; went to Rhodes; became a knight of St. John, and was chosengrand-master; defended Rhodes against 100, 000 Turks, and thus stayed thecareer of Mahomet II. , who, after establishing himself in Constantinople, was threatening to overrun Europe (1423-1503). 

DAUDET, ALPHONSE, a noted French novelist of great versatility, bornat Nîmes, of poor parents; early selected literature as his career inlife; wrote poems and plays, and contributed to the _Figaro_ and otherjournals; worked up into his novels characters and situations that hadcome under his own observation, often in too satirical a vein to becomeuniversally popular; has been likened to Dickens in his choice ofsubjects and style of treatment; died suddenly (1840-1897). 

D'AULNOY, THE COUNTESS, authoress of charmingly-written "Contes desFées" (Fairy Tales), and on which her reputation rests (1650-1705). 

DAUMIER, HENRI, a French caricaturist of great fertility andplayfulness of genius, born at Marseilles; became blind in his old age(1808-1879). 

DAUN, KARL, German theologian, born at Cassel, professor atHeidelberg, sought to ground theology on a philosophic basis, and foundwhat he sought in the philosophy of Hegel (1765-1836). 

DAUN, LEOPOLD, GRAF VON, an able Austrian general, born at Vienna;distinguished himself by his prudence and valour in the Seven Years' War, gained a victory over Frederick the Great at Kolin in 1757, and anotherat Hochkirch in 1758; could prevail little or not at all againstFrederick afterwards as soon as Frederick saw through his tactics, whichhe was not long in doing (1705-1766). 

DAUPHIN, a name originally given to the _Seigneurs_ of the provinceof Dauphiné, in allusion to the dolphin which several members of thefamily wore as a badge, but in 1349 given to the heir-presumptive to thecrown of France, when Humbert II. , dauphin of Vienne, ceded Dauphiné toPhilippe of Valois, on condition that the eldest son of the king ofFrance should assume the title, a title which was abolished after theRevolution of 1830. The word signifies dolphin in French. 

DAUPHINÉ, a SW. Province of France, of which the capital wasGrenoble; annexed to the French crown under Philippe II. In 1349. 

DAURAT, JEAN, French scholar, a member of the Pléiade (q. V. ), andwho figures as one of the leading spirits in the fraternity (1507-1588). 

DAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM, an English playwright, born at Oxford, whosucceeded Ben Jonson as poet-laureate, and was for a time manager ofDrury Lane; was knighted by Charles I. For his zeal in the Royalistcause; his theatrical enterprise had small success during theCommonwealth, but interest in it revived with the Restoration, at whichtime "the drama broke loose from the prison of Puritanism to indulge in ashameless license" (1606-1668). 

DAVID, FÉLICIEN, a French composer, born at Vaucluse; author, amongother compositions, of the "Desert, " a production which achieved aninstant and complete triumph; was in his youth an ardent disciple of St. Simon (1810-1876). 

DAVID, GERHARD, a Flemish painter; painted religious subjects, several from the life of Christ (1450-1525). 

DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL, 11th century B. C. , born in Bethlehem; tendedthe flocks of his father; slew Goliath with a stone and a sling; wasanointed by Samuel, succeeded Saul as king; conquered the Philistines;set up his throne in Jerusalem, and reigned thirty-three years; sufferedmuch from his sons, and was succeeded by Solomon; the book of Psalms wastill recently accepted as wholly his by the Church, but that hypothesisno longer stands the test of criticism. 

DAVID, LOUIS, a French historical painter, born in Paris; studied inRome and settled in Paris; was carried away with the Revolution; joinedthe Jacobin Club, swore eternal friendship with Robespierre; designed "astatue of Nature with two _mammelles_ spouting out water" for the deputesto drink to, and another of the sovereign people, "high as Salisburysteeple"; was sentenced to the guillotine, but escaped out of regard forhis merit as an artist; appointed first painter by Napoleon, but on theRestoration was banished and went to Brussels, where he died; among hispaintings are "The Oath of the Horatii, " "The Rape of the Sabines, " "TheDeath of Socrates, " and "The Coronation of Napoleon" (1748-1825). 

DAVID D'ANGERS, a French sculptor, born at Angers; came to Paris andbecame a pupil of the preceding, afterwards proceeded to Rome andassociated with Canova; executed in Paris a statue of the Great Condé, and thereafter the pediment of the Pantheon, his greatest work, as wellas numerous medallions of great men; on a visit to Weimar he modelled abust of Goethe (1788-1856). 

DAVID I. , king of Scotland, youngest son of Malcolm Canmore andQueen Margaret; was brought up at the English court; was prince ofCumbria under the reign of his brother Alexander, on whose decease hesucceeded to the throne in 1124; on making a raid in England to avenge aninsult offered to his son Henry, was defeated at Northallerton in theBattle of the Standard; addressed himself after this to the unificationof the country and civilisation of his subjects; founded and endowedbishoprics and abbeys at the expense of the crown, on account of which hewas called St. David, and characterised by James VI. , a successor of his, as a "sair saunt to the croon"; the death of his son Henry was a greatgrief to him, and shortened his days (1084-1153). 

DAVID II. , king of Scotland, son of King Robert the Bruce, born atDunfermline; succeeded his father when a boy of four; spent from 1334 to1341 in France; was taken prisoner by the English at the battle ofNeville's Cross, and was afterwards, till his death, dependent on England(1326-1371). 

DAVID, ST. , or DEWI, the patron saint of Wales, lived about the5th century; archbishop of Caerleon; transferred his see to St. David's;founded churches, opposed Pelagianism, and influenced many by the odourof his good name. 

DAVIDS, RHYS, professor of Pâli and Buddhist literature, born inColchester; author of "Buddhism: a Sketch of the Life and Teachings ofGautama, the Buddha, " and of other works in that department ofliterature; _b_. 1843. 

DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE, Hebrew scholar and professor, born inAberdeenshire; a most faithful, clear, and effective interpreter of thespirit of Hebrew literature, and influential for good as few men of thetime have been in matters of biblical criticism; _b_. 1831. 

DAVIDSON, JOHN, poet and journalist, born at Barrhead, Renfrewshire;has written novels and plays as well as poems; _b_. 1859. 

DAVIDSON, SAMUEL, biblical scholar and exegete, born near Ballymena;wrote Introductions to the Old and the New Testaments; was pioneer in thehigher criticism (1807-1898). 

DAVIES, BEN, a popular tenor vocalist, born near Swansea in 1858. 

DAVIES, SIR JOHN, poet and statesman, born in Wiltshire; wrote twophilosophic poems, "The Orchestra, " a poem in which the world isexhibited as a dance, and "Nosce Teipsum" (Know Thyself), a poem on humanlearning and the immortality of the soul; became a favourite with JamesI. , and was sent Attorney-General to Ireland (1569-1626). 

DAVILA, a celebrated historian, born near Padua, brought up inFrance; served in the French army under Henry IV. ; did military and otherservice in Venice; was assassinated; his great work "The History of theCivil War in France" (1576-1631). 

DAVIS, JEFFERSON, President of the Confederate States, born inKentucky; entered the army; fought against the Indians; turnedcotton-planter; entered Congress as a Democrat; distinguished himself inthe Mexican war; defended slave-holding and the interests ofslave-holding States; was chosen President of the Confederate States;headed the conflict with the North; fled on defeat, which he was the lastto admit; was arrested and imprisoned; released after two years; retiredinto private life, and wrote a "History of the Rise and Fall of theConfederate Government" (1808-1889). 

DAVIS, JOHN, an English navigator, born near Dartmouth; took earlyto the sea; conducted (1585-1587) three expeditions to the Arctic Seas inquest of a NW. Passage to India and China, as far N. As 73°; discoveredthe strait which bears his name; sailed as pilot in two South Seaexpeditions, and was killed by Japanese pirates near Malacca; wrote the"Seaman's Secret" (1550-1605). 

DAVIS, THOMAS, an Irish patriot, born at Mallow; educated at TrinityCollege, Dublin, and called to the Irish bar; took to journalism in theinterest of Irish nationality; founded the _Nation_ newspaper, and by hiscontributions to it did much to wake up the intelligence of the countryto national interests; died young; was the author of "Songs of Ireland"and "Essays on Irish Songs" (1814-1845). 

DAVIS STRAIT, strait connecting Baffin's Bay with the Atlantic, discovered by JOHN DAVIS (q. V. ). 

DAVITT, MICHAEL, a noted Irish patriot, born in co. Mayo, son of apeasant, who, being evicted, settled in Lancashire; joined the Fenianmovement, and was sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude; released onticket-of-leave after seven years; founded the Land League; was for overa year imprisoned again for breaking his ticket-of-leave; published in1885 "Leaves from a Prison Diary"; entered Parliament in 1895 for co. Mayo; _b_. 1846. 

DAVOS-PLATZ, a village 5105 ft. Above the sea-level, in a valley ofthe East Grisons; a place frequented in winter by invalids suffering fromchest disease, the dry air and sunshine that prevail being favourable forpatients of that class. 

DAVOUT, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl, marshal of France, born at Annoux, in Burgundy; was fellow-student with Napoleon at themilitary school in Brienne; entered the army in 1788, served in theRevolutionary wars under Dumouriez and Desaix, and became general; servedunder Bonaparte in Egypt; distinguished himself at Austerlitz, Auerstädt, Eckmühl, and Wagram; was made governor of Hamburg; accompanied Napoleonto Moscow; returned to Hamburg, and defended it during a siege; was madeMinister of War in 1815, and assisted Napoleon in his preparations forthe final struggle at Waterloo; commanded the remains of the French armywhich capitulated under the walls of Paris; adhered to the Bourbondynasty on its return, and was made a peer; was famous before all thegenerals of Napoleon for his rigour in discipline (1770-1823). 

DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY, a great English chemist, born at Penzance;conceived early in life a passion for the science in which he made somany discoveries; made experiments on gases and the respiration of them, particularly nitrous oxide and carbonic acid; discovered the function ofplants in decomposing the latter in the atmosphere, and the metallicbases of alkalies and earths; proved chlorine to be a simple substanceand its affinity with iodine, which he discovered; invented thesafety-lamp, his best-known achievement; he held appointments andlectured in connection with all these discoveries and their applications, and received knighthood and numerous other honours for his services; diedat Geneva (1778-1829). 

DAVY JONES'S LOCKER, the sailors' familiar name for the sea as aplace of safe-keeping, though why called of Davy Jones is uncertain. 

DAVY-LAMP, a lamp encased in gauze wire which, while it admitsoxygen to feed the flame, prevents communication between the flame andany combustible or explosive gas outside. 

DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD, geologist and palæontologist, born inMontgomeryshire; has written "Cave Hunting, " "Early Man in Britain, " &c. ;_b_. 1838. 

DAWSON, GEORGE, a popular lecturer, born in London; educated inAberdeen and Glasgow; bred for the ministry by the Baptist body, andpastor of a Baptist church in Birmingham, but resigned the post forministry in a freer atmosphere; took to lecturing on a purely secularplatform, and was for thirty years the most popular lecturer of the day;no course of lectures in any institute was deemed complete if his namewas not in the programme; did much to popularise the views of Carlyle andEmerson (1821-1876). 

DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM, geologist and naturalist, born in Pictou, Nova Scotia; studied in Edinburgh; distinguished himself as apalæontologist; published in 1872, "Story of the Earth and Man"; in 1877, "Origin of the World"; and recently, "Geology and History"; called inquestion the Darwinian theory as to the origin of species; _b_. 1820. 

DAY, JOHN, an English dramatist, contemporary of Ben Jonson; authorof the "Parliament of Bees, " a comedy in which all the characters arebees. 

DAY, THOMAS, an eccentric philanthropist, born in London; author of"Sandford and Merton"; he was a disciple of Rousseau; had many aludicrous adventure in quest of a model wife, and happily fell in withone to his mind at last; was a slave-abolitionist and a parliamentaryreformer (1748-1789). 

DAYAKS. See DYAKS. 

DAYTON (85), a prosperous town in Ohio, U. S. ; a great railwaycentre, with a court-house of marble, after the Parthenon in Athens. 

D'AZARA, a Spanish naturalist, born in Aragon; spent 20 years inSouth America; wrote a "Natural History of the Quadrupeds in Paraguay"(1781-1811). 

DEAD SEA, called also the Salt Sea and 'the Asphalt Lake, a sea inPalestine, formed by the waters of the Jordan, 46 m. Long, 10 m. Broad, and in some parts 1300 ft. Deep, while its surface is 1312 ft. Below thelevel of the Mediterranean, just as much as Jerusalem is above it; has nooutlet; its waters, owing to the great heat, evaporate rapidly, and areintensely salt; it is enclosed E. And W. By steep mountains, which oftenrise to a height of 6000 ft. 

DEÁK, FRANCIS, an eminent Hungarian statesman, born at Kehida, of anancient noble Magyar family; his aim for Hungary was the same as that ofCAVOUR (q. V. ) for Italy, the establishment of constitutionalgovernment, and he succeeded; standing all along as he did from Hungarianrepublicanism on the one hand, and Austrian tyranny on the other, heurged on the Emperor of Austria the demand of the Diet, of which he hadbecome leader, at first without effect, but after the humiliation ofAustria in 1866, all that he asked for was conceded, and the AustrianEmperor received the Hungarian crown (1803-1876). 

DEAL (9), a town, one of the old Cinque ports, oil the E. Of Kent, opposite the Goodwin Sands, 89 m. From London, with a fine sea-beach;much resorted to for sea-bathing quarters. 

DEAN, FOREST OF, a forest of 22, 000 acres in the W. OfGloucestershire, between the Severn and the Wye; the property of theCrown for the most part; the inhabitants are chiefly miners, who at onetime enjoyed special privileges. 

DEAN OF GUILD, a burgh magistrate in Scotland who has the care ofbuildings, originally the head of the Guild brethren of the town. 

DEAN OF ST. PATRICK'S, Jonathan Swift, who held that post from 1713till his death. 

DEANS, DAVIE, EFFIE, AND JEANIE, characters in the "Heart ofMidlothian. "

DÉBATS, JOURNAL DES, a daily paper, established in 1789; it defendsat present the Conservative Republican policy, and publishes oftenremarkable literary articles. 

DEBENTURE, a deed acknowledging a debt on a specified security. 

DEBO`RAH, a Hebrew prophetess; reckoned one of the judges of Israelby her enthusiasm to free her people from the yoke of the Canaanites;celebrated for her song of exultation over their defeat, instinct at oncewith pious devotion and with revengeful feeling; Coleridge calls her"this Hebrew Boadicea. "

DEBRECZEN (56), a Hungarian town, 130 m. E. Of Buda-Pesth; is thehead-quarters of Protestantism in the country, and has an amply equippedand a largely attended Protestant College; is a seat of manufactures anda large trade. 

DECAMERON, a collection of a hundred tales, conceived of asrehearsed in ten days at a country-house during the plague at Florence;are of a licentious character, but exquisitely told; were written byBoccaccio; published in 1352; the name comes from _deka_, ten, and_hemera_, a day. 

DECAMPS, ALEXANDRA GABRIEL, a distinguished French painter, born inParis; brought up as a boy among the peasants of Picardy; representednature as he in his own way saw it himself, and visited Switzerland andthe East, where he found materials for original and powerful pictures;his pictures since his death have brought great prices (1803-1860). 

DE CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME, an eminent botanist, born at Geneva, of Huguenot descent; studied in Paris; attracted the attention of Cuvierand Lamarck, whom he assisted in their researches; published his "FloreFrançaise, " in six vols. ; became professor at Montpellier, and then atGeneva; is the historical successor of Jussieu; his great contribution tobotanical science is connected with the classification of plants(1778-1841). 

DECA`TUR, STEPHEN, an American naval commodore; distinguished forhis feats of valour displayed in the war with Tripoli and with England(1779-1820). 

DECCAN, a triangular plateau of from 2000 to 3000 ft. Of elevationin the Indian peninsula, extending S. Of the Vindhya Mountains; isdensely peopled, and contains some of the richest soil in the globe. 

DECEMBER, the twelfth month of the year, so called, i. E. Tenth, by the Romans, as their year began with March. 

DEC`EMVIRS, the patricians of Rome, with Consular powers, appointedin 450 B. C. To prepare a code of laws for the Republic, which, afterbeing agreed upon, were committed first to ten, then to twelve tables, and set up in the Forum that all might read and know the law they livedunder. 

DECIUS, Roman emperor from 249 to 251; was a cruel persecutor of theChristians; perished in a morass fighting with the Goths, who were aconstant thorn in his side all through his reign. 

DECIUS MUS, the name of three Romans, father, son, and grandson, whoon separate critical emergencies (340, 295, 279 B. C. ) devoted themselvesin sacrifice to the infernal gods in order to secure victory to the Romanarms; the name is mostly employed ironically. 

DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, the immortal work of Gibbon, of which the first volume was published in 1776. 

DECRETALS, THE, a collection of laws added to the canon law of theChurch of Rome, being judicial replies of the Popes to cases submitted tothem from time to time for adjudication. 

DEE, JOHN, an alchemist, born in London; a man of curious learning;earned the reputation of being a sorcerer; was imprisoned at one time, and mobbed at another, under this imputation; died in poverty; left 79works, the majority of which were never printed, though still extant inMS. In the British Museum and other places of safe-keeping (1527-1608). 

DEFAUCONPRET, French littérateur; translator of the novels of SirWalter Scott and Fenimore Cooper (1767-1843). 

DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, a title conferred by Pope Leo X. In 1521 uponHenry VIII. For his defence of the Catholic faith in a treatise againstLuther, and retained ever since by the sovereigns of England, thoughrevoked by Pope Paul III. In 1535 in consequence of Henry's apostasy. 

DEFFAND, MARIE, MARQUISE DU, a woman of society, famed for her witand gallantry; corresponded with the eminent philosophes of the time, inparticular Voltaire, as well as with Horace Walpole; her letters arespecially brilliant, and display great shrewdness; she is characterisedby Prof. Saintsbury as "the typical French lady of the eighteenthcentury"; she became blind in 1753, but retained her relish for society, though at length she entered a monastery, where she died (1697-1780). 

DEFOE, DANIEL, author of "Robinson Crusoe, " born in London; bred forthe Dissenting ministry; turned to business, but took chiefly topolitics; was a zealous supporter of William III. ; his ironical treatise, "The Shortest Way with Dissenters" (1703), which, treated seriously, wasburned by order of the House of Commons, led to his imprisonment andexposed him for three days to the pillory, amidst the cheers, however, not the jeers, of the mob; in prison wrote a "Hymn to the Pillory, " andstarted his _Review_; on his release he was employed on politicalmissions, and wrote a "History of the Union, " which he contributed topromote. The closing years of his life were occupied mainly with literarywork, and it was then, in 1719, he produced his world-famous "RobinsonCrusoe"; has been described as "master of the art of forging a story andimposing it on the world for truth. " "His circumstantial invention, " asStopford Brooke remarks, "combined with a style which exactly fits it byits simplicity, is the root of the charm of his great story" (1661-1731). 

DEGE`RANDO, BARON, a French philanthropist and philosopher, born atLyons, of Italian descent; wrote "History of Philosophy, " long in reputeas the best French work on the subject (1772-1842). 

DEIANEIRA, the wife of Hercules, whose death she had been theunwitting cause of by giving him the poisoned robe which NESSUS(q. V. ) had sent her as potent to preserve her husband's love; onhearing the fatal result she killed herself in remorse and despair. 

DEIPHOBUS, a son of Priam and Hecuba, second in bravery to Hector;married Helen after the death of Paris, and was betrayed by her to theGreeks. 

DEIR-AL-KAMAR, a town in Syria, once the capital of the Druses, on aterrace in the heart of the Lebanon Mountains. 

DEISM, belief on purely rational grounds in the existence of God, and distinguished from theism as denying His providence. 

DEISTS, a set of free-thinkers of various shades, who in England, inthe 17th and 18th centuries, discarded revelation and the supernaturalgenerally, and sought to found religion on a purely rational basis. 

DÉJAZET, VIRGINIE, a celebrated French actress, born in Paris; madeher _début_ at five years of age (1797-1875). 

DEKKER, THOMAS, a dramatist, born in London; was contemporary of BenJonson, between whom and him, though they formerly worked together, abitter animosity arose; wrote lyrics as well as dramas, which are lightcomedies, and prose as well as poetry; the most famous among his proseworks, "The Gull's Hornbook, " a pamphlet, in which he depicts the life ofa young gallant; his pamphlets are valuable (1570-1641). 

DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS, geologist, born in London; wrote the"Depth and Temperature of the Lake of Geneva, " and published a "Manual ofGeology" and the "Geological Observer"; was appointed head of theGeological Survey in England (1796-1855). 

DELACROIX, EUGÈNE, a French painter, born at Charenton, dep. OfSeine; one of the greatest French painters of the 19th century; was thehead of the French Romantic school, a brilliant colourist and a daringinnovator; his very first success, "Dante crossing Acheron in Charon'sBoat, " forms an epoch in the history of contemporary art; besides hispictures, which were numerous, he executed decorations and producedlithographic illustrations of "Hamlet, " "Macbeth, " and Goethe's "Faust"(1799-1863). 

DELAGOA BAY, an inlet in the SE. Of Africa, E. Of the Transvaal, subject to Portugal; stretches from 25° 30' to 26° 20' S. ; extends 52 m. Inland, where the Transvaal frontier begins, and between which and it arailway of 52 m. , constructed by an English company, extends. 

DELAISTRE, a French statuary, born in Paris (1836-1891). 

DELAMBRE, JEAN JOSEPH, an eminent French astronomer, born at Amiens, a pupil of Lalande; measured with Méchain the arc of the meridian betweenDunkirk and Barcelona towards the establishment of the metric system;produced numerous works of great value, among others "Theoretical andPractical Astronomy" and the "History of Astronomy" (1749-1822). 

DELANE, JOHN THADEUS, editor of the _Times_, born in London; studiedat Oxford; after some experience as a reporter was put on the staff ofthe _Times_, and in 1841 became editor, a post he continued to hold for36 years; was the inspiring and guiding spirit of the paper, but wrotenone of the articles (1817-1879). 

DELAROCHE, PAUL, a French historical painter and one of thegreatest, born in Paris; was the head of the modern Eclectic school, socalled as holding a middle place between the Classical and Romanticschools of art; among his early works were "St. Vincent de Paul preachingbefore Louis XIII. " and "Joan of Arc before Cardinal Beaufort"; thesubjects of his latest pictures are from history, English and French, such as "The Princes in the Tower" and "Cromwell contemplating the corpseof Charles I. , " a great work; but the grandest monument of his art is thegroup of paintings with which he adorned the wall of the semicircle ofthe Palais des Beaux Arts in Paris, which he completed in 1841(1797-1856). 

DELAUNAY, LE VICOMTE, the _nom de plume_ of Mme. Delphine, underwhich she published her "Parisian Letters. "

DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSÈNE, a great French actor, born in Paris; madehis _début_ in 1846, retired 1887. 

DELAVIGNE, CASIMIR, a popular French lyric poet and dramatist, bornat Havre; his verse was conventional and without originality (1793-1843). 

DELAWARE (168), one of the Atlantic and original States of theAmerican Union, as well as the smallest of them; the soil is rather poor, but porcelain clay abounds. 

DELCASSÉ, THÉOPHILE, French Minister of Foreign Affairs, born atPamiers; began life as a journalist; was elected to the Chamber in 1889;became Colonial Minister; advocated colonial expansion; dealt skilfullywith the Fashoda affair as Foreign Minister; _b_. 1852. 

DELECTABLE MOUNTAINS, mountains covered with sheep in the "Pilgrim'sProgress, " from which the pilgrim obtains a view of the Celestial City. 

DELESCLUZE, a French Communist, born at Dreux; was imprisoned andtransported for his extreme opinions; started a journal, the _Rèveil_, in1868, to advocate the doctrines of the International; was mainlyanswerable for the atrocities of the Paris Commune; was killed in thebarricades (1809-1871). 

DELFT (27), a Dutch town, S m. NW. Of Rotterdam, once famous for itspottery; is intersected by canals; has an important polytechnic school. 

DELGADO, a cape of E. Africa, on the border between Zanzibar andMozambique. 

DELHI (192), on the right bank of the Jumna, once the capital of theMogul empire and the centre of the Mohammedan power in India; it is agreat centre of trade, and is situated in the heart of India; it containsthe famous palace of Shah Jahan, and the Jama Masjid, which occupies theheart of the city, and is the largest and finest mosque in India, whichowes its origin to Shah Jahan; it is walled, is 51 m. In circumference, and divided into Hindu, Mohammedan, and European quarters; it wascaptured by Lord Lake in 1803, and during the Mutiny by the Sepoys, butafter a siege of seven days retaken in 1857. 

DELIGHT OF MANKIND, the Roman Emperor Trajan. 

DELILAH, the Philistine woman who beguiled and betrayed Samson. 

DELILLE, JACQUES, a French poet, born at Aigues Perse, in Auvergne;translator of the "Georgics" of Virgil into verse, afterwards the "Æneid"and "Paradise Lost, " besides producing also certain didactic anddescriptive works; was a good versifier, but properly no poet, and muchoverrated; died blind (1738-1813). 

DELITZSCH, FRANZ, a learned biblical scholar and exegete, born atLeipzig; his commentaries, which are numerous, were of a conservativetendency; he wrote on Jewish antiquities, biblical psychology, andChristian apologetics; was professor at Erlangen and Leipzigsuccessively, where his influence on the students was distinctly marked(1813-1899). 

DELIUS, NICOLAUS, a German philologist, born at Bremen;distinguished especially as a student of Shakespeare and for his editionof Shakespeare's works, which is of transcendent merit (1813-1888). 

DELIA CRUSCANS, a set of English sentimental poetasters, the leadersof them hailing from Florence, that appeared in England towards the closeof the 18th century, and that for a time imposed on many by theirextravagant panegyrics of one another, the founder of the set being oneRobert Merry, who signed himself _Della Crusca_; he first announcedhimself by a sonnet to Love, in praise of which Anne Matilda wrote anincomparable piece of nonsense; "this epidemic spread for a term fromfool to fool, " but was soon exposed and laughed out of existence. 

DELLYS (3), a seaport in Algeria, 49 m. E. Of Algiers. 

DELOLME, JOHN LOUIS, a writer on State polity, born at Geneva, bredto the legal profession; spent some six years in England as a refugee;wrote a book on the "Constitution of England, " and in praise of it, whichwas received for a time with high favour in the country, but is now nolonger regarded as an authority; wrote a "History of the Flagellants, "and on "The Union of Scotland with England" (1740-1806). 

DELORME, a French architect, born at Lyons; studied in Rome; waspatronised by Catherine de Medici; built the palace of the Tuileries, andcontributed to the art of building (1518-1577). 

DELORME, MARION, a Frenchwoman celebrated for her wit andfascination, born at Châlons-sur-Marne; came to Paris in the reign ofLouis XIII. , where her drawing-room became the rendezvous of all thecelebrities of the time, many of whom were bewitched by her charms; shegave harbour to the chiefs of the Fronde, and was about to be arrestedwhen she died; the story that her death was a feint, and that she hadsubsequent adventures, is distrusted; she is the subject of a drama byVictor Hugo (1612-1650). 

DELOS, the smallest and central island of the Cyclades, thebirthplace of Apollo and Artemis, and where the former had a famousoracle; it was, according to the Greek mythology, a floating island, andwas first fixed to the spot by Zeus to provide Leda with a place, deniedher elsewhere by Hera, in which to bring forth her twin offspring; it wasat one time a centre of Apollo worship, but is now uninhabited, and onlyfrequented at times by shepherds with their flocks. 

DELPHI, a town of ancient Greece in Phocis, at the foot ofParnassus, where Apollo had a temple, and whence he was wont to issue hisoracles by the mouth of his priestess the Pythia, who when receiving theoracle used to sit on a tripod over an opening in the ground throughwhich an intoxicating vapour exhaled, deemed the breath of the god, andthat proved the vehicle of her inspiration; the Pythian games werecelebrated here. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, an edition of the Greek and Roman classics, editedby Bossuet and Huet, assisted by thirty-nine scholars, for the use of thedauphin of Louis XIV. ; of little use now. 

DELPHINE, a novel by Mme. De Staël; presumed to be an idealisedpicture of herself. 

DELTA, the signature of D. Macbeth Moir in _Blackwood's Magazine_. 

DELUC, JEAN ANDRÉ, geologist, born in Geneva; lived in England; wasreader to Queen Charlotte, and author of several works (1727-1817). 

DELUGE, name given to the tradition, common to several races, of aflood of such universality as to sweep the land, if not the earth, of allits inhabitants, except the pair by whom the land of the earth wasrepeopled. 

DEM`ADES, an Athenian orator, a bitter enemy of Demosthenes, in theinterest of Philip of Macedon; put to death for treason by Antipater, 318B. C. ; was a man of no principle, but a great orator. 

DEMARA`TUS, king of Sparta from 510 to 491 B. C. ; dispossessed ofhis crown, fled to Persia and accompanied Xerxes into Greece. 

DEMAVEND, MOUNT, an extinct volcano, the highest peak (18, 600 ft. )of the Elburz chain, in Persia. 

DEMBEA, a lake, the largest in Abyssinia, being 60 m. Long and 6000ft. Above the sea-level, from which the Blue Nile issues. 

DEMBINSKI, HENRY, a Polish general, born near Cracow; served underNapoleon against Russia, under Kossuth against Austria; fled to Turkey onthe resignation of Kossuth; died in Paris (1791-1864). 

DEMERARA, a division of British Guiana; takes its name from theriver, which is 200 m. Long, and falls into the Atlantic at Georgetown. 

DEMETER (lit. Earth-mother), the great Greek goddess of the earth, daughter of Kronos and Rhea and sister of Zeus, and ranks with him as oneof the twelve great gods of Olympus; is specially the goddess ofagriculture, and the giver of all the earth's fruits; the Latins call herCeres. 

DEMETRIUS, the name of two kings of Macedonia who ruled over thecountry, the first from 290 to 289 B. C. , and the second from 240 to 229B. C. 

DEMETRIUS, or DIMITRI, the name of several sovereigns ofRussia, and of four adventurers called the four false Dimitri. 

DEMETRIUS I. , Soter (i. E. Saviour), king of Syria from 162 to 150B. C. ; was grandson of Antiochus the Great. D. II. , Nicator (i. E. Conqueror), king of Syria from 143 to 125 B. C. D. III. , Eucæros(i. E. The happy), king of Syria in 95, died in 84 B. C. 

DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, an eminent Athenian orator, statesman, andhistorian, born at Phalerus, a seaport of Athens; was held in high honourin Athens for a time as its political head, but fell into dishonour, after which he lived retired and gave himself up to literary pursuits;died from the bite of an asp; left a number of works (345-283 B. C. ). 

DEMIDOFF, a Russian family distinguished for their wealth, descendedfrom a serf of Peter the Great, and who amassed a large fortune bymanufacturing firearms for him, and were raised by him to the rank ofnobility; they were distinguished in the arts, in arms, and evenliterature; ANATOL in particular, who travelled over the SE. OfEurope, and wrote an account of his travels, a work magnificentlyillustrated. 

DEMIGOD, a hero elevated in the imagination to the rank of adivinity in consequence of the display of virtues and the achievement offeats superior to those of ordinary men. 

DEMI-MONDE, a class in Parisian society dressing in a fashionablestyle, but of questionable morals. 

DEMIURGUS, a name employed by Plato to denote the world-soul, themedium by which the idea is made real, the spiritual made material, themany made one, and it was adopted by the Gnostics to denote theworld-maker as a being derived from God, but estranged from God, beingenvironed in matter, which they regarded as evil, and so incapable assuch of redeeming the soul from matter, from evil, such as the God of theJews, and the Son of that God, conceived of as manifest in flesh. 

DEMOCRACY has been defined to be government of the people by thepeople and for the people, or as a State in which the government restsdirectly with the majority of the citizens, but this under the protest ofsome that it is not an end but a means "to the attainment of a truer andtruer aristocracy, or government again by the Best. "

DEMOCRATS, a political party in the United States that contends forthe rights of the several States to self-government as against unduecentralisation. 

DEMOCRITUS, a Greek philosopher, born in Abdera, Thrace, of wealthyparents; spent his patrimony in travel, gathered knowledge from far andnear, and gave the fruits of it in a series of writings to hiscontemporary compatriots, only fragments of which remain, though theymust have come down comparatively entire to Cicero's time, who comparesthem for splendour and music of eloquence to Plato's; his philosophy wascalled the _Atomic_, as he traced the universe to its ultimate roots incombinations of atoms, in quality the same but in quantity different, andreferred all life and sensation to movements in them, while he regardedquiescence as the _summum bonum_; he has been called the LaughingPhilosopher from, it is alleged, his habit of laughing at the follies ofmankind; _b_. 460 B. C. 

DEMOCRITUS JUNIOR, a pseudonym under which Burton published his"Anatomy of Melancholy. "

DEMOGEOT, French littérateur, born at Paris; wrote a history ofliterature, chiefly French (1808-1894). 

DEMOGORGON, a terrible deity, the tyrant of the elves and fairies, who must all appear before him once every five years to give an accountof their doings. 

DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM, a mathematician, born in Champagne; lived most ofhis life in England to escape, as a Protestant, from persecution inFrance; became a friend of Newton, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, andwas of such eminence as a mathematician that he was asked to arbitratebetween the claims of Newton and Leibnitz to the invention of fluxions(1667-1754). 

DEMON, or DAIMON, a name which Socrates gave to an inner divineinstinct which corresponds to one's destiny, and guides him in the way heshould go to fulfil it, and is more or less potent in a man according tohis purity of soul. 

DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS, an eminent mathematician, born in Madura, S. India; was professor of Mathematics in London University from 1828 tillhis death, though he resigned the appointment for a time in consequenceof the rejection of a candidate, James Martineau, for the chair of logic, on account of his religious opinions; wrote treatises on almost everydepartment of mathematics, on arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, differential and integral calculus, the last pronounced to be "the mostcomplete treatise on the subject ever produced in England"; wrote also"Formal Logic" (1806-1871). 

DEMOSTHENES, the great Athenian orator, born in Athens; had manyimpediments to overcome to succeed in the profession, but by ingeniousmethods and indomitable perseverance he subdued them all, and became thefirst orator not of Greece only, but of all antiquity; a stammer in hisspeech he overcame by practising with pebbles in his mouth, and a naturaldiffidence by declaiming on the sea-beach amid the noise of the waves;while he acquired a perfect mastery of the Greek language by bindinghimself down to copy five times over in succession Thucydides' "Historyof the Peloponnesian War"; he employed 15 years of his life indenunciation of Philip of Macedon, who was bent on subjugating hiscountry; pronounced against him his immortal "Philippics" and"Olynthiacs"; took part in the battle of Cheronea, and continued thestruggle even after Philip's death; on the death of Alexander he gave hisservices as an orator to the confederated Greeks, and in the end madeaway with himself by poison so as not to fall into the hands of Autipater(385-322 B. C. ). See CTESIPHON. 

DEMPSTER, THOMAS, a learned Scotchman, born in Aberdeenshire; heldseveral professorships on the Continent; was the author of "HistoriaEcclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, " a work of great learning, but ofquestionable veracity; has been reprinted by the Bannatyne Club; his lastdays were embittered by the infidelity of his wife (1579-1625). 

DENARIUS, a silver coin among the Romans, first coined in 269 B. C. , and worth 8½ d. 

DENBIGH (6), the county town of Denbighshire, in the Vale of theClwyd, 30 m. W. Of Chester; manufactures shoes and leather. 

DENBIGHSHIRE (117), a county in North Wales, of rugged hills andfertile vales, 40 m. Long and 17 m. On an average broad, with acoal-field in the NE. , and with mines of iron, lead, and slate. 

DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, 28m. N. Of Thebes, on the site of ancient Tentyra, with the ruins of atemple in almost perfect preservation; on the ceiling of a portico ofwhich there was found a zodiac, now in the museum of the Louvre in Paris, and dates from the period of Cleopatra and the early Roman emperors, andhas sculptured portraits of that queen and her son Cæsarion. 

DENGUE, a disease peculiar to the tropics, occurs in hot weather, and attacks one suddenly with high fever and violent pains, and after arelapse returns in a milder form and leaves the patient very weak. 

DENHAM, DIXON, an English traveller, companion of Clapperton;visited Bornu and Lake Tchad (1785-1828). 

DENHAM, SIR JOHN, an English poet, born at Dublin, the son of anIrish judge; took to gambling and squandered his patrimony; was unhappyin his marriage, and his mind gave way; is best known as the author of"Cooper's Hill, " a descriptive poem, interspersed with reflections, andwritten in smooth flowing verse (1615-1669). 

DENINA, CARLO, an Italian historian, born in Piedmont; banished fromItaly for a cynical remark injurious to the monks; paid court toFrederick the Great in Berlin, where he lived a good while, and becameeventually imperial librarian in Paris under Napoleon (1731-1813). 

DENIS, a king of Portugal from 1279 to 1325; the founder of theUniversity of Coimbra and the Order of Christ. 

DENIS, ST. , the apostle of the Gauls, the first bishop of Paris, andthe patron saint of France; suffered martyrdom in 270. 

DENIS, ST. , a town 6 m. N. Of Paris, within the line of thefortifications, with an abbey which contains the remains of St. Denis, and became the mausoleum of the kings of France. 

DENISON, EDWARD, philanthropist; distinguished by his self-denyingbenevolent labours in the East End of London (1840-1870). 

DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY, archdeacon of Taunton, born in Notts; wascharged with holding views on the eucharist inconsistent with theteaching of the Church of England, first condemned and then acquitted onappeal; a stanch High Churchman, and equally opposed to Broad Church andLow; _b_. 1805. 

DENISON, JOHN EVELYN, Speaker of the House of Commons from 1858 to1872, brother of the above (1800-1873). 

DENMAN, LORD, Lord Chief-Justice of England from 1832 to 1850, bornin London; was along with Brougham counsel for Queen Caroline(1779-1854). 

DENMARK (2, 182), the smallest of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, consisting of Jutland and an archipelago of islands in the Baltic Sea, divided into 18 counties, and is less than half the size of Scotland; isa low-lying country, no place in it more above the sea-level than 500ft. , and as a consequence has no river to speak of, only meres or lakes;the land is laid out in cornfields and grazing pastures; there are asgood as no minerals, but abundance of clay for porcelain; while theexports consist chiefly of horses, cattle, swine, hams, and butter; ithas 1407 m. Of railway, and 8686 of telegraph wires; the government isconstitutional, and the established religion Lutheran. 

DENNEWITZ, a village in Brandenburg, 40 m. SW. Of Berlin, whereMarshal Ney with 70, 000 was defeated by Marshal Bülow with 50, 000. 

DENNIS, JOHN, a would-be dramatist and critic, born in London, inconstant broils with the wits of his time; his productions were worthlittle, and he is chiefly remembered for his attacks on Addison and Pope, and for the ridicule these attacks brought down at their hands on his ownhead, from Pope in "Narrative of the Frenzy of John Dennis, " and"damnation to everlasting fame" in "Dunciad"; he became blind, and wassunk in poverty, when Pope wrote a prologue to a play produced for hisbenefit (1657-1734). 

DENS, PETER, a Catholic theologian, born at Boom near Antwerp;author of a work entitled "Theologia Moralis et Dogmatica, " a minute andcasuistic vindication in catechetical form of the tenets of the CatholicChurch, and in use as a text-book in Catholic colleges (1690-1775). 

DENTATUS, M. CURIUS, a Roman of the old stamp; as consul gained twovictories over rival States and two triumphs in one year; drove Pyrrhusout of Italy (275 B. C. ), and brought to Rome immense booty, of which hewould take nothing to himself; in his retirement took to tilling a smallfarm with his own hand. 

DENVER (134), the capital of Colorado, U. S. , on a plain 5196 ft. Above the sea-level; originally founded as a mining station in 1858, nowa large and flourishing and well-appointed town; is the centre of a greattrade, and a great mining district. 

DEODAR (25), a small protected independent State in the NW. OfGujarat, India. 

DEODORAKI, a glacier in the Caucasus Mountains. 

DEPARCIEUX, French mathematician, born at Cessoux, dep. Of Gard;known for the "Tables" which bear his name, containing a reckoning of thechances of longevity for different ages (1703-1768). 

DEPARTMENT, a territorial division in France instituted in 1790, under which the old division into provinces was broken up; eachdepartment, of which there are now 87, is broken up into arrondissements. 

DEPPING, a learned French historian, born at Münster; wrote a"History of Normandy, " and on "Trade of Europe with the Levant"(1784-1853). 

DEPTFORD (101), a town on the S. Bank of the Thames, partly in Kentand partly in Surrey, now forming part of London; once with an extensiveGovernment dockyard and arsenal, the site of it purchased by theCorporation of London as a market for foreign cattle; is now the centralstation for the Electric Light Company. 

DE QUINCEY, THOMAS, a great English prose writer, born inManchester; son of a merchant called Quincey; his father dying, he wasunder a guardian, who put him to school, from which in the end he ranaway, wandered about in Wales for a time, and by-and-by found his way toLondon; in 1803 was sent to Oxford, which in 1807 he left in disgust; itwas here as an anodyne he took to opium, and acquired that habit whichwas the bane of his life; on leaving Oxford he went to Bath beside hismother, where he formed a connection by which he was introduced toWordsworth and Southey, and led to settle to literary work at Grasmere, in the Lake District; here he wrote for the reviews and magazines, particularly _Blackwood's_, till in 1821 he went up to London andpublished his "Confessions" under the _nom de plume_ of "The EnglishOpium-Eater"; leaving Grasmere in 1828 he settled in Edinburgh, and atPolton, near Lasswade, where he died; is characterised by Stopford Brookeas "owing to the overlapping and involved melody of his style one of ourbest, as he is one of our most various miscellaneous writers"; he was awriter of very miscellaneous ability and acquirement (1785-1859). 

DERBEND (14), capital of Russian Daghestan, on the W. Of the CaspianSea, 140 m. NW. Of Baku. 

DERBY (94), county town of Derbyshire, on the Derwent, withmanufactures of silk, cotton hosiery, lace, porcelain, &c. ; it is thecentre of a great railway system. 

DERBY, CHARLOTTE COUNTESS OF, wife of the 7th Earl who was takenprisoner at Worcester in 1651, and was beheaded at Bolton; famous for hergallant defence of Lathom House against the Parliamentary forces, whichshe was obliged to surrender; lived to see the Restoration; _d_. 1663. 

DERBY, 14TH EARL OF, British statesman, born at Knowsley Hall, Lancashire; entered Parliament in 1820 in the Whig interest, and washailed as an accession to their ranks by the Whigs; supported the causeof reform; in 1830 became Chief Secretary for Ireland under Earl Grey'sadministration; introduced a coercive measure against the Repealagitation of O'Connell; contributed to the passing of the Reform Bill in1832; seceded from the Whigs in 1834, and became Colonial Secretary in1845 under a Conservative administration, but when Sir Robert Peelbrought in a bill to repeal the Corn Laws, he retired from the Cabinet, and in 1848 became the head of the Protectionist party as Earl of Derby, to which title he succeeded in 1851; was after that Prime Minister threetimes over, and it was with his sanction Disraeli carried his Reform Actof 1867, though he spoke of it as "a leap in the dark"; he resigned hisPremiership in 1868, and the last speech he made was against the IrishDisestablishment Bill; was distinguished for his scholarship as well ashis oratory, and gave proof of this by his scholarly translation of the"Iliad" of Homer (1797-1869). 

DERBY, 15TH EARL OF, eldest son of the preceding; entered Parliamentas Lord Stanley in 1848; was a member of the three Derby administrations, in the first and third in connection with foreign affairs, and in thesecond as Secretary for India, at the time when the government of Indiapassed from the Company to the Crown; became Earl in 1869; was ForeignSecretary under Mr. Disraeli in 1874, but retired in 1878; in 1885 joinedthe Liberal party, and held office under Mr. Gladstone, but declined tofollow him in the matter of Home Rule, and joined the Unionist ranks; wasa man of sound and cool judgment, and took a deep interest in economicalquestions (1826-1893). 

DERBY DAY, the last Wednesday in May, or, as may happen, the 1st ofJune, being the second day of the Summer Meeting at Epsom, on which theDerby Stakes for colts and fillies three years old are run for, so calledas having been started by the 12th Earl of Derby in 1780; the day is heldas a great London holiday, and the scene is one to which all London turnsout. The stakes run for are £6000, of which the winner gets £5000. 

DERBYSHIRE (520), a northern midland county of England, hilly in theN. , undulating and pastoral in the S. , and with coal-fields in the E. ;abounds in minerals, and is more a manufacturing and mining county thanan agricultural. 

DERG, LOUGH, an expansion of the waters of the Shannon, Ireland, 24m. Long, from 2 to 6 broad; also a small lake in the S. Of Donegal, withsmall islands, one of which, Station Island, was, as the reputed entranceto St. Patrick's Purgatory, a place of pilgrimage to thousands at onetime. 

DERVISHES, a name given to members of certain mendicant ordersconnected with the Mohammedan faith in the East. Of these there arevarious classes, under different regulations, and wearing distinctivecostumes, with their special observances of devotion, and all presumed tolead an austere life, some of whom live in monasteries, and others gowandering about, some of them showing their religious fervour in excitedwhirling dances, and others in howlings; all are religious fanatics intheir way, and held sacred by the Moslems. 

DERWENTWATER, one of the most beautiful of the Cumberland lakes, inthe S. Of the county; extends S. From Keswick; is over 3 m. Long, andover 1 m. Broad; is dotted with wooded islands, and is overlooked bySkiddaw; it abounds with perch. 

DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, a Jacobite leader; was 3rd Earl and the last;several warrants were issued for his apprehension in 1714; he joined theJacobite rising in 1715; was taken prisoner at Preston, and beheaded onTower Hill, London, next year, after trial in Westminster Hall, confession of guilt, and pleadings on his behalf with the king. 

DERZHAVEN, GABRIEL, a Russian lyric poet, born at Kasan; rose fromthe ranks as a common soldier to the highest offices in the State underthe Empress Catharine II. And her successors; retired into private life, and gave himself up to poetry; the ode by which he is best known is his"Address to the Deity" (1743-1816). 

DESAIX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE, a distinguished French general, bornat the Château d'Ayat, Auvergne, of a noble family; entered the army at15; commanded a division of the Army of the Rhine in 1796, and after theretreat of Moreau defended Kehl against the Austrians for two months;accompanied Bonaparte to the East, and in 1799 conquered Upper Egypt;contributed effectively to the success at Marengo, and fell dead at themoment of victory, shot by a musket-ball; he was an upright and achivalrous man, known in Egypt as "the just Sultan, " and in Germany as"the good general" (1768-1800). 

DESAUGIERS, MARC, a celebrated French composer of songs andvaudevilles; "stands second to Béranger as a light song-writer, " and isby some preferred to him (1772-1827). 

DESAULT, a French surgeon, born in dep. Of Haute-Saône; his workscontributed largely to the progress of surgery (1714-1795). 

DESBARRES, JOSEPH FREDERICK, military engineer and hydrographer, aide-de-camp of General Wolfe at Quebec; fortified Quebec; surveyed theSt. Lawrence; revised the maps of the American coast at the outbreak ofthe American war; died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, aged 102 (1722-1824). 

DESCAMPS, a French painter, born at Dunkirk; painted village scenes(1714-1791). 

DESCARTES, RENÉ, the father of modern philosophy, born at La Haye, in Touraine; was educated at the Jesuit College of La Flèche, where hemade rapid progress in all that his masters could teach him, but soongrew sceptical as to their methods of inquiry; "resolved, on thecompletion of his studies, to bid adieu to all school and book learning, and henceforth to gain knowledge only from himself, and from the greatbook of the world, from nature and the observation of man"; in 1616 heentered the army of the Prince of Orange, and after a service of fiveyears quitted it to visit various centres of interest on the Continent;made a considerable stay in Paris; finally abandoned his native land in1629, and betook himself to seclusion in Holland in order to live there, unknown and undisturbed, wholly for philosophy and the prosecution of hisscientific projects; here, though not without vexatious opposition fromthe theologians, he lived twenty years, till in 1649, at the invitationof Christina of Sweden, he left for Stockholm, where, the severe climateproving too much for him, he was carried off by pneumonia next year;Descartes' philosophy starts with Doubt, and by one single step itarrives at Certainty; "if I doubt, it is plain I exist, " and from thiscertainty, that is, the existence of the thinking subject, he deduces hiswhole system; it all comes from the formula _Cogito, ergo sum_, "I think, therefore I exist, " that is, the thinking _ego_ exists; in which thinkingphilosophy ere long sums the universe up, regarding it as a void, withoutthought; Descartes' philosophy is all comprehended in two works, his"Discourse on Method, " and his "Meditations" (1596-1650). 

DESCHAMPS, ÉMILE, a French poet, born at Bourges, one of the chiefsof the Romantic school (1795-1871). 

DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, a French poet, born at Vertus, in Champagne;studied in Orleans University; travelled over Europe; had his estatepillaged by the English, whom, in consequence, he is never weary ofabusing; his poems are numerous, and, except one, all short, consistingof ballads, as many as 1175 of them, a form of composition which he issaid to have invented; he deals extensively in satire, and if he wieldsthe shafts of it against the plunderers of his country, he does no lessagainst the oppressors of the poor (1328-1415). 

DESDEMONA, the wife of Othello the Moor, who, in Shakespeare's playof that name, kills her on a groundless insinuation of infidelity, to hisbitter remorse. 

DESÈZE, a French advocate, had the courage, along with advocateTronchet, to defend Louis XVI. When dragged to judgment by theConvention, and who, honourably fulfilling his perilous office, pled forthe space of three hours, an honourable pleading "composed almostovernight; courageous, yet discreet; not without ingenuity, and softpathetic eloquence"; he was imprisoned for a time, but escaped thescaffold; on the return of the Bourbons he was made a peer (1750-1828). 

DESMOND, EARLDOM OF, an Irish title long extinct by the death of thelast earl in 1583; he had rebelled against Elizabeth's government, beenproclaimed, and had taken refuge in a peasant's cabin, and been betrayed. 

DES MOINES (62), the largest city in Iowa, U. S. , and the capital, founded in 1846. 

DESMOULINS, CAMILLE, one of the most striking figures in the FrenchRevolution, born at Guise, in Picardy; studied for the bar in the samecollege with Robespierre, but never practised, owing to a stutter in hisspeech; was early seized with the revolutionary fever, and was the firstto excite the same fever in the Parisian mob, by his famous call "Toarms, and, for some rallying sign, cockades--green ones--the colour ofHope, when, " as we read in Carlyle, "as with the flight of locusts, thegreen tree-leaves, green ribbons from the neighbouring shops, all greenthings, were snatched to make cockades of"; was one of the ablestadvocates of the levelling principles of the Revolution; associatedhimself first with Mirabeau and then with Danton in carrying them out, and even supported Robespierre in the extreme course he took; but hisheart was moved to relent when he thought of the misery the guillotinewas working among the innocent families, the wives and the children, ofits victims, would, along with Danton, fain have brought the Reign ofTerror to a close; for this he was treated as a renegade, put underarrest at the instance of Robespierre, subjected to trial, sentenced todeath, and led off to the place of execution; while his young wife, forinterfering in his behalf, was arraigned and condemned, and sent to theguillotine a fortnight after him (1762-1794). 

DE SOTO, a Spanish voyager, was sent to conquer Florida, penetratedas far as the Mississippi; worn out with fatigue in quest of gold, diedof fever, and was buried in the river (1496-1542). 

DES PERIERS, BONAVENTURE, a French humanist and story-teller, bornat Autun, in Burgundy; valet-de-chamber of Margaret of Valois; wrote"Cymbalum Mundi, " a satirical production, in which, as a disciple ofLucian, he holds up to ridicule the religious beliefs of his day; also"Novelles Recréations et Joyeux Devis, " a collection of some 129 shortstories admirably told; was one of the first prose-writers of thecentury, and is presumed to be the author of the "Heptameron, " ascribedto Margaret of Valois; _d_. 1544. 

DESPRE`AUX. See BOILEAU. 

DESSALINES, JEAN JACQUES, emperor of Hayti, born in Guinea, W. Africa, a negro imported into Hayti as a slave; on the emancipation ofthe slaves there he acquired great influence among the insurgents, and byhis cruelties compelled the French to quit the island, upon which he wasraised to the governorship, and by-and-by was able to declare himselfemperor, but his tyranny provoked a revolt, in which he perished(1760-1806). 

DESSAU (34), a North German town, the capital of the Duchy ofAnhalt, on the Mulde, affluent of the Elbe, some 70 m. SW. Of Berlin; itis at once manufacturing and trading. 

DESSAUER, THE OLD. See LEOPOLD OF DESSAU. 

DESTOUCHES, a French dramatist, born at Tours; his plays werecomedies, and he wrote 17, all excellent (1680-1754); also a Frenchpainter (1790-1884). 

DETMOLD (9), capital of Lippe, 47 m. SW. Of Hanover, with a bronzecolossal statue of ARMINIUS (q. V. ) near by. 

DETROIT (285), the largest city in Michigan, U. S. , a greatmanufacturing and commercial centre, situated on a river of the samename, which connects Lake St. Clair with Lake Erie; is one of the oldestplaces in the States, and dates from 1670, at which time it came into thepossession of the French; is a well-built city, with varied manufacturesand a large trade, particularly in grain and other natural products. 

DETTINGEN, a village in Bavaria, where an army of English, Hanoverians, and Austrians under George II. , in 1743 defeated the Frenchunder Duc de Noailles. 

DEUCALION, son of Prometheus, who, with his wife Pyrrha, by means ofan ark which he built, was saved from a flood which for nine daysoverwhelmed the land of Hellas. On the subsidence of the flood theyconsulted the oracle at Delphi as to re-peopling the land withinhabitants, when they were told by Themis, the Pythia at the time, tothrow the bones of their mother over their heads behind them. For a timethe meaning of the oracle was a puzzle, but the readier wit of the wifefound it out; upon which they took stones and threw them over theirheads, when the stones he threw were changed into men and those she threwwere changed into women. 

DEUS EX MACHINA, the introduction in high matters of a merelyexternal, material, or mechanical explanation instead of an internal, rational, or spiritual one, which is all a theologian does when he simplynames God, and all a scientist does when he simply says EVOLUTION(q. V. ). 

DEUTERONOMY (i. E. The Second Law), the fifth book of thePentateuch, and so called as the re-statement and re-enforcement, as itwere, by Moses of the Divine law proclaimed in the wilderness. The Mosaicauthorship of this book is now called in question, though it is allowedto be instinct with the spirit of the religion instituted by Moses, andit is considered to have been conceived at a time when that religion withits ritual was established in Jerusalem, in order to confirm faith in theDivine origin and sanction of observances there. 

DEUTSCH, EMANUEL, a distinguished Hebrew scholar, born at Neisse, inSilesia, of Jewish descent; was trained from his boyhood to familiaritywith the Hebrew and Chaldea languages; studied under Boeckh at theuniversity of Berlin; came to England, and in 1855 obtained a post in thelibrary of the British Museum; had made a special study of the "Talmud, "on which he wrote a brilliant article for the _Quarterly Review_, to thegreat interest of many; his ambition was to write an exhaustive treatiseon the subject, but he did not live to accomplish it; died at Alexandria, whither he had gone in the hope of prolonging his days (1829-1873). 

DEUTZ (17), a Prussian town on the right bank of the Rhine, oppositeCologne. 

DEUX PONTS, French name for ZWEIBRÜCKEN (q. V. ). 

DEVA, the original Hindu name for the deity, meaning the shiningone, whence _deus_, god, in Latin. 

DEVANAG`ARI, the character in which Sanskrit works are printed. 

DEVELOPMENT, the biological doctrine which ascribes an innateexpansive power to the organised universe, and affirms the deviation ofthe most complex forms through intermediate links from the simplest, without the intervention of special acts of creation. SeeEVOLUTION. 

DEV`ENTER (25), a town in Holland, in the province of Overyssel, 55m. SE. Of Amsterdam; has carpet manufactures; is celebrated for itsgingerbread; was the locality of the Brotherhood of Common Life, withwhich the life and work of Thomas à Kempis are associated. 

DE VERE, THOMAS AUBREY, poet and prose writer, born in co. Limerick, Ireland; educated at Trinity College, Dublin; wrote poetical dramas of"Alexander the Great" and "St. Thomas of Canterbury"; his first poem "TheWaldenses"; also critical essays; _b_. 1814. 

DEVIL, THE, a being regarded in Scripture as having a personalexistence, and, so far as this world is concerned, a universal spiritualpresence, as everywhere thwarting the purposes of God and marring thedestiny of man; only since the introduction of Christianity, whichderives all evil as well as good from within, he has come to be regardedless as an external than an internal reality, and is identified with theascendency in the human heart of passions native to it, which whensubject ennoble it, but when supreme debase it. He is properly the spiritthat deceives man, and decoys him to his eternal ruin from truth andrighteousness. 

DEVIL, THE, IS AN ASS, a farce by Ben Jonson, full of vigour, butvery coarse. 

DEVIL-WORSHIP, a homage paid by primitive tribes to the devil orspirit of evil in the simple-hearted belief that he could be bribed fromdoing them evil. 

DEVONPORT (70), a town in Devonshire, adjoining Plymouth to the W. , and the seat of the military and naval government of the three towns, originally called Plymouth Dock, and established as a naval arsenal byWilliam III. 

DEVONSHIRE, a county in the S. Of England, with Exmoor in the N. AndDartmoor in the S. ; is fertile in the low country, and enjoys a climatefavourable to vegetation; it has rich pasture-grounds, and abounds inorchards. 

DEVONSHIRE, DUKE OF. See CAVENDISH. 

DEVRIENT, LUDWIG, a popular German actor, born in Berlin, ofexceptional dramatic ability, the ablest of a family with similar gifts(1784-1832). 

D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, antiquary, born in Dorsetshire; bred for thebar; was a member of the Long Parliament; left notes on its transactions;took the Puritan side in the Civil War; his "Journal of all theParliaments of Elizabeth" is of value; left an "Autobiography andCorrespondence" (1602-1656). 

DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT, a German theologian, born nearWeimar; studied at Jena, professor of Theology ultimately at Basel; washeld in high repute as a biblical critic and exegete; contributed largelyto theological literature; counted a rationalist by the orthodox, and amystic by the rationalists; his chief works "A Critical Introduction tothe Bible" and a "Manual to the New Testament" (1780-1849). 

DE WITT, JAN, a Dutch statesman, born at Dort; elected grandpensionary in 1652; like his father, Jacob de Witt, before him, was adeclared enemy of the House of Orange, and opposed the Stadtholdership, and for a time he carried the country along with him, but during a warwith England his influence declined, the Orange party prevailed, andelected the young Prince of Orange, our William III. , Stadtholder. He andhis brother Cornelius were murdered at last by the populace (1625-1672). 

DEWSBURY (73), a town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 8 m. SW. OfLeeds; engaged in the manufacture of woollens, blankets, carpets, andyarns. 

DEXTRINE, a soluble matter into which the interior substance ofstarch globules is converted by acids or diastase, so called because whenviewed by polarised light it has the property of turning the plane ofpolarisation to the right. 

DEYSTER, LOUIS DE, a Flemish painter, born at Bruges; was of adeeply religious temper, and his character was reflected in his choice ofsubjects, such as the "Death of the Virgin, " "The Resurrection ofChrist, " &c. ; he was a recluse (1656-1711). 

DEZOBRY, CHARLES, a French writer, born at St. Denis; author of"Rome in the Time of Augustus" (1798-1871). 

DHAGOBA, a mound with a dome-shaped top, found to contain Buddhistrelics. 

DHARMA, the name given to the law of Buddha, as distinct from theSangha, which is the Church. 

DHARWAR (32), a town in the S. Of the Bombay Presidency, a place ofconsiderable trade in a district noted for its cotton growing. 

DHWALAGIRI, one of the peaks of the Himalayas, the third highest, 26, 826 ft. High. 

DIABETES, a disease characterised by an excessive discharge ofurine, and accompanied with great thirst; there are two forms of thisdisease. 

DIAB`LERETS, a mountain of the Bernese Alps, between the Cantons deVaud and de Valois. 

DIAFOIRUS, THOMAS, the name of two pedantic doctors, father and son, who figure in Molière's "Malade Imaginaire. "

DIAGORAS, a Greek philosopher, born in Melos, one of the Cyclades, 5th century B. C. , surnamed the Atheist, on account of the scorn withwhich he treated the gods of the popular faith, from the rage of whosedevotees he was obliged to seek safety by flight; died in Corinth. 

DIALECTIC, in the Hegelian philosophy the logic of thought, and, ifof thought, the logic of being, of essential being. 

DIALOGUES OF PLATO, philosophical dialogues, in which Socratesfigures as the principal interlocutor, although the doctrine expounded israther Plato's than his master's; they discuss theology, psychology, ethics, æsthetics, politics, physics, and related subjects. 

DIALYSIS, the process of separating the crystalloid or poisonousingredients in a substance from the colloid or harmless ingredients. 

DIAMANTE, a Spanish dramatic poet, who plagiarised Corneille's "Cid"and passed it off as original; _b_. 1826. 

DIAMANTINA (13), a district in Brazil, in the province of MinasGeraes, rich in diamonds. 

DIAMOND, the name of Newton's favourite dog that, by upsetting alamp, set fire to MSS. Containing notes of experiments made over a courseof years, an irreparable loss. 

DIAMOND NECKLACE, a necklace consisting of 500 diamonds, and worth£80, 000, which one Madame de la Motte induced the jeweller who "made" itto part with for Marie Antoinette, on security of Cardinal de Rohan, andwhich madame made away with, taking it to pieces and disposing of thejewels in London; the swindle was first discovered when the jewellerpresented his bill to the queen, who denied all knowledge of the matter;this led to a trial which extended over nine months, gave rise to greatscandal, and ended in the punishment of the swindler and her husband, andthe disgrace of the unhappy, and it is believed innocent, queen. SeeCARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES. "

DIAMOND NET, a name given in the Hegelian philosophy to "the_connective tissue_, so to speak, that not only supports, but even in ameasure constitutes, the various organs" of the universe. SeeHEGELIANISM. 

DIAMOND STATE, Delaware, U. S. , from its small size and greatwealth. 

DIANA, originally an Italian deity, dispenser of light, identifiedat length with the Greek goddess Artemis, and from the first with themoon; she was a virgin goddess, and spent her time in the chase, attendedby her maidens; her temple at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of theworld. See ARTEMIS. 

DIANA DE POITIERS, the mistress of Henry II. Of France, for whom hebuilt the magnificent Château d'Anet, in Eure-et-Loir; she had a greatinfluence over him, and the cruel persecutions of the Huguenots in hisreign were due to her instigation (1490-1566). 

DIANA OF FRANCE, the Duchess of Angoulême, the natural daughter ofHenry II. And the Duchess de Castro (1538-1619). 

DIARBEKIR (42), the largest town in the Kurdistan Highlands, on theTigris, 194 m. NE. Of Aleppo, and on the highway between Bagdad andConstantinople, with a large and busy bazaar. 

DIASTASE, a nitrogenous substance developed during the germinationof grain, and having the property of converting starch first intodextrine and then into sugar. 

DIAVOLO, FRA (lit. Brother Devil), Michele Porsa, a Calabrian, originally a monk, who left his monastery and joined a set of bandits, who lent themselves to and conducted insurrectionary movements in Italy;taken prisoner, was hanged at Naples; Auber's opera, "Fra Diavolo, " hasno connection with him except the name (1760-1806). 

DIAZ, BARTHÉLEMY, a Portuguese navigator, sent on a voyage ofdiscovery by John II. , in the command of two ships; sailed down the W. Coast of Africa and doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which, from the stormthat drove him past it, he called the Cape of Storms; returning to Lisbonhe was superseded by Vasco da Gama, or rather subordinated to him;subsequently accompanied Cabral on his voyage to Brazil, and was lost ina storm in 1500. 

DIAZ MIGUEL, governor of Porto Rico, born in Aragon; friend andcompanion of Columbus; suffered from the usual Jealousies in enterprisesof the kind, but prevailed in the end; _d_. 1514. 

DIAZ DE LA PEÑA, a French painter, born at Bordeaux, of Spanishdescent; a landscapist of the Romantic school, eminent as a colourist(1809-1876). 

DIAZ DEL CASTELLO, historian; accompanied Cortes to Mexico; tookpart in the conquest, and left a graphic, trustworthy account of it; diedin Mexico, 1560. 

DIBDIN, CHARLES, musician, dramatist, and song-writer, born inSouthampton; began life as an actor; invented a dramatic entertainmentconsisting of music, songs, and recitations, in which he was the soleperformer, and of which he was for the most part the author; wrote some30 dramatic pieces, and it is said 1400 songs; his celebrity is whollydue to his sea songs, which proved of the most inspiring quality, and didmuch to man the navy during the war with France; was the author of "TomBowling"; left an account of his "Professional Life" (1745-1814). 

DIBDIN, THOMAS, dramatic author and song-writer, son of thepreceding; was an actor as well as an author, and a most versatile one;performed in all kinds of characters, and wrote all kinds of plays, aswell as numerous songs (1771-1841). 

DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL, bibliographer, nephew of Charles Dibdin, born in Calcutta; took orders in the Church of England; held severalpreferments; wrote several works all more or less of a bibliographicalcharacter, which give proof of extensive research, but are lacking oftenin accuracy and critical judgment; was one of the founders of theRoxburghe Club (1775-1847). 

DICÆARCHUS, an ancient geographer, born at Messina, 4th centuryB. C. ; a disciple of Aristotle. 

DICK, JAMES, a West Indian and London merchant, born in Forres;bequeathed £113, 787 to encourage learning and efficient teaching amongthe parish schoolmasters of Elgin, Banff, and Aberdeen shires; it isknown as the Dick Bequest, and the property is vested in a governing bodyof thirteen duly elected (1743-1828). 

DICKENS, CHARLES, celebrated English novelist, born at Landport, Portsmouth; son of a navy clerk, latterly in great straits; was broughtup amid hardships; was sent to a solicitor's office as a clerk, learnedshorthand, and became a reporter, a post in which he learned much of whatafterwards served him as an author; wrote sketches for the _MonthlyMagazine_ under the name of "Boz" in 1834, and the "Pickwick Papers" in1836-37, which established his popularity; these were succeeded by"Oliver Twist" in 1838, "Nicholas Nickleby" in 1839, and others which itis needless to enumerate, as they are all known wherever the Englishlanguage is spoken; they were all written with an aim, and as Ruskinwitnesses, "he was entirely right in his main drift and purpose in everybook he has written, " though he thinks we are apt "to lose sight of hiswit and insight, because he chooses to speak in a circle of stagefire. .. . Allowing for his manner of telling them, the things he tells usare always true"; being a born actor, and fain in his youth to becomeone, he latterly gave public readings from his works, which wereimmensely popular; "acted better, " says Carlyle, who witnessed one ofthese performances, "than any Macready in the world; a whole tragic, comic, heroic _theatre_ visible, performing under one _hat_, and keepingus laughing--in a sorry way some of us thought--the whole night"; thestrain proved too much for him; he was seized with a fit at hisresidence, Gad's Hill, near Rochester, on June 8, 1870, and died thefollowing morning; he was a little man, with clear blue intelligent eyes, a face of most extreme mobility, and a quiet shrewdness of expression(1812-1870). 

DICTATOR, a magistrate invested with absolute authority in ancientrepublican Rome in times of exigence and danger; the constitution obligedhim to resign his authority at the end of six months, till which time hewas free without challenge afterwards to do whatever the interest of thecommonwealth seemed to him to require; the most famous dictators wereCincinnatus, Camillus, Sulla, and Cæsar, who was the last to be investedwith this power; the office ceased with the fall of the republic, orrather, was merged in the perpetual dictatorship of the emperor. 

DICTATOR OF LETTERS, Voltaire. 

DICTYS CRETENSIS (i. E. Of Crete), the reputed author of anarrative of the Trojan war from the birth of Paris to the death ofUlysses, extant only in a Latin translation; the importance attached tothis narrative and others ascribed to the same author is, that they arethe source of many of the Greek legends we find inwoven from time to timein the mediæval literature that has come down to us. 

DIDDLER, JEREMY, a needy, artful swindler in Kenny's farce of"Raising the Wind. "

DIDEROT, DENIS, a French philosopher, born at Langres, the son of acutler there; a zealous propagator of the philosophic ideas of the 18thcentury, and the projector of the famous "Encyclopédie, " which he editedalong with D'Alembert, and which made a great noise in its day, but didnot enrich its founder, who was in the end driven to offer his libraryfor sale to get out of the pecuniary difficulties it involved him in, andhe would have been ruined had not Catharine of Russia bought it, whichshe not only did, but left it with him, and paid him a salary aslibrarian. Diderot fought hard to obtain a hearing for his philosophicalopinions; his first book was burnt by order of the parlement of Paris, while for his second he was clapped in jail; and all along he had tofront the most formidable opposition, so formidable that all hisfellow-workers were ready to yield, and were only held to their task byhis indomitable resolution and unquenchable ardour. "A deist in hisearlier writings, " says SCHWEGLER, "the drift of his subsequentwritings amounts to the belief that all is God. At first a believer inthe immateriality and immortality of the soul, he peremptorily declaresat last that only the race endures, that individuals pass, and thatimmortality is nothing but life in the remembrance of posterity; he waskept back, however, from the materialism his doctrines issued in by hismoral earnestness"; that Diderot was at heart no sceptic is evident, asDr. Stirling suggests, from his "indignation at the _darkness_, themiserable _ignorance_ of those around him, and his resolution to dispelit" (1713-1784). 

DIDIUS, JULIANUS, a Roman emperor who in 193 purchased the imperialpurple from the prætorian guards, and was after two months murdered bythe soldiers when Severus was approaching the city. 

DIDO, the daughter of Belus, king of Tyre, and the sister ofPygmalion, who, having succeeded to the throne on the death of hisfather, put Sichæus, her husband, to death for the sake of his wealth, whereupon she secretly took ship, sailed away from the city with thetreasure, accompanied by a body of disaffected citizens, and foundedCarthage, having picked up by the way 80 virgins from Cyprus to makewives for her male attendants; a neighbouring chief made suit for herhand, encouraged by her subjects, upon which, being bound by an oath ofeternal fidelity to Sichæus, she erected a funeral pile and stabbedherself in presence of her subjects; Virgil makes her ascend the funeralpile out of grief for the departure of Æneas, of whom she waspassionately in love. 

DIDOT, the name of a French family of paper-makers, printers, andpublishers, of which the most celebrated is Ambroise Firmin, born inParis, a learned Hellenist (1790-1876). 

DIDYMUS (twin), a surname of St. Thomas; also the name of agrammarian of Alexandria, a contemporary of Cicero, and who wrotecommentaries on Homer. 

DIEBITSCH, COUNT, a Russian general, born in Silesia;commander-in-chief in 1829 of the Russian army against Turkey, over theforces of which he gained a victory in the Balkans; commissioned tosuppress a Polish insurrection, he was baffled in his efforts, and fell avictim to cholera in 1831. 

DIEFFENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, an eminent German surgeon, born atKönigsberg; studied for the Church; took part in the war of liberation, and began the study of medicine after the fall of Napoleon; was appointedto the chair of Surgery in Berlin; his fame rests on his skill as anoperator (1792-1847). 

DIEFFENBACH, LORENZ, a distinguished philologist and ethnologist, born at Ostheim, in the grand-duchy of Hesse; was for 11 years a pastor;in the end, until his death, librarian at Frankfort-on-the-Main; hisliterary works were numerous and varied; his chief were on philologicaland ethnological subjects, and are monuments of learning (1806-1883). 

DIEGO SUAREZ, BAY OF, is situated on the NE. Of Madagascar, and hasbeen ceded to France. 

DIEMEN, ANTONY VAN, governor of the Dutch possessions in India, bornin Holland; was a zealous coloniser; at his instance Abel Tasman was sentto explore the South Seas, when he discovered the island which he namedafter him Van Diemen's Land, now Tasmania after the discoverer(1593-1645). 

DIEPENBECK, ABRAHAM VAN, a Flemish painter and engraver (1599-1675). 

DIEPPE (22), a French seaport on the English Channel, at the mouthof the river Arques, 93 m. NW. Of Paris; a watering and bathing place, with fisheries and a good foreign trade. 

DIES IRAE (lit. The Day of Wrath), a Latin hymn on the LastJudgment, so called from first words, and based on Zeph. I. 14-18; it isascribed to a monk of the name of Thomas de Celano, who died in 1255, andthere are several translations of it in English, besides a paraphrasticrendering in the "Lay of the Last Minstrel" by Scott, and it is also thesubject of a number of musical compositions. 

DIET, a convention of the princes, dignitaries, and delegates of theGerman empire, for legislative or administrative purposes, of which themost important in a historical point of view are diets held at Augsburgin 1518, at Worms in 1521, at Nüremberg in 1523, 1524, at Spires in 1526, 1529, at Augsburg in 1530, at Cologne in 1530, at Worms in 1536, atFrankfort in 1539, at Ratisbon in 1541, at Spires in 1544, at Augsburg in1547, 1548, 1550, and at Ratisbon in 1622. 

DIETRICH, mayor of Strasburg, at whose request Rouget de Lislecomposed the "Marseillaise"; was guillotined (1748-1793). 

DIETRICH OF BERN, a favourite hero of German legend, who in the"Nibelungen" avenges the death of Siegfried, and in the "Heldenbuch"figures as a knight-errant of invulnerable prowess, from whose challengeeven Siegfried shrinks, hiding himself behind Chriemhilda's veil; hasbeen identified with Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. 

DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN, a German philologist, born at Giessen;after service as a volunteer against Napoleon, and a tutorship atUtrecht, went to Bonn, where, advised by Goethe, he commenced the studyof the Romance languages, and in 1830 became professor of them, thephilology of which he is the founder; he left two great works bearing onthe grammar and etymology of these languages (1794-1876). 

DIEZ, JUAN MARTIN, a Spanish brigadier-general of cavalry, born atValladolid, the son of a peasant; had, as head of guerilla bands, donegood service to his country during the Peninsular war and been promoted;offending the ruling powers, was charged with conspiracy, tried, andexecuted (1775-1825). 

DIGBY, a seaport on the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia; noted for thecuring of pilchards, called from it digbies. 

DIGBY, SIR EVERARD, member of a Roman Catholic family; concerned inthe Gunpowder Plot, and executed (1581-1606). 

DIGBY, SIR KENELM, a son of the preceding; was knighted by James I. ;served under Charles I. ; as a privateer defeated a squadron of Venetians, and fought against the Algerines; was imprisoned for a time as aRoyalist; paid court afterwards to the Protector; was well received atthe Restoration; was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and aman of some learning; wrote treatises on the Nature of Bodies and Man'sSoul, on the corpuscular theory (1603-1665). 

DIHONG, the name given to the Brahmaputra as it traverses Assam; inthe rainy season it overflows its channel and floods the whole lowlandsof the country. 

DIJON (61), the ancient capital of Burgundy, and the principal townin the dep. Of Côte d'Or, 195 m. SE. Of Paris, on the canal of Bourgogne;one of the finest towns in France, at once for its buildings, particularly its churches, and its situation; is a centre of manufactureand trade, and a seat of learning; the birthplace of many illustriousmen. 

DIKË (i. E. Justice), a Greek goddess, the daughter of Zeus andThemis; the guardian of justice and judgment, the foe of deceit andviolence, and the accuser before Zeus of the unjust judge. 

DIKTYS, the fisherman of Seriphus; saved Perseus and his mother fromthe perils of the deep. 

DILETTANTE SOCIETY, THE, a society of noblemen and gentlemen foundedin England in 1734, and which contributed to correct and purify thepublic taste of the country; their labours were devoted chiefly to thestudy of the relics of ancient Greek art, and resulted in the productionof works in illustration. 

DILETTANTISM, an idle, often affected, almost always barrenadmiration and study of the fine arts, "in earnest about nothing. "

DILKE, CHARLES WENTWORTH, English critic and journalist; served for20 years in the Navy Pay-Office; contributed to the _Westminister_ andother reviews; was proprietor and editor of the _Athenæum_; started the_Daily News_; left literary Papers, edited by his grandson (1789-1864). 

DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, English publicist and politician, grandson of the preceding, born at Chelsea; called to the bar; travelledin America and the English colonies, and wrote a record of his travels inhis "Greater Britain"; entered Parliament as an extreme Liberal; heldoffice under Mr. Gladstone; from exposures in a divorce case had toretire from public life, but returned after a time; _b_. 1843. 

DILLMANN, a great German Orientalist, born at Illingen, a village ofWürtemberg; studied under Ewald at Tübingen; became professor at Kiel, atGiessen, and finally at Berlin; as professor of Old Testament exegesismade a special study of the Ethiopic languages, and is the greatauthority in their regard; wrote a grammar and a lexicon of these, aswell as works on theology; _b_. 1823. 

DILLON, a general in the service of France, born in Dublin; wasbutchered by his troops near Lille (1745-1792). 

DILLON, JOHN, an Irish patriot, born in New York; entered Parliamentin 1880 as a Parnellite; was once suspended, and four times imprisoned, for his over-zeal; sat at first for Tipperary, and since for East Mayo;in 1891 threw in his lot with the M'Carthyites; _b_. 1851. 

DIMANCHE, M. (Mr. Sunday), a character in Molière's "Don Juan, " thetype of an honest merchant, whom, on presenting his bill, his creditorappeases by his politeness. 

DIME, a U. S. Silver coin, worth the tenth part of a dollar, orabout fivepence. 

DINAN (10), an old town in the dep. Of Côtes du Nord, France, 14 m. S. Of St. Malo; most picturesquely situated on the top of a steep hill, amid romantic scenery, of great archæological interest; the birthplace ofDuclos. 

DINANT, an old town on the Meuse, 14 m. S. Of Namur, Belgium; notedfor its gingerbread, and formerly for its copper wares, calledDinanderie. 

DINAPUR (44), a town and military station on the right bank of theGanges, 12 m. NW. Of Patna. 

DINARCHUS, an orator of the Phocion party in Athens, born atCorinth. 

DINARIC ALPS, a range of the Eastern Alps in Austria, runs SE. Andparallel with the Adriatic, connecting the Julian Alps with the Balkans. 

DINDORF, WILHELM, a German philologist, born at Leipzig; devoted hislife to the study of the ancient Greek classics, particularly thedramatists, and edited the chief of them, as well as the "Iliad" and"Odyssey" of Homer, with notes; was joint-editor with his brothers Ludwigand Hase of the "Thesaurus Græcæ Linguæ" of Stephanus (1802-1883). 

DINGELSTEDT, a German poet, novelist, and essayist, born nearMarburg; was the Duke of Würtemberg's librarian at Stuttgart, and theatresuperintendent at Münich, Weimar, and Vienna successively; his poems showdelicacy of sentiment and graphic power (1814-1881). 

DINGWALL, the county town of Ross-shire, at the head of the CromartyFirth. 

DINKAS, an African pastoral people occupying a flat countrytraversed by the White Nile; of good stature, clean habits; ofsemi-civilised manners, and ferocious in war. 

DINMONT, DANDIE, a jovial, honest-hearted store-farmer in Scott's"Guy Mannering. "

DINOCRATES, a Macedonian architect, who, in the time of Alexanderthe Great, rebuilt the Temple of Ephesus destroyed by the torch ofErostratus; was employed by Alexander in the building of Alexandria. 

DIOCLETIAN, Roman emperor from 284 to 308, born at Salona, inDalmatia, of obscure parentage; having entered the Roman army, servedwith distinction, rose rapidly to the highest rank, and was at Chalcedon, after the death of Numerianus, invested by the troops with the imperialpurple; in 286 he associated Maximianus with himself as joint-emperor, with the title of Augustus, and in 292 resigned the Empire of the West toConstantius Chlorus and Galerius, so that the Roman world was dividedbetween two emperors in the E. And two in the W. ; in 303, at the instanceof Galerius, he commenced and carried on a fierce persecution of theChristians, the tenth and fiercest; but in 305, weary of ruling, heabdicated and retired to Salona, where he spent his remaining eight yearsin rustic simplicity of life, cultivating his garden; bating hispersecution of the Christians, he ruled the Roman world wisely and well(245-313). 

DIODATI, a Calvinistic theologian, born at Lucca; was taken while achild with his family to Geneva; distinguished himself there in thecourse of the Reformation as a pastor, a preacher, professor of Hebrew, and a professor of Theology; translated the Bible into Italian and intoFrench; a nephew of his was a school-fellow and friend of Milton, whowrote an elegy on his untimely death (1576-1614). 

DIODORUS SICULUS, historian, born in Sicily, of the age of Augustus;conceived the idea of writing a universal history; spent 30 years at thework; produced what he called "The Historical Library, " which embracedthe period from the earliest ages to the end of Cæsar's Gallic war, andwas divided into 40 books, of which only a few survive entire, and somefragments of the rest. 

DIOGENES LAËRTIUS, a Greek historian, born at Laerte, in Cilicia;flourished in the 2nd century A. D. ; author of "Lives of thePhilosophers, " a work written in 10 books; is full of interestinginformation regarding the men, but is destitute of critical insight intotheir systems. 

DIOGENES OF APOLLONIA, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, andan adherent of ANAXIMENES (q. V. ), if of any one, being more ofan eclectic than anything else; took more to physics than philosophy;contributed nothing to the philosophic movement of the time. 

DIOGENES THE CYNIC, born in Sinope, in Pontus, came to Athens, wasattracted to ANTISTHENES (q. V. ) and became a disciple, and asansculotte of the first water; dressed himself in the coarsest, lived onthe plainest, slept in the porches of the temples, and finally took uphis dwelling in a tub; stood on his naked manhood; would not haveanything to do with what did not contribute to its enhancement; despisedevery one who sought satisfaction in anything else; went through thehighways and byways of the city at noontide with a lit lantern in questof a man; a man himself not to be laughed at or despised; visitingCorinth, he was accosted by Alexander the Great: "I am Alexander, " saidthe king, and "I am Diogenes" was the prompt reply; "Can I do anything toserve you?" continued the king; "Yes, stand out of the sunlight, "rejoined the cynic; upon which Alexander turned away saying, "If I werenot Alexander, I would be Diogenes. " D'Alembert declared Diogenes thegreatest man of antiquity, only that he wanted decency. "Great truly, "says Carlyle, but adds with a much more serious drawback than that(412-323 B. C. ). See "SARTOR RESARTUS, " BK. III. CHAP. 1. 

DIOGENES THE STOIC, born in Seleucia; a successor of Zeno, and headof the school at Athens, 2nd century B. C. 

DIOMEDES, king of Argos, called Tydides, from his father; was, nextto Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks at the Trojan war; fought underthe protection of Athene against both Hector and Æneas, and even woundedboth Aphrodité and Ares; dared along with Ulysses to carry off thePalladium from Troy; was first in the chariot race in honour ofPatroclus, and overcame Ajax with the spear. 

DIOMEDES, king of Thrace; fed his horses with human flesh, and waskilled by Hercules for his inhumanity. 

DION CASSIUS, a Greek historian, born at Nicæa, in Bithynia, aboutA. D. 155; went to Rome, and served under a succession of emperors; wrotea "History of Rome" from Æneas to Alexander Severus in 80 books, of whichonly 18 survive entire; took years to prepare for and compose it; it isof great value, and often referred to. 

DION CHRYSOSTOMUS (Dion with the golden, or eloquent, mouth), acelebrated Greek rhetorician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, about themiddle of the 1st century; inclined to the Platonic and Stoicphilosophies; came to Rome, and was received with honour by Nerva andTrajan; is famous as an orator and as a writer of pure Attic Greek. 

DION OF SYRACUSE, a pupil of Plato, and an austere man; was from hisausterity obnoxious to his pleasure-loving nephew, Dionysius the Younger;subjected to banishment; went to Athens; learned his estates had beenconfiscated, and his wife given to another; took up arms, drove hisnephew from the throne, usurped his place, and was assassinated in 353B. C. , the citizens finding that in getting rid of one tyrant they had butsaddled themselves with another, and greater. 

DIONE, a Greek goddess of the earlier mythology; figures as the wifeof the Dodonian Zeus; drops into subordinate place after his nuptialswith Hera. 

DIONYSIUS THE ELDER, tyrant of Syracuse from 406 to 367 B. C. ; atfirst a private citizen; early took interest in public affairs, andplayed a part in them; entered the army, and rose to be head of theState; subdued the other cities of Sicily, and declared war againstCarthage; was attacked by the Carthaginians, and defeated them threetimes over; concluded a treaty of peace with them, and spent the rest ofhis reign, some 20 years, in maintaining and extending his territory; wasdistinguished, it is said, as he might well be, both as a poet and aphilosopher; tradition represents him as in perpetual terror of his life, and taking every precaution to guard it from attack. 

DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER, tyrant of Syracuse, son of the preceding, succeeded him in 367 B. C. At the age of thirty; had never taken part inpublic affairs; was given over to vicious indulgences, and provedincapable of amendment, though DION (q. V. ) tried hard to reformhim; was unpopular with the citizens, who with the help of Dion, whom hehad banished, drove him from the throne; returning after 10 years, wasonce more expelled by Timoleon; betook himself to Corinth, where heassociated himself with low people, and supported himself by keeping aschool. 

DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, patriarch from 348, a disciple of Origen, and his most illustrious pupil; a firm but judicious defender of thefaith against the heretics of the time, in particular the Sabellians andthe Chiliasts; _d_. 264. 

DIONYSIUS, ST. , THE AREOPAGITE (i. E. Judge of the Areopagus), according to Acts xvii. 34, a convert of St. Paul's; became bishop ofAthens, and died a martyr in 95; was long regarded as the father ofmysticism in the Christian Church, on the false assumption that he wasthe author of writings of a much later date imbued with a pantheisticidea of God and the universe. 

DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS, a Greek historian and rhetorician of theage of Augustus; came to Italy in 29 B. C. , and spent 27 years in Rome, where he died; devoted himself to the study of the Roman republic, itshistory and its people, and recorded the result in his "Archæologia, "written in Greek, which brings down the narrative to 264 B. C. ; itconsisted of 20 books, of which only 9 have come down to us entire; he isthe author of works in criticism of the orators, poets, and historians ofGreece. 

DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, a Greek geographer who lived about the 4thcentury, and wrote a description of the whole earth in hexameters and ina terse and elegant style. 

DIONYSUS, the god of the vine or wine; the son of ZEUS ANDSEMELE (q. V. ), the "twice born, " as plucked first from the womb ofhis dead mother and afterwards brought forth from the thigh of Zeus, which served to him as his "incubator. " See BACCHUS. 

DIOPHANTUS, a Greek mathematician, born in Alexandria; livedpresumably about the 4th century; left works in which algebraic methodsare employed, and is therefore credited with being the inventor ofalgebra. 

DIOSCOR`IDES, a Greek physician, born in Cilicia, lived in the 1stcentury; left a treatise in 5 books on materia medica, a work of greatresearch, and long the standard authority on the subject. 

DIOSCURI, twin sons of Zeus, Castor and Pollux, a stalwart pair ofyouths, of the Doric stock, great the former as a horse-breaker and thelatter as a boxer; were worshipped at Sparta as guardians of the State, and pre-eminently as patrons of gymnastics; protected the hearth, led thearmy in war, and were the convoy of the traveller by land and the voyagerby sea, which as constellations they are still held to be. 

DIPHILUS, a Greek comic poet, born at Sinope; contemporary ofMenander; was the forerunner of Terence and Plautus, the Roman poets. 

DIPHTHERIA, a contagious disease characterised by the formation of afalse membrane on the back of the throat. 

DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD, a celebrated German alchemist; professed tohave discovered the philosopher's stone; did discover Prussian blue, andan animal oil that bears his name (1672-1734). 

DIPPEL'S OIL, an oil obtained from the distinctive distillation ofhorn bones. 

DIRCÆAN SWAN, Pindar, so called from the fountain Dirce, nearThebes, his birthplace. 

DIRCE, the wife of Lycus, king of Thebes, who for her cruelty toAntiope, her divorced predecessor, was, by Antiope's two sons, Zethos andAmphion, tied to a wild bull and dragged to death, after which hercarcass was flung by them into a well; the subject is represented in afamous antique group by Apollonius and Tauriscus. 

DIRECTORY, THE, the name given to the government of France, consisting of a legislative body of two chambers, the Council of theAncients and the Council of Five Hundred, which succeeded the fall of theConvention, and ruled France from October 27, 1795, till its overthrow byBonaparte on the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). The Directors properwere five in number, and were elected by the latter council from a listpresented by the former, and the chief members of it were Barras andCarnot. 

DIRSCHAU (11), a Prussian town on the Vistula, 21 m. SE. Of Danzig, with iron-works and a timber trade. 

DIS, a name given to Pluto and the nether world over which he rules. 

DISCIPLINE, THE TWO BOOKS OF, books of dates 1561 and 1581, regulative of ecclesiastical order in the Presbyterian churches ofScotland, of which the ground-plan was drawn up by Knox on the Genevamodel. 

DISCOBOLUS, THE, an antique statue representing the thrower of thediscus, in the Louvre, and executed by the sculptor Myron. 

DISCORD, APPLE OF. See _infra_. 

DISCORD, THE GODDESS OF, a mischief-making divinity, daughter ofNight and sister of Mars, who on the occasion of the wedding of Thetiswith Peleus, threw into the hall where all the gods and goddesses wereassembled a golden apple inscribed "To the most Beautiful, " and whichgave rise to dissensions that both disturbed the peace of Olympus and theimpartial administration of justice on earth. See PARIS. 

DISMAL SCIENCE, Carlyle's name for the political economy that withself-complacency leaves everything to settle itself by the law of supplyand demand, as if that were all the law and the prophets. The name isapplied to every science that affects to dispense with the spiritual as aruling factor in human affairs. 

DISMAS, ST. , the good thief to whom Christ promised Paradise as hehung on the cross beside Him. 

DISRAELI, BENJAMIN. See BEACONSFIELD. 

D'ISRAELI, ISAAC, a man of letters, born at Enfield, Middlesex; onlyson of a Spanish Jew settled in England, who left him a fortune, whichenabled him to cultivate his taste for literature; was the author ofseveral works, but is best known by his "Curiosities of Literature, " awork published in six vols. , full of anecdotes on the quarrels andcalamities of authors; was never a strict Jew; finally cut theconnection, and had his children baptized as Christians (1766-1848). 

DITHYRAMB, a hymn in a lofty and vehement style, originally inhonour of Bacchus, in celebration of his sorrows and joys, andaccompanied with flute music. 

DITMARSH (77), a low-lying fertile district in West Holstein, between the estuaries of the Elbe and the Eider; defended by dykes; ithad a legal code of its own known as the "Ditmarisches Landbuch. "

DITTON, HUMPHRY, author of a book on fluxions (1675-1715). 

DIU (12), a small Portuguese island, with a port of the same name, in the Gulf of Cambay, S. Of the peninsula of Gujarat, India; was aflourishing place once, and contained a famous Hindu temple; inhabitednow chiefly by fishermen. 

DIVAN, THE, a collection of poems by Häfiz, containing nearly 600odes; also a collection of lyrics in imitation of Goethe, entitled"Westöstlicher Divan. "

DIVES, the name given, originally in the Vulgate, to the rich man inthe parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus. 

DIVIDING RANGE, a range of mountains running E. From Melbourne, andthen N. , dividing the basin of the Murray from the plain extending to thecoast. 

DIVINE COMEDY, THE, the great poem of Dante, consisting of threecompartments, "Inferno, " "Purgatorio, " and "Paradiso"; "threekingdoms . .. Dante's World of Souls. .. ; all three making up the trueUnseen World, as it figured in the Christianity of the Middle Ages; athing for ever memorable, for ever true in the essence of it, to allmen . .. But delineated in no human soul with such depth of veracity asin this of Dante's . .. To the earnest soul of Dante it is all one visiblefact--Hell, Purgatory, Paradise, with him not mere emblems, butindubitable awful realities. " See DANTE, and CARLYLE'S "HEROESAND HERO-WORSHIP. "

DIVINE DOCTOR, Jean de Ruysbroek, the mystic (1294-1381). 

DIVINE PAGAN, HYPATIA (q. V. ). 

DIVINE RIGHT, a claim on the part of kings, now all but extinct, though matter of keen debate at one time, that they derive theirauthority to rule direct from the Almighty, and are responsible to noinferior power, a right claimed especially on the part of and in behalfof the Bourbons in France and the Stuart dynasty in England, and thedenial of which was regarded by them and their partisans as an outrageagainst the ordinance of very Heaven. 

DIXIE LAND, nigger land in U. S. 

DIXON, W. HEPWORTH, an English writer and journalist, born inManchester; called to the bar, but devoted himself to literary work;wrote Lives of Howard, Penn, Robert Blake, and Lord Bacon, "New America, ""Spiritual Wives, " &c. ; was editor of the _Athenoeum_ from 1853 to 1869;died suddenly (1821-1879). 

DIZIER, ST. (13), a flourishing French town, 30 m. FromChâlons-sur-Marne. 

DIZZY, a nickname given to Benjamin Disraeli. 

DJEZZAR (i. E. Butcher), the surname of Achmed Pasha, pacha ofAcre; was born at Bosnia; sold as a slave, and raised himself by hisservility to his master to the length of executing his cruellest wishes;in 1799 withstood a long siege of Acre by Bonaparte, and obliged him toretire (1735-1804). 

DJINNESTAN, the region of the Jinns. 

DNIEPER, a river of Russia, anciently called the Borysthenes, thethird largest for volume of water in Europe, surpassed only by the Danubeand the Volga; rises in the province of Smolensk, and flowing in agenerally southerly direction, falls into the Black Sea below Khersonafter a course of 1330 m. ; it traverses some of the finest provinces ofthe empire, and is navigable nearly its entire length. 

DNIESTER, a river which takes its rise in Austria, in theCarpathians, enters Russia, flows generally in a SE. Direction pastBender, and after a rapid course of 650 m. Falls into the Black Sea atAkjerman. 

DOAB, THE, a richly fertile, densely peopled territory in thePunjab, between the Jumna and Ganges, and extending 500 m. N. , that is, as far as the Himalayas; it is the granary of Upper India. 

DOBELL, SIDNEY, poet, born at Cranbrook, in Kent; wrote, under thepseudonym of Sidney Yendys, the "Roman, " a drama, "Balder, " and, alongwith Alexander Smith, sonnets on the war (the Crimean); suffered muchfrom weak health (1824-1874). 

DÖBEREINER, a German chemist, professor at Jena; inventor of a lampcalled after him; Goethe was much interested in his discoveries(1780-1849). 

DÖBEREINER'S LAMP, a light caused by a jet of hydrogen passing overspongy platinum. 

DOBROVSKI, JOSEPH, a philologist, born in Gyarmet, in Hungary;devoted his life to the study of the Bohemian language and literature;wrote a history of them, the fruit of immense labour, under which hisbrain gave way more than once; was trained among the Jesuits (1753-1829). 

DOBRENTER, Hungarian archæologist; devoted 30 years of his life tothe study of the Magyar language; author of "Ancient Monuments of theMagyar Language" (1786-1851). 

DOBRUDJA (196), the part of Roumania between the Danube and theBlack Sea, a barren, unwholesome district; rears herds of cattle. 

DOBSON, AUSTIN, poet and prose writer, born at Plymouth, is in adepartment of the Civil Service; wrote "Vignettes in Rhyme, " "Proverbs inPorcelain, " "Old World Idylls, " in verse, and in prose Lives of Fielding, Hogarth, Steele, and Goldsmith; contributed extensively to the magazines;_b_. 1840. 

DOBSON, WILLIAM, portrait-painter, born in London; succeeded Vandyckas king's serjeant-painter to Charles I. ; painted the king and members ofhis family and court; supreme in his art prior to Sir Joshua Reynolds;died in poverty (1610-1646). 

DOCETÆ, a sect of heretics in the early Church who held that thehumanity of Christ was only seeming, not real, on the Gnostic orManichæan theory of the essential impurity and defiling nature of matteror the flesh. 

DOCTOR (lit. Teacher), a title implying that the possessor of itis such a master of his art that he can teach it as well as practise it. 

DOCTOR MIRABILIS, Roger Bacon. 

DOCTOR MY-BOOK, John Abernethy, from his saying to his patients, "Read my book. "

DOCTOR OF THE INCARNATION, Cyril of Alexandria, from his controversywith the Nestorians. 

DOCTOR SLOP, a doctor in "Tristram Shandy, " fanatical about aforceps he invented. 

DOCTOR SQUINTUM, George Whitfield. 

DOCTOR SYNTAX. See COMBE, WILLIAM. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS, a college of doctors of the civil law in London, where they used to eat in common, and where eventually a number of thecourts of law were held. 

DOCTRINAIRES, mere theorisers, particularly on social and politicalquestions; applied originally to a political party that arose in Francein 1815, headed by Roger-Collard and represented by Guizot, which stoodup for a constitutional government that should steer clear ofacknowledging the divine right of kinghood on the one hand and the divineright of democracy on the other. 

DODABETTA, the highest peak, 8700 ft. , in the Nilgherries. 

DODD, DR. WILLIAM, an English divine, born at Bourne, Lincolnshire;was one of the royal chaplains; attracted fashionable audiences as apreacher in London, but lived extravagantly, and fell hopelessly intodebt, and into disgrace for the nefarious devices he adopted to get outof it; forged a bond for £4500 on the Earl of Chesterfield, who had beena pupil of his; was arrested, tried, convicted, and sentenced to death, asentence which was carried out notwithstanding the great exertions madeto procure a pardon; wrote a "Commentary on the Bible, " and compiled "TheBeauties of Shakespeare" (1729-1777). 

DODDRIDGE, PHILIP, a Nonconformist divine, born in London; wasminister at Kebworth, Market Harborough, and Northampton successively, and much esteemed both as a man and a teacher; suffered from pulmonarycomplaint; went to Lisbon for a change, and died there; was the author of"The Family Expositor, " but is best known by his "Rise and Progress ofReligion in the Soul, " and perhaps also by his "Life of Colonel Gardiner"(1702-1751). 

DÖDERLEIN, LUDWIG, a German philologist, born at Jena; becameprofessor of Philology at Erlangen; edited Tacitus, Horace, and otherclassic authors, but his principal works were on the etymology of theLatin language (1791-1863). 

DODGER, THE ARTFUL, a young expert in theft and other villanies inDickens's "Oliver Twist. "

DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE, English writer and man of genius, withthe _nom de plume_ of Lewis Carroll; distinguished himself at Oxford inmathematics; author of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, " with itssequel, "Through the Looking-Glass, " besides other works, mathematical, poetic, and humorous; mingled humour and science together (1833-1898). 

DODINGTON, GEORGE BUBB, an English politician, notorious for hisfickleness, siding now with this party, now with that; worked for and wona peerage before he died; with all his pretensions, and they were many, amere flunkey at bottom (1691-1762). 

DODO, an ungainly bird larger than a turkey, with short scaly legs, a big head and bill, short wings and tail, and a greyish down plumage, now extinct, though it is known to have existed in the Mauritius some 200years ago. 

DODO`NA, an ancient oracle of Zeus, in Epirus, close by a grove ofoak trees, from the agitation of the branches of which the mind of thegod was construed, the interpreters being at length three old women; itwas more or less a local oracle, and was ere long superseded by the morewidely known oracle of DELPHI (q. V. ). 

DODS, MEG, an old landlady of consistently inconsistent qualities in"St. Ronan's Well"; also the pseudonym of the authoress of a book oncookery. 

DODSLEY, ROBERT, an English poet, dramatist, and publisher; wrote adrama called "The Toyshop, " which, through Pope's influence, was acted inDrury Lane with such success as to enable the author to commence businessas a bookseller in Pall Mall; projected and published the _Miscellany_, and continued to write plays, the most popular "Cleone"; is best known inconnection with his "Collection of Old Plays"; he was a patron ofJohnson, and much esteemed by him (1703-1764). 

DOEG, a herdsman of Saul (1 Sam. Xxi. 7); a name applied by Drydento Elkanah Settle in "Absalom and Achitophel. "

DOGBERRY, a self-satisfied night constable in "Much Ado aboutNothing. "

DOG-DAYS, 20 days before and 20 after the rising of the dog-starSirius, at present from 3rd July to 11th August. 

DOGE, the name of the chief magistrate of Venice and Genoa, electedat first annually and then for life in Venice, with, in course of time, powers more and more limited, and at length little more than afigure-head; the office ceased with the fall of the republic in 1797, asit did in Genoa in 1804. 

DOGGER BANK, a sandbank in the North Sea; a great fishing-field, extending between Jutland in Denmark and Yorkshire in England, thoughdistant from both shores, 170 m. Long, over 60 m. Broad, and from 8 to 10fathoms deep. 

DOGS, ISLE OF, a low-lying projection of a square mile in extentfrom the left bank of the Thames, opposite Greenwich, and 3½ m. E. Of St. Paul's. 

DOG-STAR, SIRIUS (q. V. ). 

DOLABELLA, son-in-law of Cicero, a profligate man, joined Cæsar, andwas raised by him to the consulship; joined Cæsar's murderers after hisdeath; was declared from his profligacy a public enemy; driven to bay bya force sent against him, ordered one of his soldiers to kill him. 

DOLCI, CARLO, a Florentine painter, came of a race of artists;produced many fine works, the subjects of them chiefly madonnas, saints. &c. (1616-1686). 

DOLCINO, a heresiarch and martyr of the 14th century, of theApostolic Brethren, a sect which rose in Piedmont who made themselvesobnoxious to the Church; was driven to bay by his persecutors, and atlast caught and tortured and burnt to death; a similar fate overtookothers of the sect, to its extermination. 

DOLDRUMS, a zone of the tropics where calms, squalls, and bafflingwinds prevail. 

DÔLE (12), a town in the dep. Of Jura, on the Doubs, and the Rhôneand Rhine Canal, 28 m. SE. Of Dijon, with iron-works, and a trade inwine, grain, &c. 

DOLET, ÉTIENNE, a learned French humanist, born at Orleans, became, by the study of the classics, one of the lights of the Renaissance, andone of its most zealous propagandists; suffered persecution afterpersecution at the hands of the Church, and was burned in the PlaceMaubert, Paris, a martyr to his philosophic zeal and opinions(1509-1546). 

DOLGELLY, capital of Merioneth, Wales, with manufactures of flannel. 

DOLGOROUKI, the name of a noble and illustrious Russian family. 

DOLLART ZEE, a gulf in Holland into which the Ems flows, 8 m. Longby 7 broad, and formed by inundation of the North Sea. 

DÖLLINGER, a Catholic theologian, born in Bamberg, Bavaria, professor of Church History in the University of Münich; head of the oldCatholic party in Germany; was at first a zealous Ultramontanist, butchanged his opinions and became quite as zealous in opposing, first, thetemporal sovereignty, and then the infallibility of the Pope, to hisexcommunication from the Church; he was a polemic, and as such wroteextensively on theological and ecclesiastical topics; lived to a greatage, and was much honoured to the last (1799-1890). 

DOLLOND, JOHN, a mathematical instrument-maker, born inSpitalfields, London, of Dutch descent; began life as a silk-weaver; madegood use of his leisure hours in studies bearing mainly on physics; wentinto partnership with his son, who was an optician; made a study of thetelescope, suggested improvements which commended themselves to the RoyalSociety, and in especial how, by means of a combination of lenses, to getrid of the coloured fringe in the image (1706-1761). 

DOLMEN, a rude structure of prehistoric date, consisting of uprightunhewn stones supporting one or more heavy slabs; long regarded as altarsof sacrifice, but now believed to be sepulchral monuments; found in greatnumbers in Bretagne especially. 

DOLOMITE ALPS, a limestone mountain range forming the S. Of theEastern Alps, in the Tyrol and N. Italy, famous for the remarkable andfantastic shapes they assume; named after Dolomieu, a Frenchmineralogist, who studied the geology of them. 

DOMAT, JEAN, a learned French jurist and friend of Pascal, regardedlaws and customs as the reflex of political history (1625-1696). 

DOMBASLE, an eminent French agriculturist, born at Nancy(1771-1818). 

DOM-BOKE (i. E. Doom-book), a code of laws compiled by King Alfredfrom two prior Saxon codes, to which he prefixed the Ten Commandments ofMoses, and rules of life from the Christian code of ethics. 

DOMBROWSKI, JOHN HENRY, a Polish general, served in the Polishcampaigns against Russia and Prussia in 1792-1794; organised a Polishlegion which did good service in the wars of Napoleon; covered theretreat of the French at the Beresina in 1812 (1755-1818). 

DOMDANIEL, a hall under the ocean where the evil spirits andmagicians hold council under their chief and pay him homage. 

DOMENICHI`NO, a celebrated Italian painter, born at Bologna; studiedunder Calvaert and Caracci; was of the Bolognese school, and reckoned oneof the first of them; his principal works are his "Communion of St. Jerome, " now in the Vatican, and the "Martyrdom of St. Agnes, " atBologna, the former being regarded as his masterpiece; he was the victimof persecution at the hands of rivals; died at Naples, not withoutsuspicion of having been poisoned (1581-1641). 

DOMESDAY BOOK, the record, in 2 vols. , of the survey of all thelands of England made in 1081-1086 at the instance of William theConqueror for purposes of taxation; the survey included the whole ofEngland, except the four northern counties and part of Lancashire, andwas made by commissioners appointed by the king, and sent to thedifferent districts of the country, where they held courts, andregistered everything on evidence; it is a valuable document. 

DOMINIC DE GUZMAN, ST. , saint of the Catholic Church, born in OldCastile; distinguished for his zeal in the conversion of the heretic;essayed the task by simple preaching of the Word; sanctioned persecutionwhen persuasion was of no avail; countenanced the crusade of Simon deMontfort against the Albigenses for their obstinate unbelief, and thusestablished a precedent which was all too relentlessly followed by theagents of the Spanish Inquisition, the chiefs of which were of theDominican order, so that he is ignominiously remembered as the "burnerand slayer of heretics" (1170-1221). Festival, Aug. 4. 

DOMINICA, or DOMINIQUE (26), the largest and most southerly ofthe Leeward Islands, and belongs to Britain; one-half of the island isforest, and parts of it have never been explored; was discovered byColumbus on Sunday, November 3, 1493, whence its name. 

DOMINICAL LETTER, one of seven letters, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, used tomark the Sundays throughout the year, so that if A denote the firstSunday, it will denote all the rest, and so on with B, C, &c. , till atthe end of seven years A becomes the dominical letter again. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, or ST. DOMINGO (610), a republic formingthe E. Part of the island of Haiti, and consisting of two-thirds of it;it belonged alternately to France and Spain till 1865, when, on revolt, the Spaniards were expelled, and a republic established; the capital isSt. Domingo (15), and the chief port Puerto Plata. 

DOMINICANS, a religious order of preaching friars, founded atToulouse in 1215 by St. Dominic, to aid in the conversion of the hereticAlbigenses to the faith, and finally established as the order whosespecial charge it was to guard the orthodoxy of the Church. The order wasknown by the name Black Friars in England, from their dress; and Jacobinsin France, from the street of Paris in which they had theirhead-quarters. 

DOMINIE, SAMPSON, a schoolmaster in "Guy Mannering, " "a poor, modest, humble scholar, who had won his way through the classics, butfallen to the leeward in the voyage of life. "

DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE, a vacillating ecclesiastic, born inDalmatia; was educated by the Jesuits; taught mathematics in Padua; wrotea treatise in which an explanation was for the first time given of thephenomenon of the rainbow; became archbishop of Spalatro; falling undersuspicion he passed over to England, professed Protestantism, and wasmade dean of Windsor; reconciled to the Papacy, returned to the Church ofRome, and left the country; his sincerity being distrusted, was cast intoprison, where he died, his body being afterwards disinterred and burned(1566-1624). 

DOMITIAN, Roman emperor, son of Vespasian, brother of Titus, whom hesucceeded in 81, the last of the twelve Cæsars; exceeded the expectationsof every one in the beginning of his reign, as he had given proof of alicentious and sanguinary character beforehand, but soon his conductchanged, and fulfilled the worst fears of his subjects; his vanity waswounded by the non-success of his arms, and his vengeful spirit showeditself in a wholesale murder of the citizens; many conspiracies wereformed against his life, and he was at length murdered by an assassin, who had been hired by his courtiers and abetted by his wife Domitia, in96. 

DOMRÉMY, a small village on the Meuse, in the dep. Of Vosges; thebirthplace of Joan of Arc. 

DON, a Russian river, the ancient Tanaïs; flows southward from itssource in the province of Tula, and after a course of 1153 m. Falls intothe Sea of Azov; also the name of a river in Aberdeenshire, and anotherin Yorkshire. 

DON JUAN, the member of a distinguished family of Seville, whoseduces the daughter of a noble, and when confronted by her father stabshim to death in a duel; he afterwards prepares a feast and invites thestone statue of his victim to partake of it; the stone statue turns up atthe least, compels Don Juan to follow him, and delivers him over to theabyss of hell, the depths of which he had qualified himself for by hisutter and absolute depravity. 

DON QUIXOTE, the title of a world-famous book written by MiguelCervantes, in satire of the romances of chivalry with which hiscountrymen were so fascinated; the chief character of which gives titleto it, a worthy gentleman of La Mancha, whose head is so turned byreading tales of knight-errantry, that he fancies he is a knight-erranthimself, sallies forth in quest of adventures, and encounters them in themost commonplace incidents, one of his most ridiculous extravaganciesbeing his tilting with the windmills, and the overweening regard he hasfor his Dulcinea del Tobosa. 

DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM, a philologist, born in London; Fellow ofCambridge and tutor of Trinity College; author of "New Cratylus; orContributions towards a more Accurate Knowledge of the Greek Language, " awork of great erudition and of value to scholars; contributed also to thephilological study of Latin, and wrote a grammar of both languages; hefailed when he intruded into the field of biblical criticism (1811-1861). 

DONATELLO, a great Italian sculptor, born at Florence, where he wasapprenticed to a goldsmith; tried his hand at carving in leisure hours;went to Rome and studied the monuments of ancient art; returned toFlorence and executed an "Annunciation, " still preserved in a chapel inSanta Croce, which was followed by marble statues of St. Peter, St. Mark, and St. George, before one of which, that of St. Mark, Michael Angeloexclaimed, "Why do you not speak to me?"; he executed tombs and figures, or groups in bronze as well as marble; his schoolmasters were thesculptors of Greece, and the real was his ultimate model (1383-1460). 

DONATI, an Italian astronomer, born at Pisa; discoverer of the cometof 1858, called Donati's comet (1826-1873). 

DONATISTS, a sect in N. Africa, founded by Donatus, bishop ofCarthage, in the 4th century, that separated from the rest of the Churchand formed itself into an exclusive community, with bishops andcongregations of its own, on the ground that no one was entitled to be amember of Christ's body, or an overseer of Christ's flock, who was not ofdivine election, and that in the face of an attempt, backed by theEmperor Constantine, to thrust a bishop on the Church at Carthage, consecrated by an authority that had betrayed and sold the Church to theworld; the members of it were subject to cruel persecutions in which theygloried, and were annihilated by the Saracens in the 7th century. 

DONATUS, a Latin grammarian and rhetorician of the 4th century, theteacher of St. Jerome; the author of treatises in grammar known asDonats, and, along with the sacred Scriptures, the earliest examples ofprinting by means of letters cut on wooden blocks, and so appreciated aselementary treatises that they gave name to treatises of the kind on anysubject; he wrote also _scholia_ to the plays of Terence. 

DONAU, the German name for the Danube. 

DONCASTER (26), a market and manufacturing town in the West Ridingof Yorkshire, well built, in a pleasant country, on the right bank of theDon, 33 m. S. Of York; famous for its races, the St. Leger in particular, called after Colonel St. Leger, who instituted them in 1776. 

DONDRA HEAD, the southern extremity of Ceylon, once the site of thecapital. 

DONEGAL (185), a county in the NW. Of Ireland, in the province ofUlster, the most mountainous in the country; is mossy and boggy, and isindented along the coast with bays, and fringed with islands. 

DONETZ, a tributary of the Russian Don, the basin of which forms onelarge coal-field, reckoned to be as large as all Yorkshire, and isreckoned one of the largest of any in the world. 

DONGOLA, NEW, a town in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile, abovethe third cataract, 20° N. And over 700 m. From Cairo; was founded by theMamelukes. 

DONIZETTI, a celebrated Italian composer, born at Bergamo, Lombardy, and studied at Bologna; devoted himself to dramatic music; produced over60 operas, among the number "Lucia di Lammermoor, " the "Daughter of theRegiment, " "Lucrezia Borgia, " and "La Favorita, " all well known, and allpossessing a melodious quality of the first order (1797-1848). 

DONNE, JOHN, English poet and divine, born in London; a man of gooddegree; brought up in the Catholic faith; after weighing the claims ofthe Romish and Anglican communions, joined the latter; married a younglady of sixteen without consent of her father, which involved him introuble for a time; was induced to take holy orders by King James; wasmade his chaplain, and finally became Dean of St. Paul's; wrote sermons, some 200 letters and essays, as well as poems, the latter, amid manydefects, revealing a soul instinct with true poetic fire (1573-1631). See"Professor Saintsbury on Donne. "

DONNYBROOK, a village now included in Dublin, long celebrated forits fairs and the fights it was the scene of on such occasions. 

DONON, the highest peak of the Vosges Mountains. 

DOO, GEORGE THOMAS, a celebrated English line-engraver, and one ofthe best in his day (1800-1886). 

DOON, a river rendered classic by the muse of Burns, which after acourse of 30 m. Joins the Clyde 2 m. S. Of Ayr. 

DORA, the child-wife of "David Copperfield, " Dickens's novel. 

DORA D'ISTRIA, the pseudonym of Helena Ghika, born in Wallachia, ofnoble birth; distinguished for her beauty and accomplishments; waseminent as a linguist; translated the "Iliad" into German; wrote works, the fruits of travels (1829-1888). 

DORAN, JOHN, an English man of letters, born In London, of Irishdescent; wrote on miscellaneous subjects; became editor of the _Athenæum_and _Notes and Queries_ (1807-1878). 

DORAT, JEAN, a French poet, born at Limoges; a Greek scholar;contributed much to the revival of classical literature in France, andwas one of the FRENCH PLÉIADE (q. V. ); _d_. 1588. 

DORCAS SOCIETY, a society for making clothing for the poor. See Actsix. 39. 

DORCHESTER (7), the county town of Dorset, on the Frome; was a Romantown, and contains the ruins of a Roman amphitheatre. 

DORDOGNE, a river in the S. Of France, which, after a course of 300m. , falls into the estuary of Garonne; also a dep. (478) through which itflows. 

DORÉ, GUSTAVE, a French painter and designer, born in Strasburg;evinced great power and fertility of invention, having, it is alleged, produced more than 50, 000 designs; had a wonderful faculty for seizinglikenesses, and would draw from memory groups of faces he had seen onlyonce; among the books he illustrated are the "Contes Drolatiques" ofBalzac, the works of Rabelais and Montaigne, Dante's "Inferno, " also his"Purgatorio" and "Paradiso, " "Don Quixote, " Tennyson's "Idylls, " Milton'sworks, and Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner"; among his paintings were"Christ Leaving the Prætorium, " and "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem"; hehas left behind him works of sculpture as well as drawings and pictures;his art has been severely handled by the critics, and most of all byRuskin, who treats it with unmitigated scorn (1832-1883). 

DORIA, ANDREA, a naval commander, born in Genoa, of noble descent, though his parents were poor; a man of patriotic instincts; adopted theprofession of arms at the age of 19; became commander of the fleet in1513; attacked with signal success the Turkish corsairs that infested theMediterranean; served under Francis I. To free his country from a factionthat threatened its independence, and, by his help, succeeded inexpelling it; next, in fear of the French supremacy, served, underCharles V. , and entering Genoa, was hailed as its liberator, and receivedthe title of "Father and Defender of his country"; the rest of his life, and it was a long one, was one incessant wrestle with his great rivalBarbarossa, the chief of the corsairs, and which ended in his defeat(1466-1560). 

DORIANS, one of the four divisions of the Hellenic race, the otherthree being the Achæans, the Æolians, and the Ionians; at an early periodoverran the whole Peloponnesus; they were a hardy people, of staid habitsand earnest character. 

DORIC, the oldest, strongest, and simplest of the four Grecianorders of architecture. 

DORINE, a petulant domestic in Molière's "Tartuffe. "

DORIS, a small mountainous country of ancient Greece, S. OfThessaly, and embracing the valley of the Pindus. 

DORIS, the wife of Nereus, and mother of the Nereids. 

DORISLAUS, ISAAC, a lawyer, born at Alkmaar, in Holland; came toEngland, and was appointed Judge-Advocate; acted as such at KingCharles's trial, and was for that latter offence assassinated at theHague one evening by certain high-flying Royalist cut-throats, Scotchseveral of them; "his portrait represents him as a man of heavy, deep-wrinkled, elephantine countenance, pressed down by the labours oflife and law" (1595-1649). 

DORKING (7), a market-town picturesquely situated in the heart ofSurrey, 24 m. SW. Of London; gives name to a breed of fowls; contains anumber of fashionable villas. 

DORN, a distinguished German orientalist; wrote a History of theAfghans, and on their language (1805-1881). 

DORNER, ISAAK AUGUST, a German theologian, born at Würtemberg;studied at Tübingen; became professor of Theology in Berlin, after havingheld a similar post in several other German universities; his principalworks were the "History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Personof Christ, " and the "History of Protestant Theology" (1809-1884). 

DORNOCH, the county town of Sutherland, a small place, but a royalburgh; has a good golf course. 

DOROS, a son of Helen and grandson of Deucalion, the father of theDorians, as his brother Æolis was of the Æolians. 

DOROTHEA, ST. , a virgin of Alexandria, suffered martyrdom by beingbeheaded in 311. Festival, Feb. 6. 

DORPAT (38), a town on the Embach, in Livonia, Russia, 150 m. NE. OfRiga, with a celebrated university founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632;it has a well-equipped staff, and is well attended; the majority of thepopulation is German. 

D'ORSAY, COUNT, a man of fashion, born in Paris; entered the Frencharmy; forsook it for the society of Lord and Lady Blessington; marriedLady B. 's daughter by a former marriage; came to England with herladyship on her husband's death; started a joint establishment in London, which became a rendezvous for all the literary people and artists abouttown; was "Phoebus Apollo of Dandyism"; paid homage to Carlyle at Chelseaone day in 1839; "came whirling hither in a chariot that struck allChelsea into mute amazement with splendour, " says Carlyle, who thusdescribes him, "a tall fellow of six feet three, built like a tower, withfloods of dark auburn hair, with a beauty, with an adornmentunsurpassable on this planet: withal a rather substantial fellow atbottom, by no means without insight, without fun, and a sort of roughsarcasm, rather striking out of such a porcelain figure"; having shownkindness to Louis Napoleon when in London, the Prince did not forget him, and after the _coup d'état_ appointed him to a well-salaried post, but hedid not live to enjoy it (1798-1852). 

DORSET (194), maritime county in the S. Of England, with a deeplyindented coast; it consists of a plain between two eastward and westwardreaching belts of downs; is mainly a pastoral county; rears sheep andcattle, and produces butter and cheese. 

DORT, or DORDRECHT (34), a town on an island in the Maas, inthe province of South Holland, 12 m. SE. Of Rotterdam; admirably situatedfor trade, connected as it is with the Rhine as well, on which rafts ofwood are sent floating down to it; is famous for a Synod held here in1618-19, at which the tenets of Arminius were condemned, and thedoctrines of Calvin approved of and endorsed as the doctrines of theReformed Church. 

DORTMUND (89), a town in Westphalia; a great mineral and railwaycentre, with large iron and steel forges, and a number of breweries. 

DORY, JOHN, the hero of an old ballad. 

DO-THE-BOYS'-HALL, a scholastic establishment in "NicholasNickleby. "

DOUAY (31), a town on the Scarpe, in the dep. Of Nord, France, 20 m. S. Of Lille, and one of the chief military towns of the country; has acollege founded in 1568 for the education of Catholic priests intendedfor England, and is where a version of the Bible in English for the useof Catholics was issued. 

DOUBS, a tributary of the Saône, which it falls into below Dôle;gives name to the dep. (303), which it traverses. 

DOUBTING CASTLE, a castle belonging to Giant Despair in the"Pilgrim's Progress, " which only one key could open, the key Promise. 

DOUCE, FRANCIS, a learned antiquary, born in London; for a timekeeper of MSS. In the British Museum; author of "Illustrations ofShakespeare, " and an illustrated volume, "The Dance of Death"; left inthe Museum a chest of books and MSS. Not to be opened till 1900; was aman of independent means, and a devoted archæologist (1757-1834). 

DOUGLAS (19), the largest town and capital as well as chief port ofthe Isle of Man, 74 m. From Liverpool; much frequented as abathing-place; contains an old residence of the Dukes of Atholl, entitledCastle Mona, now a hotel. See MAN, ISLE OF. 

DOUGLAS, the name of an old Scotch family, believed to be of Celticorigin, and that played a conspicuous part at one time in the internaland external struggles of the country; they figure in Scottish history intwo branches, the elder called the Black and the later the Red Douglasesor the Angus branch, now represented by the houses of Hamilton and Home. The eldest of the Douglases, William, was a kinsman of the house ofMurray, and appears to have lived about the end of the 12th century. Oneof the most illustrious of the family was the Good Sir James, distinguished specially as the "Black" Douglas, the pink of knighthoodand the associate of Bruce, who carried the Bruce's heart in a casket tobury it in Palestine, but died fighting in Spain, 1330. 

DOUGLAS, GAWIN or GAVIN, a Scottish poet and bishop of Dunkeld, third son of Archibald, Earl of Angus, surnamed "Bell-the-Cat"; politicaltroubles obliged him to leave the country and take refuge at the Court ofHenry VII. , where he was held in high regard; died here of the plague, and was buried by his own wish in the Savoy; besides Ovid's "Art ofLove, " now lost, he translated (1512-1513) the "Æneid" of Virgil intoEnglish verse, to each book of which he prefixed a prologue, in certainof which there are descriptions that evince a poet's love of naturecombined with his love as a Scotchman for the scenery of his native land;besides this translation, which is his chief work, he indited twoallegorical poems, entitled the "Palace of Honour, " addressed to JamesIV. , and "King Hart" (1474-1522). 

DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD, an English general and writer on militarysubjects, born at Gosport; saw service in the Peninsula; was Governor ofNew Brunswick and Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands(1776-1861). 

DOUGLAS, JOHN, bishop of Salisbury, born at Pittenweem, Fife; wrote"The Criterion of, or a Discourse on, Miracles" against Hume; was afriend of Samuel Johnson's (1721-1807). 

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD, an American statesman, born in Brandon, Vermont; a lawyer by profession, and a judge; a member of Congress andthe Senate; was a Democrat; stood for the Presidency when Lincoln waselected; was a leader in the Western States; a splendid monument iserected to his memory in Chicago (1813-1861). 

DOUGLASS, FREDERICK, American orator, born a slave in Maryland;wrought as a slave in a Baltimore shipbuilder's yard; escaped at the ageof 21 to New York; attended an anti-slavery meeting, where he spoke soeloquently that he was appointed by the Anti-Slavery Society to lecturein its behalf, which he did with success and much appreciation in Englandas well as America; published an Autobiography, which gives a thrillingaccount of his life (1817-1895). 

DOULTON, SIR HENRY, the reviver of art pottery, born in Lambeth;knighted in the Jubilee year for his eminence in that department; _b_. 1820. 

DOURO, a river, and the largest, of the Spanish Peninsula, whichrises in the Cantabrian Mountains; forms for 40 m. The northern boundaryof Portugal, and after a course of 500 m. Falls into the Atlantic atOporto; is navigable only where it traverses Portugal. 

DOUSTER-SWIVEL, a German swindling schemer in the "Antiquary. "

DOVE, in Christian art the symbol of the Holy Ghost, or of a pure, or a purified soul, and with an olive branch, the symbol of peace and thegospel of peace. 

DOVE, HEINRICH WILHELM, a German physicist, born at Liegnitz, Silesia; professor of Natural Philosophy in Berlin; was eminent chieflyin the departments of meteorology and optics; he discovered how by thestereoscope to detect forged bank-notes (1803-1879). 

DOVER (33), a seaport on the E. Coast of Kent, and the nearest inEngland to the coast of France, 60 m. SE. Of London, and with a mailservice to Calais and Ostend; is strongly fortified, and the chiefstation in the SE. Military district of England; was the chief of theCinque Ports. 

DOVER, STRAIT OF, divides France from England and connects theEnglish Channel with the North Sea, and at the narrowest 20 m. Across;forms a busy sea highway; is called by the French _Pas de Calais_. 

DOVREFELD, a range of mountains in Norway, stretching NE. Andextending between 62° and 63° N. Lat. , average height 3000 ft. 

DOW or DOUW, GERARD, a distinguished Dutch genre-painter, bornat Leyden; a pupil of Rembrandt; his works, which are very numerous, arethe fruit of a devoted study of nature, and are remarkable for theirdelicacy and perfection of finish; examples of his works are found in allthe great galleries of Europe (1613-1675). 

DOWDEN, EDWARD, literary critic, professor of English Literature inDublin University, born in Cork; is distinguished specially as aShakesperian; is author of "Shakespeare: a Study of his Mind and Art, ""Introduction to Shakespeare, " and "Shakesperian Sonnets, with Notes";has written "Studies in Literature, " and a "Life of Shelley"; is wellread in German as well as English literature; has written with no lessability on Goethe than on Shakespeare; _b_. 1843. 

DOWN (266), a maritime county in the SE. Of the province of Ulster, Ireland, with a mostly level and fairly fertile soil, and manufactures oflinen. 

DOWNS, THE, a safe place of anchorage, 8 m. Long by 6 m. Broad, forships between Goodwin Sands and the coast of Kent. 

DOWNS, THE NORTH AND SOUTH, two parallel ranges of low broad hillscovered with a light soil and with a valley between, called the Weald, that extend eastward from Hampshire to the sea-coast, the Northterminating in Dover cliffs, Kent, and the South in Beachy Head, Sussex;the South famous for the breed of sheep that pastures on them. 

DOYLE, DR. CONAN, novelist, nephew of Richard and grandson of John, born in Edinburgh; studied and practised medicine, but gave it up after atime for literature, in which he had already achieved no small success;several of his productions have attracted universal attention, especiallyhis "Adventures" and his "Memoir of Sherlock Holmes"; wrote a short play"A Story of Waterloo, " produced with success by Sir Henry Irving; _b_. 1859. 

DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS, an English poet, born near Tadcaster;bred to the bar, but devoted to poetry and horse-racing; became professorof Poetry at Oxford; author of "Miscellaneous Verses, " "Two Destinies, ""Retreat of the Guards, " "The Thread of Honour, " and "The Private of theBuffs" (1810-1858). 

DOYLE, JOHN, an eminent caricaturist, of Irish origin, under theinitials H. B. (1797-1868). 

DOYLE, RICHARD, eminent caricaturist, born in London, son of thepreceding; contributed to _Punch_, of which he designed the cover, butleft the staff, in 1850 owing to the criticisms in the journal adverse tothe Catholic Church; devoted himself after that chiefly to bookillustration and water-colour painting (1824-1883). 

DOZY, REINHART, an Orientalist and linguist, born at Leyden, wherehe became professor of History; devoted himself to the study of thehistory of the Arabs or Moors in North-Western Africa and Spain, hischief work being "The History of the Mussulmans of Spain"; wrote also a"Detailed Dictionary of the Names of the Dress of the Arabs" (1820-1883). 

DRACHENFELS (Dragon's Rock), one of the Siebengebirge, 8 m. SE. OfBonn, 1056 ft. Above the Rhine, and crowned by a castle with a commandingview; the legendary abode of the dragon killed by Siegfried in the "Layof the Nibelungen. "

DRACO, a celebrated Athenian law-giver, who first gave stability tothe State by committing the laws to writing, and establishing the Ephetæ, or court of appeal, 621 B. C. ; only he punished every transgressor of hislaws with death, so that his code became unbearable, and was supersededere long by a milder, instituted by Solon, who affixed the penalty ofdeath to murder alone; he is said to have justified the severity of hiscode by maintaining that the smallest crime deserved death, and he knewno severer punishment for greater; it is said he was smothered to deathin the theatre by the hats and cloaks showered on him as a popular markof honour; he was archon of Athens. 

DRAGON, a fabulous monster, being a hideous impersonation of someform of deadly evil, which only preternatural heroic strength and couragecan subdue, and on the subdual and slaying of which depends theachievement of some conquest of vital moment to the human race or somemembers of it; is represented in mediæval art as a large, lizard-likeanimal, with the claws of a lion, the wings of an eagle, and the tail ofa serpent, with open jaws ready and eager to devour, which some knighthigh-mounted thrusts at to pierce to death with a spear; in the Greekmythology it is represented with eyes ever on the watch, in symbol of theevil that waylays us to kill us if we don't kill it, as in guarding the"Apples of the Hesperides" and the "Golden Fleece, " because these areprizes that fall only to those who are as watchful of him as he is ofthem; and it is consecrated to Minerva to signify that true wisdom, assensible of the ever-wakeful dragon, never goes to sleep, but is equallyever on the watch. 

DRAGONNADES, the name given to the persecution at the instance ofLouis XIV. To force the Huguenots of France back into the bosom of theCatholic Church by employment of dragoons. 

DRAGON'S TEETH, the teeth of the dragon that Cadmus slew, and whichwhen sown by him sprang up as a host of armed men, who killed each otherall to the five who became the ancestors of the Thebans, hence the phraseto "sow dragon's teeth, " to breed and foster strife. 

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS, a great English seaman of the reign of QueenElizabeth, born near Tavistock, in Devon; served in the Royal Navy underhis relative, Sir John Hawkins, and distinguished himself with signalsuccess by his valour and daring against the pride of Spain, towardswhich, as the great Catholic persecuting power, he had been taught tocherish an invincible hatred; came swoop down like a hawk on its portsacross seas, and bore himself out of them laden with spoil; in 1577sailed for America with five ships, passed through the Strait ofMagellan, the first Englishman to do it; plundered the W. Coast as far asPeru; lost all his ships save one; crossed the Pacific, and came home byway of the Cape--the first to sail round the world--with spoil to thevalue of £300, 000, his successes contributing much to embolden hiscountrymen against the arrogance of the Catholic king; and he wasvice-admiral in the fleet that drove back the Armada from our shores(1540-1596). 

DRAKE, FRIEDRICH, a German sculptor, born at Pyrmont; studied underRauch; executed numerous statues and busts, among others busts of Okenand Ranke, Bismarck and Moltke; his chief works are the "Eight Provincesof Prussia, " represented by large allegorical figures, and the "Warriorcrowned by Victory" (1805-1882). 

DRAKE, NATHAN, a physician, born at York; author of "Shakespeare andhis Times" (1766-1836). 

DRAKENBERG MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains in S. Africa, 6500 ft. High, between Natal and the Orange Free State. 

DRAMATIC UNITIES, three rules of dramatic construction prescribed byAristotle, observed by the French dramatists, but ignored by Shakespeare, that (1) a play should represent what takes place within eight hours, (2)there must be no change of locality, and (3) there must be no minor plot. 

DRAMMEN (20), a Norwegian seaport on a river which falls intoChristiania Bay, 30 m. SW. Of Christiania; trade chiefly in timber. 

DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM, a chemist, scientist, and man of letters, bornat Liverpool; settled in the United States; wrote on chemistry, physiology, and physics generally, as well as works of a historicalcharacter, such as the "History of the Intellectual Development ofEurope" and the "History of the Conflict between Science and Religion, "an able book (1811-1882). 

DRAPIER, a pseudonym adopted by Swift in his letters to the peopleof Ireland anent Wood's pence, and which led to the cancelling of thepatent. 

DRAVE, a river from the Eastern Alps which flows eastward, and aftera course of 380 miles falls into the Danube 10 m. Below Essek. 

DRAVIDIANS, races of people who occupied India before the arrival ofAryans, and being driven S. By them came to settle chiefly in the S. Ofthe Dekkan; they are divided into numerous tribes, each with a languageof its own, but of a common type or group, some of them literary andsome of them not, the chief the Tamil; the tribes together number over20 millions. 

DRAWCANSIR, a blustering, bullying boaster in Buckingham's play the"Rehearsal"; he kills every one of the combatants, "sparing neitherfriend nor foe. "

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born In Warwickshire, likeShakespeare; was one of the three chief patriotic poets, Warner andDaniel being the other two, which arose in England after her humiliationof the pride of Spain, although he was no less distinguished as a lovepoet; his great work is his "Polyolbion, " in glorification of England, consisting of 30 books and 100, 000 lines; it gives in Alexandrines "thetracts, mountains, forests, and other parts of this renowned isle ofBritain, with intermixture of the most remarkable stories, antiquities, wonders, pleasures, and commodities of the same digested in a poem"; thiswas preceded by other works, and succeeded by a poem entitled "The Balladof Agincourt, " pronounced one of the most spirited martial lyrics in thelanguage (1563-1631). 

DRELINCOURT, a French Protestant divine, born at Sedan; author of"Consolations against the Fear of Death" (1595-1669). 

DRENTHE (137), a province of Holland lying between Hanover and theZuyder Zee; the soil is poor, and the population sparse. 

DRESDEN (250), the capital of Saxony, on the Elbe, 116 m. SE. OfBerlin; a fine city, with a museum rich in all kinds of works of art, andcalled in consequence the "Florence of Germany"; here the Allies weredefeated by Napoleon in 1813, when he entered the city, leaving behindhim 30, 000 men, who were besieged by the Russians and compelled tosurrender as prisoners of war the same year. 

DREYFUS, L'AFFAIRE. On 23rd December 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, anAlsatian Jew, captain of French Artillery; was by court-martial foundguilty of revealing to a foreign power secrets of national defence, andsentenced to degradation and perpetual imprisonment; he constantlymaintained his innocence, and, in time, the belief that he had beenunjustly condemned became prevalent, and a revision of the trial being atlength ordered, principally through the exertions of Colonel Picquart andZola, the well-known author, Dreyfus was brought back from Cayenne, wherehe had been kept a close prisoner and cruelly treated, and a fresh trialat Rennes began on 6th August 1899, and lasted till 9th September; theproceedings, marked by scandalous "scenes, " and by an attempt toassassinate one of prisoner's counsel--disclosed an alarmingly corruptcondition of affairs in some lines of French public life under theRepublic of the time, and terminated in a majority verdict of "guilty";M. Dreyfus was set at liberty on 20th September, the sentence of tenyears' imprisonment being remitted; _b_. 1860. 

DREYSE, NICHOLAUS VON, inventor of the needle-gun, born at Sömmerda, near Erfurt, the son of a locksmith, and bred to his father's craft;established a large factory at Sömmerda for a manufactory of firearms;was ennobled 1864 (1787-1867). 

DROGHEDA (11), a seaport in co. Louth, near the mouth of the Boyne, 32 m. N. Of Dublin, with manufactures and a considerable export trade;was stormed by Cromwell in 1649 "after a stout resistance, " and thegarrison put to the sword; surrendered to William III. After the battleof the Boyne in 1690. 

DROMORE, a cathedral town in co. Down, Ireland, 17 m. SW. OfBelfast, of which Jeremy Taylor was bishop. 

DROOGS, steep rocks which dot the surface of Mysore, in India, andresemble hay-ricks, some of these 1500 ft. High, some with springs on thetop, and scalable only by steps cut in them. 

DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, FRAULEIN VON, a German poetess, born near Münster;was of delicate constitution; wrote tales as well as lyrics in record ofdeep and tender experiences (1797-1848). 

DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE, notable king-taker, a violent Jacobin andmember of the Council of the Five Hundred; had been a dragoon soldier;was postmaster at St. Menehould when Louis XVI. , attempting flight, passed through the place, and by whisper of surmise had the progress ofLouis and his party arrested at Varennes, June 21, 1791, for whichservice he received honourable mention and due reward in money; was takencaptive by the Austrians at last; perched on a rock 100 ft. High, descended one night by means of a paper kite he had constructed, but wasfound at the foot helpless with leg broken (1763-1824). 

DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE, COMTE D'ERLON, marshal of France, born atRheims; distinguished in the wars of the Republic and the Empire; onNapoleon's return from Elba seized on the citadel of Lille, and held itfor the emperor; commanded the first _corps d'armée_ at Waterloo; leftFrance at the Restoration; returned after the July Revolution; becamegovernor of Algiers, and was created marshal (1765-1844). 

DROUOT, a French general, son of a baker at Nancy; Napoleon, whom, as commander of artillery, he accompanied over all his battlefields inEurope and to Elba, used to call him the _Sage of the Grande Armée_(1774-1847). 

DROUYN DE LHUYS, French statesman and diplomatist, born in Paris;was ambassador at the Hague and Madrid; distinguished himself by hisopposition to Guizot; served as Minister of Foreign Affairs under LouisNapoleon; withdrew into private life after the collapse at Sedan(1805-1881). 

DROYSEN, a German historian, born in Pomerania; professor in Berlin;author of the "History of Prussian Policy, " "History of Alexander theGreat, " and "History of Hellenism" (1808-1884). 

DROZ, the name of a Swiss family of mechanicians, one of them, JeanPierre, an engraver of medals (1746-1833); also of a French moralist andhistorian, author of "History of Louis XVI. " (1773-1850). 

DROZ, GUSTAV, a highly popular and brilliant novelist, born inParis; author of "Monsieur, Madam, et Bébé, " "Entre Nous, " and "Cahierbleu de Mlle. Cibot" (1832-1895). 

DRUIDS, a sacred order of learned men under a chief called theArchdruid, among the ancient Celtic nations, particularly of Gaul andBritain, who, from their knowledge of the arts and sciences of the day, were the ministers of religion and justice, as well as the teachers ofyouth to the whole community, and exercised an absolute control over theunlearned people whom they governed; they worshipped in oak groves, andthe oak tree and the mistletoe were sacred to them; the heavenly bodiesappear to have been also objects of their worship, and they appear tohave believed in the immortality and transmigration of the soul; but theycommitted nothing to writing, and for our knowledge of them we have todepend on the reports of outsiders. 

DRUMCLOG MOSS, a flat wilderness of broken bog and quagmire inLanarkshire, where the Covenanters defeated Claverhouse's dragoons in1679. 

DRUMMOND, HENRY, popular scientist and Christian teacher, born inStirling; was educated at Edinburgh and Tübingen; studied for the FreeChurch; lectured on natural science; became famous by the publication of"Natural Law in the Spiritual World, " a book which took with theChristian public at once, and had an enormous sale, which was succeededby "Tropical Africa, " a charmingly-written book of travel, and by aseries of booklets, commencing with "The Greatest Thing in the World, "intended to expound and commend the first principles of the Christianfaith; his last work except one, published posthumously, entitled the"Ideal Life, " was the "Ascent of Man, " in which he posits an altruisticelement in the process of evolution, and makes the goal of it a higherand higher life (1851-1897). 

DRUMMOND, CAPTAIN THOMAS, civil engineer, born in Edinburgh;inventor of the Drummond Light; was employed in the trigonometricalsurvey of Great Britain and Ireland; became Under-Secretary for Ireland, and was held in high favour by the Irish (1797-1840). 

DRUMMOND, WILLIAM, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet, named the"Petrarch of Scotland, " born in Hawthornden; studied civil law atBourges, but poetry had more attractions for him than law, and on thedeath of his father he returned to his paternal estate, and devotedhimself to the study of it and the indulgence of his poetic tastes. "Hiswork was done, " as Stopford Brooke remarks, "in the reign of James I. , but is the result of the Elizabethan influence extending to Scotland. Drummond's sonnets and madrigals have some of the grace of Sidney, and herose at intervals into grave and noble verse, as in his sonnet on Johnthe Baptist. " He was a devoted Royalist; his first poem was "Tears" onthe death of James I. 's eldest son Henry, and the fate of Charles I. Issaid to have cut short his days; the visit of Ben Jonson to him atHawthornden is well known (1585-1649). 

DRUMMOND LIGHT, an intensely-brilliant and pure white light producedby the play of an oxyhydrogen flame upon a ball of lime, so called fromthe inventor, Captain Thomas Drummond. 

DRURY, DRU, a naturalist, born in London; bred a silversmith; tookto entomology; published "Illustrations of Natural History"; hisprincipal work "Illustrations of Exotic Entomology" (1725-1803). 

DRURY LANE, a celebrated London theatre founded in 1663, in what wasa fashionable quarter of the city then; has since that time been thriceburnt down; was the scene of Garrick's triumphs, and of those of many ofhis illustrious successors, though it is now given up chiefly topantomimes and spectacular exhibitions. 

DRUSES, a peculiar people, numbering some 80, 000, inhabiting the S. Of Lebanon and Anti-lebanon, with the Maronites on the N. , whose originis very uncertain, only it is evident, though they speak the Arablanguage, they belong to the Aryan race; their religion, a mixture ofChristian, Jewish, and Mohammedan beliefs, is grounded on faith in theunity and the incarnation of God; their form of government is halfhierarchical and half feudalistic; in early times they were under emirsof their own, but in consequence of the sanguinary, deadly, and mutuallyexterminating strife between them and the Christian Maronites in 1860, they were put under a Christian governor appointed by the Porte. 

DRUSUS, M. LIVIUS, a tribune of the people at Rome in 122 B. C. , buta stanch supporter of the aristocracy; after passing a veto on a popularmeasure proposed by Gracchus his democratic colleague, proposed the samemeasure himself in order to show and prove to the people that thepatricians were their best friends; the success of this policy gained himthe name of "patron of the senate. "

DRUSUS, M. LIVIUS, tribune of the people, 91 B. C. , son of thepreceding, and an aristocrat; pursued the same course as his father, butwas baffled in the execution of his purpose, which was to broaden theconstitution, in consequence of which he formed a conspiracy, and wasassassinated, an event which led to the SOCIAL WAR (q. V. ). 

DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS, surnamed "Germanicus, " younger brother ofTiberius and son-in-law of Marc Antony; distinguished himself in foursuccessive campaigns against the tribes of Germany, but stopped short atthe Elbe, scared by the apparition of a woman of colossal stature whodefied him to cross, so that he had to "content himself with erectingsome triumphal pillars on his own safe side of the river and say that thetribes across were conquered"; falling ill of a mortal malady, hisbrother the emperor hastened across the Alps to close his eyes, andbrought home his body, which was burned and the ashes buried in the tombof Augustus. 

DRYADS, nymphs of forest trees, which were conceived of as born withthe tree they were attached to and dying along with it; they had theirabode in wooded mountains away from men; held their revels amongthemselves, but broke them off at the approach of a human footstep. 

DRYAS, the father of Lycurgus, a Thracian king, and slain by him, who, in a fit of frenzy against the Bacchus worshippers, mistook him fora vine and cut him down. See LYCURGUS. 

DRYASDUST, a name of Sir Walter Scott's invention, and employed byhim to denote an imaginary character who supplied him with drypreliminary historical details, and since used to denote a writer whotreats a historical subject with all due diligence and research, butwithout any appreciation of the human interest in it, still less the soulof it. 

DRYBURGH, an abbey, now a ruin, founded by David I. , on the Tweed, in Berwickshire, 3 m. SE. Of Melrose; the burial-place of Sir WalterScott. 

DRYDEN, JOHN, a celebrated English poet, "glorious John, " born inNorthamptonshire, of a good family of Puritan principles; educated atWestminster School and Cambridge; his first poetic production of anymerit was a set of "heroic stanzas" on the death of Cromwell; at theRestoration he changed sides and wrote a poem which he called "AstræaRedux" in praise of the event, which was ere long followed by his "AnnusMirabilis, " in commemoration of the year 1666, which revealed at once thepoet and the royalist, and gained him the appointment of poet-laureate, prior to which and afterwards he produced a succession of plays for thestage, which won him great popularity, after which he turned his mind topolitical affairs and assumed the role of political satirist byproduction of his "Absalom and Achitophel, " intended to expose theschemes of Shaftesbury, represented as Achitophel and Monmouth asAbsalom, to oust the Duke of York from the succession to the throne; onthe accession of James II. He became a Roman Catholic, and wrote "TheHind and the Panther, " characterised by Stopford Brooke as "a model ofmelodious reasoning in behalf of the milk-white hind of the Church ofRome, " and really the most powerful thing of the kind in the language; atthe Revolution he was deprived of his posts, but it was after that eventhe executed his translation of Virgil, and produced his celebrated odesand "Fables" (1631-1700). 

DUALISM, or MANICHÆISM, the doctrine that there are twoopposite and independently existing principles which go to constituteevery concrete thing throughout the universe, such as a principle of goodand a principle of evil, light and darkness, life and death, spirit andmatter, ideal and real, yea and nay, God and Devil, Christ andAntichrist, Ormuzd and Ahriman. 

DU BARRY, COUNTESS, mistress of Louis XV. , born at Vaucouleurs, daughter of a dressmaker; came to Paris, professing millinery; hadfascinating attractions, and was introduced to the king; governed Franceto its ruin and the dismissal of all Louis' able and honourable advisers;fled from Paris on the death of Louis, put on mourning for his death; wasarrested, brought before the Revolutionary tribunal, condemned forwasting the finances of the State, and guillotined (1746-1793). 

DU BELLAY, a French general, born at Montmirail; served underFrancis I. (1541-1590). 

DUBLIN (360), the capital of Ireland, at the mouth of the Liffey, which divides it in two, and is crossed by 12 bridges; the principal andfinest street is Sackville Street, which is about 700 yards long and 40wide; it has a famous university and two cathedrals, besides a castle, the residence of the Lord-Lieutenant; and a park, the Phoenix, one of thefinest in Europe; manufactures porter, whisky, and poplin. 

DUBOIS, GUILLAUME, cardinal and prime minister of France; notoriousfor his ambition and his debauchery; appointed tutor to the Duke ofOrleans; encouraged him in vice, and secured his attachment and patronagein promotion, so that in the end he rose to the highest honours, and eveninfluence, in both Church and state; notwithstanding his debauchery hewas an able man and an able minister (1656-1723). 

DUBOIS, REYMOND, a German physiologist, born in Berlin, of Frenchdescent; professor of Physiology at Berlin; distinguished for hisresearches in animal electricity; _b_. 1818. 

DUBOIS DE CRANCÉ, a violent French revolutionary, born atCharleville; besieged and captured Lyons, giving no quarter; was Ministerof War under the Directory; secured the adoption of the principle ofconscription in recruiting the army (1747-1814). 

DUBOURG, a French magistrate, member of the parlement of Paris;burnt as a heretic for recommending clemency in the treatment of theHuguenots (1521-1559). 

DUBUFE, a distinguished French portrait-painter (1820-1883). 

DUBUQUE (36), a town in Iowa, U. S. , on the Mississippi, withlead-mines and a trade in grain, timber, &c. 

DUCAMP, MAXIME, a French littérateur, born in Paris; has written"Travels in the East"; is the author of "Paris, " its civic life, as alsoan account of its "Convulsions"; _b_. 1822. 

DU CANGE, CHARLES, one of the most erudite of French scholars, bornat Amiens, and educated among the Jesuits; wrote on language, law, archæology, and history; devoted himself much to the study of the MiddleAges; contributed to the rediscovery of old French literature, and wrotea history of the Latin empire; his greatest works are his Glossaries ofthe Latin and Greek of the Middle Ages (1614-1688). 

DUCAT, a coin, generally in gold, that circulated in Venice, and wascurrent in Germany at one time, of varied value. 

DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI, an African traveller, born in Louisiana;his principal explorations confined to the equatorial region of WestAfrica, and the result an extension of our knowledge of its geography, ethnology, and zoology, and particularly of the character and habits ofthe ape tribes, and above all the gorilla; _b_. 1837. 

DU CHÂTELET, MARQUISE DE, a scientific lady and friend ofVoltaire's, born in Paris; "a too fascinating shrew, " as he at lengthfound to his cost (1706-1749). 

DUCHESNE, ANDRÉ, French historian and geographer, born in Touraine;styled the "Father of French History"; famous for his researches in itand in French antiquities, and for histories of England, Scotland, andIreland respectively; his industry was unwearied; he left more than 100folios in MS. (1584-1640). 

DUCHOBORTZI, a religious community in Russia of Quaker principles, and of a creed that denied the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinityof Christ; they became a cause of trouble to the empire by theirfanaticism, and were removed to a high plateau in Transcaucasia, wherethey live by cattle-rearing. 

DUCIS, JEAN, a French dramatist, born at Versailles; tookShakespeare for his model; declined Napoleon's patronage, thinking itbetter, as he said, to wear rags than wear chains (1733-1816). 

DUCKING STOOL, a stool or chair in which a scolding woman wasconfined, and set before her own door to be pelted at, or borne in atumbrel through the town to be jeered at, or placed at the end of asee-saw and _ducked_ in a pool. 

DUCLOS, CHARLES, a witty and satirical French writer, born at Dinan;author of "Observations, " and "A History of the Manners of the EighteenthCentury, " and "Mémoires of the Reigns of Louis XIV. And Louis XV. "; hemingled much in French society of the period, and took studious note ofits passing whims (1704-1772). 

DUCORNET, a French historical-painter, born at Lille; being bornwithout arms, painted with his foot (1805-1856). 

DUCOS, ROGER, French politician, born at Bordeaux, member of theNational Convention and of the Directory (1754-1816). 

DUCROT, a French general, born at Nivers; served in Algeria, in theItalian campaign of 1859, and as head of a division in the German War;was imprisoned for refusing to sign the capitulation treaty of Sedan, butescaped and took part in the defence of Paris when besieged by theGermans (1817-1882). 

DU DEFFAND, MARQUISE. See DEFFAND. 

DUDLEY (90), the largest town in Worcestershire, 8½ m. NW. OfBirmingham, in the heart of the "Black Country, " with coal-mines, iron-works, and hardware manufactures. 

DUDLEY, EDMUND, an English lawyer and privy-councillor; wasassociated with Empson as an agent in carrying on the obnoxious policy ofHenry VII. , and beheaded along with him at the instance of Henry VIII. Ona charge of high treason in 1510. 

DUDLEY, JOHN, grand-marshal of England, son of the preceding, father-in-law of Lady Jane Grey; beheaded in 1558 for his part in aninsurrection in her favour. 

DUFF, ALEXANDER, an eminent Indian missionary, born at Moulin, nearPitlochry, Perthshire; a man of Celtic blood, apostolic zeal, and fervideloquence; was the first missionary sent out to India by the Church ofScotland; sailed in 1830, returned in 1840, in 1849, and finally in 1863, stirring up each time the missionary spirit in the Church; he was theoriginator of a new method of missionary operations in the East by theintroduction of English as the vehicle of instruction in the Christianfaith, which met at first with much opposition, but was finally crownedwith conspicuous success; died in Edinburgh (1806-1873). 

DUFF, JAMES GRANT, Indian soldier and statesman, born at Banff;conspicuous as a soldier for his services in subduing the Mahrattachiefs, and as a statesman for establishing friendly relations betweenthe Mahrattas and the East India Company (1789-1858). 

DUFFERIN, MARQUIS OF, and EARL OF AVA, statesman anddiplomatist; held office under Lord John Russell and Mr. Gladstone; wasin succession Governor-General of Canada, ambassador first at St. Petersburg, then at Constantinople, and finally Governor-General ofIndia; has since acted as ambassador at Rome and Paris; is a man ofliterary as well as administrative ability; _b_. 1826. 

DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN, an Irish patriot, born in co. Monaghan;bred for the bar; took to journalism in the interest of his country'semancipation; was one of the founders of the _Nation_ newspaper; wastwice over tried for sedition, but acquitted; emigrated at length toAustralia, where he soon plunged into Colonial politics, and in hispolitical capacity rendered distinguished services to the Australiancolonies, especially in obtaining important concessions from themother-country; he is the author of the "Ballad Poetry of Ireland, " andan interesting record of his early experiences in "Young Ireland"; _b_. 1816. 

DUFOUR, a Swiss general, born at Constance; commanded the armydirected against the SONDERBUND (q. V. ), and brought the warthere to a close (1787-1875). 

DUFRESNE, CHARLES. See DU CANGE. 

DUFRESNY, French painter and poet, born at Paris (1765-1825). 

DUFRESNY, CHARLES RIVIÈRE, French dramatist, a universal genius, devoted to both literature and the arts; held in high esteem by LouisXIV. ; wrote a number of comedies, revealing a man of the world, instinctwith wit, and careless of style (1648-1724). 

DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM, antiquary, born in Warwickshire; was madeChester herald, accompanied Charles I. Throughout the Civil War; hischief work was the "Monasticum Anglicanum, " which he executed conjointlywith Roger Duckworth; wrote also on the antiquities of Warwickshire andheraldry; left 27 folio MSS. Now in the Bodleian Library (1605-1686). 

DUGOMMIER, French general, pupil of Washington, born at Guadeloupe;distinguished himself in Italy; commanded at the siege of Toulon, whichhe took; fell at the battle of Sierra-Negra, in Spain, which he hadinvaded (1736-1794). 

DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ, a celebrated French sea-captain, born at St. Malo; distinguished at first in privateer warfare during the reign ofLouis XIV. , and afterwards as a frigate captain in the royal navy, towhich the royal favour promoted him; was much beloved by the sailors andsubordinate officers; died poor (1673-1736). 

DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND, constable of France, born in Côtes du Nord;one of the most illustrious of French war-captains, and distinguished asone or the chief instruments in expelling the English from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou; was taken prisoner at the battle of Auray in 1364, but ransomed for 100, 000 francs, and again by the Black Prince, but soonliberated; he was esteemed for his valour by foe and friend alike, and hewas buried at St. Denis in the tomb of the kings of France (1314-1380). 

DUHESME, a French general; covered with wounds at Waterloo, he wascruelly massacred by the Brunswick hussars in the house to which he hadfled for refuge (1760-1815). 

DUILIUS, CAIUS, a Roman consul; distinguished for having on thecoast of Sicily gained the first naval victory recorded in the annals ofRome, 260 B. C. 

DULCE DOMUM (for Sweet Home), a song sung by the pupils atWinchester College on the approach of and at the break-up of the schoolfor the summer holidays. 

DULCINEA DEL TOBOSA, the name Don Quixote gave to his belovedAldonza Lorenzo, a coarse peasant-girl of Tobosa, conceived by him as amodel of all feminine perfection, and as such adored by him. 

DULIA, an inferior kind of worship paid to angels and saints, incontradistinction to LATRIA (q. V. ). 

DULONG, a French chemist, born at Rouen; discoverer, by accidentalexplosion, of the chloride of nitrogen (1785-1838). 

DULUTH (52), a port on Lake Superior, with a fine harbour, and agreat centre of commerce. 

DULWICH, a southern Surrey suburb of London, with a flourishingcollege founded in 1619, and a picture gallery attached, rich especiallyin Dutch paintings. See ALLEYN, EDWARD. 

DUMACHUS, the impenitent thief, figures in Longfellow's "GoldenLegend" as one of a band of robbers who attacked St. Joseph on his flightinto Egypt. 

DUMAS, ALEXANDRE, THE ELDER, a celebrated French author, born atVillers-Cotterets, son of General Dumas, a Creole; lost his father atfour, and led for a time a miscellaneous life, till, driven by poverty, he came to Paris to seek his fortune; here he soon made his mark, andbecame by-and-by the most popular dramatist and romancier of his time;his romances are numerous, and he reached the climax of his fame by theproduction of "Monte Cristo" in 1844, and the "Three Musketeers" the yearafter; he was unhappy in his marriage and with his wife, as afterwards, he squandered his fortune in reckless extravagance; before the end it wasall spent, and he died at Dieppe, broken in health and impaired inintellect, ministered to by his son and daughter (1806-1876). 

DUMAS, ALEXANDRE, THE YOUNGER or _fils_, dramatist and novelist, born in Paris, son of the preceding; he made his _début_ as a novelistwith "La Dame aux Camélias" in 1848, which was succeeded by a number ofother novels; he eventually gave himself up to the production of dramas, in which he was more successful than in romance (1824-1895). 

DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ, a distinguished French chemist, born atAlais; was admitted to the Académie française at the age of 25; at theRevolution of 1848 he became a member of the National Assembly; wascreated a senator under the Empire, but retired into private life afterSedan; he was distinguished for his studies in chemistry, boththeoretical and practical, and ranks among the foremost in the science(1800-1884). 

DU MAURIER, artist, born in Paris; started in London as a designerof wood engravings; did illustrations for _Once a Week_, the _CornhillMagazine, &c. _. , and finally joined the staff of _Punch_, to which hecontributed numerous clever sketches; he published a novel, "PeterIbbetson, " in 1891, which was succeeded in 1895 by "Trilby, " which hadsuch a phenomenal success in both England and America (1834-1897). 

DUMB OX, THOMAS AQUINAS (q. V. ), so called from histaciturnity before he opened his mouth and began, as predicted, to fillthe world with his lowing. 

DUMBARTON (17), the county town of Dumbartonshire, and a royalburgh, at the mouth of the Leven, on the Clyde, 15 m. From Glasgow;shipbuilding the chief industry; it was the capital of the kingdom ofStrathclyde; adjoining is a castle of historic interest, 250 ft. High, kept up as a military fortress; the county, which is fertile, and wasoriginally part of Lennox, is traversed by the Leven, with itsbleach-fields and factories. 

DUMBDRUDGE, an imaginary village referred to in "Sartor, " where thenatives toil and _drudge_ away and _say nothing_ about it, as villagersall over the world used contentedly to do, and did for most part, at thetime "Sartor" was written, though less so now. 

DUMBIEDIKES, a Scotch laird who figures in the "Heart ofMidlothian, " in love with Jeanie Deans. 

DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANÇOISE, a celebrated French tragédienne, bornnear Alençon; like Mrs. Siddons, surpassed all others at the time in therepresentation of dignity, pathos, and strong emotion; made her firstappearance in 1737, retired in 1775 (1711-1803). 

DUMFRIES (18), an agricultural market-town, county town ofDumfriesshire and a seaport, stands on the left bank of the Nith, withMaxwelltown as suburb on the right, 90 m. SW. Of Edinburgh; manufacturestweeds and hosiery, and trades in cattle; here Robert Burns spent thelast five years of his life, and his remains lie buried. 

DUMFRIESSHIRE (74), a south-western Border county of Scotland; anagricultural district, which slopes from a northern pastoral region tothe Solway, and is traversed by the fertile valleys of Nithsdale andAnnandale. 

DUMNORIX, a chief of the Æduan nation in Gaul, who gave some troubleto Cæsar in his conquest of Gaul. 

DUMONT, AUGUSTIN-ALEXANDRE, a sculptor, born in Paris (1801-1884). 

DUMONT, JEAN, an eminent French publicist, who settled in Austriaand served the emperor; wrote on international law (1660-1726). 

DUMONT, LOUIS, a French publicist, born at Geneva, a friend ofMirabeau, memoirs of whom he wrote, and who, coming to England, formed aclose intimacy with Jeremy Bentham, and became his disciple and expounder(1759-1829). 

DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES, a celebrated French navigator, born atCondé-sur-Noireau; made a three years' voyage round the world, andvisited the Antarctic regions, of which he made a survey; he wasdistinguished as a scientist no less than a sea-captain; lost his life ina railway accident at Versailles (1790-1842). 

DUMOULIN, a celebrated French jurist, born at Paris; did for Frenchlaw what Cujas (q. V. ) did for Roman (1500-1560). 

DUMOURIEZ, a French general, born at Cambrai, "a wiry, elastic, unwearied man . .. Creature, " as he boasted in his old age, "of God andhis own sword . .. On the whole, one of Heaven's Swiss"; took when alreadygrey to the Revolution and fought on its behalf; gained the battles ofValmy and Jemmapes; conquered Belgium, but being distrusted, passed overto the ranks of the enemies of France; a man really "without faith;wanted above all things work, work on any side"; died an exile in England(1739-1824). See Carlyle's "French Revolution. "

DÜNA, a river of Russia, which rises near the source of the Volga, and after a W. And NW. Course of 650 m. Falls into the Gulf of Riga; itis connected with the Dnieper by the Beresina Canal. 

DUNBAR, an ancient seaport and town of Haddingtonshire, on the coastof the Forth, 29 m. E. Of Edinburgh; is a fishing station, andmanufactures agricultural implements and paper; was, with its castle, which has stood many a siege, a place of importance in early Scottishhistory; near it Cromwell beat the Scots under Leslie on September 3, 1650. 

DUNBAR, William, a Scottish poet, entered the Franciscan order andbecame an itinerant preaching friar, in which capacity he wandered overthe length and breadth of the land, enjoying good cheer by the way; wassome time in the service of James IV. , and wrote a poem, his most famouspiece, entitled "The Thistle and the Rose, " on the occasion of the King'smarriage with the Princess Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. Hispoems were of three classes--allegoric, moral, and comic, the mostremarkable being "The Dance, " in which he describes the procession of theseven deadly sins in the infernal regions. Scott says he "was a poetunrivalled by any that Scotland has produced" (1480-1520). 

DUNBLANE, a town in Perthshire, 5 m. N. Of Stirling, with abeautiful cathedral, which dates back as far as 1240; of the diocese thesaintly Leighton was bishop. 

DUNCAN, ADAM, VISCOUNT, a British admiral, born at Dundee; enteredthe navy in 1746; steadily rose in rank till, in 1795, he became admiralof the Blue and commander of the North Sea fleet in 1795; kept watchingthe movements of the Dutch squadron for two years, till, at the end ofthat term, it put to sea, and came up with it off Camperdown, and totallydefeated it, June 11, 1797 (1731-1804). 

DUNCAN, THOMAS, a Scotch artist, born at Kinclaven, Perthshire;painted fancy and Scoto-historical subjects, and a number of excellentportraits; his career, which was full of promise, was cut short by anearly death (1807-1845). 

DUNCIAD, THE, a satire of Pope's in four books, the "fiercest" aswell as the best of his satires, in which, with merciless severity, heapplies the lash to his critics, and in which Colley Cibber figures asthe King of Dunces. 

DUNCKER, MAX, a historical writer, born in Berlin; held aprofessorship at Halle and Tübingen, and became a minister of State;wrote among other works a work of great learning, in seven vols. , entitled the "History of Antiquity" (1811-1886). 

DUNCOMBE, T. S. , an English politician, M. P. For Finsbury, one ofthe extreme Liberal party of the time, presented to the House of Commonsthe Chartist petition in 1842; denounced Sir James Graham, the HomeSecretary of the day, for opening Mazzini's letter, and advocated Jewishemancipation (1796-1861). 

DUNDALK (12), capital of co. Louth, Ireland, 50 m. N. Of Dublin; aplace of considerable trade and manufactures; is an ancient city; EdwardBruce, the last king of all Ireland, was crowned and resided here; it wasbesieged and taken more than once, by Cromwell for one. 

DUNDAS (of Arniston), the name of a Scottish family, many of themembers of which have distinguished themselves at the bar and on thebench. 

DUNDAS, HENRY, VISCOUNT MELVILLE, a junior member of the abovefamily; trained for the bar; rose to be Lord Advocate for Scotland andM. P. For the county of Edinburgh; opposed at first to Pitt, he became atlast his ablest coadjutor in Parliament, and did important services inconnection with the military and naval defences of the country; hispower was sovereign in Scotland; his statue, mounted on a lofty column, adorns one of the principal squares of the New Town of Edinburgh(1741-1811). 

DUNDEE (153), the third largest city in Scotland, stands on theFirth of Tay, 10 m. From the mouth; has a large seaport; is a place ofconsiderable commercial enterprise; among its numerous manufactures thechief is the jute; it has a number of valuable institutions, and sendstwo members to Parliament. 

DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, EARL OF, entered the navy at the age of17; became captain of the _Speedy_, a sloop-of-war of 14 guns and 54 men;captured in ten months 33 vessels; was captured by a French squadron, buthad his sword returned to him; signalised himself afterwards in asuccession of daring feats; selected to burn the French fleet lying atanchor in the Basque Roads, he was successful by means of fire-ships indestroying several vessels, but complained he was not supported by LordGambier, the admiral, a complaint which was fatal to his promotion in theservice; disgraced otherwise, he went abroad and served in foreignnavies, and materially contributed to the establishment of the republicof Chile and the empire of Brazil; in 1830 he was restored by his party, the Whigs, to his naval rank, as a man who had been the victim of theopposite party, and made a vice-admiral of the Blue in 1841; heafterwards vindicated himself in his "Autobiography of a Seaman"(1775-1860). 

DUNDREARY, LORD, a character of the play "Our American Cousin"; thepersonification of a good-natured, brainless swell; represented uniquelyon the stage by Mr. Sothern. 

DUNEDIN (47), the capital of Otago, in New Zealand, situated wellsouth on the E. Side of the South Isle, at the head of a spacious bay, and the largest commercial city in the colony; founded by Scotchemigrants in 1848, one of the leaders a nephew of Robert Burns. 

DUNES, low hills of sand extending along the coast of theNetherlands and the N. Of France. 

DUNFERMLINE (19), an ancient burgh in the W. Of Fife; a place ofinterest as a residence of the early kings of Scotland, and as thebirthplace of David II. , James I. , and Charles I. , and for its abbey; itstands in the middle of a coal-field, and is the seat of extensive linenmanufactures. 

DUNKELD, a town in Perthshire, 15 m. NW. Of Perth, with a fine14th-century cathedral. 

DUNKERS, a sect of Quakerist Baptists in the United States. 

DUNKIRK (40), the most northern seaport and fortified town ofFrance, on the Strait of Dover; has manufactures and considerable trade. 

DUNNET HEAD, a rocky peninsula, the most northerly point inScotland, the rocks from 100 to 600 ft. High. 

DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, an old castle of the Keiths now in ruins, on theflat summit of a precipitous rock 1½ m. S. Of Stonehaven, Kincardineshire, Scotland, and connected with the mainland by a neck ofland called the "Fiddle Head"; famous in Scottish history as a Stateprison, and as the place of safe-keeping at a troubled period for theScottish regalia, now in Edinburgh Castle. 

DUNOIS, JEAN, a French patriot, called the Bastard of Orleans, bornin Paris, natural son of Louis of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. ; one ofthe national heroes of France; along with Joan of Arc, compelled theEnglish to raise the siege of Orleans, and contributed powerfully, by hissword, to all but expel the English from France after the death of thatheroine (1402-1468). 

DUNS SCOTUS, JOHANNES, one of the most celebrated of the scholasticsof the 14th century, whether he was native of England, Scotland, orIreland is uncertain; entered the Franciscan order, and from hisacuteness got the name of "Doctor Subtilis"; lectured at Oxford to crowdsof auditors, and also at Paris; was the contemporary of Thomas Aquinas, and the head of an opposing school of Scotists, as against Thomists, asthey were called; whereas Aquinas "proclaimed the Understanding asprinciple, he proclaimed the Will, from whose spontaneous exercise hederived all morality; with this separation of theory from practice andthought from thing (which accompanied it) philosophy became divided fromtheology, reason from faith; reason took a position above faith, aboveauthority (in modern philosophy), and the religious consciousness brokewith the traditional dogma (at the Reformation). "

DUNSTAN, ST. , an English ecclesiastic, born at Glastonbury; a man ofhigh birth and connection as well as varied accomplishments; began areligious life as a monk living in a cell by himself, and prevailed insingle combat on one occasion with the devil; became abbot ofGlastonbury, in which capacity he adopted the rôle of statesman, andarose to great authority during the reign of Edgar, becoming archbishopof Canterbury, ruling the nation with vigour and success, but with thedeath of Edgar his power declined, and he retired to Canterbury, where hedied of grief and vexation; he is the patron saint of goldsmiths(924-988). 

DUNTON, WATTS. See WATTS, THEODORE. 

DUPANLOUP, a French prelate, bishop of Orleans, born at St. Felix, in Savoy; a singularly able and eloquent man; devoted himself toeducational emancipation and reform; protested vigorously against papalinfallibility; yielded at length, and stood up in defence of the Church(1802-1878). 

DUPERRÉ, a French admiral, born at La Rochelle; contributed alongwith Marshal Bourmont to the taking of Algiers (1775-1846). 

DUPERRON, cardinal, a Swiss by birth and a Calvinist by religiousprofession; went to Paris, turned papist, and rose to ecclesiasticaleminence in France under Henry IV. (1556-1618). 

DUPIN, ANDRÉ, French jurist and statesman; distinguished at the timeof the revolution of the three days as a supporter of Louis Philippe, andof the house of Orleans after him (1783-1865). 

DUPLEIX, JOSEPH, a French merchant, head of a factory atChandernagore, who rose to be governor of the French settlements inIndia, and in the management of which he displayed conspicuous ability, defending them against the English and receiving the dignity of marquis;jealousy at home, however, led to his recall, and he was left to end hisdays in neglect and poverty, though he pled hard with the cabinet atVersailles to have respect to the sacrifices he made for his country(1697-1763). 

DUPLESSIS, MORNAY, a soldier, diplomatist, and man of letters; aleader of the Huguenots, who, after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, visited England, where he was received with favour by Elizabeth in 1575;entered the service of the King of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. OfFrance, but on Henry's reconciliation with the Church of Rome, retiredinto private life and devoted himself to literary pursuits; he was calledthe "Pope of the Huguenots"; _d_. 1623. 

DUPONT, PIERRE, French song-writer; his songs, "Le Chant desOuvriers" and "Les Boeufs, " the delight of the young generation of 1848(1820-1872). 

DUPONT DE L'EURE, a French politician, born at Neubourg; filledseveral important offices in the successive periods of revolution inFrance; was distinguished for his integrity and patriotism, and madePresident of the Provisional Government in 1848 (1767-1855). 

DUPONT DE NEMOURS, French political economist; took part in theRevolution; was opposed to the excesses of the Jacobin party, but escapedwith his life; wrote a book entitled "Philosophie de l'Universe"(1739-1817). 

DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, a French savant; was a member of theConvention of the Council of the Five Hundred, and President of theLegislative Body during the Revolution period; devoted himself to thestudy of astronomy in connection with mythology, the result of which waspublished in his work in 12 vols. , entitled "Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Religion Universelle"; he advocated the unity of the astronomicaland religious myths of all nations (1742-1809). 

DUPUY, M. CHARLES, French statesman, born at Puy; elected to theChamber in 1885; became Premier in 1893 and in 1894; was in office whenDreyfus was condemned and degraded, and resigned in 1895; _b_. 1851. 

DUPUYTREN, BARON, a celebrated French surgeon, born atPierre-Buffière; he was a man of firm nerve, signally sure and skilful asan operator, and contributed greatly, both by his inventions anddiscoveries, to the progress of surgery; a museum of pathologicalanatomy, in which he made important discoveries, bears his name(1777-1835). 

DUQUESNE, ABRAHAM, MARQUIS, an illustrious naval officer of France, born at Dieppe; distinguished himself in many a naval engagement, and didmuch to enhance the naval glory of the country; among other achievementsplucked the laurels from the brow of his great rival, De Ruyter, by, in1676, defeating the combined fleets of Spain and Holland under hiscommand; Louis XIV. Offered him a marshal's baton if he would abjureCalvinism, but he declined; he was the only one of the Huguenots exceptedfrom proscription in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but his lastdays were saddened by the banishment of his children (1610-1688). 

DURA DEN, a glen near Cupar-Fife, famous for the number of ganoidfossil fishes entombed in its sandstone. 

DURANCE, a tributary of the Rhône, which, after a rapid course of180 m. , falls into that river by its left bank 3 m. Below Avignon. 

DURAND, an Indian officer; served in the Afghan and Sikh Wars, andbecame Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab (1828-1871). 

DURANDAL, the miraculous sword of Orlando, with which he couldcleave mountains at a blow. 

DURBAN (27), the port of Natal, largest town in the colony, with aland-locked harbour. 

DURBAR, a ceremonious State reception in India. 

DÜRER, ALBERT, the great early German painter and engraver, born atNürnberg, son of a goldsmith, a good man, who brought him up to his ownprofession, but he preferred painting, for which he early exhibited aspecial aptitude, and his father bound him apprentice for three years tothe chief artist in the place, at the expiry of which he travelled inGermany and other parts; in 1506 he visited Venice, where he met Bellini, and painted several pictures; proceeded thence to Bologna, and wasintroduced to Raphael; his fame spread widely, and on his return he wasappointed court-painter by the Emperor Maximilian, an office he heldunder Charles V. ; he was of the Reformed faith, and a friend ofMelanchthon as well as an admirer of Luther, on whose incarceration inWartburg he uttered a long lament; he was a prince of painters, hisdrawing and colouring perfect, and the inventor of etching, in which hewas matchless; he carved in wood, ivory, stone, and metal; was an authoras well as an artist, and wrote, among other works, an epoch-makingtreatise on proportion in the human figure; "it could not be better done"was his quiet, confident reply as a sure workman to a carper on oneoccasion (1471-1528). 

D'URFEY, TOM, a facetious poet; author of comedies and songs; agreat favourite of Charles II. And his court; of comedies he wrote some30, which are all now discarded for their licentiousness, and a curiousbook of sonnets, entitled "Pills to Purge Melancholy"; came to poverty inthe end of his days; Addison pled on his behalf, and hoped that "as hehad made the world merry, the world would make him easy" (1628-1723). 

DURGÂ, in the Hindu mythology the consort of Siva. 

DURHAM (15), an ancient city on the Wear, with a noble cathedral anda castle, once the residence of the bishop, now a university seat, in theheart of a county of the same name (1, 106), rich in coal-fields, and withnumerous busy manufacturing towns. 

DURHAM, ADMIRAL, entered the navy in 1777; was officer on the watchwhen the _Royal George_ went down off Spithead, and the only one withCaptain Waghorn who escaped; served as acting-lieutenant of a ship underLord Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and commanded the _Defence_, a shipof 74 guns, at the battle of Trafalgar (1763-1815). 

DURHAM, JOHN G. L. , EARL OF, an English statesman, born in DurhamCo. ; a zealous Liberal and reformer, and a member of the ReformGovernment under Earl Grey, which he contributed much to inaugurate; wasambassador in St. Petersburg, and was sent governor-general to Canada in1839, but owing to some misunderstanding took the extraordinary step ofultroneously returning within the year (1792-1840). 

DURWARD, QUENTIN, a Scottish archer in the service of Louis XI. , thehero of a novel of Scott's of the name. 

DÜSSELDORF (176), a well-built town of Rhenish Prussia, on the rightbank of the Rhine; it is a place of manufactures, and has a finepicture-gallery with a famous school of art associated. 

DUTENS, JOSEPH, a French engineer and political economist(1763-1848). 

DUTENS, LOUIS, a French savant, born at Tours; after being chaplainto the British minister at Turin, settled in England, and becamehistoriographer-royal; was a man of varied learning, and well read inhistorical subjects and antiquities (1730-1812). 

DUTROCHET, a French physiologist and physicist, known for hisresearches on the passage of fluids through membranous tissues(1776-1847). 

DUUMVIRS, the name of two Roman magistrates who exercised the samepublic functions. 

DUVAL, CLAUDE, a French numismatist, and writer on numismatics;keeper of the imperial cabinet of Vienna; was originally a shepherd boy(1695-1775). 

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an American theologian, grandson of JonathanEdwards, and much esteemed in his day both as a preacher and a writer;his "Theology Explained and Defended, " in 5 vols. , was very popular atone time, and was frequently reprinted (1752-1817). 

DWINA, a Russian river, distinguished from the DÜNA (q. V. ), also called Duna, and an important, which flows N. To the WhiteSea. 

DYAKS, the native name of tribes of Malays of a superior classaboriginal to Borneo. 

DYCE, ALEXANDER, an English literary editor and historian, born inEdinburgh; edited several of the old English poets and authors, some ofthem little known before; also the poems of Shakespeare, Pope, &c. ; wasone of the founders of the Percy Society, for the publication of oldEnglish works (1798-1869). 

DYCE, WILLIAM, a distinguished Scottish artist, born in Aberdeen, studied in Rome; settled for a time in Edinburgh, and finally removed toLondon; painted portraits at first, but soon took to higher subjects ofart; his work was such as to commend itself to both German and Frenchartists; he gave himself to fresco-painting, and as a fresco-painter wasselected to adorn the walls of the Palace of Westminster and the House ofLords; his "Baptism of Ethelbert, " in the latter, is considered his bestwork (1806-1864). 

DYCK, VAN. See VANDYCK. 

DYER, JOHN, English poet; was a great lover and student of landscapescenery, and his poems, "Grongar Hill" and the "Fleece, " abound indescriptions of these, the scenery of the former lying in S. Wales(1700-1758). 

DYNAM, the unit of work, or the force required to raise one poundone foot in one second. 

DYNAMITE, a powerful explosive substance, intensely local in itsaction; formed by impregnating a porous siliceous earth or othersubstance with some 70 per cent. Of nitro-glycerine. 

DYNAMO, a machine by which mechanical work is transformed intopowerful electric currents by the inductive action of magnets on coils ofcopper wire in motion. 

E

EACUS. See ÆACUS. 

EADMER, a celebrated monk of Canterbury; flourished in the 12thcentury; friend and biographer of St. Anselm, author of a History of HisOwn Times, as also of many of the Lives of the Saints; elected to thebishopric of St. Andrews in 1120; resigned on account of Alexander I. Refusing to admit the right of the English Archbishop of Canterbury toperform the ceremony of consecration. 

EADRIC, a Saxon, notorious for his treachery, fighting now with hiscountrymen against the Danes and now with the Danes against them, tillput to death by order of Canute in 1017. 

EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN, an American engineer, born in Laurenceburg, Indiana; designed ingenious boats for floating submerged ships; builtwith remarkable speed warships for the Federalists in 1861; constructed asteel bridge spanning the Mississippi at St. Louis, noteworthy for itscentral span of 520 ft. (1820-1887). 

EAGLE, the king of birds, and bird of Jove; was adopted by variousnations as the emblem of dominant power, as well as of nobility andgenerosity; in Christian art it is the symbol of meditation, and theattribute of St. John; is represented now as fighting with a serpent, andnow as drinking out of a chalice or a communion cup, to strengthen it forthe fight. 

EAGLE, ORDER OF THE BLACK, an order of knighthood founded by theElector of Brandenburg in 1701; with this order was ultimatelyincorporated the ORDER OF THE RED EAGLE, founded in 1734 by theMarkgraf of Bayreuth. 

EAGLE OF BRITTANY, DU GUESCLIN (q. V. ). 

EAGLE OF MEAUX, BOSSUET (q. V. ). 

EAGRE, a name given in England to a tidal wave rushing up a river orestuary on the top of another, called also a BORE (q. V. ). 

EARL, a title of nobility, ranking third in the British peerage;originally election to the dignity of earl carried with it a grant ofland held in feudal tenure, the discharge of judicial and administrativeduties connected therewith, and was the occasion of a solemn service ofinvestiture. In course of time the title lost its official character, andsince the reign of Queen Anne all ceremony of investiture has beendispensed with, the title being conferred by letters-patent. The word isderived from the Anglo-Saxon _eorls_ which signified the "gentle folk, "as distinguished from the _ceorls_, the "churls" or "simple folk. "

EARL MARSHAL, a high officer of State, an office of very ancientinstitution, now the head of the college of arms, and hereditary in thefamily of the Dukes of Norfolk; formerly one of the chief officers in thecourt of chivalry, a court which had to do with all matters of highceremonial, such as coronations. 

EARLOM, RICHARD, a mezzotint engraver, born in London; celebratedfor his series of 200 prints after the original designs of Claude deLorraine (1743-1822). 

EARLSTON or ERCILDOUNE, a village in Berwickshire, withmanufactures of ginghams and other textiles. In its vicinity stand theruins of the "Rhymer's Tower, " alleged to have been the residence ofThomas the Rhymer. 

EARLY ENGLISH, a term in architecture used to designate thatparticular form of Gothic architecture in vogue in England in the 13thcentury, whose chief characteristic was the pointed arch. 

EARTH HOUSES, known also as Yird Houses, Weems and Picts' Houses, underground dwellings in use in Scotland, extant even after the Romanevacuation of Britain. Entrance was effected by a passage not much widerthan a fox burrow, which sloped downwards 10 or 12 ft. To the floor ofthe house; the inside was oval in shape, and was walled with overlappingrough stone slabs; the roof frequently reached to within a foot of theearth's surface; they probably served as store-houses, winter-quarters, and as places of refuge in times of war. Similar dwellings are found inIreland. 

EARTHLY PARADISE, poem by William Morris, his greatest effort, considered his masterpiece; consists of 24 tales by 24 travellers inquest of an earthly paradise. 

EAST INDIA COMPANY, founded in 1600; erected its first factories onthe mainland in 1612 at Surat, but its most profitable trade in theseearly years was with the Spice Islands, Java, Sumatra, &c. ; driven fromthese islands by the Dutch in 1622, the Company established itselfaltogether on the mainland; although originally created under royalcharter for purely commercial purposes, it in 1689 entered upon a careerof territorial acquisition, which culminated in the establishment ofBritish power in India; gradually, as from time to time fresh renewals ofits charter were granted, it was stripped of its privileges andmonopolies, till in 1858, after the Mutiny, all its powers were vested inthe British Crown. 

EAST RIVER, the strait which separates Brooklyn and New York cities, lying between Long Island Sound and New York Bay, about 10 m. Long; isspanned by a bridge. 

EASTBOURNE (35), a fashionable watering-place and health resort onthe Sussex coast, between Brighton and Hastings, and 66 m. S. Of London;has Roman remains, and is described in "Domesday Book. "

EASTER, an important festival of the Church commemorating theresurrection of Christ; held on the first Sunday after the first fullmoon of the calendar which happens on or next after 21st of March, andconstituting the beginning of the ecclesiastical year; the date of itdetermines the dates of other movable festivals; derives its name fromEastre, a Saxon goddess, whose festival was celebrated about the sametime, and to which many of the Easter customs owe their origin. 

EASTERN STATES, the six New England States in N. America--Maine, NewHampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 

EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK, artist and author, born at Plymouth;studied painting in London and in Paris; produced the last portrait ofNapoleon, which he executed from a series of sketches of the emperor onboard the _Bellerophon_ in Plymouth harbour; he travelled in Greece, andfrom 1816 to 1830 made his home at Rome; "Christ Weeping over Jerusalem, "his greatest work, appeared in 1841; was President of the Royal Academy;wrote several works on subjects relating to his art, and translatedGoethe's "Farbenlehre" (1793-1865). 

EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE, Orientalist and diplomatist, born atWarfield, in Berkshire; went to India as a cadet, acquired an extensiveknowledge of Indian dialects and Eastern languages, and passed aninterpretership examination, gaining the high proficiency reward of 1000rupees; carried through peace negotiations with China in 1842; invalidedhome, he became professor of Hindustani at Haileybury College; afterwardsstudied law and was called to the bar; entered Parliament, and heldvarious political appointments, including a three years' embassy inPersia; was a fellow of many antiquarian and philological societies;amongst his numerous philological productions and translations his"Gulistan" and "Life of Zoroaster" from the Persian are noted(1814-1883). 

EAU CREOLE, a liqueur from the distillation of the flowers of themammee apple with spirits of wine. 

EAU-DE-COLOGNE, a perfume originally manufactured at Cologne bydistillation from certain essential oils with rectified spirit. 

EBAL, MOUNT, a mountain with a level summit, which rises to theheight of 3077 ft. On the N. Side of the narrow Vale of Shechem, inPalestine, and from the slopes of which the people of Israel responded tothe curses which were pronounced by the Levites in the valley. 

EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST, German philosophical writer, born atHalberstadt; professor at Halle; rationalistic in his theology, andopposed to the Kantian metaphysics; was a disciple of Leibnitz; wrote a"New Apology of Socrates, " in defence of rationalism in theology, as wellas a "Universal History of Philosophy, " and a work on German synonyms(1739-1809). 

EBERS, GEORGE MORITZ, German Egyptologist, born at Berlin;discovered an important papyrus; was professor successively at Jena andLeipzig; laid aside by ill-health, betook himself to novel-writing as apastime; was the author of "Aarda, a Romance of Ancient Egypt, "translated by Clara Bell (1837-1898). 

EBERT, KARL EGON, a Bohemian poet, born at Prague; his poems, dramatic and lyric, are collected in 7 vols. , and enjoy a wide popularityin his country (1801-1882). 

EBIONITES, a sect that in the 2nd century sought to combine Judaismand the hopes of Judaism with Christianity, and rejected the authority ofSt. Paul and of the Pauline writings; they denied the divinity of Christ, and maintained that only the poor as such were the objects of salvation. 

EBLIS, in Mohammedan tradition the chief of the fallen angels, consigned to perdition for refusing to worship Adam at the command of hisCreator, and who gratified his revenge by seducing Adam and Eve frominnocency. 

EBONY, a name given to Blackwood by James Hogg, and eventuallyapplied to his magazine. 

EBRO, a river of Spain, rises in the Cantabrian Mountains, flows SE. Into the Mediterranean 80 m. SW. Of Barcelona, after a course of 422 m. 

ECBATANA, the ancient capital of Media, situated near Mount Orontes(now Elvend); was surrounded by seven walls of different colours thatincreased in elevation towards the central citadel; was a summerresidence of the Persian and Parthian kings. The modern town of Hamadannow occupies the site of it. 

ECCE HOMO (i. E. Behold the Man), a representation of Christ as Heappeared before Pilate crowned with thorns and bound with ropes, as inthe painting of Correggio, a subject which has been treated by many ofthe other masters, such as Titian and Vandyck. 

ECCHYMOSIS, a discolouration of the skin produced by extravasatedblood under or in the texture of the skin, the result of a blow or ofdisease. 

ECCLEFECHAN, a market-town of Dumfriesshire, consisting for the mostpart of the High Street, 5 m. S. Of Lockerbie, on the main road toCarlisle, 16 m. To the S. ; noted as the birth and burial place of ThomasCarlyle. 

ECCLESIASTES (i. E. The Preacher), a book of the Old Testament, questionably ascribed to Solomon, and now deemed of more recent date asbelonging to a period when the reflective spirit prevailed; and it iswritten apparently in depreciation of mere reflection as a stepping-stoneto wisdom. The standpoint of the author is a religious one; the data onwhich he rests is given in experience, and his object is to expose thevanity of every source of satisfaction which is not founded on the fear, and has not supreme regard for the commandments, of God, a doctrine whichis the very ground-principle of the Jewish faith; but if vanity iswritten over the whole field of human experience, he argues, this is notthe fault of the system of things, but due, according to the author, tothe folly of man (chap. Vii. 29). 

ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY, THE LAW OF, a vindication of the AnglicanChurch against the Puritans, written by Richard Hooker; the most splendidand stately piece of literary prose that exists in the language. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATES, territories in Italy once subject to the Popeas a temporal prince as well as ecclesiastically. 

ECCLESIASTICUS, one of the books of the Apocrypha, ascribed toJesus, the son of Sirach, admitted to the sacred canon by the Council ofTrent, though excluded by the Jews. It contains a body of wise maxims, inimitation, as regards matter as well as form, of the Proverbs of Solomon, and an appendix on the men who were the disciples of wisdom. Its generalaim, as has been said, is "to represent wisdom as the source of allvirtue and blessedness, and by warnings, admonitions, and promises toencourage in the pursuit of it. " It was originally written in Hebrew, butis now extant only in a Greek translation executed in Egypt, professedlyby the author's grandson. 

ECCLESIOLOGY, the name given in England to the study of churcharchitecture and all that concerns the ground-plan and the internalarrangements of the parts of the edifice. 

ECGBERHT, archbishop of York; was a pupil of Bede, and the heir tohis learning; founded a far-famed school at York, which developed into auniversity; flourished in 766. 

ECHIDNA, a fabulous monster that figures in the Greek mythology, half-woman, half-serpent, the mother of Cerberus, the Lernean Hydra, theChimæra, the Sphinx, the Gorgons, the Nemean Lion, the vulture thatgnawed the liver of Prometheus, &c. 

ECHO, a wood-nymph in love with Narcissus, who did not return herlove, in consequence of which she pined away till all that remained ofher was only her voice. 

ECK, JOHN, properly MAÍER, a German theologian, of Swabianbirth, professor at Ingolstadt; a violent, blustering antagonist ofLuther and Luther's doctrines; in his zeal went to Rome, and procured apapal bull against both; undertook at the Augsburg Diet to controvertLuther's doctrine from the Fathers, but not from the Scriptures; waspresent at the conferences of Worms and Regensburg (1486-1543). 

ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER, a German writer, born at Winsen, inHanover; friend of Goethe, and editor of his works; the author of"Conversations with Goethe in the Last Years of his Life, 1823-32, " arecord of wise reflections and of Goethe's opinions on all subjects, ofthe utmost interest to all students of the German sage (1792-1854). 

ECKHART, MEISTER, a German philosopher and divine, profoundlyspeculative and mystical; entered the Dominican Order, and rapidlyattained to a high position in the Church; arraigned for heresy in 1325, and was acquitted, but two years after his death his writings werecondemned as heretical by a papal bull; died in 1327. 

ECKMÜHL, a village in Bavaria where Napoleon defeated the Austriansin 1809, and which gave the title of Duke to DAVOUT (q. V. ), oneof Napoleon's generals. 

ECLECTICS, so-called philosophers who attach themselves to nosystem, but select what, in their judgment, is true out of others. Inantiquity the Eclectic philosophy is that which sought to unite into acoherent whole the doctrines of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, such asthat of Plotinus and Proclus was. There is an eclecticism in art as wellas philosophy, and the term is applied to an Italian school which aimedat uniting the excellencies of individual great masters. 

ECLIPTIC, the name given to the circular path in the heavens roundwhich the sun appears to move in the course of the year, an illusioncaused by the earth's annual circuit round the sun, with its axisinclined at an angle to the equator of 23½ degrees; is the central lineof the ZODIAC (q. V. ), so called because it was observed thateclipses occurred only when the earth was on or close upon this path. 

ECONOMY, "the right arrangement of things, " and distinct fromFrugality, which is "the careful and fitting use of things. "

ECORCHEURS (lit. Flayers properly of dead bodies), armed bands whodesolated France in the reign of Charles VII. , stripping their victims ofeverything, often to their very clothes. 

ECSTATIC DOCTOR, Jean Ruysbroek, a schoolman given to mysticism(1294-1381). 

ECUADOR (1, 271), a republic of S. America, of Spanish origin, created in 1822; derives its name from its position on the equator; liesbetween Columbia and Peru; is traversed by the Andes, several of thepeaks of which are actively volcanic; the population consists of PeruvianIndians, negroes, Spanish Creoles; exports cocoa, coffee, hides, andmedicinal plants; the administration is vested in a president, avice-president, two ministers, a senate of 18, and a house of deputies of30, elected by universal suffrage. 

ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, an ecclesiastical council representative, oraccepted as representative, of the Church universal or Catholic. SeeCOUNCILS. 

ECZEMA, a common skin disease, which may be either chronic or acute;develops in a red rash of tiny vesicles, which usually burst and producea characteristic scab; is not contagious, and leaves no scar. 

EDDA (lit. Grandmother), the name given to two collections oflegends illustrative of the Scandinavian mythology: the Elder, or Poetic, Edda, collected in the 11th century by Sæmund Sigfusson, an earlyChristian priest, "with perhaps a lingering fondness for paganism, " andthe Younger, or Prose, Edda, collected in the next century by SnorriSturleson, an Icelandic gentleman (1178-1241), "educated by Sæmund'sgrandson, the latter a work constructed with great ingenuity and nativetalent, what one might call unconscious art, altogether a perspicuous, clear work, pleasant reading still. "

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, situated on a low reef of rocks submerged athigh tide, 14 m. SW. Of Plymouth; first built of wood by Winstanley, 1696; destroyed by a storm in 1703; rebuilt of wood on a stone base byRudyard; burnt in 1755, and reconstructed by Smeaton of solid stone; thepresent edifice, on a different site, was completed by Sir James Douglasin 1882, is 133 ft. In height, and has a light visible 17½ m. Off. 

EDELINCK, GERARD, a Flemish copper-plate engraver, born at Antwerp;invited to France by Colbert, and patronised by Louis XIV. ; executed in amasterly manner many works from historical subjects (1640-1707). 

EDEN (i. E. Place of delight), Paradise, the original spotreferred to by tradition wholly uncertain, though believed to have beenin the Far East, identified in Moslem tradition with the moon. 

EDESSA (40), an ancient city in Mesopotamia; figures in early Churchhistory, and is reputed to have contained at one time 300 monasteries; itfell into the hands of the Turks in 1515; is regarded as the sacred cityof Abraham by Orientals. 

EDFU, a town in Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile; hasunique ruins of two temples, the larger founded by Ptolemy IV. Philopaterbefore 200 B. C. 

EDGAR, a king of Saxon England from 959 to 975, surnamed thePeaceful; promoted the union and consolidation of the Danish and Saxonelements within his realm; cleared Wales of wolves by exacting of itsinhabitants a levy of 300 wolves' heads yearly; eight kings are said tohave done him homage by rowing him on the Dee; St. Dunstan, thearchbishop of Canterbury, was the most prominent figure of the reign. 

EDGAR THE ATHELING, a Saxon prince, the grandson of Edmund Ironside;was hurriedly proclaimed king of England after the death of Harold in thebattle of Hastings, but was amongst the first to offer submission on theapproach of the Conqueror; spent his life in a series of feeble attemptsat rebellion, and lived into the reign of Henry I. 

EDGEHILL, in the S. Of Warwickshire, the scene of the first battlein the Civil War, in 1642, between the royal forces under Charles I. Andthe Parliamentary under Essex; though the Royalists had the worst of it, no real advantage was gained by either side. 

EDGEWORTH, HENRY ESSEX, known as the "Abbé" Edgeworth, born inIreland, son of a Protestant clergyman; educated at the Sorbonne, inParis; entered the priesthood, and became the confessor of Louis XVI. , whom he attended on the scaffold; exclaimed as the guillotine came down, "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven!" left France soon after; wassubsequently chaplain to Louis XVIII. (1745-1807). 

EDGEWORTH, MARIA, novelist, born at Blackbourton, Berks; from herfifteenth year her home was in Ireland; she declined the suit of aSwedish count, and remained till the close of her life unmarried; amongstthe best known of her works are "Moral Tales, " "Tales from FashionableLife, " "Castle Rackrent, " "The Absentee, " and "Ormond"; her novels arenoted for their animated pictures of Irish life, and were acknowledged byScott to have given him the first suggestion of the Waverley series; theRussian novelist, Turgenief, acknowledges a similar indebtedness; "in herIrish stories she gave, " says Stopford Brooke, "the first impulse to thenovel of national character, and in her other tales to the novel with amoral purpose" (1766-1849). 

EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL, an Irish landlord, father of MariaEdgeworth, with a genius for mechanics, in which he displayed aremarkable talent for invention; was member of the last Irish Parliament;educated his son in accordance with the notions of Rousseau; wrote someworks on mechanical subjects in collaboration with his daughter(1744-1817). 

EDICT OF NANTES, an edict issued in 1598 by Henry IV. Of France, granting toleration to the Protestants; revoked by Louis XIV. In 1685. 

EDIE OCHILTREE, a character in Scott's "Antiquary. "

EDINA, poetic name for Edinburgh. 

EDINBURGH (263), the capital of Scotland, on the Firth of Forth, picturesquely situated amid surrounding hills; derives its name fromEdwin, king of Northumbria in the 7th century; was created a burgh in1329 by Robert the Bruce, and recognised as the capital in the 15thcentury, under the Stuarts; it has absorbed in its growth adjoiningmunicipalities; is noted as an educational centre; is the seat of theSupreme Courts; has a university, castle, and royal palace, and the oldScotch Parliament House, now utilised by the Law Courts; brewing andprinting are the chief industries, but the upper classes of the citizensare for the most part either professional people or living in retirement. 

EDINBURGH REVIEW, a celebrated quarterly review started in October1802 in Edinburgh to further the Whig interest; amongst its founders andcontributors were Horner, Brougham, Jeffrey, and Sidney Smith, the latterbeing editor of the first three numbers; Jeffrey assumed the editorshipin 1803, and in his hands it became famous for its incisive literarycritiques, Carlyle and Macaulay contributing some of their finest essaysto it. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY, founded in 1583; was the last of the ScotchUniversities to receive its charter; was raised to an equal status withthe others in 1621; its site was the famous Kirk o'Field, the scene ofthe Darnley tragedy; now consists of two separate buildings, one entirelydevoted to medicine, and the other to arts and training in otherdepartments; has an average matriculation roll of about 3000. 

EDISON, THOMAS ALVA, a celebrated American inventor, born at Milan, Ohio; started life as a newsboy; early displayed his genius andenterprise by producing the first newspaper printed in a railway train;turning his attention to telegraphy, he revolutionised the whole systemby a series of inventions, to which he has since added others, to thenumber of 500, the most notable being the megaphone, phonograph, kinetoscope, a carbon telegraph transmitter, and improvements in electriclighting; _b_. 1847. 

EDITH, the alleged name of Lot's wife. 

EDITHE, ST. , an English princess, the natural daughter of Edgar, king of England (961-984). Festival, Sept. 16. 

EDMUND, ST. , king or "landlord" of East Anglia from 855 to 870;refused to renounce Christianity and accept heathenism at the hands of aset of "mere physical force" invading Danes, and suffered martyrdomrather; was made a saint of and had a monastery called "Bury St. Edmunds, " in Norfolk, raised to his memory over his grave. 

EDMUND, ST. , Edmund Rich, archbishop of Canterbury, born atAbingdon; while still at school made a vow of celibacy and wedded theVirgin Mary; sided as archbishop with the popular party against thetyranny of both Pope and king; coming into disfavour with the papal courtretired to France, where, on his arrival, the mother of St. Louis withher sons met him to receive his blessing, and where he spent his lastdays in a monastery; died in 1240, and was canonised six years after byInnocent IV. , somewhat reluctantly it is said. 

EDMUND IRONSIDE, succeeded to the throne of England on the death ofhis father Ethelred the Unready in 1016, but reigned only seven months;he struggled bravely, and at first successfully, against Canute the Dane, but being defeated, the kingdom ultimately was divided between them(981-1016). 

EDOM, or IDUMÆA, a mountainous but not unfertile country, comprising the S. Of Judæa and part of the N. Of Arabia Petræa, 100 m. Long by 20 m. Broad, peopled originally by the descendants of Esau, whowere ruled by "dukes, " and were bitterly hostile to the Jews. 

EDRED, king of the Anglo-Saxons, son of Edward the Elder; subduedNorthumbria; had in the end of his reign St. Dunstan for chief adviser;_d_. 955. 

EDRISI, an Arabian geographer, born at Ceuta, in Spain; by requestof Roger II. Of Sicily wrote an elaborate description of the earth, whichheld a foremost place amongst mediæval geographers (1099-1180). 

EDUCATION, as conceived of by Ruskin, and alone worthy of the name, "the leading human souls to what is best, and making what is best out ofthem"; and attained, "not by telling a man what he knew not, but bymaking him what he was not. "

EDUI, an ancient Gallic tribe, whose capital was Bibracte (Autun). 

EDWARD, THOMAS, naturalist, born at Gosport; bred a shoemaker;settled in Banff, where he devoted his leisure to the study of animalnature, and collected numerous specimens of animals, which he stuffed andexhibited, but with pecuniary loss; the Queen's attention being called tohis case, settled on him an annual pension of £50, while the citizens ofAberdeen presented him in March 1877 with a gift of 130 sovereigns, onwhich occasion he made a characteristic speech (1814-1886). 

EDWARD I. , surnamed Longshanks, king of England, born atWestminster, son of Henry III. , married ELEANOR (q. V. ) ofCastile; came first into prominence in the Barons' War; defeated thenobles at Evesham, and liberated his father; joined the last Crusade in1270, and distinguished himself at Acre; returned to England in 1274 toassume the crown, having been two years previously proclaimed king;during his reign the ascendency of the Church and the nobles received acheck, the growing aspiration of the people for a larger share in theaffairs of the nation was met by an extended franchise, while the rightof Parliament to regulate taxation was recognised; under his reign Waleswas finally subdued and annexed to England, and a temporary conquest ofScotland was achieved (1239-1307). 

EDWARD II. , king of England (1307-1327), son of the preceding; wasfirst Prince of Wales, being born at Carnarvon; being a weakling wasgoverned by favourites, Gaveston and the Spencers, whose influence, asforeigners and unpatriotic, offended the barons, who rose against him; in1314 Scotland rose in arms under Bruce, and an ill-fated expedition underhim ended in the crushing defeat at Bannockburn; in 1327 he was deposed, and was brutally murdered in Berkeley Castle (1284-1327). 

EDWARD III. , king of England (1327-1377), son of the preceding, married Philippa of Hainault; during his boyhood the government wascarried on by a council of regency; in 1328 the independence of Scotlandwas recognised, and nine years later began the Hundred Years' War withFrance, memorable in this reign for the heroic achievements of EDWARDTHE BLACK PRINCE (q. V. ), the king's eldest son; associated withthis reign are the glorious victories of Crécy and Poitiers, and thegreat naval battle at Sluys, one of the earliest victories of Englisharms at sea; these successes were not maintained in the later stages ofthe war, and the treaty of Bretigny involved the withdrawal of Edward'sclaim to the French crown; in 1376 the Black Prince died. 

EDWARD IV. , king of England (1461-1483), son of Richard, Duke ofYork, and successor to the Lancastrian Henry VI. , whom he defeated atTowton; throughout his reign the country was torn by the Wars of theRoses, in which victory rested with the Yorkists at Hedgeley Moor, Hexham, Barnet, and Tewkesbury; in this reign little social progress wasmade, but a great step towards it was made by the introduction ofprinting by Caxton (1442-1483)

EDWARD V. , king of England for three months in 1483, son of thepreceding; deposed by his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester; wasultimately murdered in the Tower, along with his young brother(1470-1483). 

EDWARD VI. , king of England (1547-1553), son of Henry VIII. And JaneSeymour; his reign, which was a brief one, was marked by a victory overthe Scots at Pinkie (1547), Catholic and agrarian risings, and certainecclesiastical reforms (1537-1553). 

EDWARD VII. , king of Great Britain and Ireland and "all the BritishDominions beyond the Seas, " born 9th November 1841, succeeded his mother, Queen Victoria, 22nd Jan. 1901. On 10th March 1863 he married PrincessAlexandra, eldest daughter of Christian IX. Of Denmark, and has foursurviving children: George, Prince of Wales, _b_. 1865; Louise, Duchessof Fife, _b_. 1867; Victoria, _b_. 1868; and Maud, _b_. 1869, who marriedPrince Charles of Denmark. The king's eldest son, Albert Victor, _b_. 1864, died January 14, 1892. 

EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, king of England, married Edith, daughter ofthe great EARL GODWIN (q. V. ); was a feeble monarch of asceticproclivities; his appeal to the Duke of Normandy precipitated the Normaninvasion, and in him perished the royal Saxon line; was canonised for hispiety (1004-1066). 

EDWARD THE ELDER, king of the Anglo-Saxons from 901 to 925; was theson and successor of Alfred the Great; extended the Anglo-Saxondominions. 

EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN, soldier and administrator in India, born at Frodesley, Shropshire; was actively engaged in the first Sikh Warand in the Mutiny; served under Sir Henry Lawrence, whose Life he partlywrote (1819-1868). 

EDWARDS, BRYAN, historian, born at Westbury; traded in Jamaica;wrote a "History of British Colonies in the West Indies" (1743-1800). 

EDWARDS, JONATHAN, a celebrated divine, born at E. Windsor, Connecticut; graduated at Yale; minister at Northampton, Mass. ;missionary to Housatonnuck Indians; was elected to the Presidency ofPrinceton College; wrote an acute and original work, "The Freedom of theWill, " a masterpiece of cogent reasoning; has been called the "Spinoza ofCalvinism" (1703-1758). 

EDWIN, king of Northumbria in the 6th century; through the influenceof his wife Ethelburga Christianity was introduced into England by St. Augustine; founded Edinburgh; was defeated and slain by the Mercian KingPenda in 634. 

EDWY, king of the Anglo-Saxons from 955 to 957; offended theclerical party headed by Dunstan and Odo, who put his wife Elgiva todeath, after which he soon died himself at the early age of 19. 

EECKHOUT, a Dutch portrait and historical painter, born at Antwerp;the most eminent disciple of Rembrandt, whose style he successfullyimitated (1621-1674). 

EFFEN, VAN, a Dutch author, who wrote chiefly in French; imitatedthe _Spectator_ of Addison, and translated into French Swift's "Tale of aTub" and Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" (1684-1735). 

EFFENDI, a title of honour among the Turks, applied to State andcivil officials, frequently associated with the name of the office, aswell as to men of learning or high position. 

EGALITÉ, PHILIPPE, Duke of Orleans, born April 13th, 1787, father ofLouis Philippe; so called because he sided with the Republican party inthe French Revolution, and whose motto was "Liberté, Fraternité, etEgalité. " See ORLEANS, DUKE OF. 

EGATES, three islands on the W. Coast of Sicily. 

EGBERT, king of Wessex, a descendant of Cedric the founder; after anexile of 13 years at the court of Charlemagne ascended the throne in 800;reigned till 809, governing his people in tranquillity, when, bysuccessful wars with the other Saxon tribes, he in two years becamevirtual king of all England, and received the revived title of Bretwalda;_d_. 837. 

EGEDE, HANS, a Norwegian priest, founder of the Danish mission inGreenland, whither he embarked with his family and a small colony oftraders in 1721; leaving his son to carry on the mission, and returningto Denmark, he became head of a training school for young missionaries toGreenland (1686-1758). 

EGEDE, PAUL, son of Hans; assisted his father in the Greenlandmission, and published a history of the mission; translated part of theBible into the language of the country, and composed a grammar and adictionary of it; _d_. 1789. 

EGER (17), a town in Bohemia, on the river Eger, 91 m. W. Of Prague, a centre of railway traffic; Wallenstein was murdered here in 1634; theriver flows into the Elbe after a NE. Course of 190 m. 

EGERIA, a nymph who inhabited a grotto in a grove in Latium, dedicated to the Camenæ, some 16 m. From Rome, and whom, according totradition, Numa was in the habit of consulting when engaged in framingforms of religious worship for the Roman community; she figures as hisspiritual adviser, and has become the symbol of one of her sex, conceivedof as discharging the same function in other the like cases. 

EGERTON, FRANCIS. See BRIDGEWATER, EARL OF. 

EGGER, ÉMILE, a French Hellenist and philologist (1813-1885). 

EGHAM (10), a small town in Surrey, on the Thames, 20 m. W. OfLondon; has in its vicinity Runnymede, where King John signed _MagnaCharta_ in 1215. 

EGINHARD, or EINHARD, a Frankish historian, born in Mainyan, inEast Franconia; a collection of his letters and his Annals of the Franks, as well as his famous "Life of Charlemagne, " are extant; was a favouriteof the latter, who appointed him superintendent of public buildings, andtook him with him on all his expeditions; after the death of Charlemagnehe continued at the Court as tutor to the Emperor Louis's son; died inretirement (770-840). 

EGLANTINE, MADAME, the prioress in the "Canterbury Tales" ofChaucer. 

EGLINTON AND WINTON, EARL OF, Archibald William Montgomerie, born atPalermo; became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland; Rector of Glasgow University;was a noted sportsman and patron of the turf; is chiefly remembered inconnection with a brilliant tournament given by him at Eglinton Castle in1839, in which all the splendour and detail of a mediæval tourney werespectacularly reproduced (1812-1861). 

EGMONT, LAMORAL, COUNT OF, born in Hainault; became attached to theCourt of Charles V. , by whom, for distinguished military and diplomaticservices, he was appointed governor of Flanders; fell into disfavour forespousing the cause of the Protestants of the Netherlands, and wasbeheaded in Brussels by the Duke of Alva; his career and fate form thetheme of Goethe's tragedy "Egmont, " a play nothing as a drama, butcharming as a picture of the two chief characters in the piece, Egmontand Clärchen. 

EGMONT, MOUNT, the loftiest peak in the North Island, New Zealand, is 8270 ft. In height, and of volcanic origin. 

EGO and NON-EGO (i. E. I and Not-I, or Self and Not-Self), are terms used in philosophy to denote respectively the subjective andthe objective in cognition, what is from self and what is from theexternal to self, what is merely individual and what is universal. 

EGOISM, the philosophy of those who, uncertain of everything but theexistence of the Ego or I, resolve all existence as known into forms ormodifications of its self-consciousness. 

EGOIST, a novel by George Meredith, much admired by R. L. Stevenson, who read and re-read it at least five times over. 

EGYPT (8, 000), a country occupying the NE. Corner of Africa, liesalong the W. Shore of the Red Sea, has a northern coast-line on theMediterranean, and stretches S. As far as Wady Halfa; the area is nearly400, 000 sq. M. ; its chief natural features are uninhabitable desert onthe E. And W. , and the populous and fertile valley of the Nile. Cereals, sugar, cotton, and tobacco are important products. Mohammedan Arabsconstitute the bulk of the people, but there is also a remnant of theancient Coptic race. The country is nominally a dependency of Turkeyunder a native government, but is in reality controlled by the British, who exercise a veto on its financial policy, and who, since 1882, haveoccupied the country with soldiers. The noble monuments and relics of herancient civilisation, chief amongst which are the Pyramids, as well asthe philosophies and religions she inherited, together with the arts shepractised, and her close connection with Jewish history, give her apeculiar claim on the interested regard of mankind. Nothing, perhaps, hasexcited more wonder in connection with Egypt than the advanced state ofher civilisation when she first comes to play a part in the history ofthe world. There is evidence that 4000 years before the Christian era thearts of building, pottery, sculpture, literature, even music andpainting, were highly developed, her social institutions well organised, and that considerable advance had been made in astronomy, chemistry, medicine, and anatomy. Already the Egyptians had divided the year into365 days and 12 months, and had invented an elaborate system of weightsand measures, based on the decimal notation. 

EGYPTIAN NIGHT, such as in Egypt when, by judgment of God, a thickdarkness of three days settled down on the land. See Exodus x. 22. 

EGYPTIANS, THE, of antiquity were partly of Asiatic and partly ofAfrican origin, with a probable infusion of Semitic blood, and formedboth positively and negatively a no inconsiderable link in the chain ofworld-history, positively by their sense of the divinity of nature-lifeas seen in their nature-worship, and negatively by the absence of allsense of the divinity of a higher life as it has come to light in theself-consciousness or moral sense and destiny of man. 

EGYPTOLOGY, the science, in the interest of ancient history, ofEgyptian antiquities, such as the monuments and their inscriptions, andone in which of late years great interest has been taken, and muchprogress made. 

EGYPTUS, the brother of Danaüs, whose 50 sons, all but one, weremurdered by the daughters of the latter. See DANAÜS. 

EHKILI, a dialect of S. Arabia, interesting to philologists as oneof the oldest of Semitic tongues. 

EHRENBERG, a German naturalist, born in Delitsch; intended for theChurch; devoted himself to medical studies, and graduated in medicine in1818; acquired great skill in the use of the microscope, and by means ofit made important discoveries, particularly in the department of infusoryanimals; contributed largely to the literature of science (1795-1878). 

EHRENBREITSTEIN (5) (i. E. Broad stone of honour), a stronglyfortified town in Prussia, on the Rhine, opposite Coblentz, with which ithas communication by a bridge of boats and a railway viaduct; thefortress occupies the summit of the rock, which is precipitous; is about500 ft. High, and has large garrison accommodation. 

EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, a German theologian and Orientalist, born at Dorrenzimmern, Franconia; a man of extensive scholarship; heldthe chair of Oriental languages in Jena, and afterwards at Göttingen; wasthe first to apply a bold rationalism to the critical treatment of theScriptures; he was of the old school of rationalists, now superseded bythe historico-critical; his chief works are a Universal Library ofBiblical Literature, in 10 vols. , Introductions to the Old and to the NewTestament, each in 5 vols. , and an Introduction to the Apocrypha(1752-1827). 

EICHTHAL, GUSTAVE D', a French publicist, born at Nancy; an adherentof St. Simonianism; wrote "Les Evangiles"; Mrs. Carlyle describes him as"a gentle soul, trustful, and earnest-looking, ready to do and suffer allfor his faith" (1804-1886). 

EICHWALD, CHARLES EDWARD, an eminent Russian naturalist, born inMitau, Russia; studied science at Berlin and Vienna; held the chairs ofZoology and Midwifery at Kasan and Wilna, and of Palæontology at St. Petersburg; his explorations, which led him through most of Europe, Persia, and Algeria, and included a survey of the Baltic shores, as wellas expeditions into the Caucasus, are described in his various works, andtheir valuable results noted (1795-1876). 

EIFFEL, GUSTAVE, an eminent French engineer, born at Dijon; earlyobtained a reputation for bridge construction; designed the great GarabitViaduct, and also the enormous locks for the Panama Canal; his most notedwork is the gigantic iron tower which bears his name; in 1893 becameinvolved in the Panama scandals, and was fined, and sentenced to twoyears' imprisonment; _b_. 1832. 

EIFFEL TOWER, a structure erected on the banks of the Seine inParis, the loftiest in the world, being 985 ft. In height, and visiblefrom all parts of the city; it consists of three platforms, of which thefirst is as high as the towers of Notre Dame; the second as high asStrasburg Cathedral spire, and the third 863 ft; it was designed byGustave Eiffel, and erected in 1887-1889; there are cafés and restaurantson the first landing, and the ascent is by powerful lifts. 

EIGG or EGG, a rocky islet among the Hebrides, 5 m. SW. OfSkye; St. Donnan and 50 monks from Iona were massacred here in 617 by thequeen, notwithstanding a remonstrance on the part of the islanders thatit would be an irreligious act; here also the Macleods of the 10thcentury suffocated in a cave 200 of the Macdonalds, including women andchildren. 

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, "a sceptical century and a godless, " accordingto Carlyle's deliberate estimate, "opulent in accumulated falsities, asnever century before was; which had no longer the consciousness of beingfalse, so false has it grown; so steeped in falsity, and impregnated withit to the very bone, that, in fact, the measure of the thing was full, and a French Revolution had to end it"; which it did only symbolically, however, as he afterwards admitted, and but admonitorily of a doomsdaystill to come. See "FREDERICK THE GREAT, " BK. I. CHAP, II. , and"HEROES. "

EIKON BASILIKË (i. E. The Royal Likeness), a book containing anaccount of Charles I. During his imprisonment, and ascribed to him asauthor, but really written by Bishop Gauden, though the MS. May have beenperused and corrected by the king; it gives a true picture of hischaracter and possible state of mind. 

EILDONS, THE, a "triple-crested eminence" near Melrose, 1385 ft. , and overlooking Teviotdale to the S. , associated with Sir Walter Scottand Thomas the Rhymer; they are of volcanic origin, and are said to havebeen cleft in three by the wizard Michael Scott, when he was out ofemployment. 

EIMEO, one of the French Society Islands; is hilly and woody, butwell cultivated in the valleys; missionary enterprise in Polynesia firstfound a footing here. 

EINSIEDELN (8), a town in the canton of Schwyz, Switzerland; has aBenedictine abbey, containing a famous black image of the Virgin, credited with miraculous powers, which attracts, it is said, 200, 000pilgrims annually. 

EISENACH (21), a flourishing manufacturing town in Saxe-Weimar, close to the Thuringian Forest and 48 m. W. Of Weimar; is the birthplaceof Sebastian Bach; in the vicinity stands the castle of Wartburg, thehiding-place for 10 months of Luther after the Diet of Worms. 

EISLEBEN (23), a mining town in Prussian Saxony, 24 m. NW. Of Halle;the birthplace and burial-place of Luther. 

EISTEDDFOD, a gathering of Welsh bards and others, now annual, atwhich, out of a patriotic motive, prizes are awarded for theencouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of theWelsh language and ancient national customs. 

EKATERINBURG (37), a Russian town on the Isset, on the E. Side ofthe Ural Mountains, of the mining industry in which it is the chiefcentre; has various manufactures, and a trade in the cutting and sortingof precious stones. 

EKRON, a town in N. Palestine, 30 m. N. From Gaza and 9 m. From thesea. 

ELAINE, a lady of the court of King Arthur in love with Lancelot, and whose story is related by Malory in his "History" and by Tennyson inhis "Idylls of the King. "

ELATERIUM, a drug obtained from the mucus of the fruit of thesquirting cucumber; is a most powerful purgative, and was known to theancients. 

ELBA, a small and rocky island in the Mediterranean between Corsicaand Tuscany, with a bold precipitous coast; belongs to Italy; has tradein fish, fruits, and iron ore; famous as Napoleon's place of exile fromMay 1814 to February 1815. 

ELBE, the most important river in N. Germany; rises in theRiesengebirge, in Austria, flows NW. Through Germany, and enters theNorth Sea at Cuxhaven, 725 m. Long, navigable 520 m. ; abounds in fish. 

ELBERFELD (126), an important manufacturing commercial centre, 16 m. NE. Of Düsseldorf; noted for its textiles and dye-works. 

ELBOEUF (21), a town on the Seine, 75 m. NW. Of Paris; hasflourishing manufactures in cloths, woollens, &c. 

ELBURZ, a lofty mountain range in N. Persia, S. Of the Caspian; alsothe name of the highest peak in the Caucasus (18, 571 ft. ). 

ELDER, a name given to certain office-bearers in the PresbyterianChurch, associated with the minister in certain spiritual functions shortof teaching and administering sacraments; their duties embrace thegeneral oversight of the congregation, and are of a wider nature thanthose of the deacons, whose functions are confined strictly to thesecular interests of the church; they are generally elected by the churchmembers, and ordained in the presence of the congregation; their term ofoffice is in some cases for a stated number of years, but more generallyfor life. 

ELDON, JOHN SCOTT, LORD, a celebrated English lawyer, born atNewcastle, of humble parentage; educated at Oxford for the Church, butgot into difficulties through a runaway marriage; he betook himself tolaw, rose rapidly in his profession, and, entering Parliament, heldimportant legal offices under Pitt; was made a Baron and Lord Chancellor, 1801, an office which he held for 26 years; retired from public life in1835, and left a large fortune at his death; was noted for the shrewdequity of his judgments and his delay in delivering them (1751-1838). 

EL DORADO (lit. The Land of Gold), a country which Orellana, thelieutenant of Pizzaro, pretended to have discovered in S. America, between the Amazon and Orinoco, and which he represented as abounding ingold and precious gems; now a region of purely imaginary wealth. 

ELEANOR, queen of Edward I. Of England and sister of ALFONSOX. (q. V. ) of Castile, surnamed the Wise, accompanied her husbandto the Crusade in 1269, and is said to have saved him by sucking thepoison from a wound inflicted by a poisoned arrow; was buried atWestminster (1244-1290). 

ELEATICS, a school of philosophy in Greece, founded by Xenophanes ofElia, and of which Parmenides and Zeno, both of Elia, were the leadingadherents and advocates, the former developing the system and the lattercompleting it, the ground-principle of which was twofold--the affirmationof the unity, and the negative of the diversity, of being--in otherwords, the affirmation of pure being as alone real, to the exclusion ofeverything finite and merely phenomenal. See "SARTOR, " BK. I. CHAP. 8. 

ELECTION, THE DOCTRINE OF, the doctrine that the salvation of a mandepends on the election of God for that end, of which there are two chiefphases--the one is election _to be_ Christ's, or unconditional election, and the other that it is election _in_ Christ, or conditional election. 

ELECTORS, THE, or KURFÜRSTS, OF GERMANY, German princes whoenjoyed the privilege of disposing of the imperial crown, ranked next theemperor, and were originally six in number, but grew to eight and finallynine; three were ecclesiastical--the Archbishops of Mayence, Cologne, andTrèves, and three secular--the Electors of Saxony, the Palatinate, andBohemia, to which were added at successive periods the Electors ofBrandenburg, of Bavaria, and Hanover. "There never was a tenth; and theHoly Roman Empire, as it was called, which was a grand object once, buthad gone about in a superannuated and plainly crazy state some centuries, was at last put out of pain by Napoleon, August 6, 1806, and allowed tocease from the world. "

ELECTRA (i. E. The Bright One), an ocean nymph, the mother ofISIS (q. V. ). 

ELECTRA, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, who, with herbrother Orestes, avenged the death of her father on his murderers. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT, a brilliant white light due to positive and negativecurrents rushing together between two points of carbon or (the"incandescent" light) to the intense heat in a solid body, caused by anelectric current passing through it. 

ELECTRICITY, the name given to a subtle agent called the electricfluid, latent in all bodies, and first evolved by friction, and which maymanifest itself, under certain conditions, in brilliant flashes of light, or, when in contact with animals, in nervous shocks more or less violent. It is of two kinds, negative and positive, and as such exhibits itself inthe polarity of the magnet, when it is called MAGNETIC (q. V. ), and is excited by chemical action, when it is called VOLTAIC (q. V. ). 

ELEGY, a song expressive of sustained earnest yearning, or mildsorrow after loss. 

ELEMENTAL SPIRITS, a general name given in the Middle Ages tosalamanders, undines, sylphs, and gnomes, spirits superstitiouslybelieved to have dominion respectively over, as well as to have had theirdwelling in, the four elements--fire, water, air, and earth. 

ELEMENTS, originally the four forms of matter so deemed--fire, air, earth, and water, and afterwards the name for those substances thatcannot be resolved by chemical analysis, and which are now found toamount to sixty-seven. 

ELEPHANT, a genus of mammals, of which there are two species, theIndian and the African; the latter attains a greater size, and is huntedfor the sake of its tusks, which may weigh as much as 70 lbs. ; the formeris more intelligent, and easily capable of being domesticated; the whiteelephant is a variety of this species. 

ELEPHANT, ORDER OF THE WHITE, a Danish order of knighthood, restricted to 30 knights, the decoration of which is an elephantsupporting a tower; it was instituted by Canute IV. , king of Denmark, atthe end of the 12th century. 

ELEPHANTA, an island 6 m. In circuit in Bombay harbour, so calledfrom its colossal figure of an elephant which stood near thelanding-place; it contains three temples cut out of solid rock, andcovered with sculptures, which, along with the figure at the landing, arerapidly decaying. 

ELEPHANTIASIS, a peculiar skin disease, accompanied with abnormalswelling; so called because the skin becomes hard and stiff like anelephant's hide; attacks the lower limbs and scrotum; is chiefly confinedto India and other tropical countries. 

ELEPHANTINE, a small island below the first cataract of the Nile;contains interesting monuments and ruins of the ancient Roman andEgyptian civilisations. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, rites, initiation into which, as religiouslyconducive to the making of good men and good citizens, was compulsory onevery free-born Athenian, celebrated annually at Eleusis in honour ofDemeter and Persephone, and which lasted nine days. 

ELEUSIS, a town in ancient Attica, NW. Of Athens, with a temple forthe worship of Demeter, the largest in Greece; designed by the architectof the PARTHENON (q. V. ). 

ELEUTHERIA, the goddess of liberty, as worshipped in ancient Greece. 

ELF-ARROWS, arrow-heads of flint used in hunting and war by theaborigines of the British Isles and of Europe generally, as they stillare among savages elsewhere; derived their name from the superstitiousbelief that they were used by the fairies to kill cattle and sometimeshuman beings in their mischief-joy; they were sometimes worn astalismans, occasionally set in silver, as a charm against witchcraft. 

ELGIN or MORAY (43), a northern Scottish county, fronting theMoray Firth and lying between Banff and Nairn, mountainous in the S. Butflat to the N. , watered by the Spey, Lossie, and Findhorn; agriculture, stone-quarrying, distilling, and fishing are the staple industries; hassome imposing ruins and interesting antiquities. 

ELGIN (8), the county town of above, on the Lossie; created a royalburgh by David I. ; has ruins of a fine Gothic cathedral and royal castle. 

ELGIN (17), a city in Illinois, on the Fox, 35 m. NW. Of Chicago;watchmaking the chief industry. 

ELGIN, JAMES BRUCE, 8TH EARL OF, statesman and diplomatist, born inLondon; governor of Jamaica and Canada; negotiated important treatieswith China and Japan; rendered opportune assistance at the Indian Mutinyby diverting to the succour of Lord Canning an expedition that wasproceeding to China under his command; after holding office asPostmaster-General he became Viceroy of India (1861), where he died; hisJournal and Letters are published (1811-1863). 

ELGIN MARBLES, a collection of ancient sculptured marbles broughtfrom Athens by the Earl of Elgin in 1812, and now deposited in theBritish Museum, after purchase of them by the Government for £35, 000;these sculptures adorned certain public buildings in the Acropolis, andconsist of portions of statues, of which that of Theseus is the chief, ofalto-reliefs representing the struggle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ, andof a large section of a frieze. 

ELIA, the _nom de plume_ adopted by Charles Lamb in connection withhis Essays. 

ELIAS, MOUNT, a mountain in NW. Coast of N. America; conspicuous faroff at sea, being about 18, 000 ft. Or 3½ m. Above it. 

ELIJAH, a Jewish prophet, born at Tishbe, in Gilead, near thedesert; prophesied in the reign of Ahab, king of Israel, in the 10thcentury B. C. ; revealed himself as the deadly enemy of the worship ofBaal, 400 of whose priests he is said to have slain with his own hand;his zeal provoked persecution at the hands of the king and his consortJezebel, but the Lord protected him, and he was translated from the earthin a chariot of fire, "went up by a whirlwind into heaven. " SeePROPHETS, THE. 

ELIOT, GEORGE, the _nom de plume_ of Mary Ann Evans, distinguishedEnglish novelist, born at Arbury, in Warwickshire; was bred onevangelical lines, but by-and-by lost faith in supernatural Christianity;began her literary career by a translation of Strauss's "Life of Jesus";became in 1851 a contributor to the _Westminster Review_, and formedacquaintance with George Henry Lewes, whom she ere long lived with as hiswife, though unmarried, and who it would seem discovered to her herlatent faculty for fictional work; her first work in that line was"Scenes from Clerical Life, " contributed to _Blackwood_ in 1856; thestories proved a signal success, and they were followed by a series ofseven novels, beginning in 1858 with "Adam Bede, " "the finest thing sinceShakespeare, " Charles Reade in his enthusiasm said, the whole winding upwith the "Impressions of Theophrastus Such" in 1879; these, with twovolumes of poems, make up her works; Lewes died in 1878, and two yearsafter she formally married an old friend, Mr. John Cross, and after a fewmonths of wedded life died of inflammation of the heart; "she paints, "says Edmond Scherer, "only ordinary life, but under these externals shemakes us assist at the eternal tragedy of the human heart. .. With so muchsympathy, " he adds, "the smile on her face so near tears, that we cannotread her pages without feeling ourselves won to that lofty toleration ofhers" (1819-1880). 

ELIOT, JOHN, the apostle of the Indians, born in Hertfordshire;entered the Church of England, but seceded and emigrated to New England;became celebrated for his successful evangelistic expeditions amongst theIndians during his lifelong occupancy of the pastorate at Roxbury(1604-1690). 

ELIS, a district of Greece, on the W. Coast of the Peloponnesus, sacred to all Hellas as the seat of the greatest of the Greek festivalsin connection with the Olympian Games, a circumstance which imparted aprestige to the inhabitants. 

ELISA or ELISSA, Dido, queen of Carthage, in love with Æneas. 

ELISHA, a Jewish prophet, the successor of Elijah, who found him atthe plough, and consecrated him to his office by throwing his mantle overhim, and which he again let fall on him as he ascended to heaven. Heexercised his office for 55 years, but showed none of the zeal of hispredecessor against the worship of Baal; was, however, accredited as aprophet of the Lord by the miracles he wrought in the Lord's name. 

ELIZABETH, sister of Louis XVI. ; was guillotined (1764-1794). 

ELIZABETH FARNESE, queen of Spain, a daughter of Odoardo II. OfParma; in 1714 she married Philip V. Of Spain, when her bold andenergetic nature soon made itself felt in the councils of Europe, whereshe carried on schemes for territorial and political aggrandisement; wasan accomplished linguist; is called by Carlyle "the Termagant of Spain";her Memoirs are published in four volumes (1692-1766). 

ELIZABETH, EMPRESS OF RUSSIA, daughter of Peter the Great andCatharine I. ; assisted Maria Theresa in the war of the AustrianSuccession; opposed Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War; indolentand licentious, she left the affairs of the State mainly in the hands offavourites (1709-1762). 

ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF BOHEMIA, daughter of James VI. Of Scotland andI. Of England; married Frederick V. , Elector Palatine, who for a brieftime held the throne of Bohemia; her daughter Sophia, by marrying theElector of Hanover, formed a tie which ultimately brought the crown ofEngland to the House of Brunswick (1596-1662). 

ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1658-1603), daughter of Henry VIII. AndAnne Boleyn, born in Greenwich Palace; was an indefatigable student inher youth; acquired Greek and Latin, and a conversational knowledge ofGerman and French; the Pope's opposition to her succession on the groundof being judged illegitimate by the Church strengthened her attachment tothe Protestant faith, which was her mother's, and contributed to its firmestablishment during the reign; during it the power of Spain was crushedby the defeat of the Armada; maritime enterprise flourished under Drake, Raleigh, and Frobisher; commerce was extended, and literature carried toa pitch of perfection never before or since reached; masterful andadroit, Elizabeth yet displayed the weakness of vanity andvindictiveness; the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, is a blot upon herfame, and her intrigues with Seymour, Leicester, and Essex detract fromher dignity; her wisdom was manifested in her wise choice of counsellorsand leaders, and her patriotism won her a secure place in the hearts ofher people (1533-1608). 

ELIZABETH, ST. , "a very pious, but also a very fanciful young woman;her husband, a Thuringian landgraf, going to the Crusade, where he diedstraightway, " Carlyle guesses, "partly the fruit of the life she led him;lodging beggars, sometimes in her very bed; continually breaking hisnight's rest for prayer and devotional exercises of undue length, 'weeping one moment, then smiling in joy the next'; meandering about, capricious, melodious, weak, at the will of devout whim mainly; went tolive at Marburg after her husband's death, and soon died there in a mostmelodiously pious sort" in 1231, aged 24. 

ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a term applied to the style ofarchitecture which flourished in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. , and which was characterised by a revival of classic designs wrought intothe decadent Gothic style. Lord Salisbury's house at Hatfield is a goodspecimen of this mixed style. 

ELIZABETHAN ERA, according to Carlyle, "the outcome and flowerage ofall which had preceded it. .. In that old age lies the _only_ true_poetical_ literature of England. The poets of the last ago took topedagogy (Pope and his school), and shrewd men they were; those of thepresent age to ground-and-lofty tumbling; and it will do your heartgood, " he adds, "to see how they vault. "

ELKARGEH (4), a town in the great oasis in the Libyan Desert; hasancient remains, and is an important resting stage in crossing thedesert. 

ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW, EARL OF, an English Conservativestatesman, son of Baron Ellenborough, Lord Chief-Justice of England;entered Parliament in 1813; held office under the Duke of Wellington andSir Robert Peel; appointed Governor-General of India (1841); recalled in1844; subsequently First Lord of the Admiralty and Indian Minister underLord Derby (1790-1871). 

ELLENRIEDER, MARIE, a painter of great excellence, born atConstance; studied in Rome; devoted herself to religious subjects, suchas "Christ Blessing Little Children, " "Mary and the Infant Jesus, " &c. (1771-1863). 

ELLESMERE, FRANCIS EGERTON, EARL OF, statesman and author, born inLondon, second son of the Duke of Sutherland; was Secretary for Irelandand War Secretary; author of some books of travel, and a translation of"Faust" (1800-1857). 

ELLIOT, GEORGE AUGUSTUS. See HEATHFIELD. 

ELLIOTSON, JOHN, an English physician, born in London; lost hisprofessorship in London University on account of employing mesmerism formedical purposes; promoted clinical instruction and the use of thestethoscope; founded the Phrenological Society (1791-1868). 

ELLIOTT, EBENEZER, poet, known popularly as the "Corn-Law Rhymer, "born in Rotherham parish, Yorkshire; an active worker in iron; devotedhis leisure to poetic composition; proved a man that could handle bothpen and hammer like a man; wrote the "Corn-Law Rhymes" and other pieces;his works have been "likened to some little fraction of a rainbow, huesof joy and harmony, painted out of troublous tears; no full round bowshone on by the full sun, and yet, in very truth, a little prismaticblush, glowing genuine among the wet clouds, . .. Proceeds from a suncloud-hidden, yet indicates that a sun does shine. .. ; a voice from thedeep Cyclopean forges where Labour, in real soot and sweat, beats withhis thousand hammers, doing personal battle with Necessity and her brutedark powers to make _them_ reasonable and serviceable" (1781-1849). 

ELLIS, ALEXANDER J. , an eminent English philologist, born atHoreton; published many papers on phonetics and early Englishpronunciation; was President of the Philological Society; his name, originally Sharpe, changed by royal license (1814-1890). 

ELLIS, GEORGE, literary critic, born in London; did much to promotethe study of early English literature; contributed to the _Anti-Jacobin_, and was joint-author of the "Rolliad, " a satire on Pitt, and of"Specimens of Early English Metrical Romances"; Scott declared him to bethe best conversationalist he had ever met (1753-1815). 

ELLIS, SIR HENRY, chief librarian of the British Museum from 1827 to1856, born in London; edited various works on antiques; wrote an"Introduction to Domesday Book"; knighted in 1833 (1777-1869). 

ELLIS, WILLIAM, a missionary and author, born in London; laboured inthe South Sea Islands, and afterwards in Madagascar; wrote various worksdescriptive of these islands; he married Sarah Stickney, who is theauthoress of a number of popular works, including "The Women of England, ""The Daughters of England, " &c. (1794-1872). 

ELLISTON, ROBERT WILLIAM, a celebrated actor, born in London; ranaway from home and joined the stage, rose to the front rank both ascomedian and tragedian (1774-1831). 

ELLORA, an Indian village in Hyderabad, 12 m. NW. Of Aurungabad, famed for its Buddhist and Hindu cave and monolithic temples, the mostmagnificent of which is hewn out of a solid hill of red stone, the mostbeautiful being the Hindu temple of Kailás. 

ELLWOOD, THOMAS, a celebrated Quaker, born at Crowell, Oxfordshire;the intimate friend of Milton, to whom he suggested the idea of "ParadiseRegained" by remarking to him, "Thou hast said much of Paradise Lost, butwhat hast thou to say of Paradise Found?" his Autobiography is still read(1639-1713). 

ELMO'S FIRE, ST. , a popular name for the display of electric firewhich sometimes plays about the masts of ships, steeples, &c. , accompanied at times with a hissing noise; commoner in southern climates, known by other names, e. G. Fire of St. Clara, of St. Elias. 

ELOGE, a discourse in panegyric of some illustrious person deceased, in which composition Fontenelle took the lead, and in which he wasfollowed by D'Alembert, Condorcet, Flourens, and others. 

ELOHIM, a Hebrew word in the plural number, signifying God or one asGod, but with a verb in the singular, signifying generally the one trueGod; according to the Talmud it denotes God as just in judgment to all incontradistinction to Jehovah, which denotes God as merciful to Hispeople. 

ELOHIST, a name given by the critics to the presumed author of theearlier part of the Pentateuch, whose work in it they allege isdistinguished by the use of the word Elohim for God; he is to bedistinguished from the Jehovist, the presumed author of the laterportions, from his use, on the other hand, of the word Jehovah for God. 

ELPHINSTONE, GEORGE KEITH, ADMIRAL. See KEITH. 

ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART, a noted Indian civil servant andhistorian; co-operated with Wellesley in firmly establishing British rulein India; was governor of Bombay, where he accomplished many usefulreforms, and issued the Elphinstone Code of Laws; wrote a "History ofIndia, " which earned for him the title of the "Tacitus of India"(1779-1859). 

ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM, an erudite and patriotic Scottish ecclesiasticand statesman, born in Glasgow; took holy orders; went to Paris to studylaw, and became a professor in Law there, and afterwards at Orleans;returned to Scotland; held several high State appointments under JamesIII. And James IV. ; continued a zealous servant of the Church, holdingthe bishoprics of Ross and of Aberdeen, where he founded the university(1431-1514). 

ELSASS (French ALSACE), a German territory on the left bank ofthe Rhine, traversed by the Vosges Mountains; taken from the French in1870-71. 

ELSINORE, a seaport on the island of Zeeland, in Denmark, 20 m. N. Of Copenhagen; has a good harbour; the scene of Shakespeare's "Hamlet. "

ELSWICK (53), a town in the vicinity of Newcastle, noted for thegreat engineering and ordnance works of Sir W. G. (now Lord) Armstrong. 

ELTON, a salt lake of SE. Russia, in the government of Astrakhan;has an area of about 65 sq. M. , but is very shallow; yields annually some90, 000 or 95, 000 tons of salt, which is shipped off _viâ_ the Volga. 

ELTON, CHARLES ISAAC, jurist and ethnologist, born in Somerset; helda Fellowship in Queen's College, Oxford; called to the bar in 1865, andin 1884 was returned to Parliament as a Conservative; his first workswere juridical treatises on the tenure of land, but in 1882 he produced alearned book on the origins of English history; _b_. 1839. 

ELVAS, a strongly fortified town in Portugal, in the province ofAlemtejo, 12 m. W. Of Badajoz; is a bishop's see; has a Moorish aqueduct3½ m. Long and 250 ft. High. 

ELY (8), a celebrated cathedral city, in the fen-land ofCambridgeshire, on the Ouse, 30 m. SE. Of Peterborough; noted as thescene of Hereward's heroic stand against William the Conqueror in 1071;the cathedral, founded in 1083, is unique as containing specimens of thevarious Gothic styles incorporated during the course of 400 years. 

ELY, ISLE OF, a name given to the N. Portion of Cambridgeshire onaccount of its having been at one time insulated by marshes; beingincluded in the region of the Fens, has been drained, and is now fertileland. 

ELYOT, SIR THOMAS, author and ambassador, born in Wiltshire;ambassador to the court of Charles V. ; celebrated as the author of "TheGovernour, " the first English work on moral philosophy, and also of thefirst Latin-English dictionary (1490-1546). 

ELYSIUM the abode of the shades of the virtuous dead in the netherworld as conceived of by the poets of Greece and Rome, where theinhabitants live a life of passive blessedness, which, however, is tosuch a man as Achilles a place of woe rather and unrest, where he wouldfain exchange places with the meanest hind that breathes in the upperworld. 

ELZE, FREDERICK CARL, a German Shakespearian scholar, born atDessau; early devoted himself to the study of English literature; livedsome time in England and Scotland; in 1875 became professor of EnglishLiterature at Halle; his various publications on Shakespeare and theElizabethan dramatists are full of excellent criticisms; also wrote Livesof Scott and Byron (1821-1889). 

ELZEVIR, the name of an eminent family of printers residing inAmsterdam and Leyden, Louis the first of them, who started in Leyden;their publications date from 1594 to 1680. 

ELZEVIR EDITIONS, editions of the classics printed at Amsterdam andLeyden during the 16th and 17th centuries by a family of the Elzevirs, and considered to be immaculate. 

EMANATION, THE DOCTRINE OF, a doctrine of Eastern origin, whichderives everything that exists from the divine nature by necessaryprocess of emanation, as light from the sun, and ascribes all evil andthe degrees of it to a greater and greater distance from the pure etherof this parent source, or to the extent in consequence to which the beinggets immersed in and clogged with matter. 

EMANCIPATION, originally a term in Roman law and name given to theprocess of the manumission of a son by his father; the son was sold to athird party and after the sale became _sui juris_; it is now applied tothe remission of old laws in the interest of freedom, which Carlyleregards in his "Shooting Niagara, " as the sum of nearly all modern recentattempts at Reform. 

EMANUEL I. , king of Portugal from 1495 to 1521; his reigninaugurated the golden period of Portuguese history, during whichPortugal became the first maritime and commercial power in Europe; wasthe patron of Vasco da Gama and Albuquerque; issued an edict for theexpulsion of the Jews from his kingdom, and wrote to the Elector ofSaxony begging him to get rid of Luther (1469-1521). 

EMBALMING, the art of preserving dead bodies from decay by means ofantiseptic agents applied both externally and internally; although knownto other people, e. G. The Peruvians, the art was chiefly practisedamong the Egyptians, and the practice of it dates back to 4000 B. C. ; thethoroughness of the process depended on the money expended, but itusually involved the removal of the viscera, save the heart and kidneys, the extraction of the brain, the introduction of drugs to the cavities, and the pickling of the body in native carbonate of soda, and thewrapping of it in linen; experiments in embalming, more or lesssuccessful, have been made in recent times, and even still are. 

EMBER DAYS, four annually recurring periods of three days each, appointed by the Romish and English Churches to be devoted to fasting andpraying; they are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the firstSunday in Lent, after Pentecost, after the 14th September, and after the13th December. 

EMBRYO, the scientific term for the young of an animal while yet inthe initial stage of development in the womb; also applied to the plantin its rudimentary stage within the seed. 

EMBRYOLOGY, the section of biology which treats of the developmentof the embryo. 

EMDEN (14), the chief part of the province of Hanover, in Prussia, situated at the outlet of the river Ems; is intersected by canals;shipbuilding and brewing are the chief industries. 

EMERALD, a precious stone of great value, allied in composition tothe beryl; is of a beautiful transparent green colour; the finestspecimens are found in Colombia and Venezuela. 

EMERALD ISLE, Ireland, from the fresh verdure of its herbage. 

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, an American philosophic thinker and poet, ofEnglish Puritan descent, born at Boston, where he started in life as aUnitarian preacher and pastor, an office he resigned in 1832 forliterature, in which he found he would have freer and fuller scope tocarry out his purpose as a spiritual teacher; in 1833 he paid a visit toEngland, and in particular a notable one to CRAIGENPUTTOCK (q. V. ), with the inmates of which he formed a lifelong friendship; on hisreturn the year after, he married, a second time as it happened, and, settling down in Concord, began his career as a lecturer and man ofletters; by his "Essays, " of which he published two series, one in 1841and a second in 1844, he commended himself to the regard of all thinkingmen in both hemispheres, and began to exercise an influence for good onall the ingenuous youth of the generation; they were recognised byCarlyle, and commended as "the voice of a man"; these embraced subjectsone and all of spiritual interest, and revealed transcendent intellectualpower; they were followed by "Representative Men, " lectures delivered inManchester on a second visit to England in 1847, and thereafter, atsuccessive periods, by "Society and Solitude, " "English Traits, " "TheConduct of Life, " "Letters and Social Aims, " besides a long array ofpoems, as well as sundry remarkable Addresses and Lectures, which hepublished; he was a man of exceptional endowment and great speculativepower, and is to this day the acknowledged head of the literary men ofAmerica; speculatively, Carlyle and he were of the same school, but whileCarlyle had "descended" from the first "into the angry, noisy Forum withan argument that could not but exasperate and divide, " he continuedpretty much all his days engaged in little more than in a quiet surveyand criticism of the strife; Carlyle tried hard to persuade him to"descend, " but it would appear Emerson never to his dying day understoodwhat Carlyle meant by the appeal, an appeal to take the devil by thethroat and cease to merely speculate and dream (1803-1882). 

EMERSON TENNENT, SIR JAMES, bred for the bar; was from 1845 to 1852colonial secretary and lieutenant-governor of Ceylon, and became on hisreturn joint-secretary to the Board of Trade; wrote "Christianity inCeylon" and "Ceylon: an Account of the Island" (1804-1869). 

EMERY, a dull, blue-black mineral, allied in composition to thesapphire, but containing a varying quantity of iron oxide; is found inlarge masses; is exceedingly hard, and largely used in polishing metals, plate-glass, and precious stones. 

EMIGRANTS, THE (_Les Emigrés_), the members of the Frencharistocracy and of the partisans of the ancient régime who at the time ofthe Revolution, after the fall of the Bastille, fled for safety toforeign lands, congregating particularly in Coblenz, where they plottedfor its overthrow, to the extent of leaguing with the foreigner againsttheir country, with the issue of confiscation of their lands andproperties by the republic that was set up. 

ÉMILE, the hero of a philosophic romance by Rousseau of the samename, in which the author expounds his views on education, and presentshis reasons, with his ideal of what, according to him, a good educationis, a theory practically adopted by many would-be educationists withindifferent fruit. 

EMIR, a title bestowed on the descendants of Mahomet's daughterFatima, the word denoting a "prince" or "ruler"; has lost this itsprimary meaning; the emirs, of whom there are large numbers in Turkey, enjoying no privileges save the sole right to wear a green turban, thesupposed favourite colour of Mahomet, though they hold a high socialposition; the title is also given to chieftains of N. Africa. 

EMMET, ROBERT, a patriotic Irishman, born in Dublin; bred for thebar; took part in the Irish rebellion; was hanged for his share inattempting to seize Dublin Castle (1778-1803). 

EMPE`DOCLES, a philosopher of Agrigentum, in Sicily; "extolled inantiquity as a statesman and orator, as physicist, physician, and poet, and even as prophet and worker of miracles, " who flourished about theyear 440 B. C. ; he conceived the universe as made up of "four eternal, self-subsistent, mutually underivative, but divisible, primal materialbodies, mingled and moulded by two moving forces, the uniting one offriendship and the disuniting one of strife"; of him it is fabled that, to persuade his fellow-citizens, with whom he had been in high favour astheir deliverer from the tyranny of the aristocracy, of his bodilytranslation from earth to heaven, he threw himself unseen into the craterof Etna, but that at the next eruption of the mountain his slipper wascast up and revealed the fraud. 

EMPIRES: the ROMAN, capital Rome, dates from the reign ofAugustus, 25 B. C. , to that of Theodosius, A. D. 395; OF THE EAST, or Low Empire, capital Constantinople, being part of the Roman empire, dates from 295 to 1453; OF THE WEST, capital Rome, dates from 295 to476; the HOLY, or Second Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, dates from 800 to 911; the LATIN, capital Constantinople, founded bythe Crusaders, dates from 1204 to 1261; the GERMAN, founded by Othothe Great in 962, ended by abdication of Francis II. Of Austria in 1806, and restored under William I. In 1870; the FRENCH, founded byNapoleon I. , dates from 1804 to 1815, and as established by Napoleon III. Dates from 1852 to 1870; OF THE INDIES, founded in 1876 under thecrown of England. 

EMPIRIC, the name given to any who practises an art from the mereexperience of results, apart from all reference to or knowledge of thescientific explanation. 

EMPIRICISM, a philosophical term applied to the theory that allknowledge is derived from the senses and experience alone, to therejection of the theory of innate ideas; Locke, in modern times, is thegreat representative of the school that advocates this doctrine supportedby Aristotle. 

EMPSON, SIR RICHARD, a lawyer in the reign of Henry VII. ; wasSpeaker of the House of Commons; incurred the hatred of the populace byacting as the king's agent in forcing payment of taxes and penalties; wasconvicted of tyranny and treason, and beheaded in 1510. 

EMPYEMA, a medical term signifying a diseased condition of thechest, in which pus accumulates in the pleura, cures of which aresometimes effected by drawing off the pus by means of tubes. 

EMPYREAN, the highest heaven, or region of pure elemental fire, whence everything of the nature of fire has been conceived to emanate, whether in the phenomena of nature or the life of man. 

EMS, 1, a river of NW. Germany, rises in Westphalia, and after acourse of 205 m. Discharges into Dollart Bay, an inlet of the North Sea;is navigable, and is joined to the Lippe by means of a canal, and alsosimilarly to Dortmund. 2, A celebrated German watering-place, on theLahn, near Coblenz; its mineral springs, known to the Romans, vary inwarmth from 80° to 135° F. 

ENAMEL, a vitreous compound, easily fusible, and coloured in varioustints by the admixture of different metallic oxides; is fused to thesurface of metals for utility and ornament; was known to the European andAsiatic ancients, and has maintained its popularity to the present day. Various schools have been formed, of which the Byzantine, Rhenish, andLimoges are the most noted. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, an ancient style of decorative art somewhatsimilar to enamelling, which consisted in overlaying the surface (e. G. Of walls) with wax, then inlaying a coloured design, the whole beingsubsequently polished. 

ENCELADUS, one of the chief giants that revolted against Zeus, andwho, as he fled and took refuge in Sicily, was transfixed by athunderbolt, and buried under Etna. The fiery eruptions of the mountainare his breath, and the shaking of it ascribed to his shifting from oneside to another. In the latter regard he serves in literature as thesymbol of a blind, often impotent, struggle to throw off some oppressiveincubus. 

ENCELADUS, MANUEL BLANCO, a distinguished Chilian statesman andsoldier, born in Buenos Ayres; trained for the navy in Spain, but joinedthe Chilian revolutionaries; served with distinction under Lord Cochrane, and rose to high rank both in the army and navy; was commander of theChilian forces in 1825, and for two months in the following yearPresident of the Republic; was subsequently Governor of Valparaiso, andminister to France (1790-1876). 

ENCHIRIDION OF EPICTETUS. See EPICTETUS. 

ENCINA or ENZINA, JUAN DE LA, a Spanish dramatist, whose worksmark the rise of the Spanish drama, born at Salamanca; was at one timesecretary to the Duke of Alva, and afterwards conductor of music in thechapel of Leo X. At Rome (1469-1534). 

ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ, a celebrated German astronomer, born atHamburg; determined the sun's distance, and the orbit of the comet of1680; calculated the time of the revolution of the comet which now bearshis name, and which appeared in 1818; determined also the distance of thesun by the two transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 (1791-1865). 

ENCYCLICAL LETTER, a letter addressed by the Pope to the bishops ofthe Church, condemnatory of prevailing errors or counselling them how toact in connection with public questions of the day. 

ENCYCLOPÆDIA, a name of Greek derivation, given to works whichembrace within their pages a more or less complete account, inalphabetical order, of the whole round of human knowledge, or of someparticular section of it. Attempts in this direction were made as farback as Aristotle's day, and various others have since been made fromtime to time, according as the circle of knowledge widened. Amongstfamous encyclopædias which have appeared, mention may be made of theFrench "ENCYCLOPÉDIE" (q. V. ); the "Encyclopædia Britannica, "Edinburgh (1708-1771), now in its ninth edition (1889); the German"Encyclopedie, " begun in 1818 by Ersch and Gruber, and not yet completed, although 170 volumes have appeared; while the largest of all is theChinese encyclopædia, in 5020 vols. , printed in Pekin in 1726. 

ENCYCLOPÉDIE, a French encyclopædia consisting of 28 vols. , to whicha supplement of 5 vols. Was added; edited by D'Alembert and Diderot;contributed to by a number of the eminent savants of France, and issuedin 1751-1777, and which contributed to feed, but did nothing to allay, oreven moderate, the fire of the Revolution. 

ENCYCLOPEDIST, generally a man of encyclopedic knowledge, or whoconducts or contributes to an encyclopædia; specially one who has, as theFrench encyclopedists, an overweening, false, and illusory estimate ofthe moral worth and civilising power of such knowledge. See CARLYLE'S"SARTOR, " BK. I. CHAP. 10, ON THE "ENCYCLOPEDIC HEAD. "

ENDEMIC, a term applied to diseases which affect the inhabitants ofcertain countries and localities, and which arise from strictly localcauses, _e. G_. Neighbouring swamps, bad sanitation, impure water, climate, &c. 

ENDOGENS, those plants in which the new fibrous matter is developedin the centre of the stem, and which is pushed outward by the formationof new tissue within, thus developing the stem outwards from the inside. See EXOGENS. 

ENDOR, a place on the S. Of Mount Tabor, in Palestine, where thesorceress lived who was consulted by Saul before the battle of Gilboa, and who professed communication with the ghost of Samuel (1 Sam, xxviii. 7). 

ENDOSMOSE, a word used in physics to describe the intermingling oftwo liquids of different densities, in close juxtaposition, but separatedby a thin membranous tissue. The liquid of lesser density passes morerapidly through the dividing tissue, and raises the level of the liquidin the other vessel, this action is named endosmose; while the flowing ofthe liquid of greater density into the vessel whose level is falling, iscalled exosmose. 

ENDYMION, a beautiful shepherd, son of Zeus, whom SELENE (q. V. )carried off to Mount Lemnos, in Caria, where, as she kissed him, hesank into eternal sleep. This is one version of the story. 

ENEID, an epic poem of Virgil, the hero of which is Æneas of Troy. 

ENERGY, CONSERVATION OF, the doctrine that, however it may change inform and character, or be dissipated, no smallest quantity of force inthe universe is ever lost. 

ENFANTIN, BARTHÉLEMY PROSPER, a Socialist and journalist, born inParis, adopted the views of SAINT-SIMON (q. V. ); held subversiveviews on the marriage laws, which involved him in some trouble; wrote auseful and sensible book on Algerian colonisation, and several works, mainly interpretative of the theories of Saint-Simon (1796-1864). 

ENFIELD (32), a town in Middlesex, 10 m. NE. Of London, has acelebrated Government rifle factory; was for six years the dwelling-placeof Charles Lamb. 

ENGADINE, a noted Swiss valley in the canton of the Grisons, stretches about 65 m. Between the Lepontine or Rhætian Alps; is dividedinto the Lower Engadine, wild and desolate, and the Upper Engadine, fertile and populous, and a favourite health resort; the river Inn flowsthrough it, its waters collected here and there into lakes. 

ENGEDI, an oasis, a spot of rare beauty, once a place of palm-trees, 23 m. W. Of the N. End of the Dead Sea. 

ENGHIEN, LOUIS DE BOURBON, DUC D', an ill-fated French Royalist, born at Chantilly; joined the Royalists under his grandfather, Prince ofCondé, and took part in the Rhine campaign against the Republicans; wassuspected of being concerned in a Bourbon plot to assassinate the EmperorNapoleon; was seized in the neutral territory of Baden, brought toVincennes, and, after an inconclusive and illegal trial, shot byNapoleon's orders, a proceeding which gave rise to Fouché's remark, "Itis worse than a crime--it is a blunder" (1772-1804). 

ENGINEERS, ROYAL NAVAL, since 1848 have ranked as commissionedofficers; salaries vary from £110 to £639 a year; admission is byexamination; duties include the entire oversight and management of theship-machinery; there are three ranks--inspectors of machinery, chiefengineers, and assistants, the latter being of three grades; in 1888engineer studentships were created. 

ENGINEERS, THE CORPS OF ROYAL, in the British army, instituted in1763, consists of about 900 officers and 5000 non-commissioned officersand men, usually recruited from skilled artisans; their duties comprisethe undertaking of all engineering operations necessary in the conduct ofwar, e. G. Bridging and mining, road and railway and telegraphconstruction, building of fortifications, &c. ; their term of service is 7years in the active army and 5 in the reserve, or maybe 3 in the formerand 9 in the latter. 

ENGLAND (27, 000), the "predominant partner" of the United Kingdom ofGreat Britain and Ireland, comprises along with Wales the southern, andby far the greater, portion of Great Britain, the largest of the Europeanislands; it is separated from the Continent on the E. And S. By the NorthSea and English Channel, and from Ireland on the W. By St. George'sChannel, while Scotland forms its N. Boundary; its greatest length N. AndS. Is 430 m. , and greatest breadth (including Wales) 370. It is of anirregular triangular shape; has a long and highly-developed coast-line(1800 m. ); is divided into 40 counties (with Wales 52); has numerousrivers with navigable estuaries, while transit is facilitated by anetwork of railways and canals; save the highlands in the N. , and thePennine Range running into Derby, England is composed (if we except themountainland of Wales) of undulating plains, 80 per cent, of which isarable; while coal and iron are found in abundance, and copper, lead, zinc, and tin in lesser quantities; in the extent and variety of itstextile factories, and in the production of machinery and other hardwaregoods, England is without an equal; the climate is mild and moist, andaffected by draughts; but for the Gulf Stream, whose waters wash itswestern shores, it would probably resemble that of Labrador. Under alimited monarchy and a widely embracing franchise, the people of Englandenjoy an unrivalled political freedom. Since Henry VIII. 's time, thenational religion has been an established Protestantism, but all formsare tolerated. In 1896 education was made free. The name England isderived from Engle-land, or land of the Angles, a Teutonic people who, with kindred Saxons and Jutes, came over from the mainland in the 5thcentury, and took possession of the island, driving Britons and Celtsbefore them. Admixtures to the stock took place during the 11th centurythrough the Danish and Norman conquests. E. Annexed Wales in 1284, andwas united with Scotland under one crown in 1603, and under oneParliament in 1707. 

ENGLAND, THE WANT OF, "England needs, " says Ruskin, "examples ofpeople who, leaving Heaven to decide whether they are to rise in theworld, decide for themselves that they will be happy in it, and haveresolved to seek, not greater wealth, but simpler pleasures; not higherfortune, but deeper felicity; making the first of possessionsself-possession, and honouring themselves in the harmless pride and calmpursuits of peace. "

ENGLES, FRIEDRICH, a Socialist, the friend of Karl Marx; an activepropagandist of socialistic theories; author of several works onSocialism (1820-1895). 

ENID, the daughter of Yniol and the wife of Geraint; one of theladies of the court of King Arthur; celebrated for her steadfast conjugalaffection, the story regarding whom is given in Tennyson's "Idylls of theKing. "

ENNISKILLEN (5), the county town of Fermanagh, Ireland, on an islein the river which joins Lower and Upper Loughs Erne; the scene of thedefeat of James II. 's troops by those of William of Orange; gives itsname to a well-known dragoon regiment. 

ENNIUS, an early Roman poet, the father of Roman epic poetry, bornin Rudiæ, Calabria; promoted the study of Greek literature in Rome; ofhis poems, dramatic and epic, only a few fragments are extant(239-169 B. C. ). 

ENOCH, a godly man, who lived in antediluvian times among a racegone godless, and whom the Lord in judgment removed from the earth toreturn Himself by-and-by with a flood in order to clear the world of theungodly. 

ENOCH, THE BOOK OF, an apocryphal book, quoted from by Jude, discovered over a century ago, composed presumably about the 2nd century, though subsequently enlarged and ascribed to Enoch; it professes to be aseries of revelations made to the patriarch bearing upon the secrets ofthe material and spiritual universe and the course of Providence, andwritten down by him for the benefit of posterity. 

ENOCH ARDEN, a poem of Tennyson, and one of his happiest efforts totranslate an incident of common life into the domain of poetry; the storyis: A sailor, presumed to be lost, and whose wife marries another, returns, finds her happily wedded, and bears the sorrow rather thandisturb her felicity by revealing himself. 

ENTABLATURE, a term in classic architecture applied to theornamented portion of a building which rests in horizontal position uponsupporting columns; is subdivided into three parts, the lower portionbeing called the _architrave_, the middle portion the _frieze_, and theuppermost the _cornice_; the depth assigned to these parts varies in thedifferent schools, but the whole entablature generally measures twice thediameter of the column. 

ENTAIL, a term in law which came to be used in connection with thepractice of limiting the inheritance of estates to a certain restrictedline of heirs. Attempts of the kind, which arise naturally out of thedeeply-seated desire which men have to preserve property--especiallylanded estates--in their own families, are of ancient date; but thesystem as understood now, involving the principle of primogeniture, owesits origin to the feudal system. Sometimes the succession was limited tothe male issue, but this was by no means an invariable practice; inmodern times the system has been, by a succession of Acts of Parliaments(notably the Cairns Act of 1882), greatly modified, and greater powersgiven to the actual owner of alienating the estates to which he hassucceeded, a process which is called "breaking the entail. "

ENTSAGEN, the renunciation with which, according to Goethe, life, strictly speaking, begins, briefly explained by Froude as "a resolution, fixedly and clearly made, to do without pleasant things--wealth, promotion, fame, honour, and the other rewards with which the worldrecompenses the services it appreciates, " or, still more briefly, therenunciation of the flesh symbolised in the Christian baptism by water. 

ENVIRONMENT, a term of extensive use in biological science, especially employed to denote the external conditions which go todetermine modifications in the development of organic life to the extentoften of producing new species. 

EOLUS. See ÆOLUS. 

EON. See ÆON. 

EON DE BEAUMONT, CHARLES D', the "Chevalier d'Eon, " a noted Frenchdiplomatist, born at Tonnerre, Burgundy; notorious as having, while onsecret missions, adopted a woman's dress for purposes of disguise; wasambassador at the English Court, but degraded and recalled by Louis XVI. , and condemned to wear feminine garb till the close of his life; died indestitution, when the popular doubt as to his real sex was set at rest(1728-1810). 

EOS, the goddess of the dawn, the daughter of Hyperion, and thesister of Helios and Selene. See AURORA. 

EÖTVÖS, JOZSEF, Hungarian statesman and author, born at Buda;adopted law as a profession, but devoted himself to literature, andeventually politics; Minister of Public Instruction, and then of Worshipand Education; published some powerful dramas and novels, notably "TheVillage Notary, " a work pronounced equal in many respects to the best ofScott's novels; also vigorous political essays (1813-1871). 

EPACT, a name given to the excess of the solar month over the lunar, amounting to 1 day 11 hours 11 minutes and 57 seconds, and of the solaryear over the lunar amounting to 11 days. 

EPAMINONDAS, a famous Theban statesman and soldier, defeated Spartain the great victory of Leuctra, and during his lifetime raised Thebes toa position of dominant power; was slain in the battle of Mantinea whenagain successfully engaging the Spartans; blameless in his private lifeas he was heroic in the field, he figures as the great hero of Thebanhistory; born about the close of the 5th century B. C. 

EPÉE, CHARLES MICHEL, ABBÉ DE L', a noted philanthropist, born atVersailles; took holy orders, but was divested of them on account ofJansenist views; devoted his life to the instruction of deaf-mutes, forwhom he founded an institute, and invented a language of signs(1712-1789). 

EPEIUS, the contriver of the wooden horse, by means of which theGreeks entered and took possession of Troy, and who was assisted byAthena in the building of it. 

ÉPERNAY (18), a French town on the Marne, 20 m. NW. Of Châlons; thechief emporium of the champagne district. 

EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE TO, a presumably circular letter of St. Paulto the Church at Ephesus, among other Churches in the East, written toshow that the Gentile had a standing in Christ as well as the Jew, andthat it was agreeable to the eternal purpose of God that the two shouldform one body in Him; it contains Paul's doctrine of the Church, andappears to have been written during his first imprisonment in Rome(61-63); it appears from the spirit that breathes in it and the similarthoughts and exhortations, contained to have been written at the sametime as the Epistle to the Colossians. 

EPHIALTES, one of the giants who revolted against Zeus andthreatened to storm heaven; he appears to have been maimed by Apollo andHercules. 

EPHIALTES, a Malian Greek who led the Persians across a pass in themountains, whereby they were able to surround and overcome Leonidas andhis Spartans at Thermopylæ. 

EPHOD, a richly and emblematically embroidered vestment worn by thehigh-priest of the Jews, and consisting of two parts, one covering thebreast and supporting the breastplate, and the other covering the back, these being clasped to the shoulders by two onyx stones, with namesinscribed on them, six on each, of the 12 tribes, and the whole boundround the waist with a girdle of gold, blue, purple, scarlet, andfine-twined linen. 

EPH`ORI (i. E. Overseers), the name of five magistrates annuallyelected in ancient Sparta from among the people as a countercheck to theauthority of the kings and the senate; had originally to see to theexecution of justice and the education of youth; their authority, whichresembled that of the tribunes in Rome, was at last destroyed in 225 B. C. 

EPHRAEM SYRUS, the most famous of the Church Fathers in Syria, andcalled "prophet of the Syrians, " also "Pillar of the Church" and "Help ofthe Holy Ghost, " born at Nisibis, Mesopotamia; lived a hermit's life in acave near Edessa; left exegetical writings, homilies, and poems, and sogreat was his piety and self-denial, that he was looked upon as a saint, and is still so reverenced in several Churches (320-370). 

EPHRAIM, one of the 12 tribes of Israel, the one to which Joshuabelonged, located in the centre of the land; powerful in the days of theJudges, the chief of the 10 tribes that revolted under Jeroboam after thedeath of Solomon, and is found often to give name to the whole body ofthem. 

EPIC, a poem that treats of the events in the life of a nation or arace or the founder of one, agreeably to the passion inspiring it and insuch form as to kindle and keep alive the heroism thereof in thegenerations thereafter; or a poem in celebration of the thoughts, feelings, and feats of a whole nation or race; its proper function is to_disimprison_ the soul of the related facts and give a noble rendering ofthem; of compositions of this kind the "Iliad" of Homer, the "Æneid" ofVirgil, and the "Divine Comedy" of Dante take the lead. 

EPIC MELODY, melody in accord with the feeling of the whole race orthe subject as a whole. 

EPICHARIS, a Roman lady who conspired against Nero and strangledherself rather than reveal her accomplices after undergoing the cruellesttortures. 

EPICHARMUS, a Greek philosopher and poet in the island of Cos;studied philosophy under Pythagoras; conceived a taste for comedy; gavehimself up to that branch of the drama, and received the name of the"Father of Comedy"; lived eventually at the court of Hiero of Syracuse(540-430 B. C. ). 

EPICTETUS, a celebrated Stoic philosopher of the 1st century, originally a slave; lived and taught at Rome, but after the expulsion ofthe philosophers retired to Nicopolis, in Epirus; was lame, and lived inpoverty; his conversations were collected by Arrian, and his philosophyin a short manual under the Greek name of "Enchiridion of Epictetus, "written, as is alleged, in utter obliviousness of the fact that "the endof man is an action, not a thought. "

EPICUREANS, a sect of philosophers who derived their name fromEpicurus, and who divided the empire of philosophy with the STOICS(q. V. ), at the birth of Christ; they held that the chief end of manwas happiness, that the business of philosophy was to guide him in thepursuit of it, and that it was only by experience that one could learnwhat would lead to it and what would not; they scouted the idea of reasonas regulative of thought, and conscience as regulative of conduct, andmaintained that our senses were our only guides in both; in a word, theydenied that God had implanted in man an absolute rational and moralprinciple, and maintained that he had no other clue to the goal of hisbeing but his experience in life, while the distinction of right andwrong was only a distinction of what was found conducive to happiness andwhat was not; they had no faith in or fear of a divine Being above manany more than of a divine principle within man, and they scorned the ideaof another world with its awards, and concerned themselves only withthis, which, however, in their hands was no longer a cosmos but a chaos, out of which the quickening and ordinative spirit had fled. 

EPICURUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Samos, of Athenian origin;settled at Athens in his thirty-sixth year, and founded a philosophicalschool there, where he taught a philosophy in opposition to that of theStoics; philosophy he defined as "an activity which realises a happy lifethrough ideas and arguments, " summing itself up "in ethics, which are toteach us how to attain a life of felicity"; his system comprised "thethree branches included in philosophy, viz. , logic, physics, and ethics, "but he arranges them in reverse order, logic and physics being regardedonly as the handmaids of ethics; for he "limited logic to theinvestigation of the criterion of truth, " and physics he valued asdisillusioning the mind of "the superstitious fear that went to disturbhappiness"; he was a man of a temperate and blameless life, and it is afoul calumny on him to charge him with summing up happiness as mereself-indulgence, though it is true he regarded "virtue as having no valuein itself, but only in so far as it offered us something--an agreeablelife. "

EPICYCLE, an expression used in the PTOLEMAIC (q. V. )system of astronomy; the old belief that the celestial bodies moved inperfect circles round the earth was found to be inadequate to explain thevarying position of the planets, a difficulty which led Ptolemy to inventhis theory of epicycles, which was to the effect that each planetrevolved round a centre of its own, greater or less, but that all thesecentres themselves moved in procession round the earth, a theory whichfell to pieces before the investigations of Kepler and Newton. 

EPIDAURUS, a town of ancient Greece, in Argolis, on the easternshore of the Peloponnesus; was at one time an independent State and anactive centre of trade, but was chiefly noted for its famous temple ofÆsculapius, to which people flocked to be cured of their diseases, andwhich bore the inscription "Open only to pure souls"; ruins of amagnificent theatre are still extant here. 

EPIDEMIC, a name given to contagious diseases which, arisingsuddenly in a community, rapidly spread through its members, oftentravelling from district to district, until often a whole country isaffected; the theory of the transmission of disease by microbes haslargely explained the spread of such scourges, but the part whichatmospheric and other physical, and perhaps psychic, causes play in thesedisorders is still matter of debate, especially as regards epidemicmental diseases. See ENDEMIC. 

EPIGONI (the Descendants), the name given to the sons of the Sevenwho perished before Thebes; they avenged the death of their fathers byrazing Thebes to the ground; the war first and last has been made thesubject of epic and tragic poems. 

EPIGRAM, in modern usage, is a neat, witty, and pointed utterancebriefly couched in verse form, usually satiric, and reserving its stingto the last line; sometimes made the vehicle of a quaintly-turnedcompliment, as, for example, in Pope's couplet to Chesterfield, whenasked to write something with that nobleman's pencil;--

 "Accept a miracle; instead of wit, See two dull lines by Stanhope's pencil writ. "

The Latin epigrammatists, especially Martial and Catullus, were the firstto give a satirical turn to the epigram, their predecessors the Greekshaving employed it merely for purposes of epitaph and monumentalinscriptions of a laudatory nature. 

EPILEPSY, a violent nervous affection, manifesting itself usually insudden convulsive seizures and unconsciousness, followed by temporarystoppage of the breath and rigidity of the body, popularly known as"falling sickness"; origin as yet undecided; attributed by the ancientsto demoniacal possession. 

EPIMENIDES, a philosopher of Crete of the 7th century B. C. , of whomit is fabled that he fell asleep in a cave when a boy, and that he didnot awake for 57 years, but it was to find himself endowed with allknowledge and wisdom. He was invited to Athens during a plague to purifythe city, on which occasion he performed certain mysterious rites withthe effect that the plague ceased. The story afforded Goethe a subjectfor a drama entitled "Das Epimenides Erwachen, " "in which he symboliseshis own aloofness from the great cause of the Fatherland, the result ofwant of faith in the miraculous power that resides in an enthusiasticoutbreak of patriotic feeling. "

EPIMETHEUS (i. E. Afterthought), the brother of Prometheus(Forethought), who in spite of the warnings of the latter openedPandora's box, and let loose a flood of evils on the earth, which oppressit to this day. 

EPINAL (21), the capital of the dep. Of Vosges, in France, charmingly situated at the foot of the Vosges Mountains, on the Moselle;is elegantly built, and has ruins of an old castle, surrounded by finegardens, a 10th-century church, and a fine library, &c. ; a suspensionbridge spans the Moselle; there is industry in cotton, paper, &c. 

EPINAY, MADAME D', a French writer, unhappily married in her youth;became notorious for her illicit intimacy with Rousseau and Grimm; her"Mémoires et Correspondence" give a lively picture of her times(1725-1783). 

EPIPHANIUS, ST. , one of the Fathers of the Greek Church; of Jewishdescent; flourished in the 4th century; led a monastic life, and foundeda monastery in Eleutheropolis; was bishop of Constantia in 367; bigotedand tyrannical, he became notorious for his ecclesiastical zeal, and forhis indictments of Origen and St. Chrysostom; left writings that showgreat but indiscriminate learning (330-402). 

EPIPHANY, as observed in the Christian Church, is a festival held onthe 12th day after Christmas, in commemoration of the manifestation ofChrist to the Magi of the East; but up to the close of the 4th centurythe festival also commemorated the incarnation of Christ as well as thedivine manifestation at His baptism. 

EPI`RUS, was the NW. Portion of ancient Hellas, Dodona its capital, and Acheron one of its rivers; in 1466 became part of the Ottoman empire, but in 1881 a portion was ceded to Greece. 

EPISCOPACY, the name given to the form of Church government in whichthere are superior and inferior orders among the clergy, as between thatof bishop and that of a presbyter; called also Prelacy. 

EPISCOPIUS, SIMON, a Dutch theologian, born at Amsterdam; the headof the Arminian party after the death of Arminius; was unjustlymisrepresented, and tyrannically, even cruelly, treated by the oppositeparty; he was a man of great ability, enlightened views, and admirabletemper, and set more store by integrity and purity of character thanorthodoxy of belief (1583-1643). 

EPISTOLÆ OBSCURORUM VIRORUM (i. E. Letters of obscure men), acelebrated collection of Latin letters which appeared in the 16th centuryin Germany, attacking with merciless severity the doctrines and modes ofliving of the scholastics and monks, credited with hastening theReformation. 

EPITAPH, an inscription placed on a tombstone in commemoration ofthe dead interred below. The natural feeling which prompts suchinscriptions has manifested itself among all civilised peoples, and not alittle of a nation's character may be read in them. The Greeks reservedepitaphs for their heroes, but amongst the Romans grew up the moderncustom of marking the tombs of relatives with some simple inscription, many of their sepulchres being placed on the side of the public roads, acircumstance which explains the phrase, _Siste, viator_--Stay, traveller--found in old graveyards. 

EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song, sung before the bridal chamber inhonour of the newly-wedded couple, particularly among the Greeks andRomans, of whom Theocritus and Catullus have left notable examples; butthe epithalamium of Edmund Spenser is probably the finest specimen extantof this poetic form. 

EPPING FOREST, as it now exists in the SE. Of Essex, is aremnant--5600 acres--of the famous Epping or Waltham Forest, which onceextended over all Essex, and which then served as a royal hunting-ground, is now a favourite pleasure-ground and valuable field for explorations ofbotanical and entomological collectors. 

EPSOM, a market-town in Surrey, skirting Banstead Downs, 15 m. SW. Of London; formerly noted for its mineral springs, now associated withthe famous Derby races. 

EQUINOCTIAL POINTS are the two points at which the celestial equatorintersects the ECLIPTIC (q. V. ), so called because the days andnights are of equal duration when the sun is at these points. 

EQUINOXES, the two annually recurring times at which the sun arrivesat the EQUINOCTIAL POINTS (q. V. ), viz. , 21st March and 22ndSeptember, called respectively the vernal and the autumnal equinoxes inthe northern hemisphere, but vice versa in the southern; at these timesthe sun is directly over the equator, and day and night is then of equallength over the whole globe. 

EQUITES, THE, a celebrated equestrian order in ancient Rome, supposed to have been instituted by Romulus; at first purely military, itwas at length invested with the judicial functions of the Senate, and thepower of farming out the public revenues; gradually lost these privilegesand became defunct. 

ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS, a famous scholar and man of letters, born atRotterdam; illegitimate son of one Gerhard; conceived a disgust formonkish life during six years' residence in a monastery at Steyn;wandered through Europe and amassed stores of learning at variousuniversities; visited Oxford in 1489, and formed a lifelong friendshipwith Sir Thomas More; was for some years professor of Divinity and Greekat Cambridge; edited the first Greek Testament; settled finally at Basel, whence he exercised a remarkable influence over European thought by thewit and tone of his writings, notably the "Praise of Folly, " the"Colloquia" and "Adagia"; he has been regarded as the precursor of theReformation; is said to have laid the egg which Luther hatched; aided theReformation by his scholarship, though he kept aloof as a scholar fromthe popular movement of Luther (1467-1536). 

ERASTIANISM, the right of the State to override and overrule thedecisions of the Church that happen to involve civil penalties. SeeERASTUS. 

ERASTUS, an eminent physician, born at Baden, in Switzerland, whosefame rests mainly on the attitude he assumed in the theological andecclesiastical questions of the day; he defended Zwingli's view of theEucharist as a merely symbolical ordinance, and denied the right of theChurch to inflict civil penalties, or to exercise discipline--the powerof the keys--that belonging, he maintained, to the province of the civilmagistrate and not to the Church (1534-1583). 

ERATO (i. E. The Lovely), the muse of erotic poetry and elegy, represented with a lyre in her left hand. 

ERATOSTHENES, surnamed the Philologist, a philosopher of Alexandria, born at Cyrene, 276 B. C. ; becoming blind and tired of life, he starvedhimself to death at the age of 80; he ranks high among ancientastronomers; measured the obliquity of the ecliptic, and estimated thesize of the earth (276-194 B. C. ). 

ERCILLA Y ZUÑIGA, a Spanish poet, born at Madrid; took part in thewar of the Spaniards with the Araucos in Chile, which he celebrated in anepic of no small merit called "La Araucana"; he ended his days in poverty(1553-1595). 

ERDGEIST, the Spirit of the Earth, represented in Goethe's "Faust"as assiduously weaving, at the Time-Loom, night and day, in death as wellas life, the earthly vesture of the Eternal, and thereby revealing theInvisible to mortal eyes. 

ERDMANN, a German philosopher, born at Wolmar, professor at Halle;was of the school of Hegel, an authority on the history of philosophy(1805-1892). 

EREBUS, a region of utter darkness in the depths of Hades, intowhich no mortal ever penetrated, the proper abode of Pluto and his Queenwith their train of attendants, such as the Erinnyes, through which thespirits of the dead must pass on their way to Hades; equivalent to thevalley of the shadow of death. 

ERECTHEUS or ERICHTHONIUS, the mythical first king of Athens;favoured and protected from infancy by Athena, to whom accordingly hededicated the city; he was buried in the temple of Athena, and worshippedafterwards as a god; it is fabled of him that when an infant he wascommitted by Athena in a chest to the care of Agraulos and Herse, under astrict charge not to pry into it; they could not restrain theircuriosity, opened the chest, saw the child entwined with serpents, wereseized with madness, and threw themselves down from the height of theAcropolis to perish at the foot. 

ERFURT (72), a town in Saxony, on the Gera, 14 m. W. Of Weimar, formerly capital of Thüringia, and has many interesting buildings, amongst the number the 14th-century Gothic cathedral with its great bell, weighing 13½ tons, and cast in 1497; the monastery of St. Augustine(changed into an orphanage in 1819), in which Luther was a monk; theAcademy of Sciences, and the library with 60, 000 vols. And 1000 MSS. ;various textile factories flourish. 

ERGOT, a diseased state of grasses, &c. , but a disease chieflyattacking rye, produced by a fungus developing on the seeds; the drug"ergot of rye" is obtained from a species of this fungus. 

ERIC, the name of several of the kings of Denmark, and Sweden, andNorway, the most notorious being the son of the noble Swedish kingGUSTAVUS VASA (q. V. ), who aspired to the hand of Elizabeth ofEngland and challenged his rival Leicester to a duel; afterwards soughtMary of Scotland, but eventually married a peasant girl who had nursedhim out of madness brought on by dissipation; was deposed after a Statetrial instigated by his own brothers, and ultimately poisoned himself inprison eight years later (1533-1577). 

ERIC THE RED, a Norwegian chief who discovered Greenland in the 10thcentury, and sent out expeditions to the coast of North America. 

ERICSSON, JOHN, a distinguished Swedish engineer, born atLangbanshyttan; went to England in 1826 and to United States of Americain 1839, where he died; invented the screw propeller of steamships; builtwarships for the American navy, and amongst them the famous _Monitor_;his numerous inventions mark a new era in naval and steamshipconstruction (1802-1889). 

ERIE, LAKE, the fourth in size among the giant lakes of NorthAmerica, lies between Lakes Huron and Ontario, on the Canadian border, is240 m. Long and varies from 30 to 60 m. In breadth; is very shallow, anddifficult to navigate; ice-bound from December till about April. 

ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS, a rationalistic mystic, the mostdistinguished scholar and thinker of the 9th century, of Irish birth;taught at the court of Charles the Bald in France, and was summoned byAlfred to Oxford in 877; died abbot of Malmesbury; held that "damnationwas simply the consciousness of having failed to fulfil the divinepurpose"; he derived all authority from reason, and not reason fromauthority, maintaining that authority unfounded on reason was of novalue; _d_. 882. 

ERIN, the ancient Celtic name of Ireland, used still in poetry. 

ERINNA, a Greek poetess, the friend of Sappho, died at 19; wroteepic poetry, all but a few lines of which has perished; born about612 B. C. 

ERINNYES, THE (i. E. The roused-to-anger, in Latin, the Furies), the Greek goddesses of vengeance, were the daughters of Gaia, begotten ofthe blood of the wounded Uranus, and at length reckoned three in number, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megara; they were conceived of as haunting thewicked on earth and scourging them in hell; they were of the court ofPluto, and the executioners of his wrath. 

ERIS, the Greek goddess of strife or discord, sowing the seedsthereof among the gods to begin with, which she has since continued to doamong men. 

ERIVAN (15), a fortified town in Transcaucasia, situated 30 m. NE. Of Mount Ararat on an elevated plateau; was ceded to Russia in 1828 byPersia. 

ERLANGEN (13), a Bavarian town on the Regnitz, has a celebratedProtestant university, founded by Wilhelmina, sister of Frederick theGreat, who was the Electress; was a place of refuge for the Huguenots in1685; manufactures in gloves, mirrors, and tobacco are carried on, andbrewing. 

ERLAU (22), an ecclesiastical city of Hungary, on the Erlau, 89 m. NE. Of Pesth; is the seat of an archbishop; has a fine cruciformcathedral, built since 1837, several monasteries, a lyceum with a largelibrary and an observatory; is noted for its red wine. 

ERL-KING, a Norse impersonation of the spirit of superstitious fearwhich haunts and kills us even in the guardian embrace of paternalaffection. 

ERMINIA, a Syrian, the heroine of Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered, " inlove with the Christian prince Tancred. 

ERNESTI, JOHANN AUGUST, a celebrated German classicist andtheologian, called the "German Cicero, " born at Tennstädt, Thüringia;professor of Philology in Leipzig, and afterwards of Theology; editedvarious classical works, his edition of Cicero specially noted; was thefirst to apply impartial textual criticism to the Bible, and to him, inconsequence, we owe the application of a more correct exegesis to thebiblical writings (1707-1781). 

ERNST, ELECTOR OF SAXONY, founder of the Ernestine line of Saxonprinces, ancestor of Prince Consort, born at Altenburg; was kidnappedalong with his brother Albert in 1455, an episode famous in Germanhistory as the "Prinzenraub" (i. E. The stealing of the prince);succeeded his father in 1464; annexed Thüringia in 1482, and three yearslater shared his territory with his brother Albert (1441-1486). 

ERNST I. , Duke of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg; served in the ThirtyYears' War under Gustavus Adolphus, and shared in the victory of Lützen;was an able and wise ruler, and gained for himself the surname of "thePious" (1601-1675). 

EROS (in Latin, Cupido), the Greek god of love, the son ofAphrodité, and the youngest of the gods, though he figures in thecosmogony as one of the oldest of the gods, and as the uniting power inthe life of the gods and the life of the universe, was represented atlast as a wanton boy from whose wiles neither gods nor men were safe. 

EROSTRATUS, an obscure Ephesian, who, to immortalise his name, setfire to the temple of Ephesus on the night, as it happened, whenAlexander the Great was born; the Ephesians thought to defeat his purposeby making it death to any one who named his name, but in vain, the decreeitself giving wider and wider publicity to the act. 

ERPENIUS (Thomas van Erpen), Arabic scholar, born at Gorkum, inHolland; after completing his studies at Leyden and Paris, becameprofessor of Oriental Languages there; famed for his Arabic grammar andrudiments, which served as text-books for upwards of 200 years(1585-1624). 

ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL, a bibliographer, born at Grossglogau; after acollege career at Halle devoted himself to journalism, and in 1800 becamelibrarian of the University of Jena; subsequently filled the chair ofGeography and Statistics at Halle; his "Handbook of German Literature"marks the beginning of German bibliography; began in 1818, along withGruber, the publication of an encyclopædia which is still unfinished(1766-1828). 

ERSKINE, EBENEZER, founder of the Secession Church of Scotland, bornat Chirnside, Berwickshire; minister at Portmoak for 28 years; took partin the patronage dispute, and was deposed (1733), when he formed a churchat Gairney Bridge, near Kinross, the nucleus of the Secession Church(1703-1754). 

ERSKINE, HENRY, a famous Scotch lawyer, second son of the Earl ofBuchan, born at Edinburgh; called to the bar and became Lord Advocate; aWhig in politics; brought about useful legal reforms; noted as abrilliant wit and orator (1746-1817). 

ERSKINE, JOHN, a Scottish jurist; called to the bar in 1719; becameprofessor of Scots Law in Edinburgh University in 1837, resigned 1763;author of two important works on Scots Law, "The Institutes" and"Principles" (1695-1768). 

ERSKINE, JOHN, D. D. , son of the preceding; a celebrated Scotchpreacher and author of various essays and pamphlets; a prominent leaderon the Evangelical side in the General Assemblies; was minister of theOld Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and the colleague of Principal Robertson; isremembered for a retort in the pulpit and for another in the GeneralAssembly; the former was to a remark of his colleague, PrincipalRobertson, "If perfect virtue were to appear on earth we would adoreit. " . .. "Perfect virtue did appear on earth and we crucified it"; and thatother in the General Assembly was "Rax (reach) me that Bible, " as certainModerates in the court began derisively to scoff at the proposal to sendmissions to the heathen (1721-1803). 

ERSKINE, JOHN, OF DUN, a Scotch Reformer, supported Knox andWishart; was several times Moderator of the General Assembly, andassisted in the formation of "The Second Book of Discipline" (1509-1591). 

ERSKINE, RALPH, a Scotch divine, brother of EBENEZER (q. V. ), with whom he co-operated in founding the Secession Church; hissermons and religious poems, called "Gospel Sonnets, " were widely read;one of the first of the Scotch seceders, strange to contemplate, "a long, soft, poke-shaped face, with busy anxious black eyes, looking as if hecould not help it; and then such a character and form of human existence, conscience living to the finger ends of him, in a strange, venerable, though highly questionable manner . .. His formulas casing him all roundlike the shell of a beetle"; his fame rests chiefly on his "GospelSonnets, " much appreciated at one time (1685-1752). 

ERSKINE, THOMAS, LORD, a famous lawyer, youngest son of the Earl ofBuchan, born in Edinburgh; spent his early years in the navy, andafterwards joined the army; resigned in 1775 to enter upon the study oflaw; called to the bar in 1778; a king's counsel in 1783; created a baronand Lord Chancellor in 1806; was engaged in all the famous trials of histime; an unrivalled orator in the law courts; his speeches rank asmasterpieces of forensic eloquence (1750-1823). 

ERSKINE, THOMAS, OF LINLATHEN, member of the Scottish bar, butdevoted in an intensely human spirit to theological interests, "one ofthe gentlest, kindliest, best bred of men, " says Carlyle, who was greatlyattached to him; "I like him, " he says, "as one would do a draught ofsweet rustic mead served in cut glasses and a silver tray . .. Talksgreatly of symbols, seems not disinclined to let the Christian religionpass for a kind of mythus, provided one can retain the spirit of it"; hewrote a book, much prized at one time, on the "Internal Evidences ofRevealed Religion, " also on Faith; besides being the constant friend ofCarlyle, he corresponded on intimate terms with such men as Maurice andDean Stanley (1788-1870). 

ERWIN, a German architect, born at Steinbach, Baden; the builder ofthe western façade of the cathedral of Strasburg (1240-1318). 

ERYMANTHUS, a mountain in Arcadia that was the haunt of the boarkilled by Hercules. 

ERYSIPELAS, known popularly as St. Anthony's Fire and Rose, afebrile disease, manifesting itself in acute inflammation of the skin, which becomes vividly scarlet and ultimately peels; confined chiefly tothe head; is contagious, and recurrent. 

ERYTHEMA, a medical term used loosely to designate a diseasedcondition of the skin; characterised by a scarlet or dark-red rash oreruption, distinct from erysipelas. 

ERYTHREA (220), a colony belonging to Italy, extending from CapeKasar 670 m. Along the western shore of the Red Sea to a point in theStrait of Bab-el-Mandeb; Massowah the capital. 

ERYTHREAN SEA, a name of the Red Sea. 

ERZERUM (60), a city in Turkish Armenia, capital of the province ofthe same name, 125 m. SE. Of Trebizond; situated on a fertile plain 6300ft. Above sea-level; is an important entrepôt for commerce between Europeand Asia; is irregularly built, but contains imposing ruins; has afortress, and in the suburbs a number of mosques and bazaars; is famedfor its iron and copper ware; fell into the hands of the Turks in 1517;figured as a military centre in many Turkish wars; was reduced by theRussians in 1878; was a scene of Armenian massacres by the Turks in 1895. 

ERZGEBIRGE, a range of mountains lying between Saxony and Bohemia;the highest peak is the Keilberg, 4052 ft. ; is rich in various metallicores, especially silver and lead. 

ERYX, an ancient town in the NW. Of Sicily, at the foot of amountain of the same name, with a temple to Venus, who was hence calledErycina. 

ESAU, the eldest son of Isaac, who sold his birthright to Jacob fora mess of lentils; led a predatory life, and was the forefather of theEdomites. 

ESCHATOLOGY, the department of theology which treats of theso-called last things, such as death, the intermediate state, themillennium, the return of Christ, the resurrection, the judgment, and theend of the world. 

ESCHENBACH, WOLFRAM VON, a famous minnesinger, born at Eschenbach, in Bavaria, at about the close of the 12th century; was of good birth, and lived some time at the Thuringian Court; enjoyed a wide reputation inhis time as a poet; of his poems the epic "Parzival" is the mostcelebrated, and records the history of the "Grail. "

ESCHER, JOHANN HEINRICH ALFRED. Swiss statesman, born at Zurich;bred for the law, and lectured for a while in his native town; becamePresident of the Council of Zurich; co-operated with Farrer in expellingthe Jesuits; became member of the Diet; supported Federal union, and didmuch to promote and establish State education in Switzerland; _b_. 1819. 

ESCHINES. See ÆSCHINES; as also ESCULAPIUS, ESCHYLUS, ESOP, &c. , under Æ. 

ESCOBAR, MENDOZA ANTONIO, a Spanish Jesuit and casuist, born atValladolid, a preacher and voluminous writer (1589-1669). 

ESCURIAL, a huge granite pile, built in the form of a gridiron, 30m. NW. From Madrid, and deemed at one time the eighth wonder of theworld; was built in 1563-1584; was originally dedicated as a monastery toSt. Lorenzo in recognition of the services which the Saint had renderedto Philip II. At the battle of St. Quentin, and used at length as apalace and burial-place of kings. It is a mere shadow of what it was, andis preserved from ruin by occasional grants of money to keep it inrepair. 

ESDRAËLON, a flat and fertile valley in Galilee, called also thevalley of Jezreel, which, with a maximum breadth of 9 m. , extends in aNW. Direction from the Jordan at Bathshean to the Bay of Acre. 

ESDRAS, the name of two books of the Apocrypha, the first, written2nd century B. C. , containing the history of the rebuilding of the Templeand the restoration of its cultus, with a discussion on the strangest ofall things, ending in assigning the palm to truth; and the second, written between 97 and 81 B. C. , a forecast of the deliverance of theJews from oppression and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom. 

ESK, the name of several Scottish streams: (1) in Dumfriesshire, theEsk of young Lochinvar, has a course of 31 m. After its formation by thejunction of the North and South Esks, and flows into the Solway; (2) inEdinburgh, formed by the junction of the North and South Esks, joins theFirth of Forth at Musselburgh; (3) in Forfarshire, the South Eskdischarges into the North Sea at Montrose, and the North Esk also flowsinto the North Sea 4 m. N. Of Montrose. 

ESKIMO or ESQUIMAUX, an aboriginal people of the Mongolian orAmerican Indian stock, in all not amounting to 40, 000, thinly scatteredalong the northern seaboard of America and Asia and in many of the Arcticislands; their physique, mode of living, religion, and language are ofpeculiar ethnological interest; they are divided into tribes, each havingits own territory, and these tribes in turn are subdivided into smallcommunities, over each of which a chief presides; the social organisationis a simple tribal communism; Christianity has been introduced amongstthe Eskimo of South Alaska and in the greater part of Labrador; in otherparts the old religion still obtains, called Shamanism, a kind of fetishworship; much of their folk-lore has been gathered and printed; fishingand seal-hunting are their chief employments; they are of good physique, but deplorably unclean in their habits; their name is supposed to be anIndian derivative signifying "eaters of raw meat. "

ESKIMO DOG, a dog found among the Eskimo, about the size of apointer, hair thick, and of a dark grey or black and white; half tamed, but strong and sagacious; invaluable for sledging. 

ESMOND, HENRY, the title of one of Thackeray's novels, deemed by themost competent critics his best, and the name of its hero, a chivalrouscavalier of the time of Queen Anne. "Esmond" is pronounced by Prof. Saintsbury to be "among the very summits of English prose fiction, exquisitely written in a marvellous resurrection of eighteenth-centurystyle, touched somehow with a strange modernity and life which make it no_pastiche_, containing the most brilliant passages of mere incident, and, above all, enshrining such studies of character . .. As not four othermakers of English prose and verse can show. "

ESNÉ, a town in Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, and 25 m. S. Of Thebes; famous for the ruins of a temple. 

ESOTERIC, a term used to denote teaching intended only for theinitiated, and intelligible only to them. 

ESPARTERO, a celebrated Spanish general and statesman, born atGranatula; supported, against the Carlist faction, the claims of Isabellato the throne of Spain; was for his services made Duke of Vittoria, andin 1841 elected regent; compelled to abdicate, he fled to England, butafterwards returned for a time to the head of affairs; an able man, butwanting in the requisite astuteness and tact for such a post (1793-1879). 

ESPINASSE, CLARE FRANÇOISE, a wit and beauty, born at Lyons, illegitimate child of the Countess d'Albon; went to Paris as companion toMadame du Deffand, with whom she quarrelled; set up a salon of her own, and became celebrated for her many attractions; D'Alembert was devoted toher; many of her letters to her lovers, the Marquis de Mora and M. DeGuilbert in particular, have been published, and display a charmingpersonality (1732-1776). 

ESPINEL, VINCENT DE, a Spanish poet and musician, born at Ronda, Granada; first a soldier and then a priest, the friend of Lope de Vega, and author of a work which Le Sage made free use of in writing "GilBlas"; was an expert musician; played on the guitar, and added a fifthstring (1551-1634). 

ESPIRITU SANTO, (1) a small and swampy maritime province of Brazil(121), lying on the N. Border of Rio de Janeiro; does some trade intimber, cotton, coffee, and sugar; Victoria is the capital; (2) a town(32) in central Cuba; (3) the largest of the NEW HEBRIDES (q. V. )(20); the climate is unhealthy, but the soil fertile. 

ESPRIT DES LOIS (i. E. The Spirit of Laws), the title ofMontesquieu's great work, at once speculative and historical, publishedin 1748, characterised in "Sartor" as the work, like many others, of "aclever infant spelling letters from a hieroglyphic book the lexicon ofwhich lies in Eternity, in Heaven. "

ESPY, JAMES POLLARD, a meteorologist, born in Pennsylvania; didnotable work in investigating the causes of storms, and in 1841 published"The Philosophy of Storms"; was appointed to the Washington observatory, where he carried on experiments in the cooling of gases and atmosphericexpansion (1785-1860). 

ESQUIRE, originally meant a shield-bearer, and was bestowed upon thetwo attendants of a knight, who were distinguished by silver spurs, andwhose especial duty it was to look after their master's armour; now usedwidely as a courtesy title. 

ESQUIROS, HENRY ALPHONSE, poet and physician, born at Paris; hisearly writings, poems and romances, are socialistic in bias; member ofthe Legislative Assembly in 1848; retired to England after the _coupd'état_; returned to France and rose to be a member of the Senate (1875);wrote three works descriptive of the social and religious life of England(1814-1876). 

ESSEN (79), a town in the Rhine province of Prussia, 20 m. NE. OfDüsseldorf, the seat of the famous "Krupp" steel-works. 

ESSENES, a religious communistic fraternity, never very numerous, that grew up on the soil of Judea about the time of the Maccabees, andhad establishments in Judea when Christ was on earth, as well asafterwards in the time of Josephus; they led an ascetic life, practisedthe utmost ceremonial cleanness, were rigorous in their observance of theJewish law, and differed from the Pharisees in that they gave to thePharisaic spirit a monastic expression; they represented Judaism in itspurest essence, and in the spirit of their teaching came nearerChristianity than any other sect of the time; "Essenism, " says Schürer, "is first and mainly of Jewish formation, and in its non-Jewish featuresit had most affinity with the Pythagorean tendency of the Greeks. "

ESSEQUIBO, an important river in British Guiana, 620 m. Long, risesin the Sierra Acaray, navigable for 50 m. To small craft, flows northwardinto the Atlantic. 

ESSEX (785), a county in the SE. Of England, between Suffolk on theN. And Kent in the S. , faces the German Ocean on the E. ; is well wateredwith streams; has an undulating surface; is chiefly agricultural; brewingis an important industry, and the oyster fisheries of the Colne arenoted; Chelmsford is the county town. 

ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, EARL OF, a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, born at Netherwood, Hereford; served in the Netherlands under Leicester, his stepfather; won the capricious fancy of Elizabeth; lost favour bymarrying clandestinely the widow of Sir Philip Sidney, but was restored, and led a life of varying fortune, filling various important offices, till his final quarrel with the Queen and execution (1567-1601). 

ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, EARL OF, son of preceding; commander of theParliamentary forces against Charles I. ; the title died with him, but wasconferred again upon the present family in 1661 (1591-1646). 

ESSLING, a village near Vienna, where the French gained a bloodyvictory over the Austrians in 1809, and which gave the title of prince toMasséna. 

ESSLINGEN (22), an old historic and important manufacturing town inWürtemberg, on the Neckar, 9 m. SE. Of Stuttgart; has a citadel and theLiebfrauen Church, which is a fine Gothic structure with a spire 246 ft. ;is a noted hardware centre, and celebrated for its machinery; a goodtrade is done in textiles, fruit, and sparkling champagne. 

ESTAING, COMTE D', a French admiral, "one of the bravest of men, "fought against the English in the Indies and in America; winced as aRoyalist at the outbreak of the French Revolution; his loyalty to royaltyoutweighed, it was thought, his loyalty to his country, and he wasguillotined (1729-1794). 

ESTE, an ancient and illustrious Italian family from which, by anoffshoot founded by Welf IV. , who became Duke of Bavaria in the 11thcentury, the Guelph Houses of Brunswick and Hanover, also called theEste-Guelphs, trace their descent. Of the Italian branch the most noteddescendant was Alphonso I. , a distinguished soldier and statesman andpatron of art, whose second wife was the famous Lucrezia Borgia. His son, Alphonso II. , is remembered for his cruel treatment of Tasso, placing himin prison for seven years as a madman who dared to make love to one ofthe princesses. 

ESTE (6), an Italian town, 18 m. SW. Of Padua, on the S. Side of theEuganean Hills; has a castle and church with a leaning campanile. 

ESTERHAZY, the town of a noble Austrian family of ancient date, andthat gave birth to a number of illustrious men. 

ESTERHAZY DE GALANTHA, the name of a powerful and famous Hungarianfamily holding the rank of Princes of the Empire since the 17th century. Their estates include upwards of 4000 villages, 60 market-towns, manycastles and lordships, but they are heavily mortgaged. 

ESTHER, THE BOOK OF, a book of the Old Testament, which takes itsname from the chief figure in the story related, an orphan Jewess andward of her cousin Mordecai, who, from her beauty, was chosen into theroyal harem and raised to be consort to the king. It is read through inthe Jewish synagogues at the feast of PURIM (q. V. ). It isobserved that the name of God does not occur once in the book, but thestory implies the presence of an overruling Providence, responding to thecry of His oppressed ones for help. 

ESTHONIA (393), one of the Russian Baltic provinces, has a northernforeshore on the Gulf of Finland, and on the W. Abuts on the Baltic; whatof the country that is free from forest and marsh is chieflyagricultural, but fishing is also an important industry; the people are acomposite of Finns and immigrant Germans, with latterly Russianssuperimposed. 

ESTIENNE, the name of a family of French painters. SeeSTEPHENS. 

EST-IL-POSSIBLE? the name given by James II. To Prince George ofDenmark, the husband of Princess Anne, from his invariable exclamation onhearing how one after another had deserted the Stuart cause; he endedwith deserting it himself. 

ESTRADES, COUNT D', a French diplomatist (1579-1680). 

ESTREMADURA (1, 111), a coast province of Portugal, between Beira andAlemtejo, watered by the Tagus; richly fertile in many parts, but sparelycultivated; silk is an important industry, and an increasing; Lisbon isthe chief city, and with Setubal monopolises the trade; salt, fruits, wine, and oil are exported; also name of a district in Spain betweenPortugal and New Castile, now divided into the provinces of Badajoz andCácéres. 

ETÉOCLES, a son of Oedipus, king of Thebes, agreed on the banishmentof his father to govern the state alternately with his brother Polynices, but failing to keep his engagement, the latter appealed to his guardian, out of which there arose the War of the Seven against Thebes, which endedin the slaughter of the whole seven, upon which the brothers thought toend the strife in single combat, when each fell by the sword of theother. 

ETERNAL CITY, ancient Rome in the esteem of its inhabitants, inaccordance with the promise, as Virgil feigns, of Jupiter to Venus, thegoddess-mother of the race. 

ETERNITIES, THE CONFLUX OF, Carlyle's expressive phrase for Time, asin every moment of it a centre in which all the forces to and fromEternity meet and unite, so that by no past and no future can we bebrought nearer to Eternity than where we at any moment of Time are; thePresent Time, the youngest born of Eternity, being the child and heir ofall the Past times with their good and evil, and the parent of all theFuture, the import of which (see Matt. Xvi. 27) it is accordingly thefirst and most sacred duty of every successive age, and especially theleaders of it, to know and lay to heart as the only link by whichEternity lays hold of it and it of Eternity. 

ETHELBERT, a king of Kent, in whose reign Christianity wasintroduced by St. Augustin and a band of missionaries in 597; drew up thefirst Saxon law code (552-616). 

ETHELDREDA, a Saxon princess, whose name, shortened into St. Audrey, was given to a certain kind of lace, whence "tawdry"; she took refugefrom the married state in the monastery of St. Abb's Head, and afterwardsfounded a monastery in the Isle of Ely (630-679). 

ETHELRED I. , king of Saxon England (866-871), predecessor andbrother of Alfred; his reign was a long and unsuccessful struggle withthe Danes. 

ETHELRED II. , the Unready, a worthless king of Saxon England(979-1016), married Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy, a stepwhich led in the end to the claim which issued in the Norman Conquest(968-1016). 

ETHER, a volatic liquid prepared from the distillation of alcoholand sulphuric acid at high temperature; is colourless, and emits a sweet, penetrating odour; is highly combustible; a useful solvent, and animportant anæsthetic. 

ETHER, a subtle element presumed to pervade all interstellar space, vibrations in which are assumed to account for the transmission of lightand all radiant energy. 

ETHEREDGE, SIR GEORGE, the originator of the kind of comedy"containing a vein of lively humour and witty dialogue which wereafterwards displayed by Congreve and Farquhar"; has been called the"founder of the comedy of intrigue"; he was the author of three cleverplays, entitled "Love in a Tub, " "She Would if She Could, " and "SirFopling Flutter" (1636-1694). 

ETHICS, the science which treats of the distinction between rightand wrong and of the moral sense by which they are discriminated. 

ETHICS OF DUST, THE, "a book by Ruskin about crystallography, but ittwists symbolically in the strangest way all its geology into morality, theology, Egyptian mythology, with fiery cuts at political economy, pretending not to know whether the forces and destinies and behaviour ofcrystals are not very like those of a man. "

ETHIOPIA, a term loosely used in ancient times to indicate theterritory inhabited by black or dark-coloured people; latterly applied toan undefined tract of land stretching S. Of Egypt to the Gulf of Aden, which constituted the kingdom of the Ethiopians, a people of Semiticorigin and speaking a Semitic language called Ge'ez, who weresuccessively conquered by the Egyptians, Persians, and Romans; are knownin the Bible; their first king is supposed to have been Menilehek, son ofSolomon and the Queen of Sheba; their literature consists mostly oftranslations and collections of saws and riddles; the language is nolonger spoken. 

ETHNOLOGY, a science which treats of the human race as grouped intribes or nations, but limits itself to tracing the origin anddistribution of races, and investigating the physical and mentalpeculiarities and differences exhibited by men over all parts of theglobe; the chief problem of the science is to decide between themonogenous and polygenous theories of the origin of the race, andinvestigation inclines to favour the former view. The polygenousargument, based on the diversity of languages, has been discarded, as, ifvalid, necessitating about a thousand different origins, while themonogenous position is strengthened by the ascertained facts that thedifferent racial groups are fruitful amongst themselves, and presentpoints of mental and physical similarity which accord well with thistheory. Ethnologists now divide the human race into three main groups:the _Ethiopian or negro_, the _Mongolic or yellow_, and the _Caucasic orwhite_. 

ÉTIENNE, ST. , (133), an important French town, capital of the dep. Of the Loire, on the Furens, 35 m. SW. Of Lyons; chief seat of theiron-works of France; also has noted ribbon factories. 

ETIVE, a sea-loch in Argyllshire, Scotland, is an inland extensionof the Firth of Lorne, about 20 m. In length, and varying in breadth from2 to ¼ m. ; the mountain scenery along the shores grandly picturesque; theriver which bears the same name rises in Rannoch Moor, and joins the lochafter a SW. Course of 15 m. ; both loch and river afford salmon-fishing. 

ETNA, a volcanic mountain on the E. Coast of Sicily, 10, 840 ft. High; a striking feature is the immense ravine, the Val del Bove, splitting the eastern side of the mountain, and about 5 m. In diameter;on the flanks are many smaller cones. Etna is celebrated for its many anddestructive eruptions; was active in 1892; its observatory, built in1880, at an elevation of 9075 ft. Above sea-level, is the highestinhabited dwelling in Europe. 

ETON, a town in Buckinghamshire, on the Thames, 22 m. SW. Of London;celebrated for its public school, Eton College, founded in 1440 by HenryVI. , which has now upwards of 1000 scholars. 

ÊTRE SUPRÊME, the Supreme Being agreeably to the hollow and vacantconception of the boasted, beggarly 18th-century Enlightenment ofRevolutionary France. 

ETRURIA, the ancient Roman name of a region in Italy, W. Of theApennines from the Tiber to the Macra in the N. ; inhabited by theEtruscans, a primitive people of Italy; at one time united in aconfederation of twelve States; gradually absorbed by the growing Romanpower, and who were famous for their artistic work in iron and bronze. Many of the Etruscan cities contain interesting remains of their earlycivilised state; but their entire literature, supposed to have beenextensive, has perished, and their language is only known throughmonumental inscriptions. Their religion was polytheistic, but embraced abelief in a future life. There is abundant evidence that they hadattained to a high degree of civilisation; the status of women was high, the wife ranking with the husband; their buildings still extant attesttheir skill as engineers and builders; vases, mirrors, and coins of fineworkmanship have been found in their tombs, and jewellery which isscarcely rivalled; while the tombs themselves are remarkable for theirfurnishings of chairs, ornaments, decorations, &c. , showing that theyregarded these sanctuaries more as dwellings of departed spirits than assepulchres of the dead. 

ETTMÜLLER, ERNST MORITZ LUDWIG, a German philologist, born atGerfsdorf, Saxony, professor of German literature in Zurich in 1863; didnotable work in connection with Anglo-Saxon and in Middle German dialects(1802-1877). 

ETTRICK, a Scottish river that rises in Selkirkshire and joins theTweed, 3 m. Below Selkirk; the Yarrow is its chief tributary; a forest ofthe same name once spread over all Selkirkshire and into the adjoiningcounties; the district is associated with some of the finest ballad andpastoral poetry of Scotland. 

ETTRICK SHEPHERD, JAMES HOGG (q. V. ). 

ETTY, WILLIAM, a celebrated painter, born at York; rose from being aprinter's apprentice to the position of a Royal Academician; consideredby Ruskin to have wasted his great powers as a colourist on inadequateand hackneyed subjects (1787-1849). 

EUBOEA (82), the largest of the Grecian Isles, skirts the mainlandon the SE. , to which it is connected by a bridge spanning the TalantaChannel, 40 yards broad; it is about 100 m. In length; has fine quarriesof marble, and mines of iron and copper are found in the mountains;Chalcis is the chief town. 

EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA, a famous geometrican, whose book of"Elements, " revised and improved, still holds its place as an Englishschool-book, although superseded as such in America and the Continent;founded a school of Mathematics in Alexandria; flourished about 300 B. C. 

EUCLID OF MEGARA, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of Socrates, wasinfluenced by the ELEATICS (q. V. ); founded the Megaric schoolof Philosophy, whose chief tenet is that the "good, " or that which is onewith itself, alone is the only real existence. 

EUDÆMONISM, the doctrine that the production of happiness is the aimand measure of virtue. 

EUDOCIA, the ill-fated daughter of an Athenian Sophist, wife ofTheodosius II. , embraced Christianity, her name Athenais previously; wasbanished by her husband on an ill-founded charge of infidelity, and spentthe closing years of her life in Jerusalem, where she became a convert tothe views of EUTYCHES (q. V. ) (394-400). 

EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS, a Grecian astronomer, was a pupil of Plato, andafterwards studied in Egypt; said to have introduced a 365½ day year intoGreece; flourished in the 4th century B. C. 

EUGENE, FRANÇOIS, PRINCE OF SAVOY, a renowned general, born atParis, and related by his mother to Cardinal Mazarin; he renounced hisnative land, and entered the service of the Austrian Emperor Leopold;first gained distinction against the Turks, whose power in Hungary hecrushed in the great victory of Pieterwardein (1697); co-operated withMarlborough in the war of the Spanish Succession, and shared the gloriesof his great victories, and again opposed the French in the cause ofPoland (1663-1736). 

EUGÉNIE, EX-EMPRESS OF THE FRENCH, born at Granada, second daughterof Count Manuel Fernandez of Montigos and Marie Manuela Kirkpatrick ofCloseburn, Dumfriesshire; married to Napoleon III. In 1853; had to leaveFrance in 1870, and has since January 1873 lived as his widow atChiselhurst, Kent; _b_. 1826. 

EUGENIUS, the name of four Popes. E. , St. , I. , Pope from 654 to 658(festival, August 27); E. II. , Pope from 824 to 827; E. III. , Pope from1145 to 1153; E. IV. , Pope from 1431 to 1447. 

EUGENIUS IV. , Pope, born at Venice; his pontificate was marked by aschism created by proceedings in the Council of Basel towards the reformof the Church and the limitation of the papal authority, the issue ofwhich was that he excommunicated the Council and the Council deposed him;he had an unhappy time of it, and in his old age regretted he had everleft his monastery to assume the papal crown. 

EUGUBINE TABLES, seven bronze tablets discovered in 1441 nearEugubium, in Italy, containing inscriptions which supply a key to theoriginal tongues of Italy prior to Latin. 

EUHEMERISM, the theory that the gods of antiquity are merely deifiedmen, so called from Euhemeros, the Greek who first propounded the theory, and who lived 316 B. C. 

EULENSPIEGEL (i. E. Owl-glass), the hero of a popular German tale, which relates no end of pranks, fortunes, and misfortunes of a wanderingmechanic born in a village in Brunswick; buried in 1350 at Mölln, inLauenburg, where they still show his tombstone sculptured with an owland a glass. 

EULER, LEONHARD, a celebrated mathematician, born at Basel;professor in St. Petersburg successively of Physics and Mathematics; cameto reside in Berlin in 1741 at the express invitation of Frederick theGreat; returned to St. Petersburg in 1746, where he died; besides manyworks issued in his lifetime, he left 200 MSS. , which were publishedafter his death (1707-1783). 

EUMENIDES (i. E. The Well-meaning), a name given to theERINNYES (q. V. ) or Furies, from a wholesome and prudent dreadof calling them by their true name. 

EUMOLPUS, the founder of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alleged to havebeen a priest of Demeter or Ceres. 

EUNOMIANS, an ultra-Arian sect of the 4th century, which soondwindled away after breaking from the orthodox Church; called afterEUNOMIUS (q. V. ). 

EUNOMIUS, an Arian divine, born in Cappadocia; head of a sect whomaintained that the Father alone was God, that the Son was generated fromHim, and the Spirit from the Son; was bishop of Cyzicum, a post heby-and-by resigned; _d_. 394. 

EUPATORIA (13), a Russian town on the Crimean coast, in thegovernment of Taurida, 40 m. NW. Of Simferopol; has a fine Tartar mosque, and does a large export trade in hides and cereals; during the CrimeanWar was an important military centre of the Allies. 

EUPHEMISM, is in speech or writing the avoiding of an unpleasant orindelicate word or expression by the use of one which is less direct, andwhich calls up a less disagreeable image in the mind. Thus for "he died"is substituted "he fell asleep, " or "he is gathered to his fathers"; thusthe Greeks called the "Furies" the "Eumenides, " "the benign goddesses, "just as country people used to call elves and fairies "the good folkneighbours. "

EUPHRATES, a river in West Asia, formed by the junction of twoArmenian streams; flows SE. To Kurnah, where it is joined by the Tigris. The combined waters--named the Shat-el-Arab--flow into the Persian Gulf;is 1700 m. Long, and navigable for 1100 m. 

EUPHROSYNE, the cheerful one, or life in the exuberance of joy, oneof the three Graces. See GRACES. 

EUPHUISM, an affected bombastic style of language, so called from"Euphues, " a work of Sir John Lyly's written in that style. 

EURE (349), a dep. Of France, in Normandy, so called from the riverEure which traverses it. 

EURE-ET-LOIR (285), a dep. Of France lying directly S. Of thepreceding; chief rivers the Eure in the N. And the Loir in the S. 

EUREKA (i. E. I have found it), the exclamation of Archimedes ondiscovering how to test the purity of the gold in the crown ofHIERO (q. V. ); he discovered it, tradition says, when taking abath. 

EURIPIDES, a famous Greek tragic dramatist, born at Salamis, ofwealthy parents; first trained as an athlete, and then devoted himself topainting, and eventually to poetry; he brought out his first play at theage of 25, and is reported to have written 80 plays, of which only 18 areextant, besides fragment of others; of these plays the "Alcestes, ""Bacchæ, " "Iphigenia at Aulis, " "Electra, " and "Medea" may be mentioned;he won the tragic prize five times; tinged with pessimism, he isnevertheless less severe than his great predecessors Sophocles andÆschylus, surpassing them in tenderness and artistic expression, butfalling short of them in strength and loftiness of dramatic conception;Sophocles, it is said, represented men as they ought to be, and Euripidesas they are; he has been called the Sophist of tragic poets(480-406 B. C. ). 

EUROPA, a maiden, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, whom Zeus, disguised as a white bull, carried off to Crete, where she became by himthe mother of MINOS, RHADAMANTHUS, and SARPEDON (q. V. ). 

EUROPE (361, 000), the most important, although the second smallest, of the five great land divisions of the globe; is, from a geographicalpoint of view, a peninsula of Asia; the Caspian Sea, Ural River andmountains, form its Asiatic boundary, while on the other three sides itis washed by the Mediterranean on the S. , Atlantic on the W. , and ArcticOcean on the N. ; its coast-line is so highly developed that to every 190sq. M. Of surface there is 1 m. Of coast; this advantage, combined withthe varied adaptability of its land, rivers, and inland seas, and itscentral position, has made it the centre of civilisation and the theatreof the main events of the world's history. Its greatest length is 3370 m. From Cape St. Vincent to the Urals, and its greatest breadth 2400 m. FromCape Matapan to Nordkyn, while its area is about 3, 800, 000 sq. M. ; it issingularly free from wild animals, has a fruitful soil richly cultivated, and possesses in supreme abundance the more useful metals. Its peoplesbelong to the two great ethnological divisions, the Caucasian andMongolian groups; to the former belong the Germanic, Romanic, Slavonic, and Celtic races, and to the latter the Finns, Magyars, and Turks. Christianity is professed throughout, except amongst the Jews, of whomthere are about six millions, and in Turkey, where Mohammedanism claimsabout seven millions; of Catholics there are about 155 millions, ofProtestants 85, and of the Greek Church 80. Amongst the 18 countries theform of government most prevailing is the hereditary monarchy, restingmore and more on a wide representation of the people. 

EUROTAS, the classic name of the Iri, a river of Greece, which flowspast Sparta and discharges into the Gulf of Laconia, 30 m. Long. 

EURUS, the god of the withering east wind. 

EURYDICE. See ORPHEUS. 

EURYSTHEUS, the king of Mycenæ, at whose command, as subject to himby fate, Hercules was required to perform his 12 labours, on theachievement of which depended his admission to the rank of an immortal. 

EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI, a distinguished early Christian writer, born inPalestine, bishop of Cæsarea in 313; headed the moderate Arians at theCouncil of Nice, who shrank from disputing about a subject so sacred asthe nature of the Trinity; wrote a history of the world to A. D. 328; his"Ecclesiastical History" is the first record of the Christian Church upto 324; also wrote a Life of Constantine, who held him in high favour;many extracts of ancient writers no longer extant are found in the worksof Eusebius (about 264-340). 

EUSTACHIO, BARTOLOMMEO, an Italian physician of the 16th century;settled at Rome, made several anatomical discoveries, among others thoseof the _tube_ from the middle ear to the mouth, and a _valve_ on the wallof the right auricle of the heart, both called _Eustachian_ after him. 

EUSTATHIUS, archbishop of Thessalonica, a Greek commentator ofHomer, born in Constantinople; a man of wide classical learning, and hiswork on Homer of value for the extracts of writings that no longer exist;_d_. 1198. 

EUTERPË, the Muse of lyric poetry, represented in ancient works ofart with a flute in her hand. 

EUTROPIUS, FLAVIUS, a Roman historian, secretary to the EmperorConstantine; wrote an epitome of Roman history, which from its simplicityand accuracy still retains its position as a school-book; _d_. About 370. 

EUTYCHES, a Byzantine heresiarch, who, in combatingNESTORIANISM (q. V. ), fell into the opposite extreme, andmaintained that in the incarnation the human nature of Christ wasabsorbed in the divine, a doctrine which was condemned by the Council ofChalcedon in 448 (378-454). 

EUTYCHIANISM. See SUPRA. 

EUXINE, a Greek name for the BLACK SEA (q. V. ). 

EVANDER, an Arcadian, who is said to have come from Greece with acolony to Latium and settled in it 60 years before the Trojan war, andwith whom Æneas formed an alliance when he landed in Italy; he iscredited with having introduced the civilising arts of Greece. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to all those forms of Christianity whichregard the atonement of Christ, or His sacrifice on the Cross for sin, asthe ground and central principle of the Christian faith. 

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, an alliance of Christians of all countries anddenominations holding what are called evangelical principles, and foundedin 1845. 

EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious body in Scotland which originated in1843 under the leadership of James Morison of Kilmarnock, and professed acreed which allowed them greater freedom as preachers of the gospel ofChrist. See MORISONIANISM. 

EVANGELINE, the heroine of a poem by Longfellow of the same name, founded on an incident connected with the expulsion of the natives ofAcadia from their homes by order of George II. 

EVANGELIST, a name given in the early Church to one whose office itwas to persuade the ignorant and unbelieving into the fold of the Church. 

EVANS, SIR DE LACY, an English general, born at Moeg, Ireland;served in the Peninsular war; was present at Quatre-Bras and Waterloo;commanded the British Legion sent to assist Queen Isabella in Spain, andthe second division of the army in the Crimea and the East; was for manyyears a member of Parliament (1787-1870). 

EVANS, MARY ANN, the real name of GEORGE ELIOT (q. V. ). 

EVELYN, JOHN, an English writer, born at Wotton, Surrey; travelledin France and Italy during the Civil War, where he devoted much time togardening and the study of trees; was author of a celebrated work, entitled "Sylva; or, A Discourse of Forest Trees, " &c. ; did much toimprove horticulture and introduce exotics into this country; his"Memoirs, " written as a diary, are full of interest, "is justly famousfor the fulness, variety, and fidelity of its records" (1620-1706). 

EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest mountain in the world; is one of theHimalayan peaks in Nepal, India; is 29, 002 ft. Above sea-level. 

EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL, an American diplomatist and author, born atBoston; was U. S. Ambassador at The Hague and Madrid, and commissioner toChina; wrote on a variety of subjects, including both politics andbelles-lettres, and a collection of critical and miscellaneous essays(1792-1847). 

EVERETT, EDWARD, American scholar, statesman, and orator, brother ofthe preceding; was a Unitarian preacher of great eloquence; distinguishedas a Greek scholar and professor; for a time editor of the _NorthAmerican Review_; was a member of Congress, and unsuccessful candidatefor the Vice-Presidency of the Republic; his reputation rests on his"orations, " which are on all subjects, and show great vigour andversatility of genius (1794-1865). 

EVERLASTING NO, THE, Carlyle's name for the spirit of unbelief inGod, especially as it manifested itself in his own, or ratherTeufelsdröckh's, warfare against it; the spirit, which, as embodied inthe MEPHISTOPHELES (q. V. ) of Goethe, is for ever denying, --_derstets verneint_--the reality of the divine in the thoughts, thecharacter, and the life of humanity, and has a malicious pleasure inscoffing at everything high and noble as hollow and void. See SARTORRESARTUS. 

EVERLASTING YEA, THE, Carlyle's name for the spirit of faith in Godin an express attitude of clear, resolute, steady, and uncompromisingantagonism to the Everlasting No, an the principle that there is no suchthing as faith in God except in such antagonism, no faith except in suchantagonism against the spirit opposed to God. 

EVERSLEY, a village in Hampshire, 13 m. NE. Of Basingstoke; theburial-place of Charles Kingsley, who for 35 years was rector of theparish. 

EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE, VISCOUNT, politician; graduated atCambridge; called to the bar; entered Parliament, and in 1839 becameSpeaker of the House of Commons, a post he held with great acceptance for18 years; retired, and was created a peer (1794-1888). 

EVIL EYE, a superstitious belief that certain people have the powerof exercising a baneful influence on others, and even animals, by theglance of the eyes. The superstition is of ancient date, and is met withamong almost all races, as it is among illiterate people and savagesstill. It was customary to wear amulets toward the evil off. 

EVOLUTION, the theory that the several species of plants and animalson the globe were not created in their present form, but have all beenevolved by modifications of structure from cruder forms under orcoincident with change of environment, an idea which is being applied toeverything organic in the spiritual as well as the natural world. SeeDARWINIAN THEORY. 

EV`ORA, a city of Portugal, beautifully situated in a fertile plain80 m. E. Of Lisbon, once a strong place, and the seat of an archbishop;it abounds in Roman antiquities. 

EVREMOND, SAINT, a lively and witty Frenchman; got into trouble inFrance from the unbridled indulgence of his wit, and fled to England, where he became a great favourite at the court of Charles II. , andenjoyed himself to the top of his bent; his letters are written in a mostgraceful style (1613-1703). 

EVREUX (14), capital of the dep. Of Eure, on the Iton, 67 m. NW. OfParis; is an elegant town; has a fine 11th-century cathedral, anepiscopal palace with an old clock tower; interesting ruins have beenexcavated in the old town; is the seat of a bishop; paper, cotton, andlinen are manufactured, and a trade is carried on in cereals, timber, andliqueurs. 

EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON, a distinguished Orientalist andbiblical scholar, born at Göttingen, and professor both there and atTübingen; his works were numerous, and the principal were "The PoeticBooks of the Old Testament, " "The Prophets, " and "The History of thePeople of Israel"; he was a student and interpreter of the concrete, andbelonged to no party (1803-1875). 

EWALD, JOHANNES, a Danish dramatist and lyrist, born at Copenhagen;served as a soldier in the German and Austrian armies; studied theologyat Copenhagen; disappointed in love, he devoted himself to poeticalcomposition; ranks as the founder of Danish tragedy, and is the author ofsome of the finest lyrics in the language (1743-1781). 

EWIGE JUDE, the Everlasting Jew, the German name for the WanderingJew. 

EXCALIBUR, the magic sword of King Arthur, which only he couldunsheathe and wield. When he was about to die he requested a knight tothrow it into a lake close by, who with some reluctance threw it, when ahand reached out to seize it, flourished it round three times, and thendrew it under the water for good. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiastical punishment inflicted uponheretics and offenders against the Church laws and violators of the moralcode; was formulated in the Christian Church in the 2nd and 3rdcenturies. It varied in severity according to the degree oftransgression, but in its severest application involved exclusion fromthe Eucharist, Christian burial, and the rights and privileges of theChurch; formerly it had the support of the civil authority, but is now apurely spiritual penalty. 

EXELMANS, REMY JOSEPH ISODORE, COMTE, a distinguished Frenchmarshal, born at Bar-le-Duc; entered the army at 16; won distinction inthe Naples campaign, and for his services at Eylau in 1807 was made aBrigadier-General; was taken prisoner in Spain while serving under Murat, and sent to England, where he was kept prisoner three years; liberated, took part in Napoleon's Russian campaign, for his conduct in which he wasappointed a General of Division; after Napoleon's fall lived in exiletill 1830; received honours from Louis Philippe, and was created aMarshal of France by Louis Napoleon in 1851 (1775-1852). 

EXETER (50), the capital of Devonshire, on the Exe, 75 m. SW. OfBristol, a quaint old town; contains a celebrated cathedral founded in1112. 

EXETER HALL, a hall in the Strand, London; head-quarters of theY. M. C. A. ; erected in 1831 for holding religious and philanthropic meetings. 

EXMOOR, an elevated stretch of vale and moorland in the SW. OfSomerset, NE. Of Devonshire; has an area of over 100 sq. M. , 25 of whichare covered with forest. 

EXMOUTH (8), a noted seaside resort on the Devonshire coast, at themouth of the Exe, 11 m. SE. Of Exeter; has a fine beach and promenade. 

EXODUS (i. E. The Going out), the book of the Old Testament whichrecords the deliverance of the children of Israel from Egyptian bondage, and the institution of the moral and ceremonial laws for the nation;consists partly of history and partly of legislation. 

"EXODUS FROM HOUNDSDITCH, " the contemplated title of a work whichCarlyle would fain have written, but found it impossible in his time. "Out of Houndsditch indeed!" he exclaims. "Ah, were we but out, and hadour own along with us" (our inheritance from the past, he means). "Butthey that have come hitherto have come in a state of brutal nakedness, scandalous mutilation" (having cast their inheritance from the pastaway), "and impartial bystanders say sorrowfully, 'Return rather; it isbetter even to return!'" Houndsditch was a Jew's quarter, and oldclothesmarket in London, and was to Carlyle the symbol of the alarmingtraffic at the time in spiritualities fallen extinct. Had he given a listof these, as he has already in part done, without labelling them so, hewould only, he believed, have given offence both to the old-ragworshippers and those that had cast the rags off, and were all, unwittingly to themselves, going about naked; considerate he in this ofpreserving what of worth was in the past. 

EXOGENS, the name for the order of plants whose stem is formed bysuccessive accretions to the outside of the wood under the bark. 

EXORCISM, conjuration by God or Christ or some holy name, of someevil spirit to come out of a person; it was performed on a heathen as anidolater, and eventually on a child as born in sin prior to baptism. 

EXOTERIC, a term applied to teaching which the uninitiated may beexpected to comprehend, and which is openly professed, as in a publicconfession of faith. 

EXTERNALITY, the name for what is _ab extra_ as apart from what is_ab intra_ in determining the substance as well as form of things, andwhich in the Hegelian philosophy is regarded as working conjointly withthe latter. 

EXTREME UNCTION, one of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church;an anointing of consecrated or holy oil administered by a priest in theform of a cross to a sick person upon the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, and face at the point of death, which is presumed to impart grace andstrength against the last struggle. 

EYCK, JAN VAN, a famous Flemish painter, born at Mass-Eyck; wasinstructed by his eldest brother Hubert (1370-1426), with whom helaboured at Bruges and Ghent; reputed to have been the first to employoil colours (1389-1440). 

EYLAU, a small town, 23 m. S. Of Königsberg, the scene of a greatbattle between Napoleon and the Russian and Prussian allies in February8, 1807; the fight was interrupted by darkness, under cover of which theallies retreated, having had the worst of it. 

EYRE, EDWARD JOHN, explorer and colonial governor, born inYorkshire; emigrated to Australia in 1832; successfully explored theinterior of SW. Australia in 1841; governor of New Zealand in 1846, ofSt. Vincent in 1852, and of Jamaica in 1862; recalled in 1865, andprosecuted for harsh treatment of the natives, but was acquitted; hisdefence was championed by Carlyle, Ruskin, and Kingsley, while J. S. Millsupported the prosecution; _b_. 1815. 

EYRE, JANE, the heroine of a novel of Charlotte Brontë's so called, a governess who, in her struggles with adverse fortune, wins theadmiration and melts the heart of a man who had lived wholly for theworld. 

EZEKIEL, a Hebrew prophet, born in Jerusalem; a man of priestlydescent, who was carried captive to Babylon 599 B. C. , and was banishedto Tel-abib, on the banks of the Chebar, 201 m. From the city, where, with his family about him, he became the prophet of the captivity, andthe rallying centre of the Dispersion. Here he foretold the destructionof Jerusalem as a judgment on the nation, and comforted them with thepromise of a new Jerusalem and a new Temple on their repentance, man byman, and their return to the Lord. His prophecies arrange themselves inthree groups--those denouncing judgment on Jerusalem, those denouncingjudgment on the heathen, and those announcing the future glory of thenation. 

EZRA, a Jewish scribe of priestly rank, and full of zeal for the lawof the Lord and the restoration of Israel; author of a book of the OldTestament, which records two successive returns of the people fromcaptivity, and embraces a period of 79 years, from 576 to 457 B. C. , being a continuation of the book of Chronicles, its purpose being torelate the progress of the restored theocracy in Judah and Jerusalem, particularly as regards the restoration of the Temple and there-institution of the priesthood. 

F

FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM, a Catholic divine and hymn-writer, born atCalverley, Yorkshire; at Oxford he won the Newdigate Prize in 1836; forthree years was rector of Elton, but under the influence of Newman joinedthe Church of Rome (1845), and after founding a brotherhood of convertsat Birmingham in 1849, took under his charge a London branch of theOratory of St. Philip Neri; wrote several meritorious theological works, but his fame chiefly rests on his fine hymns, the "Pilgrims of the Night"one of the most famous (1814-1863). 

FABER, GEORGE STANLEY, an Anglican divine, born in Holland; avoluminous writer on theological subjects and prophecy (1773-1854). 

FABIAN, ST. , Pope from 236 to 251; martyred along with St. Sebastianduring the persecution of Decius. 

FABIAN SOCIETY, a middle-class socialist propaganda, founded in1883, which "aims at the reorganisation of society by the emancipation ofland and industrial capital from individual and class ownership, andvesting of them in the community for the general benefit"; haslectureships, and issues "Essays" and "Tracts"; it watches and seizes itsopportunities to achieve Socialist results, and hence the name. SeeFABIUS QUINTUS (1). 

FABII, a family of ancient Rome of 307 members, all of whom perishedin combat with the Veii, 477 B. C. , all save one boy left behind in Rome, from whom descended subsequent generations of the name. 

FABIUS PICTOR, the oldest annalist of Rome; his annals of greatvalue; 216 B. C. 

FABIUS QUINTUS, (Maximus Verrucosus), a renowned Roman general, fivetimes consul, twice censor and dictator in 221 B. C. ; famous for hiscautious generalship against Hannibal in the Second Punic War, harassingto the enemy, which won him the surname of "Cunctator" or delayer; _d_. 203 B. C. 

FABIUS QUINTUS (Rullianus), a noted Roman general, five times consuland twice dictator; waged successful war against the Samnites in 323 B. C. 

FABIUS, THE AMERICAN, General Washington, so called from his Fabiantactics. See FABIUS QUINTUS (1). 

FABLE OF THE BEES, a work by Mandeville, a fable showing how vicemakes some people happy and virtue miserable, conceived as bees. 

FABLIAUX, a species of metrical tales of a light and satiricalnature in vogue widely in France during the 12th and 13th centuries; manyof the stories were of Oriental origin, but were infused with the Frenchspirit of the times; La Fontaine, Boccaccio, and Chaucer drew freely onthem; they are marked by all the vivacity and perspicuity, if alsolubricity, of their modern successors in the French novel and comicdrama. 

FABRE, JEAN, a French Protestant, celebrated for his filial piety;he took the place of his father in the galleys, who had been condemned totoil in them on account of his religious opinions (1727-1797). 

FABRE D'EGLANTINE, a French dramatic poet, born at Carcassonne;wrote comedies; was a member of the Convention and of the Committee ofPublic Safety, of the extreme party of the Revolution; falling undersuspicion, was guillotined along with Danton (1752-1794). 

FABRICIUS, CAIUS, a Roman of the old school, distinguished for thesimplicity of his manners and his incorruptible integrity; his name hasbecome the synonym for a poor man who in public life deals honourably anddoes not enrich himself; was consul 282 B. C. 

FABRICIUS or FABRIZIO, GIROLAMO, a famous Italian anatomist, born at Aquapendente; became professor at Padua in 1565, where he gaineda world-wide reputation as a teacher; Harvey declares that he got hisfirst idea of the circulation of the blood from attending his lectures(1537-1619). 

FABRONI, ANGELO, a learned Italian, born in Tuscany; wrote the Livesof the illustrious literati of Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries, andearned for himself the name of the "Plutarch" of his country (1732-1803). 

FACCIOLATI, JACOPO, lexicographer, born at Torreglia; became aprofessor of Theology and Logic at Padua; chiefly interested in classicalliterature; he, in collaboration with an old pupil, Egidio Forcellini(1688-1768), began the compilation of a new Latin dictionary, which wascompleted and published two years after his death by his colleague; thiswork has been the basis of all subsequent lexicons of the Latin language(1682-1769). 

FACIAL ANGLE, an angle formed by drawing two lines, one horizontallyfrom the nostril to the ear, and the other perpendicularly from theadvancing part of the upper jawbone to the most prominent part of theforehead, an angle by which the degree of intelligence and sagacity inthe several members of the animal kingdom is by some measured. 

FAËRIE QUEENE, the name of an allegorical poem by Edmund Spenser, inwhich 12 knights were, in twelve books, to represent as many virtues, described as issuing forth from the castle of Gloriana, queen of England, against certain impersonations of the vices and errors of the world. Suchwas the plan of the poem, but only six of the books were finished, andthese contain the adventures of only six of the knights, representingseverally Holiness, Temperance, Chastity, Friendship, Justice, andCourtesy. 

FAED, JOHN, a Scottish artist, son of a millwright, born at BarleyMill, Kirkcudbright; was elected an A. R. S. A. In 1847, and R. S. A. In1851; his paintings are chiefly of humble Scottish life, the "Cottar'sSaturday Night" among others; _b_. 1820. 

FAED, THOMAS, brother of the preceding, born at Barley Mill;distinguished himself in his art studies at Edinburgh; went to London, where his pictures of Scottish life won him a foremost place among thoseof his contemporaries; was elected R. A. In 1864 and honorary member ofthe Vienna Royal Academy; _b_. 1826. 

FAENZA (14), an old Italian cathedral town, 31 m. SE. Of Bologna;noted for its manufacture of majolica ware, known from the name of thetown as "faience. "

FAGEL, GASPAR, a Dutch statesman, distinguished for his integrityand the firmness with which he repelled the attempts of Louis XIV. Against his country, and for his zeal in supporting the claims of thePrince of Orange to the English throne (1629-1688). 

FAGOT VOTE, a vote created by the partitioning of a property into asmany tenements as will entitle the holders to vote. 

FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL, a celebrated physicist, born at Danzig;spent much of his life in England, but finally settled in Holland;devoted himself to physical research; is famed for his improvement of thethermometer by substituting quicksilver for spirits of wine and inventinga new scale, the freezing-point being 32° above zero and the boiling 212°(1686-1736). 

FAINEANT, LE NOIR, Richard Coeur-de-Lion in "Ivanhoe. "

FAINEANTS (i. E. The Do-nothings), the name given to the kings ofFrance of the Merovingian line from 670 to 752, from Thierry III. ToChildéric III. , who were subject to their ministers, the mayors of thepalace, who discharged all their functions. 

FAIR CITY, Perth, from the beauty of its surroundings. 

FAIR MAID OF KENT, the Countess of Salisbury, eventually wife of theBlack Prince, so called from her beauty. 

FAIR MAID OF NORWAY, daughter of Eric II. Of Norway, andgranddaughter of Alexander III. Of Scotland; died on her way from Norwayto succeed her grandfather on the throne of Scotland, an event which gaverise to the famous struggle for the crown by rival competitors. 

FAIR MAID OF PERTH, a beauty of the name of Kate Glover, the heroineof Scott's novel of the name. 

FAIR ROSAMOND, the mistress of Henry II. ; kept in a secret bower atWoodstock, in the heart of a labyrinth which only he could thread. 

FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW M. , able and thoughtful theologian, born inEdinburgh where he also graduated (1839); received the charge of theEvangelical Church at Bathgate, and subsequently studied in Berlin. In1878 became Principal of the Airedale Congregational College at Bradford;was Muir Lecturer on Comparative Religions in Edinburgh University in1881-83, and five years later was elected Principal of Mansfield Collegeat Oxford; author of "The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, " andseveral other scholarly works; _b_. 1838. 

FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent engineer, born at Kelso; servedan apprenticeship in N. Shields, and in 1817 started business inManchester, where he came to the front as a builder of iron ships;improved upon Robert Stephenson's idea of a tubular bridge, and builtupwards of 1000 of these; introduced iron shafts into cotton mills, andwas employed by Government to test the suitability of iron for purposesof defence; created a baronet in 1869 (1789-1874). 

FAIRFAX, EDWARD, translator of Tasso, born at Denton, Yorkshire, where he spent a quiet and studious life; his stately translation ofTasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata" was published in 1600, and holds rank asone of the best poetical translations in the language; he wrote also a"Discourse" on witchcraft (about 1572-1632). 

FAIRFAX, THOMAS, LORD, a distinguished Parliamentary general, nephewof the preceding, born at Denton, Yorkshire; served in Holland, but in1642 joined the Parliamentarians, of whose forces he became general(1645); after distinguishing himself at Marston Moor and Naseby, wassuperseded by Cromwell (1650), and retired into private life untilCromwell's death, when he supported the restoration of Charles II. To theEnglish throne (1612-1671). 

FAIRIES, imaginary supernatural beings conceived of as of diminutivesize but in human shape, who play a conspicuous part in the traditions ofEurope during the Middle Ages, and are animated more or less by a spiritof mischief out of a certain loving regard for, or humorous interest in, the affairs of mankind, whether in the way of thwarting or helping. 

FAIRSERVICE, ANDREW, a shrewd gardener in "Rob Roy. "

FAIRY RINGS, circles of seemingly withered grass often seen in lawnsand meadows, caused by some fungi below the surface, but popularlyascribed in superstitious times to fairies dancing in a ring. 

FAITH, in its proper spiritual sense and meaning is a deep-rootedbelief affecting the whole life, that the visible universe in everysection of it, particularly here and now, rests on and is themanifestation of an eternal and an unchangeable Unseen Power, whose nameis Good, or God. 

FAITH, ST. , a virgin martyr who, in the 4th century, was tortured onan iron bed and afterwards beheaded. 

FAKIR (lit. Poor), a member of an order of monkish mendicants inIndia and adjoining countries who, from presumed religious motives, practise or affect lives of severe self-mortification, but who in manycases cultivate filthiness of person to a disgusting degree. 

FALAISE (8), a French town in the dep. Of Calvados, 22 m. SW. OfCaen; the birthplace of William the Conqueror. 

FALCONER, HUGH, botanist and palæontologist, born at Forres, Elginshire; studied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh; joined the East IndiaCompany's medical service; made large collections of fossils and plants;became professor of Botany in Calcutta; introduced the tea-plant intoIndia, and discovered the asafoetida plant; died in London (1808-1865). 

FALCONER, ION KEITH, missionary and Arabic scholar, the third son ofthe Earl of Kintore; after passing through Harrow and Cambridge, hisardent temperament carried him into successful evangelistic work inLondon; was appointed Arabic professor at Cambridge, but his promisingcareer was cut short near Aden while engaged in missionary work;translated the Fables of Bidpaï; a noted athlete, and champion cyclist ofthe world in 1878 (1856-1887). 

FALCONER, WILLIAM, poet, born in Edinburgh; a barber's son; spentmost of his life at sea; perished in the wreck of the frigate _Aurora_, of which he was purser; author of the well-known poem "The Shipwreck"(1732-1769). 

FALCONRY, the art and practice of employing trained hawks in thepursuit and capture on the wing of other birds, a sport largely indulgedin by the upper classes in early times in Europe. 

FALK, ADALBERT, Prussian statesman, born at Metschkau, Silesia; asMinister of Public Worship and Education he was instrumental in passinglaws designed to diminish the influence of the clergy in State affairs;retired in 1879; _b_. 1827. 

FALKIRK (20), a town in Stirlingshire, 26 m. NW. Of Edinburgh, notedfor its cattle-markets and the iron-works in its neighbourhood; Wallacewas defeated here in 1298 by Edward I. 

FALKLAND (2), a royal burgh in Fifeshire, 10 m. SW. Of Cupar; hasruins of a famous palace, a royal residence of the Stuart sovereigns, which was restored by the Marquis of Bute in 1888. 

FALKLAND, LUCIUS GARY, VISCOUNT, soldier, scholar, and statesman, son of Sir Henry Cary, Viscount Falkland; was lord-deputy of Irelandunder James I. ; entered the service of the new Dutch Republic, but soonreturned to England and settled at Tew, Oxfordshire, where he indulgedhis studious tastes, and entertained his scholarly friends Clarendon, Chillingworth, and others; after joining Essex's expedition into Scotlandhe sat in Parliament, and in 1642 became Secretary of State; suspiciousof Charles's weakness and duplicity, he as much distrusted theParliamentary movement, and fell at Newbury fighting for the king(1610-1643). 

FALKLAND ISLANDS (2), a group of islands in the S. Atlantic, 240 m. E. Of Tierra del Fuego; discovered in 1592 by Davis; purchased from theFrench in 1764 by Spain, but afterwards ceded to Britain, by whom theywere occupied in 1833 and used as a convict settlement until 1852;besides E. And W. Falkland there are upwards of 100 small islands, mostlybarren; wheat and flax are raised, but sheep-farming is the mainindustry. 

FALL, THE, the first transgression of divine law on the part of man, conceived of as involving the whole human race in the guilt of it, andrepresented as consisting in the wilful partaking of the fruit of theforbidden tree of the _knowledge_ of both good and evil. The story of theFall in Genesis has in later times been regarded as a spiritual allegory, and simply the Hebrew attempt, one amongst many, to explain the origin ofevil. It is worthy of note that a narrative, similar even to detail, exists in the ancient religious writings of the Hindus and Persians. 

FALLOPIUS, GABRIELLO, anatomist, born at Modena; professor ofAnatomy at Pisa and at Padua; the Fallopian tubes which connect theovaries with the uterus, first accurately described by him, are calledafter his name, as also the duct which transmits the facial nerve afterit leaves the auditory nerve (1523-1562). 

FALLOUX, FRÉDÉRIC ALFRED PIERRE, VICOMTE DE, author and statesman, born at Angers; member of the House of Deputies; favoured therevolutionaries of 1848, and under the Presidency of Louis Napoleonbecame Minister of Public Instruction; retired in 1849, and became amember of the French Academy (1857); author of a "History of Louis XVI. "and a "History of Pius V. , " both characterised by a strong Legitimistbias (1811-1886). 

FALMOUTH (13), a seaport on the Cornish coast, on the estuary of theFal, 18 m. NE. Of the Lizard; its harbour, one of the finest in England, is defended E. And W. By St. Mawes Castle and Pendennis Castle; pilchardfishing is actively engaged in, and there are exports of tin and copper. 

FALSTAFF, SIR JOHN, a character in Shakespeare's "Henry IV. " and the"Merry Wives of Windsor"; a boon companion of Henry, Prince of Wales; acowardly braggart, of sensual habits and great corpulency. SeeFASTOLF. 

FAMILIAR SPIRITS, certain supernatural beings presumed, agreeably toa very old belief (Lev. Xix. 31), to attend magicians or sorcerers, andto be at their beck and call on any emergency. 

FAMILISTS, or the Brotherhood of Love, a fanatical sect which arosein Holland in 1556, and affected to love all men as brothers. 

FAMILY COMPACT, a compact concluded in 1761 between the Bourbons ofFrance, Spain, and Italy to resist the naval power of England. 

FAN, a light hand implement used to cause a draught of cool air toplay upon the face; there are two kinds, the folding and non-folding; thelatter, sometimes large and fixed on a pole, were known to the ancients, the former were invented by the Japanese in the 7th century, and becamepopular in Italy and Spain in the 16th century; but Paris soon took alead in their manufacture, carrying them to their highest pitch ofartistic perfection in the reign of Louis XIV. 

FANARIOTS, the descendants of the Greeks of noble birth who remainedin Constantinople after its capture by Mahomet II. In 1453, so calledfrom Fanar, the quarter of the city which they inhabited; they rose atone time to great influence in Turkish affairs, though they have nonenow. 

FANDANGO, a popular Spanish dance, specially in favour among theAndalusians; is in ¾ time, and is danced to the accompaniment of guitarsand castanets. 

FANS, an aboriginal tribe dwelling between the Gaboon and OgowayRivers, in western equatorial Africa; are brave and intelligent, and ofgood physique, but are addicted to cannibalism. 

FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD, diplomatist and poet, born at Ware Park, Hertford; studied at the Inner Temple, and after a Continental tourbecame attached to the English embassy at Madrid; sided with theRoyalists at the outbreak of the Civil War; was captured at the battle ofWorcester, but escaped and shared the exile of Charles II. ; on theRestoration negotiated Charles's marriage with Catharine, and becameambassador at the court of Philip IV. Of Spain; translated Camoëns's"Lusiad" and various classical pieces (1608-1666). 

FANTINE, one of the most heart-affecting characters in "LesMisérables" of Victor Hugo. 

FANTIS, an African tribe on the Gold Coast, enemies of theirconquerors the Ashantis; fought as allies of the British in the AshantiWar (1873-74), but, although of strong physique, proved cowardly allies. 

FARAD, the unit of electrical energy, so called from Faraday. 

FARADAY, MICHAEL, a highly distinguished chemist and naturalphilosopher, born at Newington Butts, near London, of poor parents;received a meagre education, and at 13 was apprenticed to a bookseller, but devoted his evenings to chemical and electrical studies, and became astudent under Sir H. Davy, who, quick to detect his ability, installedhim as his assistant; in 1827 he succeeded Davy as lecturer at the RoyalInstitution, and became professor of Chemistry in 1833; was pensioned in1835, and in 1858 was allotted a residence in Hampton Court; in chemistryhe made many notable discoveries, e. G. The liquefaction of chlorine, while in electricity and magnetism his achievements cover the entirefield of these sciences, and are of the first importance (1791-1867). 

FARAIZI, a Mohammedan sect formed in 1827, and met with chiefly inEastern Bengal; they discard _tradition_, and accept the Korân as theirsole guide in religious and spiritual concerns, in this respect differingfrom the Sunnites, with whom they have much else in common; although of apurer morality than the main body of Mohammedans, they are narrow andintolerant. 

FAREL, WILLIAM, a Swiss reformer, born at Dauphiné; introduced, in1534, after two futile attempts, the reformed faith into Geneva, where hewas succeeded in the management of affairs by John Calvin; he has beencalled the "pioneer of the Reformation in Switzerland and France"(1489-1565). 

FARIA Y SOUSA, MANUEL DE, a Portuguese poet and historian; enteredthe diplomatic service, and was for many years secretary to the Spanishembassy at Rome; was a voluminous writer of history and poetry, and didmuch to develop the literature of his country (1590-1649). 

FARINATA, a Florentine nobleman of the Ghibelline faction, whom forhis infidelity and sensuality Dante has placed till the day of judgmentin a red-hot coffin in hell. 

FARINELLI, CARLO, a celebrated singer, born in Naples; his singingcreated great enthusiasm in London, which he visited in 1734 (1705-1782). 

FARINI, LUIGO CARLO, an Italian statesman and author, born at Russi;practised as a doctor in his native town; in 1841 was forced, on accountof his liberal sympathies, to withdraw from the Papal States, butreturned in 1846 on the proclamation of the Papal amnesty, and afterwardsheld various offices of State; was Premier for a few months in 1863;author of "Il Stato Romano, " of which there is an English translation byMr. Gladstone (1812-1866). 

FARMER, RICHARD, an eminent scholar, born at Leicester;distinguished himself at Cambridge, where he became classical tutor ofhis college, and in the end master (1775); three years later he wasappointed chief-librarian to the university, and afterwards wassuccessively canon of Lichfield, Canterbury, and St. Paul's; wrote anerudite essay on "The Learning of Shakespeare" (1735-1797). 

FARMER GEORGE, George III. , a name given to him from his plain, homely, thrifty manners and tastes. 

FARMERS-GENERAL, a name given in France prior to the Revolution to aprivileged syndicate which farmed certain branches of the public revenue, that is, obtained the right of collecting certain taxes on payment of anannual sum into the public treasury; the system gave rise to corruptionand illegal extortion, and was at best an unproductive method of raisingthe national revenue; it was swept away at the Revolution. 

FARNE or FERNE ISLES, THE, also called the Staples, a group of17 isles 2 m. Off the NE. Coast of Northumberland, many of which are mererocks visible only at low-water; are marked by two lighthouses, and areassociated with a heroic rescue by GRACE DARLING (q. V. ) in1838; on House Isle are the ruins of a Benedictine priory; about 50people have their homes upon the larger isles. 

FARNESE, the surname of a noble Italian family dating its rise fromthe 13th century. 

FARNESE, ALESSANDRO, attained the papal chair as Paul III. In 1534;the excommunication of Henry VIII. Of England, the founding of the Orderof the Jesuits (1540), the convocation of the Council of Trent (1542), mark his term of office (1468-1549). 

FARNESE, ALESSANDRO, grandson of the following, and 3rd duke ofParma, a famous general; distinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto;was governor of the Spanish Netherlands, and fought successfully againstFrance, defeating Henry IV. Before the walls of Paris, and again twoyears later at Rouen, where he was mortally wounded (1546-1592). 

FARNESE, PIETRO LUIGI, a natural son of Pope Paul III. , who figuresin Benvenuto Cellini's Life; received in fief from the Papal See variousestates, including the dukedom of Parma; he ill requited his father'strust and affection by a life of debauchery and finally sufferedassassination in 1549. 

FAROE ISLANDS (13), a group of 22 islands of basaltic formation, about 200 m. NW. Of the Shetlands; originally Norwegian, they now belongto Denmark; agriculture is limited, and fishing and sheep-farming chieflyengage the natives; there is an export trade in wool, fish, and wild-fowlleathers. The people, who still speak their old Norse dialect, althoughDanish is the language of the schools and law courts, are Lutherans, andenjoy a measure of self-government, and send representatives to theDanish _Rigsdag_. 

FARQUHAR, GEORGE, comic dramatist, born at Londonderry; early famousfor his wit, of which he has given abundant proof in his dramas, "Loveand a Bottle" being his first, and "The Beaux' Stratagem" his last, written on his deathbed; died young; he commenced life on the stage, butthrew the profession up in consequence of having accidentally wounded abrother actor while fencing (1678-1707). 

FARR, WILLIAM, statistician, born at Kenley, Shropshire; studiedmedicine, and practised in London; obtained a post in theRegistrar-General's office, and rose to be head of the statisticaldepartment; issued various statistical compilations of great value forpurposes of insurance (1807-1883). 

FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW, a famous American admiral, of Spanishextraction, born at Knoxville, Tennessee; entered the navy as a boy; roseto be captain in 1855, and at the outbreak of the Civil War attachedhimself to the Union; distinguished himself by his daring capture of NewOrleans; in 1862 was created rear-admiral, and two years later gained asignal victory over the Confederate fleet at Mobile Bay; was raised tothe rank of admiral in 1866, being the first man to hold this position inthe American navy (1801-1870). 

FARRAR, FREDERICK WILLIAM, a celebrated divine and educationalist, born at Bombay; graduated with distinction at King's College, London, andat Cambridge; was ordained in 1854, and became head-master of MarlboroughCollege; was for some years a select preacher to Cambridge University, and held successively the offices of honorary chaplain andchaplain-in-ordinary to the Queen; became canon of Westminster, rector ofSt. Margaret's, archdeacon, chaplain to the House of Commons, and dean ofCanterbury; his many works include the widely-read school-tales, "Eric"and "St. Winifred's, " philological essays, and his vastly popular Livesof Christ and St. Paul, besides the "Early Days of Christianity, ""Eternal Hope, " and several volumes of sermons; in recent years haveappeared "Darkness and Dawn" (1892) and "Gathering Clouds" (1895); _b_. 1831. 

FASCES, a bundle of rods bound round the helve of an axe, and borneby the lictors before the Roman magistrates in symbol of their authorityat once to scourge and decapitate. 

FASCINATION, the power, originally ascribed to serpents, ofspell-binding by the eye. 

FASTI, the name given to days among the Romans on which it waslawful to transact business before the prætor; also the name of booksamong the Romans containing calendars of times, seasons, and events. 

FASTOLF, SIR JOHN, a distinguished soldier of Henry V. 's reign, whowith Sir John Oldcastle shares the doubtful honour of being the prototypeof Shakespeare's Falstaff, but unlike the dramatist's creation was acourageous soldier, and won distinction at Agincourt and at the "Battleof the Herrings"; after engaging with less success in the struggleagainst Joan of Arc, he returned to England and spent his closing yearsin honoured retirement at Norfolk, his birthplace; he figures in the"Paston Letters" (1378-1459). 

FATA MORGANA, a mirage occasionally observed in the Strait ofMessina, in which, from refraction in the atmosphere, images of objects, such as men, houses, trees, etc. , are seen from the coast under or overthe surface of the water. 

FATALISM, the doctrine that all which takes place in life andhistory is subject to fate, that is is to say, takes place by inevitablenecessity, that things being as they are, events cannot fall outotherwise than they do. 

FATES, THE, in the Greek mythology the three goddesses who presidedover the destinies of individuals--CLOTHO, LACHESIS, andATROPOS (Q. V. ). See PARCÆ. 

FATHER OF COMEDY, ARISTOPHANES (q. V. ). 

FATHER OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, EUSEBIUS (q. V. ). 

FATHER OF FRENCH HISTORY, DUCHESNE (q. V. ). 

FATHER OF GERMAN LITERATURE, LESSING (q. V. ). 

FATHER OF HISTORY, HERODOTUS (q. V. ). 

FATHER OF TRAGEDY, ESCHYLUS (q. V. ). 

FATHER PAUL, PAUL SARPI (q. V. ). 

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH, the early teachers of Christianity andfounders of the Christian Church, consisting of live _ApostolicFathers_--Clement of Home, Barnabas, Hermes, Ignatius, and Polycarp, andof nine in addition called _Primitive Fathers_--Justin, Theophilus ofAntioch, Irenæus, Clemens of Alexandria, Cyprian of Carthage, Origen, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius of Alexandria, and Tertullian. Thedistinctive title of _Apostolic Fathers_ was bestowed upon the immediatefriends and disciples of the Apostles, while the _patristic_ periodproper may be said to commence with the 2nd century, but no definite datecan be assigned as marking its termination, some closing it with thedeaths of Gregory the Great (601) and John of Damascus (756), whileCatholic writers bring it down as far as the Council of Trent (1542);discarded among Protestants, the Fathers are regarded by Catholics asdecisive in authority on points of faith, but only when they exhibit aunanimity of opinion. 

FATHOM, a measure of 6 ft. Used in taking marine soundings, originally an Anglo-Saxon term for the distance stretched by a man'sextended arms; is sometimes used in mining operations. 

FATHOM, COUNT FERDINAND, a villain in the novel of Smollett sonamed. 

FATIMA, the last of Bluebeard's wives, and the only one who escapedbeing murdered by him; also Mahomet's favourite daughter. 

FATIMIDES, a Mohammedan dynasty which assumed the title of caliphsand ruled N. Africa and Egypt, and later Syria and Palestine, between the10th and 12th centuries inclusive; they derived their name from the claim(now discredited) of their founder, Obeidallah Almahdi, to be descendedfrom Fatima, daughter of Mahomet and wife of Ali; they were finallyexpelled by Saladin in 1169. 

FAUCHER, LÉON, a political economist, brought into notice by theRevolution of 1830; edited _Le Temps_; opposed Louis Philippe's minister, M. Guizot; held office under the Presidency of Louis Napoleon, but threwup office on the _coup d'état_ of 1851 (1803-1854). 

FAUCHET, ABBÉ, a French Revolutionary, a Girondin; blessed theNational tricolor flag; "a man of _Te Deums_ and public consecrations";was a member of the first parliament; stripped of his insignia, lamentedthe death of the king, perished on the scaffold (1744-1793). 

FAUCIT, HELEN, a famous English actress; made her _début_ in London(1836), and soon won a foremost place amongst English actresses by herpowerful and refined representations of Shakespeare's heroines under themanagement of Macready; she retired from the stage in 1851 after hermarriage with THEODORE MARTIN (q. V. ); in 1885 she published avolume of studies "On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters"(1820-1899). 

FAUNS, divinities of the woods and fields among the Romans, andguardians of flocks against the wolf. 

FAUNTLEROY, HENRY, banker and forger; in his twenty-third yearbecame a partner in the bank of Marsh, Sibbald, & Co. , London; was put ontrial for a series of elaborate forgeries, found guilty, and hanged; thetrial created a great sensation at the time, and efforts were made toobtain a commutation of the sentence (1785-1824). 

FAUNUS, a god, grandson of Saturn, who figures in the early historyof Latium, first as the god of fields and shepherds, and secondly, as anoracular divinity and founder of the native religion, afterwardsidentified with the Greek Pan. 

FAURE, FRANÇOIS FELIX, President of the French Republic, born inParis; carried on business in Touraine as a tanner, but afterwardssettled in Havre and became a wealthy shipowner; he served withdistinction as a volunteer in the Franco-German War; entered the Assemblyin 1881, where he held office as Colonial and Commercial Minister invarious Cabinets; was elected President in 1895 (1841-1899). 

FAUST, JOHANNES. See FUST. 

FAUST, or DOCTOR FAUSTUS, a reputed professor of the black art, a native of Germany, who flourished in the end of the 15th century andthe beginning of the 16th century, and who is alleged to have made acompact with the devil to give up to him body and soul in the end, provided he endowed him for a term of years with power to miraculouslyfulfil all his wishes. Under this compact the devil provided him with afamiliar spirit, called Mephistopheles, attended by whom he traversed theworld, enjoying life and working wonders, till the term of the compacthaving expired, the devil appeared and carried him off amid display ofhorrors to the abode of penal fire. This myth, which has been subjectedto manifold literary treatment, has received its most significantrendering at the hands of Goethe, such as to supersede and eclipse everyother attempt to unfold its meaning. It is presented by him in the formof a drama, in two parts of five acts each, of which the first, publishedin 1790, represents "the conflicting union of the higher nature of thesoul with the lower elements of human life; of Faust, the son of Lightand Free-Will, with the influences of Doubt, Denial, and Obstruction, orMEPHISTOPHELES (q. V. ), who is the symbol and spokesman ofthese; and the second, published in 1832, represents Faust as nowelevated, by the discipline he has had, above the hampered sphere of thefirst, and conducted into higher regions under worthier circumstances. "

FAUSTA, the wife of Constantino the Great. 

FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERI, called Faustina, Senior, wife of AntoninusPius, died three years after her husband became emperor (105-141). 

FAUSTINA, ANNIA, JUNIOR, wife of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, daughter of the preceding. Both she and her mother are represented byhistorians as profligate and unfaithful, and quite unworthy the affectionlavishly bestowed upon them by their husbands. 

FAUSTULUS, the shepherd who, with his wife Laurentia, was thefoster-parent of Romulus and Remus, who, as infants, had been exposed onthe Palatine Hill. 

FAVART, CHARLES SIMON, French dramatist, born at Paris, where hebecame director of the Opéra Comique; was celebrated as a vivaciousplaywright and composer of operas; during a temporary absence from Parishe established his Comedy Company in the camp of Marshal Saxe during theFlanders campaign; his memoirs and correspondence give a bright pictureof theatrical life in Paris during the 18th century (1710-1792). 

FAVONIUS, the god of the favouring west wind. 

FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL, a French Republican statesman, born atLyons; called to the Paris bar in 1830; a strong Republican, he joinedthe Revolutions of 1830 and 1848; held office as Minister of the Interiorin the New Republic, and disapproving of the _coup d'état_, resumedpractice at the bar; defended the Italian conspirator ORSINI (q. V. ), and in 1870, on the dissolution of the Empire, became Minister ofForeign Affairs; mistakes in his negotiations with Bismarck led to hisresignation and resumption of his legal practice (1809-1880). 

FAWCETT, HENRY, statesman and political economist, born atSalisbury; though blind, it was his early ambition to enter the arena ofpolitics, and he devoted himself to the study of political economy, ofwhich he became professor at Cambridge; entering Parliament, he becamePostmaster-General under Mr. Gladstone in 1880; he wrote and publishedworks on his favourite study (1832-1884). 

FAWKES, GUY, a notorious English conspirator, born of a respectedYorkshire family; having spent a slender patrimony, he joined the Spanisharmy in Flanders; was converted to the Catholic faith; and on his returnto England allied himself with the conspirators of the GUNPOWDERPLOT (q. V. ), and was arrested in the cellars of the House ofCommons when on the point of firing the explosive; was tried and executed(1570-1606). 

FAY, ANDREAS, Hungarian dramatist and novelist, born at Kohany;studied law, but the success of a volume of fables confirmed him in hischoice of literature in preference; wrote various novels and plays; wasinstrumental in founding the Hungarian National Theatre; was a member ofthe Hungarian Diet (1786-1804). 

FAYAL (26), a fruit-bearing island among the AZORES (q. V. ), exports wine and fruits; Horta, with an excellent bay, is its chief town. 

FAYYUM (160), a fertile province of Central Egypt, lies W. Of theNile, 65 miles from Cairo, is in reality a southern oasis in the Libyandesert, irrigated by means of a canal running through a narrow gorge tothe Nile valley; its area is about 840 sq. M. , a portion of which isoccupied by a sheet of water, the Birket-el-Kern (35 m. Long), known tothe ancients as Lake Moeris, and by the shores of which stood one of thewonders of the world, the famous "Labyrinth. "

FEASTS, JEWISH, OF DEDICATION, a feast in commemoration of thepurification of the Temple and the rebuilding of the altar by JudasMaccabæus in 164 B. C. , after profanation of them by the Syrians: OF THEPASSOVER, a festival in April on the anniversary of the exodus fromEgypt, and which lasted eight days, the first and the last days of solemnreligious assembly: OF PENTECOST, a feast celebrated on the fiftiethday after the second of the Passover, in commemoration of the giving ofthe law on Mount Sinai; both this feast and the Passover were celebratedin connection with harvest, what was presented in one in the form of asheaf being in the other presented as a loaf of bread: OF PURIM, afeast in commemoration of the preservation of the Jews from the wholesalethreatened massacre of the race in Persia at the instigation of Haman:OF TABERNACLES, a festival of eight days in memory of the wanderingtentlife of the people in the wilderness, observed by the people dwellingin bowers made of branches erected on the streets or the roofs of thehouse; it was the Feast of Ingathering as well. 

FEBRUARY, the second month of the year, was added along with Januaryby Numa to the end of the original Roman year of 10 months; derived itsname from a festival offered annually on the 15th day to Februus, anancient Italian god of the nether world; was assigned its presentposition in the calendar by Julius Cæsar, who also introduced theintercalary day for leap-year. 

FÉCAMP (13), a seaport in the dep. Of Seine-Inférieure, 25 m. NE. OfHavre; has a fine Gothic Benedictine church, a harbour and lighthouse, hardware and textile factories; fishing and sugar refineries alsoflourish; exports the celebrated Benedictine liqueurs. 

FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR, physicist and psychophysicist, born atGross-Särchen, in Lower Lusatia; became professor of Physics in Leipzig, but afterwards devoted himself to psychology; laid the foundations of thescience of psychophysics in his "Elements of Pyschophysics"; wrotebesides on the theory of colour and galvanism, as well as poems andessays (1801-1887). 

FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT, a famous actor, born in London, his fatherof German extraction and his mother English; made his _début_ in Paris atthe age of 17; after a tour through the European capitals establishedhimself in London as the lessee of the Lyceum Theatre in 1863; becamecelebrated for his original impersonations of Hamlet and Othello; removedto America in 1870, where he died (1824-1879). 

FECIALES, a college of functionaries in ancient Rome whose duty itwas to make proclamation of peace and war, and confirm treaties. 

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, in modern parlance is the political system whicha number of independent and sovereign States adopt when they jointogether for purposes of domestic and especially International policy;local government is freely left with the individual States, and only inthe matter of chiefly foreign relations is the central governmentparamount, but the degree of freedom which each State enjoys is a matterof arrangement when the contract is formed, and the powers vested in thecentral authority may only be permitted to work through the localgovernment, as in the German Confederation, or may bear directly upon thecitizens throughput the federation, as in the U. S. Of America, and since1847 in Switzerland. 

FEDERALIST, a name in the United States for a supporter of the Unionand its integrity as such; a party which was formed in 1788, butdissolved in 1820; has been since applied to a supporter of the integrityof the Union against the South in the late Civil War. 

FEDERATION, THE CHAMPS-DE-MARS, a grand féte celebrated in theChamps-de-Mars, Paris, on July 14, 1790, the anniversary of the taking ofthe Bastille, at which deputies from the newly instituted departmentsassisted to the number of 80, 000, as well as deputies from other nations, "Swedes, Spaniards, Polacks, Turks, Chaldeans, Greeks, and dwellers inMesopotamia, " representatives of the human race, "with three hundreddrummers, twelve hundred wind-musicians, and artillery planted on heightafter height to boom the tidings all over France, the highest recordedtriumph of the Thespian art. " Louis XVI. Too assisted at the ceremony, and took solemn oath to the constitution just established in the interestof mankind. See Carlyle's "French Revolution. "

FEHMGERICHT. See VEHMGERICHTE. 

FEITH, a Dutch poet, born at Zwolle, where, after studying atLeyden, he settled and died; his writings include didactic poems, songs, and dramas; had a refining influence on the literary taste of hiscountrymen (1753-1824). 

FÉLICITÉ, ST. , a Roman matron, who with her seven sons sufferedmartyrdom in 164. Festival, July 10. 

FELIX, the name of five popes: F. I. , ST. , Pope from 269 to274, said to have been a victim of the persecution of Aurelius; F. II. , Pope from 356 to 357, the first anti-pope having been elected inplace of the deposed Liberius who had declined to join in the persecutionof ATHANASIUS (q. V. ), was banished on the restoration ofLiberius; F. III. , Pope from 483 to 492, during his term of officethe first schism between the Eastern and Western Churches took place; F. IV. , Pope from 526 to 530, was appointed by Theodoric in face of thedetermined opposition of both people and clergy; F. V. , Pope from1439 to 1449. See AMADEUS VIII. . 

FELIX, CLAUDIUS, a Roman procurator of Judæa in the time of Claudiusand Nero; is referred to in Acts xxiii. And xxiv. As having examined theApostle Paul and listened to his doctrines; was vicious in his habits, and formed an adulterous union with Drusilla, said by Tacitus to havebeen the granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra; was recalled in A. D. 62. 

FELIX HOLT, a novel of George Eliot's, written in 1866. 

FELL, JOHN, a celebrated English divine; Royalist in sympathy, hecontinued throughout the Puritan ascendency loyal to the English Church, and on the Restoration became Dean of Christ Church and a royal chaplain;was a good man and a charitable, and a patron of learning; in 1676 wasraised to the bishopric of Oxford; was the object of the well-knownepigram, "I do not like thee, Dr. Fell, The reason why I cannot tell"(1625-1686). 

FELLAH, the name applied contemptuously by the Turks to theagricultural labourer of Egypt; the Fellahin (pl. Of Fellah) compriseabout three-fourths of the population; they are of good physique, andcapable of much toil, but are, despite their intelligence and sobriety, lazy and immoral; girls marry at the age of 12, and the children grow upamidst the squalor of their mud-built villages; their food is of thepoorest, and scarcely ever includes meat; tobacco is their only luxury;their condition has improved under British rule. 

FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES, archæologist, born at Nottingham; earlydeveloped a passion for travel; explored the Xanthus Valley in AsiaMinor, and discovered the ruins of the cities Teos and Xanthus, theancient capital of Lycia (1838); returned to the exploration of Lycia in1839 and again in 1841, discovering the ruins of 13 other ancient cities;accounts of these explorations and discoveries are fully given in hisvarious published journals and essays; was knighted in 1845 (1799-1861). 

FELLOWSHIP, a collegiate term for a status in many universitieswhich entitles the holder (a Fellow) to a share in their revenues, and insome cases to certain privileges as regards apartments and meals in thecollege, as also to a certain share in the government; formerlyFellowships were usually life appointments, but are now generally for aprescribed number of years, or are held during a term of specialresearch; the old restrictions of celibacy and religious conformity havebeen relaxed. 

FELO-DE-SE, in English law the crime which a man at the age ofdiscretion and of a sound mind commits when he takes away his life. 

FELONY, "a crime which involves a total forfeiture of lands or goodsor both, to which capital or other punishment may be superadded, according to the degree of guilt. "

FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY, American scholar, born at West Newbury, Massachusetts; graduated at Harvard in 1827, and became professor ofGreek there, rising to the Presidency of the same college in 1860; editedGreek classics, and made translations from the German; most importantwork is "Greece, Ancient and Modern, " in 2 vols. (1807-1862). 

FELTON, JOHN, the Irish assassin of the Duke of Buckingham in 1628. 

FEMMES SAVANTES, a comedy in five acts by Molière, and one of hisbest, appeared in 1672. 

FENELLA, a fairy-like attendant of the Countess of Derby, deaf anddumb, in Scott's "Peveril of the Peak, " a character suggested by Goethe'sMignon in "Wilhelm Meister. "

FÉNÉLON, FRANÇOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE, a famous French prelateand writer, born in the Château de Fénélon, in the prov. Of Périgord; atthe age of 15 came to Paris, and, having already displayed a remarkablegift for preaching, entered the Plessis College, and four years laterjoined the Seminary of St. Sulpice, where he took holy orders in 1675;his directorship of a seminary for female converts to Catholicism broughthim into prominence, and gave occasion to his well-known treatise "Del'Éducation des Filles"; in 1685, after the revocation of the Edict ofNantes, he conducted a mission for the conversion of the Huguenots ofSaintonge and Poitou, and four years later Louis XIV. Appointed him tutorto his grandson, the Duke of Burgundy, an appointment which led to hiswriting his "Fables, " "Dialogues of the Dead, " and "History of theAncient Philosophers"; in 1694 he became abbé of St. Valery, and in thefollowing year archbishop of Cambrai; soon after this ensued hiscelebrated controversy with BOSSUET (q. V. ) regarding thedoctrines of QUIETISM (q. V. ), a dispute which brought him intodisfavour with the king and provoked the Pope's condemnation of his"Explication des Maximes des Saints sur la Vie intérieure"; thesurreptitious publication of his most famous work "Télémache, " the MS. Ofwhich was stolen by his servant, accentuated the king's disfavour, whoregarded it as a veiled attack on his court, and led to an orderconfining the author to his own diocese; the rest of his life was spentin the service of his people, to whom he endeared himself by hisbenevolence and the sweet piety of his nature; his works are extensive, and deal with subjects historical and literary, as well as philosophicaland theological (1651-1715). 

FENIANS, an Irish political organisation having for its object theoverthrow of English rule in Ireland and the establishment of a republicthere. The movement was initiated in the United States soon after thegreat famine in Ireland of 1846-47, which, together with the harshexactions of the landlords, compelled many Irishmen to emigrate fromtheir island with a deeply-rooted sense of injustice and hatred of theEnglish. The Fenians organised themselves so far on the model of arepublic, having a senate at the head, with a virtual president calledthe "head-centre, " and various "circles" established in many parts of theU. S. They collected funds and engaged in military drill, and sent agentsto Ireland and England. An invasion of Canada in 1866 and a rising athome in 1867 proved abortive, as also the attack on Clerkenwell Prison inthe same year. Another attempt on Canada in 1871 and the formation of the_Skirmishing Fund_ for the use of the _Dynamitards_ and the institutionof the _Clan-na-Gael_ leading to the "Invincibles, " and the Phoenix Parkmurders (1882) are later manifestations of this movement. The Home Ruleand Land League movements practically superseded the Fenian. The name istaken from an ancient military organisation called the Fionna Eirinn, said to have been instituted in Ireland in 300 B. C. 

FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC, V. Of Castile, II. Of Aragon and Sicily, andIII. Of Naples, born at Sos, in Aragon, married Isabella of Castile in1849, a step by which these ancient kingdoms were united under onesovereign power; their joint reign is one of the most glorious in theannals of Spanish history, and in their hands Spain quickly took rankamongst the chief European powers; in 1492 Columbus discovered America, and the same year saw the Jews expelled from Spain and the Moorish powercrushed by the fall of Granada. In 1500-1 Ferdinand joined the French inhis conquest of Naples, and three years later managed to secure thekingdom to himself, while by the conquest of Navarre in 1512 the entireSpanish peninsula came under his sway. He was a shrewd and adroit ruler, whose undoubted abilities, both as administrator and general, were, however, somewhat marred by an unscrupulous cunning, which found acharacteristic expression in the institution of the notoriousInquisition, which in 1480 was started by him, and became a powerfulengine for political as well as religious persecution for long yearsafter (1452-1516). 

FERDINAND I. , emperor of Germany (1556-64), born at Alcalá, inSpain, son of Philip I. , married Anna, a Bohemian princess, in 1521; waselected king of the Romans (1531), added Bohemia and Hungary to hisdomains (1503-1564). 

FERDINAND II. , emperor of Germany (1619-37), grandson of thepreceding and son of Charles, younger brother of Maximilian II. , born atGrätz; his detestation of the Protestants, early instilled into him byhis mother and the Jesuits, under whom he was educated, was the rulingpassion of his life, and involved the empire in constant warfare duringhis reign; an attempt on the part of Bohemia, restless under religiousand political grievances, to break away from his rule, brought about theThirty Years' War; by ruthless persecutions he re-established Catholicismin Bohemia, and reduced the country to subjection; but the war spreadinto Hungary and Germany, where Ferdinand was opposed by a confederacy ofthe Protestant States of Lower Saxony and Denmark, and in which theProtestant cause was in the end successfully sustained by the Swedishhero, GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (q. V. ), who had opposed to him the imperialgenerals TILLY and WALLENSTEIN (q. V. ); his reign is regarded as one ofdisaster, bloodshed, and desolation to his empire, and his connivance atthe assassination of Wallenstein will be forever remembered to hisdiscredit (1578-1637). 

FERDINAND III. , emperor of Germany (1637-57), son of the preceding, born at Grätz; more tolerant in his views, would gladly have brought thewar to a close, but found himself compelled to face the Swedes reinforcedby the French; in 1648 the desolating struggle was terminated by thePeace of Westphalia; the rest of his reign passed in tranquillity(1608-1657). 

FERDINAND I. , king of the Two Sicilies, third son of Charles III. OfSpain, succeeded his father on the Neapolitan throne (1759), marriedMaria Caroline, daughter of Maria-Theresa; joined the Allies in thestruggle against Napoleon, and in 1806 was driven from his throne by theFrench, but was reinstated at the Congress of Vienna; in 1816 heconstituted his two States (Sicily and Naples) into the kingdom of theTwo Sicilies, and in the last four years of his reign ruled, with the aidof Austria, as a despot, and having broken a pledge to his people, wascompelled ere his return to grant a popular constitution (1751-1825). 

FERDINAND II. , king of the Two Sicilies, grandson of the precedingand son of Francis I. ; after the death of his first wife, a daughter ofVictor Emmanuel I. , he married the Austrian princess Maria-Theresa, andfell under the influence of Austria during the rest of his reign; in 1848he was compelled to grant constitutional rights to his people, but wasdistrusted, and an insurrection broke out in Sicily; with mercilessseverity he crushed the revolt, and by his savage bombardment of thecities won him the epithet "Bomba"; a reign of terror ensued, and in 1851Europe was startled by the revelations of cruel injustice contained inMr. Gladstone's famous Neapolitan letters (1810-1859). 

FERDINAND III. , Grand-duke of Tuscany and Archduke of Austria, bornat Florence; succeeded to the government of Tuscany in 1790; introducedmany wise measures of reform, which brought peace and prosperity to hisState; reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in 1793, but twoyears later entered into friendly relations with France, and in 1797, inorder to save his States being merged in the Cisalpine Republic, undertook to make payment of an annual subsidy; later he formed analliance with Austria, and was by Napoleon driven from his possessions, which were, however, restored to him in 1814 by the Peace of Paris(1769-1824). 

FERDINAND VII. OF SPAIN, son of Charles IV. Of Spain; too weak tosteer his way through the intrigues of the court, he appealed to Napoleonin 1807 to support the king, his father, and himself; but his letter wasdiscovered, and his accomplices exiled; the following year the Frenchentered Spain, and Charles abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand; butsoon after, under Napoleon's influence, the crown was surrendered to theFrench, and Joseph Bonaparte became king; in 1813 Ferdinand wasreinstated, but found himself immediately met by a demand of his peoplefor a more liberal representative government; the remaining years of hisreign were spent in an internecine struggle against these claims, inwhich he had French support under Louis XVIII. (1784-1833). 

FERDUSI. See FIRDAUSI. 

FERETRUM, the shrine containing the sacred effigies and relics of asaint. 

FERGUS, the name of three Scottish kings: F. I. , _d_. 356; F. II. , king from 411 to 427; and F. III. , king from 764 to 767. 

FERGUSON, ADAM, a Scotch philosopher and historian, born atLogierait, Perthshire; after passing through the universities of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, he in 1745 was appointed Gaelic chaplain to theBlack Watch Highland Regiment, and was present at the battle of Fontenoy;in 1757 he became keeper of the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh; twoyears later professor of Natural Philosophy, and subsequently of MoralPhilosophy in the university there; during his professorship he, assecretary, was attached to the commission sent out by Lord North to bringabout a friendly settlement of the dispute pending between England andthe North American colonies; resigning his chair in 1785 he retired toNeidpath Castle, to engage in farming at Hallyards, an estate in the sameneighbourhood; died at St. Andrews; his best-known works are "Institutesof Moral Philosophy, " "History of the Roman Republic, " and "Principlesof Moral and Political Science" (1723-1816). 

FERGUSON, JAMES, a popular writer on astronomy and mechanics, bornat Rothiemay, Banff, son of a labourer; his interest in astronomy wasfirst aroused by his observation of the stars while acting as a "herdladdie, " and much of his time among the hills was spent in theconstruction of mechanical contrivances; compelled by circumstances tobetake himself to various occupations, pattern-drawing, clock-mending, copying prints, and portrait sketching, he still in his leisure hourspursued those early studies, and coming to London in 1743 (after aresidence of some years in Edinburgh), began lecturing on his favouritesubjects; a pension of £50 was granted him out of the privy purse, and in1763 he was elected an F. R. S. ; besides publishing lectures on mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, &c. , he wrote several works on astronomy, chieflypopular expositions of the methods and principles of Sir Isaac Newton(1710-1776). 

FERGUSON, PATRICK, soldier and inventor of the breech-loading gun, born at Pitfour, Aberdeenshire; served in the English army in Germany andTobago; brought out his new rifle in 1766, which was tried with successin the American War of Independence; rose to be a major, and fell at thebattle of King's Mountains, in South Carolina (1744-1780). 

FERGUSON, ROBERT, a notorious plotter, who took part in Monmouth'sinvasion in 1685 and was prominent in the various plots against CharlesII. And James II. , but after the Revolution turned Jacobite; published ahistory of the Revolution in 1706; died in poverty (about 1637-1714). 

FERGUSSON, JAMES, a writer on the history and art of architecture, born at Ayr; went to India as an indigo-planter, but afterwards gavehimself up to the study of the rock-temples; published various works, andin his later years interested himself in the fortifications of the UnitedKingdom; his "History of Architecture, " in 4 vols. , is a standard work(1808-1886). 

FERGUSSON, ROBERT, a Scottish poet, born in Edinburgh; after auniversity course at St. Andrews he obtained a post in the office of thecommissionary-clerk of Edinburgh; his first poems appeared in _Ruddiman'sWeekly Magazine_, and brought him a popularity which proved his ruin;some years of unrestrained dissipation ended in religious melancholia, which finally settled down into an incurable insanity; his poems, collected in 1773, have abundant energy, wit, and fluency, but lack thepassion and tenderness of those of Burns; he was, however, held in highhonour by Burns, who regarded him as "his elder brother in the Muses. ""In his death, " says Mr. Henley, "at four-and-twenty, a great loss wasinflicted to Scottish literature; he had intelligence and an eye, a righttouch of humour, the gifts of invention and observation and style, together with a true feeling for country and city alike . .. Burns, wholearned much from him, was an enthusiast in his regard for him, bared hishead and shed tears over 'the green mound and the scattered gowans, 'under which he found his exemplar lying in Canongate Churchyard, and gotleave from the managers to put up a headstone at his own cost there"(1750-1774). See Mr. Henley's "Life of Burns" in the Centenary Burns, published by the Messrs. T. C. And E. C. Jack. 

FERGUSSON, SIR W. , surgeon, born at Prestonpans; graduated atEdinburgh; was elected to the chair of Surgery in King's College, London, and in 1866 was made a baronet; was serjeant-surgeon to the Queen, andpresident of the Royal College of Surgeons; Fergusson was a bold andskilful surgeon; is the author, amongst other treatises, of a "System ofPractical Surgery, " besides being the inventor of many surgicalinstruments (1808-1877). 

FERISHTAH, a Persian historian, born at Astrabad, on the Black Sea;went at an early age, accompanied by his father, to India, where his lifewas spent in the service, first of Murtaza Nizam Shah, in Ahmednagar, andafterwards at the court of the prince of Bijapur; his famous history ofthe Mohammedan power in India, finished in 1609, and the writing of whichoccupied him for 20 years, is still a standard work, and has beentranslated into English (about 1570-1611). 

FERMANAGH (74), an Irish county in the SW. Corner of Ulster, of ahilly surface, especially in the W. ; is well wooded, and producesindifferent crops of oats, flax, and potatoes; some coal and iron, andquantities of limestone, are found in it; the Upper and Lower Loughs Erneform a waterway through its centre; chief town, Enniskillen. 

FERMAT, PIERRE DE, a French mathematician, born near Montauban; madeimportant discoveries in the properties of numbers, and with his friendPascal invented a calculus of probabilities; was held in high esteem byHallam, who ranks him next to Descartes (1601-1665). 

FERNANDEZ, JUAN, a Spanish navigator, discovered the island off thecoast of Chile that bears his name; _d_. In 1576. 

FERNANDO PO (25), a mountainous island, with an abrupt and rockycoast, in the Bight of Biafra, W. Africa; the volcano, Mount Clarence(9300 ft. ), rises in the N. ; is covered with luxuriant vegetation, andyields maize and yams, some coffee, and palm-oil and wine; is inhabitedby the Bubis, a Bantu tribe; is the chief of the Spanish Guinea Isles. 

FEROZEPORE (50), the chief town of the district of the same name inthe Punjab, India, a few miles S. Of the Sutlej; is strongly fortified, and contains a large arsenal; the present town was laid out by LordLawrence. F. DISTRICT (887), lies along the S. Bank of the Sutlej;came into the possession of the British in 1835; cereals, cotton, sugar, and tobacco are cultivated. 

FERRAR, NICHOLAS, a religious enthusiast in the reign of Charles I. ;was elected a Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1610; afterwardsdevoted himself to medicine and travelled on the Continent; subsequentlyjoined his father in business in London, and entered Parliament in 1624;but a year later retired to the country, and at Little Gidding, Huntingdonshire, founded, with some of his near relations, a religiouscommunity, known as the "Arminian Nunnery, " some account of which isgiven in Shorthouse's "John Inglesant"; it was broken up by the Puritansin 1647; he was the intimate friend of George Herbert; this communityconsisted of some "fourscore persons, devoted to a kind of Protestantmonasticism; they followed celibacy and merely religious duties, employedthemselves in binding prayer-books, &c. , in alms-giving and whatcharitable work was possible to them in their desert retreat, kept up, night and day, a continual repetition of the English liturgy, neverallowing at any hour the sacred fire to go out" (1592-1637). 

FERRAR, ROBERT, an English prelate, born at Halifax, was prior ofthe monastery of St. Oswald's, embraced the Reformation, and was madeBishop of St. David's by Edward VI. ; suffered martyrdom under Mary in1555. 

FERRARA, a broadsword bearing the name of Andrea Ferrara, one of anItalian family famous in the 16th and 17th centuries for the quality oftheir swords. 

FERRARA (31), a fortified and walled Italian city, capital of theprovince of the name, situated on a low and marshy plain between thedividing branches of the Po, 30 m. From the Adriatic; it has many fineecclesiastical buildings and a university founded in 1264, with a libraryof 100, 000 vols. , but now a mere handful of students; a fine old Gothiccastle, the residence of the Estes (q. V. ), still stands; it was thebirthplace of Savonarola, and the sometime dwelling-place of Tasso andAriosto; once populous and prosperous, it has now fallen into decay. 

FERRARI, GAUDENZIO, Italian painter and sculptor, born at Valduggia, in Piedmont; studied at Rome under Raphael; many of his paintings andfrescoes are to be found in the Lombard galleries, and principally inMilan; his work is characterised by bold and accurate drawing, inventiveness, and strong colouring, but it somewhat lacks the softerqualities of his art (1484-1550). 

FERRARI, PAOLO, Italian dramatist, born at Modena; produced hisfirst play at the age of 25; his numerous works, chiefly comedies, andall marked by a fresh and piquant style, are the finest product of themodern Italian drama; in 1860 he was appointed professor of History atModena and afterwards at Milan; his dramatic works have been published in14 vols. (1822-1889). 

FERRIER, DAVID, a distinguished medical scientist, born at Woodside, Aberdeen; graduated in arts there; studied at Heidelberg, and coming toEdinburgh graduated in medicine with high distinction in 1868; in 1872became professor of Forensic Medicine at King's College, London, andafterwards physician to the National Hospital for the Paralysed andEpileptic; his most notable work has been done in connection with thebrain, and his many experiments on the brains of living animals haveresulted in much valuable information, embodied in his various writings;is editor and co-founder of the periodical _Brain_; _b_. 1843. 

FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK, a metaphysician of singular ability andoriginality, born at Edinburgh; after graduating at Oxford was called tothe Scotch bar in 1832; but under the influence of Sir W. Hamilton, metaphysics became his dominant interest, and he found an outlet for hisviews in the pages of _Blackwood_ by a paper on "Consciousness, " whichattracted the attention of Emerson; in 1842 was appointed professor ofHistory in Edinburgh University, and three years later of MoralPhilosophy in St. Andrews; published the "Institutes of Metaphysics, " alucid exposition of the Berkleian philosophy, and "Lectures on GreekPhilosophy, " and edited the works of his uncle and father-in-law, Christopher North; "he belongs, " says Dr. Stirling, "to an era of thoughtthat was inaugurated by Thomas Carlyle" (1808-1864). 

FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTON, a Scottish novelist, aunt of thepreceding, born in Edinburgh, where her life was chiefly spent, herfather being Clerk in the Court of Session, and a colleague of Sir WalterScott; her novels, "Marriage, " "The Inheritance, " and "Destiny, " &c. , arerich in humour and faithful in their pictures of Scottish life andcharacter; Scott held her in high esteem, and kept up a warm friendshipwith her till his death (1782-1854). 

FERROL (26), a strongly fortified seaport in Galicia, Spain, 10 m. NE. Of Coruña, on a narrow inlet of the sea which forms a splendidharbourage, narrow at the entrance and capacious within, and defended bytwo forts; it possesses one of the largest Spanish naval arsenals;manufactures linen and cotton, and exports corn, brandy, and sardines. 

FERRY, JULES FRANÇOIS CAMILLE, a distinguished French statesman, born at Saint Dié, in the Vosges; called to the Paris bar in 1854, hespeedily plunged into the politics of the time, and offereduncompromising opposition to the party of Louis Napoleon; as a member ofthe _Corps Législatif_ he opposed the war with Prussia, but as centralmayor of Paris rendered signal service during the siege by the Germans;during his tenure of office as Minister of Public Instruction in 1879 wasinstrumental in bringing about the expulsion of the Jesuits; as PrimeMinister in 1880 and again in 1883-85 he inaugurated a spirited colonialpolicy, which involved France in war in Madagascar, and brought about hisown downfall (1832-1893). 

FESCH, JOSEPH, an eminent French ecclesiastic, born at Ajaccio, thehalf-brother of Napoleon's mother; was educated for the Church, but, onthe outbreak of the Revolution, joined the revolutionaries as astorekeeper; co-operated with his illustrious nephew in restoringCatholicism in France, and became in 1802 archbishop of Lyons, and acardinal in 1803; as ambassador at Rome in 1804 he won the Pope's favour, and brought about a more friendly understanding between him and Napoleon;later he lost favour with the emperor, and retired to Lyons, whence in1814 he fled to Rome, there to end his life; was a lover of art, and lefta magnificent collection of pictures (1763-1839). 

FESTUS, the name of a poem by Philip James Bailey (q. V. ), firstpublished in 1839, but extended to three times its length since, a poemthat on its first production produced no small sensation. 

FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS, a Latin grammarian of probably the 3rdcentury; noted for an epitome of a great work by Verrius Flaccus on themeaning and derivation of Latin words, which, although only a portion ofit exists, is regarded as an invaluable document, and is preserved atNaples. 

FETICHISM, the worship of a fetich, an object superstitiouslyinvested with divine or demonic power, and as such regarded with awe andworshipped. 

FEUDALISM, or the Feudal system, that system which prevailed inEurope during the Middle Ages and in England from the Norman Conquest, bywhich vassals held their lands from the lord-superior on condition ofmilitary service when required, for "the extreme unction day" of whichsee CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION, " VOL. I. BK. 4. 

FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS, German philosopher, son of thesucceeding, born at Landshut; studied theology at Hiedelberg, but comingunder the influence of Hegel went to Berlin and devoted himself tophilosophy; after failing in an attempt to support himself by lecturingin Erlangen, he was fortunate in his marriage, and upon his wife's meanslived a retired and studious life at Bruckberg; in his philosophy, whichis a degeneracy and finally total departure from Hegel, he declines tofind a higher sanction for morality than man's own conception of rightand wrong as based on a doctrine of Hedonism (q. V. ); his chief work, on the nature of Christianity, which was translated into English byGeorge Eliot, is extravagant in its departure from orthodox lines ofthought; his influence has been trifling outside his own country; hebegan with Hegel, but "descended at last from Hegel's logical idea tonaked sense, " and what guidance for life might be involved in it(1804-1872). 

FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM VON, a highly distinguished criminaljurist, born at Jena, where he studied philosophy and law; at 23 cameinto prominence by a vigorous criticism of Hobbes's theory on civilpower; and soon afterwards, in lectures on criminal jurisprudence he setforth his famous theory, that in administering justice judges should bestrictly limited in their decisions by the penal code; this new doctrinegave rise to a party called "Rigorists, " who supported his theory; heheld professorships in Jena and in Kiel, and in 1804 was appointed to anofficial post in Münich; in 1814 he became president of the Court ofAppeal at Anspach; his chief work was the framing of a penal code forBavaria, which became a model for several other countries (1775-1833). 

FEUILLANS, a reformed brotherhood of Cistercian monks, founded in1577 by Jean de la Barrière, abbot of the Cistercian monastery atFeuillans, in Languedoc. The movement thus organised was a protestagainst the laxity which had crept into the Church, and probably receivedsome stimulus from the Reformation, which was then in progress. TheFeuillans settled in a convent in the Rue St. Honoré, Paris, which inafter years became the meeting-place of a revolutionary club, which tookthe name of Feuillans; founded in 1790 by Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld, &c. , and which consisted of members of the respectable property classes, whose views were more moderate than those of the Jacobins. They could nothold out against the flood of revolutionary violence, and on March 28, 1791, a mob burst into their place of meeting and dispersed them. 

FÉUILLET, OCTAVE, a celebrated French novelist, born at Saint-Lò, inLa Manche; started his literary career as one of Dumas' assistants, butmade his first independent success in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ by aseries of tales, romances, &c. , begun in 1848; in 1862 he was elected amember of the Academy, and later became librarian to Louis Napoleon; hisnovels, of which "Le Roman d'un Jeune Homme Pauvre" and "Sibylle" are themost noted, are graceful in style, and reveal considerable dramaticforce, but often lapse into sentimentality, and too often treat ofindelicate subjects, although in no spirit of coarseness (1812-1890). 

FEZ (150), the largest city in Morocco, of which it is the secondcapital; is surrounded by walls and prettily situated in the valley ofthe Sebu, a stream which flows through its centre and falls into theAtlantic 100 m. To the E. It has been for many centuries one of the mostimportant of the sacred cities of the Moslem; has many fine mosques, theSultan's palace, and an important university; is yet a busy commercialcentre, although signs of decay appear all over the city, and carries onan active caravan trade with Central Africa. 

FEZZAN (50), a Turkish province lying to the S. Of Tripoli, to whichit is politically united; in character partakes of the desert region towhich it belongs, being almost wholly composed of barren sandy plateaux, with here and there an oasis in the low valleys, where some attempt atcultivation is made. The people, who belong to the Berber stock, areMohammedans, honest, but lazy and immoral. Murzuk (6) is the chief town. 

FIARS, an expression in Scotch law given to the prices of grainwhich are determined, by the respective sheriffs in the various countiesassisted by juries. The Court for "striking the fiars" is held towardsthe end of February in accordance with Acts of Sederunt of the Court ofSession. The prices fixed are used in the settling of contracts where noprices have been determined upon, e. G. In fixing stipends of ministersof the Church of Scotland, and are found useful in other ways. 

FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB, a celebrated German philosopher, born inUpper Lusatia; a man of an intensely thoughtful and noble nature; studiedtheology at Jena, and afterwards philosophy; became a disciple of Kant, and paid homage to him personally at Königsberg; was appointed professorof Philosophy at Jena, where he enthusiastically taught, or ratherpreached, a system which broke away from Kant, which goes under the nameof "Transcendental Idealism, " and which he published in his"Wissenschaftslehre" and his "System der Sittenlehre"; obliged to resignhis chair at Jena on a charge of atheism, he removed to Berlin, where herose into favour by his famous "Address to the Germans" against thetyranny of Napoleon, and after a professorate in Erlangen he became headof the New University, and had for colleagues such men as Wolff, Humboldt, Scheiermacher, and Neander; he fell a victim to the War ofIndependence which followed, dying of fever caught through his wife andher nursing of patients in the hospitals, which were crowded with thewounded; besides his more esoterico-philosophical works, he was theauthor of four of a popular cast, which are worthy of all regard, on "TheDestiny of Man, " "The Nature of the Scholar, " "The Characteristics of thePresent Age, " and "The Way to the Blessed Life"; "so robust an intellect, a soul so calm, " says Carlyle, "so lofty, massive, and immovable, has notmingled in philosophic discussion since the time of Luther . .. The cold, colossal, adamantine spirit, standing erect and clear, like a Cato Majoramong degenerate men; fit to have been the teacher of the Stoa, and tohave discoursed of Beauty and Virtue in the groves of Academe"(1762-1814). 

FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain chain in North-East Bavaria, so calledfrom its having once been covered with pines, Fichtel meaning a pine. Inits valleys rise the Elbe, Rhine, and Danube; considerable quantities ofiron, copper, and lead are found, which give rise to a smelting industry, while mother-of-pearl is obtained from the streams. The climate is coldand damp, but the district has of late become a favourite resort oftourists. 

FICINO, MARSILIO, an eminent Italian Platonist, born at Florence; in1463 became president of a Platonic school, founded by Cosmo de' Medici, where he spent many years spreading and instilling the doctrines ofPlato, and, indeed, ancient philosophy generally; entered the Church in1473, and under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici was appointed to thecanonry of Florence Cathedral; his religious beliefs were a strange blendof Platonism and Christianity, but were the foundation of a pure life, while his interest in classical studies helped considerably to furtherthe Renaissance (1433-1499). 

FICK, AUGUST, a German philologist, born at Petershagan; spent hislife chiefly at Göttingen, where he first studied philology under Benfey;became a teacher in the Gymnasium, and eventually in 1876 professor ofComparative Philology in the university; in 1887 accepted a professorshipin Breslau, but retired four years later; author of a variety of learnedworks on philology; _b_. 1833. 

FIDELIO, a celebrated opera by Beethoven, and his only one. 

FI`DES, the Roman goddess of fidelity, or steadfast adherence topromises and engagements. Numa built a shrine for her worship andinstituted a festival in her honour; in later times a temple containing astatue of her dressed in white adjoined the temple of Jupiter, on theCapitol at Rome. 

FIELD, CYRUS WEST, brother of the following, born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts; was first a successful paper manufacturer, but turning hisattention to submarine telegraphy was instrumental in establishing cablecommunication between England and America, and founded the AtlanticTelegraph Company in 1856; on the successful laying of the 1866 cable, since which time communication between the Old and New Worlds has neverbeen interrupted, he was awarded a gold medal and the thanks of thenation; afterwards interested himself in developing the overhead railwayin New York (1819-1892). 

FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY, an eminent American Jurist, born in Haddam, Connecticut; for 57 years a prominent member of the New York bar, duringwhich time he brought about judiciary reforms, and drew up, underGovernment directions, political, civil, and penal codes; interestedhimself in international law, and laboured to bring about aninternational agreement whereby disputes might be settled by arbitrationand war done away with; was President of the London Peace Congress in1890 (1805-1894). 

FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, a plain near Guisnes, where Henry VIII. Had an interview with Francis I. ; was so called from the magnificencedisplayed on the occasion on the part of both sovereigns and theirretinue. 

FIELDING, COPLEY, an eminent English water-colour painter; becamesecretary and treasurer and finally president of the Society ofWater-Colour Painters (1787-1855). 

FIELDING, HENRY, a famous novelist, who has been styled by Scott"the father of the English novel, " born at Sharpham Park, Glastonbury, son of General Edmund Fielding and a cousin of LADY MARY WORTLEYMONTAGU (q. V. ); was educated at Eton and at Leyden, where hegraduated in 1728; led for some years a dissipated life in London, andachieved some celebrity by the production of a series of comedies andfarces, now deservedly sunk into oblivion; in 1735 he married MissCharlotte Cradock, and after a brief experiment as a theatre lesseestudied law at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar; literaturewas, however, his main pursuit, and in 1742 he came to the front with"Joseph Andrews, " a burlesque on Richardson's "Pamela, " in which hispowers as a novelist first showed themselves; in 1743 followed threevolumes of "Miscellanies, " including "Jonathan Wild"; after his wife'sdeath he turned again to law, but in 1745 we find him once more engagedin literature as editor of the _True Patriot_ and afterwards of the_Jacobite's Journal_; "Tom Jones, " his masterpiece, appeared in 1749, andthree years later "Amelia"; journalism and his duties as a justice of thepeace occupied him till 1754, when ill-health forced him abroad toLisbon, where he died and was buried. Fielding is a master of a fluent, virile, and attractive style; his stories move with an easy and naturalvigour, and are brimful of humour and kindly satire, while his charactersin their lifelike humanness, with all their foibles and frailties, are amarked contrast to the buckram and conventional figures of hiscontemporary Richardson; something of the laxity of his times, however, finds its way into his pages, and renders them not always palatablereading to present-day readers (1707-1754). 

FIESCHI, COUNT, a Genoese of illustrious family who conspiredagainst Andrea Doria, but whose plot was frustrated on the eve of itsfulfilment by his falling into the sea and being drowned as he steptfull-armed from one of his ships into another (1523-1547). 

FIESCHI, JOSEPH MARCO, a Corsican conspirator; served under Muratand in Russia in 1812; obtained a government post in 1830, and inconsequence of his discharge from this five years later he, by means ofan infernal machine, made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate LouisPhilippe, for which, along with his accomplices, he was tried andexecuted (1790-1836). 

FIESOLE, a small town, 3 m. From Florence, where the wealthyFlorentines have villas, and near which Fra Angelico lived as a monk. 

FIFE (190), a maritime county in the E. Of Scotland, which juts outinto the German Ocean and is washed by the Firths of Tay and Forth on itsN. And S. Shores respectively, thus forming a small peninsula; has forthe most part a broken and hilly surface, extensively cultivated however, while the "How of Fife, " watered by the Eden, is a fertile valley, richlywooded; and valuable coal deposits are worked in the S. And W. ; its longcoast-line is studded with picturesque towns, many of them of ancientdate, a circumstance which led James VI. To describe the county as "abeggar's mantle fringed with gold"; it is associated with much that ismemorable in Scottish history. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, a set of fanatics of extreme levellingtendencies, who, towards the close of the Protectorate, maintained thatJesus Christ was about to reappear on the earth to establish a fifthmonarchy that would swallow up and forcibly suppress all that was left ofthe four preceding--the Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian, and theRoman; their standard exhibited the lion of the tribe of Judah couchant, with the motto, "Who will rouse him up?" some of them conspired to murderthe Protector, but were detected and imprisoned till after his death. 

FIGARO, a name given by the French dramatist Beaumarchais to acunning and intriguing barber who figures in his "Barbier de Seville" andhis "Mariage de Figaro, " and who has since become the type of all suchcharacters. The name has been adopted by various journals in England andin France. 

FIGARO, MARIAGE DE, a play by Beaumarchais, "issued on the stage inParis 1784, ran its hundred nights; a lean and barren thing; succeeded, as it flattered a pruriency of the time and spoke what all were feelingand longing to speak. "

FIGUIER, LOUIS, a popular writer on scientific subjects, born atMontpellier, where he became professor of Pharmacy in 1846, andsubsequently in Paris; his voluminous writings have done much topopularise science, and they comprise a volume on alchemy and one indefence of immortality; many of these have been received with favour inEngland (1819-1894). 

FIJI (125), a group of islands in the S. Pacific Ocean, known alsoas the Viti Islands; they lie between 15°-22° S. Lat. And 176° E. -178° W. Long. , and are a dependency of Britain; sighted by Tasman in 1643, thoughfirst discovered, properly speaking, by Cook in 1773, came first intoprominence in 1858, when the sovereignty was offered to England anddeclined, but in 1874 were taken over and made a crown colony; theynumber over 200 islands, of which Viti Leon and Vanua Leon are by far thelargest; Suva is the capital; sugar, cotton, vanilla, tea, and coffee arecultivated, besides fruit. 

FILDES, S. LUKE, artist, born in Lancashire; made his mark first asa designer of woodcuts; contributed to various magazines and illustratedbooks, notably Dickens's "Edwin Drood"; his most noted pictures are"Applicants for a Casual Ward, " "The Widower, " and "The Doctor"; he wasmade an R. A. In 1887; _b_. 1844. 

FILIBUSTER, a name given to buccaneers who infested theSpanish-American coasts or those of the West Indies, but more speciallyused to designate the followers of Lopez in his Cuban expedition in 1851, and those of Walker in his Nicaraguan in 1855; a name now given to anylawless adventurers who attempt to take forcible possession of a foreigncountry. 

FILIGREE, a name given to a species of goldsmith's ornamental workfashioned out of fine metallic (usually gold or silver) wire intolace-like patterns; the art is of ancient date, and was skilfullypractised by the Etruscans and Egyptians, as well as in Central Asia andIndia. 

FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY, a controversy which ended in the disruption ofthe Western from the Eastern Church on the question whether the Spiritproceeded from the Father and the Son or from the Father only, theWestern maintaining the former and the Eastern the latter. 

FILLAN, ST. , a name borne by two Scottish saints: (1) the son of aMunster prince, lived in the 8th century, was first abbot of themonastery on the Holy Loch in Argyll, and afterwards laboured atStrathfillan, Perthshire; some of his relics are to be seen in theEdinburgh Antiquarian Museum; (2) or Faolan, known as "the leper, " hadhis church at the end of Loch Earn, Perthshire; a healing well and chairare associated with his name. 

FILLMORE, President of the United States from 1850 to 1853. 

FINALITY JOHN, Lord John Russell, from his complacently pronouncingthe Reform Bill of 1832 a final measure. 

FINCH, HENEAGE, first Earl of Nottingham and Lord Chancellor ofEngland, born in Kent, studied at Oxford, and was called to the bar in1645; at the Restoration he was appointed Solicitor-General, and took anactive part in prosecuting the regicides; in 1670 he becameAttorney-General, and in 1675 Lord-Chancellor; he presided as Lord-HighSteward at the trial of Stafford in 1680, and pronounced judgment in aspeech of great eloquence (1621-1682). 

FINDLATER, ANDREW, encyclopedist, born near Aberdour, inAberdeenshire, of humble parentage; graduated at Aberdeen, and became aschoolmaster at Tillydesk, and afterwards held the post of head-master ofGordon's Hospital in Aberdeen; in 1853 joined the staff of Messrs. W. &R. Chambers, Edinburgh, and became eventually editor of the first editionof their encyclopedia (1861-1868); amongst other work done for theMessrs. Chambers were various manuals on astronomy, geography, &c. ; was aman of wide and accurate scholarship (1810-1877). 

FINGAL or FIONN, the great hero of Gaelic mythology, represented by OSSIAN (q. V. ) to have ruled over the kingdom ofMorven, which may be said to have been then co-extensive with Argyllshireand the West Highlands; in ballad literature he is represented asbelonging also to Ireland. 

FINGAL'S CAVE, a remarkable cave of basaltic formation on the coastof the ISLE OF STAFFA (q. V. ); entrance to the cave is effectedin boats through a natural archway 42 ft. Wide and 66 ft. High, and thewater fills the floor of this great hall to a distance of 227 ft. 

FINISTERRE or FINISTÈRE (727), the most westerly department ofFrance, washed on the N. By the English Channel, and on the S. And W. Bythe Atlantic; has a rugged and broken coast-line, but inland presents apicturesque appearance with tree-clad hills and fertile valleys; theclimate is damp, and there is a good deal of marshy land; mines ofsilver, lead, &c. , are wrought, and quarries of marble and granite;fishing is largely engaged in; and the manufacture of linen, canvas, pottery, &c. , are important industries, while large quantities of grainare raised. 

FINLAND (2, 431), a grand-duchy forming the NW. Corner of Russia; wasceded by the Swedes in 1809, but still retains an independentadministration. The coast-line is deeply indented, and fringed with smallislands; the interior, chiefly elevated plateau, consists largely offorest land, and is well furnished with lakes, many of which are unitedby canals, one 36 m. Connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland. Various cereals (barley, oats, &c. ) are grown, and there is a varied andvaluable fauna; fishing is an extensive industry, and no less than 80kinds of fish are found in the rivers, lakes, and coast waters. Thecountry is divided into eight counties, and is governed by a Senate andDiet, the reigning Russian emperor holding rank as grand-duke; educationis highly advanced; Swedish and Finnish are the two languages of thecountry, Russian being practically unknown. There is an excellent Sagaliterature, and the beginnings of a modern literature. The Finns cameunder the dominion of the Swedes in the 12th and 13th centuries, and wereby them Christianised. 

FINLAY, GEORGE, a distinguished historian, horn at Faversham, Kent, but of Scotch parents; received a university training at Glasgow andGöttingen, and in 1822 went to Greece, where he met Byron and fought inthe War of Independence; henceforth Greece became his home, and there, after an unavailing effort to promote agriculture, he betook himself to astudious life and to writing the history of his adopted country; hisvaluable history, published in various parts, traces the national life ofGreece from 146 B. C. To A. D. 1864 (1799-1875). 

FINMARK (29), a province of Norway, lying in the extreme N. , with arocky and indented coast and a barren and mountainous interior; fishingis the main industry of the inhabitants, who are chiefly Lapps. 

FINNS, the native inhabitants of Finland, and originally of thedistricts in Sweden and Norway as well, are of the Mongolian type, andwere settled in Europe before the arrival of the Slavic and Teutonicraces. 

FIORDS, deep indentations forming inlets of the sea, especially onthe coast of Norway, overlooked by high mountains and precipitous cliffs. 

FIRDAUSI or FIRDUSI, the pseudonym of Abu-'l Kasim Mansur, thegreat poet of Persia, born near Tûs, in Khorassan; flourished in the 10thcentury B. C. ; spent 30 years in writing the "Shah Nama, " a nationalepic, but having been cheated out of the reward promised by SultanMahmud, he gave vent to bitter satire against his royal master and fledthe court; for some time he led a wandering life, till at length hereturned to his birthplace, where he died; a complete translation of hisgreat poem exists in French. 

FIRE-WORSHIP, worship of fire, especially as embodied in the sunviewed as the most express and emphatic exhibition of beneficent divinepower. 

FIRMAMENT, a name given to the vault of the sky conceived as a solidsubstance studded with stars, so applied in the Vulgate. 

FIRMAN, a Persian word denoting a mandate or decree; among the Turksthe term is applied to such decrees as issue from the Ottoman Porte, andalso to passports, the right of signing which lies with the Sultan or aPasha; the word is also used in India to denote a permit to trade. 

FIRMIN, ST. , bishop of Amiens, who suffered martyrdom in 287. Festival, Sept. 25. 

FIRST GENTLEMAN OF EUROPE, George IV. , from his fine style andmanners. 

FISCHART, JOHANN, a German satirist; an imitator of Rabelais(1545-1589). 

FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD, a German historian of philosophy, bornat Sandewalde, Silesia; as a student of Erdmann at Halle he was smittenwith the love of philosophy, and gave his life to the study of it; aftergraduating he went to Heidelberg and there established himself as aprivate lecturer, in which capacity he was eminently successful, but in1853 was deprived of his status by Government, probably on account of thealleged Pantheistic trend of his teaching; in 1856, however, he waselected to the chair of Philosophy in Jena, and 16 years later was calledback to Heidelberg as Zeller's successor; his chief work is a "History ofModern Philosophy"; _b_. 1824. 

FISHER, JOHN, bishop of Rochester, born at Beverley; wasdistinguished at Cambridge, and became chaplain and confessor to theCountess of Richmond, Henry VII. 's mother, who had him appointedprofessor of Divinity at his _alma mater_; in 1504 he was electedChancellor of the University and made bishop of Rochester, but incurredthe royal displeasure by opposing Henry VIII. 's divorce of Catherine ofAragon, and by upholding the Pope's supremacy; became involved in thedeceptions of Elizabeth Barton, maid of Kent, and was sent to the Towerin 1534 for refusing to take the oath of succession; was created acardinal, but was beheaded by order of the king ere his hat arrived; wasbeatified in 1886 (1469-1535). 

FISKE, JOHN, American writer, born at Hartford, Conn. , U. S. ;studied at Harvard; in 1869 lectured at his old university as aPositivist, and was under-librarian from 1872 to 1879; he is the authorof a number of works on Darwinism, American history, philosophy, etc. ;_b_. 1842. 

FITCH, JOHN, an American inventor, born in Connecticut; led a lifeof adventure, at one time acting as gunsmith to the Americanrevolutionaries and at another falling into the hands of Indians whilsttrading in the West; in 1785 he brought out a model steamboat with sidewheels, and in 1788 and in 1790 constructed larger vessels, one of thelatter being for some time employed as a passenger boat; some of hisplans are said to have fallen into Robert Fulton's hands and given himthe idea of his steamship; disheartened by the ill-success of a trip toFrance he committed suicide at Bardstown, Kentucky (1743-1798). 

FITZ-BOODLE, GEORGE, Thackeray's pseudonym in _Fraser's Magazine_. 

FITZGERALD, EDWARD, English scholar, born in Suffolk; at Cambridge, where he graduated in 1830, he formed close friendships with JamesSpedding and Thackeray, and afterwards was on intimate terms with Carlyleand Tennyson; his life was quietly spent in his country residence inSuffolk, varied by yachting expeditions and visits to London, where hemade the round of his friends; his first book, "Euphranor, " a dialogue onyouth, appeared when he was 42, "Polonius" followed and some Spanishtranslations, but his fame rests on his translations of Persian poetry, and especially on his rendering of the 11th-century poet, Omar Khayyám(1809-1883). 

FITZGERALD, LADY, a daughter of Egalité and Mme. Genlis, calledPamela; distinguished for her beauty and enthusiasm for liberty, and whobecame the wife of LORD FITZGERALD, the Irish patriot (q. V. );_d_. 1831. 

FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD, the younger son of the Duke of Leinster, born at Carlton Castle, near Dublin; spent his early years in France;joined the English army and served with distinction in the American War;in 1784 he was elected to the Irish Parliament, and opposed the EnglishGovernment; was attracted to France by the Revolution, but returned toIreland and joined the United Irishmen in 1796, and began plotting therising of 1798; his scheme was betrayed, and he was arrested in Dublinafter a determined resistance, during which he received wounds of whichhe died in prison (1763-1798). 

FITZHERBERT, MRS. , a Roman Catholic lady, maiden name Maria AnneSmythe, with whom, after her second widowhood, George IV. , while Princeof Wales, contracted a secret marriage in 1785, which, however, under theRoyal Marriage Act, was declared invalid (1756-1837). 

FITZROY, ROBERT, admiral, navigator, and meteorologist, born atAmpton Hall, near Bury St. Edmunds; entered the navy at 14, and in1828-1830 conducted a survey of the coasts of Patagonia and Tierra delFuego, a work he continued while commanding the _Beagle_ (1831-1836), inwhich Darwin accompanied him; in 1843-1845 was governor of New Zealand;in his later years devoted himself to meteorology, and, on the retiredlist, rose to be vice-admiral; published accounts of his voyages, etc. ;under pressure of work his mind gave way, and he committed suicide(1805-1865). 

FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM, EARL, a politician of George the Third's time;the excesses of the French Revolution caused him to come over from theWhigs and support Pitt; favoured Catholic emancipation during hisLord-Lieutenancy of Ireland, but was recalled; held office underGrenville in 1806, and took some part in the Reform Bill agitation of theday (1748-1833). 

FIUME (29), a seaport of Hungary, on the Adriatic, at the rockyentrance of the Fiumara, 40 m. SE. Of Trieste; a new town of spacious andcolonnaded streets and many fine buildings, has grown up on the groundsloping down from the old town; has an excellent harbour, and flourishingindustries in paper, torpedoes, tobacco, etc. , besides being the entrepôtof an important and increasing commerce. 

FLACIUS or VLACICH, MATTHIAS, surnamed Illyricus, a Germantheologian, born at Albona, in Illyria; was the pupil of Luther andMelanchthon; became professor of the Old Testament Scriptures atWittenberg, but four years later lost his position on account of certainattacks he made on Melanchthon; subsequently he was elected professor atJena, but was again deposed for heterodox notions on original sin; diedin poverty; was author of an ecclesiastical history and other works(1520-1575). 

FLAGELLANTS, a set of medieval fanatics, who first arose in Italy in1260, and subsequently appeared in other quarters of Europe, and whothought by self-flagellation to atone for sin and avert divine judgment, hoping by a limited number of stripes to compensate for a century ofscourgings; the practice arose at a time when it was reckoned that thefinal judgment of the world was at hand. 

FLAHAULT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH, COMTE DE, aFrench soldier and diplomatist, born at Paris; was aide-de-camp toNapoleon, and for distinguished services in the Peninsular war and atLeipzig was made a general and count; fought at Waterloo, and two yearslater married Margaret Elphinston, who by inheritance became BaronessKeith; he was ambassador at the Courts of Venice (1841-48) and at London(1860) (1785-1870). 

FLAMBARD, RANDOLPH, a Norman who came over with the Conqueror toEngland and became chaplain to William Rufus, whom he abetted andpandered to in his vices, in return for which, and a heavy sum he paid, he was in 1099 made bishop of Durham. 

FLAMBOYANT, the name given, from the flame-like windings of itstracery, to a florid style of architecture in vogue in France during the15th and 16th centuries. 

FLAMENS, priests elected in Rome by the people and consecrated bythe chief pontiff to the service of a particular god, such as Jupiter, Mars, &c. 

FLAMINIUS, CAIUS, a Roman tribune and consul, who constructed theFlaminian Way; perished at Lake Trasimene, where he was defeated byHannibal in the Second Punic War, 217 B. C. 

FLAMINIUS, T. QUINTUS, a Roman consul, who defeated Philip ofMacedon and proclaimed the freedom of Greece, and it was his closeneighbourhood to Hannibal that induced the latter to take poison ratherthan fall into his hands (230-174 B. C. ). 

FLAMMARION, CAMILLE, French astronomer, born at Montigny-le-Roi; hewas attached to the Paris Observatory in 1858, and by means of books andlectures has spent a busy life in popularising his science; many of hisworks have been translated into English; _b_. 1842. 

FLAMSTEED, JOHN, the first astronomer-royal of England, born nearDerby; his devotion to astronomy gained him the favour of Sir JonasMoore, who was the means of getting him the appointment ofastronomer-royal in 1675; from the Observatory of Greenwich, speciallybuilt for his use, he catalogued the fixed stars and supplied Newton withuseful information bearing on his lunar theory; in 1675 he took holyorders, and was presented to the living of Burstow in Surrey, which heheld till his death (1646-1719). 

FLANDERS, the land of the Flemings, borders upon the North Sea, formerly extended from the Scheldt to the Somme, and included, besidesthe present Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders, part of Zealand, and also of Artois, in France; the ancient county dates from 862, inwhich year Charles the Bold of France, as suzerain, raised it to thestatus of a sovereign county, and bestowed it upon his son Baldwin I. ; ithas successively belonged to Spain and Austria, and in Louis XIV. 's reigna portion of it was ceded to France, now known as French Flanders, whileZealand passed into the hands of the Dutch; the remainder was in 1714made the Austrian Netherlands, and in 1831 was incorporated with the newkingdom of BELGIUM (q. V. ). 

FLANDRIN, a French painter, born at Lyons; was a pupil of Ingres;represented the religious movement in art in the 19th century(1809-1864). 

FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE, a realistic romancer, born at Rouen; author of"Madame Bovary, " a study of provincial life, which became the subject ofa prosecution, and "Salammbô, " wonderful for its vigour and skill indescription; he indulged in repulsive subjects (1821-1880). 

FLAVEL, JOHN, an English Nonconformist divine of spiritualisingtendencies, much read by pious people of his class; _d_. 1691. 

FLAXMAN, JOHN, an eminent sculptor, born at York; was brought up inLondon, where his father carried on business as a moulder of plasterfigures; his love of drawing and modelling soon marked him out as anartist, and helped by friends he devoted himself to art; exhibited at theage of 12, and won the silver medal of the Royal Academy at 14; for someyears he supplied the Wedgwoods with designs for their famous pottery, and in 1787 he went to Rome, which for seven years became his home; in1810 became professor of Sculpture to the Royal Academy; besides manyfine statues of eminent men and much exquisite work in bas-reliefs, heexecuted a series of noble designs illustrating Homer, Dante, andÆschylus; he was a Swedenborgian by religious creed (1755-1826). 

FLECHIER, a famous French pulpit orator, bishop of Nîmes; hisfuneral orations compare with Bossuet's (1632-1710). 

FLEET MARRIAGES, clandestine marriages, suppressed in 1754, performed without license by the chaplains of Fleet Prison, London. 

FLEET PRISON, a celebrated London jail in Farringdon Street; was adebtor's prison as far back as the 12th century. 

FLEETWOOD, CHARLES, a Cromwellian officer; fought aslieutenant-general against the king at Worcester, and acted aslord-deputy in Ireland; on the death of Cromwell advised the abdicationof Richard; _d_. 1692. 

FLEGEL, African explorer, born in Wilna, of German descent; madethree journeys from Europe to explore the Niger territory, in which hemade important discoveries; was suddenly stricken down in the last(1855-1886). 

FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT, Orientalist, born at Schandau, Saxony; after a university training at Leipzig he undertook a catalogueof the Oriental MSS. In the royal library at Dresden, and in 1836 becameprofessor of Oriental Languages at Leipzig; did important work as acritical editor of Oriental works and MSS. (1801-1888). 

FLEMING, PAUL, a celebrated German poet, born at Hartenstein, Vogtland; received a medical training at Leipzig, and was engaged inembassies in Russia and Persia; settled in Hamburg in 1639, but died thefollowing year; as a lyrist he stood in the front rank of German poets(1609-1640). 

FLEMISH SCHOOL, a school of painting established in the 15thcentury, and to which Reubens, Vandyck, and Teniers belonged. 

FLESHLY SCHOOL, a name given by Robert Buchanan to a realisticschool of poets, to which Rossetti, William Morris, and Swinburne belong. 

FLESSELLES, the last provost of the merchants of the Hôtel de Ville, Paris; "shot by an unknown hand at the turn of a street" after the fallof the Bastille (1721-1789). 

FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun, a Scottish patriot and politician;after travelling on the Continent for four years he entered the ScottishParliament, but got into trouble through his opposition to James, Duke ofYork, the Royal Commissioner in Scotland, and fled to Holland; hisestates were confiscated, and for the next seven years he was a politicalrefugee; he took part in the Rye House Plot and in Monmouth's invasion;his estates were restored in 1688, and he again sat in the ScottishParliament; he was an active promoter of the abortive Darien Scheme, anda strong opponent of the Union of 1707 (1653-1716). 

FLETCHER, GILES, an English poet, born in London; was theunappreciated rector of Alderton, in Suffolk, and author of a fervid andimaginative poem, "Christ's Victory and Triumph, " which won theadmiration of Milton (1588-1623). 

FLETCHER, JOHN, English dramatist, the son of a bishop of London;was left an orphan and in poverty; collaborated with BEAUMONT (q. V. )in the production of the plays published under their joint names;died of the plague (1570-1625). 

FLETCHER, PHINEAS, poet, brother of preceding; was rector of Hilgay, Norfolk; celebrated for his poem the "Purple Island, or the Isle of Man, "an ingenious allegory descriptive of the human body--i. E. The PurpleIsland--and its vices and virtues. 

FLEURANT, MONSIEUR, a character in Molière's "Malade Imaginaire. "

FLEUR-DE-LIS (i. E. Lily-flower), a badge of ultimately threegolden _fleurs-de-lis_ on a blue field, borne from the days of Clovis ontheir arms by the kings of France. 

FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE. CARDINAL, French statesman, born atLodève, in Languedoc; studied philosophy in Paris; became a doctor of theSorbonne and almoner to the Queen and King Louis XIV. , who subsequentlymade him bishop of Frèjus and tutor to his son Louis; in 1726 he waschosen Prime Minister by Louis XV. , and created a cardinal; he carriedthrough a successful war with Germany, which resulted in the acquisitionof Lorraine by France, but although honest and cautious, he cannot bestyled a great statesman (1653-1743). 

FLEURY, CLAUDE, ABBÉ, an ecclesiastical historian, born in Paris;was at the outset of his career a successful advocate, but afterwardsentered the Church; as tutor he educated various princes, including anillegitimate son of Louis XIV. , who in reward appointed him to the prioryof Argenteuil; was chosen confessor to the young Louis XV. , and in 1696was elected to the Academy; his chief work is his great "EcclesiasticalHistory" in 20 vols. , on which he laboured for 30 years, and thelearning, ability, and impartiality of which procured for him the esteemof all parties (1640-1723). 

FLINDERS, MATTHEW, a naval officer, born in Lincolnshire; exploredthe coast of Australia, experiencing not a few adventures, and addingmaterially to our geographical knowledge (1760-1814). 

FLINT, 1, a maritime county (77) of North Wales, between Lancashireand Denbigh, of which a detached portion lies to the N. Of Shropshire;low stretches of sand form its foreshore, but inland it is hilly, withhere and there a picturesque and fertile valley in which dairy-farming isextensively carried on. 2, a seaport (5), on the estuary of the Dee, 13m. NW. Of Chester; has ruins of a castle with interesting historicalassociations; in the neighbourhood are copper-works and lead and coalmines. 

FLINT, ROBERT, a theologian, born in Dumfriesshire; professor ofDivinity in Edinburgh University; an eminent scholar, a vigorous thinker, and a man of broad sympathies, who takes a deep interest in all the vitalquestions of the times, and has contributed to the solution of them; haswritten on Theism, the Philosophy of History, Socialism, &c. ; _b_. 1838. 

FLOATING ISLANDS are sometimes formed of masses of driftwood onwhich débris, vegetation, &c. , gradually form a soil, but are morecommonly portions of river banks detached by the force of the currentwhen swollen and drifted put, sometimes as much as 100 m. , to sea, carrying with them plants, reptiles, and larger animals, and thuscontributing to the distribution to distant shores of animal andvegetable life; they are to be met with off the mouths of the largerAmerican, Asian, and African rivers, and sometimes in inland seas andlakes; Derwent Lake, in England, has a notable one, which sinks, andrises periodically; they are also made artificially in districts subjectto floods as asylums of refuge. 

FLODDEN, BATTLE OF, fought on Flodden Hill, a low spur of theCheviots, 6 m. S. Of Coldstream, between James IV. Of Scotland and theEnglish under the Earl of Surrey on the 9th of September 1513, whichresulted in the crushing defeat of the Scots, who lost their king and theflower of their nobility, an event celebrated in Jean Elliot's "Flowersof the Forest"; a spirited account is given in the sixth canto of Scott's"Marmion. "

FLOOD, HENRY, an Irish Nationalist, trained at Dublin and OxfordUniversities; entering the Irish Parliament, he by his fervid oratorysoon won a place in the front rank of Irish politicians; in 1769 he wasput on trial for killing an opponent in a duel, but was acquitted; from1775 to 1781 he was Vice-Treasurer of Ireland; to Grattan's Irish Bill ofRight he offered bitter opposition, holding it to be an altogetherinadequate measure; in 1783 he was returned to the English House ofCommons, but failed to make his mark (1732-1791). 

FLORA, goddess of the blossom of flowers and the spring, an earlyRoman divinity; had in the time of NUMA a flamen (q. V. ) toherself. 

FLORENCE (137), a famous Italian city, situated 50 m. From the sea;it lies in the valley of the Arno, and is built on both sides of theriver, but chiefly on the N. ; the outlying suburbs are singularlybeautiful, and are surrounded by finely wooded hills, bright with gayvillas and charming gardens; the old city itself is characterised by asombre grandness, and is full of fine buildings of historic and artisticinterest; chief amongst these is the cathedral, or Duomo, begun in 1298, with its grand dome and campanile (293 ft. ), by Giotto. It is the city ofDante, Petrarch, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Galileo and many more of Italy's great men, and has ahistory of exceptional interest; it has many fine art galleries; is aneducational centre, and carries on a trade in straw-plaiting and silk. 

FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE DE, a French novelist and writer of fables; wasthe friend of Voltaire, from whom he received his first literary impulse;was the author of several romances plays, &c. , but his finest work isfound in his Fables, in which department of literature he ranks next LaFontaine (1755-1794). 

FLORIDA (391), "Land of Flowers, " the most southern of the AmericanStates, forms a bold peninsula on the E. Side of the Gulf of Mexico, andhas on its eastern shore the Atlantic; has a coast-line of 1150 m. ; thechief physical feature is the amount of water surface, made up of 19navigable rivers and lakes and ponds to the number of 1200, besidesswamps and marshes; the climate is, however, equable, and for the mostpart healthy; fruit-growing is largely engaged in; the timber tradeflourishes, also the phosphate industry, and cotton and the sugar-caneare extensively cultivated; a successful business in cigar-making hasalso of recent years sprung up, and there are valuable fisheries alongthe coast; Florida was admitted into the Union in 1845; the capital isTallahassee. 

FLORIO, JOHN, the translator of Montaigne, born in London, ofItalian parents; was a tutor of foreign languages for some years atOxford, and in 1581 became a member of Magdalen College and teacher ofFrench and Italian; published two works of a miscellaneous character, called "First Fruits" and "Second Fruits, " and an English-Italiandictionary called a "World of Words, " but his fame rests on histranslation of Montaigne, which Shakespeare used so freely (1553-1625). 

FLORUS, a Latin historian, contemporary of Trajan. 

FLUDD, ROBERT, physician and theosophist, born at Milgate, Kent;studied at Oxford, and travelled on the Continent, where he came underthe influence of Paracelsus's writings; settled in London as a doctor, and published a work embodying a vague theosophy (1574-1637). 

FLUSHING (13), a Dutch seaport, strongly fortified, on the island ofWalcheren, at the mouth of the western Scheldt; has an active shippingtrade, docks, arsenals, &c. 

FLUXIONS, a method, invented by Sir Isaac Newton, of determining therate of increase or decrease of a quantity or magnitude whose valuedepends on that of another which itself varies in value at a uniform andgiven rate. See CALCULUS, DIFFERENTIAL, AND INTEGRAL. 

FLYING DUTCHMAN, a Dutch captain, fated for his sins to scour thesea and never reach port, who appeared from time to time to sea-captainsas on a black spectral ship, and from the very terror he inspired madethem change their course; there are many versions of this fable in theGerman mythology. 

FO, the name in China for Buddha. 

FO-HI, or FUH-HE, the mythical founder of the Chinese dynasty, is said to have introduced cattle-rearing, instituted marriage, andinvented letters. 

FOIX, GASTON DE, illustrious French captain, nephew of Louis XII. , was from his daring exploits called the Thunderbolt of Italy; he beat theSwiss, routed the Papal troops, captured Brescia from the Venetians, andgained the battle of Ravenna against the Spaniards, but was slain whenpursuing the fugitives (1489-1512). 

FOIX, GASTON III. DE, French captain, surnamed Phoebus on account ofhis beauty and handsome presence; distinguished in the wars against theEnglish and in the Jacquerie revolt, in which he rescued the dauphin atMeaux (1331-1391). 

FOLEY, JOHN HENRY, an eminent sculptor, born in Dublin; his firstsuccess was achieved in a series of classical figures, including someShakespearian subjects; statues of Hampden, Burke, J. S. Mill, Goldsmith, &c. , brought him further fame, and he was commissioned by the Queen toexecute the figure of Prince Albert in the Albert Memorial; his vigourand genius were further revealed in the noble equestrian statues ofHardinge and Outram (1818-1874). 

FOLKESTONE (24), a seaport and watering-place on the coast of Kent, 7 m. SW. Of Dover; has a fine harbour and esplanade; is much engaged inthe herring and mackerel fisheries, and is steam-packet station forBoulogne; a fine railway viaduct spans the valley in which the old townlies. 

FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM, journalistic editor, after serving onthe staff of the _Times_ and the _Morning Chronicle_ became editor of the_Examiner_, which he conducted successfully from 1830 to 1847; Carlylewas introduced to him on his visit to London in 1831, and describes himas "a tall, loose, lank-haired, wrinkly, wintry, vehement-looking flailof a man, " but "the best of the Fourth Estate" then extant; "I ratherlike the man, " he adds, "has the air of a true-hearted Radical"(1793-1872). 

FONTAINEBLEAU, a town on the left bank of the Seine, 35 m. SE. OfParis, and famous for a château or palace of the kings of France, and theforest that surrounds it. This château, founded towards the end of the10th century, was enlarged and embellished by successive kings, beginningwith Francis I. , and was the place where Napoleon signed his abdicationin 1814. 

FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE, poet and man of letters, born at Niort, Poitou; came to Paris and achieved some celebrity by his poems andtranslations from Pope and Gray; changing from the Royalist side, he, during the Revolution, edited two journals in the Republican interest, and held the post of professor of Literature at the College of the FourNations; was for some time a refugee in England, but afterwards returnedand became a zealous supporter of Napoleon, on the downfall of whom heembraced the Bourbon cause, and was raised to the peerage (1757-1821). 

FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE, a miscellaneous French writer, born at Rouen, a nephew of Corneille, whose Life he wrote; was designedfor the bar, but under his uncle's patronage embarked on a literarycareer in Paris; he vehemently upheld the moderns in the famous literaryquarrel of Moderns _versus_ Ancients, and brought upon himself thesatirical attacks of Boileau and Racine; became Secretary and thenPresident of the Académie des Sciences; died in his hundredth year; hisvigorous and versatile nature found vent in a wide variety ofwritings--literary, scientific, and historical; author of "Dialogues ofthe Dead, " in imitation of Lucian, and "Conversations on the Plurality ofWorlds"; is credited with the saying, "A man may have his hand full oftruth, and yet only care to open his little finger, " and this other, "Noman was ever written down but by himself" (1657-1757). 

FONTENOY, a village in Belgium, 5 m. SW. Of Tournay, where MarshalSaxe beat the English, Dutch, and Austrians under the Duke of Cumberlandin 1745. 

FOOCHOW (630), a Chinese city, the capital of the province ofFu-chien, situated on the Min, 125 m. NE. Of Amoy. Massive walls 30 ft. High enclose the original town, but the extensive suburbs reach down tothe river, which is bridged, and is a convenient waterway for tradingwith the interior; it was made a free port in 1842, and is the centre ofa busy trade in tea, timber, and textiles. 

FOOLS, FEAST OF, a festival of wild mirth in the Middle Ages, heldon 1st January, in which the Ass of Scripture celebrity played a chiefpart, and in which many of the rites and ceremonies of the Church weretravestied. 

FOOT-POUND, the name given in mechanics to the force required toraise 1 lb. Through 1 foot, the unit of work. 

FOOTE, SAMUEL, a celebrated English actor and playwright, born atTruro, Cornwall, of a good family; was educated at Oxford, and studiedlaw, but ruined himself by gaming, and took to the stage; he became thesuccessful lessee of Haymarket Theatre in 1747, where, by his inimitablepowers of mimicry and clever comedies, he firmly established himself inpopular favour (1720-1777). 

FORBES, ARCHIBALD, a noted war-correspondent, born in Morayshire;was educated at Aberdeen University; served in a cavalry regiment, actedas war-correspondent for the _Daily News_ during the Franco-German war, and has since been the brilliant chronicler of war news in all parts ofthe globe; has published several volumes; _b_. 1838. 

FORBES, DUNCAN, of Culloden, a distinguished lawyer and patrioticpolitician, born at Bunchrew; was trained at Edinburgh and Leyden, andcalled to the Scotch bar in 1709; took an active part in putting down therebellion of 1715, and in 1722 entered Parliament; three years later hewas appointed Lord Advocate and Lord President of the Court of Session;succeeded his brother in the estates of Culloden and Bunchrew; during the1745 rebellion he was active in the Hanoverian interest, and did much toquell the uprising; Forbes was a devoted Scot, and unweariedly strove toallay the Jacobite discontent and to establish the country in peace, andused his great influence and wealth to further these ends, serviceswhich, in the end, impoverished him, and received little or norecognition at the hands of Government (1685-1747). 

FORBES, EDWARD, a noted naturalist, born at Douglas, in the Isle ofMan; studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he became smitten with the loveof natural science, to which he devoted his life; in 1841 he accompaniedthe _Beacon_ as naturalist, and returning in 1843 found himself electedto the chair of Botany in King's College, London; various geologicalappointments followed, and in 1852 he became President of the GeologicalSociety, and two years later received the chair of Natural History inEdinburgh; Forbes was a prolific author, and his writings cover the wholefield of natural science, to every section of which he has madecontributions of great value (1815-1854). 

FORBES, JAMES DAVID, physicist, born at Edinburgh, the grandson ofSir William, and the son of the first lady-love of Sir Walter Scott, andvery like her; was called to the bar in 1830; physical science, however, was his ruling passion, and in 1833 he became professor of NaturalPhilosophy in Edinburgh University, from which he was called in 1859 tothe Principalship of the United College, St. Andrews, in which hesucceeded Sir David Brewster, whom he had defeated in obtaining theEdinburgh chair; he made some valuable contributions to natural science, including discoveries in the polarisation of heat and in regard to themotion of glaciers, to investigate which he travelled in Norway and inthe Alps (1809-1868). 

FORBES, SIR JOHN, physician, born at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire; enteredthe navy as assistant-surgeon in 1807, and became M. D. Of Edinburgh tenyears later; practised at Penzance and Chichester, but finally settled atLondon in 1840, where he became physician to the Queen; was for twelveyears editor of the _British and Foreign Medical Review_, which hefounded in 1836, and was joint-author of the "Cyclopædia of PracticalMedicine"; first to use the stethoscope in England (1787-1861). 

FORBES, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent banker, son of a Scotch advocate andbaronet, born in Edinburgh; became partner in the banking firm of Messrs. John Coutts & Co. ; two years later a new company was formed, of which herose to be manager, and which in 1830 became the Union Bank of Scotland;he is author of a Life of his friend Beattie, the Scottish poet, and of"Memoirs of a Banking-House" (1739-1806). 

FORD, JOHN, dramatist, born at Islington, North Devon; studied atOxford, and entered the Middle Temple in 1602, but was never called tothe bar; in 1606 appeared his first poetic work "Fame's Memorial, " anelegy on the death of the Earl of Devonshire, and for the next 33 yearshe was a prolific writer of plays, chiefly tragedies, collaborating insome cases with Dekker and Webster; "The Broken Heart" was greatlyadmired by Charles Lamb, and "Perkin Warbeck" is considered by StopfordBrooke the best historical drama after Shakespeare; there is little ofthe lighter graces about his work, and he is prone to go beyond thebounds of nature in his treatment of the tragic, but his grip on thegreater human passions, and his power of moving presentment, areundoubted (1586-1639). 

FORDUN, JOHN OF, a Scottish chronicler; lived in the 14th century;was a canon of Aberdeen Cathedral, and wrote a chronicle of Scottishhistory, bringing the story up to 1153; materials for further volumes, which he left, were utilised by Walter Bower, an abbot of Inchcolm, inthe Forth, who extended the account to 1437, but often tampered withFordun's narrative; the work is the chief authority in Scottish historyup to the time it treats of. 

FORELAND, NORTH AND SOUTH, two rocky promontories on the E. Coast ofKent, which lie 16 m. Apart; have the Downs and Goodwin Sands betweenthem; they are well marked with lighthouses. 

FORENSIC MEDICINE, or MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, a branch of legalscience in which the principles of medicine are applied to the purposesof the law, and originating out of the frequency with which medicalpoints arise in the administration of justice, e. G. In murder trialsand in cases where insanity is involved. 

FOREST LAWS, laws enacted in ancient times for the purpose ofguarding the royal forest lands as hunting preserves, and which were upto the time of Henry III. Of excessive harshness, death being a notinfrequent penalty for infringement. The privileges of forest (at onetime the sole prerogative of the sovereign, but by him capable of beingvested in another), which might include the right to the wild animals inthe forests lying in the domains of a private estate, have now falleninto abeyance, as also the special Forest Courts, while many of the royalforests, which in Henry VIII. 's time numbered 69, have beendisafforested. 

FORFAR (13), the county town of Forfarshire, 14 m. NE. Of Dundee;manufactures linen; was once an important royal residence, and was made aroyal burgh by David I. 

FORFARSHIRE or ANGUS (278), a maritime county on the E. Side ofScotland, lying N. Of the Firth of Tay; Strathmore and the Carse ofGowrie are fertile valleys, where agriculture and cattle-rearingflourish, and which, with the Braes of Angus in the N. And the SidlawHills to the S. , make up a finely diversified county; jute and linen arethe most important articles of manufacture, of which Dundee and Arbroathare centres; Forfarshire is a county particularly rich inantiquities--Roman remains, castles, priories, &c. 

FORMOSA (3, 500), a large island off the coast of China, from whichit is separated by the Fukien Channel, 90 m. Broad. Formosa was ceded toJapan by the Chinese in 1895; it is an island of much natural beauty, andis traversed N. And S. By a fine range of hills; is famed for itsbamboos, and exports coal, rice, tea, &c. Name also of a large territoryin the Argentine. 

FORNARINA, a Roman lady of great beauty, a friend of Raphael's, andwho frequently posed as a model to him. 

FORRES (3), a royal burgh in Elginshire, on the Findhorn, 2 m. Fromthe sea and 10 m. SW. Of Elgin by railway; has ruins of a castle--once aroyal residence--and a famous "Stan'in Stane, " Sueno's Stone, 25 ft. High, placed in the year 900. 

FORREST, EDWIN, a celebrated American actor, born in Philadelphia;went on the stage at 14, and from the provinces made his way to New York, where his rendering of Othello at the age of 20 raised him to the frontrank among actors; he made three tours in England, but during his last in1845 he entirely lost the popular favour through his conduct in anembittered quarrel with Macready; after his final appearance on the stagein 1871 he continued for a short while to give Shakespearian readings; hewas a tragedian of the highest order, and in his profession amassed alarge fortune (1806-1872). 

FORS CLAVIGERA, the name given by Ruskin to a series of letters toworkmen, written during the seventies of this century, and employed byhim to designate three great powers which go to fashion human destiny, viz. , _Force_, wearing, as it were, (_clava_) the club of Hercules;_For_titude, wearing, as it were, (_clavis_) the key of Ulysses; and_For_tune, wearing, as it were, (_clavus_) the nail of Lycurgus; that isto say, Faculty waiting on the right moment, and then striking in. SeeShakespeare's "Time and tide in the affairs of men, " &c. , the "flood" inwhich is the "Third Fors. " The letters are represented as written at thedictation of the Third Fors, or, as it seems to the author, the rightmoment, or the occurrence of it. 

FÖRSTER, ERNST, an art critic, brother of succeeding, author of anumber of elaborate and important works bearing on the history of art inGermany and Italy; was the son-in-law of Jean Paul, whose works heedited, and to whose biography he made contributions of great value(1800-1885). 

FÖRSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH, German poet and historian; his poeticgifts were first called into exercise during the war of liberation, inwhich he served as a volunteer, and the series of spirited war-songs hethen wrote procured him a wide-spread fame; afterwards he lived inBerlin, teaching in the school of artillery, and subsequently becomingcustodian of the Royal Art Museum; besides poems he wrote severalhistorical and biographical works (1791-1868). 

FORSTER, JOHANN GEORGE ADAM, naturalist, son of the succeeding;accompanied his father in the voyage with Cook, and contributed to theliterature anent the expedition; subsequently became professor of NaturalHistory at Cassel and at Wilna, and eventually librarian to the Electorof Mayence in 1788; his works are published in 9 vols. (1754-1794). 

FORSTER, JOHANN REINHOLD, a German naturalist and traveller, born inPrussia; accompanied Captain Cook as a naturalist on his secondexpedition to the South Seas, and in connection with which he wrote avolume of observations; died professor of Natural History and Mineralogyat Halle (1729-1798). 

FORSTER, JOHN, a noted English writer, born at Newcastle; waseducated for the bar, but took to journalism, and soon made his mark as apolitical writer in the _Examiner_; he subsequently edited the _ForeignQuarterly Review_, the _Daily News_ (succeeding Dickens), and the_Examiner_ (1847-56); he was the author of several historical sketches, but his best-known works are the admirable biographies of Goldsmith, Landor, and Dickens (1812-1876). 

FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD, statesman, born at Bradpole, Dorset, son ofa Quaker; entered upon a commercial career in a worsted manufactory atBradford, but from the first politics engaged his paramount attention, and in 1861 he became member of Parliament for Bradford; became insuccession Under-Secretary for the Colonies, Vice-president of theCouncil of Education, and a Privy Councillor; his chief legislativemeasure was the Elementary Education Bill of 1870, which, as a member ofMr. Gladstone's Cabinet, he carried through Parliament, two years afterwhich the Ballot Act was introduced by him; in 1874 he visited the UnitedStates, and on his return was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen University;as Irish Secretary in 1880 he made an earnest effort to grapple with theIrish problem, but losing the support of his colleagues, over theimprisonment of Mr. Parnell and other Land League leaders, he resigned;he was married to Jane, eldest daughter of Dr. Arnold of Rugby; histransparent honesty and rugged independence of character won himuniversal esteem (1819-1886). 

FORT AUGUSTUS, a small village on the Caledonian Canal, 33 m. SW. OfInverness; the fort, built in 1716 and enlarged in 1730, was utilised asa barrack during the disturbances in the Highlands, but after beingdismantled and again garrisoned down to 1857, it finally, in 1876, passedinto the hands of the BENEDICTINES (q. V. ), who have convertedit into an abbey and college. 

FORT GEORGE, a fortress on the Moray Firth, 12 m. NE. Of Inverness;was built in 1748, and is now the head-quarters of the SeaforthHighlanders. 

FORT WILLIAM, a small police-burgh in Inverness-shire, 66 m. SW. OfInverness, near the southern end of the Caledonian Canal; the railwaystation stands on the site of the old fort, which in 1655 was built byMonk; a meteorological observatory was erected here in 1889. 

FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN, an eminent English lawyer, born inSomersetshire; flourished in the 15th century; was called to the bar atLincoln's Inn, and in 1442 became Lord Chief-Justice of the Court ofKing's Bench; he was a staunch Lancastrian during the Wars of the Roses, and shared the exile of Queen Margaret and her son Edward, for whom hewrote in dialogue form his famous "De Laudibus Legum, " a treatise stillread; the fate of the Lancastrian cause was sealed on the field ofTewkesbury, and he himself was taken prisoner; he died at the advancedage of 90. 

FORTH, a river of Scotland, formed by the junction of Duchray Waterand the Avondhu, streams which rise one on Ben Lomond and the other onBen Venue, and which, after 14 and 9 m. , unite at Aberfoyle; the riverthence flows with many windings, called Links, through some of thefairest country of the eastern lowlands to Alloa (51½ m. ), where beginsthe Firth, which stretches 51 m. To the German Ocean, and which atQueensferry is spanned by a massive railway bridge known as the ForthBridge (1882-1890). 

FORTUNA, a Roman divinity, the goddess of luck, and especially goodluck, to whom Servius Tullius, in acknowledgment of her favours to him, erected several temples in Rome; is represented in art as standing poisedon a globe or a wheel, to express her inconstancy. 

FORTUNATUS, a character in a popular German legend, who possessed a_purse_ out of which he was able to provide himself with money as oftenas he needed it and _cap_, by putting on of which, and wishing to beanywhere, he was straightway there; these he got, by his own freeelection and choice, conceded to him by the Upper Powers, and they proveda curse to him rather than a blessing, he finding out when too late that"the god Wish is not the true God. "

FORTY THIEVES, a fraternity in the "Arabian Nights" who inhabited asecret den in a forest, the gate of which would open only to the magicword "Sesamë. "

FORUM, a public place in Rome and Roman cities where the courts ofjustice were held, and popular assemblies for civic business. 

FORWARDS, MARSHAL, MARSHAL BLÜCHER (q. V. ). 

FOSCARI, a Doge of Venice from 1423 to his death; his reign wasdistinguished by the glories of conquest, but his life was embittered bythe misfortunes of his sons, and the judicial tortures inflicted on oneof them which he was compelled to witness; he died at the age of 87, broken-hearted (1370-1457). 

FOSCOLO, UGO, an Italian patriot and author, born at Zante; hisliterary career began in Venice with the successful performance of histragedy "Trieste, " but on the Austrian occupation of the town he joinedthe French army; disappointed in the hope that France would unite withand free Italy, he returned to literary work in Milan, and in 1809 wascalled to the chair of Eloquenco in Pavia; but the conquering Austriansagain forced him to become a refugee, first in Switzerland and finally inEngland, where he died; he was the author of various essays, poems, etc. , and of a translation of Sterne's "Sentimental Journey" (1778-1827). 

FOSTER, BIRKET, a celebrated artist, born at North Shields; hisearliest work was done in wood-engraving under the direction of Landells, and many of his sketches appeared in the _Illustrated London News_;following this he executed, in collaboration with John Gilbert, a seriesof illustrations for the works of Goldsmith, Cowper, Scott, and otherpoets, in which he exhibited a rare skill in rural scenes; subsequentwork has been in water-colours, and in 1861 he was elected a member ofthe Water-Colour Society (1825-1899). 

FOSTER, JOHN, an English essayist, born in Halifax, Yorkshire; wastrained for the Baptist ministry, and for 25 years officiated in variouscongregations, but met with little success; from 1817 he devoted himselfsolely to literature, and became a contributor to the _Eclectic Review_, for which he wrote no fewer than 184 articles; his best-known work is an"Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, " in which he advocates a systemof national education (1770-1843). 

FOTHERINGAY, a village in Northamptonshire, on the Nen, 9 m. SW. OfPeterborough; the ruined castle there was the scene of the execution ofMary, Queen of Scots, in 1587. 

FOUCAULT, JOHN BERNARD, a French physicist, born in Paris;distinguished for his studies in optics and problems connected withlight; demonstrated the rate of the rotation of the globe by theoscillation of a pendulum (1819-1868). 

FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH, Duke of Otranto, born at Nantes, a member of theNational Convention, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; becameMinister of Police under Napoleon; falling into disfavour, was sent intoexile, but recalled to Paris in 1814; advised Napoleon to abdicate atthat time and again after Waterloo; served under Louis XVIII. For a time, but was obliged at length to quit France for good; died at Trieste(1763-1820). 

FOULA, a high and rocky islet among the Shetlands, 32 m. W. OfLerwick; its sandstone cliffs on the NW. Are 1220 ft. In height, and risesheer from the water; it is sparsely peopled; fishing is the almost solepursuit. 

FOULD, ACHILLE, French statesman, born at Paris; entered politicallife in 1842; became an authority in finance, served in that capacityunder Louis Napoleon (1800-1865). 

FOULIS, ROBERT and ANDREW, celebrated printers; were brought upin Glasgow, where Robert, the elder, after practising as a barber, tookto printing, and in 1743 became printer to the university; his press wasfar-famed for the beauty and accuracy of editions of the classics; Andrewwas trained for the ministry, but subsequently joined his brother; anacademy, started by the brothers in 1753 for engraving, moulding, etc. , although a complete success artistically, involved them in expense, andeventually financial ruin; they have been called the "Scottish Elzevirs"(Robert, 1707-1776; Andrew, 1712-1775). 

FOULON, a French financier, nicknamed the _Ame damnée_, Familiardemon, of the parlement of Paris prior to the Revolution; "once, when itwas objected to some financial scheme of his, 'What will the people do?'made answer, 'The people may eat grass, '" words which the people neverforgot; when attacked by them "he defended himself like a mad lion, butwas borne down, trampled, hanged, and mangled, " his head thereafterparaded through the city on a pike and the mouth stuffed with grass(1715-1789). 

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are institutions for the rearing of children whohave been deserted by their parents, and exist with varying regulationsin most civilised countries; the first foundling hospital was establishedat Milan in 787, and others arose in Germany, Italy, and France beforethe 14th century; the Paris foundling hospital is a noted institution ofthe kind, and offers every encouragement for children to be brought in, and admits legitimate orphans and children pronounced incorrigiblecriminals by the court; the London foundling hospital was founded byCaptain Thomas Coram, and supports about 500 illegitimates. 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, a merciless revolutionary, born near Artois;member of the Jacobin Club, Attorney-General of the RevolutionaryTribunal, purveyor of the guillotine; was guillotined himself after thefall of Robespierre (1747-1795). 

FOURTH ESTATE, the daily press, so called by Edmund Burke, pointing, in the House of Commons, to the reporters' gallery. 

FOURTH OF JULY, the anniversary of the declaration of AmericanIndependence in 1776. 

FOWLER, SIR JOHN, K. C. M. G. , civil engineer, born at Sheffield; wasactively engaged in the construction of numerous railways (notably theLondon and Brighton), and in dock and bridge building; carried throughimportant works in Egypt in 1885, and, along with Sir B. Baker, hedesigned the Forth Bridge, on the completion of which he received abaronetcy (1817-1889). 

FOX, CHARLES JAMES, an eminent Whig statesman, third son of HenryFox, first Lord Holland, born in London; was educated at Eton and Oxford, and at the age of 19 sat in Parliament for Midhurst; under Lord North heheld office, but quarrelled with the premier and went over to the Whigs, then led by Rockingham; here he came under the influence of Burke, andwith him offered uncompromising opposition to the American War; in theRockingham ministry which followed he was Foreign Secretary, andsubsequently joined North in the short-lived coalition ministry of 1783;during the next 14 years he was the great opponent of Pitt's Government, and his brilliant powers of debate were never more effectively displayedthan in his speeches against Warren Hastings and in the debates arisingout of the French Revolution, in which he advocated a policy ofnon-intervention; his sympathy with the French revolutionaries cost himthe friendship of Burke; during a retirement of five years he wrote his"History of James II. "; on Pitt's death in 1806 he again came into officeas Foreign Secretary, but died shortly afterwards when about to plead inthe House of Commons the cause of slave abolition; Fox stands in thefront rank of our parliamentary debaters, and was a man of quick andgenerous sympathies, but the reckless dissipation of his private lifediminished his popular influence, and probably accounts for the fact thathe never reached the highest office of State (1749-1806). 

FOX, GEORGE, the first of the Quakers, born at Drayton, Leicestershire; son of a poor weaver, and till his twentieth year pliedthe trade of a shoemaker; conceived, as he drudged at this task, that hehad a call from above to withdraw from the world and give himself up to ahigher ministry; stitched for himself one day a suit of leather, and soencased wandered through the country, rapt in his thoughts and bearingwitness to the truth that God had revealed to him; about 1646 began hiscrusade against the religion of mere formality, and calling upon men totrust to the "inner light" alone; his quaint garb won him the title of"the man with the leather breeches, " and his mode of speech with his"thou's" and "thee's" subjected him to general ridicule; but despitethese eccentricities he by his earnestness gathered disciples about himwho believed what he said and adopted his principles, and in theprosecution of his mission he visited Wales, Scotland, America, andvarious parts of Germany, not without results; he had no kindly feelingtowards Cromwell, with whom he had three interviews, and who in hispublic conduct seemed to him to pay no regard to the claims of the "innerlight" and the disciples of it (1624-1690). See "SARTOR RESARTUS, "BOOK III. CHAP. I. 

FOX, WILLIAM JOHNSON, religious and political orator, born nearSouthwold, Suffolk; was trained for the Independent ministry, but secededto the Unitarians, and subsequently established himself as a preacher ofpronounced rationalism at Finsbury; as a supporter of the Anti-Corn-Lawmovement he won celebrity as an impassioned orator, and from 1847 to 1863represented Oldham in Parliament; he was editor of the _MonthlyRepository_, and a frequent contributor to the _Westminster Review_, andpublished various works on political and religious topics (1786-1864). 

FOXE, JOHN, martyrologist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire; in 1545 heresigned his Fellowship in Magdalen College, Oxford, on account of hisespousing the doctrines of the Reformation, and for some years after heacted as a private tutor in noble families; during Queen Mary's reign hesought refuge on the Continent, where he formed acquaintance with Knoxand other leading Reformers; he returned to England on the accession ofElizabeth, and was appointed a prebend in Salisbury cathedral, but hisNonconformist leanings precluded his further preferment; his most famouswork is his "Book of Martyrs, " first published in Latin on the Continent, the noble English version appearing in 1563 (1516-1587). 

FOYERS, FALL OF, a fine cascade, having a fall of 165 ft. , on thelower portion of the Foyers, a river of Inverness-shire, which entersLoch Ness on the E. Side, 10 in. NE. Of Fort Augustus. 

FRA DIAVOLO, chief of a band of Italian brigands, born in Calabria;leader in sundry Italian insurrections; was hanged at Naples fortreachery, in spite of remonstrances from England; gave name to an operaby Auber, but only the name (1760-1806). 

FRACAS`TORO, GIROLAMO, a learned physician and poet, born at Verona;became professor of Dialectic at Padua in his twentieth year;subsequently practised as a physician, but eventually gave himself up toliterature (1483-1553). 

FRAGONARD, JEAN HONORÉ, a French artist, born at Grasse; gained the"prix de Rome" in 1752, and afterwards studied in Rome; was a member ofthe French Academy, and during the Revolution became keeper of the Musée;many of his paintings are in the Louvre, and are characterised by theirfree and luscious colouring (1732-1806). 

FRANC, a silver coin 835/1000 fine, the monetary unity of Francesince 1799, weighs 5 grammes and equals about 9½ d. In English currency(£1 = 25. 3 francs); has been adopted by Belgium and Switzerland, whileunder other names a similar coin is in use in Spain (peseta), Italy(lira), and Greece (drachma). 

FRANCE (38, 343), the land of the French; a nation standing in thefront rank among the powers of Europe. It occupies a geographicalposition of peculiar advantage in the western portion of it, having asouthern foreshore on the Mediterranean and a western and northernseaboard washed by the Atlantic and the English Channel, possessingaltogether a coast-line, rather undeveloped however, of upwards of 2000m. , while to the E. It abuts upon Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, andItaly. It is divided into 87 departments, including Corsica. It is mainlycomposed of lowland and plateau, but has the Cévennes in the S. , whilethe Pyrenees and Alps (with the Vosges and Ardennes farther N. ) lie onits southern and eastern boundaries. Rivers abound and form, with thesplendid railway, canal, and telegraph systems, an unrivalled means ofinternal communication; but there are singularly few lakes. It enjoys onthe whole a fine climate, which favours the vineyards in the centre (thefinest in the world), the olive groves in the S. , and the wheat andbeetroot region in the N. The mineral wealth is inconsiderable, and whatof coal and iron there is lies widely apart. Her manufactures, whichinclude silk, wine, and woollen goods, are of the best, and in fineartistic work she is without an equal. The colonies are together largerin area than the mother-country, and include Algeria, Madagascar, andCochin China. The French are a people of keen intelligence, of bright, impulsive, and vivacious nature; urbane, cultured, and pleasure-loving inthe cities, thrifty and industrious in the country; few races have givenso rich a bequest to the literature and art of the world. RomanCatholicism is the dominant form of religion, but Protestantism and theJewish religion are also State supported, as also Mohammedanism inAlgiers. Free compulsory education is in vogue. The Government is aRepublic, and there are two chambers--a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Originally occupied by Celts, the country, then called Gallia, wasconquered by the Romans between 58 and 51 B. C. , who occupied it till the4th century, when it was overrun by the Teutons, including the Franks, who became dominant; and about 870 the country, under Charles the Bald, became known as France. The unsettling effects of the great cataclysm of1789 have been apparent in the series of political changes which haveswept across the country this century; within that time it has beenthrice a monarchy, thrice an empire, and thrice a republic. 

FRANCESCA, PISTRO DELLA, an Italian painter, sometimes called PieroBorghese after his native place; did fresco-work in Florence and atLoretto; painted pictures for the Duke of Rimini, notably "TheFlagellation"; was a friend of Raphael's father; some of his pictures arein the London National Gallery (1420-1492). 

FRANCESCA DA RIMINI, a beautiful Italian lady of the 13th century, whose pathetic love story finds a place in Dante's "Inferno"; she wasbetrothed by her father, the Lord of Ravenna, to Giovanni of Rimini, buther affections were engaged by Paolo, his brother; the lovers were foundtogether by Giovanni and murdered by him. 

FRANCESCO DI PAULA or ST. FRANCIS OF PAOLA, founder of theorder of the Minims, born at Paula, in Calabria; was trained in aFranciscan convent, but at the age of 19 took up his abode in a cave, where the severe purity and piety of his life attracted to him manydisciples; subsequently he founded an ascetic brotherhood, first calledthe Hermits of St. Francis of Assisi, but afterwards changed toMinim-Hermits of St. Francis of Paola; he eventually lived in France, where convents were built for him and his brotherhood under royalpatronage (1416-1507). 

FRANCHE-COMTÉ, an ancient province in the E. Of France, added to thecrown of France in the reign of Louis XIV. At the peace of Nimeguen in1671. 

FRANCIA, DR. JOSÉ GASPAR RODRIGUEZ DA, dictator of Paraguay, bornnear Asunçion, in Paraguay; graduated as a doctor of theology, butsubsequently took to law, in the practice of which profession he wasengaged for 30 years, and won a high reputation for ability andundeviating honesty; in the revolutionary uprising which spreadthroughout Spanish South America, Paraguay played a conspicuous part, andwhen in 1811 she declared her independence, Francia was elected secretaryof the first national junta, and two years later one of two consuls;eventually, in 1814, he became dictator, a position he held till hisdeath; he ruled the country with a strong hand and with scrupulous, ifsomewhat rough, justice, making it part of his policy to allow nointercourse, political or commercial, with other countries; the countryflourished under his rule, but fell into disorder after his death; he isthe subject of a well-known essay by Carlyle, who finds him a man verymuch after his own heart (1757-1840). 

FRANCIS, ST. , OF ASSISI, founder of the Franciscan order, born atAssisi, in Umbria; began life as a soldier, but during a serious illnesshis thoughts were turned from earth to heaven, and he devoted himself toa life of poverty and self-denial, with the result that his enthusiasmprovoked emulation, and some of his neighbours associated with him andformed a brotherhood, which gave rise to the order; St. Dominic and hewere contemporaries, "the former teaching Christian men how to behave, and the latter what they should think"; each sent a little company ofdisciples to teach and preach in Florence, where their influence soonmade itself felt, St. Francis in 1212 and St. Dominic in 1220. 

FRANCIS, ST. , OF SALES, bishop of Geneva, born In the château ofSales, near Amiens, founder of the Order of the Visitation; was sent topersuade the Calvinists of Geneva back to the Church of Rome, and appliedhimself zealously to the reform of his diocese and the monasteries(1567-1622). 

FRANCIS JOSEPH, emperor of Austria and king of Hungary; succeeded tothe throne in 1848 on the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I. ; theHungarian difficulty has been the chief problem of his reign, with whichhe at first dealt in a spirit of harsh oppression, but since 1866 amilder policy has been adopted, and the desire for national autonomy wasmet by the creation of a dual monarchy in 1867, Francis being crownedking of Hungary; other important events have been the cession of Lombardyto Sardinia in 1859 and of Venetia in 1866, after an unsuccessful warwith Prussia; _b_. 1830. 

FRANCISCANS, or MINORITES, an order of monks founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1208; according to Ruskin, they were the order thatpreached with St James the gospel of Works as distinct from theDominicans, who preached with St. Paul the gospel of Faith, and theirgospel required three things: "to work without money and be poor, to workwithout pleasure and be chaste, and to work according to orders and beobedient"; these were the rules they were sworn to obey at first, butthey gradually forsook the austerity they enjoined, acquired greatwealth, instituted a highly sensuous ceremonial, and became invested withprivileges which excited the jealousy of the regular clergy; with theorder were associated a number of men eminent in the Church, and many noless so in philosophy, literature, and art. 

FRANCK, SEBASTIAN, early German writer, born at Donauwörth; from aCatholic priest became a Protestant, but fell into disfavour forpromulgating the doctrine that regeneration of life is of more importancethan reform of dogma, and in 1531 was banished from Strasburg;subsequently he became a soap-boiler and eventually a printer; his mostnoted work is his "Chronica, " a rough attempt--the first in Germany--at ageneral history (1499-1542). 

FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN, a German religious philanthropist, born atLübeck; was professor of Oriental Languages and subsequently of Theologyat Halle; he founded various educational institutions and a largeorphanage, all of which still exist and afford education for some 3000children annually; he was active in promoting PIETISM, q. V. (1663-1727). 

FRANCONIA, the name formerly applied to a loosely defined districtin Central Germany, which, as the home of the Franks, was regarded as theheart of the Holy Roman Empire; the emperors long continued to be crownedwithin its boundaries; subsequently it was divided into two duchies, EastFranconia and Rhenish Franconia; the latter was abolished in 1501 and theformer much diminished; from 1806 to 1837 the name had no officialexistence, but in 1837 the names Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia weregiven to the three northern divisions of Bavaria. 

FRANC-TIREURS (i. E. Free-shooters), French volunteers, chieflypeasants, who carried on a guerilla warfare against the Germans in theFranco-German War; were at first denied the status of regular soldiers bythe Germans and mercilessly shot when captured, but subsequently, havingjoined in the movements of the regular army, they were when capturedtreated as prisoners of war. 

FRANKENSTEIN, a monster of romance created without a soul, yet notwithout craving for human sympathy, who found existence on these terms acurse, as a man with high cravings might find science to be without God. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN (180), one of the old free cities of Germany, a centre of importance under the Kaisers and the seat of the Diet of theGermanic Confederation, and one of the great banking cities of the world;it is the birthplace of the poet Goethe, and is associated with his earlyhistory. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER (56), a town of Prussia, in the province ofBrandenburg, 51 m. SE. Of Berlin, is a well-built town; has a universityincorporated with Breslau in 1811, and is actively engaged in themanufacture of machinery, chemicals, paper, &c. 

FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD, an eminent chemist, born at Churchtown, Lancashire; has held successively the chairs of Chemistry in OwensCollege, in Bartholomew's Hospital, in the Royal Institution, in theRoyal College of Chemistry, and in the Normal School of Science, SouthKensington, the latter of which he resigned in 1885; has publishedvarious works, and was engaged with Lockyer in researches on theatmosphere of the sun; _b_. 1825. 

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, born in Boston, was the youngest son of atallow-chandler and one of a family of 17; received a meagre education, and at the age of 12 became apprenticed to his brother, a printer andproprietor of a small newspaper, to whose columns he began to contribute;but subsequently quarrelling with him made his way almost penniless toPhiladelphia, where he worked as a printer; in 1724 he came to Englandunder promises of assistance, which were not fulfilled, and for 18 monthslaboured at his printing trade in London, when he returned toPhiladelphia, and there, by steady industry, won a secure position as aprinter and proprietor of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_; in 1732 began toappear his _Poor Richard's Almanac_, which, with its famous maxims ofprudential philosophy, had a phenomenal success; four years later heentered upon a public career, rising through various offices to theposition of Deputy Postmaster-General for the Colonies, and sitting inthe Assembly; carried through important political missions to England in1757 and 1764, and was prominent in the deliberations which ended in thedeclaration of American independence in 1776; he visited France andhelped to bring about the French alliance, and made an unavailing effortto bring in Canada, and, as American minister, signed the Treaty ofIndependence in 1783; was subsequently minister to France, and was twiceunanimously elected President of Pennsylvania; his name is alsoassociated with discoveries in natural science, notably the discovery ofthe identity of electricity and lightning, which he achieved by means ofa kite; received degrees from Oxford and Edinburgh Universities, and waselected an F. R. S. ; in 1730 he married Deborah Reid, by whom he had twochildren (1706-1790). 

FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, a famous Arctic explorer, born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire; entered the navy in 1800; was a midshipman; was present atthe battle of Copenhagen; shortly afterwards accompanied an expedition, under Captain Minders, to explore and survey the coasts of Australia; waswrecked, and returned home on board the _Camden_ as a signal-midshipman;he subsequently distinguished himself at the battle of Trafalgar, andtook part in the attack on New Orleans; in 1818 he was second in commandof an expedition sent out under Captain Buchan to discover a North-WestPassage, which, although unsuccessful, contributed to reveal Franklin'sadmirable qualities as a leader, and in 1819 he was chosen to headanother Arctic expedition, which, after exploring the Saskatchewan andCopper-Mine Rivers and adjacent territory, returned in 1822; Franklin wascreated a post-captain, and for services in a further expedition insearch of a North-West Passage was, in 1829, knighted; after furtherservices he was in 1845 put in command of an expedition, consisting ofthe _Erebus_ and _Terror_, for the discovery of the North-West Passage;the expedition never returned, and for many years a painful interest wasmanifested in the various expeditions (17 in all) which were sent out tosearch for the lost party; many relics of this unfortunate explorer werefound, demonstrating the discovery of the North-West Passage; but thestory of his fate has never been precisely ascertained (1786-1847). 

FRANKS, the name given in the 3rd century to a confederation ofGermanic tribes, who subsequently grouped themselves into two main bodiescalled the Salians and the Ripuarians, the former dwelling on the UpperRhine, and the latter on the Middle Rhine. Under their king, Clovis, theSalians overran Central Gaul, subjugating the Ripuarians, and extendingtheir territory from the Scheldt to the Loire, whence in course of timethere generally developed the kingdom of France. The Franks were of atall and martial bearing, and thoroughly democratic in their politicalinstincts. 

FRANZ, ROBERT, musical composer, born at Halle; his first songsappeared in 1843, and were cordially appreciated by Mendelssohn and othermasters; in 1868 ill-health forced him to resign his musical appointmentsin Halle, but by the efforts of Liszt, Joachim, and others, funds wereraised by means of concerts to ensure him a competence for life; hepublished upwards of 250 songs (1815-1892). 

FRANZENSBAD or FRANZENSBRUNN (2), a watering-place on the NW. Frontier of Bohemia, 3 m. NW. Of Eger; is 1460 ft. Above sea-level, amidst a mountainous country; is much frequented by invalids for itsmineral springs. 

FRANZ-JOSEF LAND, an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, N. Of NovaZembla; was discovered and partly explored in 1873-74 by Payer andWeyprecht; consists of two main divisions, Wilczek Land to the E. , andZichy Land to the W. , between which runs Austria Sound. Arctic animalsare found in good numbers. It is considered an excellent base forexpeditions in quest of the North Pole. 

FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL, philosopher, born at Ardchattan, Argyllshire; after a university training at Edinburgh and Glasgow heentered the Free Church; was for a brief term Free Church minister ofCramond, from which he was transferred to a chair in the Free ChurchCollege, but in 1856 succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logicand Metaphysics at Edinburgh, a position he held till 1891, when heresigned; his writings include the standard edition of Berkeley, withnotes and a life, monographs on Locke and Berkeley in the series of"Philosophical Classics, " and two vols. On the "Philosophy of Theism, "being the Gifford Lectures delivered 1895-96; _b_. 1819. 

FRASER, JAMES, bishop of Manchester, born near Cheltenham, became aFellow of Oriel after graduating with highest honours, and in 1847 wasappointed to a college living; he issued in 1862-1864 valuable reports oneducation in Canada and the United States after visiting these countries;and in 1870 was appointed bishop by Mr. Gladstone; his strong sense andwide sympathy and interest in the labour questions won him universalrespect (1818-1885). 

FRASER RIVER, the chief river of British Columbia, is formed by thejunction near Fort George of two streams, one rising in the Rockies, theother flowing out of the Lakes Stuart and Fraser; it discharges into theGeorgian Gulf, 800 m. Below Fort George. Rich deposits of gold are foundin the lower basin, and an active industry in salmon-catching and canningis carried on. 

FRATICELLI (i. E. Little Brethren), a religious sect which arosein Italy in the 13th century, and continued to exist until the close ofthe 15th. They were an offshoot from the FRANCISCANS (q. V. ), who sought in their lives to enforce more rigidly the laws of St. Francis, and declined to accept the pontifical explanations of monasticrules; ultimately they broke away from the authority of the Church, anddespite the efforts of various popes to reconcile them, and the bitterpersecutions of others, maintained a separate organisation, going thelength of appointing their own cardinals and pope, having declared theChurch in a state of apostasy. Their régime of life was of the severestnature; they begged from door to door their daily food, and went clothedin rags. 

FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON, German optician, born in Straubing, Bavaria;after serving an apprenticeship as a glass-cutter in Münich, he rose tobe manager of an optical institute there, and eventually attained to theposition of professor in the Academy of Sciences; his name is associatedwith many discoveries in optical science as well as inventions andimprovements in the optician's art; but he is chiefly remembered for hisdiscovery of the dark lines in the solar spectrum, since called after himthe Fraunhofer lines (1787-1826). 

FREDEGONDA, wife of Chilpéric I. Of Neustria; a woman of low birth, but of great beauty and insatiable ambition, who scrupled at no crime toattain her end; made away with Galswintha, Chilpéric's second wife, andsuperseded her on the throne; slew Siegbert, who had been sent to avengeGalswintha's death, and imprisoned Brunhilda, her sister, of Austrasia, and finally assassinated her husband and governed Neustria in the name ofher son, Clotaire II. (543-597). 

FREDERICK I. , surnamed Barbarossa (Red-beard), of the house ofSwabia, emperor of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (q. V. ) from 1152 till1190; "a magnificent, magnanimous man, the greatest of all the Kaisers";his reign is the most brilliant in the annals of the empire, and hehimself among the most honoured of German heroes; his vast empire heruled with iron rigour, quelling its rival factions and extending hissovereign rights to Poland, Hungary, Denmark, and Burgundy; the greatstruggle of his reign, however, was with Pope Alexander III. And theLombard cities, whose right to independence he acknowledged by the treatyof Constanz (1183); he "died some unknown sudden death" at 70 in thecrusade against Saladin and the Moslem power; his lifelong ambition wasto secure the independence of the empire, and to subdue the States ofItaly to the imperial sway (1123-1190). 

FREDERICK II. , called the Wonder of the World, grandson of thepreceding; he was crowned emperor in 1215, at Aix-la-Chapelle, havingdriven Otto IV. From the throne; he gave much attention to theconsolidating of his Italian possessions, encouraged learning and art, founded the university of Naples, and had the laws carefully codified; inthese attempts at harmonising the various elements of his empire he wasopposed by the Papal power and the Lombards; in 1228 he gained possessionof Jerusalem, of which he crowned himself king; his later years werespent in struggles with the Papal and Lombard powers, and darkened by thetreachery of his son Henry and of an intimate friend; he was a man ofoutstanding intellectual force and learning, but lacked the moralgreatness of his grandfather (1194-1250). 

FREDERICK III. , emperor of Germany, born at Potsdam; bred for thearmy; rose to command; did signal service at Königgratz in 1860, andagain in 1870 in the Franco-German War; married the Princess Royal ofEngland; succeeded his father, but fell a victim to a serious throatmalady after a reign of only 101 days, June 18 (1831-1888). 

FREDERICK V. , Electoral Prince Palatine; succeeded to the Palatinatein 1610, and three years later married Elizabeth, daughter of James I. OfEngland; an attempt to head the Protestant union of Germany and hisusurpation of the crown of Bohemia brought about his ruin and expulsionfrom the Palatinate in 1620 by the Spaniards and Bavarians; he tookrefuge in Holland, but two years later his principality was given toBavaria by the emperor (1596-1632). 

FREDERICK III. , of Denmark, succeeded to the throne in 1648; duringhis reign the arrogance and oppression of the nobles drove the commons, headed by the clergy, to seek redress of the king by proclaiming theconstitution a hereditary and absolute monarchy (1609-1670). 

FREDERICK V. , of Denmark, ascended the throne in 1746; during hisreign Denmark made great progress, manufactures were established, commerce extended, while science and the fine arts were liberallypatronised (1723-1766). 

FREDERICK VI. , of Denmark, became regent in 1784 during the insanityof his father, who died in 1808; his reign is noted for the abolishmentof feudal serfdom and the prohibition of the slave-trade in Danishcolonies, and the granting of a liberal constitution in 1831; while hisparticipation in the maritime confederation between Russia, Sweden, andPrussia led to the destruction of the Danish fleet off Copenhagen in 1800by the British, and his sympathy and alliance with Napoleon brought aboutthe bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807, and the cession of Norway toSweden in 1814 (1768-1839). 

FREDERICK I. , first king of Prussia, third elector of Brandenburg, and son of the Great Elector Frederick-William, whom as elector hesucceeded in 1688; he extended his territory by purchase; supportedWilliam of Orange in his English expedition, and lent assistance to theGrand Alliance against France, for which he received the title of king ofPrussia, being crowned such in Königsberg in 1701; he was "an expensiveHerr, and much given to magnificent ceremonies, etiquettes, andsolemnities" (1657-1713). 

FREDERICK II. , king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, surnamed "TheGreat, " grandson of the preceding, and nephew of George I. Of England, born at Berlin; the irksome restraints of his early military educationinduced him to make an attempt, which failed, to escape to England, anepisode which incensed his father, and nearly brought him to thescaffold; after his marriage in 1733 he resided at Rheinsburg, indulginghis taste for music and French literature, and corresponding withVoltaire; he came to the throne with the ambition of extending andconsolidating his power; from Austria, after two wars (1740-1744), hewrested Silesia, and again in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), and in1778 by force of arms acquired the duchy of Franconia; as administratorhe was eminently efficient, the country flourished under his just, ifsevere, rule; his many wars imposed no debt on the nation; nationalindustries were fostered, and religious toleration encouraged; he was notso successful in his literary attempts as his military, and all he wrotewas in French, the spirit of it as well as the letter; he is accountedthe creator of the Prussian monarchy "the first, " says Carlyle, "who, ina highly public manner, announced its creation; announced to all men thatit was, in very deed, created; standing on its own feet there, and wouldgo a great way on the impulse it got from him and others" (1712-1786). 

FREDERICK CHARLES, PRINCE, nephew of William I. Of Germany; bred forthe army; distinguished himself in the wars against Denmark and Austria, and in the Franco-German War (1828-1885). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM I. , king of Prussia, born at Berlin, ascended thethrone in 1713; in 1720, at the peace of Stockholm, he received part ofPomerania with Stettin for espousing the cause of Denmark in her war withRussia and Poland against Sweden; the rest of his reign was passed inimproving the internal conditions of his country and her militaryresources; in praise of him as a sternly genuine man and king, Carlylehas much to say in the early volumes of his "Frederick"; "No Baresark ofthem" ("the primeval sons of Thor"), among whom he ranks him, "noBaresark of them, not Odin's self, I think, was a bit of truer humanstuff; his value to me in these times, rare and great" (1688-1740). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM II. , king of Prussia, nephew of FREDERICK THEGREAT (q. V. ); succeeded to the throne in 1786, but soon lostfavour by indolence and favouritism; in 1788 the freedom of the press waswithdrawn, and religious freedom curtailed; he involved himself in a weakand vacillating foreign policy, wasting the funds accumulated by hisuncle in a useless war with Holland; at the partition of Poland in 1793and 1795 various districts were added to the kingdom (1744-1797). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM III. , king of Prussia from 1797 till 1840; incitedby the queen and the commons he abandoned his position of neutralitytowards Napoleon and declared war in 1806; defeat followed at Jena and inother battles, and by the treaty of Tilsit (1807) Prussia was deprived ofhalf her possessions; under the able administration of Stein the countrybegan to recover itself, and a war for freedom succeeded in breaking thepower of France at the victory of Leipzig (1813), and at the treaty ofVienna (1815) her lost territory was restored; his remaining years werespent in consolidating and developing his dominions, but his policy wassometimes reactionary in its effects (1770-1840). 

FREDERICK-WILLIAM IV. , king of Prussia from 1840 till 1861; hisreign is marked by the persistent demands of the people for aconstitutional form of government, which was finally granted in 1850; ayear previous he had declined the imperial crown offered by the FrankfortDiet; in 1857 he became insane, and his brother was appointed regent(1795-1861). 

FREDERIKSHALD, a fortified seaport of Norway, 65 m. SE. OfChristiania; was burnt in 1826, but handsomely restored in modern style;timber is the main trade; in the immediate neighbourhood is theimpregnable fortress of Frederiksteen, associated with the death ofCharles XII. Of Sweden, who fell fighting in the trenches before itswalls in 1718. 

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, an ecclesiastical body formed by those wholeft the Established Church in 1843 on the ground that they were not freein their connection with the State to enforce certain obligations whichthey considered lay on them as a Church of Christ, to whom, and not tothe State, they held themselves as a Church subject. 

FREE CITIES OF GERMANY, were cities which enjoyed sovereign rightswithin their own walls, independent representation in the Diet, and ownedallegiance solely to the emperor. Their internal government was sometimesdemocratic, sometimes the opposite. Their peculiar privileges wereobtained either by force of arms, by purchase, or by gift of theemperors, who found in them a convenient means of checking the power oftheir feudal lords. Most of them lost their privileges in 1803, and since1866 only Lübeck, Bremen, and Hamburg remain in the category of freecities. 

FREE PORT, name given to a port at which ships of all nations maydischarge or load cargo without payment of customs or other duties, saveharbour dues. They were created in various Continental countries duringthe Middle Ages for the purpose of stimulating trade, but Copenhagen and, in a restricted sense, Hamburg and Bremen are now the only free ports inEurope. The system of bonded warehousing has superseded them. 

FREE SOILERS, a political party which arose in the United States in1848 to oppose slave-extension. In 1856 their principles were adopted, and the party absorbed in the newly-formed Republican party. 

FREE TRADE, the name given to the commercial policy of England, first elaborately set forth with cogent reasoning by Adam Smith in his"Wealth of Nations, " and of which the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 wasthe first step towards its adoption. Strictly used, the term isapplicable only to international or foreign trade, and signifies a policyof strict non-intervention in the free competition of foreign goods withhome goods in the home markets. Differential duties, artificialencouragements (e. G. Bounties, drawbacks), to the home producer, allof which are characteristic of a protective system of trading, arewithheld, the belief being entertained by free-traders that theindustrial interests of a country are best served by permitting thecapital to flow into those channels of trade into which the character andresources of the country naturally dispose it to do, and also by bringingthe consumer as near as possible to the cheapest producer. But it is notconsidered a violation of the Free Trade principles to impose a duty forrevenue purposes on such imported articles as have no home competitor, e. G. Tea. 

FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS, historian, born at Mitchley Abbey, Staffordshire; was a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford; examiner in theSchool of Law and Modern History; in 1884 he was elected Regius Professorof Modern History at Oxford; most of his life was spent in countryretirement at Somerleaze, varied by Continental travel; he is the authorof many scholarly works ranging over the whole field of history, hisfame, however, mainly resting on his great "History of the NormanConquest" (1823-1892). 

FREEMASONRY, in modern times is the name given to a world-wideinstitution of the nature of a friendly benevolent society, having forits objects the promotion of social intercourse amongst its members, and, in its own language, "the practice of moral and social virtue, " theexercise of charity being particularly commended. By a peculiar grip ofthe hand and certain passwords members are enabled to recognise eachother, and the existence of masonic lodges in all countries enables thefreemason to find friendly intercourse and assistance wherever he goes. Its origin is found in the masonic brotherhoods of the Middle Ages, andsome of the names, forms, and symbols of these old craft guilds are stillpreserved. In an age when great cathedrals and monasteries were rapidlyspringing up masons were in great demand, and had to travel from place toplace, hence signs were adopted by which true masons might be knownamongst each other and assisted. The idea of utilising this secret methodof recognition for general, social, and charitable purposes, withoutreference to the mason's craft, seems to have originated in the EdinburghLodge, where, in 1600, speculative or theoretical masons were admitted. In its present form of organisation it dates back to 1813, when the"United Grand Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons of England" wasformed, and of which, since 1874, the Prince of Wales has beenGrand-Master, and which has nearly 2000 local lodges under itsprotection. 

FREEPORT, SIR ANDREW, a London merchant; a member of the imaginaryclub under whose auspices the _Spectator_ was issued. 

FREIBERG (29), in the centre of the Saxon mining district, 20 m. SW. Of Dresden; is an old town, which arose upon the discovery of its silvermines in 1163. It has a fine old cathedral, and a famous school of mines;and the manufactures comprise gold and silver work, wire, chemicals, etc. 

FREIBURG, 1, a Swiss canton (119) between Bern and Vaud, and havingthree esclaves in the latter; the population consists chiefly of FrenchCatholics; is hilly; dairy-farming, watchmaking, and straw-plaiting arethe chief industries. 2, Capital (12) of the canton, is situated on theSaane, 19 m. SW. Of Bern; the river is spanned by a suspension bridge, and there is an old Gothic cathedral with one of the finest-toned organsin Europe. 

FREIBURG (49), in Breisgau, an important town in Baden, at the W. Side of the Black Forest, and 32 m. NE. Of Basel; has a Gothic cathedralfamous for its architectural beauty, a university with 87 professors andteachers and 884 students; has important manufactures in silk, cotton, thread, paper, etc. ; is the seat of a Catholic archbishop, and isassociated with many stirring events in German history. 

FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND, a popular German poet, born at Detmold; wasengaged in commerce in his early years, but the success of a smallcollection of poems in 1838 induced him to adopt a literary career;subsequently his democratic principles, expressed in stirring verse, involved him in trouble, and in 1846 he became a refugee in London; hewas permitted to return in 1848, and shortly afterwards was thesuccessful defendant in a celebrated trial for the publication of hispoem "The Dead to the Living, " after which fresh prosecution drove him toLondon in 1851, where, till his return in 1868, he engaged in poeticalwork, translating Burns, Shakespeare, and other English poets(1810-1876). 

FREISCHÜTZ (i. E. Freeshooter), a legendary hunter who made acompact with the devil whereby of seven balls six should infallibly hitthe mark, and the seventh be under the direction of the devil, a legendwhich was rife among the troopers in the 13th and 14th centuries, and hasgiven name to one of Weber's operas. 

FRÉMONT, JOHN CHARLES, an American explorer, born at Savannah, Georgia; at first a teacher of mathematics in the navy, subsequently tookto civil-engineering and surveying; in 1843 explored the South Pass ofthe Rockies, and proved the practicability of an overland route; exploredthe Great Salt Lake, the watershed between the Mississippi and Pacific, and the upper reaches of the Rio Grande; he rendered valuable services inthe Mexican War, but was deprived of his captaincy for disobedience;after unsuccessfully standing for the Presidency in the anti-slaveryinterest, he again served in the army as major-general; a scheme for asouthern railway to the Pacific brought him into trouble with the Frenchgovernment in 1873, when he was tried and condemned for fraud, unjustlyit would seem; from 1878 to 1882 he was governor of Arizona; he was therecipient of distinctions from various geographical societies(1813-1890). 

FRENCH PHILOSOPHISM, an analysis of things conducted on thepresumption that scientific knowledge is the key to unlock the mysteryand resolve the riddle of the universe. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION, according to Carlyle "the open violent revolt, and victory, of disimprisoned Anarchy against corrupt, worn-outAuthority, the crowning Phenomenon of our Modern Time, " but for which, heonce protested to Mr. Froude, he would not have known what to make ofthis world at all; it was a sign to him that the God of judgment stillsat sovereign at the heart of it. 

FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD, a distinguished diplomatist andcolonial governor, born near Abergavenny; entering the East India Companyin 1834, he rendered important services as administrator in Mahratta andas Resident in Sattara in 1847; as the chief-commissioner in Sind he didmuch to open up the country by means of canals, roads, etc. ; during theMutiny, which arrested these works of improvement, he distinguishedhimself by the prompt manner in which he suppressed the rising in his ownprovince; from 1862 to 1867 he was governor of Bombay; in 1867 wasknighted, and five years later carried through important diplomatic workin Zanzibar, signing the treaty abolishing the slave-trade; his lastappointment was as governor of the Cape and High-Commissioner for thesettlement of South African affairs; the Kaffir and Zulu Wars involvedhim in trouble, and in 1880 he was recalled, having effected little(1815-1884). 

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM, English politician and author, born in London, uncle of the preceding; he was a staunch supporter of Pitt, and in 1799became Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs; a year later he was envoy toLisbon, and subsequently minister to Spain; in 1821 he retired to Malta, where he devoted himself to scholarly pursuits, twice declining apeerage; in his early days he was a contributor to the _Anti-Jacobin_, and shares with his school-fellow Canning the authorship of the "NeedyKnife-Grinder"; but he is best known by his fine translations of some ofAristophanes' plays (1769-1841). 

FRESCO, the art of painting on walls freshly laid with plaster, orwhich have been damped so as to permit of the colour sinking into thelime; there were two methods, the _fresco secco_ and the _fresco buon_;in the first the wall was sprinkled with water, and the colours were thenworked into the damp surface; in the second process, in which finer andmore permanent effects were obtained, the artist worked upon the freshplaster of the wall (which is laid for him as he proceeds), pouncing ortracing his designs with a stylus; only colours which are natural earthscan be employed, as they require to be mixed with lime ere being applied, and are subject to the destroying effect of that substance; as a methodof mural decoration it was known to the ancients, and some of the finestspecimens are to be seen in the Italian cathedrals of the 14th and 15thcenturies; the art is still in vogue, but can only be practisedsuccessfully in a dry climate. 

FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN, French physicist, born at Broglie, Eure; asan engineer he rose to be head of the Department of Public Works atParis; in 1825 he was elected an F. R. S. Of London; he made discoveriesin optical science which helped to confirm the undulatory theory oflight, also invented a compound lighthouse lens (1783-1827). 

FRESNO (11), a town in California, on the Southern Pacific Railway, 207 m. SE. Of San Francisco; the surrounding district, extensivelyirrigated, produces abundance of fruit, and raisins and wine are largelyexported. 

FREUND, WILHELM, German philologist, born at Kempen, in Posen;studied education at Berlin and Breslau, and was chiefly occupied inteaching till 1870, when he retired in order to devote himself to hisliterary pursuits; besides classical school-books and some works onphilology, he compiled an elaborate Latin dictionary in 4 vols. , whichhas been the basis of the standard English-Latin dictionaries since; _b_. 1806. 

FREYR, figures in the Scandinavian mythology as the god who rulesthe rain and sunshine, and whose gifts were peace, wealth, and abundantharvests; the wooing of Gerda, daughter of the giant Gymer, by Freyr isone of the most beautiful stories in the northern mythology; his festivalwas celebrated at Christmas, and his first temple was built at Upsala bythe Swedes, who especially honoured him. 

FREYTAG, GUSTAV, an eminent German novelist and dramatist, born atKreuzburg, Silesia; from 1839 was teacher of German language andliterature at Breslau, and became editor of a journal, a position he heldtill 1870; was a member of the North German Diet, and accompanied theCrown Prince during the war of 1870-71; from 1879 resided at Wiesbaden;his many novels and plays and poems, which reveal a powerful andrealistic genius, place him in the front rank of modern Germanlittérateurs; several of his novels have been translated into English, amongst which his masterpiece, "Soll und Haben" (Debit and Credit)(1816-1895). 

FRIAR (i. E. Brother), a name applied generally to members ofreligious brotherhoods, but which in its strict significance indicated anorder lower than that of priest, the latter being called "father, " whilethey differed from monks in that they travelled about, whereas the monkremained secluded in his monastery; in the 13th century arose the GreyFriars or Franciscans, the Black Friars or Dominicans, the White Friarsor Carmelites, Augustinians or Austin Friars, and later the CrutchedFriars or Trinitarians. 

FRIAR JOHN, a friar of Seville, in Rabelais' "Pantagruel, " notoriousfor his irreverence in the discharge of his religious duties and for hislewd, lusty ways. 

FRIAR TUCK, Robin Hood's chaplain and steward, introduced by Scottinto "Ivanhoe" as a kind of clerical Falstaff. 

FRIDAY, the young savage, the attendant of Robinson Crusoe, socalled as discovered on a Friday. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week, so called as consecrated toFreyia or Frigga, the wife of Odin; is proverbially a day of ill luck;held sacred among Catholics as the day of the crucifixion, and theMohammedan Sunday in commemoration as the day on which, as they believe, Adam was created. 

FRIEDLAND, VALENTIN, an eminent scholar and educationist, born inUpper Lusatia; friend of Luther and Melanchthon; his fame as a teacherattracted to Goldberg, in Silesia, where he taught, pupils from far andnear; the secret of his success lay in his inculcating on his pupilsrespect for their own honour; had a great faith in the intelligence thatevinced itself in clear expression (1490-1556). 

FRIEND OF MAN, Marquis de Mirabeau, so called from the title of oneof his works, "L'Ami des Hommes. "

FRIENDLY ISLANDS, islands of the S. Pacific, some 180 in number, mostly of coral or volcanic origin, and of which 30 are inhabited; thenatives rank high among the South Sea islanders for intelligence. SeeTONGA ISLANDS. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, associations of individuals for the purpose ofmutual benefit in sickness and distress, and of old and wide-spreadinstitution and under various names and forms. 

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, a community of Christians popularly known asQuakers, founded in 1648 by GEORGE FOX (q. V. ), distinguishedfor their plainness of speech and manners, and differing from other sectschiefly in the exclusive deference they pay to the "inner light, " andtheir rejection of both clergy and sacrament as media of grace; theyrefuse to take oath, are averse to war, and have always been opposed toslavery. 

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association formed as far back as 1792 tosecure by constitutional means parliamentary reform. 

FRIES, ELIAS, Swedish cryptogamic botanist, professor at Upsala;wrote on fungi and lichens (1794-1878). 

FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH, a German Kantian philosopher; was professorat Jena; aimed at reconciling the Kantian philosophy with Faith, or theintuitions of the Pure Reason (1773-1843). 

FRIESLAND, the most northerly province of Holland, with a rich soil;divided into East and West Friesland; low-lying and pastoral; protectedby dykes. 

FRIGGA, a Scandinavian goddess, the wife of Odin; worshipped amongthe Saxons as a goddess mother; was the earth deified, or the NorseDemeter. 

FRISIANS, a Low German people, who occupied originally the shores ofthe North Sea from the mouths of the Rhine and Ems; distinguished fortheir free institutions; tribes of them at one time invaded Britain, where traces of their presence may still be noted. 

FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL, an English painter, born near Ripon, Yorkshire; his works are numerous, his subjects varied and interesting, and his most popular pictures have brought large sums; _b_. 1819. 

FRITZ, FATHER, name given to Frederick the Great by his subjects"with a familiarity which did not breed contempt in his case. "

FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN, famous English sailor and navigator, bornnear Doncaster; thrice over enthusiastically essayed the discovery of theNorth-West Passage under Elizabeth; accompanied Drake to the West Indies;was knighted for his services against the Armada; conducted severalexpeditions against Spain; was mortally wounded when leading an attack onBrest, and died on his passage home (1535-1594). 

FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH, a devoted German educationist on the principlesof Pestalozzi, which combined physical, moral, and intellectual training, commencing with the years of childhood; was the founder of the famous_Kindergarten_ system (1782-1852). 

FROGMORE, a royal palace and mausoleum in Windsor Park, theburial-place of Prince Albert. 

FROISSART, JEAN, a French chronicler and poet, born at Valenciennes;visited England in the reign of Edward III. , at whose Court, andparticularly with the Queen, he became a great favourite for his tales ofchivalry, and whence he was sent to Scotland to collect more materialsfor his chronicles, where he became the guest of the king and the Earl ofDouglas; after this he wandered from place to place, ranging as far asVenice and Rome, to add to his store; he died in Flanders, and hischronicles, which extend from 1322 to 1400, are written without order, but with grace and _naïveté_ (1337-1410). 

FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE, an eminent French painter and author, born atRochelle; was the author of two travel-sketches, and a brilliant novel"Dominique" (1820-1876). 

FRONDE, a name given to a revolt in France opposed to the Court ofAnne of Austria and Mazarin during the minority of Louis XIV. The warwhich arose, and which was due to the despotism of Mazarin, passedthrough two phases: it was first a war on the part of the people and theparlement, called the Old Fronde, which lasted from 1648 till 1649, andthen a war on the part of the nobles, called the New Fronde, which lastedtill 1652, when the revolt was crushed by Turenne to the triumph of theroyal power. The name is derived from the mimic fights with slings inwhich the boys of Paris indulged themselves, and which even went so faras to beat back at times the civic guard sent to suppress them. 

FROUDE, HURRELL, elder brother of the succeeding, a leader in theTractarian movement; author of Tracts IX. And LXIII. (1803-1836). 

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY, an English historian and man of letters, bornat Totnes, Devon; trained originally for the Church, he gave himself toliterature, his chief work being the "History of England from the Fall ofWolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, " in 12 vols. , of which thefirst appeared in 1854 and the last in 1870, but it is with Carlyle andhis "Life of Carlyle" that his name has of late been most intimatelyassociated, and in connection with which he will ere long honourablyfigure in the history of the literature of England, though he has otherclaims to regard as the author of the "Nemesis of Faith, " "Short Studieson Great Subjects, " a "Life of Cæsar, " a "Life of Bunyan, " "The Englishin Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, " and "English Seamen in theSixteenth Century"; he ranks as one of the masters of English prose, andas a man of penetration, insight, and enlarged views, if somewhatcareless about minor details (1818-1894). 

FROUDE, WILLIAM, another brother, a civil engineer, assistant toBrunel; made important discoveries in hydro-dynamics of great practicalavail (1810-1879). 

FRY, MRS. ELIZABETH, philanthropist, born at Norwich, third daughterof John Gurney, the Quaker banker; married Joseph Fry of Plashet, Essex;devoted her life to prison reform and the reform of criminals, as well asother benevolent enterprises; she has been called "the female Howard"(1780-1845). 

FUAD-MAHMED, PASHA, a Turkish statesman, diplomatist, and man ofletters; studied medicine, but soon turned himself to politics; was muchesteemed and honoured at foreign courts, at which he represented Turkey, for his skill, sagacity, and finesse; became Minister of Foreign Affairsin 1852; was hostile to the pretensions of Russia, and gave umbrage tothe Czar; published a Turkish grammar, which is received with favour(1814-1869). 

FUDGE FAMILY, THE, a satiric piece by Thomas Moore, published in1818. 

FUENTES, COUNT, a Spanish general and statesman, eminent both in warand diplomacy; commanded the Spanish infantry at the siege of Rocroi whenhe was eighty-two, borne on a litter in the midst of the fight, andperished by the sword, the Great Condé having attacked the besiegers(1560-1643). 

FUERO-FUEGO, a Wisigoth Spanish law of the 7th century, a curiousmonument of the legislation of the Middle Ages. 

FUGGER, the name of a family of Augsburg who rose from the loom byway of commerce to great wealth and eminence in Germany, particularlyunder the Emperors Maximilian and Charles V. , the real founder of thewealth being Jacob, who died 1409. 

FULHAM, a suburb of London, on the Middlesex bank of the Thames, opposite Putney, with the palace and burying-place of the bishops ofLondon. 

FULLAH, a people of the Upper Soudan whose territory extends betweenSenegal and Darfur, a race of superior physique and intelligence, and ofa certain polish of manners, and with Caucasian type of feature. 

FULLER, ANDREW, an eminent Baptist minister, born in Cambridgeshire, was settled at Kettering, and a zealous controversialist in defence ofthe gospel against hyper-Calvinism on the one hand and Socinianism on theother, but he is chiefly distinguished in connection with the foundationof the Baptist Missionary Society, to which he for most part devoted theenergies of his life (1754-1815). 

FULLER, MARGARET, an American authoress, born at Cambridgepont, Mass. , a woman of speculative ability and high aims, a friend of Emerson, and much esteemed by Carlyle, though he thought her enthusiasmextravagant and beyond the range of accomplishment; she was one of theleaders of the transcendental movement in America; visited Europe, andItaly in particular; engaged there in the struggle for politicalindependence; married the young Marquis of Ossoli; sailed for New York, and was drowned with her husband and child on the sand-bars of LongIsland (1810-1850). 

FULLER, THOMAS, historian, divine, and wit, born inNorthamptonshire, son of the rector of Sarum; entering into holy orders, he held in succession several benefices in the Church of England, and wasa prebend in Salisbury Cathedral; taking sides with the king, he lostfavour under the Commonwealth; wrote a number of works, in which onefinds combined gaiety and piety, good sense and whimsical fancy; composedamong other works the "History of the Holy War, " a "History of theCrusades, " "The Holy and the Profane States, " the "Church History ofGreat Britain, " and the "Worthies of England, " the last his principalwork, and published posthumously; he was a man of great shrewdness, broadsympathies, and a kindly nature; was an author much admired by CharlesLamb (1608-1661). 

FULTON, ROBERT, an American engineer, born in Pennsylvania; beganlife as a miniature portrait and landscape painter, in which he made someprogress, but soon turned to engineering; he was one of the first toapply steam to the propulsion of vessels, and devoted much attention tothe invention of submarine boats and torpedoes; he built a steamboat tonavigate the Hudson River, with a very slow rate of progress however, making only five miles an hour (1615-1765). 

FUM, a grotesque animal figure, six cubits high, one of fourpresumed to preside over the destinies of China. 

FUNCHAL (19), the capital of Madeira, at the head of a bay on the S. Coast, and the base of a mountain 4000 ft. High, extends a mile along theshore, and slopes up the sides of the mountain; famous as a healthresort, more at one time than now. 

FUNDY BAY, an arm of the sea between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia;it is of difficult navigation owing to the strong and rapid rush of thetides. 

FÜNEN (221), the second in size of the Danish islands, separatedfrom Zealand on the E. By the Great Belt and from Jutland on the W. Bythe Little Belt; is flat except on S. And W. , fertile, well cultivated, and yields crops of cereals. 

FURIES. See ERINNYES. 

FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES, English barrister, born at Egham, inSurrey; devoted to the study of Early and Middle English Literature;founder and director of numerous societies for promoting the study ofspecial works, such as the Early English Text, Chaucer, Ballad, and NewShakespeare Societies, and editor of publications in connection withthem; was in his early days a great authority on boating andboat-building; _b_. 1825. 

FÜRST, JULIUS, a distinguished German Orientalist, born in Posen, ofJewish descent; a specialist in Hebrew and Aramaic; author of a Hebrewand Chaldee Manual (1805-1873). 

FÜRST, WALTER, of Uri, a Swiss patriot, who, along with WilliamTell, contributed to establish the liberty and independence ofSwitzerland; _d_. 1317. 

FUSELI, HENRY, properly FUSOLI, a famous portrait-painter, bornat Zurich; coming to England at the age of 22, he became acquainted withSir Joshua Reynolds, who advised him to go to Rome; after eight yearsspent in study of the Italian masters, and Michael Angelo in particular, he returned to England and became an R. A. ; he painted a series ofpictures, afterwards exhibited as the "Milton Gallery" (1741-1825). 

FUST JOHANN, a rich burgher of Mainz, associated with Gutenberg andSchöffer, to whom along with them the invention of printing has beenascribed; _d_. 1466. 

FYNE, LOCH, an Argyllshire arm of the sea, extending N. From Bute toInveraray, and from 1 m. To 5 m. Broad; famed for its herrings. 

FYZABAD (78), capital of Oudh, in India, at one time, 78 m. E. OfLucknow; much decayed. 

G

GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER, a distinguished German philologist, born at Altenburg: was master, it is said, of 80 languages, contributedtreatises on several of them, his most important work being on theMelanesian (1807-1874). 

GABELLE, an indirect tax, specially one on salt, the term applied toa State monopoly in France in that article, and the exaction inconnection with which was a source of much discontent; the people wereobliged to purchase it at government warehouses and at extravagant, oftenvery unequal, rates; the impost dates from 1286; was abolished in 1789. 

GABELSBERGER, FRANZ XAVIER, inventor of the shorthand in use inGerman countries as well as elsewhere (1789-1849). 

GABERLUNZIE, a licensed beggar, or any of the mendicant class, socalled from the wallet he carried. 

GABINUS, a Roman tribune in 66 B. C. , afterwards consul; party tothe banishment of Cicero, 57 B. C. 

GABOON and FRENCH CONGO (5, 000), a French Colony in W. Africafronting the Atlantic, between the Cameroon country and the Congo State, and stretching inland as far as the head-waters of the Congo River; inthe NW. Is the great Gaboon estuary, 40 m. Long and 10 broad at itsmouth, with Libreville on its N. Bank; along the coast the climate is hotand unhealthy, but it improves inland; the natives belong to the Bantustock; the French settled in it first in 1842, but only since theexplorations of De Brazza in 1876-86 have they begun to extend andcolonise it. 

GABRIEL, an angel, one of the seven archangels, "the power of God, "who is represented in the traditions of both the Jews and the Moslems asdischarging the highest functions, and in Christian tradition asannouncing to the Virgin Mary her election of God to be the mother of theMessiah; he ranks fully higher among Moslems than Jews. 

GABRIEL, a French architect, born in Paris (1710-1782). 

GABRIELLES D'ESTRÉES, the mistress of Henry IV. Of France, who forState reasons was not allowed to marry her (1571-1599). 

GAD, one of the Jewish tribes inhabiting the E. Of the Jordan. 

GADAMES or GHADAMES (7 to 10), an oasis and town in Africa, situated in the SW. Corner of Tripoli, on the N. Border of the Sahara;the fertility of the oasis is due to hot springs, from which the placetakes its name; high walls protect the soil and the fruit of it, which isabundant, from sand-storms; it is an entrepôt for trade with theinterior; the inhabitants are Berber Mohammedans. 

GADDI, GADDO, a Florentine painter and worker in mosaic, friend ofCimabue and Giotto (1239-1312). 

GADDI, TADDEO, son of the preceding, and pupil of Giotto both inarchitecture and fresco-painting (1300-1366). 

GADDI, AGNOLO, son of the preceding, and a painter of frescoes(1350-1396). 

GADES, the ancient name of CADIZ (q. V. ). 

GADSHILL, an eminence in Kent, 3 m. NW. Of Rochester, associatedwith the name of Falstaff, also of Dickens, who resided here from 1856 to1870, and where he died. 

GAETA (17), a fortified seaport of S. Italy, finely situated on asteep promontory 50 m. NW. Of Naples; it was a favourite watering-placeof the ancient Roman nobility, and the beauty of its bay is celebrated byVirgil and Horace; it is rich in classic remains, and in its day haswitnessed many sieges; the inhabitants are chiefly employed with fishingand a light coast trade. 

GAGE, THOMAS, English general, son of Viscount Gage; he served inthe Seven Years' War, and took part in 1755 in Braddock's disastrousexpedition in America; in 1760 he became military governor of Montreal, and three years later commander-in-chief of the British forces inAmerica; as governor of Massachusetts he precipitated the revolution byhis ill-timed severity, and after the battle of Bunker's Hill wasrecalled to England (1721-1787). 

GAIA or GE, in the Greek mythology the primeval goddess of theearth, the _alma mater_ of living things, both in heaven and on earth, called subsequently Demeter, i. E. Gemeter, Earth-mother. 

GAILLARD, French historian, born at Amiens; devoted his life tohistory (1726-1806). 

GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS, one of England's greatest artists in portraitand landscape painting, born at Sudbury, Suffolk; he early displayed atalent for drawing, and at 14 was sent to London to study art; when 19 hestarted as a portrait-painter at Ipswich, having by this time marriedMargaret Burr, a young lady with £200 a year; patronised by Sir PhilipThicknesse, he removed in 1760 to Bath, where he rose into high favour, and in 1774 he sought a wider field in London; he shared the honours ofpainting portraits with Reynolds and of landscape with Wilson; hisportraits have more of grace, if less of genius, than Reynolds, while hislandscapes inaugurated a freer and more genial manner of dealing withnature, while as a colourist Ruskin declares him the greatest sinceRubens; among his most famous pictures are portraits of Mrs. Siddons, the Duchess of Devonshire, and the Hon. Mrs. Graham, "Shepherd Boy in theShower, " "The Seashore, " &c. (1727-1788). 

GAIUS, a Roman jurist of the 2nd century, whose "Institutes" servedfor the basis of Justinian's. 

GALAHAD, SIR, son of Lancelot, one of the Knights of the RoundTable; distinguished for the immaculate purity of his character and life;was successful in his search for the Holy Graal. 

GALAOR, a hero of Spanish romance, brother of Amadis de Gaul, themodel of a courtly paladin, and always ready with his sword to avenge thewrongs of the widow and the orphan. 

GALAPÁGOS, a sparsely populated group of islands (13 in number), barren on the N. , but well wooded on the S. , situated on the equator, 600m. W. Of Ecuador, and which, although belonging to Ecuador, all bearEnglish names, bestowed upon them, it would appear, by the buccaneers ofthe 17th century; Albemarle Island makes up more than half of their area;they are volcanic in formation, and some of their 2000 craters are notyet inactive; their fauna is of peculiar scientific interest asexhibiting many species unknown elsewhere; besides the islands properthere is a vast number of islets and rocks. 

GALATA, a faubourg of Constantinople where the European merchantsreside. 

GALATEA, a nymph whom Polyphemus made love to, but who preferredAcis to him, whom therefore he made away with by crushing him under arock, in consequence of which the nymph threw herself into the sea. 

GALATIA, a high-lying Roman province in Asia Minor that had beeninvaded and taken possession of by a horde of Gauls in the 3rd centuryB. C. , whence the name. 

GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, an epistle of St. Paul to the churches inGalatia, which was an especial favourite with Luther, as, with itsdoctrine of spiritual freedom in Christ, it might well be, for itcorroborated the great revelation first made to him by a neighbour monk;"man is not saved by singing masses, but by the grace of God"; it is adidactic epistle, in assertion, on the one hand, of freedom from the law, and, on the other, of the power of the spirit. 

GALATZ or GALACZ (59), the great river-port of Roumania, on theDanube, 8 m. Above the Sulina mouth of the river and 166 m. NE. OfBucharest; the new town is well laid out, and contains some finebuildings; its harbour is one of the finest on the Danube; a great exporttrade is carried on in cereals, while textiles and metals are the chiefimports. 

GALAXY, the Milky Way, a band of light seen after sunset across theheavens, consisting of an innumerable multitude of stars, or suns rather, stretching away into the depths of space. 

GALBA, a Roman emperor from June 68 to January 69, elected at theage of 70 by the Gallic legions to succeed Nero, but for his severity andavarice was slain by the Prætorian guard, who proclaimed Otho emperor inhis stead. 

GALE, THEOPHILUS, a Nonconformist divine; author of the "Court ofthe Gentiles, " in which he attempts to prove that the theology andphilosophy of the Gentiles was borrowed from the Scriptures (1628-1678). 

GALE, THOMAS, dean of York; edited classics, wrote on early Englishhistory (1636-1702). 

GALEN, or CLAUDIUS GALENUS, a famous Greek physician, born atPergamus, in Illyria, where, after studying in various cities, he settledin 158; subsequently he went to Rome, and eventually became physician tothe emperors M. Aurelius, L. Verus, and Severus; of his voluminouswritings 83 treatises are still extant, and these treat on a varied arrayof subjects, philosophical as well as professional; for centuries afterhis death his works were accepted as authoritative in the matter ofmedicine (131-201). 

GALE`RIUS, VALERIUS MAXIMUS, Roman emperor, born in Dacia, of lowlyparentage; rose from a common soldier to be the son-in-law of the EmperorDiocletian, who in 292 raised him to the dignity of a Cæsar; in 305, onthe death of Diocletian, he became head of the Eastern Empire, which hecontinued to be till his death in 311; his name is associated with acruel persecution of the Christians under Diocletian. 

GALGACUS, a Caledonian chief defeated by Agricola at the battle ofthe Grampians in 85, after a desperate resistance. 

GALIA`NI, FERDINANDO, an Italian political economist, man ofletters, and a wit; held with honour several important offices under theNeapolitan Government; was attaché to the embassy at Paris, and theassociate of Grimm and Diderot (1728-1787). 

GALICIA, 1, an old province (1, 919) of Spain, formerly a kingdom inthe NW. Corner of it, fronting the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic; nowdivided into the four minor provinces, Coruña, Lugo, Orense, Pontevedra;the county is hilly, well watered, fertile, and favoured with a fineclimate, but cultivated only very partially; some mining is carried on. 2, A crownland (6, 607) in the NE. Of Austria, between Russia and theCarpathians; the inhabitants are mainly Slavs, but there is a goodlynumber of Jews, Germans, Poles, &c. ; the land is fertile, consistschiefly of extensive plains, well watered by the Dneister and other largerivers, and yields abundance of cereals, while one-fourth is covered withforest; timber is largely exported, and salt; many of the useful metalsare found, and productive petroleum wells; it has an independent Diet, but an Austrian governor; Austria annexed it in 1772. 

GALILÆANS, a fanatical sect, followers of one Judas of Galilee, whofiercely resented the taxation of the Romans, and whose violencecontributed to induce the latter to vow the extermination of the wholerace. 

GALILEE, the northern division of Palestine, divided into Upper, hilly, Lower, level, about 60 m. Long and 30 broad. 

GALILEE, SEA OF, an expansion of the Jordan, 12½ m. Long, and at themost 8 m. Broad, enclosed by steep mountains, except on NW. 

GALILEO, an illustrious Italian mathematician, physicist, andastronomer, born at Pisa, demonstrated the isochronism of the pendulum, invented the thermometer and the hydrostatic balance, propounded the lawof falling bodies, constructed the first astronomical telescope, and bymeans of it satisfied himself of, and proved, the truth of the Copernicandoctrine, that the sun and not the earth is the centre of the planetarysystem, and that the earth revolves round it like the other planets whichreflect its light; his insistence on this truth provoked the hostility ofthe Church, and an ecclesiastical decree which pronounced the Copernicantheory heresy; for the profession of it he was brought to the bar of theInquisition, where he was compelled to forswear it by oath, concludinghis recantation, it is said, with the exclamation, "still, it moves";before his end he became blind, and died in Florence at 78, the yearNewton was born (1564-1642). 

GALITZIN, the name of a Russian family distinguished for theirability and success in both war and peace from the 16th century onwards. 

GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH, the founder of phrenology, born at Tiefenbronn, on the borders of Baden and Würtemberg; in 1785 he established himself asa physician in Vienna, where for many years he carried on a series ofelaborate investigations on the nature of the brain and its relation tothe outer cranium, visiting with that view lunatic asylums, &c. ; in 1796he gave publicity to his views in a series of lectures in Vienna, whichwere, however, condemned as subversive of morality and religion; beingjoined by Spurzheim, who adopted his theories, he undertook a lecturingtour through a large part of Europe, and eventually settled at Paris, where he published his phrenological work "Fonctions du Cerveau"; it is acurious fact that on his death his skull was found to be twice the usualthickness, and that there was a tumour in the cerebellum (1758-1828). 

GALL, ST. , an Irish monk who, about 585, accompanied St. Columban toFrance in his missionary labours, banished from which he went toSwitzerland, and founded a monastery on the Lake of Constance, which borehis name; _d_. About 646. 

GALLAND, ANTOINE, French Orientalist, born in Picardy, professor ofArabic in the College of France; was the first to translate the "ArabianNights" into any European tongue (1646-1715). 

GALLAS, an Ethiopian race occupying the S. And E. Of Abyssinia, energetic, intelligent, and warlike; follow mostly pastoral occupations;number over four millions, and are mostly heathens. 

GALLE or POINT DE GALLE (33), fortified seaport town, prettilysituated on a rocky promontory in the SW. Of Ceylon; there is a goodharbour, but the shipping, which at one time was extensive, has declinedsince the rise of Colombo. 

GALLICAN CHURCH, the Catholic Church in France which, whilesincerely devoted to the Catholic faith and the Holy See, resolutelyrefused to concede certain rights and privileges which belonged to itfrom the earliest times; it steadfastly contended that infallibility wasvested not in the Pope alone, but in the entire episcopal body under himas its head; maintained the supreme authority of general councils andthat of the holy canons in the government of the Church, and insistedthat there was a distinction between the temporal and the spiritualpower; contentions summed up in a declaration of the French clergy in1682, the body of whom opposed to which are known by the name of"Ultramontanists. "

GALLICANISM, the name given to the contention of the GALLICANCHURCH (q. V. ). 

GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS, Roman Emperor from 260 to 268, and forseven years (253-260) associated in the government with his father, theEmperor Valerian; under his lax rule the empire was subjected to hostileinroads on all sides, while in the provinces a succession of usurpers, known as the Thirty Tyrants, sprang up, disowning allegiance, andaspiring to the title of Cæsar; in his later years he roused himself tovigorous resistance, but in 268 was murdered by his own soldiers whilstpressing the rebel Aureolus at the siege of Milan. 

GALLIGANTUA, the wizard giant slain by Jack the Giant-killer. 

GALLIO, the Roman proconsul of Achaia in the days of St. Paul, before whom the Jews of Corinth brought an appeal against the latter, butwhich he treated with careless indifference as no affair of his, inconsequence of which his name has become the synonym of an easy-goingruler or prince. 

GALLIPOLI, 1, a fortified seaport town (8) in Southern Italy, 59 m. S. Of Brindisi; stands on a rocky islet in the Gulf of Taranto, close tothe mainland, with which it is connected by a bridge of 12 arches; a finecathedral and huge tanks hewn out of the solid rock for the storage ofolive-oil are objects of interest. 2, A seaport (15) of Turkey in Europe, stands on a peninsula of the same name at the western end of the Sea ofMarmora, at the mouth of the Dardanelles, 90 m. S. Of Adrianople; it wasthe first city captured by the Turks in Europe (1356), and is now thenaval arsenal of Turkey and head-quarters of the Turkish navy. 

GALLOWAY, a district in the SW. Of Scotland, co-extensive withWigtown and Kirkcudbright, though formerly of considerably greaterextent; the lack of mineral wealth has retarded its development, and theindustry of the population is limited chiefly to agriculture, the rearingof sheep and cattle, and fishing, and it is still noted for a small buthardy breed of horses called Galloways; the province derives its namefrom Gall-Gael, or foreign Gaels, as the early inhabitants were called, who up to the time of the Reformation maintained the characteristics, language, &c. , of a distinct people; in 1455 Galloway ceased to exist asa separate lordship; in the extreme S. Of Wigtown is the bold and rockypromontory, the MULL OF GALLOWAY, the extremity of the peninsulacalled the Rhinns of Galloway; the Mull, which is the most southerlypoint in Scotland, rises to a height of 210 ft. , and is crowned by apowerful lighthouse. 

GALSWINTHE, the sister of Brunhilda and the second wife of ChilpéricI. ; was strangled to death in 568. 

GALT, JOHN, Scotch novelist, born at Irvine; educated at Greenock, where he held a post in the Custom-house for a time; essayed literature, wrote "The Ayrshire Legatees, " "The Annals of the Parish, " "Sir AndrewWylie, " "The Entail, " and "The Provost"; died of paralysis at Greenock;Carlyle, who met him in London in 1832, says, "He had the air of a broad, gaucie, Greenock burgher; mouth indicating sly humour andself-satisfaction; eyes, old and without lashes, gave me a _wae_ interestfor him; says little, but that little peaceable, clear, and _gutmüthig_"(1779-1839). 

GALVANISED IRON, plate-iron coated with zinc, which renders it lessliable to be affected by moisture and subject to corrosion. 

GALVANISM, the mere contact with two dissimilar metals, the scienceof what is now called Voltaic or current electricity, produced, as in theabove instance, from the contact of dissimilar metals, especially that ofacids on metals. 

GALVANI, LUIGI, an Italian physician, born at Bologna; celebratedfor his discoveries in animal magnetism called after him Galvanism, dueto an observation he made of the convulsive motion produced in the leg ofa recently-killed frog (1737-1798). 

GALVESTON (38), the chief seaport of Texas, situated on a low islandof the same name at the entrance of Galveston Bay into the Gulf ofMexico; it has a splendid harbour, and is an important centre of thecotton trade, ranking as the third cotton port of the world; the city iswell laid out, and is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop; it has amedical college and several foundries. 

GALWAY (215), a maritime county in the W. Of Ireland, in theprovince of Connaught; Lough Corrib (25 m. Long) and Lough Mask (12 m. Long), stretching N. And S. , divide the county into East and Westdistricts; the former is boggy, yet arable; the latter, including thepicturesque district known as CONNEMARA, is wild and hilly, andchiefly consists of bleak morass and bogland; its rocky and indentedcoast affords excellent harbourage in many places; the Suck, Shannon, andCorrib are the chief rivers; the Slieve Boughta Mountains in the S. Andin the W. The Twelve Pins (2395 ft. ) are the principal mountains;fishing, some agriculture, and cattle-rearing are the chief employments;it contains many interesting cromlechs and ruins. 

GALWAY (14), the capital of Connaught and of the county of thatname; is situated on the N. Side of Galway Bay, at the mouth of theCorrib River, 50 m. NW. Of Limerick; it is divided into the old and newtown, and contains several interesting ecclesiastical buildings, e. G. The cruciform church of St. Nicholas (1320), and is the seat of a Queen'sCollege; fishing is an important industry, while wool and black marbleare exported. 

GAMA, VASCO DA, a famous Portuguese navigator, the discoverer of theroute to India round the Cape of Good Hope, born at Sines, in Portugal, of good family; he seems to have won the favour of King Emmanuel at anearly age, and already an experienced mariner, was in 1497 despatched onhis celebrated voyage, in which he rounded the Cape; on that occasion hemade his way to Calicut, in India, where he had to contend with theenmity of the natives, stirred against him by jealous Arabian merchants;in 1499 he returned to Lisbon, was received with great honour, and hadconferred on him an array of high-sounding titles; three years later hewas appointed to the command of an expedition to Calicut to avenge themassacre of a small Portuguese settlement founded there a year previousby Cabrat; in connection with this expedition he founded the colonies ofMozambique and Sofala, and after inflicting a cruel punishment upon thenatives of Calicut, he returned to Lisbon in 1503; the following 20 yearsof his life were spent in retirement at Evora, but in 1524 he wasappointed viceroy of Portuguese India, a position he held only for ashort time, but sufficiently long to re-establish Portuguese power inIndia; he died at Cochin; the incidents of his famous first voyage roundthe Cape are celebrated in Camoëns' memorable poem "The Lusiad"(1469-1525). 

GAMALIEL, a Jewish rabbi, the instructor of St. Paul in theknowledge of the law, and distinguished for his tolerant spirit andforbearance in dealing with the Apostles in their seeming departure fromthe Jewish faith. 

GAMBETTA, LÉON MICHEL, a French republican leader, born at Cahors, of Italian descent; intended for the Church, to which he evinced noproclivity; he early showed a _penchant_ for politics and adopted theprofession of law, in the prosecution of which he delivered a speechwhich marked him out as the coming man of the French republic, from thespirit of hostility it manifested against the Empire; at the fall of theEmpire he stood high in public regard, assumed the direction of affairs, and made desperate attempts to repel the invading Germans; though hefailed in this, he never ceased to feel the shame of the loss of Alsaceand Lorraine, and strove hard to recover them, but all his efforts provedineffectual, and he died in Dec. 31, to the grief of the nation(1838-1882). 

GAMBIA, 1, a river of W. Africa, that flows through Senegambia anddischarges itself into the Atlantic at Bathurst after a course of morethan 1400 m. Into a splendid estuary which, in some parts, has a breadthof 27 m. But contracts to 2 m. At the seaward end; light craft can ascendas far as Barraconda, 400 m. From the mouth. 2. A British settlement (15)lying along the banks of the Gambia as far as Georgetown, with aprotectorate to Barraconda (pop. 50); it enjoys a separate governmentunder a British administrator, and produces hides, cotton, rice, &c. 

GAMBIER, JAMES, LORD, British admiral, born in the Bahamas; at 22 hewas created a post-captain; in 1781 distinguished himself in anengagement against the French at Jersey; and again under Lord Howe in1794 he rendered material service in repulsing the French off Ushant; inthe following year he was made rear-admiral, and in 1799 vice-admiral;for his gallant conduct as commander of the English fleet at thebombardment of Copenhagen he was made a baron; a dispute with LordCochrane at the battle of Aix Roads against the French led to his beingcourt-martialled, but he was honourably acquitted; on the accession ofWilliam IV. He was made admiral of the fleet (1756-1833). 

GAMP, SARAH, a nurse in "Martin Chuzzlewit, " famous for her bulkyumbrella, and for confirming her opinions of things by a constantreference to the authority of an imaginary Mrs. Harris. 

GANDO (5, 000), a native State traversed by the Niger in WesternSoudan, lying upon the NW. Border of Sokoto, of which it is a dependency;like Sokoto it has been brought within the sphere of influence of theBritish Royal Niger Company; the inhabitants belong to the Fulah race, and profess the Mohammedan religion; Gando is also the name of thecapital, an active centre of the cotton trade. 

GANEGA, the Hindu god with an elephant's head and four arms; theinspirer of cunning devices and good counsel, afterwards the patron ofletters and learned men. 

GANELON, a count of Mayence, one of Charlemagne's paladins; trustedby him but faithless, and a traitor to his cause; is placed by Dante inthe lowest hell. 

GANGES, the great sacred river of India, which, though somewhatshorter than the Indus, drains a larger area and traverses a more fertilebasin; it has its source in an ice-cave on the southern side of theHimalayas, 8 m. Above Gangotri, at an elevation of 13, 800 ft. Above thesea-level; at this its first stage it is known as the Bhagirathi, and notuntil 133 m. From its source does it assume the name of Ganges, havingalready received two tributaries; issuing from the Himalayas at Sukhi, itflows in a more or less southerly course to Allahabad, where it receivesthe Jumna, and thence makes its way by the plains of Behar and pastBenares to Goalanda, where it is joined by the Brahmaputra; the unitedstream, lessened by innumerable offshoots, pursues a SE. Course tilljoined by the Meghna, and under that name enters the Bay of Bengal; itsmost noted offshoot is the HOOGHLY (q. V. ), which pursues acourse to the S. Of the Meghna; between these lies the Great Delta, whichbegins to take shape 220 m. Inland from the Bay of Bengal; the Ganges is1557 m. In length, and offers for the greater part an excellent waterway;it is held in great reverence as a sacred stream whose waters have powerto cleanse from all sin, while burial on its banks is believed to ensureeternal happiness. 

GANGES CANAL, constructed mainly for the purpose of irrigating thearid land stretching between the Ganges and the Jumna Rivers, originallyextended from Hardwár to Cawnpore and Etawah, but has since been greatlyenlarged, and at present (including branches) has a total extent of 3700m. , of which 500 m. Are navigable; it has contributed to mitigatesuffering caused by famines by affording a means of distributing readyrelief. 

GANGRENE, the first stage of mortification in any part of a livingbody. 

GANGWAY, a passage in the House of Commons, running across thehouse, which separates the independent members from the supporters of theGovernment and the Opposition. 

GANYMEDES, a beautiful youth, whom Zeus, attracted by his beauty, carried off, disguised as an eagle, to heaven, conferred immortality on, and made cup-bearer of the gods instead of Hebe. 

GAO, KARVEH or KARVAH, a Persian blacksmith, whose sonshad been slain to feed the serpents of the reigning tyrant, raised hisleather apron on a spear, and with that for a standard excited a revolt;the revolt proved successful, and the apron became the standard of thenew dynasty, which it continued to be till supplanted by the crescent. 

GARAY, JÁNOS, Hungarian poet, born at Szegszard; his life was spentchiefly in Pesth, where he held a post in the university library; hepublished a number of dramas which show traces of German influence, andwas also the author of a book of lyrics as well as tales (1812-1853). 

GARCIA, MANUEL, a noted singer and composer, born at Seville; in1808 he went to Paris with a reputation already gained at Madrid andCadiz; till 1824 he was of high repute in London and Paris as an operatictenor; and in the following year visited the United States; when on theroad between Mexico and Vera Cruz he was robbed of all his money; hespent his closing years in Paris as a teacher of singing, his voice beinggreatly impaired by age as well as fatigue; his eldest daughter was thecelebrated Madame Malibran (1775-1832). 

GARCIAS, DON PEDRO, a mythical don mentioned in the preface to "GilBlas" as buried with a small bag of doubloons, and the epitaph, "Herelies interred the soul of licentiate Pedro Garcia. "

GARCILASO, called the INCA, as descended from the royal familyof Peru; lived at Cordova; wrote "History of Peru, " as well as a "Historyof Florida" (1530-1568). 

GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, a Spanish poet, born in Toledo, a soldier byprofession; accompanied Charles V. On his expeditions; died fightingbravely in battle; his poems consist of sonnets, elegies, &c. , and revealan unexpected tenderness (1503-1536). 

GARCIN DE TASSY, Indian Orientalist, born at Marseilles (1794-1878). 

GARD (419), a dep. In the S. Of France, between the Cévennes and theRhône; slopes to the Rhône and the sea, with a marshy coast; produceswine and olives, and is noted for its silkculture and breed of horses. 

GARDA, LAGO DI, the largest of the Italian lakes; stretches, amidstbeautiful Alpine scenery, between Lombardy and Venetia. It is 35 m. Long, and from 2 to 10 broad. Its water is remarkably clear, and has a depth of967 ft. It is studded with many picturesque islands, and is traversed bysteamers. 

GARDE NATIONALE, of France, a body of armed citizens organised inParis in 1789 for the defence of the citizen interest, and soon byextensions throughout the country became a force of great nationalimportance; the colours they adopted were the famous tricolor of red, white, and blue, and their first commandant was Lafayette. In 1795 theyhelped to repress the Paris mob, and under Napoleon were retained inservice. They played a prominent part in the Revolutions of 1830 and1848, supporting the revolutionists; but in 1852 their powers werecurtailed, and in 1871 they were dissolved by the National Assembly. 

GARDES SUISSES, a celebrated corps of the French army, formed in1616 for defence of royalty, and numbering 2000. During the greatRevolution they gallantly defended the Louvre, but were overawed andoverpowered almost to annihilation by the infuriated Paris mob. "Theirwork to die, and they did it, " at that moment. The corps was finallydisbanded in 1830. 

GARDINER, COLONEL JAMES, soldier, captain of dragoons, noted for hisbravery and piety; served under Marlborough; fell at Prestonpans; hisLife was written by Dr. Doddridge, and is much prized by religious people(1688-1745). 

GAIRDNER, JAMES, historian, born in Edinburgh, Assistant-KeeperRecord Office, London; edited a series of historical documents, and wroteamong other historical works the "Life and Reign of Richard III. "; _b_. 1828. 

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON, English historian, born at Ropley, Hants;his chief historical works include "History of England" in the reign ofJames I. And Charles I. ; "History of the Civil War, " in four vols. , andthe "History of the Protectorate, " on which he is still engaged; a mostimpartial and accurate historian; _b_. 1829. 

GARDINER, STEPHEN, bishop of Winchester, born at Bury St. Edmunds;was secretary to Wolsey; promoted the divorce of Queen Catharine, andmade bishop; imprisoned in the Tower under Edward VI. ; restored to hissee, and made Chancellor under Mary (1483-1555). 

GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM, President of the United States, born inOrange, Ohio; reared amid lowly surroundings; at the age of ten began tohelp his widowed mother by working as a farmservant; an invinciblepassion for learning prompted him to devote the long winters to study, till he was able as a student to enter Hiram College, and subsequently toWilliam's College, Massachusetts, where, in 1856, he graduated; in thefollowing year he became President of Hiram College, and devoting hisattention to the study of law, in 1859 became a member of the StateSenate; he took an active part on the side of the Federalists in theCivil War, and distinguished himself in several engagements, rising to bemajor-general; in his thirty-third year he entered Congress, and sooncame to the front, acting latterly as leader of the Republican party; in1880 he became a member of the Senate, and in the same year was electedto the Presidency; he signalised his tenure of the presidential office byendeavouring to purify and reform the civil service, but this attemptdrew on him the odium of a section of his party, and on the 2nd July 1881he was shot down by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed place-hunter; after aprolonged struggle with death he succumbed on the 19th of September(1831-1881). 

GARGANTUA, a gigantic personage, in Rabelais, of preternally lustyappetite and guzzling and gourmandising power; lived several centuries, and begat Pantagruel. 

GARIBALDI, Italian patriot, began life as a sailor, associatedhimself enthusiastically with Mazzini for the liberation of his country, but being convicted of conspiracy fled to South America, where, both as aprivateer and a soldier, he gave his services to the young republicsstruggling there for life; returned to Europe, and took part in thedefence of Rome against France, but being defeated fled to New York, toreturn to the Isle of Caprera, biding his time; joined the Piedmonteseagainst Austria, and in 1860 set himself to assist in the overthrow ofthe kingdom of Naples and the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel, landing in Calabria and entering Naples, driving the royal forces beforehim without striking a blow, after which he returned to his retreat atCaprera, ready still to draw sword, and occasionally offering it again, in the cause of republicanism (1807-1882). 

GARMENT OF GOD, LIVING, Living Nature, so called by Goethe, naturebeing viewed by him as the garment, or vesture, with which God investsHimself so as to reveal and impart Himself to man. 

GARNET, a well-known precious stone of a vitreous lustre, andusually of a dark-red colour, resembling a ruby, but also found invarious other shades, e. G. Black, green, and yellow. The finestspecimens are brought from Ceylon, Pegu, and Greenland. The species ofgarnet crystal known as Pyrope, when cut in the shape of a tallow drop, is called a carbuncle. 

GARNET, HENRY, a noted Jesuit, son of a Nottingham schoolmaster, implicated in the Gunpowder Plot; bred in the Protestant faith, he earlyturned Catholic and went abroad and joined the Jesuit order; in 1588 hereturned to England as Superior of the English Jesuits, and engaged invarious intrigues; on the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot he wasarrested, found guilty of cognisance of the Plot, and executed(1555-1606). 

GARNETT, RICHARD, philologist, born at Otley, Yorkshire, Keeper ofthe Printed Books in the British Museum, and one of the founders of thePhilological Society, and contributor to its _Proceedings_ (1789-1850). 

GARNETT, RICHARD, an acute critic, born in Lichfield, son ofpreceding; long associated with the book department of the BritishMuseum; an admirer of Shelley, and biographer of Carlyle and Emerson;_b_. 1835. 

GARONNE, an important river of SW. France, which rises in the Vald'Aran in the Spanish Pyrenees; 26 m. From its source it enters Francenear Pont du Roi, and after it passes Toulouse flows in a north-westerlydirection; joined by the Dordogne, 20 m. Below Toulouse, it graduallywidens into the Gironde estuary, which opens on the Bay of Biscay; it hasa length of 346 m. , and is freely navigable as far as Toulouse. 

GARRICK, DAVID, a famous English actor and dramatist, born atHereford; was educated at Lichfield, the home of his mother, and was forsome months in his nineteenth year a pupil of Samuel Johnson; in 1737 heaccompanied Johnson to London, with the intention of entering the legalprofession, but soon abandoned the purpose, and started in the winebusiness with his brother; in 1741 he commenced his career as an actor, making his first appearance at Ipswich; in the autumn of the same year hereturned to London, and as Richard III. Achieved instant success; withthe exception of a sojourn upon the Continent for two years, his life wasspent mainly in the metropolis in the active pursuit of his profession;in 1747 he became patentee, along with James Lacy, of Drury Lane Theatre, which he continued to direct until his retirement from the stage in 1776;three years later he died, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; he wasthe author of many comedies and farces, which, however, are of no greatmerit, but his abiding fame rests upon his powers as an actor, hisremarkable versatility enabling him to act with equal ease and success infarce, comedy, and tragedy; his admirable naturalness did much to redeemthe stage from the stiff conventionalism under which it then laboured;his wife, Eva Maria Violette, a celebrated dancer of Viennese birth, whomhe married in 1740, survived him till 1822, dying at the advanced age of98 (1717-1779). 

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD, American journalist and abolitionist, bornat Newburyport, Mass. ; in his native town he rose to be editor of the_Herald_ at 19, and five years later became joint-editor of the _Geniusof Universal Emancipation_; his vigorous denunciation of slavery involvedhim in a charge of libel and brought about his imprisonment, from whichhe was liberated by a friend paying his fine; at Boston, in 1831, hefounded his celebrated _Liberator_, a paper in which he unweariedly, andin the face of violent threats, advocated his anti-slavery opinions till1865, when the cause was won; he visited England on several occasions insupport of emancipation, and in 1868 his great labours in the cause wererecognised by a gift of 30, 000 dollars from his friends (1804-1879). 

GARTER, THE MOST NOBLE ORDER OF THE, a celebrated order ofknighthood instituted in 1344 by King Edward III. ; the original number ofthe knights was 26, of whom the sovereign was head; but this number hasbeen increased by extending the honour to descendants of George I. , II. , and III. , and also to distinguished foreigners; it is the highest orderof knighthood, and is designated K. G. ; the insignia of the orderincludes surcoat, mantle, star, &c. , but the knights are chieflydistinguished by a garter of blue velvet worn on the left leg below theknee, and bearing the inscription in gold letters _Honi soit qui mal ypense_, "Evil be to him that evil thinks"; election to the order lieswith the sovereign. 

GARTH, SIR SAMUEL, a distinguished physician, born in co. Durham;had an extensive practice; author of a mock-heroic poem entitled "TheDispensary" (1661-1718). 

GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM, English judge, born at Gawthorpe, Yorkshire;during Richard II. 's reign he practised in the law courts, and in 1397became king's serjeant; three years later he was raised to the LordChief-Justiceship; his single-eyed devotion to justice was strikinglyexemplified in his refusal to pass sentence of death on ArchbishopScrope; the story of his committing Prince Henry to prison, immortalisedby Shakespeare, is unauthenticated (1350-1419). 

GASCONY, an ancient province of SW. France, lying between theAtlantic, the Pyrenees, and the Garonne; it included several of thepresent departments; the province was of Basque origin, but ultimatelybecame united with Aquitaine, and was added to the territory of theFrench crown in 1453; the Gascons still retain their traditionalcharacteristics; they are of dark complexion and small in stature, vivacious and boastful, but have a high reputation for integrity. 

GASKELL, MRS. , _née_ STEVENSON, novelist and biographer, born atCheyne Row, Chelsea; authoress of "Mary Barton, " "Ruth, " "Silvia'sLovers, " &c. , and the "Life of Charlotte Brontë, " her friend (1810-1865). 

GASSENDI, PIERRE, a French mathematician and philosopher, born inProvence; declared against scholastic methods out of deference to theempirical; controverted the metaphysics of Descartes; became the head ofa school opposed to him; adopted the philosophy of Epicurus andcontributed to the science of astronomy, and was the friend of Kepler, Galileo, and Hobbes; was a great admirer of Bayle, the head of hisschool, a school of Pyrrhonists, tending to materialism (1592-1655). 

GASSNER, JOHANN JOSEPH, a noted "exorcist, " born at Bludenz, in theTyrol; while a Catholic priest at Klösterle he gained a wide celebrity byprofessing to "cast out devils" and to work cures on the sick by meanssimply of prayer; he was deposed as an impostor, but the bishop ofRatisbon, who believed in his honesty, bestowed upon him the cure ofBendorf (1727-1779). 

GATAKER, THOMAS, an English divine, member of the WestminsterAssembly; disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant, declared forEpiscopacy, and opposed the trial of Charles I. (1574-1654). 

GATE OF TEARS, the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, so called from theshipwrecks frequent in it. 

GATES, HORATIO, an American general, born at Maldon, Essex, inEngland; served as an English officer in America till the peace of 1763, and then retired to Virginia; in the War of Independence he fought on theside of America, and, as commander of the northern army, defeated theEnglish at Saratoga in 1777; so great was his popularity in consequenceof this victory that ill-advised efforts were made to place him overWashington, but in 1780 he suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of theBritish at Camden, and was court-martialled; acquitted in 1782, he againretired to Virginia, and subsequently in 1800 removed to New York, havingfirst emancipated and provided for his slaves (1728-1806). 

GATESHEAD (86), an English town, situated on the Tyne, on N. Borderof Durham; it is united to Newcastle by three bridges spanning the river;it contains some handsome and interesting buildings, besides extensiveiron-works, foundries, soap, glass, and chemical manufactories; it washere Defoe lived when he wrote "Robinson Crusoe. "

GATH, Goliath's town, a city of the Philistines, on a cliff 12 m. NE. Of Ashdod. 

GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN, the inventor of the Gatling gun, born inHertford County, N. Carolina, U. S. ; he was bred to and graduated inmedicine, but in 1849 settled in Indianapolis and engaged in land andrailway speculation; his famous machine-gun, capable of firing 1200 shotsa minute, was brought out in 1861; another invention of his is asteam-plough; _b_. 1818. 

GATTY, MRS. , writer of tales for young people, "Parables fromNature, " and editor of _Aunt Judy's Magazine_; daughter of the chaplainof the _Victory_, Nelson's ship at Trafalgar, in whose arms Nelsonbreathed his last (1809-1873). 

GAUCHOS, a name bestowed upon the natives of the pampas of S. America; they are of Indo-Spanish descent, and are chiefly engaged inpastoral pursuits, herding cattle, &c. ; they are dexterous horsemen, andare courteous and hospitable; the wide-brimmed sombrero and loose ponchoare characteristic articles of their dress. 

GAUDEN, JOHN, bishop of Worcester; protested against the trial ofCharles I. , and after his execution published "EIKON BASILIKË"(q. V. ), or the "Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitude andSufferings, " which he declared was written by him (1605-1669). 

GAUL, the name the ancients gave to two distinct regions, the oneCISALPINE GAUL, on the Roman side of the Alps, embracing the N. OfItaly, as long inhabited by Gallic tribes; and the other TRANSALPINEGAUL, beyond the Alps from Rome, and extending from the Alps to thePyrenees, from the ocean to the Rhine, inhabited by different races;subdued by Julius Cæsar 58-50 B. C. , and divided by Augustus into fourprovinces. 

GAUNT, JOHN OF, Duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III. , born atGhent, who in 1362 succeeded to the estates of his father-in-law, theDuke of Lancaster; having in 1372 married, as his second wife, thedaughter of the king of Castile, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seizethe Castilian throne; in the later years of Edward III. 's reign he tookan active part in public affairs, and by his opposition to the nationalparty and overbearing conduct towards the Commons made himself obnoxiousto the people; for selfish motives he for a time supported Wycliffe, butin 1381 the Peasant Revolt drove him into Scotland; in 1386 he madeanother ineffectual attempt to gain the crown of Castile; in his lateryears he was engaged in various embassies in France (1339-1399). 

GAUR or LAKHNAUTI, the ancient capital of Bengal, now in ruins, but with Hindu remains of exceptional interest, is situated 4 m. S. OfMalda, between the rivers Ganges and Mahananda; the city is believed tohave been founded in the 11th century; it fell into decay after the Mogulconquest in 1575, but pestilence and the deflection of the Ganges into anew channel accelerated its fate. 

GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH, a celebrated German mathematician andastronomer, born at Brunswick; was director of the observatory atGöttingen for 40 years; was equally great on theory of numbers andpractice of calculation; he made important discoveries in magnetism, andwas pronounced by Laplace the greatest mathematician in Europe(1775-1855). 

GAUTAMA, the name of the family Buddha belonged to, a Rajput clanwhich at the time of his birth was settled on the banks on the Rohini, asmall affluent of the Gogra, about 137 m. N. Of Benares. 

GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE, a distinguished French poet, novelist, andcritic, born at Tarbes; began life as a painter, but turning toliterature soon attracted the attention of Sainte-Beuve by some studiesin the old French authors; by-and-by he came under the influence ofVictor Hugo, and in 1830 started his career as a poet by the publicationof "Albertus, " five years after which appeared his famous novel"Mademoiselle de Maupin"; for many years he was engaged in the work ofart criticism for the Paris newspapers, and those of his critiquesdealing with the drama have been republished, and fill six vols. ; both aspoet and novelist his works have been numerous, and several delightfulbooks of travel in Spain, Turkey, Algeria, &c. , have come from his pen;as a literary artist Gautier has few equals to-day in France, but hiswork is marred by a lax and paradoxical philosophy of life, which has, byhis more enthusiastic admirers, been elevated into a "cult" (1811-1872). 

GAUTIER AND GARGUILLE, all the world and his wife. 

GAVARNI, PAUL, the _nom de plume_ of Sulpice Guillaume Chevalier, caricaturist, born in Paris; began life as an engineer's draughtsman, butsoon turned his attention to his proper vocation as a cartoonist; most ofhis best work appeared in _Le Charivari_, but some of his bitterest andmost earnest pictures, the fruit of a visit to London, appeared in_L'Illustration_; he also illustrated Balzac's novels, and Sue's"Wandering Jew" (1801-1866). 

GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO, an Italian anti-papal agitator, born atBologna; admitted into the order of Barnabite monks; he became professorof Rhetoric at Naples; one of the most energetic supporters of Pius IX. In his liberal policy, he afterwards withdrew his allegiance; joined theRevolution of 1848, and ultimately fled to England on the occupation ofRome by the French; as an anti-papal lecturer he showed considerableoratorical powers; delivered addresses in Italian in England andScotland against the papacy, which were received with enthusiasm, although in Canada they led to riots; he was taken by some for an ItalianKnox; "God help them, " exclaimed Carlyle, who regarded him as a merewind-bag (1809-1889). 

GAVELKIND, descent of property to all the sons alike, the oldest tohave the horse and arms and the youngest the homestead. 

GAWAIN, SIR, one of the Knights of the Round Table, King Arthur'snephew; celebrated for his courtesy and physical strength. 

GAY, JOHN, an English poet, born at Barnstaple the same year asPope, a friend of his, to whom he dedicated his "Rural Sports"; was theauthor of a series of "Fables" and the "Beggar's Opera, " a piece whichwas received with great enthusiasm, and had a run of 63 nights, but whichgave offence at Court, though it brought him the patronage of the Dukeand Duchess of Queensberry, with whom he went to reside, and tinder whoseroof he died; was buried in Westminster (1688-1732). 

GAYA (80), chief town of a district of the same name in Bengal, onthe Phalgu, 57 m. S. Of Patna; it is a great centre of pilgrimage forHindus, and has associations with Buddha; 100, 000 pilgrims visit itannually. 

GAY-LUSSAC, LOUIS JOSEPH, French chemist and physicist, born at St. Leonard, Haute-Vienne; at the Polytechnic School, Paris, his abilitiesattracted the attention of BERTHOLLET (q. V. ), who appointed himhis assistant in the government chemical works at Arcueil; here heassiduously employed himself in chemical and physical research, inconnection with which he made two balloon ascents; in 1809 he becameprofessor of Chemistry at the Paris Polytechnic School; in 1832 waselected to a similar chair at the Jardin des Plantes; seven years laterwas created a peer of France, while in 1829 he became chief assayer tothe Mint; his name is associated with many notable discoveries inchemistry and physics, e. G. The law of volumes, isolation of cyanogen, &c. (1778-1850). 

GAZA, a Philistine town, the gates of which Samson carried off bynight; situated on a mound at the edge of the desert, 5 m. From the sea, a considerable place to this day. 

GAZETTE THE, an official newspaper in which government and legalnotices are published, issued on Tuesdays and Fridays; originally aVenetian newspaper, the first of the kind so called as issued for afarthing. 

GEBIR or GEBER, the name under which several works on alchemyand chemistry were written by Jabir ihn Haijan, an Arabic alchemist ofthe 8th century; his birthplace is unknown, but he is said to have livedat Damascus and Kufa. 

GED, WILLIAM, the inventor of stereotyping, born in Edinburgh, wherehe carried on business as a goldsmith; he endeavoured to push his newprocess of printing in London by joining in partnership with acapitalist, but, disappointed in his workmen and his partner, he returneddespondent to Edinburgh; an edition of Sallust and two prayer-books (forCambridge) were stereotyped by him (1699-1749). 

GEDDES, ALEXANDER, biblical scholar, born at Arradowl, Banffshire;was trained for the Catholic Church, and after prosecuting his studies atParis was appointed to the charge of a Catholic congregation atAuchinhalrig; ten years later he was deposed for heresy, and removing toLondon took to literary work; his most notable performance is hisunfinished translation of the Scriptures, and the notes appended, inwhich he reveals a very pronounced rationalistic conception of holy writ;this work, which anticipated the views of such men as Eichhorn andPaulus, lost him his status as a priest, although to the end he professeda sincere belief in Christianity; he was the author of volumes of poems, &c. (1737-1802). 

GEDDES, JENNY, an Edinburgh worthy who on 23rd July 1637immortalised herself by throwing her stool at the head of Laud's bishopas he proceeded from the desk of St. Giles's in the city to read the_Collect_ for the day, exclaiming as she did so, "Deil _colic_ the wameo' thee, fause loon, would you say _Mass_ at my lug, " which was followedby great uproar, and a shout, "A Pape, a Pape; stane him"; "a daringfeat, and a great, " thinks Carlyle, "the first act of an audacity whichended with the beheading of the king. "

GEEFS, GUILLAUME, Belgian sculptor, born at Antwerp; executed acolossal work at Brussels, "Victims of the Revolution, " and numerousstatues and busts as well as imaginative productions; had two brothersdistinguished also as sculptors (1806-1860). 

GEELONG (24), a prettily laid out city of Victoria, on Corio Bay, 45m. SW. Of Melbourne. The gold discoveries of 1851 gave a stimulus to thetown, which is now a busy centre of the wool trade, and has tanneries andpaper works, &c. The harbourage is excellent, and in summer the town is afavourite resort as a watering-place. 

GEFLE (25), a seaport, and the third commercial town in Sweden;capital of the _län_ of Gefleborg; is situated on an inlet of the Gulf ofBothnia, midway between Fahlun and Upsala; has an interesting old castle, a school of navigation, and, since a destructive fire in 1869, has beenlargely rebuilt. 

GEHENNA, the valley of Hinnom, on the S. Of Jerusalem, withTOPHET (q. V. ) at its eastern end; became the symbol of hellfrom the fires kept burning in it night and day to consume the poisonousgases of the offal accumulated in it. 

GEHENNA BAILIFFS, ministers of hell's justice, whose function is tosee to and enforce the rights of hell. 

GEIBEL, EMANUEL VON, a celebrated German poet, born at Lübeck; wasprofessor of Æsthetics at Münich; the tender, sentimental passion thatbreathed in his poetry procured for him a wide-spread popularity, especially among women (1815-1884). 

GEIGER, ABRAHAM, an eminent Hebrew scholar and Rabbi, born atFrankfort-on-the-Main, and editor of the _Zeitschrift für jüdischeTheologie_; strove hard to break down the barrier of Jewish exclusiveness(1810-1874). 

GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAV, great Swedish historian, born in Vermland; helda post in the Record Office, Stockholm; was a poet as well as ahistorian, his principal work being "History of the Swedish People"(1783-1847). 

GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD, geologist, born at Edinburgh; at the age of20 he joined the Geological Survey of Scotland, and in 1867 becamedirector; in 1870 he became Murchison professor of Geology at Edinburgh, and in 1881 was appointed chief director of the Geological Survey ofGreat Britain; in 1801 he was knighted, and from 1892 to 1893 wasPresident of the British Association; he is the author of various workson geology, written with great lucidity, as well as essays muchappreciated; _b_. 1835. 

GEIKIE, JAMES, geologist, brother of the preceding, born atEdinburgh; in 1882, after serving 21 years in the Geological Survey ofScotland, he succeeded his brother in the chair of Geology at Edinburgh;his principal work as a scientist is "The Great Ice Age"; his literarysympathies appear in his admirable volume of translations of, "Songs andLyrics of Heine"; _b_. 1839. 

GEÏLER VON KAISERBERG, JOHANN, a famous German pulpit orator, bornat Schaffhausen; Strasburg was the principal scene of his labours; hiswritings, though numerous, are rare, among them the "Narrenschiff, orShip of Fools" (1453-1510). 

GELASIUS I. , ST. , Pope from 492 to 496; a vigorous man and strongassertor of the supremacy of the chair of St. Peter; G. II. , alsoPope from 1118 to 1119. 

GELL, SIR WILLIAM, archæologist, born at Hopton, Derbyshire; aftergraduating at Cambridge was elected to a Fellowship at Emmanuel College;his passion for classical antiquities led him latterly to settle inItaly, which bore fruit in various valuable works on the topography andantiquities of Troy, Pompeii, Rome, Attica, &c. ; he had for some timepreviously been chamberlain to Queen Caroline, and appeared as a witnessat her trial (1777-1836). 

GELLERT or KILLHART, a famous dog which figures in Welshtradition of the 13th century, and whose devotion and sad death arecelebrated in a fine ballad written by the Hon. William Robert Spencer(1796-1834). The story is as follows: Prince Llewellyn on returning oneday from the chase discovered the cradle of his child overturned andblood-stains on the floor. Immediately concluding that Gellert, whom hehad left in charge of the child, had been the culprit, he plunged hissword into the breast of the dog and laid it dead. Too late he found hischild safe hidden in the blankets, and by its side the dead body of anenormous wolf. Gellert's tomb is still pointed out in the village ofBeddgelert on the S. Of Snowdon. A story similar even to details iscurrent in the traditionary lore of many other lands. 

GELLERT, CHRISTIAN, a German poet, fabulist, and moralist, born inSaxony; professor of Philosophy at Leipzig; distinguished for theinfluence of his character and writings on the literature of the periodin Germany, in the effect of it culminating in the literature of Schillerand Goethe; Frederick the Great, who had an interview with him, pronounced him the most rational of German professors (1715-1769). 

GELLUS, AULUS, a Latin grammarian, born at Rome; author of "NoctesAtticæ, " a miscellany professing to have been composed in a country housenear Athens during winter nights, and ranging confusedly over topics ofall kinds, interesting as abounding in extracts from ancient writings nolonger extant. 

GELON, tyrant of Syracuse from 484 to 478 B. C. ; rose from theranks, gained a victory in 480 B. C. On the day of the battle of Salamisover a large host of Carthaginians who had invaded Sicily; _d_. 478 B. C. , leaving behind him an honoured memory. 

GEMARA, the second part of the Talmud, being a body of notes, comments, &c. On the Mishna or text. 

GEMINI, the Twins, two stars in the southern hemisphere named Castorand Pollux; also the name of a sign of the zodiac. 

GENDARMES (i. E. Men-at-arms), a military police in Franceorganised since the Revolution, and charged with maintaining the publicsafety. The gendarmerie is considered a part of the regular army, and isdivided into legions and companies; but the pay is better than that of anordinary soldier. In the 14th and 15th centuries the name was applied tothe heavy French cavalry, and later to the royal bodyguard of theBourbons. 

GENESIS, the first book in the Bible, so called in the Septuagint, as containing an account of the origin of the world, of the human family, and of the Jewish race; a book of the oldest date possessing any humaninterest. 

GENEVA: 1. The smallest canton (106) of Switzerland, situated at thewestern extremity of the lake of the name; the surface is hilly, but notmountainous, and is watered by the Rhône and Arve; the soil is unfertile, but the patient industry of the inhabitants has made it fruitful; thecultivation of the vine, fruit-growing, and the manufacture of watches, &c. , are the chief industries; 85 per cent, of the people speak French. 2. Capital (78) of the canton, occupies a splendid geographical positionat the south-western end of the lake, at the exit of the Rhône; the townexisted in Cæsar's time, and after being subject in turn to Rome andBurgundy, ere long won its independence in conjunction with Bern andFreiburg. In Calvin's time it became a centre of Protestantism, and itshistory, down to the time of its annexation by Napoleon in 1798, ismainly occupied with the struggles between the oligarchical anddemocratic factions. On the overthrow of Napoleon it joined the SwissConfederation. Since 1847 the town has been largely rebuilt, andhandsomely laid out. Among many fine buildings are the TransitionCathedral of St. Peter (1124), the Academy founded by Calvin and others. The Rhône flows through it, and compasses an island which forms part ofthe city. It has many literary and historical associations, and was thebirthplace of Rousseau. 

GENEVA, LAKE OF, or LAKE LEMAN, stretches in crescent shapebetween Switzerland and France, curving round the northern border of theFrench department of Haute-Savoie; length, 45 m. ; greatest breadth, 9 m. ;maximum depth, 1022 ft. On the French side precipitous rocks descend tothe water's edge, and contrast with the wooded slopes of the north. Thewater is of a deep-blue colour; many streams flow into it, notably theRhône, which flows out at Geneva. 

GENEVIÈVE, the patron saint of Paris, born at Nanterre; by herprayer the city, then called LUTETIA (q. V. ) was saved from theravages of Attila (422-512) and his Huns. 

GENGHIS KHAN (i. E. Very Mighty Ruler), a celebrated Mongolconqueror, born near Lake Baikal, the son of a Mongol chief; his careeras a soldier began at the age of 13, an age at which he boldly assumedthe reins of government in succession to his father; by his militaryskill and daring example he gradually raised his people to a position ofsupremacy in Asia, and established by means of them a kingdom which, athis death, stretched from the Volga to the Pacific, and from Siberia tothe Persian Gulf; he regarded himself as commissioned by Heaven toconquer the world, a destiny which he almost fulfilled (1162-1227). 

GENLIS, STEPHANIE FÉLICITÉ, COMTESSE DE, a celebrated Frenchnovelist, born at Champceri, near Autun, Burgundy; at the age of 16 shewas married to the Comte de Genlis, who eventually fell a victim to thefury of the Revolution; in 1770 she was a lady-in-waiting to the Duchessede Chartres, and 12 years later became governess to the children of theDuc d'Orléans, amongst whom was the future king of the French, Louis-Philippe; the Revolution drove her to Switzerland, but on theelevation of Napoleon she returned to Paris, and received from him apension, which continued to be paid her even under the restored Bourbondynasty: she was a voluminous writer of moral tales, comedies, &c. , andher works amount to about 90 vols. , among them the celebrated "Mémoirs"of her life and times; she was ill-natured, and in her "Memoirs"inaccurate, as well as prejudiced (1746-1830). 

GEN`OA (138), a city and chief commercial seaport of Italy, built atthe foot of the Apennines as they slope down to the gulf of the name. Theencircling hills behind, which are strongly fortified, form a finebackground to the picturesquely laid-out city. There is excellentharbourage for the extensive shipping, and an active export and importtrade is carried on. In the city are iron-works, cotton and cloth mills, match factories, &c. ; the streets are narrow and irregular, but many ofthe buildings, especially the ducal palaces and the cathedral, are ofgreat historical and architectural interest; there is an excellentuniversity, a public library, and an Academy of Fine Arts; Columbus wasborn here. 

GENRE PAINTING, name given to paintings embracing figures as theyappear in ordinary life and in ordinary situations. 

GENS, the name among the Romans for what we understand by the wordclan as consisting of families. 

GENS BRACCATA, the Gauls, from wearing _braccæ_ or breeches. 

GENS TOGATA, the Roman, from wearing the TOGA (q. V. ) astheir distinguishing dress. 

GEN`SERIC, king of the Vandals, son of Godigiselus, founder of theVandal kingdom in Spain, and bastard brother of Gunderic, whom hesucceeded in A. D. 429; from Spain he crossed to Africa, and inconjunction with the Moors added to his kingdom the land lying W. OfCarthage, ultimately gaining possession of Carthage itself; he next sethimself to organise a naval force, with which he systematically from yearto year pillaged Spain, Italy, Greece, and the opposite lands of AsiaMinor, sacking Rome in 455; until his death in 477 he continued master ofthe seas, despite strenuous efforts of the Roman emperors to crush hispower. 

GENTILLY, a southern suburb of Paris, once a village beyond thefortifications. 

GENTLE SHEPHERD, a famous pastoral by Allan Ramsay, with some happydescriptive scenes and a pleasant delineation of manners, published in1723. 

GENTLE SHEPHERD, a nickname George Grenville bore from a retort ofthe elder Pitt one day in Parliament. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS, next to the yeomen of the guard the oldest corpsin the British army, is the bodyguard of the sovereign; was formed byHenry VIII. In 1509; now consists of a captain, lieutenant, standard-bearer, adjutant, and 40 members, whose duties are limited toattendance at State ceremonies. 

GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON, German politician and author, born at Breslau;while in the Prussian civil service he warmly sympathised with the FrenchRevolution, but his zeal was greatly modified by perusal of Burke's"Reflections, " a treatise he subsequently translated, and in 1802 enteredthe Austrian public service; in the capacity of a political writer hebitterly opposed Napoleon, but for other purposes his pen and supportwere at the service of the highest bidder; he was secretary at theCongress of Vienna, and held a similar post in many of the subsequentcongresses (1764-1832). 

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH, a celebrated chronicler and ecclesiastic ofthe 12th century, born in Monmouth, where he was educated in aBenedictine monastery; in 1152 he was made bishop of St. Asaph; his Latin"Chronicon sive Historia Britonum" contains a circumstantial account ofBritish history compiled from Gildas, Nennius, and other earlychroniclers, interwoven with current legends and pieced together withadditions from his own fertile imagination, the whole professing to be atranslation of a chronicle found in Brittany; this remarkable history isthe source of the stories of King Lear, Cymbeline, Merlin, and of Arthurand his knights as they have since taken shape in English literature;_d_. About 1154. 

GEOFFREY SAINT-HILAIRE, ÉTIENNE, zoologist and biologist, born atÉtampes; he was educated for the Church, but while studying theology atParis his love for natural science was awakened, and the study of ithenceforth became the ruling passion of his life; was made professor ofZoology in the Museum of Natural History in Paris; accompanied Napoleonto Egypt as a member of the scientific commission, and returned with richcollections, while his labours were rewarded by his election to theAcademy of Sciences; a scientific mission to Portugal in 1808 nextengaged him, and a year later he was nominated to the chair of Zoology inthe Faculty of Sciences at Paris; the main object of his scientificwriting was to establish, in opposition to the theories of his friendCuvier, his conception of a grand unity of plan pervading the wholeorganic kingdom (1772-1844). 

GEOFFRIN, MARIE THÉRÈSE, a French patroness of letters, born atParis, the daughter of a _valet-de-chambre_; in her fifteenth year shemarried a wealthy merchant, whose immense fortune she inherited; her loveof letters--which she cherished, though but poorly educated herself--andher liberality soon made her _salon_ the most celebrated in Paris; the_encyclopédists_, Diderot, D'Alembert, and Marmontel, received from her aliberal encouragement in their great undertaking; Walpole, Hume, andGibbon were among her friends; and Stanislas Poniatowsky, who became kingof Poland, acknowledged her generosity to him by styling himself her sonand welcoming her royally to his kingdom (1699-1777). 

GEORGE I. , king of Great Britain from 1714 to 1727, and first of theHanoverian line; son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and ofSophia, granddaughter of James I. Of England; born in Hanover; in 1682 hemarried his cousin, the Princess Sophia Dorothea of Zell, and in 1698became Elector of Hanover; he co-operated actively with Marlborough inopposing the schemes of Louis XIV. , and commanded the Imperial forces; inaccordance with the Act of Settlement, he succeeded to the English throneon the death of Queen Anne; his ignorance of English prevented him takingpart in Cabinet councils, a circumstance which had important results inthe growth of constitutional government, and the management of publicaffairs during his reign devolved chiefly upon Sir Robert Walpole; theabortive Jacobite rising of 1715, the South Sea Bubble (1720), and theinstitution of Septennial Parliaments (1716), are among the main eventsof his reign; in 1694 he divorced his wife on account of an amour withCount Königsmark, and kept her imprisoned abroad till her death in 1724, while he himself during these years lived in open profligacy with hismistresses (1660-1727). 

GEORGE II. , king of Great Britain from 1727 to 1760, and Elector ofHanover, born in Hanover, son of preceding; in 1705 he married Carolineof Anspach, and in 1714 was declared Prince of Wales; he joined hisfather in the struggle with Louis XIV. , and distinguished himself on theside of the Allies at the battle of Oudenarde; the period of his reign isone of considerable importance in English history; Walpole andsubsequently Pitt were the great ministers of the age; war was wagedagainst Spain and France; the last Jacobite rising was crushed atCulloden (1746); English power was established in Canada by the brilliantvictory of Wolfe at Quebec (1759); an empire was won in India by Clive;the victory of Minden (1759) was gained in the Seven Years' War;Methodism sprang up under Wesley and Whitfield; while a great developmentin literature and art took place; against these, however, must be set thedoubling of the National Debt, mainly due to the Seven Years' War, and adefeat by the French at Fontenoy (1745) (1683-1760). 

GEORGE III. , king of Great Britain from 1760 to 1820, and king ofHanover (Elector from 1760 to 1815), eldest son of Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, and grandson of preceding, born in London; in 1761 hemarried Princess Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, by whom he hadfifteen children; more English in sentiment and education than his twopredecessors, George's main interest was centred in his English kingdom, and never during his long life did he once set foot in his Hanoverianpossessions; the purity of his domestic life, his devotion to England, and the pathos attaching to his frequent fits of insanity, won him theaffections of his people, an affection, however, sorely tried by hisobstinate blundering; the 60 years of his reign present a succession ofdomestic episodes, far-reaching in their consequences to England and tothe civilised world; the conclusion of the Seven Years' War left Englandpredominant in North America, and with increased colonial possessions inthe West Indies, &c. , but under the ill-guided and obstinate policy ofLord North she suffered the loss of her American colonies, an event whichalso involved her in war with France and Spain; in 1787 the famous trialof WARREN HASTINGS (q. V. ) began, and two years later came theFrench Revolution; the great struggle with Napoleon followed, and gaveoccasion for the brilliant achievements of Nelson and Wellington; duringthese long years of war the commercial prosperity of England neverslackened, but through the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, andCompton increased by leaps and bounds; freedom of the press was won byWilkes; and in 1802 the union with Ireland took place; the majesticfigure of Pitt stands out amidst a company of brilliant politicians thatincluded Burke and Fox and Sheridan; literature is represented by a lineof brilliant writers that stretches from Johnson to Keats, and includesthe names of Burns, Cowper, Shelley, and Byron (1738-1820). 

GEORGE IV. , king of Great Britain and of Hanover from 1820 to 1830, eldest son of the preceding, born in London; in consequence of hisfather's insanity he became Regent in 1810; a tendency to profligacyearly displayed itself in an intrigue with Mrs. Robinson, an actress; andtwo years afterwards in defiance of the Royal Marriage Act he secretlymarried MRS. FITZHERBERT (q. V. ), a Roman Catholic; in 1795 hepublicly espoused Princess Caroline of Brunswick, whom later heendeavoured to divorce; a Burmese War (1823), the victory of AdmiralCodrington at Navarino (1827), the Repeal of the Test and CorporationActs (1828), and the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Bill (1829), were occurrences of some importance in an uneventful reign (1762-1830). 

GEORGE I. , king of Greece, son of King Christian of Denmark, andbrother of the Princess of Wales; became king of Greece in 1864; _b_. 1845. 

GEORGE, HENRY, an American writer on social and economic questions, born in Philadelphia; he first tried life on the sea, but in 1858 settledin California as a printer, and there married; in course of time he tookto journalism, became an editor, and zealously addressed himself to thediscussion of public affairs; his peculiar views on the question of landreform were set forth in "Our Land and Land Policy, " published in 1870, and nine years later appeared his more famous and widely popular work"Progress and Poverty, " in which he promulgated the theory that to theincrease in economic rent and land values is due the lack of increase inwages and interest which the increased productive power of modern timesshould have ensured; he proposed the levying of a tax on land so as toappropriate economic rent to public uses, and the abolition of all taxesfalling upon industry and thrift; he lectured in Great Britain andIreland, Australia, &c. ; in 1887 founded the _Standard_ paper in NewYork; he died during his candidature for the mayoralty of Greater NewYork (1839-1897). 

GEORGE, ST. , the patron saint of chivalry and of England; adopted assuch in the reign of Edward III. ; believed to have been born in Armorica, and to have suffered martyrdom under Diocletian in A. D. 303; he isrepresented as mounted on horseback and slaying a DRAGON (q. V. ), conceived as an incarnation of the evil one. 

GEORGETOWN: 1 (53), capital of British Guiana, at the mouth of theDemerara River; is the see of an Anglican bishop; is neatly laid out, andhas some handsome buildings, but is considered unhealthy; the stapleindustries are sugar and coffee. 2 (14), a port of entry in the Districtof Columbia, on the Potomac, 2 m. NW. Of Washington; is a terminus of theChesapeake and Ohio Canal. 

GEORGIA: 1 (1, 837), one of the 13 original States of the AmericanUnion, lies to the S. , fronting the Atlantic between Florida and S. Carolina; is divided into 136 counties, Atlanta being the capital andSavannah the chief port; it is well watered with rivers; is low andswampy for some miles inland, but it rises into plateaux in the interior, and the Appalachians and Blue Mountains intersect it in the NW. ;excellent crops of wheat and fruit are grown among the hills, rice in thelowlands, while immense quantities of cotton are raised on the islandsskirting the coast; the vast forests of pitch-pine supply an increasinglumber trade; the mountain lands are rich in minerals; the State wasnamed after George II. In 1733 by the founder, James Oglethorpe. 2, Theformer name of an independent kingdom, which extended along the southernslopes of the Caucasus, and which, since the beginning of the century, has belonged to Russia under the name of Gruzia, and now forms thecentral portion of Russian Transcaucasia; the Georgians number at presentabout a million; they are a people of splendid physique, whose historyreaches back to the time of Alexander the Great, and who attained theirzenith in the 12th century; subsequently they suffered from Persian andTurkish invasion, and eventually, as we have said, fell into the hands ofRussia; at present there is a Georgian literature growing, especially inTiflis, if that is any sign of advance. 

GERA (30), a thriving city on the White Elster, 35 m. SW. OfLeipzig; has broad streets and fine buildings, with a castle; chiefmanufactures woollen. 

GERAINT, SIR, one of the Knights of the Round Table, the husband ofEnid, whose fidelity he for a time distrusted, but who proved herself atrue wife by the care with which she nursed him when he was wounded. 

GÉRARD, ÉTIENNE MAURICE, COMTE, marshal of France, born atDamvillers, Lorraine; in 1791 he entered the army and fought underBernadotte in various campaigns; at Austerlitz he won his brigade, andsubsequently fought at Jena, Erfurt, and Wagram; he joined Napoleon afterhis flight from Elba, and was wounded at Wavre; on the downfall of theEmperor he quitted France, but returned in 1817; in 1822 he was electedto the Chamber of Deputies, and in 1831 assisted in driving the Dutch outof Flanders; he was War Minister under Louis Philippe (1773-1855). 

GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS PASCAL SIMON, BARON, painter, born at Rome, ofFrench and Italian parentage; came to Paris when a youth, where hestudied painting under David; in 1795 his "Blind Belisarius" brought himto the front, whilst subsequent work as a portrait-painter raised himabove all his contemporaries; his masterpiece, "Entry of Henri IV. IntoParis, " brought him a barony at the hands of Louis XVIII. ; his historicalpaintings, characterised by minute accuracy of detail, include "Napoleonin his Coronation Robes, " "Battle of Austerlitz, " &c. (1770-1837). 

GERHARDT, KARL FRIEDRICH, chemist, born at Strasburg; after atraining at Carlsruhe and Leipzig, worked in Liebig's laboratory atGiessen; in 1838 he began lecturing in Paris, and made experiments alongwith Cahours on essential oils, which bore fruit in an importanttreatise; in 1844 he received the chair of Chemistry at Montpellier, butreturned to Paris four years later; there he matured and published histheories of types, homologous series, &c. , which have greatly influencedthe science of chemistry; in 1855 he became professor of Chemistry inStrasburg (1816-1856). 

GERHARDT, PAUL, a celebrated German hymn-writer of the LutheranChurch, born at Gräfenhainichen, in Saxony; in 1657 he became dean of St. Nicholas in Berlin, an appointment he held till 1666, when he was deposedfor his embittered opposition to the union of the Lutheran and ReformedChurches; he was subsequently pastor at Lübben; his hymns, 123 in number, rank amongst the finest of their class (1607-1676). 

GERIZZIM, a mountain of 2848 ft. In height in the S. Of the valleyof Shechem, opposite EBAL (q. V. ), and from the slopes of whichthe blessings were responded to by half the tribes of Israel on theirarrival in Canaan (Josh. Viii. 30-35); the Samaritans erected a temple onthis mountain, ruins of which still remain. 

GERM THEORY, the doctrine that certain diseases are due tofermentation caused by the presence of germs in the system in the form ofminute organisms called bacteria. 

GERMAN CATHOLICS, a sect formed in 1844 by secession from theCatholic Church of Germany, under the leadership of Johann Ronge, onaccount of the mummery under papal patronage connected with theexhibition of the Holy Coat of Trèves and the superstitious influenceascribed to it. 

GERMAN VOLTAIRE, name given sometimes to Wieland and sometimes, butless appropriately, to Goethe. 

GERMANICUS, CÆSAR, Roman general, son of Nero Claudius Drusus andAntonia, daughter of Mark Antony; he served with distinction under hisuncle Tiberius in Dalmatia and Pannonia; was awarded a triumph, and inA. D. 12 was elected consul; his success and popularity as leader of thearmy on the Rhine provoked the jealousy of Tiberius, who transferred himto the East, where he subsequently died; his son Caligula succeededTiberius on the imperial throne (15 B. C. -A. D. 19). 

GERMANY (49, 428), constituted an empire in 1871, occupies acommanding position in Central Europe, and stretches from Switzerland inthe S. To the German Ocean and Baltic Sea on the N. ; Austria lies to theSE. , Russia to the NE. , while France, Belgium, and the Netherlands flankthe W. ; is made up of 26 States of widely varying size and importance, comprising four kingdoms (of which Prussia is by far the largest and mostinfluential), six grand-duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free towns (Lübeck, Bremen, Hamburg), and one imperial province, Alsace-Lorraine; the main physical divisions are (1) the great lowlandplain stretching from the centre to the Baltic and North Sea, wellwatered by the Ems, Weser, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, and their tributaries, inwhich, bating large sandy tracts, agriculture employs a large class, andcereals, tobacco, and beetroot are raised; (2) the mountainous district, in the interior of which the Fichtelgebirge is the central knot, in whichvast forests abound, and rich deposits of coal, fire-clays, iron, andother metals are worked, giving rise to iron-works and potteries; (3) thebasin of the Rhine, on the W. , where the vine is largely cultivated, andextensive manufactures of silks, cottons, and hardware are carried on;fine porcelain comes from Saxony and vast quantities of beer fromBavaria; Westphalia is the centre of the steel and iron works; throughoutGermany there are 26, 000 m. Of railway line (chiefly State railways), 57, 000 m. Of telegraph line, while excellent roads, canals, and navigablerivers facilitate communication; 65 per cent. Of the people areProtestants; education is compulsory and more highly developed than inany other European country; the energies of the increasing populationhave in recent years found scope for their action in their growingcolonial possessions; the military system imposes upon every German aterm of seven years' service, three in active service, and the remainderin the reserve, and till his forty-sixth year he is liable to be calledout on any great emergency; under the emperor the government is carriedon by a _Federal Council_, the members of which are appointed by thegovernments of the various estates, and the _Reichstag_, elected byuniversal suffrage and ballot for three years. 

GÉRÔME, LÉON, a celebrated French painter, born at Vésoul; hestudied at Paris under Paul Delaroche, with whom he subsequentlytravelled in Italy; he travelled in the East and familiarised himselfwith Eastern scenes; in 1863 he was appointed professor of Painting inthe Paris School of Fine Arts; among his most famous pictures, allcharacterised by vivid colouring and strong dramatic effect, are "The Ageof Augustus and the Birth of Christ, " "Roman Gladiators in theAmphitheatre, " "Cleopatra and Cæsar, " &c. ; _b_. 1824. 

GERRY, ELBRIDGE, American statesman, born in Marblehead, Mass. ; in1773, eight years after graduating at Harvard, he was elected to theMassachusetts Assembly, and in 1789 to the first National Congress; asenvoy to France in 1797 he assisted in establishing diplomatic relationswith that country, and after his recall in 1810 was chosen governor ofhis native State; during his tenancy of this office, by an unfairredistribution of the electoral districts in the State he gave undueadvantage to his own political party, a proceeding which led to thecoining of the word "gerrymandering"; subsequently he held office asVice-President of the Republic (1744-1814). 

GERSON, JOHN CHARLIER DE, an eminent ecclesiastical scholar, born atGerson, in the diocese of Rheims; in 1395 he became chancellor of his olduniversity at Paris, and earned in that office a high reputation forlearning, becoming known as Doctor Christianissimus; he was a prominentmember of the councils of Pisa and Constance, advocating, as a remedy forthe Western Schism, the resignation of the rival Popes; in consequence ofhis denunciation of the Duke of Burgundy for the murder of the Duke ofOrleans he was forced to become a refugee in Germany for some time, butfinally retired into the monastery of Lyons; his various works reveal anintellect of keen intelligence, but somewhat tinged with a cloudymysticism (1363-1429). 

GERSTÄCKER, FRIEDRICH, German author and traveller, born in Hamburg;when 21 he emigrated to New York, and for six years led a wandering lifein different parts of America, working the while now at one occupationnow at another, a narrative of which he published on his return toGermany; in 1849 he undertook a journey round the world which occupiedhim three years; in 1860-61 he crossed S. America; in 1862 he was inAfrica with Duke Ernst of Gotha, and in 1863 in Central America; his manywritings, descriptive of these countries, exhibit a fresh and graphicstyle, and have had a wide popularity; he is the author also of severalthrilling stories (1816-1872). 

GERVASE OF TILBURY, a mediæval historical writer, born at Tilbury, in Essex; said to have been a nephew of King Henry II. ; he held alectureship in Canon Law at Bologna, and through the influence of EmperorOtto IV. Was made marshal of the kingdom of Arles; he was the author of"Otia Imperiala, " a historical and geographical work; _d_. About 1235. 

GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED, German historian and Shakespeariancritic, born at Darmstadt; he was elected to the chair of History atGöttingen in 1836, an appointment which was cancelled the following yearby his signing the protest against the abolition of the Hanoverianconstitution; in 1844 he was appointed honorary professor at Heidelberg, and subsequently contributed greatly to the establishment ofconstitutional liberty in Germany by means of his writings and byfounding the _Deutsche Zeitung_ there; in 1848 he became a member of theNational Assembly, but shortly afterwards withdrew, disgusted with thecourse things were taking; he now engaged in literary studies, the fruitof which appeared in his celebrated volumes of Shakespearian criticism(1805-1871). 

GERYON, a king of Erytheia (i. E. Red island), on the westernborders of the world, with three bodies and three heads, who had a herdof oxen guarded by a giant shepherd and his dog, the two-throatedOrthros, which were carried off by Hercules at the behest of his fate. 

GESENIUS, an eminent German Hebraist and Biblical scholar, born inPrussian Saxony, whose labours form an epoch in the study of the HebrewScriptures; was 30 years professor of the language in Halle; produced aHebrew Grammar and Lexicon, and commentary on Isaiah on rationalisticlines (1785-1842). 

GESNER, KONRAD VON, Swiss scholar and naturalist, born at Zurich;hampered by ill-health and poverty in his youth, he yet contrived byunremitting diligence to obtain an excellent education at Strasburg, Bourges, and Paris; in his twenty-first year he obtained an appointmentin Zurich University, and in 1537 became professor of Greek at Lausanne;abandoning the idea he entertained of entering the Church, he determinedto adopt the medical profession instead, graduated at Basel in 1540, anda year later went to Zurich to occupy the chair of Natural History and topractise as a doctor; his chief works are the "Bibliotheca Universalis"(a catalogue and summary of all Hebrew, Greek, and Latin works then knownto exist), and the "Historia Animalium"; these monuments of learning havewon him the cognomen of the German Pliny (1516-1565). 

GESSLER, ALBRECHT, a governor of the forest cantons of Switzerland, who figures in Swiss legend as an oppressor who was shot as related inthe tradition of Tell. 

GESSNER, SALOMON, Swiss poet and artist, born at Zurich; served anapprenticeship to a bookseller in Berlin, and after a sojourn in Hamburgreturned to Zurich, where the rest of his life was spent; he publishedseveral volumes of poetry, chiefly pastoral and of no great value; his"Death of Abel" is his most notable performance; his paintings are mainlylandscapes of a conventional type, several of which he engraved, revealing better abilities as an engraver than as an artist (1730-1788). 

GESTA ROMANORUM (the exploits of the Romans), a collection of shortdidactic stories, not however solely Roman, written in the Latin tongue, probably towards the close of the 13th century, the authorship of whichis uncertain, though it is generally recognised as of English origin; thestories are characterised by naïve simplicity, and have served asmaterials for many notable literary productions; thus Shakespeare owes tothis work the plot of Pericles and the incidents of the caskets and thepound of flesh in the "Merchant of Venice, " Parnell his "Hermit, " Byronhis "Three Black Crows, " and Longfellow his "King Robert of Sicily. "

GETHSEMANE, somewhere on the E. Of Kedron, half a mile fromJerusalem, at the foot of Mount Olivet, the scene of the Agony of Christ. 

GETTYSBURG (3), a town in Pennsylvania, built on a group of hills 50m. SW. Of Harrisburg; during the Civil War it was the scene of GeneralMeade's famous victory over the Confederates under General Lee on July 3, 1863. 

GEYSER, fountains which from time to time, under the expansion ofsteam, eject columns of steam and hot water, and which are met with inIceland, North America, and New Zealand, of which the most remarkable isthe Great Geyser, 70 m. N. Of Reikiavik, in Iceland, which ejects acolumn of water to 60 ft. In height, accompanied with rumblingsunderground; these eruptions will continue some 15 minutes, and theyrecur every few hours. 

GFRÖRER, AUGUST FRIEDRICH, a learned German historian, born in theBlack Forest; educated for the Protestant ministry; in 1828, afterresidence at Geneva and Rome, started as a tutor of theology, and twoyears later became librarian at Stuttgart; published a number ofhistorical works, including a "Life of Gustavus Adolphus, " "Pope GregoryVII. , " a "History of Primitive Christianity, " "Church History to theFourteenth Century"; in this last work he showed a strong leaning toCatholicism; was appointed to the chair of History in the university ofFreiburg; was elected to the Frankfort parliament, and finally openlyprofessed the Catholic faith (1803-1861). 

GHÂTS, or GHAUTS, EASTERN AND WESTERN, two mountain rangesrunning parallel with the E. And W. Coasts of S. India, the latterskirting the Malabar coast between 30 and 40 m. From the sea, rising tonearly 5000 ft. , and exhibiting fine mountain and forest scenery, and theformer skirting the E. Of the Deccan, of which tableland it here formsthe buttress, and has a much lower mean level; the two ranges convergeinto one a short distance from Cape Comorin. 

GHAZALI, ABU MOHAMMED AL-, Arabian philosopher, born at Tûs, Persia;in 1091 he was appointed professor of Philosophy in Bagdad; four yearslater he went to Mecca, and subsequently taught at Damascus, Jerusalem, and Alexandria; finally, he returned to his native town and there foundeda Sufic college; of his numerous philosophic and religious works the mostfamous is the "Destruction of the Philosophers, " in which he combats thetheories and conclusions of the current Arabian scholasticism(1058-1111). 

GHAZIPUR (45), a city of India, on the Ganges, 44 m. NE. Of Benares, capital of the district of that name (1, 077), in the North-WestProvinces; is the head-quarters of the Government Opium Department, andtrades in rose-water, sugar, tobacco, &c. ; contains the ruins of thePalace of Forty Pillars. 

GHAZNI (10), a fortified city of Afghanistan, 7726 ft. Above thesea, 85 m. SW. Of Cabul; it is the chief strategical point on themilitary route between Kandahar and Cabul; in the 11th and 12th centuriesit was the capital of the KINGDOM OF GHAZNEVIDS, which stretchedfrom the plains of Delhi to the Black Sea, and which came to an end in1186. 

GHEEL (12), a town in Belgium, situated on a fertile spot in themidst of the sandy plain called the Campine, 26 m. SE. Of Antwerp; it hasbeen for centuries celebrated as an asylum for the insane, who (about1300) are now boarded out among the peasants; these cottage asylums areunder government control, and the board of the patients in most cases isguaranteed. 

GHENT (150), a city of Belgium, capital of East Flanders, situatedat the junction of the Scheldt and the Lys, 34 m. NW. Of Brussels; riversand canals divide it into 26 quarters, connected by 270 bridges; in theolder part are many quaint and interesting buildings, notably thecathedral of St. Bavon (13th century); it is the first industrial city ofBelgium, and is a great emporium of the cotton, woollen, and linentrades; the floriculture is famed, and the flower-shows have won it thename of the "City of Flowers. "

GHETTO, an Italian word applied to the quarters set apart in Italiancities for the Jews, and to which in former times they were restricted;the term is now applied to the Jews' quarters in any city. 

GHIBELLINES, a political party in Italy who, from the 11th to the14th centuries, maintained the supremacy of the German emperors over theItalian States in opposition to the GUELPHS (q. V. ). 

GHIBERTI, LORENZO, an Italian sculptor and designer, born atFlorence; his first notable work was a grand fresco in the palace ofMalatesta at Rimini in 1400, but his most famous achievement, whichimmortalised his name, was the execution of two doorways, with bas-reliefdesigns, in the baptistery at Florence; he spent 50 years at this work, and so noble were the designs and so perfect the execution that MichaelAngelo declared them fit to be the gates of Paradise (about 1378-1455). 

GHIKA, HELENA. See DORA D'ISTRIA. 

GHILAN (200), a province of NW. Persia, between the SW. Border ofthe Caspian Sea and the Elburz Mountains; is low-lying, swampy, andunhealthy towards the Caspian, but the rising ground to the S. Is moresalubrious; wild animals are numerous in the vast forests; the soil, where cleared, is fertile and well cultivated; the Caspian fisheries arevaluable; the people are of Iranian descent, and speak a Persian dialect. 

GHIRLANDAJO (i. E. Garland-maker), nickname of Domenico Curradi, an Italian painter, born at Florence; acquired celebrity first as adesigner in gold; he at 24 turned to painting, and devoted himself tofresco and mosaic work, in which he won wide-spread fame; amongst hismany great frescoes it is enough to mention here "The Massacre of theInnocents, " at Florence, and "Christ calling Peter and Andrew, " at Rome;Michael Angelo was for a time his pupil (1449-1494). 

GHUZNI. See GHAZNI. 

GIANTS, in the Greek mythology often confounded with, but distinctfrom, the TITANS (q. V. ), being a mere earthly brood of greatstature and strength, who thought by their violence to dethrone Zeus, andwere with the assistance of Hercules overpowered and buried under Etnaand other volcanoes, doomed to continue their impotent grumbling there. 

GIANT'S CAUSEWAY, a remarkable headland of columnar basaltic rock inNorth Ireland, projecting into the North Channel from the Antrim coast atBengore Head, 7 m. NE. Of Portrush; is an unequal surface 300 yds. Longand 30 ft. Wide, formed by the tops of the 40, 000 closely packed, vertical columns which rise to a height of 400 ft. The legend goes thatit was the beginning of a roadway laid down by a giant. 

GIAOUR, the Turkish name for an unbeliever in the Mohammedan faith, and especially for a Christian in that regard. 

GIBBON, EDWARD, eminent historian, born at Putney, near London, ofgood parentage; his early education was greatly hindered by a nervouscomplaint, which, however, disappeared by the time he was 14; a widecourse of desultory reading had, in a measure, repaired the lack ofregular schooling, and when at the age of 15 he was entered at MagdalenCollege, Oxford, he possessed, as he himself quaintly puts it, "a stockof erudition which might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of ignoranceof which a schoolboy might have been ashamed"; 14 months later he becamea convert to Roman Catholicism, and in consequence was obliged to quitOxford; in the hope of reclaiming him to the Protestant faith he wasplaced in the charge of the deistical poet Mallet, and subsequently undera Calvinist minister at Lausanne; under the latter's kindly suasion hespeedily discarded Catholicism, and during five years' residenceestablished his learning on a solid foundation; time was also found forthe one love episode of his life--an amour with Suzanne Curchod, anaccomplished young lady, who subsequently became the wife of the Frenchminister M. Neckar, and mother of Madame de Staël; shortly after hisreturn to England in 1758 he published in French an Essay on the Study ofLiterature, and for some time served in the militia; in 1774, having fouryears previously inherited his father's estate, he entered Parliament, and from 1779 to 1782 was one of the Lords Commissioners of Trade andPlantations; in 1776 appeared the first volume of his great history "TheDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire, " the conception of which had cometo him in 1764 in Rome whilst "musing amongst the ruins of the Capitol";in 1787 his great work was finished at Lausanne, where he had residedsince 1783; modern criticism, working with fresh sources of information, has failed to find any serious flaw in the fabric of this masterpiece inhistory, but the cynical attitude adopted towards the Christian religionhas always been regarded as a defect; "a man of endless reading andresearch, " was Carlyle's verdict after a final perusal of the "Decline, ""but of a most disagreeable style, and a great want of the highestfaculties of what we would call a classical historian, compared withHerodotus, for instance, and his perfect clearness and simplicity inevery part"; he, nevertheless, characterised his work to Emerson once as"a splendid bridge from the old world to the new" (1737-1794). 

GIBBONS, GRINLING, a celebrated wood-carver, born at Rotterdam, butbrought up in England; through the influence of Evelyn he obtained a postin the Board of Works, and his marvellous skill as a wood-carver won himthe patronage of Charles II. , who employed him to furnish ornamentalcarving for the Chapel of Windsor; much of his best work was done for thenobility, and in many of their mansions his carving is yet extant in allits grace and finish, the ceiling of a room at Petworth being consideredhis masterpiece; he also did some notable work in bronze and marble(1648-1721). 

GIBBONS, ORLANDO, an eminent English musician, composer of manyexquisite anthems, madrigals, &c. , born at Cambridge; in 1604 he obtainedthe post of organist in the Chapel Royal, London, and two years laterreceived the degree of Mus. Bac. Of Cambridge, while Oxford recognisedhis rare merits in 1622 by creating him a Mus. Doc. ; in the followingyear he became organist of Westminster Abbey, and in 1625 was in officialattendance at Canterbury on the occasion of Charles I. 's marriage, but hedid not live to celebrate the ceremony, for which he wrote the music; heis considered the last and greatest of the old Church musicians ofEngland (1583-1625). 

GIBEON, a place on the northern slopes of a hill 6 or 7 m. S. OfBethel, and the spot over which Joshua bade the sun stand still; itsinhabitants, for a trick they played on the invading Israelites, worecondemned to serve them as "hewers of wood and drawers of water. "

GIBRALTAR, a promontory of rock, in the S. Of Spain, about 2 m. Square and over 1400 ft. In height, connected with the mainland by a spitof sand, forming a strong fortress, with a town (25) of the name at thefoot of it on the W. Side, and with the Strait of Gibraltar on the S. , which at its narrowest is 15 m. Broad; the rock above the town is anetwork of batteries, mounted with heavy cannon, and the town itself is atrade entrepôt for N. Africa; the rock has been held as a stronghold bythe British since 1704. 

GIBSON, JOHN, sculptor, born at Gyffin, near Conway, Wales, ofhumble parentage; after serving an apprenticeship to a cabinet-maker inLiverpool, he took to carving in wood and stone, and supported by Roscoebecame a pupil of Canova and afterwards of Thorwaldsen in Rome; here hemade his home and did his best work; mention may be made of "Theseus andthe Robber, " "Amazon thrown from her horse, " statues of GeorgeStephenson, Peel, and Queen Victoria; in 1836 he was elected a member ofthe Royal Academy (1790-1866). 

GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER, politician, born at Trinidad; graduated atCambridge; entered Parliament in the Conservative interest, but becominga convert to Free-Trade principles, he went over to the Liberal ranks, and became an active and eloquent supporter of the Manchester policy;returned for Manchester in 1841 and 1846, was made a Privy Councillor andVice-President of the Board of Trade; his earnest advocacy of peace atthe Crimean crisis lost him his seat in Manchester, but Ashton-under-Lynereturned him the same year; under Palmerston he was for seven years(1859-66) President of the Board of Trade; his name is honourablyassociated with the repeal of the Advertisement, Newspaper Stamp, andPaper Duties; in 1868 he retired from public life (1806-1884). 

GIDEON, one of the most eminent of the Judges of Israel, famous forhis defeat of the Midianites at Gilboa, and the peace of 40 years'duration which it ensured to the people under his rule. 

GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON, historian, born at Berlin; was professorof History at Königsberg and at Münich; his chief work is "Geschichte derDeutschen Kaiserzeit" (1814-1889). 

GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG, a learned Church historian, born nearMinden; after quitting Halle University adopted teaching as a profession, but in 1813 served in the war against France; on the conclusion of thewar he held educational appointments at Minden; was nominated in 1819 tothe chair of Theology at Bonn, and in 1831 was appointed to a likeprofessorship in Göttingen; his great work is a "History of the Church"in 6 vols. (1793-1854). 

GIESSEN (21), the chief town of Hesse-Darmstadt, situated atthe confluence of the Wieseck and the Lahn, 40 m. N. OfFrankfort-on-the-Main; has a flourishing university, and variousmanufactories. 

GIFFORD, ADAM, LORD, a Scottish judge, born in Edinburgh; had alarge practice as a barrister, and realised a considerable fortune, whichhe bequeathed towards the endowment of four lectureships on NaturalTheology in connection with each of the four universities in Scotland;was a man of a philosophical turn of mind, and a student of Spinoza; heldoffice as a judge from 1870 to 1881 (1820-1887). 

GIFFORD, WILLIAM, an English man of letters, born in Ashburton, Devonshire; left friendless and penniless at an early age by the death ofhis parents, he first served as a cabin-boy, and subsequently for fouryears worked as a cobbler's apprentice; through the generosity of a localdoctor, and afterwards of Earl Grosvenor, he obtained a universitytraining at Oxford, where in 1792 he graduated; a period of travel on theContinent was followed in 1794 by his celebrated satire the "Baviad, " andin two years later by the "Mæviad"; his editorship of the _Anti-Jacobin_(1797-1798) procured him favour and office at the hands of the Tories;the work of translation, and the editing of Elizabethan poets, occupiedhim till 1809, when he became the first editor of the _Quarterly Review_;his writing is vigorous, and marked by strong partisanship, but hisbitter attacks on the new literature inaugurated by Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, and others reveal a prejudiced and narrow view of literature(1757-1826). 

GIGMAN, Carlyle's name for a man who prides himself on, and pays allrespect to, respectability; derived from a definition once given in acourt of justice by a witness who, having described a person asrespectable, was asked by the judge in the case what he meant by theword; "one that keeps a gig, " was the answer. 

GIL BLAS, a romance by Le Sage, from the name of the hero, acharacter described by Scott as honestly disposed, but beingconstitutionally timid, unable to resist temptation, though capable ofbrave actions, and intelligent, but apt to be deceived through vanity, with sufficient virtue to make us love him, but indifferent to ourrespect. 

GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY, navigator, born in Devonshire, half-brotherof Sir Walter Raleigh; in 1583 established a settlement in Newfoundland. 

GILBERT, SIR JOHN, English artist, President of the Royal Society ofWater-Colour Painters; was for long an illustrator of books, among thenumber an edition of Shakespeare; he was a Chevalier of the Legion ofHonour (1817-1897). 

GILBERT, WILLIAM SCHWENCK, barrister, notable as a play-writer andas the author of the librettos of a series of well-known popular comicoperas set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan; _b_. 1836. 

GILBERT ISLANDS, or KINGSMILL GROUP (37), a group of islands inthe Pacific, of coral formation, lying on the equator between 172° and177° E. Long; they are 16 in number, were discovered in 1788, and annexedby Britain in 1892. 

GILBOA, MOUNT, a range of hills on the SE. Of the Plain ofEsdraëlon, in Palestine, attaining a height of 1698 ft. 

GILCHRIST, ALEXANDER, biographer of WILLIAM BLAKE (q. V. ), born at Newington Green, son of a Unitarian minister; although called tothe bar, literary and art criticism became his main pursuit; settled atGuildford in 1853, where he wrote his Life of the artist Etty; became in1856 a next-door neighbour of Carlyle at Chelsea, and had all butfinished his Life of Blake when he died (1828-1861). --His wife, AnneGilchrist, née Burrows, was during her life an active contributor tomagazines; she completed her husband's Life of Blake, and in 1883published a Life of Mary Lamb (1828-1885). 

GILDAS, a monkish historian of Britain, who wrote in the 6th centurya Latin work entitled "De Excidio Britanniæ, " which afterwards appearedin two parts, a History and an Epistle. 

GILEAD, a tableland extending along the E. Of the Jordan, at ageneral level of 2000 ft. Above the sea, the highest point nearRamoth-Gilead being 3597 ft. 

GILES, ST. , the patron saint of cripples, beggars, and lepers; washimself a cripple, due to his refusal to be cured of a wound that hemight learn to mortify the flesh; was fed by the milk of a hind thatvisited him daily; had once at his monastery a long interview with St. Louis, without either of them speaking a word to the other. 

GILFILLAN, GEORGE, a critic and essayist, born at Comrie, ministerof a Dissenting congregation in Dundee from 1836 to his death; a writerwith a perfervid style; author of "Gallery of Literary Portraits, " "Bardsof the Bible, " etc. , and editor of Nichol's "British Poets, " whichextended to 48 vols. (1817-1878). 

GILLESPIE, GEORGE, a celebrated Scotch divine, born at Kirkcaldy;trained at St. Andrews, and ordained to a charge at Wemyss; in 1642 hewas called to Edinburgh, and in the following year appointed one of adeputation of four to represent Scotland at the Westminster Assembly; hischief work is "Aaron's Rod Blossoming, " a vigorous statement andvindication of his Presbyterianism; in 1648 he was Moderator of theGeneral Assembly (1613-1648). 

GILPIN, JOHN, a London citizen, on an adventure of whose life Cowperhas written a humorous poem. 

GILPIN, WILLIAM, OF BOLDRE, an English author, who by his series of"Picturesque Tours" exercised an influence on English literature similarto that of White's "Selborne, " at the same time (1724-1804). 

GILRAY, JAMES, English caricaturist, born in Chelsea; distinguishedfor his broad humour and keen satire; his works were numerous and highlypopular; died insane (1757-1815). 

GIOBERTI, VINCENZO, an Italian philosophical and political writer, born at Turin; in 1825 he was appointed to the chair of Theology in hisnative city, and in 1831 chaplain to the Court of Charles Albert ofSardinia; two years later was exiled on a charge of complicity in theplots of the Young Italy party, and till 1847 remained abroad, chiefly inBrussels, busy with his pen on literary, philosophical, and politicalsubjects; in 1848 he was welcomed back to Italy, and shortly afterwardsrose to be Prime Minister of a short-lived government; his later yearswere spent in diplomatic work at Paris; in philosophy he reveals Platonictendencies, while his political ideal was a confederated Italy, with thePope at the head and the king of Sardinia as military guardian(1801-1852). 

GIORDANO, LUCA, Italian painter, born at Naples; studied undervarious celebrated masters at Naples, Rome, Lombardy, and other places, finally returning to Naples; in 1692 he received a commission fromCharles II. Of Spain to adorn the Escurial, and in the execution of thiswork remained at Madrid till 1700, when he again settled in his nativecity; he was famous in his day for marvellous rapidity of workmanship, but this fluency combined with a too slavish adherence to the methods ofthe great masters has somewhat robbed his work of individuality; hisfrescoes in the Escurial at Madrid and others in Florence and Rome areesteemed his finest work (1632-1705). 

GIORGIONE (i. E. Great George), the sobriquet given to GiorgioBarbarella, one of the early masters of the Venetian school, born nearCastelfranco, in the NE. Of Italy; at Venice he studied under GiovanniBellini, and had Titian as a fellow-pupil; his portraits are among thefinest of the Italian school, and exhibit a freshness of colour andconception and a firmness of touch unsurpassed in his day; his works dealchiefly with scriptural and pastoral scenes, and include a "Holy Family"in the Louvre, "Virgin and Child" in Venice, and "Moses Rescued"(1447-1511). 

GIOTTO, a great Italian painter, born at a village near Florence;was a shepherd's boy, and at 10 years of age, while tending his flock anddrawing pictures of them, was discovered by Cimabue, who took him homeand made a pupil of him; "never, " says Ruskin, "checked the boy from thefirst day he found him, showed him all he knew, talked with him of manythings he himself felt unable to paint; made him a workman and agentleman, above all, a Christian, yet left him a shepherd. .. . Hisspecial character among the great painters of Italy was that he was apractical person; what others dreamt of he did; he could work in mosaic, could work in marble, and paint; could build . .. Built the Campanile ofthe Duomo, because he was then the best master of sculpture, painting, and architecture in Florence, and supposed in such business to be withouta superior in the world. .. . Dante was his friend and Titian copiedhim. .. . His rules in art were: You shall see things as they are; and theleast with the greatest, because God made them; and the greatest with theleast, because God made you, and gave you eyes and a heart; he threwaside all glitter and conventionality, and the most significant thing inall his work is his choice of moments. " Cimabue still painted the HolyFamily in the old conventional style, "but Giotto came into the field, and saw with his simple eyes a lowlier worth; and he painted the Madonna, St. Joseph, and the Christ, --yes, by all means if you choose to call themso, but essentially--Mamma, Papa, and the Baby; and all Italy threw upits cap" (1276-1336). See Ruskin's "Mornings in Florence. "

GIOTTO'S O, a perfectly round O, such as Giotto is said to have sentthe Pope in evidence of his ability to do some decorative work for hisHoliness. 

GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (i. E. Giraldus of Cambria), ecclesiastic andauthor, born in Pembrokeshire, of Norman descent; studied withdistinction in Paris; was a zealous churchman; obtained ecclesiasticalpreferment in England; was twice elected bishop of St. David's, but bothtimes set aside; travelled in Ireland as well as Wales, and left recordof his impressions, which give an entertaining picture and a valuableaccount of the times, though disfigured by credulity and personal vanity(1147-1223). 

GIRARD, STEPHEN, a philanthropist, born at Bordeaux; in early lifefollowed the career of a seaman and rose to be captain of an Americancoast-trader; in 1769 set up as a trader in Philadelphia, and in courseof time establishing a bank, accumulated an immense fortune; during hislifetime he exhibited a strange mixture of niggardliness, scepticism, public charitableness, and a philanthropy which moved him during ayellow-fever epidemic to labour as a nurse in the hospital; at his deathhe bequeathed $2, 000, 000 to found an orphanage for boys, attaching to thebequest the remarkable condition, that no clergyman should ever be on theboard or ever be permitted to enter the building (1750-1831). 

GIRARDIN, ÉMILE DE, journalist and politician, born in Switzerland, the natural son of General Alexandre de Girardin; took to stockbroking, but quitting it for journalism he soon established a reputation as aready, vivacious writer, and in 1836 started _La Presse_, the firstFrench penny paper; his rapid change of front in politics earned for himthe nickname of "The Weathercock"; latterly he adhered to the Republicancause, and founded _La France_ in its interest; he published manypolitical brochures and a few plays, and was for some years editor of _LaLiberté_ (1806-1881). --His wife, DELPHINE GAY, enjoyed a widecelebrity both as a beauty and authoress; her poems, plays, and novelsfill six vols. (1806-1881). 

GIRARDIN, FRANÇOIS SAINT-MARC, a French professor and littérateur, born at Paris; in 1827 was professor in the College Louis-le-Grand, andin 1834 was nominated to the chair of Literature in the Sorbonne; asleader-writer in the _Journal des Débats_ he vigorously opposed theDemocrats, and sat in the Senate from 1834 to 1848; in 1869, asSaint-Beuve's successor, he took up the editorship of the _Journal desSavants_, and in 1871 became a member of the National Assembly; hepublished his collected essays and also his popular literary lectures(1801-1873). 

GIRONDE (794), a maritime department in SW. France, facing the Bayof Biscay on the W. And lying N. And S. Between Charente-Inférieure andLandes; the Garonne and the Dordogne flowing through it form the Girondeestuary, and with their tributaries sufficiently water the undulatingland; agriculture and some manufactories flourish, but wine is the chiefproduct. 

GIRONDINS or GIRONDISTS, a party of moderate republicanopinions in the French Revolution; "men, " says Carlyle, "of fervidconstitutional principles, of quick talent, irrefragable logic, clearrespectability, who would have the reign of liberty establish itself, butonly by respectable methods. " The leaders of it were from the Girondedistrict, whence their name, were in succession members of theLegislative Body and of the Convention, on the right in the former, onthe left in the latter, and numbered among them such names as Condorcet, Brissot, Roland, Carnot, and others; they opposed the court and theclerical party, and voted for the death of the king, but sought to rescuehim by a proposal of appeal to the people; overpowered by the Jacobins inJune 1793, with whom they came to open rupture, they sought in vain toprovoke a rising in their favour; on October 24 they were arraignedbefore the Revolutionary tribunal, and on the 31st twenty-one of themwere brought to the guillotine, singing the "Marseillaise" as they wentand on the scaffold, while the rest, all to a few, perished later oneither the same way or by their own hands. 

GIRTIN, THOMAS, a landscape-painter, born in London; painted inwater-colour views of scenes near Paris and London; was a friend ofTurner (1773-1802). 

GIRTON COLLEGE, a celebrated college for women, founded in 1869 atHitchin, but since 1873 located at Girton, near Cambridge; the ordinarycourse extends to three years, and degree certificates of the standard ofthe Cambridge B. A. Are granted; the staff consists of a "head" and fiveresident lecturers, all women, but there is a large accession oflecturers from Cambridge; the students number upwards of 100, the fee forboard and education £35 per term. 

GIZEH or GHIZEH (11), a town in Egypt, on the Nile, oppositeOld Cairo, to which it is joined by a suspension bridge spanning theriver; in the neighbourhood are the Great Pyramids. 

GLACIER, a more or less snow-white mass of ice occupying an Alpinevalley and moving slowly down its bed like a viscous substance, being fedby semi-melted snow at the top called _nevé_ and forming streams at thebottom; it has been defined by Prof. J. D. FORBES (q. V. ) as "aviscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain inclination by themutual pressure of its parts"; in the Alps alone they number over 1000, have an utmost depth of 1500 ft. , and an utmost length of 12 m. 

GLADIATOR, one who fought in the arena at Rome with men or beastsfor the amusement of the people, originally in connection with funeralgames, under the belief, it is said, that the spirits of the dead wereappeased at the sight of blood; exhibitions of the kind were common underthe emperors, and held on high occasions; if the gladiator was wounded inthe contest, the spectators decided whether he was to live or die by, inthe former case, turning their thumbs downwards, and in the latterturning them upwards. 

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART, statesman, orator, and scholar, born atLiverpool, son of a Liverpool merchant, sometime of Leith, and of Ann, daughter of Andrew Robertson, Stornoway; educated at Eton and Oxford;entered Parliament in 1832 as member for Newark in the Tory interest;delivered his maiden speech on slavery emancipation on May 17, 1833;accepted office under Sir Robert Peel in 1834, and again in 1841 and1846; and as member for Oxford, separating from the Tory party, tookoffice under Lord Aberdeen, and in 1859, under Lord Palmerston, becameChancellor of the Exchequer; elected member for South Lancashire, 1865, he became leader of the Commons under Lord John Russell; elected forGreenwich, he became Premier for the first time in 1869, holding officetill 1875; after a brilliant campaign in Midlothian he was returned forthat county in 1880, and became Premier for the second time; becamePremier a third time in 1886, and a fourth time in 1892. During histenure of office he introduced and carried a great number of importantmeasures, but failed from desertion in the Liberal ranks to carry his petmeasure of Home Rule for Ireland, so he retired from office into privatelife in 1895; his last days he spent chiefly in literary work, the fruitof which, added to earlier works, gives evidence of the breadth of hissympathies and the extent of his scholarly attainments; but being seizedby a fatal malady, his strong constitution gradually sank under it, andhe died at Hawarden, May 19, 1898; he was buried in Westminster Abbey atthe expense of the nation and amid expressions of sorrow on the part ofthe whole community; he was a man of high moral character, transcendentability, and strong will, and from the day he took the lead theacknowledged chief of the Liberal party in the country (1809-1898). 

GLAISHER, JAMES, meteorologist and founder of the RoyalMeteorological Society, born in London; his first observations inmeteorology were done as an officer of the Irish Ordnance Survey; in1836, after service in the Cambridge Observatory, he went to Greenwich, and from 1840 to 1874 he superintended the meteorological department ofthe Royal Observatory; in connection with atmospheric investigations hemade a series of 28 balloon ascents, rising on one occasion to a heightof 7 m. , the greatest elevation yet attained: _b_. 1809. 

GLAMORGANSHIRE (687), a maritime county in S. Wales, fronting theBristol Channel, between Monmouth and Carmarthen; amid the hilly countryof the N. Lie the rich coal-fields and iron-stone quarries which havemade it by far the most populous and wealthiest county of Wales; the S. Country--the garden of Wales--is a succession of fertile valleys andwooded slopes; dairy-farming is extensively engaged in, but agricultureis somewhat backward; the large towns are actively engaged in thecoal-trade and in the smelting of iron, copper, lead, and tin; someinteresting Roman remains exist in the county. 

GLANVILL, JOSEPH, born at Plymouth, graduated at Oxford; was atfirst an Aristotelian and Puritan in his opinions, but after theRestoration entered the Church, and obtained preferment in various sees;his fame rests upon his eloquent appeal for freedom of thought in "TheVanity of Dogmatising" (1661) and upon his two works in defence of abelief in witches; he was one of the first Fellows of the Royal Society;he seems to have made Sir Thomas Browne his model, though he is not equalto him in the vigour of his thinking or the harmony of his style(1636-1680). 

GLANVILL, RANULF DE, Chief-Justiciary of England in the reign ofHenry II. , born at Stratford, in Suffolk; is the author of the earliesttreatise on the laws of England, a work in 14 books; was deposed byRichard I. , and, joining the Crusaders, fell before Acre; _d_. 1190. 

GLASGOW (815, including suburbs), the second city of the empire andthe chief centre of industry in Scotland, is situated on the Clyde, inLanarkshire, 45 m. W. From Edinburgh and 405 from London; it isconjectured that the origin of the name is found in Cleschu ("belovedgreen spot"), the name of a Celtic village which occupied the sitepreviously, near which St. Mungo, or Kentigern, erected his church aboutA. D. 560; although a royal burgh in 1636, it was not till after thestimulus to trade occasioned by the Union (1707) that it began to displayits now characteristic mercantile activity; since then it has goneforward by leaps and bounds, owing not a little of its success to itsexceptionally favourable situation; besides the advantages of waterwayderived from the Clyde, it is in the heart of a rich coal and irondistrict; spinning and weaving, shipbuilding, foundries, chemical andiron works, and all manner of industries, flourish; the city isspaciously and handsomely laid out; the cathedral (1197) is the chiefbuilding of historical and architectural interest; there is a university(1451) and a variety of other colleges, besides several public librariesand art schools; Glasgow returns seven members of Parliament. 

GLASSE, MRS. , authoress, real or fictitious, of a cookery book, oncein wide-spread repute; credited with the sage prescription, "First catchyour hare. "

GLASSITES, a Christian sect founded in Scotland about 1730 by JohnGlas (1695-1773), a minister of the Church of Scotland, who in 1730 wasdeposed for denouncing all national establishments of religion as"inconsistent with the true nature of the Church of Christ, " andmaintaining that a Church and its office-bearers owed allegiance to noneother than Christ; the sect, which developed peculiarities of doctrineand worship in conformity with those of the primitive Church, spread toEngland and America, where they became known as _Sandemanians_, afterRobert Sandeman (1718-1771), son-in-law to Glas, and his zealoussupporter. 

GLASTONBURY (4), an ancient town in Somersetshire, 36 m. S. OfBristol, on the Brue; it is associated with many interesting legends andhistorical traditions that point to its existence in very early times;thus it was the _Avalon_ of Arthurian legend, and the place where Josephof Arimathea, when he brought the Holy Grail, is said to have founded thefirst Christian Church; ruins are still extant of the old abbey foundedby Henry II. , which itself succeeded the ancient abbey of St. Dunstan(946); there is trade in gloves, mats, rugs, &c. 

GLEIN, LUDWIG, German lyric poet, known as Father Glein for theencouragement he gave to young German authors; composed war songs for thePrussian army (1719-1803). 

GLENCOE, a wild and desolate glen in the N. Of Argyllshire, runningeastward from Ballachulish 10 m. ; shut in by two lofty and ruggedmountain ranges; the Coe flows through the valley and enhances its lonelygrandeur. See following. 

GLENCOE, MASSACRE OF, a treacherous slaughter of the Macdonalds ofthat glen on the morning of 13th February 1691, to the number of 38, inconsequence of the belated submission of MacIan, the chief, to Williamand Mary after the Revolution; the perpetrators of the deed were a bodyof soldiers led by Captain Campbell, who came among the people asfriends, and stayed as friends among them for 12 days. 

GLENDOWER, OWEN, a Welsh chief and patriot, a descendant of the oldWelsh princes who stirred up a rebellion against the English under HenryIV. , which, with the help of the Percies of Northumberland and CharlesVI. Of France, he conducted with varied success for years, but eventualfailure (1349-1415). See Shakespeare's "Henry IV. "

GLENLIVET, a valley in Banffshire, through which the Livet Waterruns, about 20 m. SW. Of Huntly; famed for its whisky. 

GLENROY, a narrow glen 14 m. Long, in Inverness-shire, in theLochaber district; Fort William lies 13 m. NE. Of its SW. Extremity; theRoy flows through the valley; the steep sides are remarkable for threeregular and distinctly-formed shelves or terraces running parallel almostthe entire distance of the glen, the heights on either side exactlycorresponding; these are now regarded as the margins of a former lochwhich gradually sank as the barrier of glacial ice which dammed thewaters up slowly melted. 

GLOGAU (20), a town with a strong fortress in Silesia, on the Oder, 35 m. NW. Of Liegnitz; is a place of manufacture; was brilliantly takenby Frederick the Great in the Silesian War on the 9th March 1741 byscalade, in one hour, at the very break of day. 

GLOMMEN or STOR-ELV (i. E. Great River), the largest river inNorway; has its source in Lake Aursund, and, after a southward course of350 m. , broken by many falls, and for the most part unnavigable, discharges into the Skager Rack at Frederikstad. 

GLORIANA, Queen Elizabeth, represented in her capacity as sovereignin Spenser's "Faërie Queen. "

GLOUCESTER: 1 (39), the capital of Gloucestershire, on the Severn, 38 m. NE. Of Bristol; a handsomely laid out town, the main lines of itsground-plan testifying to its Roman origin; conspicuous among severalfine buildings is the cathedral, begun in 1088 (restored in 1853) andexhibiting features of Perpendicular and Norman architecture; the river, here tidal, is spanned by two stone bridges, and a flourishing commerceis favoured by fine docks and a canal; chemicals, soap, &c. , aremanufactured. 2 (25), a seaport of Massachusetts, U. S. , 30 m. NE. OfBoston; is a favourite summer resort, an important fishing-station, andhas an excellent harbour; granite is hewn in large quantities in theneighbouring quarries. 

GLOUCESTER, ROBERT OF, English chronicler; was a monk of GloucesterAbbey, and lived in the 13th century; his chronicle, which is in verse, traces the history of England from the siege of Troy to 1271, the yearbefore the accession of Edward I. 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE (600), a west midland county of England, whichtouches Warwick in the centre of the country, and extends SW. To theestuary of the Severn; it presents three natural and well-defineddistricts known as the Hill, formed by the Cotswold Hills in the E. ; theVale, through which the Severn runs, in the centre; the Forest of Dean(the largest in England) in the W. ; coal is wrought in two large fields, but agricultural and dairy-farming are the main industries; antiquitiesabound; the principal rivers are the Wye, Severn, Lower and Upper Avon, and Thames; BRISTOL (q. V. ) is the largest town. 

GLÜCK, CHRISTOPH VON, a German musical composer and reformer of theopera; made his first appearance in Vienna; studied afterwards for someyears under San-Martini of Milan, and brought out his first opera"Artaxerxes, " followed by seven others in the Italian style; invited toLondon, he studied Händel, attained a loftier ideal, and returned to theContinent, where, especially at Vienna and Paris, he achieved histriumphs, becoming founder of a new era in operatic music; in Paris hehad a rival in Piccini, and the public opinion was for a time divided, but the production by him of "Iphigénie en Aulide" established hissuperiority, and he carried off the palm (1714-1787). 

GNOMES, a set of imaginary beings misshapen in form and ofdiminutive size, viewed as inhabiting the interior of the earth andpresiding over its secret treasures. 

GNOSTICS, heretics, consisting of various sects that arose in theApostolic age of Christianity, and that sought, agreeably to thephilosophic opinions which they had severally embraced, to extract anesoteric meaning out of the letter of Scripture and the facts especiallyof the Gospel history, such as only those of superior speculative insightcould appreciate; they set a higher value on Knowledge (_gnosis_, whencetheir name) than Faith; thus their understanding of Christianity wasspeculative, not spiritual, and their knowledge of it the result ofthinking, not of life; like the Jews they denied the possibility of theWord becoming flesh and of a realisation of the infinite in the finite;indeed, Gnosticism was at once a speculative and a practical denial thatChrist was God manifest in the flesh, and that participation inChristianity was, as He presented it (John vi. 53), participation in Hisflesh. See CHRISTIANITY. 

GOA (495), a Portuguese possession in W. India, lying between theWestern Ghâts and the sea-coast, 250 m. SE. Of Bombay; large quantitiesof rice are raised in it; is hilly on the E. And covered with forests; itwas captured in 1510 by Albuquerque. Old Goa, the former capital, hasfallen from a populous and wealthy city into utter decay, its place beingtaken by Nova Goa or Panjim (8), on the Mandavi, 3 m. From the coast. 

GOBELINS, GILLES AND JEAN, brothers, celebrated dyers, who in the15th century introduced into France the art of dyeing in scarlet, subsequently adding on tapestry-weaving to their establishment; theirworks in Paris were taken over by government in Louis XIV. 's reign, andthe tapestry, of gorgeous design, then put forth became known asGobelins; Le Brun, the famous artist, was for a time chief designer, andthe tapestries turned out in his time have a world-wide celebrity; theworks are still in operation, and a second establishment, supported bygovernment, for the manufacture of Gobelins exists at Beauvais. 

GODAV`ARI, an important river of India, rises on the E. Side of W. Ghâts, traverses in a SE. Direction the entire Deccan, and forming alarge delta, falls into the Bay of Bengal by seven mouths after a courseof 900 m. ; its mighty volume of water supplies irrigating and navigablecanals for the whole Deccan; it is one of the 12 sacred rivers of India, and once in 12 years a bathing festival is celebrated on its banks. 

GODET, FREDERICK, Swiss theologian, born at Neuchâtel; becameprofessor of Theology there; author of commentaries on St. John's andLuke's Gospels and on the Epistles to the Romans and the Corinthians, along with other works; _b_. 1812. 

GODFREY OF BOUILLON, a renowned Crusader, eldest son of Eustace II. , Count of Boulogne; he served with distinction under the Emperor HenryII. , being present at the storming of Rome in 1084; his main title tofame rests on the gallantry and devotion he displayed in the firstCrusade, of which he was a principal leader; a series of victories led upto the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, and he was proclaimed "Defender andBaron of the Holy Sepulchre, " but declined to wear a king's crown in thecity where his Saviour had borne a crown of thorns; his defeat of thesultan of Egypt at Ascalon in the same year confirmed him in thepossession of Palestine (1061-1100). 

GODIVA, LADY, wife of Leofric, Earl of Mercia and Lord of Coventry, who pled in vain with her husband on behalf of the inhabitants of theplace for relief from heavy exactions he had laid upon them, till one dayhe relented and consented he would grant her prayer if she would ridethrough Coventry on horseback naked, which, with his leave, she at onceundertook to do, and did, not one soul of the place peering through tolook at her save Peeping Tom, who paid for his curiosity by being smittenthereafter with blindness. 

GODOLPHIN, SYDNEY GODOLPHIN, EARL OF, a celebrated English statesmanand financier, born at Godolphin Hall, near Helston, Cornwall; at 19 wasa royal page in the Court of Charles II. , and in 1678 engaged on apolitical mission in Holland; in the following year entered Parliamentand was appointed to a post in the Treasury, of which, five years later, he became First Commissioner, being at the same time raised to thepeerage; under James II, was again at the head of the Treasury, and atthe Revolution supported James, till the abdication, when he voted infavour of a regency; on the elevation of William to the throne wasimmediately reinstated at the Treasury, where he continued eight years, till the Whig ascendency brought about his dismissal; for six months in1700 he once more assumed his former post, and under Anne fulfilled theduties of Lord High-Treasurer from 1702 to 1710, administering thefinances with sagacity and integrity during the great campaigns of hisfriend Marlborough, and in 1706 he was created an Earl (1645-1712). 

GODOY, MANUEL DE, minister of Charles IV. Of Spain, born at Badajoz;played a conspicuous part in the affairs of Spain during the FrenchRevolution and the Empire; received the title of Prince of Peace for anoffensive and defensive treaty he concluded with France in 1796, inopposition to the general wish of the nation; lost all and died in Paris(1767-1851). 

GODWIN, Earl of the West Saxons, a powerful English noble of the11th century and father of Harold II. ; first comes into prominence in thereign of Cnut; was created an earl previous to 1018, and shortlyafterwards became related to the king by marriage; he was a zealoussupporter of Harthacnut in the struggle which followed the demise ofCnut; subsequently was instrumental in raising Edward the Confessor tothe throne, to whom he gave his daughter Edith in marriage; continued forsome years virtual ruler of the kingdom, but in 1051 his opposition tothe growing Norman influence brought about his banishment and theconfiscation of his estates; in 1052 he returned to England and wasreceived with so great popular acclaim that the king was forced torestore to him his estates and offices; _d_. 1054. 

GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, an English authoress, and first topublicly assert the Rights of Women, born at Hoxton, of humble Irishparentage; at 19 she began to support herself by teaching, and continuedto do so till 1788, when she established herself in London to push herway as a writer, having already published "Thoughts on the Education ofDaughters"; in 1791 she replied to Burke's "Reflections, " and in thefollowing year appeared her famous "Vindication of the Rights of Women";while in Paris in 1793 she formed a _liaison_ with an American, CaptainImlay, whose cruel desertion of her two years later induced her toattempt suicide by drowning; in 1796 she became attached to WilliamGodwin, a friend of five years' standing, and with him lived for somemonths, although, in accord with their own pronounced opinions, nomarriage ceremony had been performed; in deference to the opinions ofothers, however, they departed from this position, and a marriage wasduly celebrated five months before the birth of their daughter Mary(Shelley's second wife); contemporary opinion shows her to have beengenerous and gentle of nature, and animated throughout by a noble zealfor the welfare of humanity (1759-1797). 

GODWIN, WILLIAM, a political writer and novelist, the son of aPresbyterian minister, born at Wisbeach, Somersetshire; was educated forthe Church, and was for five years in the ministry; during this periodhis opinions on politics and religion underwent a radical change, andwhen in 1787 he threw up his holy office to engage in literature, he hadbecome a republican in the one and a free-thinker in the other; variousworks had come from his pen, including three novels, before hiscelebrated "Political Justice" appeared in 1793, "Caleb Williams, " anovel, and his best-known work, being published in the following year; in1797 he married Mary Wollstonecraft (_See_ preceding), who died the sameyear, and four years later he married a widow, Mrs. Clement; to the closeof his long life he was a prolific writer on literary, historical, andpolitical subjects, but his carelessness and lack of business habits lefthim little profit from all his literary activity; his writings are clearand vigorous in the expression, if visionary and impracticable in theory(1756-1836). 

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON, a great poet and wise man, thegreatest, it is alleged, the world has seen since Shakespeare left it, and who, being born in Frankfort-on-the-Main 10 years before RobertBurns, died in the small duchy of Weimar the same year as Sir WalterScott; was the son of an imperial chancellor, a formal man and hispedagogue in boyhood, and of Elizabeth Textor, daughter of the chiefmagistrate of the city, a woman of bright intelligence, who was onlyeighteen at the time of his birth. Spiritually and bodily he was the mostperfectly formed, symetrically proportioned, justly balanced, andcompletely cultivated man perhaps that ever lived, whose priceless valueto the world lies in this, that in his philosophy and life there is foundthe union in one of what to smaller people appears entirely andabsolutely antagonistic, of utmost scientific scepticism and highestspiritual faith and worth. "He was filled full with the scepticism, bitterness, hollowness, and thousandfold contradictions of his time, tillhis heart was like to break; yet he subdued all this, rose victoriousover this, and manifoldly, by word and act, showed others that came afterhow to do the like. " Carlyle, who is never done recalling his worth, confesses an indebtedness to him--which he found it beyond his power toexpress: "It was he, " he writes to Emerson, "that first proclaimed to me(convincingly, for I saw it _done_): 'behold, even in this scandalousSceptico-Epicurean generation, when all is gone but hunger and cant, itis still possible that Man be Man. '" "He was, " says he, "king of himselfand his world;. .. His faculties and feelings were not fettered orprostrated under the iron sway of Passion, but led and guided in kindlyunion under the mild sway of Reason; as the fierce primeval elements ofchaos were stilled at the coming of Light, and bound together, under itssoft vesture, into a glorious and beneficent Creation. " His life lieslatent in his successive works, above all in "Goetz, " in "Werter, " in"Faust, " and in "Meister"; but as these have not been duly read it hasnot yet been duly written, though an attempt is being made to do so inthe said connection. Of the last of the four works named, Carlyle, whohas done more than any one else yet to bring Goethe near us, once said, "There are some ten pages of that book that, if ambition had been myobject, I would rather have written than all the literature of my time. ""One counsel, " says Carlyle, "he has to give, the secret of his wholepoetic alchemy, 'Think of living! Thy life is no idle dream, but a solemnreality. It is thy own, it is all thou hast to front eternity with. '""Never thought on thinking, " he has said, _Nie ans Denken gedacht_. "Whata thrift, " exclaims Carlyle, "of faculty here!" Some think he had oneweakness: he lived for culture, believed in culture, irrespective of thefact and the need of individual regeneration. And Emerson, who afterwardsin his "Representative Men" did Goethe full justice, in introducing himas, if not a world-wise man, at all events as a world-related, oncecomplained that "he showed us the _actual_ rather than the _ideal_. " Towhich Carlyle answered, "That is true; but it is not the whole truth. Theactual well seen _is_ the ideal. The actual, what really is and exists;the past, the present, and the future do all lie _there_" (1749-1832). 

GOETZ VON BERLICHINGEN (of the Iron Hand), a German knight of the16th century; was involved in turbulent movements, and lost his righthand at the siege of Landshut, which he replaced by one of his owninvention made of steel; spent his life in feuds, and left anautobiography which interested Goethe, who dramatised his story, "tosave, " as he said, "the memory of a brave man from darkness, " a dramathat had the honour of being translated by Sir Walter Scott. 

GOG AND MAGOG, names that occur in the Bible of foes of Israel, anddesignative in the Apocalypse of enemies of the kingdom of God, as alsoof a Scythian tribe N. Of the Caucasus. The names are applied likewise totwo giants, survivors of a race found in Britain by Brute of Troy, effigies of whom stood at the Guildhall Gate, symbolic defenders of thecity. 

GOGOL, NICOLAI VASILIEVITCH, a popular Russian novelist, born inPoltava; in 1829 he started as a writer in St. Petersburg, but met withlittle success till the appearance of his "Evenings in a Farm nearDikanka"; the success of the included sketches of provincial life inducedhim to produce a second series in 1834, which are characterised by thesame freshness and fidelity to nature; in 1837 appeared his masterpiece"Dead Souls, " in which all his powers of pathos, humour, and satire areseen at their best; for some time he tried public teaching, beingprofessor of History at St. Petersburg, and from 1836 to 1846 livedchiefly at Rome; many of his works, which rank beside those of Puschkinand Turgenieff, are translated into English (1809-1852). 

GOLCONDA, a fortified town in the Nizam's dominions, 7 m. W. OfHyderabad; famous for its diamonds, found in the neighbourhood; beside itare the ruins of the ancient city, the former capital of the old kingdom;the fort is garrisoned, and is the treasury of the Nizam; it is also aState prison. 

GOLD COAST (1, 475, of whom 150 are Europeans), a British crowncolony on the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, with a coast-line of 350 m. ;from the low and marshy foreshore the country slopes upward and inward toAshanti; the climate is very unhealthy; palm-oil, india-rubber, golddust, &c. , are exported; Cape Coast Castle is the capital. 

GOLDEN AGE, the age of happy innocence under the reign of Cronos orSaturn, in which, as fabled, the earth yielded all fulness without toil, and every creature lived at peace with every other; the term is appliedto the most flourishing period in the history of a nation. SeeAGES. 

GOLDEN ASS, a romance of APULEIUS (q. V. ). 

GOLDEN BULL, an Imperial edict, issued by the Emperor Charles IV. , which determined the law in the matter of the Imperial elections, andthat only one member of each electoral house should have a vote; socalled from the gold case enclosing the Imperial seal attached. 

GOLDEN FLEECE, the fleece of a ram which PHRYXOS (q. V. ), after he had sacrificed him to Zeus, gave to Æëtes, king of Colchis, whohung it on a sacred oak, and had it guarded by a monstrous dragon, andwhich it was the object of the Argonautic expedition under Jason torecover and bring back to Greece, an object which they achieved. SeeARGONAUTS. 

GOLDEN FLEECE, ORDER OF THE, an order of knighthood founded byPhilip III. , Duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands in 1429, and institutedfor the protection of the Church. 

GOLDEN HORN, the inlet on which Constantinople is situated. 

GOLDEN LEGEND, a collection of lives of saints and other tales, suchas that of the "Seven Sleepers" and "St. George and the Dragon, " made inthe 13th century by Jacques de Voragine, a Dominican monk, to the gloryespecially of his brotherhood. 

GOLDEN ROSE, a cluster of roses on a thorny stem, all of gold;perfumed, and blessed by the Pope on the fourth Sunday in Lent, and sentto a prince who has during the year shown most zeal for the Church. 

GOLDONI, CARLO, the founder of Italian comedy, born at Venice; inhis youth he studied medicine and subsequently law, but in 1732 appearedas a dramatist with his tragedy "Belisario"; moving from place to placeas a strolling-player, he in 1736 returned to Venice, and finding histrue vocation in comedy-writing, turned out a rapid succession ofsparkling character plays after the manner of Molière; in 1761 he went toParis as a playwright to the Italian theatre; became Italian master toLouis XV. 's daughters, and subsequently was pensioned; his comediesdisplaced the burlesques and farces till then in vogue on the stage inItaly (1707-1793). 

GOLDSCHMIDT, MADAME. See LIND, JENNY. 

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER, English man of letters, born at Pallas orPallasmore, co. Longford, Ireland, and celebrated in English literatureas the author of the "Vicar of Wakefield"; a born genius, but of carelessways, and could not be trained to any profession, either in the Church, in law, or in medicine, though more or less booked for all three insuccession; set out on travel on the Continent without a penny, andsupported himself by his flute and other unknown means; came to London, tried teaching, then literature, doing hack-work, his first work in thatdepartment being "An Inquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning inEurope, " which was succeeded by his "Citizen of the World"; became amember of the "Literary Club, " and associated with Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, and others; produced poems, "The Traveller" and the "DesertedVillage, " besides comedies, such as "She Stoops to Conquer"; livedextravagantly, and died in debt; wrote histories of Greece and Rome, and"Animated Nature"; was a charming writer (1728-1774). 

GOLF, a game played with a bent club and a small ball on commonswith short grass, in which the player who drives the ball into asuccession of small holes in the ground, usually 18, with the feweststrokes, or who reckons up the most holes in the round by taking themwith the fewest strokes, is the winner; an old popular Scotch game, andfirst introduced into English on Blackheath by James I. , which has oflate years been revived, and in connection with which clubs haveestablished themselves far and wide over the globe, even at Bagdad. 

GOLIATH, a Philistine giant of Gath slain by David with pebbles froma brook by a sling (1 Sam. Xvii. ). 

GOMARISTS, a sect of Calvinists in Holland, so called from theirleader Gomarus (1563-1641), a bitter enemy of ARMINIUS (q. V. ). 

GONCOURT, EDMOND AND JULES DE, French novelists, born, the former atNancy, the latter at Paris; a habit of elaborate note-taking whilst onsketching tours first drew the brothers towards literature, andinoculated them with the habit of minute and accurate observation whichgave value to their subsequent writings; their first real venture was aseries of historical studies, designed to reproduce with everyelaboration of detail French society in the later half of the 18thcentury, including a "History of French Society during the Revolution";later they found their true province in the novel, and a series ofstriking works of fiction became the product of their joint labours, works which have influenced subsequent novelists not a little; "LesHommes de Lettres" (1860) was the first of these, and "Madame Gervaisais"(1869) is perhaps their best; their collaboration was broken in 1870 bythe death of Jules; but Edmond still continued to write, and producedamongst other novels "La Fille Élisa"; the "Journal" of the brothersappeared in 1888 in six vols. (Edmond, 1822-1888; Jules, 1830-1870). 

GONDAR (4), a once populous city and the capital of AMHARA(q. V. ), situated on a basaltic ridge in the Wogra Mountains, 23 m. N. Of Lake Tzana; there are ruins of an old castle, churches and mosques, and establishments for the training of Abyssinian priests. 

GONERAL, an unnatural daughter of King Lear. 

GONSALEZ, a Spanish hero of the 10th century, celebrated for hisadventures, and whose life was twice saved by his wife. 

GONZAGA, the name of a princely family from Germany, settled inMantua, from which the dukes were descended who ruled the territory from1328 to 1708. 

GONZALVO DI CORDOVA (the popular name of Gonzalo Hernandez yAguilar), a renowned Spanish soldier, born at Montilla, near Cordova; hefirst became prominent in the wars with the Moors of Granada and withPortugal, and was rewarded with an estate and pensioned; in 1498 he sodistinguished himself in assisting the king of Naples (Ferdinand II. ) todrive out the French that he became known henceforth as _El GranCapitan_, and was created Duke of San Angelo; subsequent heroicachievements in Naples, which won the kingdom for Spain (1503), roused afeeling of jealousy in the Spanish king, so that Gonzalvo was recalledand ill-requited for his great services (1453-1515). 

GOOD FRIDAY, the Friday before Easter, held sacred from early timesby the Church in commemoration of the crucifixion of Christ, observedoriginally with fasting and prayer. 

GOOD REGENT, the REGENT MURRAY (q. V. ). 

GOOD TEMPLARS, a total abstinence fraternity organised in New Yorkin 1851, which has lodges, subordinate, district, and grand, now all overthe world; they exact a pledge of lifelong abstinence, and advocate thesuppression of the vice by statute; there is a juvenile section pledgedto abstinence from tobacco, gambling, and bad language, as well as drink. 

GOODFELLOW, ROBIN, a merry domestic spirit, full of tricks andpractical jokes, and a constant attendant upon the English fairy court. 

GOODMAN OF BALLENGEICH, a name assumed by James V. Of Scotland inhis disguised perambulations about Edinburgh o' nights. 

GOODSIR, JOHN, eminent Scotch anatomist, born at Anstruther; wastrained at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, in which latter city he served anapprenticeship in dentistry; he settled in Anstruther and there wrote hisnoted essay on "Teeth"; in 1840 he became keeper of the museum of theRoyal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, and lecturer on Diseases of theBone in 1842; four years later he succeeded Dr. Monro in the chair ofAnatomy in Edinburgh University, which he adorned, having for some timepreviously acted as assistant (1814-1867). 

GOODWIN SANDS, a famous sandbank stretching 10 m. Along the E. Coastof Kent, about 5½ m. From the shore; with the flowing of the tidalcurrent the hidden sands are apt to shift and change their outline, andwhen storms of great violence sweep over them, despite their being wellmarked by four lightships and nine buoys, they have often been theoccasion of a long series of melancholy shipwrecks; the shoal forms asplendid breakwater for the Downs, an excellent anchorage, stretchingbetween the Goodwins and the shore; they are supposed popularly to be theremnants of an estate which belonged to the great EARL OF GODWIN(q. V. ), but this supposition is a mere fable. 

GOODY TWO SHOES, a character in a nursery story published in 1765, and supposed to have been written by Goldsmith when in straits. 

GOODYEAR, CHARLES, the inventor of vulcanised rubber, born at NewHaven, Connecticut; his career was a troubled one; he failed as aniron-founder, and when, after 10 years labour, amidst every disadvantageof poverty and privation, he in 1844 produced his new method of hardeningrubber by means of sulphur, he became involved in a fresh series oftroubles, as well as poverty, consequent on the infringement of hisinventions; his patents latterly amounted to 60, and medals and honours, were awarded him both in London and Paris (1800-1860). 

GOORKHAS or GURKHAS, a brave and powerful native race in Nepalclaiming Hindu descent; in 1814 they were subdued by the British, andhave since rendered valuable service to Britain in the Mutiny, in theAfghan and in the Sikh Wars; there are now ten regiments of Goorkhas. 

GORDIAN KNOT, a knot by which the yoke was fastened to the beam ofthe chariot of Gordius (q. V. ), and which no one could untie except theman who was destined to be the conqueror of Asia; Alexander the Greatbeing ambitious to achieve this feat, tried hard to undo it, but failing, cut it with his sword and marched on to conquest. 

GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman Emperors, father, son, andgrandson. MARCUS ANTONIUS GORDIANUS, surnamed Africanus, rose to bean ædile, consul twice, and subsequently became proconsul of Africa; onthe deposition of the Emperor Maximinus in 238, he, then in his eightiethyear, was proclaimed emperor, his son (_b_. A. D. 192) being associatedwith him in the imperial office; grief at the death of his son, killed inbattle, caused him to commit suicide a month after he had assumed thepurple; he was a man of refined and generous nature. MARCUS ANTONIUSGORDIANUS, grandson of preceding, was early raised to the dignity ofCæsar, and in 238 rose to the rank of Augustus; his most importantachievement was his driving back of the Persians beyond the Euphrates andhis relief of Antioch; he was assassinated in 244 by his own soldierswhile preparing to cross the Euphrates. 

GORDIUS, a boor, the father of Midas (q. V. ), who was proclaimedking of Phrygia because he happened, in response to the decree of anoracle, to be the first to ride into Gordium during a particular assemblyof the people; he rode into the city on a waggon, to which the yoke wasattached by the Gordian knot, and which he dedicated to Zeus. 

GORDON, GENERAL CHARLES GEORGE, born at Woolwich, son of anartillery officer; entered the Royal Engineers; served in the Crimea asan officer in that department, and was, after the war, employed indefining the boundaries of Asiatic Turkey and Russia; being employed in1860 on a mission to square up matters with the Chinese, on thesettlement of the quarrel lent himself to the Emperor in the interest ofgood order, and it was through him that the Taiping Rebellion in 1863-64was extinguished, whereby he earned the title of "Chinese" Gordon; hereturned to England in 1865, and was for the next six years engaged incompleting the defences of the Thames at Gravesend; he was Vice-Consul ofthe delta of the Danube during 1871-73, at the end of which term heconducted an expedition into Africa under the Khedive of Egypt, and wasin 1877 appointed governor of the Soudan, in which capacity, by theconfidence his character inspired, he succeeded in settling no end oftroubles and allaying lifelong feuds; he relinquished this post in 1880, and in 1884, the English Government having resolved to evacuate theSoudan, he was commissioned to superintend the operation; he started offat once, and arrived at Khartoum in February of that year, where, by theend of April, all communication between him and Cairo was cut off; anexpedition was fitted out for his relief, but was too late in arriving, the place was stormed by the Arabs, and he with his comrades fell deadunder a volley of Arab musketry, January 28; from the commencement to theclose of his career he distinguished himself as a genuine Christian and abrave man (1833-1885). 

GORDON, LORD GEORGE, Anti-Papal agitator, born in London, son of theDuke of Gordon; he adopted the navy as a profession, and rose to belieutenant; entered Parliament, and soon made himself conspicuous by hisindiscriminate attacks on both Whigs and Tories; gave a passionatesupport to the London Protestant Association formed for the purpose ofbringing about the repeal of the Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1778; in1780, as President of the Association, took the leading part in thefamous No Popery riots in London; was tried but acquitted, mainly throughthe eloquent defence of Erskine; subsequently he was excommunicated forcontempt of court, and eventually, after endeavouring to escapeprosecution for two treasonable pamphlets, was apprehended, and died inNewgate (1751-1793). 

GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON, a portrait-painter, born in Edinburgh; wasa pupil of Raeburn's, and his successor as a painter of portraits;executed portraits of most of the eminent Scotchmen of his time, andamong the number Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Buccleuch, Lord Cockburn, Dr. Chalmers, and Professor Wilson (1788-1864). 

GORE, CHARLES, canon of Westminster, a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, is an exponent of High Church tenets; the editor of _Lux Mundi_, and the author of the Bampton Lecture for 1891, on "The Incarnation ofthe Son of God"; _b_. 1853. 

GÖRGEI, ARTHUR, a Hungarian patriot; at the age of 27 entered thearmy, and designed to devote himself to the study of chemistry and theadministration of his estate; but on the outbreak of the Revolution in1848 he joined the revolutionists; crushed the Croatians at Ozora; at thehead of a patriot army faced the Austrians under Windischgrätz on thewestern frontier, and despite a temporary repulse, succeeded in assertingthe supremacy of the Hungarian cause in a series of victories; Russianassistance accorded to Austria, however, changed the fortune of war;Kossuth resigned, and Görgei became dictator; but hopeless of success, heimmediately negotiated a peace with the Russians; in 1851 he published avindication of his policy and surrender, and in 1885 was exonerated byhis compatriots from the charges of treachery brought against him byKossuth; _b_. 1818. 

GORGIAS, a celebrated Greek sophist, born at Syracuse, in Sicily;settled in Athens, a swashbuckler of a man, who attached himself to theELEATICS (q. V. ), and especially Zeno, in order that by theirdialectic "he might demonstrate that nothing exists, or if somethingexists, that it cannot be known, or if it can be known, that it cannot becommunicated"; his work bore characteristically enough the title "Of theNon-Existent, or of Nature"!

GORGONS, three sisters, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheino, with hissingserpents on their heads instead of hair, of whom Medusa, the only onethat was mortal, had the power of turning into stone any one who lookedon her. See PERSEUS. 

GORHAM, GEORGE CORNELIUS, an English ecclesiastic; being presentedto the vicarage of Bramford Speke, N. Devon, was refused institution byDr. Philpotts, the bishop of Exeter, because he was unsound in the matterof baptismal regeneration, upon which he appealed to the Court of Arches, which confirmed the bishop's decision, but the sentence of the court wasreversed by the Privy Council, and institution granted (1787-1857). 

GÖRLITZ (62), a fortified town in Prussian Silesia, 52 m. W. OfLiegnitz, on the Meuse, where JACOB BOEHME (q. V. ) lived anddied. 

GORTSCHAKOFF, MICHAEL, Russian general, brother of the succeeding;served in the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828-1829; commanded inthe Danubian Principalities in 1853; distinguished himself in the defenceof Sebastopol (1795-1861). 

GORTSCHAKOFF, PRINCE, an eminent Russian general; was engaged inFinland in 1809, in the Turkish War in 1810, in the French War 1812-14, and the Crimean War (1789-1866). 

GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM, English statesman, born in London; enteredParliament in the Liberal interest in 1863; served in office under LordJohn Russell and Mr. Gladstone; was opposed to Home Rule, joined theLiberal-Unionist party and holds office under Lord Salisbury as FirstLord of the Admiralty; _b_. 1831. 

GOSHEN, a fertile district along a branch of the Nile, in theeastern part of the delta of Lower Egypt; assigned by Pharaoh to thechildren of Israel when they came to sojourn in the land. 

GOSPELS, the name by which the four accounts in the New Testament ofthe character, life, and teaching of Christ are designated; have beenknown since as early as the 3rd century, of which the first three arecalled "Synoptic, " because they are summaries of the chief events, and goover the same ground in the history, while the author of the fourthgospel follows lines of his own; the former aim mainly at mere narrative, while the object of the latter is dogmatic, as well as probably to supplydeficiencies in the former; moreover, the interest of John's accountcentres in the person of Christ and that of the others in His gospel; thewriters were severally represented as attended, Matthew by a man, Mark bya lion, Luke by an ox, and John by an eagle. 

GOSPORT (25), a fortified port and market-town in Hants, on the W. Side of Portsmouth harbour, opposite Portsmouth, with which it isconnected by a floating bridge; its industries embrace flourishingiron-works, barracks, the Royal Clarence Victualling Yard, and Haslarshipyard for the repair of gunboats. 

GOSSE, EDMUND, poet, essayist, and critic, born in London, the sonof the succeeding; author of "History of Eighteenth Century Literature, "a collection of lyrics, and a series of monographs, in particular "Lifeof Gray"; _b_. 1849. 

GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY, naturalist, horn at Worcester, in business inNewfoundland, Canada, and the United States; spent his leisure hours inthe study of natural history, chiefly insects; after a visit of two yearsto Jamaica wrote an account of its birds; compiled several worksintroductory to the study of animal life, and latterly devoted himself tothe study of marine animals (1810-1888). 

GOTHA (30), northern capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha andseat of the reigning prince, the present Duke of Edinburgh, situated onthe Leine Canal, 6 m. From the northern border of the Thuringian Forest;is picturesquely laid out, and has considerable manufactures, the famousPerthes' geographical publishing-house; Friedenstein Castle, the ducalresidence, built in 1643, has a library of 200, 000 vols. And 6000 MSS. 

GOTHAM, a village of N. Nottinghamshire, the natives of which weremade a laughing-stock of for their foolish sayings and doings, aninstance of the latter being their alleged joining hand in hand round abush to hedge in a cuckoo. 

GOTHAMITES, American cockneys, New York being called Gotham. 

GOTHARD, ST. , the central mountain mass (9850 ft. High) of theMiddle Alps and core of the whole Alpine system; it forms a watershed forrivers flowing in four different directions, including the Rhône and theRhine; the famous pass (6936 ft. ) from Lake Lucerne to Lake Maggioreforms an excellent carriage-way, has two hotels and a hospice at itssummit; on the lower slopes is the St. Gothard railway (opened 1882), with its celebrated tunnel (9¼ m. ), the longest in the world. 

GOTHENBURG (109), the second town of Sweden, at the mouth of theGotha, 284 m. SW. Of Stockholm, is a clean and modernly built town, intersected by several canals; it has a splendid harbour, and one of thefinest botanical gardens in Europe; its industries include shipbuilding, iron-works, sugar-refining, and fisheries; its licensing system hasbecome famous; all shops for the sale of liquor are in the hands of acompany licensed by government; profits beyond a five per cent. Dividendto the shareholders are handed over to the municipality. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, a varied style of architecture distinguished byits high and sharply-pointed arches, clustered columns, which had itsorigin in the Middle Ages, and prevailed from the 12th to the 15thcenturies, though the term Gothic was originally applied to it asindicating a _barbarous_ degeneracy from the _classic_, which itsuperseded. 

GOTHLAND: 1 (2, 595), the southernmost of the three old provinces ofSweden; chiefly mountainous, but with many fertile spaces; forest andlake scenery give a charm to the landscape; Gothenburg is the chief town. 2 (51), a Swedish island in the Baltic, 44 m. E. Of the mainland, area1217 sq. M. ; forms, with other islands, the province of Gothland orWisby; agriculture, fishing, and shipping are the main industries; Wisbyis the chief town (also called Gottland). 

GOTHS, a tribe of Teutons who in formidable numbers invaded theRoman empire from the east and north-east from as early as the thirdcentury, and though they were beaten back at the battle of Châlons, eventually broke it up. 

GOTTFRIED VON STRASBURG, a medieval German poet and one of thefamous _minnesingers_; flourished in Strasburg at the close of the 12thcentury and beginning of the 13th; his great poem "Tristan und Isolde, "completed in 1210, extends to 19, 552 lines, and has a grace and freshnesssuggestive of Chaucer. 

GÖTTINGEN (24), an ancient Hanoverian town, prettily situated in thevalley of the Leine, 50 m. S. Of Hanover; is chiefly noteworthy onaccount of its university (1734), with its library of 500, 000 vols. And5000 MSS. ; the students exceed 800, and are instructed by 120 professors;there is a flourishing book-trade. 

GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, a German literary notability, born nearKönigsberg, professor of philosophy and belles-lettres at Leipzig; wasthroughout his life the literary dictator of Germany; did much tovindicate the rights and protect the purity of the German tongue, as wellas to improve the drama, but he wrote and patronised a style of writingthat was cold, stiff, and soulless (1700-1766). 

GOUGH, HUGH, VISCOUNT, a distinguished English general, born atWoodstown, in Limerick; he first saw service at the Cape and in the WestIndies; afterwards fought with distinction in the Peninsular war;subsequently, as major-general, he took part in the Indian campaign of1827, and in 1840 commanded the forces in China; during seven years(1843-50) he was commander-in-chief of the Indian army, and carriedthrough successfully the Sikh Wars, which added the Punjab to the Britishdominions; in 1849 he was created a viscount, and a field-marshal in 1862(1779-1869). 

GOUGH, J. B. , temperance orator, born in Kent; bred a bookbinder;early a victim to intemperance; took the pledge in 1842, and became aneloquent and powerful advocate of the temperance cause both in Englandand America (1817-1886). 

GOUJON, JEAN, a celebrated French sculptor and architect, born atParis; he did the reliefs on the Fountain of the Innocents and the façadeof the old Louvre; was a Huguenot, but died before the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. 

GOULD, JOHN, eminent ornithologist, born at Lyme Regis, Devonshire;his works are entitled "A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, ""The Birds of Europe, " "The Birds of Australia, " "The Birds of Asia, ""The Birds of Great Britain, " and "Humming-Birds, " of which last he hadan almost complete collection, only one wanting; the volumes in whichthese works were published were large folios and very expensive, withcoloured illustrations of the birds described, the whole done under Mr. Gould's own eye, and in many cases by his own hand (1804-1881). 

GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, an eminent French composer, born at Paris;a prize gained at the Paris Conservatoire followed by a governmentpension enabled him to continue his studies at Rome, where he gavehimself chiefly to the study of religious music; the "Messe Solenelle"was published on his return to Paris; turning his attention to opera heproduced "Sappho" in 1851, a popular comic opera "Le Médecin malgré lui"in 1858, and a year later his famous setting of "Faust, " which placed himin the front rank of composers; other operas followed, with variousmasses, anthems, hymns, &c. ; his oratorio "Redemption, " perhaps hismasterpiece, appeared in 1882 (1818-1893). 

GOVAN (63), a town in Lanarkshire, Scotland, on S. Bank of theClyde, virtually a western suburb of Glasgow; the staple industry isshipbuilding. 

GOW, NATHANIEL, youngest son of Neil, won celebrity as a composer ofsongs and other pieces; his 200 compositions include the popular "CallerHerrin'" (1766-1831). 

GOW, NEIL, a famous Scotch fiddler, born at Inver, near Dunkeld, oflowly origin; during his long life he enjoyed a wide popularity amongstthe Scotch nobility, his especial patron being the Duke of Atholl;Raeburn painted his portrait on several occasions; he composed over ahundred strathspeys, laments, &c. , giving a fresh impulse and characterto Scotch music, but his fame rests mainly on his violin playing(1727-1807). 

GOWER, JOHN, an English poet, contemporary and friend of Chaucer, but of an older school; was the author of three works: "SpeculumMeditantis, " the "Thinker's Mirror, " written in French, lost for long, but recovered lately; "Vox Clamantis, " the "Voice of One Crying, " writtenin Latin, an allegorising, moralising poem, "cataloguing the vice of thetime, " and suggested by the Wat Tyler insurrection, 1381; and "ConfessioAmantis, " "Confession of a Lover, " written in English, treating of thecourse of love, the morals and metaphysics of it, illustrated by aprofusion of apposite tales; was appropriately called by Chaucer the"moral Grower"; his tomb is in St. Mary's, Southwark (1325-1408). 

GOWKTHRAPPLE, a "pulpit-drumming" Covenanter preacher in "Waverley, "described by Scott as in his own regard a "chosen vessel. "

GOWRIE CONSPIRACY, a remarkable and much disputed episode in thereign of James VI. Of Scotland; the story goes that Alexander Ruthven andhis brother, the Earl of Gowrie, enticed the king to come to Gowrie Housein Perth on the 5th August 1600 for the purpose of murdering orkidnapping him, and that in the scuffle Ruthven and Gowrie perished. Historians have failed to trace any motive incriminating the brothers, while several good reasons have been brought to light why the king mighthave wished to get rid of them. 

GOZO (17), an island in the Mediterranean which, together with Maltaand Comino, forms a British crown colony; lies 4 m. NW. Of Malta. Babatois the chief town. 

GOZZI, COUNT CARLO, Italian dramatist, born at Venice; was 39 whenhis first dramatic piece, "Three Oranges, " brought him prominently beforethe public; he followed up this success with a series of dramas designedto uphold the old methods of Italian dramatic art, and to resist theefforts of Goldoni and Chiari to introduce French models; these playsdealing with wonderful adventures and enchantments in the manner ofEastern tales ("dramatic fairy tales, " he called them), enjoyed a widepopularity, and spread to Germany and France. Schiller translated"Turandot" (1722-1806). --His elder brother, COUNT GASPARO GOZZI, wasan active littérateur; the author of various translations, essays onliterature, besides editor of a couple of journals; was press censor inVenice for a time, and was in his later days engaged in school anduniversity work (1713-1786). 

GRACCHUS, CAIUS SEMPRONIUS, Roman tribune and reformer, brother ofthe succeeding, nine years his junior; devoted himself and his oratory onhis brother's death to carry out his measures; was chosen tribune in 123B. C. , and re-elected in 122; his measures of reform were opposed andundone by the Senate, and being declared a public enemy he was driven tobay, his friends rallying round him in arms, when a combat took place inwhich 3000 fell, upon which Gracchus made his slave put him to death;"overthrown by the Patricians, " he is said, "when struck with the fatalstab, to have flung dust toward heaven, and called on the avengingdeities; and from this dust, " says one, "there was born Marius--not soillustrious for exterminating the Cimbri as for overturning in Rome thetyranny of the nobles. "

GRACCHUS, TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS, Roman tribune and reformer, eldestson of Cornelia, and brought up by her; proposed, among others, a measurefor the more equal distribution of the public land, which he had tobattle for against heavy odds three successive times, but carried it thethird time; was killed with others of his followers afterwards in a riot, and his body thrown into the Tiber and refused burial, 138 B. C. , aged40. 

GRACE, the term in Scripture for that which is the free gift of God, unmerited by man and of eternal benefit to him. 

GRACE, DR. W. G. , the celebrated cricketer, born near Bristol;distinguished as a batsman, fielder, and bowler; earned the title ofchampion, which was spontaneously and by universal consent conferred onhim; has written on cricket; _b_. 1848. 

GRACE CUP, a silver bowl with two handles passed round the tableafter grace at all banquets in London City. 

GRACES, THE, reckoned at one time two in number, but originally theyappear to have been regarded as being, what at bottom they are, _one_. Atlast they are spoken of as _three_, and called Aglaia, Euphrosyne, andThalia: Thalia, the blooming one, or life in full bloom; Euphrosyne, thecheerful one, or life in the exuberance of joy and sympathy; and Aglaia, the shining one, or life in its effulgence of sunny splendour and glory. But these three are one, involved each in the other, and made perfect inone. There is not Thalia by herself, or Aglaia, but where one truly is, there, in the same being also, the other two are. They are three sisters, as such always inseparable, and in their inseparability alone are Graces. Their secret is not learned from one, but from all three; and they givegrace only with fulness, buoyancy, and radiancy of soul, or life, unitedall in one. They are in essence the soul in its fulness of life andsympathy, pouring itself rhythmically through every obstruction, beforewhich the most solid becomes fluid, transparent, and radiant of _itself_. 

GRACIOSA, a princess in a fairy tale, persecuted by her stepmother, and protected by Prince Percinet, her lover. 

GRACIOSO, a fool in a Spanish comedy, who ever and anon appears onthe stage during the performance with his jokes and gibes. 

GRADGRIND, a character in "Hard Times, " who weighs and measureseverything by a hard and fast rule and makes no allowances. 

GRAFTON, AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, DUKE OF, English statesman in thereign of George III. ; held various offices of State under Rockingham, Chatham, and North; was bitterly assailed in the famous "Junius Letters"(1735-1811). 

GRAHAM, SIR JOHN, companion of Sir William Wallace, who fell at thebattle of Falkirk. 

GRAHAM, JOHN, VISCOUNT DUNDEE. See CLAVERHOUSE. 

GRAHAM, THOMAS, celebrated Scottish chemist, born in Glasgow, wherein 1830 he became professor of Chemistry in the Andersonian University;seven years later he was appointed to a similar chair in UniversityCollege, London; in 1855 he resigned his professorship on succeedingHerschel as Master of the Mint; his name is honourably associated withimportant researches relating to the diffusion of gases and liquids, andwith contributions to the atomic theory of matter (1805-1869). 

GRAHAME, JAMES, a Scottish poet, born in GLASGOW; bred alawyer; took to the Church; author of a poem on the "Sabbath, " instinctwith devout feeling, and containing good descriptive passages(1765-1811). 

GRAHAM'S DYKE, a Roman wall extending between the Firths of Forthand Clyde. 

GRAHAMSTOWN (16), capital of the eastern province of Cape Colony, 25m. From the sea and 106 m. NE. Of Port Elizabeth; is beautifully situated1728 ft. Above sea-level at the base of the Zuurberg Mountains; has anexceedingly salubrious climate; some fine buildings, and is the seat bothof a Catholic and a Protestant bishop. 

GRAIÆ, three old women in the Greek mythology, born with grey hair, had only one tooth and one eye among them, which they borrowed from eachother as they wanted them; were personifications of old age. 

GRAIL, THE HOLY, the cup or vessel, said to have been made of anemerald stone, that was used by Christ at the Last Supper, and in whichJoseph of Arimathea caught up the blood that flowed from His wounds onthe Cross; it was brought to England by Joseph, it is alleged, but aftera term disappeared; to recover it formed an object of quest to theKnights of the Round Table, in which Sir Galahad succeeded, when it wasseen by certain other knights, but it has not been seen since, for noneis permitted to see it or can set eye on it but such as are of a pureheart. 

GRAMONT or GRAMMONT, PHILIBERT, COMTE DE, a celebrated Frenchcourtier in the age of Louis XIV. ; he greatly distinguished himself inthe army, as also at the court by his lively wit and gallant bearing, andsoon established himself in the king's favour, but an intrigue with oneof the royal mistresses brought about his exile from France; at theprofligate court of Charles II of England he found a warm welcome andcongenial surroundings; left memoirs which were mainly the work of hisbrother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton, and which give a marvellously witty andbrilliant picture of the licentiousness and intrigue of the 17th-centurycourt life (1621-1707). 

GRAMPIANS, 1, a name somewhat loosely applied to the central andchief mountain system of Scotland, which stretches E. And W. Right acrossthe country, with many important offshoots running N. And S. ; theprincipal heights are Ben Nevis (4406 ft), Ben Macdhui (4296 ft. ), Cairntoul (4200 ft. ). 2, A range of mountains in the W. Of Victoria, Australia, highest elevation 5600 ft. 

GRANADA, the last of the ancient Moorish kingdoms to be conquered(1492) in Spain, in the SE. Of Andalusia, fronting the Mediterranean, nowdivided into Granada, Almeria, and Malaga; the modern province (484) hasan area of 4928 sq. M. ; Granada (72), the capital, is beautifullysituated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, on an eminence 2245 ft. Abovesea-level, 140 m. SE. Of Seville; the Jenil flows past it; has a largeuniversity, a cathedral, and monastery; was founded by the Moors in the8th century, but has been largely rebuilt on modern principles. 

GRANADA, NEW (9), a commercial town in Nicaragua, Central America, on the NW. Shore of Lake Nicaragua. 

GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUIS OF, an English general, eldest son ofthe third Duke of Rutland; rose to be commander-in-chief of the Britisharmy in Germany during the Seven Years' War; distinguished himself atWarburg; in 1763 he was master-general of the ordnance, and in 1766commander-in-chief of the army; was the victim of some of Junius's mostscathing invectives (1721-1770). 

GRAND ALLIANCE, an alliance signed at Vienna 1689 by England, Germany, and the States-General to prevent the union of France and Spain. 

GRAND JURY, a jury appointed to decide whether there are grounds foran accusation to warrant a trial. 

GRAND LAMAISM, a belief of the people of Thibet that Providencesends down always an incarnation of Himself into every generation. 

GRAND MONARQUE, THE, LOUIS XIV. (q. V. ) of France, socalled. 

GRAND PENSIONARY, a state official in the Dutch Republic; in earliertimes the Grand Pensionary was Secretary and also Advocate-General of theprovince of Holland; later his duties embraced the care of foreignaffairs; held office for five years, but was generally re-elected; theoffice was abolished in 1795. 

GRANDISON, SIR CHARLES, the hero of one of Richardson's novels, acharacter representative of an ideal Christian and gentleman. 

GRANDVILLE, the pseudonym of JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE GÉRARD, aFrench caricaturist, born at Nancy; his fame was first established by the"Metamorphoses du Jour, " a series of satirical sketches representing menwith animal faces characteristic of them; his subsequent work embracedpolitical cartoons and illustrations for "Gulliver's Travels, " "DonQuixote, " "Robinson Crusoe, " La Fontaine's "Fables, " &c. (1803-1847). 

GRANGEMOUTH (6), a busy port in Stirlingshire, on the Forth, 3 m. NE. Of Falkirk; exports iron-ware and coal; has excellent docks, and doessome shipbuilding. 

GRANI`CUS, a river in Asia Minor, flowing from the slopes of MountIda and falling into the Sea of Marmora, where Alexander gained, 334 B. C. , the first of the three victories which ended in the overthrow of thePersian empire. 

GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, of Dalvey, born at New York; graduated atOxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College; in 1856 he succeeded to thebaronetcy; was appointed Inspector of Schools at Madras; two years laterwas appointed professor of History and Principal in Elphinstone Collegethere; at Bombay he became Vice-Chancellor of Elgin College, and in 1868succeeded Sir David Brewster as Principal of Edinburgh University; wrote"The Story of Edinburgh University, " various essays, and editedAristotle's Ethics; was married to a daughter of Professor Ferrier of St. Andrews (1826-1884). 

GRANT, MRS. ANNE, _née_ M'VICAR, authoress, born in Glasgow;took to literature as a means of livelihood after the death of herhusband, and produced several volumes descriptive of the Highlands ofScotland and the character of the people; "Letters from the Mountains"enjoyed a wide popularity, and first gave to the public some adequateconception of the charm and character of the Highlands (1755-1838). 

GRANT, SIR FRANCIS, artist, born in Edinburgh; was educated for theScottish bar, but took to painting, and became celebrated for his huntingpictures, into which portraits of well-known sportsmen were introduced;also executed portraits of the Queen and Prince Consort on horseback, ofPalmerston, Macaulay, and others, and became President of the RoyalAcademy (1803-1878). 

GRANT, JAMES, novelist, born in Edinburgh; joined the army as anensign at 17, but after a few years resigned and adopted literature ashis profession; "The Romance of War" (1846), his first book, was followedby a series of stirring novels which are yet in repute, and have most ofthem been translated into Danish, German, and French; he turned Catholicin 1875 (1822-1887). 

GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE, General, brother of Sir Francis Grant, bornat Kilgraston, Perthshire; first distinguished himself in the Sikh Wars, and took a leading part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny; in 1859he commanded the British forces in China, and captured Pekin; was createda G. C. B. In 1860 and a general in 1872; he published several worksbearing upon the wars in which he had been engaged (1808-1875). 

GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON, General, born at Mount Pleasant, Ohio; bredto the military profession, served in Mexico, and held severalappointments in the army; retired to civic life in 1854, but on theoutbreak of the Civil War he entered the army and fought on the side ofthe North with such success that in 1864 he was appointedgeneral-in-chief; he was eventually raised to the Presidency in 1868, andre-elected in 1872; on the expiry of this second term he made a tourround the world, and was everywhere received with the distinction hedeserved (1822-1885). 

GRANTHAM (17), a market-town in Lincolnshire, on the Witham, 25 m. SW. Of Lincoln, and has a fine 13th-century church; in the grammar-schoolNewton was educated, and in 1643 Cromwell won his first victory here; itsindustries embrace agricultural-implement making, malting, &c. ; a 30 m. Canal connects it with the Trent. 

GRANVILLE, GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, second Earl, statesman; enteredParliament as a Liberal in 1836, and became a supporter of free trade; in1846 succeeded to the peerage, and in 1851 became Foreign Minister underLord John Russell; four years later became leader of the Lords; figuredin every Liberal cabinet till 1886, usually as Colonial or ForeignSecretary; in 1859 he failed to form a ministry of his own; was a staunchsupporter of Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule policy (1815-1891). 

GRATIAN, a celebrated canonist of the 12th century, born at Chiusi, Tuscany; was a Benedictine monk at Bologna, and compiled the "DecretumGratiani" between 1139 and 1142. 

GRATIANUS, AUGUSTUS, Roman emperor from 375 to 383, eldest son ofValentinian I. , born in Pannonia; at 16, in conjunction with hisfour-year-old brother, Valentinian II. , became ruler over the WesternEmpire, and three years later found himself, by the death of his uncleValens, head also of the Eastern Empire, a year after which he summonedTheodosius to be his colleague; his reign is noted for the sternrepression of the remains of the heathen worship; in 383, whileendeavouring to combat the usurper Maximus, he was captured at Lyons andthere put to death (359-383). 

GRATTAN, HENRY, great Irish patriot and orator, born in Dublin, andby birth a Protestant; studied at Trinity College, where he stood high inclassics; was called to the Irish bar in 1772, and entered the IrishParliament three years after, where he distinguished himself as thechampion of legislative freedom, by maintaining that the crown had noright to legislate on matters affecting Irish interests, and particularlyIrish commercial interests, without consulting the Irish Parliament, andby securing thereby in a measure the legislative independence of Ireland;on the question of Irish Parliamentary reform he quarrelled with hiscompatriots, and he confined his own efforts to Catholic emancipation; in1798 he retired from public life, but came forth as an opponent of theUnion in 1800, though, on its accomplishment, he represented first Maltonin Yorkshire, and then Dublin in the United Parliament, devoting the restof his life to the political emancipation of his Catholicfellow-subjects; before the rupture referred to fell out, he received agrant of £50, 000 from the Irish Parliament; in private as in public life, he was a man of irreproachable character, while as an orator he ranksamong the foremost of his time (1746-1820). 

GRATZ or GRÄTZ (112), capital of Styria, in Austria, picturesquely situated on the Mur, 141 m. SW. Of Vienna; its many old andinteresting buildings include a cathedral (1462), four monasteries, andthe Landhaus, an ancient ducal residence; there is a flourishinguniversity, with upwards of 1100 students; its industries embrace ironand steel works, sugar-refining, soap and candle factories, &c. 

GRAVELOTTE, a village in Lorraine, 7 m. W. Of Metz; was the scene ofa German victory over the French in 1870. 

GRAVESEND (35), a thriving river-port and watering-place in Kent, onthe Thames, opposite Tilbury Fort, 24 m. SE. Of London; the new townrises amid picturesque surroundings above the old town; it is the chiefpilot station for the river; there is a busy trade in shipbuilding, iron-founding, brewing, &c. 

GRAY, ASA, a distinguished American botanist, born at Paris, OneidaCounty, New York; graduated in medicine in 1842; became Fisher professorof Natural History at Harvard, and in 1874 succeeded Agassiz as Regent ofthe Smithsonian Institution; his writings did much to promote the studyof botany in America on a sound scientific basis, and also to forward thetheories of Darwin; in conjunction with Dr. Torrey he wrote "The Flora ofNorth America, " and by himself various manuals of botany and "NaturalScience and Religion" (1810-1888). 

GRAY, AULD ROBIN, the title of a ballad by Lady Anne Lindsay, fromthe name of its hero, a good old man who married a young girl whose loveris thought to be dead, but who turns up to claim her a month after. 

GRAY, JOHN EDWARD, English naturalist, born at Walsall; studiedmedicine, and at 24 entered the British Museum as an assistant in theNatural History department; in 1840 he became keeper of the ZoologicalCollections, of which he made a complete catalogue, enriched with mostvaluable notes; is the author of books and papers to the number of 500, and was an active promoter of scientific societies in London (1800-1875). 

GRAY, THOMAS, English poet, born in Cornhill, London, for whomHorace Walpole conceived a warm attachment, which, after a brief rupture, lasted with life; gave himself up to the study of Greek literature, andbegan to cultivate the muse of poetry; produced in 1747 "Ode on a DistantProspect of Eton College, " and in 1750 his well-known "Elegy written in aCountry Churchyard"; these were followed by the "Pindaric Odes, " the"Progress of Poesy, " and the "Bard, " which was finished in 1757; in 1760he was presented by the Duke of Grafton with the professorship of ModernHistory in Cambridge, a sinecure office with £400 a year. "All is clearlight, " says Stopford Brooke, "in Gray's work. Out of the love of Greekhe drew his fine lucidity. .. . He moved with easy power over many forms ofpoetry, but there is naturalness and no rudeness in the power. It wasadorned by high ornament and finish. .. . The 'Elegy' will always remainone of the beloved poems of Englishmen; it is not only a piece ofexquisite work; it is steeped in England" (1716-1771). 

GREAT COMMONER, WILLIAM PITT, who became Earl Chatham (q. V. ). 

GREAT DUKE, DUKE OF WELLINGTON (q. V. ). 

GREAT EASTERN, the name of the largest ship ever built; was designedby Brunel and Scott Russell; laid down at Milwall in 1854, and launchedin 1858, having cost £732, 000; it did not prove a successful venture; waslatterly used for laying the Atlantic cables; subsequently became acoal-hulk at Gibraltar, and in the end was sold in 1888 for old iron. 

GREAT ELECTOR, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg(1620-1683). 

GREAT HARRY, a man-of-war built by Henry VII. , the first of any sizebuilt in England. 

GREAT MAGICIAN, Sir Walter Scott. 

GREAT MORALIST, SAMUEL JOHNSON (q. V. ), from the characterof his writings. 

GREAT SALT LAKE, in N. Of Utah, U. S. , stretches upwards of 80 m. Along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about 4200 ft. Abovethe sea-level; it is from 20 to 32 m. Broad, and very shallow; AntelopeIsland, 18 m. Long, is the largest island; the coast is rugged anddesolate; its clear waters hold no fish, and the surplus inflow iscarried off by evaporation only. 

GREAT SLAVE LAKE, 300 m. Long and 50 at its greatest breadth; lieswithin the Canadian NW. Territory; the Mackenzie River carries itsoverflow to the Arctic Ocean. 

GREAT UNKNOWN, THE, author of "Waverley" and Waverley novels. 

GREAT UNWASHED, THE, the artisan class. 

GREATHEART, in the "Pilgrim's Progress, " the guide of Christiana andher family to the Celestial City. 

GREECE (2, 187), a kingdom of S. Europe occupying the southernportion of a peninsula which projects into the Mediterranean between thepeninsula of Italy and the mainland of Turkey in Asia; the N. Is boundedby Turkey in Europe; it is made up of the N. And S. Divisions connectedby the narrow and canalled isthmus of Corinth, the Ionian Islands in theW. , and the Cyclades and Sporades in the E. ; it is a mountainous region, and many of the peaks are rich in classic associations, e. G. Olympus, Parnassus, and Helicon; the rivers are of no great size, and the lakesthough numerous are inconsiderable; in the valleys the soil is fertileand agriculture is actively engaged in, although the methods adopted arestill somewhat primitive; but favoured by a delightful climate the vine, olive, and other fruit-trees flourish; currants are the chief article ofexport, and textiles and cereals the principal imports; milling, dyeing, distilling, and tanning are important industries; various minerals arefound, and the marble from Paros is famed as the finest for statuecarving; there is a considerable mercantile marine, and a busy shippingtrade of a small kind among the islands and along the deeply indentedcoast, and also valuable coral and sponge fisheries; the government is alimited and hereditary monarchy, and the legislative power is vested inan elected chamber of, at least, 150 paid representatives, called theBoul[=e]; universal suffrage obtains, and the period of election is forfour years; the bulk of the people belong to the established GreekChurch, but in Thessaly and Epirus there are about 25, 000 Mohammedans;education is free and compulsory, but is badly administered, and a gooddeal of illiteracy exists; the glory of Greece lies in her past, in theimperishable monuments of her ancient literature and art; by 146 B. C. She had fallen before the growing power of the Romans and along with therest of the Byzantine or Eastern empire was overrun by the Turks in A. D. 1453; her renascence as a modern nation took place between 1821 and 1829, when she threw off the Turkish yoke and reasserted her independence, which she had anew to attempt by arms in 1897, this time with humiliationand defeat, till the other powers of Europe came to the rescue, and put acheck to the arrogance of the high-handed Turk. 

GREEK or EASTERN CHURCH, that section of the Church whichformerly separated from the Roman or Western in 1054, which assumed anindependent existence on account of the arrogant claims of the latter, and which acknowledges the authority of only the first seven generalcouncils; they dissent from the _FILIOQUE_ DOCTRINE (q. V. ), administer the Eucharist in both kinds to the laity, and are zealouslyconservative of the orthodoxy of the Church. 

GREEK FIRE, a combustible of highly inflammable quality, but ofuncertain composition, used by the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire againstthe Saracens; a source of great terror to those who were assailed by it, as it was difficult to extinguish, so difficult that it was said to burnunder water. 

GREELEY, HORACE, American journalist and politician, born atAmherst, New Hampshire, the son of a poor farmer; was bred a printer, andin 1831 settled in New York; in a few years he started a literary paperthe _New Yorker_, and shortly afterwards made a more successful venturein the _Log Cabin_, a political paper, following that up by founding the_New York Tribune_ in 1841, and merging his former papers in the _WeeklyTribune_; till his death he advocated temperance, anti-slavery, socialistic and protectionist principles in these papers; in 1848 heentered Congress and became a prominent member of the Republican party;he visited Europe, and was chairman of one of the juries of the GreatExhibition; in 1872 he unsuccessfully opposed Grant for the Presidency;in religion he was a Universalist; his works include "The AmericanConflict, " "Recollections, " "Essays, " &c. (1811-1872). 

GREEN, JOHN RICHARD, historian, born at Oxford; took orders, and wasfor a time vicar of St. Philip's, Stepney, contributing articles thewhile on historical subjects to the _Saturday Review_, and pursuing hishistorical studies with a zeal that undermined his health; in 1874 hepublished his "Short History of the English People, " which was speedilyadopted in schools, and was accepted at large as one of the ablestsummaries of the history of the country; the welcome with which thissmall work was received induced the author to essay a larger, which heaccordingly by-and-by published in 4 volumes, and which he dedicated to"My Masters in the study of English History, Bishop Stubbs and ProfessorFreeman"; this was followed by "The Making of England" and "The Conquestof England, " the latter being published after his decease (1837-1883). 

GREEN, NATHANAEL, a celebrated American general, born at Warwick, Rhode Island; though the son of a Quaker, he promptly took up arms on theoutbreak of hostilities with the mother-country, and in 1775, asbrigadier-general, headed the force in Rhode Island; his gallant conductat the battles of Princeton and Brandywine won him promotion, and in 1780he was advanced to the command of the army of the south; after atemporary reverse from Cornwallis at Guildford Court, he conducted hisoperations with so much success that, with the crowning victory at EutawSprings (1781), he cleared the British from the States; his last dayswere spent on his estate in Georgia, a gift from government inrecognition of his services; next to Washington he was the great hero ofthe war (1742-1788). 

GREEN, THOMAS HILL, philosopher, born in Yorkshire; studied atBalliol College, Oxford; was elected a Fellow and became eventuallyWhyte's professor of Moral Philosophy; his philosophy had a Kantian root, developed to a certain extent on the lines of Hegel, which, however, heapplied less in speculative than a spiritual interest, though he was notslow, on the ground of it, to assail the evolution theory of HerbertSpencer and G. H. Lewes; he was a great moral force in Oxford, and thatapart from his philosophical speculations, though there can be littledoubt that the philosophy which he had embraced was a potent element inhis moral character and his influence; his views on the purely spiritualnature and derivation of the Christian religion have, since his death, attracted attention, and are regarded with some anxiety by those whosefaith requires a historical basis (1838-1882). 

GREENBACKS, a name given to the inconvertible paper currency issuedin the United States during the Civil War, so called from the colour ofthe notes, bonds, &c. ; the name has since been popularly applied to thepaper money of the States; the notes were made convertible in 1879. 

GREENLAND (11), an extensive but imperfectly defined territory lyingmostly within the Arctic circle to the NE. Of North America, from whichit is separated by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay; the area is variouslyestimated from 512, 000 to 320, 000 sq. M. ; the land lies submerged beneatha vast plain of ice, pierced here and there by mountain tops, but it isconjectured to consist of one large island-continent engirt by groups ofsmaller islands; only on the S. Coast, during the meagre summer, is thereany appearance of vegetation; there is a great variety of birds, and theanimals include the wolf, fox, bear, reindeer, musk ox, and Arctic hare, while whales, seals, and many kinds of fish are found; the inhabitantsare chiefly Esquimaux, but there are some Danish settlements, begun in1721, and the trade is a Danish monopoly; the country was known in earlytimes to the Scandinavians (of whose settlements there are interestingremains), and was rediscovered by John Davis in 1585. 

GREENOCK (63), a flourishing seaport of Renfrewshire, on the Firthof Clyde, 22 m. W. Of Glasgow; it stretches some 4 m. Along the shore andclimbs the hill slopes behind, whence it commands a splendid view of theriver and Highlands beyond; the west end is handsomely laid out, andcontains some fine buildings, including the Watt Institute, with libraryof 130, 000 vols. ; the harbourage is excellent, and favours a largeforeign shipping trade; the staple industries are shipbuilding, engineering, spinning, sugar-refining, &c. ; coal and iron are the chiefexports, and sugar and timber the largest imports. 

GREENOUGH, HORATIO, an American sculptor, spent most of his life inRome and Florence; executed the colossal statue of Washington in front ofthe Capitol in Washington City, and a group of figures entitled "TheRescue" (1803-1852). 

GREENWICH (78), an important borough of Kent (officially within thecounty of London), on the Thames, 5 m. SE. Of London Bridge; its activeindustries embrace engineering, telegraph works, chemical works, &c. ; theRoyal Observatory, founded by Charles II. In 1675, occupies a commandingsite within the Park; it is from this point that degrees of longitudewith us are reckoned. 

GREENWICH HOSPITAL, founded in 1694 by Queen Mary after designs byChristopher Wren, was from 1705 till 1869 an asylum for disabled sailors;since then the funds, amounting to £167, 259 a year, have been distributedin pensions and also utilised for the upkeep of Greenwich HospitalSchools (where 1000 children of seamen receive board and education);since 1873 this hospital has served as the college for the Royal Navy. 

GREENWOOD, FREDERICK, publicist and journalist; editor of _CornhillMagazine_, author of Life of Napoleon III. , "Lover's Lexicon, " and"Dreams"; _b_. 1830. 

GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE, literary and political essayist, born inManchester; in 1856 became a Commissioner of Customs, and from 1864 tillhis resignation in 1877 acted as Controller of H. M. Stationery Office;his works embrace "The Creed of Christendom, " "Enigmas of Life, ""Political Problems, " &c. , and are marked by vigorous thought couched ina lucid, incisive style; was from his evil prognostications designatedCassandra Greg (1809-1881). 

GRÉGOIRE, HENRI, bishop of Blois, born at Vého, near Lunéville, oneof the clerical deputies to the States-General of 1789; attached himselfto the Tiers-état, was a member of the National Convention, and a staunchadvocate for civil and religious liberty, but refused resolutely tofollow "Goose Gobel, " the archbishop of Paris, and renounce the Christianreligion and deny his Master (1750-1831). See CARLYLE'S "FRENCHREVOLUTION. "

GREGORIAN CALENDAR, the regulation of the year according to thecorrection introduced by Gregory XIII. In 1582 of the Julian calendar, which allowed the year 11 minutes and 10 seconds too much. 

GREGORIAN YEAR, the civil year according to the correction of theGregorian calendar. 

GREGORY, the name of 16 popes: G. I. , the Great, Pope from 590to 604; G. II. , st. , pope from 715 to 731; G. III. , Pope from731 to 741; G. IV. , pope from 827 to 844; G. V. , Pope from 996to 997; G. VI. , pope from 1045 to 1046; G. VII. , Pope from 1073to 1085; G. VIII. , pope in 1187; G. IX. , Pope from 1227 to1241; G. X. , pope from 1271 to 1276; G. XI, Pope from 1370 to1378; G. XII. , pope from 1406 to 1415; G. XIII. , Pope from 1572to 1585; G. XIV. , pope from 1590 to 1591; G. XV. , Pope from1621 to 1623; G. XVI. , Pope from 1831 1846. Of these the followingare worthy of note:--

GREGORY I. , THE GREAT, and ST. , born in Rome, son of a senator;made prætor of Rome; relinquished the office and became a monk; devotedhimself to the regulation of church worship (instituting, among otherthings, the liturgy of the Mass), to the reformation of the monks andclergy, and to the propagation of the faith; saw some fair-haired Britishyouths in the slave-market at Rome one day; on being told they wereAngles, he said they should be Angels, and resolved from that day on theconversion of the nation they belonged to, and sent over seas for thatpurpose a body of monks under Augustin. 

GREGORY II. , ST. , born at Rome and bred a Benedictine; is celebratedfor his zeal in promoting the independence of the Church and thesupremacy of the see of Rome, and for his defence of the use of images inworship. 

GREGORY III. , born in Syria; was successor of Gregory II. , andcarried out the same policy to the territorial aggrandisement of the HolySee at a time when it might have been overborne by secular invasions. 

GREGORY VII. , HILDEBRAND, born in Tuscany; bred up as a monk in alife of severe austerity, he became sensible of the formidable evilstending to the corruption of the clergy, due to their dependence on theEmperor for investiture into their benefices, and he set himself with allhis might to denounce the usurpation and prohibit the practice, to theextent of one day ex-communicating certain bishop who had submitted tothe royal claim and those who had invested them; his conduct roused theEmperor, Henry IV. , who went the length of deposing him, upon which thePope retaliated with a threat of excommunication; it ended in the finalsubmission of Henry at CANOSSA (q. V. ); the terms of submissionimposed were intolerable, and Henry broke them, elected a Pope of hisown, entered Rome, was crowned by him, and besieged Gregory in SanAngelo, from which Guiscard delivered him to retire to Salerno, where hedied, 1035; he was a great man and a good Pope. 

GREGORY IX. , UGOLINO, born in Campania; had during his pontificatecontests with the Emperor Barbarossa, whom he twice over excommunicated;was the personal friend of St. Francis of Assisi, whom he canonised; diedat a very advanced age. 

GREGORY XIII. , born in Bologna; was skilled in canon law;distinguished himself in the Council of Trent, and by his zeal againstthe Protestants; celebrated the Bartholomew Massacre by publicthanksgivings in Rome, and reformed the calendar. 

GREGORY XVI. , born at Belluno; occupied the Papal chair at a time ofgreat civil commotion, and had much to do to stem the revolutionarymovements of the time; developed ultramontanist notions, and paved theway for the hierarchical policy of his successor Pio Nono. 

GREGORY NAZIANZEN, ST. , bishop of Constantinople, born inCappadocia; studied in Athens, where he became the friend of St. Basil, and held discussions with Julian, afterwards emperor and apostate, whowas also studying there; had been bishop of Nazianzus before he wasraised by Theodosius to the bishopric of Constantinople, which he heldonly for a year, at the end of which he retired into solitude; he was thechampion of orthodoxy, a defender of the doctrine of the Trinity, andfamed for his invectives against Julian; he has left writings that havemade his name famous, besides letters, sermons, and poems (328-389). Festival, May 9. 

GREGORY OF NYSSA, ST. , one of the Fathers of the Greek Church, brother of St. Basil, and bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia; he wasdistinguished for his zeal against the Arians, and was banished from hisdiocese at the instance of the Emperor Valens, who belonged to that sect, but returned to it after his death; he was an eminent theologian and avaliant defender of orthodoxy, on, according to Harnack, something likeHegelian lines (332-400). Festival, March 9. 

GREGORY OF TOURS, ST. , bishop of Tours, French theologian andhistorian, born at Clermont; was mixed up a good deal in the politicalstrife of the time, and suffered not a little persecution; was the authorof a "History of the Franks, " the earliest of French chronicles, entitling him to be regarded as the "Father of Frankish History"; hishistory contains a great number of valuable documents, though it iswritten in a barbarous style, and not unfrequently evinces a lack ofmoral sensibility (540-594). 

GREGORY THAUMATURGUS, ST. , a theologian of the Greek Church, and aconvert and disciple of Origen; became bishop of Neo-Cæsarea in Pontus;was present at the Council of Antioch; numerous conversions from paganismare ascribed to him, as well as numerous miracles; _d_. 270. FestivalNovember 12. 

GREGORY, DAVID, nephew of succeeding, born at Aberdeen; becameprofessor of Mathematics in Edinburgh at the age of 23, and in 1691 wasappointed Savilian professor of Astronomy at Oxford; was one of the firstto publicly teach the principles of Newton's philosophy (1661-1708). 

GREGORY, JAMES (1), inventor of the reflecting telescope, born inAberdeen; after a three years' residence in Padua received theappointment of professor of Mathematics in St. Andrews, which he heldfrom 1669 to 1674, when he was elected to the corresponding chair inEdinburgh; author of various mathematical treatises which display a fineoriginality; he was struck blind whilst working at his telescope(1638-1675). 

GREGORY, JAMES (2), son of succeeding, was his successor in thechair of Medicine at Edinburgh, and wrote "Philosophical and LiteraryEssays"; compounded "Gregory's mixture" (1753-1821). 

GREGORY, JOHN, grandson of James (1), born at Aberdeen, where hebecame professor of Medicine in 1755, whence ten years later he wastranslated to fill the corresponding chair in Edinburgh; his worksinclude, among others, "A Comparative View of the State and Faculties ofMan with those of the Animal World" (1724-1773). 

GREGORY, WILLIAM, son of James (2); held successively the chairs ofChemistry in Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh; he translated Liebig's"Agricultural Chemistry, " and was the first to advance and expoundLiebig's theories (1803-1858). 

GRENADA (54), one of the most picturesque of the Windward Islands, in the British West Indies, of volcanic origin; lies about 60 m. N. OfVenezuela; the harbour of St. George, the capital, is the most shelteredanchorage in the Windward Islands; fruits, cocoa, and coffee arecultivated; it was ceded by France in 1783. 

GRENFELL, SIR FRANCIS WALLACE, Major-General, late Sirdar of theEgyptian army, born in London; distinguished himself in Zulu, Transvaal, Egyptian, and Nile expeditions (1885-1892), and commanded forces in Egypt(1897-98); was presented by the Khedive with a sword of honour on hisretirement, in souvenir of the victories of Giniss, Gamaizo, and Toski;_b_. 1841. 

GRENOBLE (57), a strongly fortified city of France, capital of thedep. Of Isère, on the river Isère, 58 m. SE. Of Lyons; there are severalfine old cathedrals, and a university with a library of 170, 000 vols. ;the manufacture of kid gloves is the staple industry. 

GRENVILLE, GEORGE, statesman, younger brother of Earl Temple; wascalled to the bar in 1735, and six years later entered Parliament; heldvarious offices of State, and in 1763 succeeded Bute as Prime Minister;his administration is noted for the prosecution of WILKES (q. V. ), and the passing of the American Stamp Act, a measure whichprecipitated the American Revolution (1712-1770). 

GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD, a gallant seaman of Queen Elizabeth's time;already a knight, commanded the first expedition sent by Raleigh tocolonise Virginia; took part in the defeat of the Armada, and in 1591, while commanding the _Revenge_ in Lord Howard's squadron, engagedsingle-handed the entire Spanish fleet off the Azores; after a desperatefight of about 18 hours, during which time four of the Spanish vesselswere sunk, and upwards of 2000 of their men slain or drowned, hesurrendered, was carried wounded on board a Spanish ship, in which hedied; the fight is celebrated in Tennyson's noble ballad "The Revenge. "

GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM, LORD, statesman; entered Parliament in1782; was not a man of brilliant parts, but his integrity and capacityfor work raised him to the highest offices of State; in 1789 he wasSpeaker of the House of Commons, and a year later was raised to thepeerage and made Home Secretary under Pitt; in 1791 he was ForeignSecretary; supported Catholic Emancipation and the Abolition of theSlave-trade; he was Premier from 1806 to 1807; later he supported Canningand Earl Grey (1759-1834). 

GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS, founder of the Royal Exchange, born in London;son of Sir Richard Gresham, a wealthy mercer, who was knighted and madeLord Mayor in Henry VIII. 's reign; after studying at Cambridge enteredthe Mercers' Company, and in 1552, as "King's agent" in Antwerp, negotiated important loans with the Flemish merchants; under the Catholicrégime of Mary he was dismissed, but was shortly after restored, and in1559 appointed ambassador in Antwerp; between 1566 and 1571 he carriedthrough his project of erecting an Exchange, and his munificence wasfurther displayed in the founding of a college and eight almshouses; in1569 he was instrumental in bringing about the important fiscalarrangement of borrowing from home merchants instead of as formerly fromforeign merchants (1519-1579). 

GRESHAM COLLEGE, college founded by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, andmanaged by the Mercer's Company, London, where lectures are delivered, twelve each year, by successive lecturers on physics, rhetoric, astronomy, law, geometry, music, and divinity, to form part of theteaching of University College. 

GRETCHEN, the German diminutive for Margaret, and the name of theguileless girl seduced by Faust in Goethe's tragedy of the name. 

GRETNA GREEN, a village in Dumfriesshire, over the border fromEngland, famous from 1754 to 1856 for clandestine marriages, which usedlatterly to be celebrated in the blacksmith's shop. 

GRÉTRY, a celebrated musical composer, born at Liège, composed 40operas marked by feeling and expression, the "Deux Avares, " "Zemire etAzor, " and "Richard Coeur de Lion" among them; he bought Rousseau'shermitage at Montmorency, where he died (1741-1813). 

GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French painter, much esteemed for hisportraits and exquisite _genre_ pieces; he died in poverty (1725-1805). 

GRÈVE, PLACE DE, place of public execution in Paris at one time. 

GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE, celebrated for his "Memoirs";after quitting Oxford he acted as private secretary to Earl Bathurst, andfrom 1821 to 1860 was Clerk of the Council in Ordinary; it was during histenure of this office that he enjoyed exceptional opportunities ofmeeting the public men of his times, and of studying the changing phasesof political and court-life of which he gives so lively a picture in his"Memoirs" (1794-1865). 

GREVILLE, FULKE, a minor English poet, born at Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire; was educated at Cambridge and Oxford; travelled on theContinent; played a part in the court-life of Elizabeth's time; wasknighted in 1597, and in 1620 was created Lord Brooke; he was murdered ina scuffle with his valet (1554-1628). 

GRÉVILLE, HENRY, the pseudonym of Madame Alice Durand (_née_Fleury), novelist, born at Paris; her works, which are numerous, containlively pictures of life in Russia, in which country, in St. Petersburg, she spent 15 years of her life (1857-72), and married Émile Durand, aFrench professor of Law; since 1872 she has lived in France; _b_. 1842. 

GRÉVY, FRANÇOIS, PAUL JULES, French President, born atMont-sous-Vaudrey, Jura; became prominent at the Paris bar, and after the'48 Revolution entered the Constituent Assembly, of which he becameVice-President; his opposition to Louis Napoleon, and disapproval of his_coup d'état_, obliged him to retire; but in 1869 he again entered thepolitical arena, and was four times chosen President of the NationalAssembly; in 1879 he was elected President of the Republic for sevenyears, and in 1886 was confirmed in his position for a similar period, but ministerial difficulties induced him to resign two years later(1807-1891). 

GREY, CHARLES, FIRST EARL, soldier; as Sir Charles Grey of Howick hedistinguished himself in the wars with the American Colonies and theFrench Republic, and in 1804 was rewarded with a Barony, and two yearslater was made Earl Grey (1728-1807). 

GREY, CHARLES, 2ND EARL, party to the impeachment of WarrenHastings; tried to impeach Pitt; denounced union with Ireland; becameleader of the House of Commons in 1806; carried Act for the Abolition ofthe African Slave-trade; succeeded to the earldom in 1807, and denouncedthe Bill against Queen Caroline; becoming Prime Minister in 1830 he wasdefeated, and resigned twice over the Reform Bill; returning to power in1832, with permission to make as many peers as might be needed, hesucceeded at last in passing the Bill; he was head of a powerful party inthe reformed Parliament, and carried the bill abolishing slavery in theColonies, but resigned over Irish troubles in 1834 (1764-1845). 

GREY, SIR GEORGE, colonial governor and statesman, born at Lisburn, Ireland; while a captain in the army he, in 1837 and 1838, exploredCentral Australia and the Swan River district; in 1841, having retiredfrom the army, he became Governor of South Australia; was made K. C. B. For his services: in 1846 was Governor of New Zealand, and in 1854Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Cape of Good Hope, where heconciliated the Kaffirs; in 1858 a difference with the home governmentled him to resign, but he was soon re-established; from 1861 to 1867 hewas at his former post in New Zealand, where he pacified the Maories; in1875 he was Superintendent of Auckland, and in 1877-84 was Premier of NewZealand; he is the author of "Journals of Discovery in Australia, ""Polynesian Mythology, " &c. (1812-1898). 

GREY, LADY JANE, the ill-fated "nine days' queen, " born at Bradgate, Leicestershire; was the daughter of the Duke of Suffolk and thegreat-granddaughter of Henry VII. ; her talents were of a rare order, andsedulously cultivated; she attained to great proficiency in Greek, Latin, and also in modern languages, while she was skilled in all theaccomplishments of womanhood; a plot entered into by Suffolk and the Dukeof Northumberland, whose son Lady Jane had been forced to espouse at 15, brought about her proclamation as Queen in 1553; the attempted usurpationwas crushed in ten days, and four months later Lady Jane and her husbandwere executed (1537-1554). 

GREY FRIARS, the FRANCISCANS (q. V. ), from their greyhabit. 

GRIEG, EDOARD, Norwegian composer, born at Bergen, of Scotchdescent; received his first musical lessons from his mother, and at 15went to Leipzig; in 1863 was at Copenhagen and then established himselfas a teacher at Christiania, where he continued eight years and becameintimate with Ibsen; subsequently, after leading an unsettled life, hereceived a government pension, and after that devoted himself to musicalcomposition; his music, chiefly pianoforte pieces and songs, achieved awide popularity in England and Scotland; _b_. 1843. 

GRIERSON, SIR ROBERT, OF LAG, a notorious persecutor of theCovenanters, whose memory is still regarded with odium among the peasantsof Galloway; was for some years Steward of Kirkcudbright; was in 1685made a Nova Scotia baronet, and awarded a pension (1655-1733). 

GRIESBACH, JOHANN JACOB, German theologian and biblical critic, bornin Hesse-Darmstadt; produced a critical revision of the text of the NewTestament, the chief labour of his life, for which he visited andransacked the various libraries of Europe (1745-1812). 

GRIFFIN or GRIFFON, a chimerical fabulous animal with the bodyand legs of a lion in symbol of strength, with the wings and beak of aneagle in symbol of swiftness, with the ears of a horse in symbol ofwatchfulness, and instead of a mane the fin of a fish; figures amongheraldic symbols with the significance here indicated. 

GRILLPARZER, FRANZ, popular Austrian dramatist, born at Vienna;studied law and then entered the Civil Service, in which he remained from1813 to 1856; his first notable drama was the tragedy "Die Ahnfrau, " the_motif_ of which is an extreme fatalism; "Sappho, " "Das goldene Vliess, "and many others followed, all of which are marked by dramatic power andlyric grace; he stands in the front rank of Austrian poets (1791-1872). 

GRIMALDI, JOSEPH, a famous English clown, son of an Italiandancing-master, born in London; was bred to the stage from his infancy, appearing on the boards when not yet two years old; his Memoirs wereedited by Dickens, who describes him as "the genuine droll, thegrimacing, filching, irresistible clown" (1779-1837). 

GRIMM, BARON, a German littérateur and critic, born at Ratisbon; aman of versatile powers and vast attainments; settled in Paris and becameacquainted with Rousseau and the leading Encyclopédists and Madamed'Epinay; on the breaking out of the Revolution he retired to the courtof Gotha and afterwards to that of Catharine II. Of Russia, who made himher minister at Hamburg; his correspondence is full of interest, andabounds in piquant literary criticism (1723-1807). 

GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG, German philologist, born at Hanau; held officeas librarian to Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, and afterwards toGöttingen University, as well as a professorship there, devoting himselfthe while chiefly to studies in early German lore, and afterwards withhis brother settled in Berlin; his principal works were, "DeutscheGrammatik, " "Deutsche Mythologie, " "Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, "and the "Kinder-und-Haus-Märchen" in collaboration with his brother(1785-1863). 

GRIMM, WILHELM KARL, philologist, younger brother of the preceding, born at Hanau; was associated both in his appointments and work with hisbrother, the two being known as the Brothers Grimm; edited several oldGerman poems, his principal work "Die Deutsche Heldensage" (1786-1859). 

GRIMM'S LAW, as enunciated by J. L. Grimm, is the law regulating theinterchange of mute consonants in languages of Aryan origin, aspirates, flats, and sharps in the classical languages corresponding respectivelyto flats, sharps, and aspirates in Low German, and to sharps, aspirates, and flats in High German tongues. 

GRIMSBY or GREAT GRIMSBY (59), a seaport of Lincolnshire, onthe S. Shore of the Humber, opposite Spurn Head, 20 m. SE. Of Hull; was aport of importance in Edward III. 's time; is now noted as the largestfishing-port in the kingdom; has extensive docks, shipbuilding, tanning, brewing, and other industries. 

GRINDAL, EDMUND, archbishop of Canterbury; was suspended forrespecting his conscience more than the Queen (Elizabeth), but restored;offered to resign, but the Queen would not accept his resignation; becamein the end blind from grief (1519-1583). 

GRINDELWALD, a winter resort in Bernese Oberland, in Switzerland, ina beautiful valley 12½ m. Long and 4 m. Broad, and nearly 3500 ft. Abovesea-level. 

GRINGO, a name of contempt in Mexico and South America forinterlopers of English descent or speech. 

GRINGORE, a French poet; flourished in the reigns of Louis XII. AndFrancis I. ; was received with favour at court for political reasons, though he lashed its vices and those of the clergy; wrote satiricalfarces, and one especially at the instance of Louis against Pope JuliusII. , entitled "Le Jeu du Prince des Sots" (1476-1544). 

GRIQUALAND, WEST AND EAST, British territories in South Africa. Theformer (83, 30 whites) lies to the N. E. Of Cape Colony, between theOrange River on the S. And Bechuanaland on the N. ; the diamond industry, of which Kimberley is the centre, is the chief source of wealth, and wasbegun in 1867; Kimberley is also the seat of government. The latter (153, 4 whites), situated in No-Man's-Land, between the Kaffir country and S. Natal, is chiefly inhabited by Griquas and Basutos. The first has beenpart of Cape Colony since 1881, and the second was annexed to that colonyin 1871, though it is controlled by a chief-magistrate. Griqua is a namegiven to half-bloods of Dutch fathers and Hottentot mothers. 

GRISELDA or GRISELDIS, a famous heroine of mediæval tradition;figures in Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Chaucer, and in later dramatists ofEngland, Germany, and Spain; the beautiful daughter of a Piedmontesepeasant, she was loved and married by the Marquis Walter of Saluzzo; hisjealous affection subjected her to several cruel tests of love, which shebore with "wyfly pacience, " and in the end "love was aye between themtwa. "

GRISI, GIULIA, a celebrated singer, born in Milan; Paris and Londonwere the chief scenes of her triumphs; her greatest triumph was inplaying the part of "Norma, " in the opera of the name; she was famousalike for the beauty of her person and the quality of her voice(1811-1869). 

GRISNEZ, CAPE, a headland with a lighthouse on the French coastopposite Dover, and the nearest point in France to England. 

GRISONS (95), the largest of the Swiss cantons, lies in the SE. Between Tyrol and Lombardy; consists of high mountains and valleys, amongst which are some of the most noted Alpine glaciers; the EngadineValley, through which flows the Inn, is a celebrated health resort, asalso the Davos Valley in the E. ; some cereals are raised, but pasture andforest land occupy a large part of the canton, and supply the cattle andtimber export trade; the population, which is small for the extent ofterritory, is a mixture of German, Romanic, and Italian elements. 

GROCYN, WILLIAM, classical scholar, born at Bristol; was the firstto teach Greek at Oxford, and the tutor in that department of Sir ThomasMore and Erasmus (1442-1519). 

GRODNO, a province and town of Russia; the latter (51) is on theNiemen, 148 m. NE. Of Warsaw; has a Polish palace and medical school. Theformer (1, 556) is a wide, pine-covered, swampy, yet fertile district, which produces good crops of cereals, and is a centre of the woollenindustry. 

GROLIER, JEAN, a famous bibliophile, whose library was dispersed in1675; the bindings of the books being ornamented with geometric patterns, have given name to bindings in this style; they bore the inscription, "Io. Grolieri et Amicorum" (the property of Jean Grolier and hisfriends). 

GRÖNINGEN (286), a low-lying province in the NE. Of Holland, fronting the German Ocean on the N. , and having Hanover on its easternborder; its fertile soil favours extensive farming and grazing;shipbuilding is an important industry. The capital (58) is situated onthe Hunse, 94 m. NE. Of Amsterdam; has several handsome buildings, auniversity (1614), botanic gardens, shipbuilding yards, and tobacco andlinen factories. 

GRONOVIUS, the name of two Dutch scholars, father and son, professors successively of belles-lettres at Leyden; John died 1671, andJacob 1716. 

GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON, a French historical painter, born atParis; his subjects were taken from events in the history of France, andespecially in the career of Napoleon; his first work, received withunbounded enthusiasm, was "Pestiféré's de Jaffa, " and his latest, apicture in the cupola of the Church of Geneviève, in Paris (1771-1835). 

GROSE, CAPTAIN FRANCIS, an English antiquary, born at Greenford, Middlesex; was educated for an artist, and exhibited; proved a gooddraughtsman; became captain of Sussex militia; published the "Antiquitiesof England and Wales" (1773-1787); came to Scotland in 1789 on anantiquarian tour, and made the acquaintance of Burns, who celebrated himin his "Hear, Land o' Cakes and Brither Scots, " as "a chield's amang youtakin' notes, and faith he'll prent it"; was an easy-going man, with acorpulent figure, a smack of humour, and a hearty boon companion; livedto publish his "Antiquities of Scotland and Ireland"; died at Dublin inan apoplectic fit (1731-1791). 

GROSSMITH, GEORGE, actor, famous for leading parts in Gilbert andSullivan's operas, and since as giving single-handed dramatic sketchesand songs, written by himself and set to music by himself; _b. _ 1847. 

GROSSMITH, WEEDON, actor, artist, and contributor to _Art Magazine_and _Punch_; brother of preceding. 

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT, a famous bishop of Lincoln, born at Stradbroke, Suffolk, of peasant parents; a man of rare learning, he became a lecturerin the Franciscan school at Oxford, and rose through various stages to bebishop of Lincoln in 1235; he was an active Parliamentarian, and gavevaluable assistance to his friend Simon de Montfort in the struggle withHenry III. , and headed the Church reform party against the nepotism ofInnocent IV. ; according to Stubbs, "he was the most learned, the mostacute, and most holy man of his time" (1175-1253). 

GROTE, GEORGE, historian and politician, born at Clay Hill, nearBeckenham, of German descent; was a banker to business; spent his leisuretime in the study of philosophy and history; contributed to the_Westminster Review_, a philosophical Radical organ at that time;represented the City of London in that interest from 1833 to 1841, whenhe retired to devote all his time to his "History of Greece, " of whichthe first volumes appeared In 1846 and the last in 1856, making 12volumes in all; this work contributed to dispel many erroneousimpressions, in regard particularly to Athens and its politicalconstitution; wrote on Plato and Aristotle, but his philosophical creedmade it impossible for him to do justice to the Greek metaphysics(1791-1871). 

GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH, antiquary and philologist, born atMinden, Hanover; was director of the Lyceum, Hanover; was the first todecipher the cuneiform inscriptions, a discovery which he gave to theworld in 1802 (1775-1853). 

GROTESQUE, THE, the combination in art of heterogeneous parts, suggested by some whimsically designed paintings in the artificialgrottoes of Roman houses. 

GROTIUS, HUGO, or HUIG VAN GROOT, a celebrated Dutch jurist andtheologian, born at Delft; studied at Leyden under Scaliger, anddisplayed an extraordinary precocity in learning; won the patronage ofHenri IV. While on an embassy to France; practised at the bar in Leyden, and in 1613 was appointed pensionary of Rotterdam; he became embroiled ina religious dispute, and for supporting the Arminians was sentenced toimprisonment for life; escaped in a book chest (a device of his wife), fled to Paris, and was pensioned by Louis XIII. ; in 1625 he published hisfamous work on international law, "De Jure Belli et Pacis"; from 1634 to1645 he acted as Swedish ambassador at Paris; his acute scholarship ismanifested in various theological, historical, and legal treatises; hiswork "De Veritate Religionis Christiana;" is well known (1583-1645). 

GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE, a French marshal, born at Paris;entered the army in 1780, and later gave enthusiastic support to theRevolution, laying aside his title; took part in the Vendéan campaign, the abortive attempt on Ireland, and, under Joubert, in the conquest ofItaly; was a gallant and daring commander in the Piedmontese, Austrian, and Russian campaigns of Napoleon, and by skilful generalship covered theretreat of the French at Leipzig; he was among the first to welcomeNapoleon back from Elba, defeated Blücher at Ligny, but failed to beforward in the field of Waterloo; led the remnants of the French armyback to Paris afterwards, and then retired to the United States; in 1819he returned, and in 1831 was reinstated as marshal (1766-1847). 

GROVE, SIR GEORGE, born at Clapham; trained as a civil engineer, andassisted Robert Stephenson in constructing the Britannia tubular bridge;in 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, a position he heldtill 1852, when he became secretary and director of the Crystal PalaceCompany; subsequently he was editor of _Macmillan's Magazine_, acontributor to Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible, " and is best known forthe "Dictionary of Music and Musicians" which he edited and partly wrote;was knighted in 1883; _b_. 1820. 

GROVE. SIR WILLIAM ROBERT, lawyer and physicist, burn at Swansea;called to the bar; was made a judge in 1871, and knighted a year later, and from 1875 to 1887 he was one of the judges in the High Court ofJustice; throughout his life he busied himself in optical and electricalresearch; in 1839 invented the electric battery named after him, and from1840 to 1847 lectured on Natural Science in the London Institution; in1866 he was President of the British Association; his scientificpublications are various, and are important contributions to theirsubjects (1811-1896). 

GRUB STREET, a street in London near Moorfields, formerly inhabitedby a needy class of jobbing literary men, and the birthplace of inferiorliterary productions. 

GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN, Danish poet and theologian, born in Zealand; was early smitten with a passion for the old Sagaliterature of the North, and published in 1808 "Northern Mythology, "which was followed by other works of a similar nature, patriotic songs, and a translation of "Beowulf"; he entered the Church as a curate in1811; engaged in ardent controversy with the rationalists; became leaderof a Church reform party, the Grundtvigians; was for seven yearssuspended from preaching, and eventually rose to be a bishop inCopenhagen, but had no see (1783-1872). 

GRUNDY, MRS. , an old lady referred to in Thomas Morgan's comedy of"Speed the Plough, " personifying the often affected extreme offence takenby people of the old school at what they consider violations ofpropriety. 

GRUYÈRE, a small town in FREIBURG (q. V. ), where whole-milkcheese is made. 

GUACHO, a native of the South American pampas. 

GUADALQUIVIR, the most important river of Spain, rises in the Sierrade Cazorla, in the southern province of Jaen, and flows in a SW. Direction through Andalusia, passing Cordova and Seville, to which townit is navigable for steamers; after a course of 374 m. It discharges intothe Gulf of Cadiz at San Lucar de Barrameda. 

GUADELOUPE (168), a French island among the Lesser Antilles, in theW. Indies; is subject to earthquakes; produces sugar and coffee; hasbelonged to France since 1816. 

GUADIANA, an important river of Spain, has its source in the E. Ofthe plateau of Mancha, and for a short distance is known as the Zancara, flows in a westerly direction as far as Badajoz, where it bends to theS. , then forms the border between Portugal and Spain for a shortdistance, bends into Alemtejo, and again, ere reaching the Gulf of Cadiz, divides the two countries; it is 510 m. Long, of which only 42 arenavigable. 

GUANAJUATO (1, 007), a central province of Mexico; is rich inminerals, especially silver, and mining is the chief occupation; butstock-raising is of some importance, and large cotton and woollenfactories have of recent years been introduced. The capital, Guanajuato(52), is built on both sides of a deep ravine traversed by a dashingtorrent; it is the centre of the mining industry. 

GUATEMALA (1, 510), a republic of Central America, fronting thePacific on the W. , between Mexico on the N. , and San Salvador andHonduras on the S. ; is for the most part mountainous, with interveningvalleys of rich fertility, little explored; minerals are abundant, andgold and silver are worked, but the wealth of the country lies in itsfertile soil, which produces abundance of coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and fruits of all kinds; there is some manufacture of textiles, pottery, &c. ; the want of good roads has hindered the development of the country;Roman Catholicism prevails, and the government is vested in a Presidentand Council; its independence was proclaimed in 1839. The capital, Guatemala (85), stands on a plateau 72 m. NE. Of its port, San José;there is a cathedral and an archbishop's palace, also electric light, andtramway conveyance. 

GUAYAQUIL (45), the principal port of Ecuador, stands at theentrance of the river Guayaquil into the Gulf of Guayaquil; the foreigntrade is centred here; there are sawmills and iron-works; coffee is byfar the largest export; the town is badly laid out, and yellow fever iscommon. 

GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, a distinguished Italian scholar, born atTurin; in 1863 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence; wasfor a time smitten with the anarchist ideas of Bakunin, whose daughter hemarried, and resigned his chair, but soon returned to his professionallabours; in 1891 he became professor of Sanskrit at Rome; his numerouswritings witness to his unceasing industry and versatility, and deal withOrientalism, mythology, archæology, and general literature; his work"Zoological Mythology, " published in English by Mr. Trübner, is notunknown to scholars among us; _b_. 1840. 

GUDRUN, a heroine in an old German epic so called; betrothed toHerwig, king of Zealand, and carried off by Hochmut, king of Norway, arejected suitor; preferred out of respect to her vow to serve as a menialin his mother's kitchen rather than be his wife; was rescued from duranceby her brother and her betrothed, and being married to Herwig, pardonedthe suitor that had stolen her from his embraces. 

GUELDERLAND (523), a province of Holland, stretching from the ZuiderZee on the NW. To Prussia on the SE. ; agriculture is the staple industry;the Rhine crosses it in the S. 

GUELPHS, a political party in Italy, who from the 11th to the 14thcenturies maintained, against the claims of the Emperors, theindependence of Italy, and the supremacy of the Pope, in opposition tothe GHIBELLINES (q. V. ). 

GUERICKE, OTTO VON, a German physicist, born at Magdeburg;experimented on air, and invented the air-pump (1602-1686). 

GUERIN, MAURICE DE, a French poet, of noble birth; bred for theChurch, but broke away from it; of a genius of marked promise, whose dayswere cut short by an early death; his works included a prose poem calledthe "Centaur" (1810-1838). 

GUERIN, PIERRE, a French painter; treated classical subjects in theclassical style (1774-1833)

GUERNSEY (35), the second in size of the CHANNEL ISLANDS (q. V. );fruit and vegetables are largely exported, and it is noted for afine breed of cows; St. Peter's Port is the only town, and has anexcellent harbour. 

GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO, an Italian patriot and author, bornat Leghorn; was trained to the law, but took to literature and produced anumber of brilliant political novels; after the flight of the Duke ofTuscany in 1849 he was proclaimed dictator of the duchy, although littlein sympathy with the republican government, and on the restoration of theduke was imprisoned for three years and banished to Corsica; later he satin the Turin Parliament from 1862 to 1865 (1804-1873). 

GUESCLIN, BERTRAND DU. See DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND. 

GUEST, EDWIN, master of Caius College, Cambridge, antiquary; wroteonly one book "History of English Rhythms, " a work of great learning, butcontributed papers of great value on the early history of England inlearned journals (1800-1880). 

GUEUX, "the Beggars, " the name assumed by the nobles and others inthe Low Countries in the War of Independence against Philip II. Of Spain;being called beggars in reproach by the court party, they adopted thename as well as the dress, wore a fox's tail for a plume and a platterfor a brooch. 

GUIANA, an extensive tract of country in the N. Of S. Americafronting the Atlantic, bordering on Venezuela on the W. , and for therest hemmed in by Brazil; it is divided into British, Dutch, and FrenchGuiana, all fronting the sea; the physical characteristics of all threeare practically the same; a fertile alluvial foreshore, withupward-sloping savannahs and forests to the unexplored highlands, densewith luxuriant primeval forest; rivers numerous, climate humid and hot, with a plentiful rainfall; vegetation, fauna, &c. , of the richesttropical nature; timber, balsams, medicinal barks, fruits, cane-sugar, rice, cereals, &c. , are the chief products; also some gold. BRITISHGUIANA (278) is the most westerly, and borders on Venezuela; area, 88, 650 sq. M. , divided into Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo;GEORGETOWN (q. V. ) is the capital. DUTCH GUIANA or Surinam(73) occupies the central position; area, 46, 058 sq. M. ; capitalPARAMARIBO (q. V. ). FRENCH GUIANA or Cayenne (30) lies tothe E. ; area, 31, 000 sq. M; capital, CAYENNE (q. V. ). 

GUICCIARDINI, an Italian statesman and historian, born in Florence;studied law; became professor of Jurisprudence there; was a disciple ofMacchiavelli; did service as a statesman in the Papal territories; took aleading part in the political changes of Florence; secured therestoration of the Medici to power, and on his retirement composed a"History of Italy during his Own Time, " which he had all but completedwhen he died (1485-1540). 

GUICHARD, KARL, a Prussian officer, born at Magdeburg; joinedFrederick the Great at Breslau, "a solid staid man, of a culture unusualfor a soldier; brought with him his book, 'Memoirs Militaires sur lesGrecs et les Romans, ' a solid account of the matter by the first man whoever understood both war and Greek; very welcome to Frederick, whom hetook to very warmly; dubbed him Quintus Icilius, and had his name soentered as major on the army books; promoted at length to colonel, a rankhe held till the end of the war" (1721-1775). See Carlyle's "Frederick. "

GUICOWAR, the hereditary title of the Mahratta princes who rule overBARODA (q. V. ), in Gujarat, East India. 

GUIDO ARETINUS, a Benedictine monk who flourished at Arezzo, inItaly, during the 11th century, the first to promote the theoreticalstudy of music; he is credited, amongst other things, with the inventionof counterpoint, and was the first to designate notes by means ofalphabetical letters, and to establish the construction of the stave. 

GUIDO RENI, Italian painter of the school of Bologna; best known byhis masterpiece "Aurora and the Hours" at Rome, painted on a ceiling, andhis unfinished "Nativity" at Naples (1575-1642). 

GUIENNE (a corruption of Aquitania), an ancient province of SW. France, now subdivided into the departments of Gironde, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron, and embraces parts of Lot-et-Garonne and Tarn-et-Garonne. 

GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE, an eminent French Orientalist, and Sinologistespecially; was author of "Histoire Générale des Huns, des Turcs, desMoguls, &c. , " a work of vast research (1721-1800). 

GUILDFORD (14), capital of Surrey, on the Wey, 30 m. SW. Of London, a quaint old town with several interesting buildings, and the ruins of aNorman castle; is noted for its "Surrey wheats" and live-stock markets;and has corn, paper, and powder-mills, also iron-works. 

GUILDHALL, a building in London and a hall for banquets of the CityCorporation; destroyed by the fire of 1666 and rebuilt in 1789. 

GUILDHALL SCHOOL OF MUSIC, an institution established by theCorporation of London to provide advanced and thorough instruction inmusic at a moderate rate, a fine building in connection with which waserected in 1887; started with 62, and has now 3600 pupils. TheCorporation have expended £50, 000 on it, besides an annual contributionof £2300. 

GUILDS, associations of craftsmen or tradesmen in the Middle Ages towatch over and protect the interests of their craft or trade, and to seethat it is honourably as well as economically conducted, each with a bodyof officials to superintend its affairs; they were associations formutual help, and of great benefit to the general community, religiouslyand morally, as well as municipally. 

GUILLOTINE, a beheading-machine invented by a Dr. Guillotin, andrecommended by him to the National Convention, which adopted it; "with mymachine, Messieurs, I whisk off your head in a twinkling, and you have nopain;" it was anticipated by the _Maiden_ in Scotland. 

GUINEA, a name somewhat loosely applied to an extensive tract ofterritory on the W. Coast of Africa, generally recognised as extendingfrom the mouth of the Senegal in the N. To Cape Negro in the S. , and isfurther designated as Lower and Upper Guinea, the boundary line beingpractically the Equator; the territory is occupied by various colonies ofBritain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, and the Negro Republic ofLiberia. 

GUINEGATE, a village in Hainault, SW. Of Belgium, where Henry VIII. Defeated the French in 1513 in the Battle of the SPURS (q. V. ). 

GUINEVERE, the wife of King Arthur; the most beautiful of women, conceived a guilty passion for Lancelot, one of Arthur's knights, andmarried Modred, her husband's nephew, in the latter's absence on anexpedition against the Romans, on hearing of which he returned, metModred on the field of battle, whom he slew, fell mortally woundedhimself, while she escaped to a nunnery. Tennyson gives a differentversion in his "Idylls. "

GUISCARD, ROBERT, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, born at Coutances, inNormandy; along with his brothers, sons of Tancred de Hauteville, he, thesixth of twelve, following others of the family, invaded S. Italy; wonrenown by his great prowess, and in the end the dukedom of Apulia; heengaged in war with the Emperor of the East, but returned to suppress arevolt in his own territory; when Pope Gregory VII. Was besieged in SanAngelo by Henry IV. Of Germany he came to the rescue and the emperor madeoff (1015-1085). 

GUISE, a celebrated French ducal family deriving its title from thetown of Guise in Aisne. 

GUISE, CHARLES, CARDINAL OF LORRAINE, DUKE OF, son of thesucceeding, and considered the ablest of the Guise family; was archbishopof Rheims in 1538, and cardinal of Lorraine in 1547; was prominent at theCouncil of Trent, and in conjunction with his brother fiercely opposedProtestantism (1527-1574). 

GUISE, CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, first Duke of, fifth son of René II. , Duke of Lorraine; distinguished himself in the service of Francis I. , whoconferred on him the dukedom of Guise; was the grandfather of Mary, Queenof Scots, through his daughter Marie, wife of James V. Of Scotland(1496-1550). 

GUISE, FRANCIS, second Duke of, and son of preceding; rose, to thehighest eminence as a soldier, winning, besides many others, the greatvictory of Metz (1552) over the Germans, and capturing Calais from theEnglish in 1558; along with his brother CHARLES (q. V. ) he wasvirtual ruler of France during the feeble rule of Francis II. , and thesetwo set themselves to crush the rise of Protestantism; he was murdered bya Huguenot at the siege of Orleans (1519-1563). 

GUISE, HENRY I. , third Duke of, son of Francis; the murder of hisfather added fresh zeal to his inborn hatred of the Protestants, andthroughout his life he persecuted them with merciless rigour; he was aparty to the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572); his ambitious designs onthe crown of France brought about his assassination (1550-1588). 

GUISE, HENRY II. , fifth Duke of, grandson of preceding; at 15 hebecame archbishop of Rheims, but the death of his brother placed him inthe dukedom (1640); he opposed Richelieu, was condemned to death, butfled to Flanders; with Masaniello he made a fruitless attempt to seizethe kingdom of Naples, and eventually settled in Paris, becominggrand-chamberlain to Louis XIV. (1614-1664). 

GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME, a celebrated French historian andstatesman, born at Nîmes; his boyhood was spent at Geneva, and in 1805 hecame to Paris to study law, but he soon took to writing, and in histwenty-fourth year had published several works and translated Gibbon'sgreat history; in 1812 he was appointed to the chair of History in theSorbonne; on the second restoration (1814) became Secretary-General ofthe Ministry of the Interior; the return of Napoleon drove him fromoffice, but on the downfall of the Corsican he received the post ofSecretary to the Ministry of Justice; in 1830 he threw in his lot withLouis Philippe, became Minister of Public Instruction, Foreign Minister, and Prime Minister; his political career practically closed with thedownfall of Louis Philippe; his voluminous historical works, executedbetween his terms of office and in his closing years, display widelearning and a great faculty of generalisation; the best known are "TheHistory of the English Revolution" and "The History of Civilisation"; asa statesman he was honest, patriotic, but short-sighted (1787-1874). 

GUJARAT (3, 098), a N. Maritime province of the Presidency of Bombay, lying between the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay; it is a rich alluvialcountry, and chiefly comprises the native States of Kathiawar, Cutch, andBaroda. 

GULF STREAM, the most important of the great ocean currents; itissues by the Strait of Florida from the Gulf of Mexico (whence itsname), a vast body of water 50 m. Wide, with a temperature of 84° and aspeed of 5 m. An hour; flows along the coast of the U. S. As far asNewfoundland, whence it spreads itself in a NE. Direction across theAtlantic, throwing out a branch which skirts the coasts of Spain andAfrica, while the main body sweeps N. Between the British Isles andIceland, its influence being perceptible as far as Spitzbergen; theclimate of Britain has been called "the gift of the Gulf Stream, " and itis the genial influence of this great current which gives to GreatBritain and Norway their warm and humid atmosphere, and preserves themfrom experiencing a climate like Labrador and Greenland, a climate whichtheir latitude would otherwise subject them to. 

GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, physician, born at Thorpe-le-Soken;received his medical training at London, and in 1843 became professor ofPhysiology at the Royal Institution; four years later he was appointedclinical lecturer at Guy's Hospital; in 1871 his attendance on the Princeof Wales brought him a baronetcy; published various lectures and paperson cholera, paralysis, &c. (1816-1890). 

GULLIVER, the hero of Swift's satirical romance entitled "Gulliver'sTravels, " which records his adventures among the pigmies of Lilliput, thegiants of Brobdingnag, the quacks of Laputa, and the HOUYHNHNMS(q. V. ). 

GULLY, RIGHT HON. WILLIAM COURT, Speaker of the House of Commonssince 1895; has represented Carlisle since 1886, is son of Dr. Gully ofwater-cure celebrity; _b_. 1835. 

GUN-COTTON, a powerful explosive formed by the action of nitric orsulphuric acid on cotton or some similar vegetable fibre. 

GUN-METAL, a tough, close-grained alloy of copper and tin. 

GUNNINGS, two beautiful Irish girls, MARIA (1733-1760) andELIZABETH (1734-1790), the elder of whom became Countess ofCromarty, and the younger married first the Duke of Hamilton (1752) andafterwards the first Duke of Argyll (1759). 

GUNPOWDER PLOT, an attempt on the part of a conspiracy to blow upthe Parliament of England on Nov. 5, 1605, on the day of the opening, when it was expected the King, Lords, and Commons would be all assembled;the conspirators were a small section of Roman Catholics dissatisfiedwith King James's government, and were headed by Robert Catesby, thecontriver of the plot; the plot was discovered, and Guy Fawkes wasarrested as he was proceeding to carry it into execution, while the rest, who fled, were pursued, taken prisoners, and the chief of them put todeath. 

GUNTER, EDMUND, mathematician, born in Hertfordshire; was educatedat Oxford for the Church, but his natural bent was towards mathematicalscience, and in 1619 he became professor of Astronomy in Gresham College, London, a position he held till his death; his "Canon Triangulorum"(1620) was the first table of logarithmic sines and tangents drawn up onBriggs's system; amongst other of his inventions was the surveying chain, a quadrant, Gunter's scale, and he was the first to observe thevariations of the compass (1581-1626). 

GUNTHER, king of Burgundy and brother of Chriemhild; his ambitionwas to wed BRUNHILDA (q. V. ), who could only be won by one whosurpassed her in three trials of skill and strength; by the help ofSiegfried, who veiled himself in a cloak of darkness, he succeeded notonly in winning her hand, but in reducing her to wifely subjection aftershe was wed. 

GUPPY, the name of a pert, conceited lawyer's clerk who figures inDickens's "Bleak House. "

GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN, a Quaker philanthropist and writer, born atEarlham Hall, near Norwich; in 1818 he became a Quaker minister; heenergetically co-operated with his sister, Mrs. Elizabeth Fry, inbringing about a reform of the prison system, and otherwise spent hislife in philanthropic work; his works include "Prison Discipline, " 1819, "Religious Peculiarities of the Society of Friends, " 1824 (1788-1847). 

GUSTAVUS (I. ) VASA or GUSTAVUS ERICSSEN, king of Sweden from1523 to 1560, born at Lindholm, in Upland; having conceived the idea offreeing his country from the yoke of Denmark, under which it had fallenin 1519, and his early efforts to infuse a spirit of patriotic rebellioninto the Swedes proving ineffectual, he was captured by the Danes;escaping from captivity, he became a wanderer in his own land, working inmines and enduring great privations, but at last, in 1520, the Swedeswere goaded to rebellion, and under him eventually drove the Danes fromtheir land in 1523; during his long reign Gustavus gradually brought hisat first disorganised empire into a peaceful and united realm(1496-1560). 

GUSTAVUS (II. ) ADOLPHUS, king of Sweden from 1611 to 1632, born atStockholm, grandson of preceding and son of Charles IX. ; successfulterritorial wars with Denmark and Russia occupied him during the earlyyears of his reign, and in 1629 he concluded an advantageous truce forsix years with Poland; next he espoused the Protestant cause in Germanyagainst the Catholic League; victory crowned his efforts at every step, but in the great battle of Lützen (near Leipzig), whilst facingWALLENSTEIN (q. V. ), his most powerful opponent, he fell in theact of rallying his forces, and in the hour of success, not withoutsuspicion of having been assassinated; he ranks amongst the greatest ofchampions (1594-1632). 

GUSTAVUS III. , king of Sweden from 1771 to 1792; succeeded hisfather Adolphus Frederick; he found himself early at conflict with hisnobles, and in 1772, supported by popular feeling, imposed a newconstitution on the country greatly diminishing their power; Gustavus wasan enlightened ruler, but somewhat alienated his people from him by hisextravagance and fondness for French modes of life; in 1788 he becameembroiled in a purposeless war with Russia; he was assassinated whenabout to take up arms in behalf of the Bourbon cause against the FrenchRepublicans (1746-1792). 

GUSTAVUS IV. , king of Sweden from 1792 to 1809, son of preceding;his incompetency and stubbornness made him an ill ruler; territory waslost to the French, and Finland to Russia, while an attack on Norwayproved a failure; popular indignation rose to a height in 1809; he wasdeposed, and the crown given to his uncle, Charles XIII. ; after this helived on the Continent (1778-1837). 

GUTENBURG, JOHANNES or HENNE, also called GENSFLEISCH, claimed by the Germans to have been the inventor of the art of printingwith movable types, born at Mainz; for some time lived in Strasburg as apolisher of precious stones, mirrors, &c. ; he set up his firstprinting-press at Mainz about 1450 (1400-1468). 

GUTHRIE, THOMAS, a Scottish clergyman, distinguished as a pulpitorator and a philanthropist, born in Brechin; was minister at Arbirlot, near Arbroath, and then in Edinburgh; left the Established Church at theDisruption, and became minister of St. John's; traversed the country(1845-46) to raise a fund to provide manses for the Disruption ministers, and realised £116, 000 for the object; came forward as an advocate forragged schools, and founded one in Edinburgh; he was a warm-hearted manas well as an eloquent, who could both move his audience to tears androuse it to enthusiasm (1803-1873). 

GUTTA-PERCHA, the inspissated juice of a tree found in the MalayArchipelago. 

GUY, THOMAS, founder of Guy's Hospital, London, born at Horsleydown, Southwark, London; he started as a bookseller in 1668, and after theimportation of English Bibles from Holland was stopped he obtained theprivilege of printing Bibles for Oxford University; lucky speculation inSouth Sea stock, combined with his printing business, enabled him toamass an immense fortune, which he devoted largely to charitablepurposes; from 1695 to 1702 he sat in Parliament (1645-1724). 

GUY OF WARWICK, a hero of English romance of the 13th century, whowon the hand of the daughter of the Earl of Warwick by a succession ofastonishing feats of valour, but repented of the slaughter he had made, and went a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; returned to his wife disguised asa palmer; retired into a hermitage; when about to die sent a ring to her, upon which she came and interred him; she died 15 days after him, and wasburied by his side. 

GUYON, SIR, a knight in Spenser's "Faërie Queene, " the impersonationof temperance and self-control; he subdued the sorceress Acrasia (i. E. Intemperance), and was the destroyer of her "Bower of Bliss. "

GWALIOR (3, 378), a native State of Central India, under Britishprotection since 1803; governed by the Maharajah Sindhia; area, 29, 067sq. M. ; consists of scattered districts in the basins of the Jumna andNerbudda; opium is the chief export. Gwalior, the capital (1, 041), issituated 65 m. S. Of Agra; the citadel is very strongly posted on a steeprocky base 340 ft. High. 

GWYNN, NELL, a "pretty, witty" actress of Drury Lane, who becamemistress of Charles II. , whose son by her was created Duke of St. Albans;the king was very fond of her and took special thought of her when he wasdying (1640-1691). 

GYGES, a young shepherd of Lydia, who, according to classic legend, possessed a magic ring of gold by which he could render himselfinvisible; he repaired to the Court of Candaules, whose first minister hebecame, whose chamber he entered invisibly, and whom he put to death toreign in his stead. 

GYMNOSOPHISTS, a set of contemplative philosophers among the Hinduswho practised an extreme asceticism and went about almost naked. 

GYMNOTUS, an electric eel of South America, and found in the freshwaters of Brazil and Guiana. 

GYPSIES, a race of people of wandering habits, presumed to be ofIndian origin, found scattered over Europe, Asia, and Africa, and even inAmerica, who appear to have begun to migrate westward from the valley ofthe Indus about A. D. 1000, and to have reached Europe in the 14thcentury, and to owe their name gypsies to their supposed origin in Egypt. They in general adhere to their unsettled habits wherever they go, showthe same tastes, and follow the same pursuits, such as tinkering, mat-making, basket-making, fortune-telling. On their first appearancethey were mere vagabonds and thieves. 

H

HAAFIZ. See HÄFIZ. 

HAARLEM (58), a handsome town in the province of N. Holland on theSpaarne, 4 m. From the sea, and 12 m. W. Of Amsterdam; has a fine15th-century church with a famous organ (8000 pipes), linen and otherfactories, &c. , and is noted for its tulip-gardens and trade inflower-bulbs; it is intersected by several canals as well as the rivers;there existed at one time a lagoon of the Zuyder Zee called HAARLEMLAKE, which stretched southward as far as Leyden, between Amsterdamand Haarlem; but destructive inundations, caused by the tidal advance in1836, compelled the Government to set about draining it, and thisdifficult engineering operation was successfully carried through by anEnglish company during 1839-52. 

HABAKKUK, a book of the Old Testament by a Levite, whose name itbears, and who appears to have flourished in the 7th century B. C. , containing a prophecy which belongs, both in substance and form, to theclassic period of Hebrew literature, and is written in a style which hasbeen described as being "for grandeur and sublimity of conception, forgorgeousness of imagery, and for melody of language, among the foremostproductions of that literature. " The spirit of it is one: faith, namely, in the righteous ways of the Lord; but the burden is twofold; to denouncethe judgment of God on the land for the violence and wrong that prevailedin it, as about to be executed on it by a power still more violent andunjust in its ways; and to comfort the generation of the righteous withthe assurance of a time when this very rod of God's wrath shall in thepride of its power be broken in pieces, and the Lord be revealed asseated in His Holy Temple. 

HABBERTON, JOHN, author of "Helen's Babies, " born in Brooklyn, NewYork; was first a clerk and then a journalist; his other works include"Other People's Children, " "The Worst Boy in Town, " &c. ; _b_. 1842. 

HABEAS CORPUS, an Act of Parliament passed in the reign of CharlesII. To ensure the protection of one accused of a crime prior toconviction in an open court of justice. 

HABINGTON, THOMAS, a Worcester gentleman of fortune, involved at onetime in a conspiracy to release Mary, Queen of Scots, from prison, andconvicted at another of concealing some of the agents in the GunpowderPlot (1560-1647). 

HABINGTON, WILLIAM, poet and historian, son of the preceding; adevoted Catholic, "who did not run with the times"; author of "Castara, "a collection of exquisite lyrics in homage to his wife, and incelebration of her charms and virtues (1605-1654). 

HACHETTE, JEAN, French mathematician; one of the founders of theÉcole Polytechnique (1769-1834). 

HACHETTE, JEANNE, a French heroine, born in Beauvais, who took partin the defence of her native town when besieged in 1472 by Charles theBold. 

HACKLÄNDER, German novelist and dramatist, born nearAix-la-Chapelle; his writings, which show a genial humour, have beencompared to those of Dickens (1816-1877). 

HACKNEY (230), an important parish and borough of Middlesex, asuburb of London, 3 m. NE. Of St. Paul's; returns three members ofParliament. 

HACO V. , king of Norway from 1223 to 1263; was defeated by AlexanderIII. Of Scotland at Largs, and died at the Orkneys on his way home. 

HADDINGTON (3), the county town, on the Tyne, 17 m. E. Of Edinburgh;has interesting ruins of an abbey church, called the "Lamp of Lothian, " acruciform pile with a central tower, a corn exchange, &c. ; was thebirthplace of John Knox, Samuel Smiles, and Jane Welsh Carlyle. 

HADDINGTONSHIRE or EAST LOTHIAN (37), a maritime county ofScotland, on the E. Fronting the Firth of Forth and the North Sea, N. OfBerwickshire; on the southern border lie the Lammermuir Hills; the Tyneis the only river; considerable quantities of coal and limestone arewrought, but agriculture is the chief industry, 64 per cent, of the landbeing under cultivation. 

HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR, an etcher and writer on etching, born inLondon; was bred to medicine, and in 1857 became F. R. C. S. ; in 1843 hetook up etching as a pastime and has since pursued it with enthusiasm andconspicuous success; he has won medals in France, America, and Englandfor the excellency of his workmanship, while his various writings havelargely contributed to revive interest in the art; he is President of theSociety of Painters, and in 1894 a knighthood was conferred upon him;_b_. 1818. 

HADES (lit. The Unseen), the dark abode of the shades of the deadin the nether world, the entrance into which, on the confines of theWestern Ocean, is unvisited by a single ray of the sun; originally thegod of the nether world, and a synonym of PLUTO (q. V. ). 

HADITH, the Mohammedan Talmud, being a traditional account ofMahomet's sayings and doings. 

HADJI, a Mohammedan who has made his Hadj or pilgrimage to Mecca, and kissed the Black Stone of the CAABA (q. V. ); the term isalso applied to pilgrims to Jerusalem. 

HADLEIGH (3), an interesting old market-town of Suffolk, on theBret, 9½ m. W. Of Ipswich; its cloth trade dates back to 1331; Guthrum, the Danish king, died here in 889, and Dr. Rowland Taylor sufferedmartyrdom in 1555. Also a small parish of Essex, near the N. Shore of theThames estuary, 37 m. E. Of London, where in 1892 the Salvation Armyplanted their farm-colony. 

HADLEY, JAMES, an American Greek scholar, and one of the Americancommittee on the revision of the New Testament (1821-1872). 

HADLEY, JOHN, natural philosopher; invented a 5 ft. Reflectingtelescope, and a quadrant which bears his name, though the honour of theinvention has been assigned to others, Newton included (1682-1744). 

HADRAMAUT (150), a dry and healthy plateau in Arabia, extendingalong the coast from Aden to Cape Ras-al-Hadd, nominally a dependency ofTurkey. 

HADRIAN, Roman emperor, born in Rome; distinguished himself underTrajan, his kinsman; was governor of Syria, and was proclaimed emperor bythe army on Trajan's death in A. D. 117; had troubles both at home andabroad on his accession, but these settled, he devoted the last 18 yearsof his reign chiefly to the administration of affairs throughout theempire; visited Gaul in 120, whence he passed over to Britain, where hebuilt the great wall from the Tyne to the Solway; he was a Greek scholar, had a knowledge of Greek literature, encouraged industry, literature, andthe arts, as well as reformed the laws (76-138). 

HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH, an eminent German biologist, born atPotsdam; carried through his medical studies at Berlin and Vienna; earlyevinced an enthusiasm for zoology, and, after working for some time atNaples and Messina, in 1865 became professor of Zoology at Jena; here hespent a life of unceasing industry, varied only by expeditions to Arabia, India, Ceylon, and different parts of Europe in the prosecution of hisscientific theories; he was the first among German scientists to embraceand apply the evolutionary theories of Darwin, and along these lines hehas produced several works of first-rate importance in biology; his greatworks on calcareous sponges, on jelly-fishes, and corals are enriched byelaborate plates of outstanding value; he made important contributions tothe _Challenger_ reports, and was among the first to outline thegenealogical tree of animal life; his name is associated withfar-reaching speculations on heredity, sexual selection, and variousproblems of embryology; "The Natural History of Creation, " "Treatise onMorphology, " "The Evolution of Man, " are amongst his more popular works;_b_. 1834. 

HÄFIZ, his real name Shems-Eddin-Mohammed, the great lyric poet ofPersia, born in Shiraz, where he spent his life; he has been called theAnacreon of Persia; his poetry is of a sensuous character, though theimages he employs are Interpreted by some in a supersensuous or mysticalsense; Goethe composed a series of lyrics in imitation; the name Häfizdenotes a Mohammedan who knows the Korân and the Hadith by heart(1320-1391). 

HAGAR, Sarah's maid, of Egyptian birth, who became by Abraham themother of Ishmael and of the Ishmaelites. 

HAGEDORN, a German poet, born at Hamburg; was secretary to theEnglish factory there; wrote fables, tales, and moral poems (1708-1754). 

HAGEN, king of Burgundy; the murderer of Siegfried in the"Nibelungen Lied, " who is in turn killed by Chriemhild, Siegfried's wife, with Siegfried's sword. 

HAGENAU (15), a town of Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the HagenauForest, on the Moder, 21 m. NE. Of Strasburg; has two quaint old churchesof the 12th and the 13th century respectively; hops and wine are thechief articles of commerce; was ceded to Germany in 1871. 

HAGENBACH, KARL, a German theologian, born at Basel, and professorthere; was a disciple of Schleiermacher; wrote a church history; is bestknown by his "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, " or "History of Dogmas"(1801-1874). 

HAGGADAH, a system of professedly traditional, mostly fanciful, amplifications of the historical and didactic, as distinct from thelegal, portions of Jewish scripture; is a reconstructing and remodellingof both history and dogma; for the Jews seem to have thought, though theywere bound to the letter of the Law, that any amount of licence wasallowed them in the treatment of history and dogma. 

HAGGAI, one of the Hebrew prophets of the Restoration (of Jerusalemand the Temple) after the Captivity, and who, it would seem, had returnedfrom Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua. Signs of the divine displeasurehaving appeared on account of the laggard spirit in which the Restorationwas prosecuted by the people, this prophet was inspired to lift up hisprotest and rouse their patriotism, with the result that his appeal tookinstant effect, for in four years the work was finished and the Templededicated to the worship of Jehovah, as of old, in 516 B. C. ; his book isa record of the prophecies he delivered in that connection, and thestyle, though prosaic, is pure and clear. 

HAGGARD, RIDER, novelist, born in Norfolk; after service in a civiccapacity in Natal, and in partly civil and partly military service in theTransvaal, adopted the profession of literature; first rose intopopularity as author in 1885 by the publication of "King Solomon'sMines, " the promise of which was sustained in a measure by a series ofsubsequent novels beginning with "She" in 1887; _b_. 1856. 

HAGGIS, a Scotch dish, "great chieftain o' the puddin' race, "composed of the chopped lungs, heart, and liver of a sheep, mixed withsuet and oatmeal, seasoned with onions, pepper, salt, &c. , and boiled ina sheep's stomach. 

HAGIOGRAPHA, the third division of the Jewish canon of scripture, which included the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Chronicles, Ezra, andNehemiah. 

HAGUE, THE (166), the capital of the Netherlands, seat of the Courtand of the Government, 15 m. NW. Of Rotterdam and 2 m. From the NorthSea; is handsomely laid out, in spacious squares and broad streets, withstately buildings, statues, and winding canals, beautifully fringed withlindens and spanned by many bridges; has a fine picture-gallery, a royallibrary (200, 000 vols. ), archives rich in historical documents of rarevalue, an ancient castle, palace, and a Gothic church of the 14thcentury; industries embrace cannon-foundries, copper and lead smelting, printing, &c. ; it is connected by tramway with Scheveningen, afashionable watering-place on the coast. 

HAHN-HAHN, IDA, a German authoress of aristocratic birth andprejudice, who, on the dissolution of an unhappy marriage, soughtconsolation in travel, and literature of a rather sickly kind(1805-1880). 

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL, a German physician, the founder ofHOMOEOPATHY (q. V. ), born at Meissen; established himself inpractice in Dresden on orthodox lines and enjoyed a high reputation, butretired to revise the whole system of medicine in vogue, of which he hadbegun to entertain misgivings, and by various researches and experimentscame to the conclusion that the true principle of the healing art was_similia similibus curantur_, "like things are cured by like, " which heannounced as such to the medical world in 1796, and on which he proceededto practise first in Leipzig and finally in Paris, where he died(1755-1843). 

HAIDEE, a beautiful Greek girl in "Don Juan, " who, falling in lovewith the hero and losing him, came to a tragic end. 

HAIDUK or HAJDUK (i. E. Cowherd), a name bestowed on a bodyof irregular infantry in Hungary who kept up a guerilla warfare in the16th century against the Turks; in 1605 a stretch of territory on theleft bank of the Theiss was conferred upon them, together with a measureof local government and certain other privileges; but in 1876 theirterritory was incorporated in the county of Hajdu; the name was in latertimes applied to the Hungarian infantry and to noblemen's retainers. 

HAILES, LORD, SIR DAVID DALRYMPLE, Scottish judge and antiquary, born at Edinburgh; was called to the Scotch bar in 1748, and raised tothe bench in 1768; ten years later he became a justiciary lord; hedevoted his vacations to literary pursuits, and a series of valuablehistorical works came from his pen, which include "Annals of Scotlandfrom Malcolm III. To Robert I. " and "Annals of Scotland from Robert I. Tothe Accession of the House of Stuart, " "A Discourse on the GowrieConspiracy, " &c. (1726-1792). 

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE, lies 2 m. SE. Of Hertford; was founded in 1809by the East India Company as a training institution for their cadets, andwas in use till 1858, when the company ceased to exist; in 1862 it wasconverted into a public school. 

HAINAN (2, 500), an island of China, in the extreme S. , between theGulf of Tongking and the China Sea, 15 m. S. Of the mainland; agricultureis the staple industry; the mountainous and wooded interior is occupiedby the aboriginal Les. 

HAINAULT (1, 082), a southern province of Belgium bordering onFrance, between W. Flanders and Namur; the N. And W. Is occupied byfertile plains; the Forest of Ardennes extends into the S. , where alsoare the richest coal-fields of Belgium; iron and lead are wrought also;the chief rivers are the Scheldt, Sambre, Dender, and Haine; textiles, porcelain, and iron goods are manufactured; Mons is the capital. 

HAKIM or HAKEM, a Mohammedan name for a ruler, a physician, ora wise man. 

HAKIM BEN ALLAH or BEN HASHEM, surnamed MOKANNA (i. E. The Veiled or the One-Eyed); the founder of a religious sect inKhorassan, Persia, in the 8th century; he pretended to be God incarnate, and wore over his face a veil to shroud, as his followers believed, thedazzling radiance of his countenance, but in reality to hide the loss ofan eye, incurred in earlier years when he had served as a common soldier;the sect was after fierce fighting suppressed by the Caliph, and Hakim issaid to have flung himself into a vessel of powerfully corrosive acid inthe hope that, his body being destroyed, a belief in his translation toheaven might spread among his followers; the story of Hakim is told inMoore's "Lalla Rookh. "

HAKLUYT, RICHARD, English author; was educated at Oxford, and becamechaplain to the English embassy in Paris; wrote on historical subjects;his principal work, published in 1589, "Principal Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation by Land and Sea, " a work which, detailing as it does the great deeds of Englishmen, particularly on thesea, has borne very considerable fruit in English life and literaturesince (1552-1616). 

HAKODATE (66), one of the open ports of Yezo in Japan, with a largeharbour and large export trade. 

HAL (9), a town of Belgium, 9 m. SW. From Brussels; noted for its14th-century church, which contains a black wooden image of the Virgincredited with miraculous powers, and resorted to by pilgrims. 

HALACHA, the Jewish law as developed into validity by the decisionsof the Scribes, on the basis of inferential reasoning or establishedcustom; it was of higher authority than the law as written, though notheld valid till sanctioned by a majority of the doctors. 

HALBERSTADT (37), an interesting old town in Prussian Saxony, 30 m. SW. Of Magdeburg; the 13th-century cathedral is a fine specimen ofPointed Gothic, and the Church of Our Lady, a 12th-century structure, isin the Byzantine style; its industries embrace gloves, cigars, machines, sugar, &c. 

HALCYON DAYS, days of peace, happiness, and prosperity, properly theseven days before and the seven after the winter Solstice, days of quiet, during which the halcyon, or kingfisher, is fabled to be breeding. 

HALDANE, ROBERT, born in London, and JAMES, born in Dundee, brothers; entered the English navy, and after distinguishing themselvesin it, left the service, and devoted their time and their wealth toevangelistic labours and the building of "tabernacles, " as they werecalled, for religious worship in connection eventually with the Baptistbody; they both contributed to theological literature in the Calvinisticinterest; Robert died in 1842, being born in 1764, and James in 1851, being born in 1766. 

HALE, SIR MATTHEW, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born at Alderley, Gloucestershire: in 1629 he entered Lincoln's Inn after some years ofroving and dissipation, and eight years later was called to the bar; ashe held aloof from the strife between king and commons, his service asadvocate were in requisition by both parties, and in 1653 he was raisedto the bench by Cromwell; on the death of the Protector he declined toreceive his commission anew from Richard Cromwell, and favoured thereturn of Charles; after the Restoration he was made Chief Baron of theExchequer and knighted; in 1671 he was created Lord Chief-Justice;charges of "trimming" have been made against him, but his integrity as alawyer has never been impugned (1609-1676). 

HALES, ALEXANDER OF, a scholastic philosopher, surnamed "DoctorIrrefragabilis, " who flourished in the 15th century; author of "SummaTheologiæ. "

HALES, JOHN, the "Ever-memorable, " canon of Windsor; a mostscholarly man, liberal-minded and highly cultured; was professor of Greekat Oxford; suffered great hardships under the Puritan supremacy(1584-1656). 

HALES, STEPHEN, scientist, born at Beckesbourn, Kent; became aFellow of Cambridge in 1702; took holy orders, and in 1710 settled downin the curacy of Teddington, Middlesex; science was his ruling passion, and his "Vegetable Staticks" is the first work to broach a truemorphology of plants; his papers on Ventilation led to a wide-spreadreform in prison ventilation, and his method of collecting gases greatlyfurthered the work of subsequent chemists (1677-1761). 

HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS ELIAS, a French operatic composer, born atParis; became a professor at the Conservatoire; wrote a large number ofoperas, of which "La Juive" and "L'Éclair" were the best, and enjoyed aEuropean reputation (1799-1862). 

HALÉVY, JOSEPH, French Orientalist and traveller, born atAdrianople; his most notable work was done in Yemen, which he crossedduring 1869-70 in search of Sabæan inscriptions, no European havingtraversed that land since A. D. 24; the result was a most valuablecollection of 800 inscriptions, &c. ; his works are numerous, and dealwith various branches of Oriental study; _b_. 1827. 

HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER, Nova Scotian judge and author, born atWindsor, Nova Scotia; was called to the bar in 1820, and soon after waselected a member of the House of Assembly; in 1840 he became Judge of theSupreme Court, and two years later retired to England, where, in 1869, heentered Parliament; he wrote several books bearing on Nova Scotia andaspects of colonial life, but is best known as the author of "Sam Slick, "Yankee clockmaker, peripatetic philosopher, wit, and dispenser of "softsawder" (1796-1865). 

HALICARNASSUS, a Greek city, and the chief of Caria, in Asia Minor, on the sea-coast opposite the island of Cos, the birthplace of Herodotus;celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus, called the MAUSOLEUM (q. V. ). 

HALIDON HILL, an eminence in Northumberland, on the Tweed, 2 m. FromBerwick, the scene of a bloody battle in 1333 between the English andScots, to the defeat of the latter. 

HALIFAX, 1, a prosperous manufacturing town (90), in the West Ridingof Yorkshire, situated amid surrounding hills on the Hebble, 43 m. SW. OfYork; the staple industries are carpet and worsted manufacturing, thecarpet works being the largest in the world; cotton, merinos, and damasksare also woven and dyed. 2, capital (39), of Nova Scotia; the naval andmilitary head-quarters of the British in North America, and the chiefport in East Canada; is situated near the head of Chebucto Bay, whichforms a magnificent harbour; a citadel and masked batteries defend thetown; it is an important railway and shipping terminus and coalingstation; its gravingdock is the largest in America; it is the seat ofDalhousie University. 

HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF, a celebrated Whig statesman, born at Horton, Northamptonshire; a clever skit on Dryden's "Hind andPanther, " entitled "The Town and Country Mouse, " written in collaborationwith Prior after he had left Cambridge, brought him some reputation as awit; in 1688 he entered the Convention Parliament, and attached himselfto William's party, when his remarkable financial ability soon broughthim to the front; in 1692 he brought forward his scheme for a NationalDebt, and two years later founded the Bank of England in accordance withthe scheme of William Paterson; in the same year he became Chancellor ofthe Exchequer, and in 1697 Prime Minister; in conjunction with Sir IsaacNewton, Master of the Mint, he carried through a re-coinage, and was thefirst to introduce Exchequer Bills; in 1699 he was created a Baron, andsubsequently was made the victim of a prolonged and embittered butunsuccessful impeachment; with the accession of George I. He came back topower as Prime Minister, and received an earldom (1661-1715). 

HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILLE, MARQUIS OF, a noted statesman who played aprominent part in the changing politics of Charles II. 's and James II. 'sreigns, and whose apparently vacillating conduct won him the epithet of"Trimmer"; he was an orator of brilliant powers and imbued with patrioticmotives, and through his various changes may be seen a real desire toserve the cause of civil and religious liberty, but he was never areliable party man; on the abdication of James II. He, as President ofthe Convention Parliament, proffered the crown to William of Orange; herose through successive titles to be a marquis in 1682; his writings, chief of which is "Character of a Trimmer" (practically a defence of hisown life), are marked by a pungent wit and graceful persuasiveness (about1630-1695). 

HALL, BASIL, explorer and miscellaneous writer, born in Edinburgh, son of Sir James Hall of Dunglass, a noted chemist and geologist; rose tobe a post-captain in the navy, and in 1816 made a voyage of discovery onthe coast of the Corea and the Great Loo Choo Islands, his account ofwhich forms a fascinating and highly popular book of travel; during1820-22 he commanded the _Conway_ on the W. Coast of South America, andhis published journals covering that period of Spain's struggle with hercolonies are of considerable historical value; "Travels in North Americain 1827-28" is an entertaining record of travel; was also author of sometales, &c. ; he died insane (1788-1844). 

HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS, Arctic explorer, born at Rochester, NewHampshire; the mystery surrounding Franklin's fate awakened his interestin Arctic exploration, and during 1860-62 he headed a search party, andagain in 1864-69; during the latter time he lived amongst the Eskimo, andreturned with many interesting relics of Franklin's ill-fated expedition;in 1871 he made an unsuccessful attempt to reach the North Pole, and diedat Thank God Harbour in Greenland; he published accounts of hisexpeditions (1821-1871). 

HALL or HALLE, EDWARD, English lawyer and historian, born inLondon; studied law at Gray's Inn; in 1540 he became one of the judges ofthe Sheriff's Court; his fame rests on his history "The Union of the TwoNoble Families of Lancaster and Yorke, " a work which sheds a flood oflight on contemporary events, and is, moreover, a noble specimen ofEnglish prose (1499-1547). 

HALL, JOSEPH, bishop first of Exeter and then of Norwich, born atAshby-de-la-Zouch; was accused of favouring Puritanism, and incurred theenmity of Laud; was sent to the Tower for joining 12 prelates who hadprotested against certain laws passed in Parliament during their enforcedabsence from the House; being released on bail, be returned to Norwich, and was persecuted by the Puritans, who plundered his house and spoiledthe cathedral; was the author of a set of political satires and of"Meditations, " early instances in English literature of an interest inbiography (1574-1656). 

HALL, ROBERT, an eminent Baptist minister and pulpit orator, bornnear Leicester; began his ministry in Bristol, and ended it there after apastorate in Cambridge; was an intimate friend of Sir James Mackintosh(1764-1831). 

HALL, SAMUEL CARTER, founder and editor of the _Art Journal_, bornat Geneva Barracks, co. Waterford; was for a time a gallery reporter;succeeded Campbell, the poet, as editor of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and after other journalistic work started in 1839 the well-knownperiodical the _Art Journal_, which he continued to edit for upwards of40 years; in 1880 he received a civil-list pension (1800-1889); his wife, ANNA MARIA FIELDING, was in her day a popular and voluminous writerof novels and short tales (1800-1881). 

HALLAM, ARTHUR HENRY, eldest son of the succeeding, the early friendof Tennyson, who died suddenly at Vienna to the bitter grief of hisfather and of his friend, whose "In Memoriam" is a long elegy over hisloss (1811-1838). 

HALLAM, HENRY, English historian, born at Windsor, of which hisfather was a canon; bred for the bar; was one of the first contributorsto the _Edinburgh Review_; was the author of three great works, "TheState of Europe during the Middle Ages, " published in 1818; "TheConstitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. To theDeath of George II. , " published in 1827; and the "Introduction to theLiterature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and SeventeenthCenturies, " published in 1838; "was the first, " says Stopford Brooke, "towrite history in this country without prejudice" (1777-1859). 

HALLE (101), a flourishing city in Prussian Saxony, on the Saale, 20m. NW. Of Leipzig; has a splendid university attended by upwards of 1500students, and a library of 220, 000 vols. ; some fine old Gothic churches, medical institutes, hospitals, &c. ; it is is an important railway centre, and is famed for its salt-works. 

HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES, an eminent pianist, born at Hagen, inWestphalia; in 1848 he came to England, with a reputation already gainedat Paris, and settled down in Manchester; his fine orchestra, which fromyear to year visited the important cities of the kingdom, did a greatwork in popularising classical music, and educating the public taste inits regard; in 1888 he was knighted (1819-1895). His wife, _née_Wilhelmine Néruda, a violinist of rare talent, born at Brünn, in Moravia, appeared first in Vienna when only seven years old; in 1864 she marriedNormann, a Swedish composer, and in 1885 became the wife of Sir Charles;_b_. 1839. 

HALLECK, HENRY WAGER, an American general; distinguished himself onthe side of the North in the Civil War, and was promoted to becommander-in-chief; was author of "Elements of Military Art and Science"(1815-1873). 

HALLEL, name given to Psalms cxiii. -cxviii. Chanted by the Jews attheir great annual festivals. 

HALLER, ALBERT VON, a celebrated anatomist, physiologist, botanist, physician, and poet, born at Bern; professor of Medicine at Göttingen;author of works in all these departments; took a keen interest in all themovements and questions of the day, literary and political, as well asscientific; was a voluminous author and writer (1708-1777). 

HALLEY, EDMUND, astronomer and mathematician, born near London;determined the rotation of the sun from the spots on its surface, and theposition of 350 stars; discovered in 1680 the great comet called afterhis name, which appeared again in 1825; was entrusted with thepublication of his "Principia" by Sir Isaac Newton; made researches onthe orbits of comets, and was appointed in 1719 astronomer-royal(1656-1742). 

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD, a celebrated Shakespearianscholar and antiquary, born at Chelsea; studied at Cambridge; his lovefor literary antiquities manifested itself at an early age, and hisresearch in ballad literature and folk-lore, &c. , had gained him electionas Fellow to the Royal and Antiquarian Societies at the early age of 19;devoting himself more particularly to Shakespeare, he in 1848 publishedhis famous "Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare, " which has grown infulness of detail with successive editions, and remains the mostauthoritative account of Shakespeare's life we have; his "Dictionary ofArchaic and Provincial Words" is also a work of wide scholarship; havingsucceeded in 1872 to the property of his father-in-law, Thomas Phillipps, he added Phillipps to his own surname (1820-1889). 

HALL-MARK, an official mark or attestation of the genuineness ofgold and silver articles. 

HALLOWED FIRE, an expression of Carlyle's in definition ofChristianity "at its rise and spread" as sacred, and kindling what wassacred and divine in man's soul, and burning up all that was not. 

HALLOWE'EN, the eve of All Saints' Day, 31st October, which it wascustomary, in Scotland particularly, to observe with ceremonies of asuperstitious character, presumed to have the power of eliciting certaininteresting secrets of fate from wizard spirits of the earth and air, allowed, as believed, in that brief space, to rove about and beaccessible to the influence of the charms employed. 

HALOGENS (i. E. , salt producers), name given to the elementarybodies, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine as in composition withmetals forming compounds similar to sea-salt. 

HALS, FRANS, an eminent Dutch portrait-painter, born at Antwerp; isconsidered to be the founder of the Dutch school of _genre_-painting; hisportraits are full of life and vigour; Vandyck alone among hiscontemporaries was considered his superior (1581-1666). 

HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFORD, LORD, Lord Chancellor ofEngland, born in London; was called to the bar in 1850; he wasSolicitor-General in the last Disraeli Government; entered Parliament in1877, and in 1885 was raised to the peerage and made Lord-Chancellor, aposition he has held in successive Conservative Governments; _b_. 1825. 

HALYBURTON, THOMAS, Scottish divine, known as "Holy Halyburton, "born at Dupplin, near Perth; was minister of Ceres, in Fife, and from1710 professor of Divinity in St. Andrews; was the author of severalwidely-read religious works (1674-1712). 

HAM, a son of Noah, and the Biblical ancestor of the southern darkraces of the world as known to the ancients. 

HAM, a town in the dep. Of Somme, France, 70 m. NE. Of Paris, with afortress, used in recent times as a State prison, in which Louis Napoleonwas confined from 1840 to 1846. 

HAMADAN (30), an ancient Persian town, at the foot of Mount Elwend, 160 m. SW. Of Teheran, is an important _entrepôt_ of Persian trade, andhas flourishing tanneries; it is believed to stand on the site ofECBATANA (q. V. ). 

HAMADRYAD, a wood-nymph identified with a particular tree that wasborn with it and that died with it. 

HAMAH (45), the Hamath of the Bible, an ancient city of Syria, onthe Orontes, 110 m. NE. Of Damascus; manufactures silk, cotton, andwoollen fabrics; is one of the oldest cities of the world; has some tradewith the Bedouins in woollen stuffs; during the Macedonian dynasty it wasknown as Epiphania; in 1812 Burckhardt discovered stones in it withHittite inscriptions. 

HAMAN, an enemy of the Jews in Persia, who persuaded the king todecree the destruction of them against a particular day, but whosepurpose was defeated by the reversal of the sentence of doom. 

HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG, a German thinker, born at Königsberg; a man ofgenius, whose ideas were appreciated by such a man as Goethe, and whosewritings deeply influenced the views of Herder (1730-1788). 

HAMBURG, a small German State (623) which includes the free city ofHamburg (323; suburbs, 245), Bergedorf, and Cuxhaven; the city, the chiefemporium of German commerce, is situated on the Elbe, 75 m. E. Of theNorth Sea and 177 NW. Of Berlin; was founded by Charlemagne in 808, andis to-day the fifth commercial city of the world; the old town isintersected by canals, while the new portion, built since 1842, isspaciously laid out; the town library, a fine building, contains 400, 000volumes; its principal manufactures embrace cigar-making, distilling, brewing, sugar-refining, &c. 

HAMELN (14), a quaint old Prussian town and fortress in the provinceof Hanover, situated at the junction of the Hamel with the Weser, 25 m. SW. Of Hanover city; associated with the legend of the Pied Piper; a finechain bridge spans the Weser; there are prosperous iron, paper, andleather works, breweries, &c. 

HÄMERKIN or HÄMMERLEIN, the paternal name of THOMAS ÀKEMPIS (q. V. ). 

HAMERLING, ROBERT, Austrian poet, born at Kirchberg in the Forest, Lower Austria; his health gave way while teaching at Trieste, and whilefor upwards of 30 years an invalid in bed, he devoted himself to poeticalcomposition; his fame rests chiefly on his satirical epics and lyriccompositions, among the former "The King of Iron, " "The Seven DeadlySins, " and "Cupid and Psyche, " and among the latter "Venus in Exile"(1830-1889). 

HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT, English critic, particularly of art;edited the Portfolio, an art magazine; author of a story of life inFrance entitled "Marmorne, " and of a volume of essays entitled "TheIntellectual Life" (1834-1894). 

HAMILCAR BARCA, a Carthaginian general and one of the greatest, thefather of Hannibal, commanded in Sicily, and held his ground thereagainst the Romans for six years; concluded a peace with them and endedthe First Punic War; invaded Spain with a view to invade Italy by theAlps, and after gaining a footing there fell in battle; had his son withhim, a boy of nine, and made him swear upon the altar before he diedeternal enmity to Rome; _d_. 229 B. C. 

HAMILTON (25), a town of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 10 m. SE. OfGlasgow; mining is the chief industry. Also a city (49) of Canada, onBurlington Bay, at the west end of Lake Ontario, 40 m. SW. Of Toronto; isan important railway centre, and has manufactories of iron, cotton, andwoollen goods, &c. 

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER, American soldier and statesman, born in WestIndies; entered the American army, fought in the War of Independence, became commander-in-chief, represented New York State in Congress, contributed by his essays to the favourable reception of the federalconstitution, and under it did good service on behalf of his country; wasmortally wounded in a duel (1757-1804). 

HAMILTON, ELIZABETH, novelist and essayist, born, of Scottishparentage, in Belfast; is remembered for her early advocacy of the highereducation of women and for her faithful pictures of lowly Scottish life;"Letters of a Hindoo Rajah" and "Modern Philosophers" were clever skitson the prevailing scepticism and republicanism of the time; "TheCottagers of Glenburnie" is her best novel (1758-1816). 

HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY, _née_ Amy Lyon or "Hart, " born at Ness, Cheshire, a labourer's daughter; appeared as the Lady in the charlatanGraham's "Temple of Health, " London; became the mother of twoillegitimate children, and subsequently was the "geliebte" of the Hon. Charles Greville and of his uncle Sir Wm. Hamilton, whose wife she becamein 1791; her notorious and lawless intimacy with Lord Nelson began in1793, and in 1801 their daughter Horatia was born; although left a widowwith a goodly fortune, she fell into debt and died in poverty(1763-1815). 

HAMILTON, PATRICK, a Scottish martyr, born at the close of the 15thcentury, probably in Glasgow; returning from his continental studies atParis and Louvain he came to St. Andrews University, where his Lutheransympathies involved him in trouble; he escaped to the Continent, visitedWittenberg, the home of Luther, and then settled in Marburg, but returnedto Scotland at the close of the same year (1527) and married; thefollowing year he was burned at the stake in St. Andrews for heresy; hiseager and winning nature and love of knowledge, together with his earlymartyrdom, have served to invest him with a special interest. 

HAMILTON, WILLIAM, a minor Scottish poet, born near Uphall, Linlithgowshire; was a contributor to Ramsay's _Tea-Table Miscellany_;became involved in the second Jacobite rising and fled to France;subsequently he was permitted to return and take possession of hisfather's estate of Bangour, near Uphall; his collected poems include thebeautiful and pathetic ballad, "The Braes of Yarrow" (1704-1754). 

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, distinguished philosopher of the Scotchschool, born in Glasgow; studied there and in Oxford with distinction;bred for the bar, but hardly ever practised; contributed to the_Edinburgh Review_, having previously published "Discussions inPhilosophy"; in 1836 he became professor of Logic and Metaphysics inEdinburgh University, in which capacity he exercised a great influence inthe domain of philosophic speculation; his lectures were published afterhis death; his system was attacked by John Stuart Mill, and criticised inpart by Dr. Hutchison Stirling, who, while deducting materially from hisrepute as an original thinker, describes his "writings as alwaysbrilliant, forcible, clear, and, where information is concerned, bothentertaining and instructive"; was "almost the only _earnest_ man, "Carlyle testifies, he found in Edinburgh on his visit from Craigenputtockto the city in 1833 (1788-1856). 

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN, an eminent mathematician, born inDublin; such was his precocity that at 13 he was versed in thirteenlanguages, and by 17 was an acknowledged master in mathematical science;while yet an undergraduate at Trinity College, Dublin, he was appointedin 1827 professor of Astronomy in Dublin University, and Astronomer-Royalof Ireland; his mathematical works and treatises, of the most originaland a far-reaching character, brought him a European reputation, andembraced his "Theory of Systems of Rays, " "A General Method in Dynamics, "and the invention of "Quaternions"; he was knighted in 1835 (1805-1865). 

HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM, a system of teaching languages by interlineartranslation. 

HAMMER, German Orientalist and historian, born at Grätz; author of a"History of the Ottoman Empire" (1774-1856). 

HAMMERFEST (2), the most northerly town in Europe; is situated onthe barren island of Kvalö, and is the port of the Norwegian province ofFinmark; fishing is the staple industry; during two months in summer thesun never sets. 

HAMMERSMITH (97), a parliamentary borough of Middlesex, on the N. Side of the Thames, forms a part of W. London. 

HAMMOND, HENRY, English divine, born at Chertsey; suffered as anadherent of the royal cause, being chaplain to Charles I. ; author of"Paraphrase and Annotations of the New Testament" (1605-1660). 

HAMPDEN, JOHN, a famous English statesman and patriot, cousin toOliver Cromwell, born in London; passed through Oxford and studied law atthe Inner Temple; subsequently he settled down on his father's estate, and in 1621 entered Parliament, joining the opposition; he came firstinto conflict with the king by refusing to contribute to a general loanlevied by Charles, and subsequently became famous by his resistance tothe ship-money tax; he was a member of the Short Parliament, and played aprominent part in the more eventful transactions of the Long Parliament;an attempt on Charles's part to seize Hampden and four other membersprecipitated the Civil War; he took an active part in organising theParliamentary forces, and proved himself a brave and skilful general inthe field; he fell mortally wounded while opposing Prince Rupert in askirmish at Chalgrove Field; historians unite in extolling his nobilityof character, statesmanship, and single-minded patriotism (1594-1643). 

HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON, theologian and bishop, born in Barbadoes;became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1832 delivered hiscelebrated Bampton lectures on the "Scholastic Philosophy considered inits Relation to Christian Theology, " which drew upon him the charge ofheresy and produced an embittered controversy in the Church of England;he was successively Principal, professor of Moral Philosophy, and ofDivinity at St. Mary's Hall, and became bishop of Hereford in 1847(1793-1868). 

HAMPOLE, RICHARD ROLLE, "the Hermit of Hampole, " born at Thornton, Yorkshire; studied at Oxford, and at the age of 19 turned hermit; was theauthor of "The Pricke of Conscience, " a lengthy poem of a religiouscharacter (1290-1349). 

HAMPSHIRE, HANTS (690), a maritime county of S. England, frontingthe English Channel between Dorset on the W. And Sussex on the E. ; in theNE. Are the "rolling Downs, " affording excellent sheep pasturage, whilethe SW. Is largely occupied by the New Forest; the Test, Itchen, and Avonare principal rivers flowing to the S. ; besides the usual cereals, hopsare raised, while Hampshire bacon and honey are celebrated; Southampton, Portsmouth, and Gosport are the chief trading and manufacturing towns. 

HAMPSTEAD (68), a Parliamentary borough of Middlesex, has a hillyand bright situation, 4 m. NW. Of London; is a popular place of resortwith Londoners, and contains many fine suburban residences; beyond thevillage is the celebrated Heath; many literary associations are connectedwith the place; the famous Kit-Cat Club of Steele and Addison's time isnow a private house on the Heath; here lived Keats, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge, Hazlitt, &c. 

HAMPTON (4), a village of Middlesex, on the Thames, 15 m. SW. OfLondon; in the vicinity is HAMPTON COURT PALACE, a royal residencedown to George II. 's time, and which was built originally by Wolsey, whopresented it to Henry VIII. ; in William III. 's time considerablealterations were made under the guidance of Wren; there is a finepicture-gallery and gardens; it is now occupied by persons of good familyin reduced circumstances; the HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE to settleecclesiastical differences took place here in 1604 under the presidencyof James I. , and the decisions at which proved unsatisfactory to thePuritan members of it; it was here at the suggestion of Dr. Reynolds theauthorised version of the Bible was undertaken. 

HANAU (25), a Prussian town in Hesse-Nassau, at the junction of theKinzig and the Main, 11 m. NE. Of Frankfurt; is celebrated for itsjewellery and gold and silver work, and is otherwise a busy manufacturingtown; it is the birthplace of the brothers Grimm. 

HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT, a noted American general, born nearPhiladelphia; he had already graduated and served with distinction in theMexican War, when, on the outbreak of the Civil War, he received acommission as brigadier-general of volunteers; he led a heroic charge atFredericksburg, and in 1864 his gallant conduct in many a hard-foughtbattle was rewarded by promotion to a major-generalship in the regulararmy; subsequently he held important commands in the departments ofMissouri, Dakota, &c. , and in 1880 unsuccessfully opposed Garfield forthe Presidency (1824-1886). 

HÄNDEL, musical composer, born at Halle; distinguished for hismusical ability from his earliest years; was sent to Berlin to study whenhe was 14; began his musical career as a performer at Hamburg in 1703;produced his first opera in 1704; spent six years in Italy, devotinghimself to his profession the while; came, on invitation, to England in1710, where, being well received, he resolved to remain, and where, yearafter year--as many as nearly fifty of them--he added to his fame by hisdiligence as a composer; he produced a number of operas and oratorios;among the latter may be noted his "Saul, " his "Samson, " and "JudasMaccabæus, " and pre-eminently the "Messiah, " his masterpiece, and whichfascinates with a charm that appeals to and is appreciated by initiatedand uninitiated alike (1684-1759). 

HANG-CHOW (800), a Chinese town, a treaty-port since the recent warwith Japan; is at the mouth of the Tsien-tang at the entrance of theImperial Canal, 110 m. SW. Of Shanghai; it is an important literary, religious, and commercial centre; has flourishing silk factories, and isnoted for its gold and silver ware. 

HANGING GARDENS, THE, OF BABYLON, one of the seven wonders of theworld, had an area of four acres, formed a square, were a series ofterraces supported by pillars sloping upwards like a pyramid and seemingto hang in air; they are ascribed to Semiramis. 

HANIF, name given to a Mohammedan or an Arab of rigidly monotheisticbelief. 

HANKOW (750), a Chinese river-port, at the confluence of the Han andYangtsze Rivers; it is properly an extension of the large towns Wu-changand Han-yang; there is a considerable amount of shipping; tea is theprincipal article of export, and a large trade is carried on with theinland provinces. 

HANLEY (85), a busy manufacturing town in the "Potteries, " 18 m. N. Of Stafford; coal and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood. 

HANMER, SIR THOMAS, Speaker of the House of Commons; elected in1713, discharged the duties of the office with conspicuous impartiality;published an edition of Shakespeare (1677-1746). 

HANNAY, JAMES, a novelist and critic, born in Dumfries; spent hisboyhood in the navy, on quitting which he settled in London and took toletters; was for a time editor of the _Edinburgh Courant_, a Tory paper, and subsequently consul at Barcelona, where he died; he knew Englishliterature and wrote English well (1827-1873). 

HANNIBAL, the great Carthaginian general, son of HAMILCAR(q. V. ); learned the art of war under his father in Spain; subjugatedall Spain south of the Ebro by the capture of the Roman allied city ofSaguntum, which led to the outbreak of the Second Punic War and hisleading his army through hostile territory over the Pyrenees and the Alpsinto Italy; defeated the Romans in succession at the Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasimenus, to the extirpation of the army sent against him;passed the Apennines and descended into Apulia, where, after beingharassed by the tantalising policy of Fabius Maximus, he met the Romansat Cannæ in 216 B. C. And inflicted on them a crushing defeat, retiringafter this into winter quarters at Capua, where his soldiers becamedemoralised; he next season began to experience a succession of reverses, which ended in the evacuation of Italy and the transfer of the seat ofwar to Africa, where Hannibal was met by Scipio on the field of Zama in201 B. C. And defeated; he afterwards joined Antiochus, king of Syria, who was at war with Rome, to his defeat there also, upon which he fled toPrusias, king of Bithynia, where, when his surrender was demanded, heended his life by poisoning himself (247-183 B. C. ). 

HANNINGTON, JAMES, first bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, bornat Hurstpierpoint, Sussex; was ordained in 1873 after passing throughOxford, and in 1882 undertook missionary work in Uganda, under theauspices of the Church Missionary Society; his health breaking down whenhe had gone as far as Victoria Nyanza, he returned home; but two yearslater as bishop he entered upon his duties at Frere Town, near Mombasa;in the following year he was killed by natives when making his way to themission station at Rubaga, in Uganda (1847-1885). 

HANNO, the name of several eminent Carthaginians, one of whom, surnamed the Great, was a persistent opponent of the Barcine faction, headed by Hamilcar; and another was a navigator who made a voyage roundthe western coast of Africa, of which he left an account in his"Periplus" or "Circumnavigating Voyage. "

HANOVER (2, 278), a Prussian province since 1866, formerly anindependent kingdom; stretches N. From Westphalia to the German Ocean, between Holland on the W. And Saxony on the E. ; the district is wellwatered by the Elbe, Weser, and Ems; in the S. Are the Harz Mountains;for the rest the land is flat, and much of it is occupied byuncultivated moors; agriculture and cattle-rearing are, however, thechief industries, while the minerals of the Harz are extensively wrought;in 1714 George Ludwig, second Elector of Hanover, succeeded Anne on theEnglish throne as her nearest Protestant kinsman, and till 1837 the dualrule was maintained, Hanover meanwhile in 1814 having been made akingdom; in 1837 the Hanoverian crown passed to the Duke of Cumberland, Queen Victoria, as a woman, being ineligible; in 1866 the kingdom wasconquered and annexed by Prussia. 

HANOVER (164), the capital, is situated on the Leine, 78 m. SE. OfBremen; it consists of an old and a new portion; presents a handsomeappearance, and its many fine buildings include the royal library(170, 000 vols. ), the Kestner Museum, several palaces and art-galleries, &c. ; it is the centre of the North German railway system, and its manyindustries embrace iron-works, the manufacture of pianos, tobacco, linen, &c. 

HANSARD, record of the proceedings and debates in the BritishParliament, published by the printers Hansard, the founder of the firmbeing Luke Hansard, a printer of Norwich, who came to London in 1770 as acompositor, and succeeded as proprietor of the business in which he was aworkman; _d_. 1828. 

HANSEATIC LEAGUE, a combination of towns in North-western Germanyfor the mutual protection of their commerce against the pirates of theBaltic and the mutual defence of their liberties against theencroachments of neighbouring princes; it dates from 1241, and flourishedfor several centuries, to the extension of their commerce far and wide;numbered at one time 64 towns, and possessed fleets and armies, anexchequer, and a government of their own; the League dwindled down duringthe Thirty Years' War to six cities, and finally to three, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Bremen. 

HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPH, a Norwegian astronomer and mathematician, bornin Christiania, where he became professor of Mathematics; is famous forhis researches and discoveries in connection with the magnetism of theearth, and the impetus he gave to the study of it; he prosecuted hismagnetic researches as far as the E. Of Siberia, and published theresults (1784-1873). 

HANSWURST (i. E. Jack Pudding), a pantomimic character in comicperformances on the German stage; a great favourite at one time with thevulgar; distinguished for his awkwardness, his gluttonous appetite, andhis rotundity. 

HANUMAN, the monkey-god of the Hindus, a friend of Râma, for whosebenefit he reared a causeway across seas to Ceylon. 

HANWAY, JONAS, a traveller and philanthropist, born in Portsmouth;travelled through Russia and Persia, and settled in London as one of thenavy commissariat; devoted himself to the reclaiming and befriending ofunfortunates of all kinds; was a man of very eccentric ways (1712-1786). 

HAPSBURG or HABSBURG, HOUSE OF, a famous royal house which hasplayed a leading part in the history of Continental Europe from itsfoundation in the 12th century by Albert, Count of Hapsburg, and which isrepresented to-day by the Imperial family of Austria. Representatives ofthis family wore the Imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire forcenturies. It takes its name from the castle of Habsburg or Habichtaburg, on the Aar, built by Werner, bishop of Strasburg, in the 11th century, acastle, however, which has long since ceased to be in the possession ofthe family. 

HARBOUR GRACE (7), a seaport and the second town of Newfoundland, lies on the W. Side of Conception Bay, 84 m. NW. Of St. John's; itscommodious harbour is somewhat exposed; it is the seat of a RomanCatholic bishop, and has a cathedral and convent. 

HARBURG (35), a prospering Prussian seaport in Lüneburg, on theElbe, 5 m. S. Of Hamburg; its industries embrace gutta-percha goods, oil, chemicals, &c. ; is a favourite watering-place. 

HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VERNON, statesman, born, a clergyman's son, atNuneham Park, Oxfordshire; was highly distinguished at Cambridge, and in1854 was called to the bar; was a Q. C. In 1866, and professor ofInternational Law at Cambridge (1869-87); he won considerable repute byhis articles in the _Saturday Review_ and his "Historicus" letters to the_Times_, and in 1868 entered Parliament, representing Oxford in theLiberal interest; in 1873 he became Solicitor-General, and received aknighthood; he was a vigorous opponent of the Disraeli Government, and onthe return of the Liberals to power in 1880 became Home Secretary; underMr. Gladstone in 1886, and again in 1892, he held the office ofChancellor of the Exchequer; he staunchly supported Mr. Gladstone in hisHome Rule policy; became leader of the Opposition in the House of Commonson Mr. Gladstone's retirement, a post which for party reasons he resignedin 1899; _b_. 1827. 

HARDENBERG, FRIEDRICH VON. See NOVALIS. 

HARDENBERG PRINCE VON, a Prussian statesman, born in Hanover; afterservice in Hanover and Brunswick entered that of Prussia under WilliamII. , and became Chancellor of State under William III. ; distinguishedhimself by the reforms he introduced in military and civic matters to thebenefit of the country, though he was restrained a good deal by thereactionary proclivities of the king (1750-1822). 

HARDICANUTE, king of England and Denmark, the son of Canute and hissuccessor on the Danish throne; was king of England only in part till thedeath of his brother Harold, whom he survived only two years, but longenough to alienate his subjects by the re-imposition of the Danegelt;_d_. 1642. 

HARDING, JOHN, or HARDYNG, an English rhyming chronicler in thereign of Edward IV. ; had been a soldier, and fought at Agincourt(1378-1465). 

HARDING, STEPHEN, a Benedictine monk, born in Devonshire, of nobledescent, a born ascetic, who set himself to restore his order to itsprimitive austerity; retired with a few others into a dismal secludedplace at Citeaux, and became abbot; was joined there by the great St. Bernard, his kindred, and followers, to the great aggrandisement of theorder; _d_. 1134. 

HARDINGE, HENRY, VISCOUNT, a distinguished soldier andGovernor-General of India, born at Wrotham, Kent; joined the army in1798, and served through the Peninsular and Waterloo campaigns, butwounded at Ligny he was unable to take part in the final struggle withNapoleon; he now turned his attention to politics; was Secretary of Warunder Wellington, and subsequently twice Chief Secretary for Ireland; in1844 he was appointed Governor-General of India, and later distinguishedhimself under Gough in the first Sikh War; a viscountship and pensionfollowed in 1845, and seven years later he succeeded Wellington asCommander-in-Chief of the British army (1785-1856). 

HARDOUIN, JEAN, a French classical scholar, born at Quimper, Brittany; early entered the Jesuit order; was from 1683 librarian of theCollege of Louis le Grand in Paris; he is chiefly remembered for his wildassertion that the bulk of classical literature was spurious, and thework of 13th-century monks; Virgil's "Æneid" he declared to be anallegorical account of St. Peter's journey to Rome, and the originallanguage of the New Testament to be Latin; his edition of Pliny, however, evinces real scholarship (1646-1729). 

HARDWÁR, a town on the Ganges, 39 m. NE. Of Saharunpur, North-WestProvinces; famous for its large annual influx of pilgrims seekingablution in the sacred river; a sacred festival held every twelfth yearattracts some 300, 000 persons. 

HARDY, THOMAS, novelist, born in Dorsetshire, with whose scenery hehas made his readers familiar; bred an architect; first earned popularityin 1874 by his "Far from the Madding Crowd, " which was followed by, amongothers, "The Return of the Native, " "The Woodlanders, " and "Tess of theD'Urbervilles, " the last in 1892, books which require to be read in orderto appreciate the genius of the author; _b_. 1840. 

HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS, an eminent palæographer, born in Jamaica;he acquired his skill in MS. Deciphering as a clerk in the Record Officein the Tower; in 1861 he was elected deputy-keeper of the Public Records, and nine years later received a knighthood; his great learning isdisplayed in his editions of various "Rolls" for the Record Commission, in his "Descriptive Catalogue of MSS. , " &c. (1804-1878). 

HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, BART. , a brave naval officer, whosename is associated with the closing scene of Nelson's life, born atPortisham, in Dorsetshire; as a commander in the battle of the Nile hegreatly distinguished himself, and gained his post-commission to Nelson'sflagship, the _Vanguard_; at Trafalgar he commanded the _Victory_, andsubsequently brought Nelson's body to England; he received a baronetcy, and saw further service, eventually attaining to the rank of vice-admiral(1769-1839). 

HARE, JULIUS CHARLES, archdeacon of Lewes, born at Vicenza; tookorders in the Church, and in 1832 became, in succession to his uncle, rector of Hurstmonceaux, in Sussex, the advowson of which was in hisfamily, in which rectory he laboured till his death; he was of the schoolof Maurice; wrote "The Mission of the Comforter, " and with his brotherAugustus "Guesses at Truth"; had John Sterling as his curate for a shorttime, and edited his remains as well as wrote his Life, the latter in soexclusively ecclesiastical a reference as to dissatisfy Carlyle, hisjoint-trustee, and provoke him, as in duty bound, to write another whichshould exhibit their common friend in the more interesting light of a manearnestly struggling with the great burning problems of the time, callingfor some wise solution by all of us, church and no church (1795-1855). 

HAREM, the apartment or suite of apartments in a Mohammedan's housefor the female inmates and their attendants, and the name given to thecollective body of them. 

HARFLEUR, a village in France with a strong fortress, 4 m. S. OfHavre, taken by Henry V. In 1415, and retaken afterwards by both Frenchand English, becoming finally French in 1450. 

HARGRAVES, EDMUND, discoverer of the gold-field in Australia, bornat Gosport, Devon; had been to California, concluded that as thegeological formation was the same in Australia where he had come from, hewould find gold there too and found it in New South Wales in 1851, forwhich the Government gave him £10, 000 (1818-1890). 

HARGREAVES, JAMES, inventor of the spinning-jenny, born atStandhill, near Blackburn; was a poor and illiterate weaver when in 1760he, in conjunction with Robert Peel, brought out a carding-machine; in1766 he invented the spinning-jenny, a machine which has sincerevolutionised the cotton-weaving industry, but which at the time evokedthe angry resentment of the hand-weaver; he was driven from his nativetown and settled in Nottingham, where he started a spinning-mill; hefailed to get his machine patented, and died in comparative poverty(1745-1778). 

HARI-KARI, called also a "happy despatch, " a form of suicide, nowobsolete, permitted to offenders of high rank to escape the indignity ofa public execution; the nature of it may be gathered from the name, "agash in the belly. "

HÄRING, WILHELM, German novelist, born at Breslau; bred for law, butabandoned it for literature; wrote two romances, "Walladmor" and "SchlossAvalon, " under the pseudonym of "Walter Scott, " which imposed upon some;he afterwards assumed the name of Wilibald Alexis, a name by which he waslong honourably known (1797-1871). 

HARINGTON, SIR JOHN, courtier and miscellaneous writer, translatedby desire of Queen Elizabeth Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso" (1561-1612). 

HARIRI, Arabic philologist and poet of the 11th century, born atBassorah; celebrated far and wide as the author of "Makameat, " acollection of tales in verse, the central figure in which is one AbuSeid, a clever and amusing production, and evincing a unique mastery ofArabic. 

HARLAW, BATTLE OF, a battle fought at Harlaw, 18 m. NW. Of Aberdeen, on 24th July 1411, which decided the supremacy of the Lowland Scots overthe Highland. 

HARLECH, an old Welsh town in Merionethshire, facing the sea, 10 m. N. Of Barmouth; its grim old castle by the shore was a Lancastrianfortress during the Wars of the Roses, and its capture by the Yorkists in1468 was the occasion of the well-known song, "The March of the Men ofHarlech. "

HARLEQUIN, a character in a Christmas pantomime, in love withColumbine, presumed to be invisible, and deft at tricks to frustratethose of the clown, who is his rival lover. 

HARLEY, ROBERT, EARL OF OXFORD, a celebrated English politician, born of good family; entered Parliament shortly after the Revolution(1688) as a Whig, but after a period of vacillation threw in his lot withTories and in 1701 became Speaker of the House; in 1704 he was associatedwith St. John (Bolingbroke) in the Cabinet as Secretary of State, and setabout undermining the influence of Godolphin and Marlborough; he becameChancellor of the Exchequer and head of the Government; was created Earlof Oxford and Lord High Treasurer; from this point his power began towane; was displaced by Bolingbroke at last in 1715; was impeached forintriguing with the Jacobites and sent to the Tower; two years later hewas released, and the remainder of his life was spent in the pursuit ofletters and in the building up of his famous collection of MSS. , nowdeposited in the British Museum (1661-1724). 

HARMATTAN, a hot withering wind blowing over the coast of Guinea tothe Atlantic from the interior of Africa, more or less from December toFebruary. 

HARMODIUS, an Athenian who in 514 B. C. Conspired withAristogeiton, his friend, against Hipparchus and his brother Hippias, thetyrant, but being betrayed were put to death; they figured in thetraditions of Athens as political martyrs, and as such were honoured withstatues. 

HARNACK, ADOLF, a German theologian, born at Dorpat; professorsuccessively at Giessen, Marburg, and Berlin; has written on the historyof dogma in the Christian Church, on Gnosticism, early Christianliterature, and the Apostles' Creed, on the latter offensively to theorthodox; B. 1851. 

HAROLD I. , king of England from 1035 to 1040, younger son of Cnut;the kingdom was practically divided between him and his brotherHarthacnut; but the latter remaining in Denmark to protect hispossessions there, England passed into Harold's hands. 

HAROLD II. , the last of the Saxon kings of England, held the crownfor a few months in 1066, was the second son of the great EARLGODWIN (q. V. ); in 1053 he succeeded his father in the earldom ofthe West Saxons, and during the later years of Edward's feeble rule wasvirtual administrator of the kingdom; on his accession to the throne histitle was immediately challenged by his brother Tostig, and William, Dukeof Normandy; having crushed his brother's invasion at Stamford Bridge, heimmediately hurried S. To meet the forces of William at Hastings. Normanstrategy won the day, and Harold fell in the battle pierced through theeye by an arrow; historians unite in ascribing to him every kinglyquality--a noble presence, sagacity, and a brave yet gentle nature. 

HAROLD I. OF NORWAY, surnamed _Haarfager_ (fair-haired), by him thepetty kingdoms of Norway were all conquered and knit into one compactrealm; the story goes that he undertook this work to win the hand of hislady-love, and that he swore an oath neither to cut nor comb his hairtill his task was done; _d_. 930. 

HAROUN-AL-RASCHID ("Aaron the Orthodox or Just"), the most renownedof the Abbaside caliphs; succeeded to the caliphate in 786 on the deathof his elder brother, El Hádi, and had for grand-vizier the BarmacideYâhyá, to whom with his four sons he committed the administration ofaffairs, he the while making his court a centre of attraction to wisemen, scholars, and artists, so that under him Bagdad became the capitalof the civilised world; his glory was tarnished by one foul blot towardsthe end of his reign, and that was the massacre out of jealousy of theBarmacide family, members of which had contributed so much to his fame, an act which he had soon occasion to repent, for it was followed by aninsurrection which cost him his life; the halo that invests his memoryotherwise was, however, more fabulous than real, and history shows him athis best to have been avaricious, resentful, and cruel. 

HARPIES, fabulous ravenous creatures, living in filth and defilingeverything they touch, with the head and breast of a woman, the wings andclaws of a bird, and a face pale with hunger, the personification ofwhirlwinds and storms, conceived of as merely ravening, wasting powers. 

HARRINGTON, JAMES, political writer; author of a political romanceentitled "The Commonwealth of Oceana, " in which he argued that all securegovernment must be based on property, and for a democracy on this basis(1611-1677). 

HARRIS, HOWEL, a noted Welsh Methodist, born at Trevecca, Brecon;embracing Calvinism, he at the age of 21 became an itinerant preacher, confining himself chiefly to Wales; in 1752 he took up his abode atTrevecca, where he erected a large house to accommodate those who soughthis ministrations (1714-1773). 

HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER, American writer, born in Georgia, U. S. ;author of "Uncle Remus, " his chief work a study of negro folk-lore, followed by interesting sketches and stories; _b_. 1848. 

HARRIS, LUKE, founder of the "Brotherhood of the New Life, " born inBuckinghamshire, a spiritualistic Socialist; his system founded onSWEDENBORGIANISM (q. V. ) on the one hand and a form of communismon the other, with a scriptural Christianity spiritualised as backbone;the destiny of man he regards as angelhood, or a state of existence likethat of God, in which the unity of sex, or fatherhood and motherhood, meet in one; the late Laurence Oliphant and the late John Pulsford wereamong his disciples; _b_. 1823. 

HARRISBURG (50), capital of Pennsylvania, is beautifully situated onthe Susquehanna, 106 m. NW. Of Philadelphia; the industries includeextensive iron and steel works and a flourishing lumber trade. 

HARRISON, BENJAMIN. President of the United States and grandson ofWilliam Henry Harrison, a former President, born at North Bend, Ohio;started as a lawyer in Indianapolis, became an important functionary inthe court of Indiana, and subsequently proved himself a brave andefficient commander during the Civil War; engaging actively in politics, he in 1880 became a United States Senator; as the nominee of theProtectionist and Republican party he won the Presidency againstCleveland, but at the election of 1892 the positions were reversed; in1893 he became a professor in San Francisco; _b_. 1833. 

HARRISON, FREDERIC, barrister, born in London, professor ofJurisprudence in the Inns of Court; author of articles contributed toReviews and Essays, and of Lectures on a variety of current questions, historical, social, and religious, from the standpoint of the positivismof Auguste Comte, with his somewhat vague "Religion of Humanity" is theauthor of "Order and Progress, " the "Choice of Books, " &c. ; _b_. 1831. 

HARRISON, JOHN, a celebrated mechanician, born at Foulby, Yorkshire;was the first to invent a chronometer which, by its ingenious apparatusfor compensating the disturbing effects caused by variations of climate, enabled mariners to determine longitude to within a distance of 18 m. ; bythis invention he won a prize of £20, 000 offered by Government; amongstother things he invented the compensating _gridiron pendulum_, still inuse (1693-1776). 

HARRISON, WILLIAM, a noted historical writer, born in London;graduated at Cambridge, and after serving as chaplain to Lord Cobham, received the rectorship of Radwinter, in Essex; subsequently he becamecanon of Windsor; his fame rests on two celebrated historical works, "Description of England, " an invaluable picture of social life andinstitutions in Elizabethan times, and "Description of Britain, " writtenfor Holinshed's "Chronicle" (1534-1593). 

HARROGATE or HARROWGATE (14), a popular watering-place, prettily situated amid forest and moorland, in the West Riding ofYorkshire, 20 m. NW. Of York; it enjoys a wide repute for its sulphurous, saline, and chalybeate springs. 

HARROW (6), a town of Middlesex, built on an eminence 200 ft. High, 12 m. From St. Paul's, London; its church, St. Mary's, founded byLanfranc, is a Gothic structure of great architectural interest. HarrowSchool, a celebrated public school, was founded in 1571 for the freeeducation of 30 poor boys of the parish, but subsequently opened itsdoors to "foreigners, " and now numbers upwards of 500 pupils. 

HARRY, BLIND, a famous Scottish minstrel who flourished in the 15thcentury; the few particulars of his life which have come down to usrepresent him as a blind and vagrant poet, living by reciting poems"before princes and peers"; to him is attributed the celebrated poem, "The Life of that Noble Champion of Scotland, Sir William Wallace, Knight, " completed about 1488, a spirited, if partly apocryphal, accountof Wallace, running to 11, 861 lines in length. 

HART, SOLOMON ALEXANDER, born at Plymouth; served as an engraver'sapprentice in London; studied at the Royal Academy, and excelled inminiature painting; he became celebrated as a painter of historicalscenes and characters, and in 1854 was appointed professor of Painting inthe Royal Academy, and subsequently librarian; his works include "HenryI. Receiving intelligence of the Death of his Son, " "Milton visitingGalileo in Prison, " "Wolsey and Buckingham, " "Lady Jane Grey in theTower, " &c. (1806-1881). 

HARTE, BRET, American humourist, born at Albany, New York; went toCalifornia at 15; tried various occupations, mining, school-mastering, printing, and literary sketching, when he got on the staff of anewspaper, and became eventually first editor of the _Overland Monthly_, in the columns of which he established his reputation as a humourist bythe publication of the "Heathen Chinee" and other humorous productions, such as "The Luck of Roaring Camp"; he wields a prolific pen, and all hewrites is of his own original coinage; _b_. 1839. 

HARTFORD (80), the capital of Connecticut, U. S. , on theConnecticut, 50 m. From its mouth and 112 m. NE. Of New York; ishandsomely laid out, and contains an imposing white marble capitol, Episcopalian and Congregational colleges, hospitals, libraries, &c. ; isan important depôt for the manufacture of firearms, iron-ware, tobacco, &c. , and is an important banking and insurance centre. 

HARTLEPOOL (65), a seaport of Durham, situated on a tongue of landwhich forms the Bay of Hartlepool, 4 m. N. Of the Tees estuary; the chiefindustries are shipbuilding, cement works, and a shipping trade, chieflyin coal and iron. WEST HARTLEPOOL (43), lies on the opposite andsouth side of the bay, 1 m. Distant, but practically forming one townwith Hartlepool, and carries on a similar trade, but on a somewhat largerscale; the extensive docks, stretching between the two towns, cover anarea of 300 acres. 

HARTLEY, DAVID, an English philosopher and physician; wrote"Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations";ascribed sensation to vibration in the nerves, and applied the doctrineof the association of ideas to mental phenomena (1705-1757). 

HARTMANN, a German philosopher, born at Berlin; established his fameby a work entitled the "Philosophy of the Unconscious, " which rapidlypassed through nine editions; he has since written on pessimism, themoral and the religious consciousness, the philosophy of the beautiful, and spiritualism; he is the founder of a new school of philosophy, whichprofesses to be a synthesis of that of Hegel and that of Schopenhauer, and to aim at the reconciliation of philosophic results with scientific;_b_. 1842. 

HARTMANN, MORITZ, a German poet; had a keen sympathy with theliberal political ideas that prevailed in 1848, and which his poemscontributed to foster, and on account of which he got into trouble(1821-1872). 

HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO, Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid, ofGerman extraction; was educated under the Jesuits, but abandoned hisintention of joining the Church, took to literature, and was given a postin the National Library at Madrid; his dramas are fresh and vigorous, andenjoy a wide popularity; he rose to be Director of the National Library, and in 1852 was President of the Theatrical Council (1806-1880). 

HARUS`PICES, among the Romans, soothsayers who affected to foretellfuture events by the inspection of the entrails of animals offered insacrifice, as well as by study of abnormal phenomena. 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest and premier educational institutionin the United States, is located at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 3 m. W. OfBoston; it is named after the Rev. John Harvard, a graduate of Cambridge, who by the bequest of his library and small fortune helped to launch theinstitution in 1638; it was originally intended for the training ofyouths for the Puritan ministry, but it has during the present centurybeen extended into a university of the first rank, under emancipationfrom all sectarian control; it has a student roll of about 3000, issplendidly equipped, and now richly endowed. 

HARVEST-MOON, the full moon which in our latitude, at the autumnalequinox, rises for an evening or two about the same time. 

HARVEY, SIR GEORGE, a Scotch artist, born at St. Ninians, Stirling;was one of the original associates of the Royal Scottish Academy, ofwhich he at length became president; among his paintings are the"Covenanters' Preaching, " "The Curlers, " and "John Bunyan in Jail"(1805-1880). 

HARVEY, WILLIAM, a celebrated English physician, born at Folkestone, in Kent; graduated at Cambridge, and in 1602 received his medical diplomaat Padua; settling in London, he in a few years became physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and subsequently lecturer at the College ofPhysicians; in 1628 he announced in a published treatise his discovery ofthe circulation of the blood; for many years he was Court physician, andattended Charles I. At the battle of Edgehill (1578-1657). 

HARWICH (8), a seaport and market town of Essex; is situated on aheadland on the S. Side of the conjoined estuaries of the Stour and theOrwell, 5 m. N. Of the Naze and 65 m. NE. Of London; it is an importantpacket station for Holland, has a good harbour and docks, with anincreasing commerce. 

HARZ MOUNTAINS, a mountain range of N. Germany, stretching for 57 m. Between the Weser and the Elbe to the S. Of Brunswick; it forms apicturesque and diversified highland, is a favourite resort of tourists, and rises to its greatest elevation in the far-famed _BROCKEN_(q. V. ); the scene of the Walpurgisnacht in "Faust"; silver, iron, andother metals are found in considerable quantities, and, with theextensive forests, give rise to a prosperous mining and timber industry. 

HASDRUBAL, the name of several distinguished Carthaginian generals, of whom the most noted were (1), the son of HAMILCAR BARCA (q. V. )and brother of HANNIBAL (q. V. ); he played a prominent partin the Second Punic War, conquered Cn. Scipio in Spain (212 B. C. ), andsubsequently commanded the Carthaginian army in Italy; he fell at thebattle of the Metaurus in 207 B. C. : (2) the brother-in-law of HamilcarBarca, whom he succeeded in 228 B. C. As administrator of the new empirein the Iberian peninsula; he pushed the western frontiers back to theTagus, and by his strong yet conciliatory government firmly establishedthe Carthaginian power; he was assassinated in 221 B. C. 

HASE, KARL AUGUST, an eminent German theologian, born at Steinbach, Saxony, professor at Jena; author of a "Text-book of Evangelical Dogma, "a "Life of Christ, " a "Church History, " &c. , was equally opposed toorthodoxy and rationalism, and sought to reconcile the creed of theChurch with the conclusions of science (1800-1890). 

HASHISH, an intoxicant made from Indian hemp, having differenteffects on different individuals according to the dose and to theconstitution of the individual. 

HASLINGDEN (18), a busy market-town of Lancashire, 19 m. NW. OfManchester; has flourishing cotton, silk, and woollen factories, and inthe vicinity are coal-mines, iron-works, &c. 

HASSAN PASHA, a Turkish grand-vizier of African birth; twice reducedthe beys of Egypt; commanded, at the age of 85, the Turkish forcesagainst Russia in 1788, but being defeated, was dismissed and put todeath in 1790. 

HASSELT (13); a Belgian town, capital of the province of Limburg, 47m. NE. Of Brussels; distilling, and the manufacture of lace, linen, andtobacco are the staple industries. 

HASTINGS (61), a popular holiday and health resort in Sussex;occupies a fine situation on the coast, with lofty cliffs behind, 33 m. E. Of Brighton; has a splendid esplanade 3 m. Long, parks, publicgardens, &c. , and ruins of a castle. 

HASTINGS, BATTLE OF, fought on 14th October 1066, on Senlac Hill, 6m. NW. Of Hastings (where now stands the little town of Battle), betweenWilliam, Duke of Normandy and Harold II. , King of England; victory restedwith the Normans, and Harold was slain on the field. 

HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, MARQUIS OF, Governor-General ofIndia; entering the army in 1771, he saw active service in the AmericanWar and in Holland; succeeded his father in the earldom of Moira; was in1813 appointed to the Governor-Generalship of India; he was instrumentalin extending the Company's territories, and pacifying the warlikeGoorkhas, for which, in 1816, he was created Marquis of Hastings;latterly he held the Governorship of Malta (1754-1826). 

HASTINGS, WARREN, first Governor-General of India, born atChurchill, Oxfordshire; early left an orphan, he was maintained atWestminster School by his uncle, and at 17 received a clerkship in theEast India Company; for 14 years his life was occupied in mercantile andpolitical work, at the close of which time he returned to England; in1769 he was back in India as a member of the Madras Council; married thedivorced wife of Baron Imhoff, and in 1772 was appointed President of theCouncil in Bengal; under the new arrangement for the governing of theprovinces, Hastings was raised to the position of Governor-General in1773; despite jealousies and misrepresentations both among his colleaguesin India and the home authorities, he steadily, and with untiring energy, extended and brought into orderly government the British dominions; in1785 he voluntarily resigned, and on his return he was impeached beforethe House of Lords for oppression of the natives, and for conniving atthe plunder of the Begums or dowager-princesses of Oudh; the trialbrought forth the greatest orators of the day, Burke, Fox, and Sheridanleading the impeachment, which, after dragging on for nearly eight years, resulted in the acquittal of Hastings on all the charges; his fortunehaving been consumed by the enormous expenses of the trial, he wasawarded a handsome pension by the Company, and thereafter lived inhonoured retirement (1732-1818). 

HATCH, EDWIN, theologian, born at Derby; graduated at Oxford, andwas for some years professor of Classics in Trinity College, Toronto; in1867 was appointed Vice-Principal of St. Mary Hall, Oxford; Rector ofPurleigh, Essex, in 1883; reader in Ecclesiastical History at Oxford; heheld the Grinfield, Bampton, and Hibbert lectureships at different times, and established a reputation, both abroad and at home, for wide andaccurate scholarship; HARNACK (q. V. ) translated his learnedlectures on "The Organisation of the Early Christian Churches"; and "TheGrowth of Church Institutions" displayed his rare gift of combiningprofound scholarship with popular presentation (1835-1889). 

HATFIELD, or BISHOP'S HATFIELD (4), a market-town ofHertfordshire, 18 m. NW. Of London; its parish church dates from the 13thcentury, and in the vicinity stands Hatfield House, a noble architecturalpile of James I. 's time, the seat of the Marquis of Salisbury. 

HATHERLEY, BARON, barrister, elected to represent Oxford inParliament; in 1847 was Solicitor-General, in 1853 raised to the bench, and in 1868 made Lord Chancellor; retired in 1872 from failing sight(1801-1881). 

HATHRAS (39), an important commercial town in the NW. Provinces, India, 97 m. SE. Of Delhi; exports large quantities of sugar, grain, cotton, &c. , and is famed for its beautiful carved stone-and-wood-work. 

HATS AND CAPS, the name of two political factions in Sweden in themiddle of the 18th century, the former favouring France and the latterRussia. 

HATTERAS, CAPE, a low sandy headland of a small island separatedfrom the mainland of N. Carolina, U. S. , by Pimlico Sound; it is astorm-swept and treacherous point, and is marked by a powerful light, 190ft. High. 

HATTI-SHERIFF, a name given to an edict of the Sultan which isirrevocable, though many a one of them has proved a dead letter. 

HATTO, archbishop of Mainz, of whom tradition alleges that he wasassailed in his palace by an army of mice, to escape whose ravages heretired to a tower on the Rhine, whither the mice followed him and atehim up, a judgment due, as is alleged, to his having, during a greatfamine in 970, gathered the poor into a barn and burnt them to death, as"like mice, good only for devouring corn, " he said. 

HAUBERK, a coat or tunic of mail made of interwoven steel rings andextending below the knees. 

HAUCH, HANS CARSTEN, Danish poet and novelist, born atFrederikshald, in Norway; in 1846 he became professor of NorthernLiterature at Kiel, and four years later of Æsthetics at Copenhagen; hishistorical tragedies, lyrics, tales, and romances are instinct with truepoetic feeling, and are widely popular in Denmark (1790-1872). 

HAUFF, WILHELM, a German prose writer, born in Stuttgart, who diedyoung; wrote "Memoirs of Satan" and "The Man in the Moon, " and a numberof charmingly told "Tales, " which have made his name famous amongourselves (1802-1827). 

HAUG, a German Orientalist, professor of Sanskrit at Poona, andafterwards at Münich; devoted himself to the exposition of the Zendavesta(1827-1876). 

HAUSER, KASPAR, a young man of about 16 who mysteriously appeared inNürnberg one day in 1828, was found to be as helpless and ignorant as ababy, and held a letter in his hand giving an account of his history. Themystery of his case interested Lord Stanhope, who charged himself withthe care of him, but he was enticed out of the house he was boarded inone day, returned mortally wounded, and died soon after. 

HAUSSA or HOUSSA, a subject people of Central Soudan, whoselanguage has become the common speech of some 15 millions of peoplebetween the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Guinea. The language is alliedto the Hamitic tongues, and is written in modified Arabic characters. 

HAUSSMAN, GEORGE EUGÈNE, a celebrated Préfect of the Seine, who, while holding that position (1853-70), carried through extensivearchitectural improvements in Paris, which transformed it into one of thehandsomest cities of Europe; the enormous cost entailed brought about hisdismissal, but not before he had received many distinctions, and beenennobled by Napoleon III. ; in 1881 he was elected to the Chamber ofDeputies (1809-1891). 

HAÜY, RENÉ JUST, known as the Abbé Haüy, a French mineralogist, bornat St. Just; propounded the theory of crystallisation founded ongeometrical principles; absorbed in study, was caught napping during theRevolution; got consequently into trouble, but was extricated out of itby his friend and pupil, Geoffrey St. -Hilaire; was appointed professor ofMineralogy by Napoleon (1743-1823). 

HAVANA (200), fortified capital of the island of Cuba, in the WestIndies; has a spacious and securely sheltered harbour, an old Spanishcathedral, a university, botanical garden, and several fine theatres; thetown is ill laid out, badly drained, and subject to yellow fever; thestaple industries are the raising of tobacco and sugar, and themanufacture of cigars. 

HAVEL, an important tributary of the Lower Elbe, which it joins afew miles from Wittenberg; it rises in Mecklenburg, and takes acircuitous course past Potsdam of 180 m. 

HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY, British general, born at Bishop Wearmouth;entered the army in 1815, and embarked in the service for India in 1823;served in the Afghan and Sikh Wars, as also in Persia; on the outbreak ofthe Mutiny he was in 1857 sent to the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow, thelatter of which places he entered on 25th Sept. , where, being beleagured, he entrenched himself in the Residency, and held his own until November, when Sir Colin Campbell came to his relief, but his health had beenundermined from his anxieties, and he died on the 22nd of that month; forhis services on this occasion a baronetcy and a pension of £1000 wasconferred on him, but it was too late, and the honour with the pensionwas transferred to his son; he was a Christian soldier, and a commanderof the Puritan type (1795-1857). 

HAVERFORDWEST (6), seaport and capital of Pembroke, Wales, prettilysituated on the Cleddan, 10 m. NE. Of Milford; has a 14th-century castleand a ruined priory; the chief industry is paper-making. 

HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY, a hymn-writer, born at Astley, where herfather, known as a musical composer, was rector; was authoress of"Ministry of Song, " and collections which have been highly popular(1830-1879). 

HAVERSIAN CANALS, canals in the bones to convey the vessels thatnourish them. 

HAVRE, LE (116), the second commercial port in France, on the N. Side of the Seine estuary, 143 m. NW. Of Paris, in the dep. OfSeine-Inférieure; has a fine harbour, docks, &c. , but shipping isincommoded by the shifting sandbanks of the estuary, and railwayfacilities are poor; it is an important centre of emigration, and itsindustries embrace shipbuilding, iron-works, flour-mills, &c. 

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS (named by Cook the Sandwich Islands) (90), a groupof volcanic islands, 12 in number, situated in the North Pacific; totalarea somewhat larger than Yorkshire. Of the five inhabited islands Hawaiiis the largest; it contains the famous volcano, Kilauea, whose crater isone of the world's wonders, being 9 m. In circumference, and filled witha glowing lake of molten lava which ebbs and flows like an ocean tide. The island of Maui has the largest crater on the earth. The climate ofthe group is excellent, and vegetation (including forests) is abundant;sugar and rice are the chief crops. Honolulu (on Oahu), with a splendidharbour, is the capital. The islands are now under the jurisdiction ofthe United States. 

HAWARDEN, a town 7 m. W. Of Chester, near which is Hawarden Castle, where Mr. Gladstone resided and died. 

HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD, English churchman, born at Egham, Surrey, incumbent of St. James's, Marylebone; was present in Italy during therevolution there, and at several of the battles; is popular as a preacherand lecturer, and has written a number of works on the times, on music, Christ and Christianity, &c. ; _b_. 1840. 

HAWES, STEPHEN, an English poet; held a post In the household ofHenry VII. ; author of an allegorical poem on the right education of aknight, entitled "The Pastime of Pleasure"; _d_. _d_. 1503. 

HAWICK (19), a prosperous and ancient town of Roxburghshire, at theconfluence of the Teviot and Slitrig, 52 m. SE. Of Edinburgh; is aflourishing centre of the tweed, yarn, and hosiery trade, and has besidesdye-works, tanneries, &c. 

HAWK-EYE STATE, Iowa, U. S. , so called from the name of an Indianchief once a terror in those parts. 

HAWKE, LORD, an English admiral, born in London; entered the navy atan early age in 1747; defeated a French fleet off Finisterre and capturedsix ships of the line in 1759; defeated Admiral Conflans off Belleisle;was made a peer in 1776; _d_. 1781. 

HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN, a Cornish clergyman and poet; was vicar for40 years of Morwenstow, a parish on the N. Cornwall coast; author of"Cornish Ballads"; was a humane man, of eccentric ways, and passionatelyfond of animals; was the author of several works besides his ballads, inparticular "Echoes from Old Cornwall" and "Footprints of Former Men inFar Cornwall" (1805-1875). 

HAWKESWORTH, JOHN, a miscellaneous writer; wrote a book of"Voyages, " an account of the first voyage of Captain Cook; was a friendof Johnson's, and associated with him in literary work (1715-1773). 

HAWKINS, SIR JOHN, an English navigator and admiral, born atPlymouth; was rear-admiral of the fleet sent against the Armada andcontributed to its defeat; has the unenviable distinction of having beenthe first Englishman to traffic in slaves, which he carried off fromAfrica and imported into the West Indies (1530-1595). 

HAWKINS, SIR JOHN, retired attorney, born in London; wrote a"History of Music, " and edited Walton's "Complete Angler" with notes(1719-1789). 

HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN, an English captain, born in Essex; embracingthe profession of arms, served with distinction at Crécy and Poitiers, and was in consequence knighted by Edward III. ; afterwards fought asfree-lance with his White Company in the wars of Italy, and finally inthe service of Florence, where he spent his last days and died in 1393. For an account of his character, military ability, and manner of warfare, see Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera. "

HAWORTH (3), a village of Yorkshire, situated on a rising moorlandin the W. Biding, 2 m. SW. Of Keighley, memorable as the lifelong home ofthe Brontës, and their final resting-place. 

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL, American novelist, born at Salem, Massachusetts; his early ambition was to be a literary man, and"Twice-told Tales" was the first production by which he won distinction, after the publication of which he spent some months at BROOK FARM(q. V. ), leaving which he married and took up house at Concord; from1848 to 1850 he held a State appointment, and in his leisure hours wrotehis "Scarlet Letter, " which appeared in the latter year, and establishedhis fame as a master of literature; this was followed by "The House ofthe Seven Gables, " "The Snow Image, " "The Blithedale Romance, " andby-and-by "The Marble Faun, " and "Our Old Home" (1804-1864). 

HAYDN, JOSEPH, German composer, born at Rohrau, in Austria, of poorparents; early evinced a musical talent, and became at the age of eight acathedral chorister; came into notice first as a street musician; soonbecame a popular music-master in Vienna, and, under the patronage of theEsterhazys, kapellmeister to Prince Nicolaus, a passionate lover ofmusic; he produced operas, symphonies, and oratorios, &c. ; he is at hisbest in quartettes and symphonies, and in "The Creation" and "TheSeasons"; he was a man of a happy disposition, and his character appearsin his music; he was known at length as Father Haydn (1732-1809). 

HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT, an English historical painter, born atPlymouth; studied at the Royal Academy, and in 1807 exhibited "Joseph andMary resting on the Road to Egypt"; two years later occurred hismemorable split with the Royal Academy over a supposed slight to hispicture, "Dentatus"; "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem" brought him £1700 byexhibition, and his "Judgment of Solomon, " considered his finest work, sold for 700 guineas; despite large sums obtained for "The MockElection, " "The Reform Banquet, " &c. , he was continually in debt, and hishigh-strung, sensitive temperament, smarting under imaginary slights andweary of unrealised ambitions, led him to commit suicide by shootinghimself in his studio; he was an artist of great but unequal genius; hewas fascinated with the Elgin Marbles, and the admiration he expressedfor them contributed to persuade the Government to purchase them(1786-1846). 

HAYES, ISAAC ISRAEL, Arctic explorer, born in Pennsylvania; aftergraduating in medicine, joined the Kane expedition in search of Franklinin 1853, and subsequently made two other voyages to the Arctic regions, accounts of which are given in his "An Arctic Boat-journey, " "The Land ofDesolation, " &c. ; subsequently he served as a surgeon during the CivilWar, and sat in the New York Assembly (1832-1881). 

HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD, President of the United States, born atDelaware, Ohio; graduated at Kenyon College, Ohio; studied law atHarvard, and started practice at Cincinnati; he served with distinctionthrough the Civil War, entered Congress in 1865, and was thrice governorof Ohio; in 1876 he was elected President in the Republican interestafter a protracted and bitterly disputed election; he did much to pacifythe South, reform the civil service, advance education, and to bringabout resumption of specie payments, measures which greatly restored theprosperity of the country (1822-1893). 

HAY-FEVER, a sort of catarrh, accompanied with paroxysms ofsneezing, irritation in the eyes, pains in the head, &c. , most frequentin early summer. 

HAYLEY, WILLIAM, poet, the friend and biographer of Cowper; wrote"Triumphs of Temper, " a poem (1745-1820). 

HAYM, RUDOLF, professor of Philosophy at Halle; wrote biographies ofHegel, W. Von Humboldt, and Schopenhauer; _b_. 1821. 

HAYNAU, JULIUS JAKOB, BARON VON, a notorious Austrian general, bornat Cassel, Germany; entered the army in 1801, and while holding a commandduring the Italian campaigns of 1848-49, crushed the revolt at Bresciawith such brutal ferocity as to gain him the name of the "Hyæna ofBrescia"; he was for a time dictator of Hungary, but his murderouscruelty towards the subjugate people became a European scandal and led tohis removal; in London he was mobbed and narrowly escaped with his life(1786-1853). 

HAYTI (Hispaniola or Santo Domingo), next to Cuba the largest of theW. Indian Islands, in the group of the Greater Antilles, lies midwaybetween Cuba on the W. And Porto Rico on the E. ; its area, somewhatlarger than Scotland, is apportioned between the negro Republic of Haytiin the E. And the mulatto Dominican Republic in the W. ; the island ismountainous, and forests of valuable timber abound; a warm, moist climatefavours rice, cotton, &c. , and minerals are plentiful; but during thiscentury, under native government, the island has been retrogressive;agriculture and mining are practically at a standstill, while the nativesseem incapable of self-government; the language spoken is a corruptFrench; Port-au-Prince and San Domingo are the chief towns; discovered in1492 by Columbus, the island was soon denuded of its aboriginals, thenpeopled by imported negroes, joined latterly by French buccaneers; in1697 the island was ceded to France, but in 1791, under TOUSSAINTL'OUVERTURE (q. V. ), the blacks, after a bloody revolution, sweptthe island clear of Europeans; population of island somewhat over amillion. 

HAYWARD, ABRAHAM, English essayist; bred to law, but took toliterature; executed a prose translation of "Faust, " Pt. I. (1802-1884). 

HAZLITT, WILLIAM, critic and essayist, born in Maidstone, of Irishdescent; began life as an artist, but abandoned art for letters, andcontributed to the reviews; wrote on the English poets and dramatists, the "Characters of Shakespeare's Plays, " "The Spirit of the Age, " a "Lifeof Napoleon, " &c. ; criticism was his _forte_, and he ranks among theforemost devoted to that art; his life was not well regulated, his healthgave way, and he died in poverty (1778-1830). 

HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART. , writer on art, born near Maidstone, Kent, succeeded to the baronetcy in 1838; became lieutenant-governor ofNew Brunswick in 1847, and governor-general of Canada in 1854; wrote"Handbook of Spanish Painting, " also "French Art, " and some poems(1805-1868). 

HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, soldier and author; governor of UpperCanada; suppressed an insurrection; wrote a "Life of Bruce the AfricanTraveller, " "Bubbles from the Brunnen of Nassau, " "A Faggot of FrenchSticks, " &c. (1793-1875). 

HEAD-HUNTERS, name given to the Dyaks of Borneo, from their habit ofpreserving in the way of trophy the heads of those whom they slay inbattle, as the Red Indians did the scalps. 

HEADRIGG, CUDDIE (i. E. Cuthbert), a ploughman in "Old Mortality. "

HEALY, TIMOTHY MICHAEL, Irish Nationalist, born at Bantry, Cork;came into prominence during the Land League agitation in 1880, and in thesame year was returned to Parliament; was called to the Irish bar in1884, and has since been active in promoting the interests of the HomeRule movement; in 1890 he was one of the leaders in the revolt againstParnell; _b_. 1855. 

HEARNE, THOMAS, a noted English antiquary, born in White Waltham, Berks; graduated at Oxford in 1699, and subsequently became second keeperof the Bodleian Library; his compilations and editions of old Englishtexts, e. G. Camden's "Annals, " Robert of Gloucester's "Chronicle, "display wide and ingenious scholarship; he figures in Pope's "Dunciad"(1678-1735). 

HEART OF MIDLOTHIAN, the old Tolbooth or jail of Edinburgh, thecapital of Midlothian, which gives name to one of Scott's best novels. 

HEATHENISM, as defined by Carlyle, "plurality of gods, mere sensuousrepresentation of the Mystery of Life, and for chief recognised elementtherein Physical Force, as contrasted with Christianism, or Faith in anInvisible, not as real only, but as the only reality; Time, through everymeanest moment of it, resting on Eternity; Pagan empire of Forcedisplaced by a nobler supremacy, that of Holiness. "

HEATHFIELD, GEORGE AUGUSTUS ELIOTT, LORD, a gallant general, thedefender of Gibraltar, son of Sir Gilbert Eliott, born at Stobs, inRoxburghshire; saw service first in the war of the Austrian Succession, fighting at Dettingen and Fontenoy; as a colonel he fought with Englishtroops in alliance with Frederick the Great against Austria; for hisheroic defence of Gibraltar (1779-1783) against the combined forces ofFrance and Spain he was raised to the peerage as Baron of Gibraltar(1717-1790). 

HEAVEN, in Christian theology the place of the immediate Divinepresence, where God manifests Himself without veil, and His saints enjoythat presence and know as they are known. In Scripture it denotes, (1)the atmosphere, (2) the starry region, (3) a state of bliss, (4) asdefined, the divine presence, and (5) God Himself. 

HEAVE-OFFERING, among the Jews, an offering for the support ofdivine service, so called as, when offered, lifted up in presence of thepeople. 

HEBBEL, FRIEDRICH, lyrist and dramatist, born at Weselburen, Ditmarsh; settled in Vienna in 1846; "Die Nibelungen" is his best play, others are "Judith, " "Maria Magdalena, " &c. ; his dramas are vigorous andoriginal, but ill-proportioned, and in the passions they depict abnormal;his works are collected in 12 vols. (1813-1863). 

HEBE, goddess of eternal youth, daughter of Zeus and Hera; was thecup-bearer of the gods; was superseded by Ganymedes, and became the wifeof Hercules after his admission among the immortals. 

HEBER, REGINALD, bishop of Calcutta, born in Cheshire, author of aprize poem entitled "Palestine" and a volume of "Hymns, " several of themfamous; died at his post in Trichinopoly; left a narrative of a "Journeythrough India" (1783-1826). 

HÉBERT, JACQUES RENÉ, commonly called Per Duchesne as editor of ajournal of that name, a violent revolutionary organ; took part in theSeptember Massacres; brutally insulted the queen at her trial, to thedisgust of Robespierre; was arrested by his colleagues, whom he dared tooppose, and guillotined, his widow found weeping, following him to hisdoom (1756-1794). 

HEBREW, a Semitic language, the ancient language of the Jews, andthat in which the Old Testament is written, the words of which, as indeedof others of the same stock, are derived from triliteral roots, and theverb in which has no present tense, only a past and a future, convertible, moreover, into one another. 

HEBREW POETRY is of two kinds, either lyric or gnomic, i. E. Subjectively emotional or sententiously didactic, the former belonging tothe active or stirring, and the latter to the reflective or quiet, periods of Hebrew history, and whether expressed in lyric or gnome risesin the conscience and terminates in action; for Hebrew thought needs togo no higher, since therein it finds and affirms God; and it seeks to gono farther, for therein it compasses all being, and requires no epic andno drama to work out its destiny. However individualistic in feature, asworking through the conscience, it yet relates itself to the whole moralworld, and however it may express itself, it beats in accord with thepulse of eternity. The lyric expression of the Hebrew temper we find inthe Psalms and the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the gnomic in the booksof Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, while the book of Job, which is onlydramatic in form, is partly lyric and partly dramatic. 

HEBREW PROPHECY had throughout regard for the Jews as a nation andto see that it fulfilled its destiny as such in the world. This purposewe see carried out by five steps or stages. It taught, first, by theNEBIIM (q. V. ), that the nation must regard itself as one nation;secondly, by Elijah, that it must have Jehovah alone for its God;thirdly, by Amos, that as a nation it was not necessarily God's chosen;fourthly, by Isaiah, that it existed for the preservation of a holy seed;and finally, that it ceased to exist when it was felt that religionprimarily concerned the individual and was wholly an affair of theconscience. Thus does Hebrew prophecy terminate when it leads up toChristianity, the first requirement of which is a regeneration of theheart (John iii. 3), and the great promise of which is the outpouring ofa spirit that "will guide into all truth" (John xvi. 13). 

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, an epistle of the New Testament ofuncertain authorship addressed to Christians of Jewish descent, who werestrongly tempted, by the persecution they were subjected to at the handsof their Jewish brethren, to renounce the cross of Christ, which it wasfeared they would too readily do, and so to their own ruin crucify theSon of God afresh, there being only this alternative for them, eithercrucifixion _with_ Christ or crucifixion _of_ Christ, and death of alltheir hopes founded on Him. 

HEBRIDES, or WESTERN ISLANDS, a general name for the islands onthe west coast of Scotland (save the islands of the Firth of Clyde), about 500 in number, of which 100 are inhabited; they belong to thecounties of Ross, Inverness, and Argyll, and are divided by the LittleMinch and the Minch into the Outer Hebrides, of which the chief areLewis, Harris, North and South Uist, Benbecula, &c. ; and the InnerHebrides, including Skye, Rum, Mull, Iona, Staffa, &c. ; they have wildand rocky coasts, but are picturesque and verdurous, and are muchfrequented by tourists; the climate is mild and moist; cattle and sheeprearing and fishing are the chief industries. 

HEBRON, an ancient town and city of refuge, originally calledKirjath-arba, i. E. Four cities, only 20 m. S. Of Jerusalem; it is apoor place now, but still abounds in orchards and vineyards. 

HECATÆUS OF MILETUS, styled the "logographer, " who flourished about500 B. C. ; visited many countries, and wrote two books, "The Tour of theWorld" and "Genealogies or Histories, " the former containing descriptionsof the places he visited, and the latter an account of the poeticalfables and traditions of the Greeks. 

HECATE, in the Greek mythology a mysterious divinity of the Titanbrood and held in honour by all the gods, identified with Phoebe inheaven, Artemis on earth, and Persephone in Hades, as being invested withauthority in all three regions; came to be regarded exclusively as aninfernal deity, having under her command and at her beck all manner ofdemons and phantom spirits. 

HECKER, FRIEDRICH KARL FRANZ, a German revolutionary, born atEichtersheim, Baden; practised as an advocate in Mannheim, and in 1842became an active democrat and Socialist; frustrated in an attempt duringthe '48 Revolution to create a republican assembly, he headed arevolutionary attack upon Baden, was defeated, and subsequently settledin the United States, where he took to farming; took part in the CivilWar at the head of a regiment of Germans, and became a commander of abrigade (1811-1881). 

HECKER, JUSTUS FRIEDRICH KARL, author of a great work on the"Epidemics of the Middle Ages"; was a professor of Medicine at Berlin(1795-1850). 

HECKMONDWIKE (10), a market-town in Yorkshire, 8 m. NE. OfHuddersfield; is the principal seat of the carpet and blanketmanufactures in the West Riding. 

HECLA or HEKLA, the loftiest of 20 active volcanoes in Iceland(5102 ft. ); is an isolated peak with five craters, 68 m. E. Of Reykjavik;its most violent outbreak in recent times continued from 1845 to 1846;its last eruption was in March 1878. 

HECTIC FEVER, a fever connected with consumption, and showing itselfby a bright pink flush on the cheeks. 

HECTOR, the chief hero of Troy in the war with the Greeks, the sonof Priam and Hecuba; fought with the bravest of the enemy and finallyslew Patroclus, the friend of ACHILLES (q. V. ), which roused thelatter from his long lethargy to challenge him to fight; Achilles chasedhim three times round the city, pierced him with his spear, and draggedhis dead body after his chariot round Ilium; his body was at the commandof Zeus delivered up to Priam and buried with great pomp within the citywalls. 

HECUBA, the wife of Priam, king of Troy; distinguished both as awife and a mother; on the fall of the city she fell into the hands of theGreeks, and, according to one tradition, was made a slave, and, accordingto another, threw herself in despair into the sea. 

HEDONISM, the doctrine of the Cyrenaics that pleasure is the end oflife, and the measure of virtue, or the _summum bonum_. 

HEEM, JAN DAVIDSZ VAN, a famous Dutch painter, born at Utrecht; hada prosperous and uneventful career in Antwerp, where in 1635 he became amember of the Guild of Painters; he is considered the greatest of the"still life" painters; his pictures, masterpieces of colouring andchiaroscuro, have a great monetary value, and are to be found in thefamous galleries of Amsterdam, Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, &c. (1606-1684). 

HEEREN, LUDWIG, a German historian; professor of History atGöttingen; wrote on ancient and modern history, specially the ancient andits antiquities; eminent in both (1760-1842). 

HEFELE, KARL JOSEPH VON, a Catholic Church historian, born atUnterkochen, in Würtemberg; in 1840 became professor of Church Historyand Christian Archæology in the Catholic Theological Faculty in TübingenUniversity, and in 1869 Bishop of Rottenburg; was for some time zealouslyopposed to the doctrine of the Papal infallibility, but subsequentlyacquiesced, putting, however, his own construction on it; his best-knownworks are the "History of the Christian Councils" and "Contributions toChurch History" (1809-1893). 

HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, the greatest ofall, born in Stuttgart; studied first at Tübingen, with a view totheology; as a student attracted no particular attention, was outstriptby Schelling; did domestic tutoring for a time; qualified at Jena for anacademic career; adhered to and collaborated with Schelling inphilosophy; first announced himself in 1807 by his work, "Phenomenologyof the Spirit"; became rector of the Academy at Nürnberg, where in1812-16 he composed his "Logic"; was in 1816 appointed professor ofPhilosophy at Heidelberg, whence he was removed to Berlin in 1818, where, his philosophy being now matured, he began to apply it with intenseearnestness to every subject of human interest; he was the last of a lineof thinkers beginning with Kant, with whom, however, he affiliateddirectly, and in his idealism philosophy first reached the goal which itwas till then with hesitating steps only stretching forward to; his worksfill 22 goodly sized volumes, and his system may be grouped under threeheads, the "Science of Logic, " the "Philosophy of Nature, " and the"Philosophy of Spirit" (1770-1831). 

HEGELIANISM, the philosophy of Hegel, which resolves being intothought, and thought into the unity of the logical moments of simpleapprehension, judgment, and reason, all purely spiritual acts, wherebybeing in itself, or _seyn_, becomes other than itself, or _daseyn_, andreturns into itself, or _für sich seyn_, the universal being first byseparating from itself particularised, and then by return into itselfindividualised, the whole being what Hegel characterises as _Der Processdes Geistes_, "The Process of the Spirit. " Something like this is whatDr. Stirling calls "The Secret of Hegel, " and an open secret it is, forhe finds it pervading the whole system; "open where you will in Hegel, "he says, "you find him always engaged in saying pretty well the samething"; always identity by otherness passing into selfness, or makingthat _for_ itself which is at first _in_ itself;--a philosophy which isanticipated by the doctrine of St. Paul, which represents God as the One_from_ whom are all things as Father, and _through_ whom are all thingsas Son, and _to_ whom are all things as Spirit, the One who is thus All;it is also involved in the doctrine of Christ when He says God is Spirit, or the Living One who lives, and manifests Himself in life, for Himself, from Himself, and through Himself, who, so to say, thus concretes Himselfthroughout the universe. 

HEGE`SIAS, a Cyrenaic philosopher, who held that life was full ofevils, that it was in vain to seek after pleasure, and that all a wiseman could do was to fortify himself as best he could against pain. 

HEGESIPPUS, a Church historian of the 2nd century, a convert fromJudaism; only fragments of his "Memoirs of Ecclesiastical Affairs"remain. 

HEIDELBERG (35), a celebrated German city, in Baden, situated amidbeautiful surroundings, on the Neckar, 13 m. SE. Of Mannheim; has manyinteresting buildings, including ruins of a splendid 13th-century castle, but is chiefly celebrated for its flourishing university (student roll, 800; professors, 100; library, 500, 000), whose professoriate has includedmany of the most distinguished German scholars; it was long the centre ofCalvinism; its chief trade is in books, tobacco, wine, and beer. 

HEIJN, or HEYN, PETER PETERSEN, a famous Dutch admiral, born atDelftshaven; from being a cabin-boy rose to be commander of the Dutchfleet; off the east coast of S. America he twice defeated the Spanishfleet, securing an immense booty, and in 1628 captured a flotilla ofSpanish galleons with silver and jewels equal to 16, 000, 000 Dutchguilders; fell in an action off Dunkirk (1577-1629). 

HEILBRONN (30), a quaint old town of Würtemberg, on the Neckar, 23m. N. Of Stuttgart; has a fine 11th-century Gothic church, and theThief's Tower (Diebsthurm); is associated with the captivity of GOETZVON BERLICHINGEN (q. V. ); it is now a busy commercial centre, andmanufactures silverware, paper, beet-sugar, chemicals, &c. 

HEILSBRONN, a Bavarian market-town, 16 m. SW. Of Nüremberg; iscelebrated for its Cistercian monastery, now suppressed, but whose churchstill contains monuments and art relics of great historic interest. 

HEINE, HEINRICH, a German lyric poet, born at Düsseldorf, of Jewishparents; was bred to law, but devoted himself to literature, and mingledwith literary people, and associated in particular with the Varnhagen vonEnse circle; first became notable by the publication of his "Reisebilder"and his "Buch der Lieder, " the appearance of which created a wide-spreadenthusiasm in Germany in 1825 he abandoned the Jewish faith and professedthe Christian, but the creed he adopted was that of a sceptic, and heindulged in a cynicism that outraged all propriety, and even commondecency; in 1830 he quitted Germany and settled in Paris, and there a fewyears afterwards married a rich lady, who alleviated the sufferings ofhis last years; an attack of paralysis in 1847 left him only one eye, andin the following year he lost the other, but under these privations andmuch bodily pain he bore up with a singular fortitude, and continued hisliterary labours to the last; in his songs he was at his best, and bythese alone it is believed he will be chiefly remembered (1797-1856). 

HEINECCIUS, JOHANN GOTTLIEB, a celebrated German jurist, born atEisenberg; was successively professor of Philosophy and subsequently ofLaw at several universities of Germany; he wrote several learned works inlaw treated from a philosophical standpoint; mention may be made of his"Historia Juris Civilis Romani" and "Elementa Juris Naturæ Gentium"(1681-1741). 

HEINSIUS, ANTHONY, a noted Dutch statesman, born at Delft; becameGrand Pensionary of Holland; was the intimate friend and correspondent ofWilliam III. Of England, who left the guidance of Dutch affairs largelyin his hands (1641-1720). 

HEIR APPARENT, one whose right of succession is sure if he survivethe present holder. 

HEIR PRESUMPTIVE, one whose right of succession is sure if notbarred by the birth of one nearer. 

HEJAZ, EL, the holy land of the Moslems, a district of Arabia Felix, and so called by containing the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. 

HEJIRA or HEJRA (Arabic, "going away"), a word applied toMahomet's flight from Mecca to Medina in A. D. 622; Calif Omar, 17 yearslater, adopted this date as the starting-point of a new Mohammedancalendar. 

HEL or HELA, in Scandinavian mythology an inexorable divinity, the death-goddess who presides over the icy realm of the dead; her mawwas insatiable and her heart pitiless. 

HELDENBUCH, a collection of German heroic poems relating heroicdeeds and events connected with the inroads of the barbarians on theempire. 

HELDER, THE (25), a strongly fortified and flourishing seaport inNorth Holland, on the Marsdiep, at the N. End of the North Holland Canal, 51 m. NW. Of Amsterdam; is an important naval centre, and has anexcellent harbour. 

HELEN, the daughter of Zeus and Leda, and the wife of Menelaus, kingof Sparta; the most beautiful of women, who was carried off to Troy byParis, to revenge whose abduction the princes of Greece, who had pledgedthemselves to protect her, made war on Troy, a war which lasted tenyears. 

HELENA, ST. , the mother of Constantine the Great; is said to havevisited Jerusalem and discovered the Holy Sepulchre and the cross onwhich Christ was crucified; _d_. 328, at the age of 80. Festival, Aug. 18. There are several other saints of the same name. 

HELENSBURGH (8), a pleasantly situated watering-place in Dumbarton, on the Firth of Clyde, at the entrance of the Gareloch, 4 m. N. OfGreenock. 

HELENUS, a son of Priam and Hecuba, celebrated for his propheticforesight; is said to have deserted his countrymen and joined the Greeks. 

HELIAND, an old Saxon poem of the 9th century, of great philologicalvalue, but of no great literary merit; deals with the life and work ofChrist; of the two extant MSS. One is in the British Museum. 

HELICON, a mountain in Boeotia, Greece, sacred to Apollo and theMuses; famous for the fountains on its slopes dedicated to the latter. 

HELIGOLAND (2, but rising to 14 in summer), an islet of the NorthSea, 35 m. From the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser; German since 1890;consists of the _Oberland_, a plateau, with some 400 houses, and the_Unterland_ on the shore, 206 ft. Beneath, with a group of 70 dwellings. In the summer it is crowded with visitors, bathing being the chiefattraction; fishing is the staple industry of the native Frisians. 

HELIODORUS, the most noted and earliest of the Greek romancists, born at Emesa, Syria; flourished in the second half of the 3rd centuryA. D. ; his romance "Æthiopica" is a love tale of great beauty and told withnaïve simplicity; has had considerable influence over subsequent romancewriters, e. G. Tasso. 

HELIOGA`BALUS, a Roman emperor; invested, while yet a youth, withthe Imperial purple by the army in 218; ruled with a show of moderationat first, but soon gave way to every manner of excess; was after fouryears put to death by the Prætorian Guard, and his body thrown into theTiber. 

HELIOGRAPHY, a method of signalling from distant points by means ofthe sun's rays flashed from mirrors; messages can in this manner betransmitted a distance of 190 m. ; it has been found of great practicalvalue in military operations. 

HELIOPOLIS (i. E. City of the Sun), in Egyptian _On_, one of theoldest and most sacred cities of Egypt; was situated about 10 m. N. OfCairo, on the eastmost branch of the Nile; it was the centre of Egyptianlearning; Solon and Plato are said to have studied there, and Potipharwas one of its chief priests; the famous obelisk PHARAOH'S NEEDLEstands near; and CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE, now on the Thames Embankment, was originally of this city. Also the name of Baalbec. 

HELIOS, the god of the sun, mistakenly identified with Apollo, but of anolder dynasty, was the brother of SELENE (q. V. ) and EOS (q. V. ); a godof the brood of the TITANS (q. V. ), and the source of light to both godsand men; he rises from the bosom of OKEANOS (q. V. ) in the morning, andloses himself in his dark abyss every evening. 

HELIOTROPE or BLOODSTONE, a variety of quartz (chalcedony orjasper) of a deep green colour, with bright red spots. The finestspecimens, which come from South Asia, are of fairly translucentchalcedony; those of jasper are opaque; they are used as seals, ring-stones, &c. 

HELL FIRE, the infinite terror to a true man, the infinite miserywhich he never fails to realise must befall him if he come short in hisloyalty to truth and duty. 

HELL GATE or HURL GATE, a narrow pass in the East River, between the city of New York and Long Island; at one time its hiddenshoals and swift narrow current were dangerous to ships, but extensiveblasting operations, completed in 1885, have greatly widened and clearedthe pass. 

HELLAS, the name of the abode of the ancient Greeks, and of greaterextent than Greece proper. 

HELLE, a maiden who, with her brother Phrixus, fled on thegolden-fleeced ram to escape from the cruelty of her step-dame Ino, andfell into the strait called the Hellespont after her, in which she wasdrowned. See GOLDEN FLEECE. 

HELLENISTS, originally Jews who would fain have seen Jewish thoughtand life more or less transformed in spirit as well as fashion after aGreek pattern; eventually those who by contact with Greek civilisationbecame Grecianised, and were open to learn as much from the civilisationof the Greeks as was consistent with the maintenance in their integrityof the principles of their own religion. 

HELLER, STEPHEN, a distinguished pianist and composer, born atPesth; made his _début_ at nine, and by 17 had won a reputationthroughout the great cities of Europe; in 1838 he settled in Paris, andgave himself to teaching and composition; he ranks beside Chopin as amaster of technique; his works are almost entirely pianoforte pieces(1814-1888). 

HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN VON, an eminent German scientist, born atPotsdam, Brandenburg; was first an army doctor, and in 1849 becameprofessor of Physiology in Königsberg, and subsequently in Bonn andHeidelberg; in 1871 he became professor of Physics in Berlin; wasennobled, and in 1887 nominated head of the Charlottenburg Institute; tophysiology he made contributions of great value on the varioussense-organs, and to physics on the conservation of energy; but his mostoriginal work was done in connection with acoustics in its relation tooptics; his published works include "Theory of Sound Sensations'" and"Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music"(1821-1894). 

HELMONT, JEAN BAPTIST VAN, a celebrated German chemist, the fatherof chemistry, born at Brussels; his early years were divided between thestudy of medicine and the practice of a religious mysticism; the works ofParacelsus stimulated his interest in chemistry and physics, and havingmarried a noble Brabant lady, he settled down on the family estate nearVilvorde, where he devoted himself to scientific research; mixed up agood deal of mysticism and alchemy with his scientific discoveries, andmade a special study of gases; he was the first to prove theindestructibility of matter in chemical changes by utilising the balancein analysis; he invented the word gas, first used the melting-point ofice and the boiling-point of water as limits of a thermometric scale, andhis physiological speculations led him to regard the stomach as the seatof the soul! (1577-1644). 

HELOÏSE, niece of Canon Fulbert, born at Paris; celebrated for heramour with ABELARD (q. V. ); became prioress of the convent ofArgenteuil and abbess of the Paraclete, where she founded a new conventand lived a pious life (1101-1164). 

HELOÏSE, NOUVELLE, a romance by Rousseau. 

HELOTS, slaves who formed the lowest grade of the population ofSparta, were descendants of the original inhabitants of Laconia, orprisoners of war; they were slaves belonging to the State, from the Statealone could they receive manumission; they were employed as tillers ofthe ground, waited at meals, filled various menial offices for privateindividuals, and were treated with the utmost harshness; were whippedannually to remind them of their servile position; slaughtered when theirnumbers increased too much, and were forced to exhibit themselves underintoxication as a warning to the Spartan youth. 

HELPS, SIR ARTHUR, essayist and historian, born in Surrey; for atime held official posts in connection with the government of the day, and finally that of Clerk to the Privy Council, in which capacity he wasbrought into connection with the Queen, which led to his being appointededitor of the "Principal Speeches and Addresses of the late PrinceConsort" and Her Majesty's "Leaves from a Journal of our Life in theHighlands"; he is the author of "Friends in Council, " published oneseries in 1847 and a second in 1859, which dealt with a variety ofsubjects, and was, along with "Companions of my Solitude, " very popular;he did also plays and romances as well as historical sketches(1817-1875). 

HELSINGFORS (77), a strongly fortified seaport and capital ofFinland, is in a commanding position placed on a rocky peninsula in theGulf of Finland, 191 m. W. Of St. Petersburg; the numerous islands andislets at the entrance of the harbour are strongly fortified; the town ishandsomely laid out, and has a flourishing university (student roll, 1703), and does a good Baltic trade. 

HELST, BARTHOLOMÆUS VAN DER, one of the greatest of the Dutchportrait-painters, born at Haarlem, but spent his life in Amsterdam; heenjoyed a great reputation in his day, and many of his pictures are to befound in European galleries; his "Muster of the Burgher Guard" wasconsidered by Sir Joshua Reynolds to be "the first picture of portraitsin the world" (1613-1670). 

HELVELLYN, one of the Cumberland mountains, 3118 ft. High, rises atthe side of Ulleswater, midway between Keswick and Ambleside. 

HELVETII, a Celtic people mentioned by Cæsar as occupying territoryin Central Europe now embraced in Switzerland; they suffered tremendousslaughter at the hands of Cæsar when endeavouring to make their way to awider territory in Southern Gaul. 

HELVÉTIUS, a French philosophe, born in Paris, of Swiss origin;author of a book entitled "De l'Esprit, " which was condemned by theParlement of Paris for views advocated in it that were consideredderogatory to the dignity of man, and which exposed him to much bitterhostility, especially at the hands of the priests; man he reduced to amere animal, made self-love the only motive of his actions, and thesatisfaction of our sensuous desires the principle of morals, notwithstanding which he was a man of estimable character and of kindlydisposition (1715-1771). 

HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA, _née_ Browne, poetess, born in Liverpool;her marriage was an unhappy one, and after the birth of five childrenended in permanent separation; she was the authoress of a number ofworks, a complete edition of which occupies 7 vols. , the best of herproductions being lyrics; and she enjoyed the friendship of Wordsworth, Scott, and other literary celebrities of the time (1791-1835). 

HÉNAULT, French historian, born in Paris, president of the Parlementof Paris; was author of "Abrégé Chronologique de l'Histoire de France"(1685-1770). 

HEMEL HEMPSTEAD (10), a busy market-town in Herts, 23 m. NW. OfLondon; noted for its straw-plaiting, and has paper-mills, foundries, &c. 

HEMS or HOMS (35), a noted Syrian city known to the Romans asEmesa, on the Orontes, 63 m. NE. Of Tripoli; here stood in ancient timesa famous temple of the Sun, one of whose priests, HELIOGABALUS(q. V. ), became Roman emperor (218); the Crusaders captured it from theSaracens in 1098; it does a good trade in oil, cotton, silk, &c. 

HEMSTERHUIS, Dutch philologist, born at Gröningen; was professor ofGreek at Leyden; one of the greatest Grecians of his day; had for pupilsRuhnken and Valckenaer, and edited a number of classical works(1685-1766). 

HENDERSON, ALEXANDER, a celebrated Scotch divine; became professorof Rhetoric and Philosophy in St. Andrews, and subsequently held theliving of Leuchars, in Fife; he actively espoused the cause of theCovenanters, and became a prominent leader in negotiations with the king;in 1643 he drafted the "Solemn League and Covenant" which passed intoforce, and he was one of Scotland's representatives to the Assembly ofDivines at Westminster (1583-1646). 

HENDERSON, THOMAS, astronomer, born at Dundee, astronomer first atthe Cape and then Astronomer-royal for Scotland, calculated the distanceof the nearest fixed star [Greek: alpha] Centauri and found it nearly 19billions of miles from the sun. 

HENGIST AND HORSA, two Saxon brothers who came over to assistVortigern against the Picts, and were rewarded by a gift of Thanet, though they were afterwards defeated by Vortigern and the latter slain. 

HENGSTENBERG, a German theologian, born in Westphalia; was editor ofthe _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, and the valiant unwearied assailant ofRationalism in its treatment of the Scriptures and the old orthodoxfaith; his principal works bear on Old Testament literature, such as itsChristology and the Psalms, as well as on the New, such as St. John'sGospel and the Apocalypse (1802-1869). 

HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST, poet and critic, author of a "Book ofVerses" and "Song of the Sword, " in which he reveals superior powers as apoet, and of a volume entitled "Views and Reviews, " in which he evincesdiscriminative criticism of the highest order; he has edited, along withT. F. Henderson, in a workmanlike style, the "Centenary Edition of thePoetry of Burns, " accompanied it with a "Life of the Poet, " and acharacterisation somewhat damping to the prevailing enthusiasm inconnection with the poet; _b_. 1849. 

HENLEY-ON-THAMES (5), a borough of Oxfordshire, on the Thames, nearthe Chiltern Hills, 36 m. W. Of London; the river is spanned here by afine five-arch bridge, and the annual amateur regatta is a noted socialevent; malting and brewing are the chief industries. 

HENOTHEISM, a polytheism which assigns to one god of the pantheonsuperiority over the rest. 

HENRIETTA MARIA, wife of Charles I. , born at the Louvre; daughter ofHenry IV. Of France and of Marie de Medicis; a beautiful and able woman, much beloved, and deservedly so, by her husband, but from her bigotry asa Roman Catholic disliked and distrusted by the nation, not without goodreason; by her imprudent conduct she embroiled matters more seriouslythan they were; menaced with impeachment by the Commons, had to flee thecountry; returned, indeed, with a supply of money and ammunition"purchased by crown jewels, " but in 1644 was obliged to seek refuge againin France; revisited the country for a short time after the Restoration, and died near Paris at her retreat there (1609-1669). 

HENRIETTA MARIA, daughter of Charles I. , and wife of the Duke ofOrleans, brother of Louis XIV. , born at Exeter; she had an itch forpolitical intrigue like her mother, and was successful in persuading herbrother, Charles II. , into league with France by signing the treaty ofDover; on her return to France she died suddenly, by poison it isbelieved (1644-1670). 

HENRIOT, a French revolutionary, born at Nanterre; was generalissimoof the National Guard of Paris during the Reign of Terror; marched withhis sansculotte following into the Convention one day and escorted 29 ofthe Girondists to the guillotine; became the satellite of Robespierre, whom he defended at the last, but could not deliver; arrested himself ina state of intoxication, was dragged out of a drain, and despatched bythe guillotine (1761-1794). 

HENRY I. , king of England from 1100 to 1135, youngest son of Williamthe Conqueror, born at Selby, in Yorkshire; usurped the crown from hiselder but irresolute brother Robert, an act which was confirmed by theChurch and the mass of the people, Robert, after a weak resistance, beingpensioned off; the epithets Beauclerc and the Lion of Justice, which werebestowed on him, so far accurately describe him as he appeared to hispeople; his attainments were scholarly for his times, and his reign wasdistinguished by the strong and organised administration of justice, although morally his life was a depraved one; after seizing Normandy fromhis brother Robert, whom he imprisoned for life, he governed his kingdomwith a firm hand; the turbulent Norman nobles were subdued, while theadministration of the law was greatly improved by the institution of the_Curia Regis_ (the King's Court) and of itinerant judges; trade took astart, and the religious life of the nation was deepened through theadvent of the Cistercian monks and the influence of Anselm; he wasmarried to Eadgyth (changed to Matilda), daughter of Malcolm of Scotland(1068-1135). 

HENRY II. , king of England from 1154 to 1189, first of thePlantagenet line; was the son of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. , and hersecond husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, born at Le Mans;when he came to the throne as Stephen's successor he was already inpossession, mainly through his marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wifeof Louis VII. , of more than half of France; he set himself with all thevigour of his energetic nature to reform the abuses which had becomerampant under Stephen, and Thomas à Becket was his zealous Chancellor;the Great Council was frequently summoned to deliberate on nationalaffairs; the _Curia Regis_ was strengthened, the itinerant judgeshipsrevived, while the oppression and immorality of the nobles was sternlysuppressed by the demolition of the "adulterine castles"; a blow wasaimed at the privileges and licentiousness of the clergy by theConstitutions of Clarendon, but their enactment brought about a rupturebetween the king and Becket, now Archbishop of Canterbury, whichsubsequently ended in the murder of Becket; in 1171 Ireland was invadedand annexed, and three years later William the Lion of Scotland wasforced to declare his kingdom a fief to the English throne; some timepreviously the Welsh princes had done him homage; the last years of hisreign were embittered by quarrels and strife with his ungrateful sons; hewas a man of many kingly qualities, perhaps the best, taken all in all, that England ever had, and his reign marks an epoch in the development ofconstitutional law and liberty (1133-1189). 

HENRY III. , king of England from 1216 to 1272, eldest son of KingJohn; succeeded to the throne at the age of nine; during his minority thekingdom was wisely and faithfully served by the Earl of Pembroke andHubert de Burgh; when he came to years he proved himself a weak ruler, and, according to Stubbs, his administration was "one long series ofimpolitic and unprincipled acts"; with the elevation of Peter des Roches, a native of Anjou, to the post of chief adviser, French interlopers soonbecame predominant at the Court, and the recipients of large estates andpensions, an injustice further stimulated by the king's marriage withEleanor of Provence; justice was prostituted, England humiliated under afeeble foreign policy, and the country finally roused by infamousexactions; Simon de Montfort, the king's own brother-in-law, became theleader of the people and the champion of constitutional rights; by theProvisions of Oxford, forced upon the king by Parliament assembled atOxford (1258), a wider and more frequent Parliamentary representation wasgiven to the people, and the king's power limited by a permanent councilof 15; as an issue of the Barons' War, which resulted in the defeat andcapture of the king at Lewes (1264), these provisions were still furtherstrengthened by the Mise of Lewes, and from this time may be dated thebirth of representative government in England as it now exists; in 1265was summoned the first Parliament as at present constituted, of peerstemporal and spiritual, and representatives from counties, cities, andboroughs; internal dissensions ceased with the victory of Prince Edwardover the barons at Eastham (1265), the popular leader De Montfortperished on the field (1206-1272). 

HENRY IV. , king of England from 1399 to 1418, first of theLancastrian kings, son of John of Gaunt, and grandchild of Edward III. , born at Bolingbroke, in Lincolnshire; Richard II. 's misrule and despotismhad damped the loyalty of his people, and when Henry came to England tomaintain his ducal rights he had little difficulty in deposing Richard, and, with the consent of Parliament, in assuming the crown; this act ofusurpation--for Richard's true heir was Roger Mortimer, a descendant ofan older branch of the family--had two important results; it made Henrymore obsequious to the Parliamentary power which had placed him on thethrone, and it was the occasion of the bloody Wars of the Roses that wereto devastate the kingdom during the reigns of Henry VI. And Edward IV. ;Henry's own reign was a troubled one; wars were successfully undertakenagainst the Welsh under Owen Glendower and against the Scotch; whilerebellion was raised by the Percies in unsuccessful attempts to win thecrown for Mortimer; the only law of importance passed was the statute forburning heretics, the first passed in England for the suppression ofreligious opinion (1366-1413). 

HENRY V. , king of England from 1413 to 1422, son of preceding, bornat Monmouth; during the wars of his father's reign he gave evidence ofhis abilities as a soldier, distinguishing himself specially by hisconquest of Wales; on his accession to the throne he renewed the claimsput forward by Edward III. To the French crown, and with the support ofhis people embarked on his great struggle to win the kingdom of France;in 1415 he gained the glorious victory of Agincourt, strengthened hisposition by confirmed military successes, and by marrying Catherine, daughter of the French king, and by the treaty of Troyes got himselfappointed regent of France and successor to the throne; he was idolisedby his people as the perfect pattern of a warrior king, but he hadneither the gifts of statesmanship nor the foresight of Edward I. , towhom he is compared, and the English dominion which he established inFrance was too unsubstantial to endure (1388-1422). 

HENRY VI. , king of England from 1422 to 1461, son of preceding, bornat Windsor; was a child of nine months when his father died, and in thesame year was acknowledged king over the N. And E. Of France; the Dukesof Bedford and Gloucester became regents respectively over the Englishand French kingdoms; war was resumed with France, and for thirty yearsthe weary struggle continued, by the end of which time England, despitesome early successes, had been stripped of her French possessions, mainlyowing to the enthusiasm awakened by the heroic and ill-fated JEANNED'ARC (q. V. ); the growing discontent of the people is indicated byJack Cade's rebellion (1540), and five years later began the famous Warsof the Roses; six battles were fought between the rival houses, and fourtimes victory rested with the Yorkists; after the final victory of theYorkists at Towton (1461), Henry fled to Scotland and Edward wasproclaimed king; Henry was a man of weak intellect, gentle, and ofstudious nature, and was ill mated in his ambitious and warlike queen, Margaret of Anjou; a futile struggle was made to win his kingdom back, but the hopes of the Lancastrians perished at Tewkesbury; the king wascaptured and confined in the Tower, where, there is little doubt, he wasmurdered (1421-1471). 

HENRY VII. , king of England from 1485 to 1509, son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, first of the Tudor monarchs, born at Pembroke Castle;after defeating and slaying Richard III. On Bosworth Field he assumed thecrown, and by his marriage with Elizabeth of York, daughter of EdwardIV. , united the claims of the rival roses; his firm and prudent ruleestablished quiet and order in the country; the pretensions of thepretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck were promptly crushed; apeaceful relationship was established with France, and the Scotch wereconciliated by the marriage of his daughter Margaret to their king, JamesIV. ; increased prosperity followed, maritime enterprise was encouraged, but the kingly power grew at the expense of the constitutional authorityof Parliament; resort was had to benevolences and other unconstitutionalmethods of raising funds, and in his latter years the king's exactionsbecame tyrannical; Henry was not a man of fine kingly qualities, but heaccomplished much for his country, and is best described in Gardiner'swords, "his contemporaries needed a chief-constable to keep order, and hegave them what they needed" (1456-1509). 

HENRY VIII. , king of England from 1509 to 1547, son of preceding, born at Greenwich; was welcomed to the throne with great enthusiasm, andstill further established himself in public favour by his gallantexploits at the Battle of Spurs and at the sieges of Tournay andTerouenne in the war of the Holy Alliance against France; in his absencean invasion of James IV. Of Scotland was repulsed and the Scottish armycrushed at Flodden (1513); during the first half of the reign publicaffairs were mainly conducted by the king's favourite minister, Wolsey, whose policy it was to hold the balance of power between Spain andFrance; but he fell into public disfavour by the heavy burden of taxationwhich he little by little laid upon the people; Henry, who in 1521 hadbeen named "Defender of the Faith" by the Pope for his published defenceof the sacraments against the attacks of Luther, was now moving for adivorce from his first wife Catherine of Arragon; a breach with the Popeensued, Wolsey was deposed for his double-dealing in the matter, andHenry, having defiantly married Anne Boleyn, put an end to the papaljurisdiction in England to secure himself against appeals to the PapalCourt, and got himself acknowledged Supreme Head of the Church ofEngland; the suppression of the monasteries soon followed, and theirestates were confiscated (1536-1540); in 1536 the movement of theReformation was continued by the drawing up of _Ten Articles_ and by anauthorised translation of the Bible; but the passing of the _SixArticles_ three years later, declaring in favour of the real presence ofChrist in the Eucharist, clerical celibacy, private masses, auricularconfession, &c. , was an attempt to stay the rapid spread of Protestantdoctrines; in 1541 Henry was declared King of Ireland, and in the twofollowing years successful wars were waged with Scotland and France; theimportance of the reign lies in the coincidence of it with the rise andculmination of the Reformation, a movement brought about in the firstinstance by no higher motive than the king's desire for a divorce as wellas for absolute power; but for which a favourable reception had beenprepared beforehand by the spread of the new learning and that freespirit of inquiry that was beginning to take possession of men's minds;historians for the greater part agree in representing Henry as a man ofversatile powers, considerable intellectual force, but headstrong, selfish, and cruel in the gratification of his desires; he was six timesmarried; Catherine and Anne of Clèves were divorced, Anne Boleyn andCatherine Howard executed, Jane Seymour died in childbirth, and CatherineParr survived him; he left behind to succeed him on the throne Mary, daughter of Catherine, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, and Edward, son of Jane Seymour (1491-1547). 

HENRY III. , an illustrious Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, son ofConrad II. ; in 1026 he became king of the Germans, succeeded to thedukedoms of Bavaria and Suabia, and in 1039 assumed the imperial crown;under his strong and wise government, dissensions, papal and otherwise, were put down, the territory of the empire extended, and many churchesand monastic schools established (1017-1056). 

HENRY IV. , Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, son of preceding; hisreign is memorable as witnessing the first open claim on the part of thePapal power to have dominion over the crowned heads of Europe; Henry'sattempt to depose Gregory VII. Was boldly met by a declaration ofexcommunication; Henry was forced to do penance and to receive his crownafresh from the Pope; but the struggle broke out anew; Clement III. Wasput up in opposition, and the contest raged with varying success till thedeposition of Henry by his ungrateful son (1050-1106). 

HENRY IV. , king of France from 1594 till 1610, surnamed "The Great" and"The Good"; during his reign the great struggle between the Huguenots andthe Catholics continued with unabated fury; Henry saved his life in themassacre of St. Bartholomew's Day by renouncing his early Calvinism, butwas imprisoned; four years later he was again at the head of the Huguenotarmy and defeating the Bourbon claimant for the throne, was crowned king, but not before waiving his Protestant principles to conciliate thepeople; in 1598 he issued the famous Edict of Nantes, giving freedom ofworship to the Huguenots; during his administration the nation wasconsolidated, new roads and a growing trade knit the towns together;financial reforms of great importance were carried out by his celebratedminister, DUC DE SULLY (q. V. ); Henry was assassinated by instigation ofthe Jesuits (1553-1610). 

HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, a noted English chronicler of the 12th century, who became archdeacon of Huntingdon, and wrote a Latin history of Englanddown to the death of Stephen in 1154. 

HENRY THE NAVIGATOR, son of John I. , king of Portugal, born atOporto; an able, enterprising man, animated with a zeal for maritimediscovery, and who at his own expense sent out voyagers who discoveredthe Madeira Islands and explored the coast of Africa as far as CapeBlanco; is said to have been the first to employ the compass for purposesof navigation; his mother was daughter of John of Gaunt (1391-1460). 

HENRY, MATTHEW, a Nonconformist divine; was minister at Hackney, London; was the author of a commentary long in repute among piousevangelical people, and to some extent still, as a practical anddevotional guide in the study of the Scriptures (1662-1714). 

HENRY, PATRICK, American statesman and orator, born in Virginia;having been in business he took to law, and rose into fame by hiseloquent pleadings in the cause of the people; played a conspicuous partin the agitation for independence, especially by his oratory, which wasof a quality to move large audiences; he was a member of the firstCongress in 1774 (1736-1799). 

HENRYSON, ROBERT, an early Scottish poet, flourished in the 15thcentury; most of his life was spent as a schoolmaster in Dunfermline; hischief works, which are full of pathos, humour, and a fine descriptivepower, include "Testament of Cresseid, " a continuation of Chaucer's tale, "Robene and Makyne, " the earliest Scottish pastoral, a metrical versionof some of "Æsop's Fables, " and the story of "Orpheus and Eurydice. "

HEPHÆSTOS, called Vulcan by the Romans, the Greek god of fire, or oflabour in the element of fire, the son of Zeus and Hera, represented asill-shapen, lame, and ungainly, so much so as to be an object of ridiculeto the rest of the pantheon, but he was indispensable to the dynasty, andto none more than his father and mother, who were often unkind to him; hehad his smithy in Olympus in the vicinity of the gods, and the marvellouscreations of his art were shaped on an anvil, the hammer of which wasplied by 20 bellows that worked at his bidding; in later traditions hehad his workshop elsewhere, and the Cyclops for his servants, employed inmanufacturing thunderbolts for Zeus; he was wedded to Aphrodité, whom hecaught playing false with Ares, and whom he trapped along with him in anet a spectacle to all the upper deities. 

HEPTAD, a term in chemistry to denote an atom that is the equivalentof seven atoms of hydrogen, from _hepta_, seven. 

HEPTARCHY, ANGLO-SAXON, the seven kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northumberland, East Anglia, and Mercia, the chief of thoseestablished by the Saxons during the 6th century in Great Britain. 

HEPTATEUCH, a name given to the first seven books of the Bible. 

HERA, called Juno by the Romans, daughter of Cronos and Rhea, andsister and wife of Zeus; was the queen of heaven, and treated with thesame reverence as her husband, but being inferior in power was bound toobey him equally with the rest, or suffer if she did not; she was jealousof Zeus in his amours with mortals, and persecuted all his children bymortal mothers, Hercules among the chief. 

HERACLES, i. E. The chosen of Hera, to be tried by her. SeeHERCULES. 

HERACLI`DÆ, Spartans, presumed descendants of Hercules, who at onetime invaded and took possession of the Peloponnesus. 

HERACLITUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Ephesus, who flourishedabout the year 480 B. C. ; was the first to note how everything throughoutthe universe is in constant flux, and nothing permanent but in transitionfrom being to nothing and from nothing to being, from life to death andfrom death to life, that nothing is, that everything becomes, that thetruth of being is becoming, that no one, nothing, is exempt from thislaw, the law symbolised by the fable of the PHOENIX IN THE FIRE(q. V. ). 

HERACLIUS, Emperor of the East from 610 to 642, born in Cappadocia;raised to the throne of the East on account of the services he renderedthe citizens of Constantinople in getting rid of a tyrant; waged waragainst the hostile Persians, defeated Chosroës, and compelled a peace, but was unable to withstand the arms of the Moslem invaders. 

HERAT (50), the chief town of the province of Herat, in W. Afghanistan, on the Hari-Rud, 300 m. W. Of Cabul; its central positionhas given it a great commercial and military importance; it hasmanufactures of leather and wool, and as a place of great strategicalvalue, since the advance of Russia in Asia is strongly fortified by aBritish citadel and garrison. 

HÉRAULT (462), a maritime dep. Of S. France fronting the Gulf ofLyons; in the N. Are the Cévennes Mountains, but wide plains fringed onthe sea border with large lagoons occupy the S. ; the climate, except onthe marshy coast, is dry and healthy; its former importance as awine-growing district has greatly diminished, but olives and almonds arecultivated, sheep and silkworms bred; coal is the most important mineral;salt is obtained in large quantities from the salt marshes, and fishingis an important industry. 

HERBART, German philosopher, born at Oldenburg; Kant's successor atKönigsberg, professor also at Göttingen twice over; founded hisphilosophy like Kant on the criticism of subjective experience, butarrived at different results, and arrayed itself against the wholepost-Kantian philosophy of Germany; it is described by SCHWEGLER"as an extension of the monadology of Leibnitz, full of ingenuity butdevoid of inward fertility, or any germ of movement"; he failed to see, as Dr. Stirling points out, that "Philosophy is possible only on thesupposition of a single principle that possesses within itself thecapability of transition into all existent variety and varieties"(1776-1841). 

HERBERT, EDWARD, LORD, of Cherbury, diplomatist, soldier, andscholar, born at Montgomery Castle, in Wales; served as a soldier underMaurice of Orange; was twice ambassador in France, but chiefly devoted tophilosophical speculation; was the first of the deistical writers ofEngland, though his deism was dogmatic not critical, positive notsceptical, as that of the subsequent English deists is (1581-1648). 

HERBERT, GEORGE, poet, brother of the preceding, born in MontgomeryCastle; failing in preferment at Court, took holy orders and becamerector of Bemerton, Wiltshire, a post he lived only two years to hold;was the author of a Christian poem entitled "The Temple"; held in highregard by people of the devout and reverently contemplative spirit of theauthor; his memory is embalmed in a Life of him by Izaak Walton(1593-1632). 

HERBERT, SIDNEY (Lord Herbert of Lea), politician, born at Richmond;entered the House of Commons in 1832 as a Tory, and was in turn Secretaryto the Admiralty and War Secretary under Peel; during the Aberdeenministry he, as War Secretary, incurred much popular disfavour for themismanagement of the Crimean War, but under Palmerston he effected manybeneficial reforms while at the head of the War Office; he was elevatedto the House of Lords in 1860 (1810-1861). 

HERCULANEUM, a city of ancient Italy, overwhelmed in A. D. 79 alongwith Pompeii and Stabiæ by an eruption of Vesuvius, at the north-westernbase of which it was situated, 5 m. E. Of Naples; so completely was itburied by the ashes and lava that its site was completely obliterated, and in time two villages sprang up on the new surface, 40 to 100 ft. Below which lay the buried city; relics were discovered while deepening awell in 1706, and since then a considerable portion of the town has beenexcavated, pictures, statues, &c. , of the greatest value having beenbrought to light. 

HERCULES, the typical hero of the Greeks, son of Zeus and Alkmene, and the tried therefore of Hera, who persecuted him from his cradle, sending two serpents to devour him as he lay there, but which hestrangled with his arms; grown into manhood, and distinguished for hisstature and strength, was doomed by the artifice of Hera to a series ofperilous adventures before he could claim his rights as a son of hisfather; these are known as the "Twelve Labours of Hercules": the firstthe throttling of the Nemean lion; the second, the killing of the Lerneanhydra; the third, the hunt and capture of the hind of Diana, with itshoofs of brass; the fourth, the taking alive of the boar of Erymanthus;the fifth, the cleansing of the stables of Augeas; the sixth, thedestruction of the Stymphalian birds; the seventh, the capture of theCretan bull; the eighth, the capture of the mares of Diomedes of Thrace;the ninth, the seizure of the girdle of the queen of the Amazons; thetenth, the killing of Geryon and capture of his oxen; the eleventh, fetching of the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides; thetwelfth, dragging Cerberus to the light of day. These were the twelve, but in addition, he strangled the giant Antæus, slew the robber Cacus, delivered Hesione, unchained Prometheus from the rocks of Caucasus, andsmote the centaur Nessus, the last proving the cause of his death. SeeNESSUS. 

HERCULES, THE CHOICE OF, the choice of a life of virtue offered tohim by Athene, in preference to a life of pleasure offered by Aphrodité, in his youth. 

HERCULES, THE PILLARS OF, two mountains on the opposite sides of theStrait of Gibraltar, originally one, but fabled to have been separated byHercules, Calpë on the Spanish coast and Abyla on the African. 

HERCYNIAN FOREST, a forest of Central Germany, extending at one timefrom the Rhine to the Carpathian Mountains, described by Cæsar as ninedays journey in breadth and sixty in length, is now the district of theHarz Mountains. 

HERDER, an eminent German thinker, born at Mohrungen, in EastPrussia; studied philosophy under Kant, but gave himself up chiefly toliterature; became acquainted at Strasburg with Goethe, who was fiveyears his junior, and exercised a great influence over him in his youth;in after years was invited by him to Weimar, where he became courtpreacher and consistorial councillor, and where he died; wrote the"Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, " "Ideas towards a Philosophy of the History ofHumanity, " and "Poems" (1744-1803). 

HEREFORD (20), the county town of Herefordshire, on the Wye, 144 m. NW. Of London; has some fine old buildings, including a noble cathedralbegun in 1079, ruins of a castle, &c. ; it was made the seat of abishopric in 676; it is noted for its roses and agricultural produce. 

HEREFORDSHIRE (116), an inland county of West England, lying on theWelsh border between Shropshire and Monmouthshire; it is a prettyagricultural county, through the centre of which runs the Wye; in the E. Are the Malvern Hills and in the SW. The Black Mountains (2631 ft); therich red soil produces fine wheat, hops, and apples; there is some tradein timber, some stone and marble quarrying, and the cattle are noted; itshistory is associated with many stirring historical events, and invarious parts are antiquities of considerable interest. 

HERENNIUS, a Samnite general, who defeated the Romans at the CaudineForks, and made them pass under the yoke, 321 B. C. 

HEREWARD THE WAKE, a Saxon hero, a yeoman, who made a gallant effortto rally his countrymen against the Norman Conqueror; he made his finalstand on the Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire (1070-71), cut his way throughthe besieging army, and escaped to the Fens; subsequently it is supposedhe became reconciled to William and held estates. 

HERFORD (16), a Prussian town in Westphalia, 59 m. SW. Of Hanover;manufactures textiles, sugar, &c. 

HERGEST, THE RED BOOK OF, an important volume of Welsh writings inMS. , preserved at Oxford; it dates from the 14th century; was compiled atHergest Court, and is the most valuable Welsh MS. Extant. 

HERIOT, GEORGE, founder of Heriot's Hospital, a splendid educationalestablishment in his native city, Edinburgh; was a prosperous goldsmiththere; did work for Anne of Denmark, consort of James VI. Of Scotland; in1603 removed with the court to London and combining banking with hisother business, he amassed a great fortune, and, dying childless, lefthis property to found and endow the educational institution referred to, and which still bears his name; in 1837 the accumulated surplus fundswere utilised in establishing 10 free schools in Edinburgh, which, however, were closed in 1885, and the original Hospital reconstructed asa secondary and technical school, while a portion of the funds was usedin subsidising the Heriot-Watt College and in founding bursaries(1563-1624). 

HÉRISTAL (12), a town of Belgium, on the Meuse, practically a NE. Suburb of Liège; the inhabitants are largely employed in coal-mining andin flourishing iron-works; the ruins of a castle, the birthplace of Pépind'Héristal, still remains. 

HERKOMER, HUBERT, artist, born at Waal, Bavaria; his father removingto England in 1857, young Hubert became a distinguished student of theSouthampton School of Art; he has been a prolific artist, and many of hisportraits have become celebrated; the "Last Muster" (1875) is reckonedhis finest work; he has been twice Slade professor at Oxford, and in 1890was elected R. A. ; the School of Art at Bushey was founded by him, and hehas displayed his versatility of talent in carving, engraving, andwriting, as well as in painting; _b_. 1849. 

HERMANDAD, SANTA (i. E. Holy Brotherhood), an association of theprincipal cities of Spain leagued together at first against thepillagings and robberies of the nobles, and eventually against all formsof violence and lawlessness in the State. 

HERMANN AND DOROTHEA, the title of an idyll by Goethe. 

HERMANNSTADT (22), an old historic town of Hungary, formerly capitalof Transylvania; overlooks the Zibin; 60 m. SE. Of Klausenburg; is theseat of a Greek archbishop and of a "Saxon" university. Amongst itsnotable buildings is the Bruckenthal Palace, with valuable art, library, and antiquarian collections; has various manufactures. 

HERMAS, one of the Apostolic Fathers of the Church; wrote a work inGreek called the "Shepherd of Hermas, " extant in Latin, and treating ofChristian duties. 

HERMES, the Mercury of the Romans; in the Greek mythology the heraldof the gods and the god of eloquence and of all kinds of cunning anddexterity in word and action; invented the lyre, the alphabet, numbers, astronomy, music, the cultivation of the olive, &c. ; was the son of Zeusand Maia; wore on embassy a winged cap, winged sandals, and carried aherald's wand as symbol of his office. 

HERMES TRISMEGISTUS, or the Thrice-greatest, an Egyptian or Egyptiangod to whose teachings or inspirations the Neo-Platonists ascribed thegreat body of their peculiar doctrines, and whom they regarded as anincarnation or impersonation of the _Logos_. 

HERMI`ONE, the beautiful daughter of Menelaus and Helen; married toPyrrhus, son of Achilles, but carried off by Orestes, her first love. 

HERMODEUS, a son of Odin and messenger of the Norse gods. 

HERNIA, the name given to the protrusion of an internal organ, specially a part of the intestines. 

HERO, a priestess of Venus at Sestos, in Thrace, beloved by Leanderof Abydos, on the opposite shore, who swam the Hellespont every night tovisit her, but was drowned one stormy evening, whereupon at sight of hisdead body on the beach she threw herself into the sea. 

HERO, a mathematician, born at Alexandria in the first half of the2nd century; celebrated for his experiments on condensed air, and hisanticipation of the pressure of steam. 

HERO, a name given by the Greeks to human beings of such superhumanfaculties as to be regarded the offspring of some god, and applied inmodern times to men of an intellect and force of character of suchtranscendent nature as to inspire ordinary mortals with something likereligious regard. 

HEROD, the name of a family of Idumæan origin but Jewish creed, whorose into power in Judea shortly prior to the dissolution of the Jewishnationality; the chief members of which were HEROD THE GREAT, kingof the Jews by favour of the Romans, who made away with all his rivals, caused his own children to be strangled on suspicion of their conspiringagainst him, and died a painful death; who massacred the Innocents aboutBethlehem, and whose death took place 4 B. C. , the true date of theNativity of Christ: and HEROD ANTIPAS, his son, tetrarch of Galilee, who beheaded John the Baptist, and to whom Christ was remitted by Pilatefor examination, and who died in exile at Lyons. 

HERODIANS, a party in Judea who from motives of self-interestsupported the dynasty of the Herods. 

HERODOTUS, the oldest historian of Greece, and the "Father ofHistory, " born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, between 490 and 480 B. C. ;travelled over Asia Minor, Egypt, and Syria as far as Babylon, and in hisold age recorded with due fidelity the fruits of his observations andinquiries, the main object of his work being to relate the successivestages of the strife between the free civilisation of Greece and thedespotic barbarism of Persia for the sovereignty of the world, aninterest in which Alexander the Great drew sword in the century following(484-408 B. C. ). 

HEROPHILUS, a celebrated Greek physician who lived into the 3rdcentury B. C. , born at Chalcedon, and settled at Alexandria, where hedevoted himself specially to anatomy and helped to found the medicalschool in that city; his zeal is said to have led him to dissectcriminals alive; some of his writings are yet extant. 

HERRERA, ANTONIO, Spanish historian, born at Cuellar; under PhilipII. He became historiographer of the Indies and Castile; he was avoluminous writer, and his "Description of the Indies, " "History of theWorld in the Reign of Philip II. , " from their fairness and accuracy arereckoned authoritative works on Spanish history (1549-1625). 

HERRERA, FERNANDO DE, Spanish poet, born at Seville, and tookorders; in his lifetime his lyrics enjoyed a wide popularity, and won forhim the epithet "divine"; his "Battle of Lepanto" is a spirited ode, andmany of his other works, including a prose history of the "War inCyprus, " are still read (1534-1597). 

HERRERA, FRANCISCO, a distinguished Spanish painter, founder of theSeville school, born at Seville; his finest paintings include "The LastJudgment" and a "Holy Family, " both in churches at Seville; others are inthe Louvre, Paris; they exhibit boldness of execution with faultlesstechnique (1576-1656). He is known as _El viejo_, "the elder, " todistinguish him from FRANCISCO HERRERA, his son, also a notedpainter (1622-1685). 

HERRICK, ROBERT, a Caroline poet, born in London, of good family;was incumbent of Dean Prior in Devonshire; author of the "Hesperides, "published in 1648, a collection of "gay and charming" pieces, "in which, "says Stopford Brooke, "Horace and Tibullus seem to mingle their peculiarart, which never misses its aim nor fails in exquisite execution"(1591-1674). 

HERRNHUT, a small Saxon town, 50 m. E. Of Dresden; gave name to acolony of Moravian Brethren who took refuge there in 1792, and wereprotected by Count Zinzendorf. 

HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN, astronomer, only son of Sir William; prosecutedwith great diligence and success the same researches as his father; spentfour years at the Cape, and added much to our knowledge of the stars andmeteorology; contributed a "Preliminary Discourse on the Study of NaturalPhilosophy" to Lardner's "Cyclopædia, " and an excellent "Treatise onAstronomy, " afterwards extended (1790-1871). 

HERSCHEL, LUCRETIA, sister of the succeeding; was his assistant, andmade important observations of her own, which were published; retiredafter her brother's death to Hanover, where she died (1750-1848). 

HERSCHEL, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished astronomer, born at Hanover;son of a musician, and bred to the profession; came to England at the endof the Seven Years' War, and obtained sundry appointments as an organist;gave his leisure time to the study of astronomy and survey of theheavens; discovered the planet Uranus in 1781, which he called _Georgiumsidus_ in honour of George III. , discovered also the two innermost beltsof Saturn, as well as drew up a catalogue of 5000 heavenly bodies orclusters of them (1738-1822). 

HERTFORD (7), the county town of Hertfordshire, on the Lea, 26 m. N. Of London; some few remains of its famous 10th-century castle stillexist, and there are several charity schools, a castle built in JamesI. 's time, and a branch of Christ's Hospital (London); the chief trade isin corn, malt, and flour; in the vicinity is HAILEYBURY COLLEGE(q. V. ). 

HERTFORDSHIRE or HERTS (220), an inland county of England, occupying a central position between Buckingham and Bedford on the W. AndEssex on the E. ; the surface is undulating and much covered with wood;the Lea and the Colne are the chief rivers; large crops of barley, wheat, and hay are raised; straw-plaiting and the manufacture of paper, silk, and chemicals are carried on extensively, while Ware is the centre of theEnglish malting trade; ST. ALBANS (q. V. ) is the largest town. 

HERTHA, the Scandinavian Cybele, and worshipped with kindredceremonies. 

HERTZ, HENRIK, Danish poet, born in Copenhagen of Jewish parents;graduated in law at Copenhagen, and produced his first work, a comedy, in1827; "Letters of a Ghost, " a satire, followed three years later, and hada wide vogue; his best-known work is "King René's Daughter, " which hasbeen translated into English for the fourth time by Sir Theodore Martin;he is considered one of the greatest of modern Danish lyrists anddramatists (1798-1870). 

HERVEY, JAMES, clergyman and poet, born at Hardingstone, nearNorthampton; graduated at Oxford; became curate and subsequently thezealous incumbent of two livings near Northampton; was the author of"Meditations among the Tombs"; was held in great popular favour duringhis lifetime (1714-1758). 

HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD, a Prussian general; came tothe front during the war of liberation, and in 1864 as general capturedthe Isle of Alsen, and two years later operated with great success at thehead of the army in Saxony and Bohemia; during the Franco-German War hebecame governor of the Rhine provinces and a field-marshal (1796-1884). 

HERZ, HENRI, pianist and composer, born in Vienna, the son of a Jew;his compositions attained a wide popularity in Europe, and as a pianisthe was received with great favour in England and America; he wasdecorated with the Legion of Honour, and from 1842 to 1874 was professorat the Paris Conservatoire; _b_. 1806. 

HERZEN, ALEXANDER, a Russian political writer and revolutionary, born at Moscow; expelled from Russia in 1842; settled in England, andpublished works forbidden in Russia (1812-1870). 

HESIOD, one of the earliest Greek poets, born in Boeotia, lived inthe 8th century B. C. , chiefly at Orchomenos, probably of humble birth;of the works ascribed to him the principal were the "Works and Days" the"Theogony, " and the "Shield of Hercules"; his poems treat of the quietpursuits of ordinary life, the origin of the world, the gods and heroes, while those of Homer are occupied with the restless and activeenterprises of the heroic age. 

HESPERIDES, maidens of high degree appointed to guard the goldenapples presented to Hera by Gaia on her marriage with Zeus, assisted intheir office by the dragon Ladon; the apples were stolen by Hercules, butwere afterwards restored by Athene. 

HESPERUS, the personification of the evening star and an object ofworship. 

HESSE or HESSE-DARMSTADT (993), a grand-duchy of the Germanempire, lies partly in, and partly on the border of, SW. Prussia;consists of two large portions, divided by a strip of Hesse-Nassau, and11 enclaves; half the land is under cultivation, and the greater part ofwhat remains is covered with forest; its many rivers belong mostly to theRhine system; corn is raised in large quantities, iron and manganese arefound, and there are flourishing manufactures of leather, upholstery, tobacco, &c. ; the legislative power is vested in two chambers; Mainz isthe largest town, and Darmstadt the capital. 

HESSE-CASSEL (745), a government district in HESSE-NASSAU(q. V. ); as an electorate it sided with Austria in 1866, which broughtabout its incorporation with Prussia. 

HESSE-NASSAU (1, 664), a province in the SW. Of Germany, between theRhine on the W. And Bavaria and Saxony on the E. ; was formed in 1868 outof the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, duchy of Nassau, &c. ; the country ishilly, abounds in minerals, which are extensively worked, but agricultureand cattle-rearing are the chief industries; the medicinal springs ofHomburg, Wiesbaden, &c. , are celebrated; Cassel is noted for its gold andsilver ware; damasks and other textiles are produced at Fulda, and atHanau are flourishing iron-works; Marburg has a fine university. 

HESTIA, called Vesta by the Romans, the Greek goddess of the hearth, or rather the fire that burns in it, the guardian of domestic life, conceived of as a most sacred charge. 

HESYCHASTS, a religious sect of the 14th century belonging to theGreek Church; consisted chiefly of a community of monks who dwelt atMount Athos; they professed a kind of QUIETISM (q. V. ), and werenoted for their practice of sitting for hours daily with their eyes fixedupon the navel (regarding the stomach as the seat of the soul); in thisposition they professed to see a divine light beaming out upon them, andto enjoy therein a specially intimate communion with God. See ATHOS, MOUNT. 

HESYCHIUS, a Greek grammarian of the 5th century, born atAlexandria; produced a Greek lexicon of great philological value. 

HEUSCHRECKE, HOFRATH (i. E. State-Councillor Grasshopper), aloose, zigzag figure in "Sartor, " a mend and blind admirer ofTeufelsdröckh's, an incarnation of distraction distracted, and all thecounsellor the "editor" had to advise him and encourage him in his work;a victim to "timidity" and preyed on by an uncomfortable sense of mere"physical cold, " such as the majority of the State counsellors of the daywere. 

HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Bible. 

HEXHAM (6), an interesting old town in Northumberland, prettilysituated on the Tyne, 24 m. W. Of Newcastle; has a fine cruciform abbeychurch, portions of which belong to the 12th century, and beautifulremains of a 7th-century monastery; the staple industries are glove andhat making; the river is spanned by a stone bridge of nine arches. 

HEYLIN, PETER, English divine, born at Burford; graduated at Oxford, and in 1629 became chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles I. ; was a zealouschampion of the Church of England; forfeited his livings and propertyduring the Puritan ascendency, but was reinstated at the Restoration; hewrote a "Defence of the Church of England, " "Life of Bishop Laud, " &c. (1600-1662). 

HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB, a German classical scholar, born atChemnitz, son of a poor weaver, and reared all along almost on the vergeof destitution; became eminent by his heroic devotion to scholarship, both as a translator and editor of classical works, his edition of"Virgil" the chief in the latter department; Carlyle almost ranks himamong his heroes, and ascribes superlative merit to his book on Virgil(1729-1812). 

HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN, German poet and novelist, born at Berlin; in1854 he settled at Münich, where he enjoyed the patronage of King Max ofBavaria; he has been a voluminous writer of popular novelettes, novels, dramas, and narrative poems, besides which he has executed translationsof Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian authors; _b_. 1830. 

HEYWOOD (23), a town of Lancashire, 9 m. N. Of Manchester; owes itsrapid growth to the neighbouring coal-fields and the development of thecotton industry; has also flourishing iron and brass foundries, woollenfactories, &c. 

HEYWOOD, JOHN, a dramatic poet, a favourite with Henry VIII. And hiscourt; wrote farces, the characters of which were drawn from real life, presumably not hard to identify at the time (1479-1565). 

HEZEKIAH, a king of Judah; reigned from 725 to 697 B. C. ;distinguished for his zeal in the celebration of the worship of Jehovahand for his weakness in making a parade of his wealth; reigned in thegolden age of Hebrew prophecy, Isaiah and Micah being his contemporaries. 

HIAWATHA, the subject of a poem of Longfellow's; a personagereverenced by the North American Indians as the founder among them of thearts of peace, as well as the clearer of the forests. 

HIBBERT LECTURES, unsectarian lectures instituted by the trustees ofRobert Hibbert, a West India merchant, devoted to the discussion ofunsolved problems in theology. 

HIBERNIA, the classical name for Ireland, which to the ancient worldwas in the main a _terra incognita_. 

HICKS, ELIAS, an American preacher of the Quaker connection, whoadopted Unitarian views and caused a split in the body (1748-1830). 

HICKS-BEACH, SIR MICHAEL EDWARD, Conservative politician, born inLondon; educated at Eton and Oxford, and in 1864 entered Parliament; tookoffice as Under-Secretary for Home Affairs under Disraeli, and in 1874became Secretary for Ireland; four years later he was Lord Carnarvon'ssuccessor at the Colonial Office, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leaderof the House of Commons in 1885, Secretary for Ireland in 1886, Presidentof the Board of Trade in 1888, and in 1895, on the formation of aCoalition Ministry, again became Chancellor of the Exchequer; _b_. 1837. 

HIERAPOLIS, 1, an ancient city of Syria Cyrrhestica, now in ruins, situated between Antioch and Mesopotamia, 14 m. W. Of the Euphrates; hadconsiderable commercial importance, and was famous for its great templeof Astarte. 2, A city of ancient Phrygia, 5 m. N. Of Laodicea; thebirthplace of Epictetus, and where Paul founded a church; was celebratedfor its hot springs. 

HIERO I. , tyrant of Syracuse; broke the naval power of Etruria byvictory over the Etruscan fleet near Cannæ, 474 B. C. ; was an enlightenedpatron of men of letters, many of whom he entertained at his court, Æschylus, Pindar, and Simonides among the number; _d_. 467 B. C. 

HIERO II. , king of Syracuse, for near half a century the steadfastfriend and ally of the Romans; unlike his namesake he was averse todisplay, and was accustomed to appear in public in the garb of a commoncitizen; he ruled his country well; _d_. 216 B. C. At the age of 92. 

HIERONYMUS. See JEROME. 

HIGDEN, RALPH, author of the "Polychronicon"; was a Benedictinemonk, who spent his long life in St. Werburgh's monastery, Chester; thework with which his name is associated is an account of the world down tothe end of Edward III. 's reign, but the chronicle of the last 50 years issupposed to have been written by other hands; Caxton published atranslation made by John Trevisa; _d_. About 1307. 

HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES, essayist, wrote under the _nom de plume_ of"Jacob Omnium, " born at Benown, Ireland; was educated at Eton and Oxford, and spent many years in European travel; his numerous papers, whichappeared in the leading magazines and newspapers, were principallydirected against social abuses, and are characterised by a humour andpungent irony not unlike his friend Thackeray's (1810-1868). 

HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH, an American author and abolitionist, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts; graduated at Harvard, and took orders, but resigned in 1858 to devote himself to politics in the anti-slaveryinterest; during the Civil War he commanded the first regiment of freedslaves; subsequently he resumed literary work, and in 1880 became amember of the Massachusetts Legislature; he wrote a "History of theUnited States, " "Army Life in a Black Regiment, " &c. ; _b_. 1823. 

HIGH CHURCH, that section of the Episcopal Church in England whoattach supreme importance to the administration of word and sacrament byclergy duly ordained, and regarded by them as such, the sole divinelyappointed media of divine grace. 

HIGH PLACES, elevated spots on which altars were erected for worshipin the rude belief that, as they were nearer heaven than the plains andvalleys, they were more favourable places for prayer. The practice ofworship on these spots, though from the first forbidden, became frequentamong the Jews, and was with difficulty abolished, though denounced timeafter time by the prophets as an affront to Jehovah. 

HIGH SEAS, as understood in international law means the entire seaor ocean area which lies beyond a three-mile belt of coast water. Thiscoastal strip is called the _mare clausum_, and the rights of fishing, &c. , in it are reserved to the country upon which it borders. 

HIGHGATE, a noted suburb of London, 5 m. N. Of the GeneralPost-Office; the burial-place of Coleridge, George Eliot, and Faraday. Dick Whittington's Stone is at the foot of Highgate Hill. 

HILARION, ST. , founder of monachism in Palestine; was a convert ofSt. Anthony, and of great repute for sanctity (291-372). Festival, Oct. 21. 

HILARY, ST. , bishop of Poitiers, of which he was a native;distinguished himself by his zeal against the Arians; his writingsvaluable in connection with that controversy; _d_. 367. Festival, Jan. 13. 

HILDEBRAND. See GREGORY VII. 

HILDESHEIM (33), a town in Hanover, Prussia, on the Innerste, 24 m. SE. Of Hanover; is a quaint old town, and has several ancient churches, notably a noble cathedral of the 11th century, with famous bronze gates;trades in corn, linen, &c. 

HILL, REV. ROWLAND, a popular but eccentric preacher, born inHawkeston, the son of a baronet, came under the influence of Whitfieldand the Methodist movement, and while yet an undergraduate became anitinerant preacher; he took orders in 1774; but continued his open-airpreaching till 1783, when he established himself in London, starting anunlicensed place of worship, although still remaining a communicant ofthe Church of England; he originated the first Sunday School in London, and was the author of several religious works, including a volume ofhymns (1744-1833). 

HILL, SIR ROWLAND, originator of the penny postage, born atKidderminster; commenced life as a teacher and educationist; interestedhimself in the colonisation of South Australia, and held a post inconnection with it; published in 1837 his pamphlet, "Post-OfficeReforms, " and saw his scheme of uniform postage rate adopted three yearsafter, though not till 1354 did he become secretary to thePostmaster-General or have full power and opportunity to carry his viewsout (1795-1879). 

HILL, VISCOUNT, British general, born in Shropshire; entered thearmy at fifteen, served under Sir John Moore, and under the Duke ofWellington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, where he commanded adivision; succeeded Wellington in 1828 as commander-in-chief (1772-1842). 

HILLEL, an eminent and influential Jewish Rabbi, born in Babylonabout 112 B. C. ; devoted his life to the study of the Jewish law, formeda digest of it, and founded a school; was a good and wise man andteacher; died at a great age, 120 years old it is said. 

HIMALAYAS ("the abode of snow"), a stupendous mountain chainstretching 1500 m. Along the northern frontier of India, and dividingthat country from Thibet; forty-five of its peaks attain a greater heightthan those of any other mountain system in the world; Mount Everest, theloftiest, reaches 29, 002 ft. ; the best-known pass is the _Karakoram Pass_(18, 550 ft. ), leading into Eastern Turkestan; there are few lakes, butamid the snowy heights rise the rivers Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, &c. ;gold, iron, copper, and lead are wrought. 

HINCKLEY (10), a nicely built town of Leicestershire, 13 m. W. OfLeicester; has an interesting old parish church of Edward III. 's time;does a good trade in hosiery, baskets, boots, &c. 

HINC`MAR, a famous Frankish churchman; was appointed archbishop ofRheims, in which capacity he maintained an independent attitude towardsthe Papal See, and distinguished himself as a champion of ecclesiasticalliberty (806-882). 

HIND, JOHN RUSSELL, an eminent astronomer, born at Nottingham; at 17he obtained a post in the Greenwich Observatory; subsequently becameobserver in Mr. Bishop's private observatory, Regent's Park, where hisuntiring assiduity was rewarded by the discovery of several new movablestars and 10 minor planets; he received various honours from societies;was President of the Royal Astronomical Society, and in 1852 waspensioned by Government; his works include "The Comets, " "The SolarSystem, " &c. (1823-1895). 

HINDLEY (19), a busy manufacturing town in Lancashire, 3 m. SE. OfWigan; the staple industry is the manufacture of cotton; in the vicinityare large coal-mines. 

HINDU KUSH, a lofty mountain range stretching 365 m. From thewestern extremity of the Himalayas, from which it is cut off by thevalley of the Indus into Afghanistan, which it divides from Turkestan; itattains an elevation of 23, 000 ft. ; is crossed by several passes, and isrich in minerals, especially iron; the tribes that inhabit it are chieflyShins and Dards. 

HINDUISM, the name given to certain forms of religion among theHindus, the characteristics of which are the worship of divinitiesexalted above the rest, and the highly concrete and intensely personalconception of these, which comes out in sundry accounts respecting themof a biographical nature which divinities are identified either with Çivaor Vishnu, and their religions called Çivaite or Vishnuite, while theirrespective followers are styled Çaivas or Vishnavas. 

HINDUSTAN, a name sometimes loosely applied to the entire Indianpeninsula, but which, strictly speaking, embraces only the country of theupper valley of the Ganges, divided into NW. Provinces, Oude, and Behar;the language spoken is Hindi, a pure Sanskritic tongue, on whichHindustani is based, but with large Persian and Arabic admixtures. 

HINDUSTANI, the official and common language of India. 

HINTON, JAMES, aurist and metaphysician, born at Reading; aftertaking his degree was for some time at sea and in Jamaica, but in 1850established himself in London; specialising in ear-diseases he rose tothe top of his profession, becoming lecturer at Guy's Hospital; hisleisure was earnestly devoted to philosophy, and gave fruit in "Man andhis Dwelling-Place, " "The Mystery of Pain, " "Philosophy and Religion, "&c. (1822-1875). 

HIOUEN-THSANG, a Chinese Buddhist, who in the 7th century traversedIndia collecting books bearing upon the creed and law of Buddhism, andspent his time after his return in translating them. 

HIPPARCHUS, ancient astronomer, born at Nicæa; flourished in the 2ndcentury B. C. ; discovered among other things the precession of theequinoxes, determined the place of the equinox, and catalogued 1000 fixedstars. 

HIPPIAS, tyrant of Athens, son of Pisistratus; expelled from Athens, applied to the Persians to reinstate him, and kindled the first PersianWar with Greece; fell at Marathon, 490 B. C. 

HIPPOCRATES, the father of medicine, born at Cos, 460 B. C. ; was acontemporary of Socrates and Plato; was of wide-spread renown as aphysician; settled in Thessaly and died at Larissa advanced in years; nofewer than 60 writings are ascribed to him, but only a few are genuine. 

HIPPOCRENE (lit. The fountain of the horse), a fountain on MountHelicon, in Boeotia, sacred to the Muses, and said to have been caused byPEGASUS (q. V. ) striking the spot with his hoof. 

HIPPODAMI`A, in the legendary lore of Greece, was the beautifuldaughter of Oenomaus, king of Pisa, in Elis, and the pleiad Sterope; theoracle had foretold death to Oenomaus on the occasion of his daughter'smarriage, to prevent which the king had made it a condition that eachsuitor should run a chariot race with him, and that, if defeated, shouldbe put to death; many had perished in the attempt to beat the king, tillPelops, by bribing Oenomaus's charioteer, won the race; the king in afrenzy killed himself, and the kingdom and the fair Hippodamia passed toPelops. 

HIPPOLYTË, queen of the Amazons, slain by Hercules in order toobtain and carry off her magic girdle. 

HIPPOLYTUS, ST. , bishop of Portus, near Rome; lived in the 3rdcentury B. C. ; a lost work of his, "A Refutation of all the Heresies, "was discovered at Mount Athos in 1842, his authorship of which Bunsenvindicated in "Hippolytus and his Age. "

HISPANIA, the ancient name of Spain and Portugal among the Latins. 

HISSAR, 1, a district (776) in the Punjab, India; for the most partsandy, yet in rainy years produces good crops of rice, barley, &c. , andis noted for its white cattle; the capital (14), bearing the same name, is situated on the Western Jumna Canal, 102 m. W. Of Delhi. 2, Also adistrict in Central Asia, a dependency of the Khan of Bokhara lying N. Ofthe Oxus River, and separated from Bokhara by a branch of the Thian ShanMountains; has a fertile soil, and exports corn, sheep, &c. , to Bokhara. 

HISTOLOGY, the science of tissues, vegetable and animal. 

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD, American geologist, born in Massachusetts;reported on the geology of his native State, and on the agriculturalschools of Europe; wrote "Elementary Geology" and the "Religion ofGeology" (1793-1864). 

HITCHIN (9), a very old and still prosperous town of Hertfordshire, on the Hiz, 14 m. NW. Of Hertford; does a flourishing trade in corn, malt, and flour; brewing and straw-plaiting are important industries, andit has long been noted for its lavender and lavender water. 

HITOPADESA (i. E. Good instruction), a celebrated Sanskritcollection of fables, which in the substance of them have passed into allthe civilised literatures of the world. 

HITTITES, one of the original tribes of Canaan, and one of the mostpowerful, whose dominion extended at one time as far as the border ofEgypt on the one hand, and Mesopotamia on the other, and northward beyondthe Taurus Mountains, traces of which have been discovered over all AsiaMinor, while they were strong enough to engage in war with the Egyptians;they had two capitals, Kadesh on the Orontes, and Carchemish on theEuphrates. 

HITZIG, FERDINAND, a German Orientalist and biblical scholar, bornin Baden; devoted himself to Old Testament studies; was professor ofTheology first at Zurich and then at Heidelberg; his principal works boreon Old Testament exegesis (1807-1875). 

HOADLY, BENJAMIN, an English prelate, born in Kent; was a keencontroversialist; argued stoutly in defence of civil and religiousliberty, and was an opponent of the pretensions of the High Church party(1676-1761). 

HOANG-HO ("Yellow River"), one of the chief rivers of China, risesin the plain of Odontala, south of the Kuen-lun Mountains, and sweepswith impetuous current in a more or less north-easterly direction, discharging into the Gulf of Pechili after a course of 3000 m. ; it is forthe most part quite unnavigable, and its frequent floods are a constantmenace to the districts through which it flows. 

HOBART (25), capital of Tasmania, is situated on the estuary of theDerwent, at the base of Mount Wellington; is handsomely laid out in theform of a square; is the seat of government, and has many fine publicbuildings; has a splendid natural harbour; the manufacture of flour, jam, leather, besides brewing, shipbuilding, and iron-founding, are its chiefindustries; it has extensive suburbs, and is a favourite health resort. 

HOBART PASHA, Turkish admiral; was a son of the Duke of Buckingham;distinguished himself in the British navy before he entered the Turkishservice; had during the Russo-Turkish war in 1877 to withdraw from theservice of the Queen, and shortly afterwards died (1822-1886). 

HOB`BEMA, MEINDERT, a famous Dutch landscape painter, born atAmsterdam; lived chiefly in his native town, and died in poverty; hisfine, subdued pictures of woodland life and scenery are ranked amongstthe masterpieces of Dutch landscape painting, and are the valuedpossessions of the National Galleries in London, Berlin, Vienna, &c. (1638-1709). 

HOBBES, THOMAS, an English philosopher, psychologist, and moralist, born at Malmesbury; was educated at Oxford; connected all his days withthe Cavendish family, with members of which he travelled on theContinent, and was on friendly terms with Charles II. , Bacon, Descartes, &c. ; translated Thucydides, wrote a number of works, "De Cive" amongothers, and the "Leviathan, " all more or less leading up to the doctrinethat the absolute sovereign power in all matters of right and wrong isvested in the State as the achieved fact of the emancipation of the racefrom savagery (1588-1679). 

HOBHOUSE, JOHN CAM, English politician, a friend of Byron;represented Nottingham and Norwich in Parliament in the Liberal interest, and held several ministerial appointments (1780-1869). 

HO`BOKEN (59), a city of New Jersey, on the Hudson River, adjoiningJersey City and opposite New York; is an important railway terminus andshipping-port; does a large trade in coal, lead-pencils, iron-casting, &c. 

HOBSON, a Cambridge stabler who let out horses on hire, the choicealways limited to the one next the door, the one that had been longestin, hence Hobson's Choice. 

HOCCLEVE or OCCLEVE, THOMAS, an early English poet; had anappointment in the Exchequer Office in Henry V. 's time; his chief work isthe "Government of Princes, " but his poems have more linguistic thanpoetic interest; has left us an interesting portrait of his contemporary, Chaucer (1368-1448). 

HOCHE, LA, French general, born near Versailles; rose from the ranksto the command of the army of the Moselle; drove the Austrians out ofAlsace, and suppressed the rising in and pacified La Vendée; while yet asergeant bore a hand conspicuously at the overturn of the Bastille(17681797). 

HOCHKIRCH, a village in Saxony where Frederick the Great wasdefeated by the Austrian Marshal Daun in 1758. 

HODGE. CHARLES, an American theologian, born at Philadelphia;graduated at Princeton, and in 1822 became professor in the TheologicalSeminary in Princeton, a post he held till the close of his life; besidesfounding and editing the Princeton Review, was the author of variouscommentaries, but is best known by his "Systematic Theology, " which isstill a standard text-book (1797-1878). 

HODGKINSON, EATON, a distinguished engineer, born at Anderton, nearNorwich; was professor of Engineering in University College, London;became a leading authority on bridge construction, and carried throughelaborate experiments testing the strength of iron girders; co-operatedin planning the Britannia Tubular Bridge (1789-1861). 

HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON, Orientalist, born near Macclesfield; servedin the East India Company, and was Resident in Nepal for more than 20years; was a voluminous writer on Eastern ethnology, languages, andzoology, and his valuable collection of MSS. Remains the chief source ofour knowledge of northern Buddhism (1800-1895). 

HODSON, MAJOR WILLIAM, a noted leader during the Indian Mutiny;joined the Indian Army in 1845, fought through the first Sikh War, andsubsequently held a civil post in the Punjab; on the outbreak of theMutiny he became head of the Intelligence Department, and won celebrityas the daring but wild leader of an irregular cavalry regiment known asHodson's Horse; he took part in the sieges of Delhi, and at Lucknowcaptured the Mogul Emperor; shot down with his own hand the youngprinces, and a few months later fell himself while storming a palace inthe city (1821-1858). 

HOF (25), a town of Bavaria, on the Saale, 40 m. NE. Of Baireuth;has flourishing textile factories, breweries, and iron-works; isassociated with the early struggles of Jean Paul Richter. 

HOFER, ANDREAS, Tyrolese patriot; was leader of the Tyrolese againstthe Bavarians and the French, and the emancipator thrice over of hiscountry, but was eventually betrayed by his enemies into the hands of theFrench, condemned by court-martial at Mantua, and shot; his family wereindemnified afterwards by the Emperor of Austria, and his son ennobled(1767-1810). 

HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH, poet and philologist, born atFallersleben; studied literature and philology under the influence of theGrimms, and in 1835 was appointed professor of the German Language atBreslau, a post he forfeited seven years later by publishing "Lays" ofsomewhat radical tendencies; he led an unsettled life till 1860, when hebecame librarian to the Duke of Ratibor; his writings include "GermanSocial Songs of the 16th and 17th Centuries, " "German Philology, " an"Autobiography" in six vols. , lyrics, &c. (1798-1874). 

HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODORE WILHELM, a celebrated German writer, whoseversatility displayed itself in numerous tales, sketches, art-criticisms, &c. , all bearing the impress of a strong, if wayward, intellect; born atKönigsberg, was trained to the law, and entered the State service; hisposition at Warsaw was lost to him on the entry of the French troops in1806, and for some years he supported himself by musical criticism inLeipzig, and as Director of a Dresden Opera Company; in 1816 he was againin government service at Berlin, where he continued till his death; hiswritings are strongly characteristic of the romanticism of his time, while he himself was a witty, restless leader of Bohemian life(1776-1822). 

HOGARTH, WILLIAM, a famous English painter, caricaturist, andengraver, born in London; served his time as a silversmith's apprentice;studied painting, and began to support himself by engraving and etching;unsuccessful in his attempts at portrait-painting, he at length found histrue vocation in depicting the follies and vices of his age; "A Harlot'sProgress, " a series of six pictures engraved by himself, appeared in1731, and was soon followed by others of a like nature, including "ARake's Progress, " "Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn, " "Marriage àla Mode, " "Idleness and Industry"; he also produced some indifferenthistorical paintings; in 1757 he was appointed sergeant-painter to theking; in his own department Hogarth has never been equalled, and in theopinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds, never will be; the deep moral purpose ofhis best pictures, made known throughout the country by abundant prints, must have helped not a little to reform the manners of his time(1697-1764). 

HOGG, JAMES, a Scottish poet, born in Ettrick; had little or noschooling; was bred a shepherd; took to rhyming; fell in with Sir WalterScott, whom he assisted with his "Border Minstrelsy"; rented a farm, andfirst came into notice by the publication of his poem, the "Queen'sWake"; he wrote in prose as well as poetry, with humour as well as nolittle graphic power; "was, " says Carlyle, "a little red-skinned stiffsack of a body, with two little blue or grey eyes that sparkled, if notwith thought, yet with animation; was a _real_ product of nature"(1782-1835). 

HOHENLINDEN, a village in Upper Bavaria, 20 m. E. Of Münich;celebrated as the scene of a victory by the French under Moreau over theAustrians under Archduke John on 3rd December 1800. 

HOHENSTAUFFENS, THE, the third dynasty of the Romish kaisers, whichheld the imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, commencing with Frederick I. , or Barbarossa, and ending with Conrad IV. , five in all; derived theirname from a castle on the Hohenstauffen Berg, by the left bank of theDanube, 30 m. Below Stuttgart. 

HOHENZOLLERNS, THE, the family which in 1415 became Electors ofBrandenburg, kings of Prussia, and are now at length emperors of Germany;derived their name from an old castle so called near the springs of theDanube, a little way north from Constance and its lake. 

HOLBACH, BARON VON, a French philosophe born in Heidelsheim, in thePalatinate, of wealthy parents; lived from youth all his days in Paris, kept a good table, and entertained all the "Encyclopédie" notabilities athis board; wrote "Système de la Nature, " and was a materialist inphilosophy and an atheist in religion, but a kind-hearted man(1723-1789). 

HOLBEIN, HANS, a German painter, born at Augsburg, trained by hisfather; attracted the attention of Erasmus, who took a great interest inhim, and persuaded him to go to England, and introduced him to Sir ThomasMore, who in turn introduced him to Henry VIII. ; here under Henry'spatronage he remained, executing numerous portraits of his courtiers, till his death of the plague; his "Last Supper" and "Dance of Death" arewell known (1497-1554). 

HOLBERG, LUDWIG, BARON, an eminent Danish author, born at Bergen, inNorway; graduated at Copenhagen, where, after travel, he became professorof Metaphysics; subsequently he held in turn the chairs of Eloquence andof History; he was an author of great versatility, excelling as a writerof satires, comedies, and as historian of Church and State; hisautobiography is an interesting work, and many of his plays and otherworks are among the accepted classics of Danish literature (1684-1754). 

HOLCROFT, THOMAS, journalist and political novelist, born in London;began life as an actor; wrote "Road to Ruin"; was charged with treason, but acquitted; left "Memoirs" (1744-1809). 

HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, inventor, born at Hurlet, Renfrewshire; worked ina cotton-mill in Paisley, but betook himself to teaching, and in 1829, while a teacher of chemistry in Reading, discovered the principle of thelucifer match; turning to wool-combing as a means of livelihood, hebecame established near Paris, where he carried out elaborateexperiments, which resulted in improvements in wool-combing machinerythat brought him fame and fortune; in 1859 he transferred his works tothe vicinity of Bradford; entered Parliament in 1865, and was created abaronet in 1893 (1807-1897). 

HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL, English chronicler of the Elizabethan age; his"Chronicle, " published in two vols. In 1577, supplied Shakespeare withmaterials for some of his historical plays; _d_. 1580. 

HOLL, FRANK, artist, born in Kentish Town; was highly distinguishedas an art student, and at 23 won the travelling studentship of theAcademy; came into notice first as a _genre_-painter, exhibiting picturesof a pathetic nature, such as "Want--the Pawnbroker's Shop, ""Newgate--Committed for Trial, " "Ordered to the Front, " &c. ; subsequentlyhe won a wide celebrity as a portrait-painter, producing portraits of thePrince of Wales, Mr. Gladstone, and other distinguished personages(1845-1888). 

HOLLAND (4, 795), officially known as the Netherlands, a smallmaritime country of Western Europe, bordered on its N. And W. By theGerman Ocean, and having Prussia on its E. And Belgium to the S. ; itsarea, somewhat less than one-fourth the size of England and Wales, comprises, besides the mainland, two island groups, one in the N. And onein the S. ; its flat surface in great part lies below the level of thesea, and where there are no natural sandhills is protected frominundation by enormous dykes, 365 ft. Thick, forming excellentcarriage-ways along the coast; much of the soil has been reclaimed bydraining lakes and by pushing back the sea walls, the size of the countryhaving been increased by one-half since 1833; canals traverse the countryin all directions, and form with the shallow lakes and the great rivers acomplete system of waterways. The climate is for the most part similar tothat of England, but greater extremes of heat and cold are experienced. Farming is the staple industry, although a considerable portion of theland is still unfit for cultivation; butter and cheese are the mostvaluable products, and are largely exported; the fisheries, coast anddeep sea, are also of much importance; manufactures are retarded by thewant of coal, but the wind is made to supply the motive power, by meansof windmills, to flourishing textile factories (cotton, woollen, andsilk), gin distilleries, pottery works, margarine and cocoa factories, &c. Holland no longer is the premier shipping country of Europe, aposition it held in the 17th century, but it still maintains a busycarrying trade with all parts of the world, especially with its many richcolonies in the East and West Indies, which comprise an area 64 timeslarger than Holland itself. The government is a limited monarchy; theexecutive power is vested in the crown and the legislation in theStates-General, an assembly consisting of two chambers, the one elected(for four years) by direct suffrage, the other (for nine years) byprovincial councils. Primary education is free, but not compulsory. Religion is not established, but about two-thirds of the people areProtestants, the remainder Roman Catholics. The birth of Holland as anindependent European power took place in the 16th century, when, after anheroic and protracted struggle, it freed itself from the yoke of Spain, then the most powerful nation in the world. 

HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD FOX VASSALL-HOLLAND, BARON, statesman, bornin Wilts; succeeded to the title in 1774; entered on a public career as aWhig under the patronage of his uncle Charles James Fox; held officeunder Grenville, Grey, and Melbourne; was imbued with a fine humanitarianspirit, and fought ably against the slave-trade and the corn-laws; hiscultured literary taste is revealed in his writings, which embraceSpanish translations, lives of Guillen de Castro and Lope de Vega, Memoirs, &c. (1773-1840). 

HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, physician and author, born at Knutsford, Cheshire;graduated at Edinburgh in 1811; spent some years in Eastern Europe, andfinally settled in London; he rose to be physician-in-ordinary to thePrince Consort and the Queen, and in 1853 was created a baronet; wrotevarious essays on various branches of medicine, physiology, psychology, besides "Recollections of Past Life" (1758-1873). 

HOLLAND, NORTH (819), one of the eleven provinces of Holland;comprises the peninsula lying between the Zuider Zee and the GermanOcean. SOUTH HOLLAND, also a province, faces the German Oceanbetween Zealand and North Holland. These provinces form the mostimportant part of the Netherlands, raise the best farm produce andcattle, and in their great ports Amsterdam, and Rotterdam, the bulk ofthe trade of Holland is carried on. 

HOLLES, DENZIL, statesman, and one of the "five members, " the son ofthe Earl of Clare, born at Houghton, Northamptonshire; enteringParliament in 1624, he joined the opposition against the king, andactively resisted the imposition of tonnage and poundage, for which hewas heavily fined and imprisoned; subsequently he was one of the fivemembers whom Charles attempted to arrest in 1642 on a charge ofhigh-treason; his opposition to the maintenance of a standing Puritanarmy involved him in trouble, and he fled the country; after Cromwell'sdeath he returned, was prominent in promoting the Restoration, received apeerage, and for some years was engaged in public duties, still remaininga staunch upholder of the rights of Parliament (1559-1680). 

HOLLOWAY (48), a northern district of London, in Islington parish. 

HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL, a celebrated American author, born the sonof a Congregational minister, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and graduatedin arts and medicine at Harvard; became professor of Anatomy andPhysiology at Dartmouth College, but resigned and settled in Boston as ageneral practitioner; in 1847 he was elected to the chair of Anatomy inHarvard, a position he held till his resignation in 1882; a successfulprofessor, it is as an essayist, novelist, and poet that he isremembered; the appearance of "The Autocrat at the Breakfast-Table, " withits quaint humour, fresh thought, and charming egotism took literaryAmerica by storm; the "Professor" and the "Poet at the Breakfast-Table"followed in after years, and remain his most widely popular works; "ElsieVenner, " a novel dealing with the problem of heredity, "The GuardianAngel, " "Songs of Many Seasons, " "Memoirs of Motley and of Emerson, " aresome of his many works, all of which have the impress of his bright, engaging personality (1809-1894). 

HOLOFERNES, the Assyrian general whom the Jewish Judith, enteringhis camp as it invested her native place, slew with her own hand, andbore his head as a trophy back to the town. 

HOLSTEIN (560), which with Sleswick forms the Prussian province ofSLESWICK-HOLSTEIN (q. V. ), was till 1866 a duchy of Denmark, butin that year was annexed by Prussia. 

HOLT, FRANK, artist, born in London; was distinguished as an artistfrom his early youth; produced a succession of works of eminent merit, and attained the highest excellence as a painter of portraits, to whichdepartment he devoted the last years of his life (1815-1888). 

HOLT, SIR JOHN, English lawyer, born at Thame, Oxfordshire; calledto the bar in 1663; was a prominent counsel in the State trials of hisage, and rose to be Lord Chief-Justice of the King's Bench under WilliamIII. , an office whose duties he discharged with unflinching integrity andfairness (1642-1710). 

HOLTZMANN, ADOLF, an eminent German philologist, born at Carlsruhe;gave himself to the study of theology and then of philology at variousuniversities, and in 1852 became professor of the German Language andLiterature at Heidelberg; author of various learned treatises onphilology and kindred subjects (1810-1870). 

HOLY ALLIANCE, an alliance of the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, andPrussia on the fall of Napoleon, professedly for conservative ends, butreally for the suppression of political liberty and the maintenance ofabsolute power. 

HOLY COAT OF TRÈVES, a seamless coat alleged to have been depositedthere by the Empress Helena, and to have been the one worn by Christ. 

HOLY FAIR, a rural celebration of the Communion once common inScotland, attended not only by the people of the parish, but by largenumbers of strangers from far and near; described by Burns. 

HOLY ISLAND or LINDISFARNE, an islet of Northumberland, 9½ m. SE. Of Berwick; is separated from the mainland by a stretch of sand bareat low water, and some 3 m. Broad; has interesting ruins of a Benedictinepriory church where ST. CUTHBERT (q. V. ) once ministered; thereis a small village and fine old castle. 

HOLY OFFICE, name given to the INQUISITION (q. V. ). 

HOLY WARS, name given to the CRUSADES (q. V. ). 

HOLY WEEK, the week before Easter, so called as consecrated to thecommemoration of the Passion of Christ in view of His death on the Cross. 

HOLYHEAD (9), an important little seaport of Anglesey, North Wales, on the N. Side of an island of the same name, 25 m. W. Of Bangor; is thechief mail-packet station for Ireland, and has excellent harbourage, &c. 

HOLYHEAD ISLAND (9), a rocky islet forming a part of Anglesey, fromwhich it is separated by a narrow strait, dry at low water, and crossedby an arched causeway. 

HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB, an active propagandist of advanced socialtheories, born at Birmingham; has lived a busy life as an agitator, lecturing and writing; he espoused the cause of Garibaldi, edited the_Reasoner_; was the last man to be imprisoned in England on a charge ofatheism (1841); was a zealous supporter of co-operation and all movementsmaking for the betterment of the social condition of the working-classes;his numerous works embrace a valuable "History of Co-operation inEngland, " "The Limits of Atheism, " "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life, "&c. ; _b_. 1817. 

HOLYOKE (45), a city of Massachusetts, 8 m. N. Of Springfield, onthe Connecticut, whose rapid current supplies the water-power for themany large paper-mills, cotton and woollen factories. 

HOLYROOD, an abbey founded at Edinburgh in 1128 by David I. , anddedicated in honour of the Holy Cross, a casket of gold shaped like across brought to the country by St. Margaret in 1070; a palace wasafterwards attached, which became the chief seat of the Scottishsovereigns of the Stuart dynasty; the parks around were at one time asanctuary for debtors. 

HOLYWELL (3), a market-town of Flintshire, has an elevatedsituation, 15 m. NW. Of Chester; the principal industry is the smeltingof lead, iron, copper, and zinc ores obtained from the surrounding mines;the famous well of St. Winifred (whence the name of the town) isover-built by a fine Perpendicular chapel. 

HOMBURG (9), a fashionable watering-place in Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, beautifully situated at the base of the Taunus Mountains, 8 m. NW. OfFrankfort-on-the-Main; has fine chalybeate and saline springs. 

HOME, defined by Ruskin as "the place of Peace; the shelter not onlyfrom all injury, but from all terror, doubt, and division. In so far asit is not this, it is not home; so far as the anxieties of the outerworld penetrate into it, and the inconsistently-minded, unknown, unloved, or hostile society, the outer world, is allowed by either husband or wifeto cross the threshold, it ceases to be home; it is then only a part ofthe outer world which you have roofed over and lighted a fire in. "

HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS, a noted spiritualist, born near Edinburgh;became widely known as a "medium, " was presented at Courts and to thePope; was expelled from the Catholic Church for spiritualistic practices, and latterly became involved in a lawsuit with a Mrs. Lyon, who hadbestowed upon him £60, 000 and forced him to return it; he is supposed tohave suggested to Browning his well-known poem "Sludge--the Medium";wrote several books (1833-1886). 

HOME, JOHN, Scotch divine and dramatist, born at Leith; graduated atEdinburgh, and entered the Church in 1745; became minister atAthelstaneford, near Haddington, where he wrote the tragedies "Agis" and"Douglas"; the latter established his fame, but brought him into disgracewith the Presbytery, and he withdrew to England, becoming secretary tothe Earl of Bute; his plays were produced by Garrick, and displaced thestiff and artificial tragedies of Addison, Johnson, &c. ; besides hisdramatic works and poems he published a "History of the Rebellion of1745" (1722-1808). 

HOME RULE, a form of local self-government, a name applied to anadministration of the kind projected by Mr. Gladstone for Ireland. 

HOMER, the great epic poet of Greece, and the greatest of all time;author of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey, " and for the honour of being theplace of whose birth seven Greek cities contended; is said, when old andblind, to have wandered from city to city rehearsing his verses, and tohave lived 900 years before Christ, some time after the reign of Solomon;it is only modern criticism that has called in question his existence, and has ventured to argue that the poems ascribed to him are a merecongeries of compositions of the early fabulous age of Greece, but theunity of the plan and the simplicity of the style of the poems go tocondemn this theory in the regard of most Homeric scholars. 

HOMILDON HILL, in Northumberland, 1 m. NE. Of Wooler; the scene ofHotspur's famous victory over the Scots under Earl Douglas, December 14, 1402. 

HOMOEOPATHY, a method of treating diseases advocated byHAHNEMANN (q. V. ) which professes to cure a disease byadministering in small quantities medicines that would produce it in ahealthy person. 

HOMOIOUSIA, name given to the Semi-Arian doctrine that the Son is of_like_ substance with the Father, in opposition to the orthodox doctrinecalled Homoousia that He is of the _same_ substance. 

HOMOLOGOUMENA, name given to the books of the New Testament acceptedas canonical. 

HONDURAS (435), a maritime republic of Central America, whosenorthern seaboard fronts the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea, between Nicaragua on the S. And SE. And Guatemala on the W. , less thanfour-fifths the size of England; the coast lands are low and swampy, butthe interior consists chiefly of elevated tableland diversified by broadrich valleys; the Cordilleras traverse the country in a NW. Direction, and form the watershed of many streams; fever prevails along the low, hotcoast, but the highlands are cool and healthful; large numbers of cattleare raised, and fruits, india-rubber, indigo, &c. , are exported, butagriculture is backward; its mineral wealth is very great; silver ore isabundant, and other minerals, such as gold, iron, copper, but theenterprise is wanting to the carrying out of mining on a proper scale;Honduras broke away from Spain in 1821, and became an independent Statein 1839; the Government is vested in a President and six ministers, andthe legislative power in a Congress of 37 members; the population is, with the exception of a few thousands, composed of blacks; Tegucigalpa(12) is the capital. 

HONE, WILLIAM, miscellaneous writer and political satirist, born atBath; threw up his position as a law clerk in London and started a printand book shop; became a busy contributor to newspapers, and involvedhimself in serious trouble by the freedom of his political parodies andsatires; of his many squibs, satires, &c. , mention maybe made of "ThePolitical House that Jack Built, " "The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder, " "ThePolitical Showman, " all illustrated by G. CRUIKSHANK (q. V. )(1780-1842). 

HONEYCOMB, WILL, a jaunty member of the "Spectator Club. "

HONFLEUR (9), a seaport of France, situated on the estuary of theSeine, opposite Havre; has a good harbour; exports dairy produce, cattle, &c. ; has sugar refineries, tanworks, &c. 

HONG-KONG (222), an island lying off the mouth of the Canton River, South China; was ceded to Britain in 1842; is hilly and unproductive, butis well watered and tolerably healthy; it owes its great importance as acommercial centre to its favourable position, its magnificent harbour, and to its having been made a free port and the head-quarters of theEuropean banks; opium is the chief import, silk and tea the principalexports; Victoria, a handsome city on the N. Side, is the capital, seatof the British governor, &c. 

HONITON (3), an ancient market-town of Devonshire, close to theOtter, 17 m. NE. Of Exeter; is famed for its pillow-lace, an industryintroduced by some Flemish refugees in the 16th century. 

HONOLULU (20), capital of the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS (q. V. ), situated on an arid strip of land on the S. Side of Oahu; is nicely laidout after the manner of a European town; and has the only good harbour inthe archipelago. 

HONORIUS, the name of four popes: H. I. , the most famous, Popefrom 626 to 638; H. II. , pope from 1124 to 1130; H. III. , Popefrom 1216 to 1227; and H. IV. , Pope from 1286 to 1287. 

HONORIUS, FLAVIUS, emperor of the West, born at Constantinople, sonof Theodosius the Great, a weak ruler, and only able to resist theinvasion of the Goths so long as Stilicho, his minister, lived, for afterthe murder of the latter by treachery matters with him went from bad toworse, and he saw some of his finest provinces snatched from his grasp(384-423). 

HONTHEIM, a German Catholic theologian, born at Trèves;distinguished for his bold assertion and subsequent retractation of adoctrine called Febronianism, from the _nom de plume_ Febronius which heassumed, tending to the disparagement of the Papal authority in theChurch (1701-1790). 

HONTHORST, GERARD VAN, a Flemish painter, born at Utrecht, paintednight and torchlight scenes; "Christ before Pilate" his best-known work(1592-1666). 

HONVED`, name given in Hungary to the landwehr, or originally to anydistinguished national patriot or party. 

HOOD, SAMUEL, VISCOUNT, a distinguished admiral, born at Thorncombe;entered the navy in 1740, and rising rapidly in his profession evincedhigh qualities as a leader; in 1782 he brilliantly outmanoeuvred DeGrasse in the West Indies, and under Rodney played a conspicuous part inthe destruction of the French fleet at the battle of Dominica, for whichhe was rewarded with an Irish peerage; he defeated Fox in the celebratedWestminster election, became a Lord of the Admiralty, and as commander ofthe Mediterranean fleet during the revolutionary wars, captured theFrench fleet at Toulon and reduced Corsica; in 1796 he was created aviscount (1724-1816). 

HOOD, THOMAS, poet and humourist, born in London; gave up businessand engraving, to which he first applied himself, for letters, andcommencing as a journalist, immortalised himself by the "Song of theShirt" and his "Dream of Eugene Aram"; edited the "Comic Annual, " andwrote "Whims and Oddities, " in all of which he displayed both wit andpathos (1798-1845). 

HOOGHLY or HÛGLI, 1, the most important and most westerly ofthe several branches into which the Ganges divides on approaching thesea, breaks away from the main channel near Santipur, and flowing in asoutherly direction past Calcutta, reaches the Bay of Bengal after acourse of 145 m. ; navigation is rendered hazardous by the accumulatingand shifting silt; the "bore" rushes up with great rapidity, and attainsa height of 7 ft. 2, A city (33) on the western bank of the river, 25 m. N. Of Calcutta; is capital of a district, and has a college for Englishand Asiatic literature. 

HOOK, THEODORE, comic dramatist, born in London; wrote a number offarces sparkling with wit and highly popular; appointed to beAccountant-General of the Mauritius, came to grief for peculation by asubordinate under his administration; solaced and supported himself afterhis acquittal by writing novels (1788-1841). 

HOOKE, ROBERT, natural philosopher, born at Freshwater, Isle ofWight; was associated with Boyle in the construction of the air-pump, andin 1665 became professor of Geometry in Gresham College, London; was aman of remarkable inventiveness, and quick to deduce natural laws frommeagre premises; thus he in some important points anticipated Newton'stheory of gravitation, and foresaw the application of steam to machinery;he discovered amongst other things the balance-spring of watches, theanchor-escapement of clocks, the simplest theory of the arch, and madeimportant improvements on the telescope, microscope, and quadrant(1635-1703). 

HOOKER, RICHARD, English Church theologian and ecclesiasticalwriter, born in Exeter; famous as the author of "Ecclesiastical Polity, "in defence of the Church against the Puritans, characterised by StopfordBrooke as "a stately work, and the first monument of splendid literaryprose that we possess"; of this work Pope Clement VIII. Said, "There aresuch seeds of eternity in it as will continue till the last fire shalldevour all learning"; the author is distinguished by the surname of "TheJudicious" for his calm wisdom; he was not judicious, it would seem, inthe choice of a wife, who was a shrew and a scold (1554-1600). 

HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM, botanist, born at Norwich; was professor ofBotany in Glasgow from 1820 to 1841, after which he held the post ofDirector of Kew Gardens; his writings in botany are numerous (1785-1865). 

HOOLEE, in India, the name of a saturnalian festival in honour ofKRISHNA (q. V. ). 

HOOPER, JOHN, bred for the Church; was converted to Protestantism, and had to leave the country; returned on the accession of Edward VI. Andwas made Bishop of Gloucester; was committed to prison in the reign ofMary, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake in Gloucester(1495-1555). 

HOOSAC MOUNTAIN, in the Green Mountain Range in Massachusetts, isnoted for its railway tunnel, nearly 5 m. In length, and the longest inAmerica. 

HOPE, ANTONY, _nom de plume_ of A. H. Hawkins, novelist, born inLondon, educated at Oxford; called to the bar; author of "Men of Mark, ""Prisoner of Zenda, " &c. ; _b_. 1863. 

HOPE, THOMAS, traveller and virtuoso, author of "Anastasius, or theMemoirs of a Modern Greek, " which Byron was proud to have fathered onhim, and of a posthumous essay on the "Origin and Prospects of Man, " wasfamous as having suggested to Carlyle one of the most significant thingshe ever wrote, while he pronounced it perhaps the absurdest book writtenin our century by a thinking man. See Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essay"Characteristics. "

HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE L', Chancellor of France; stoutly resisted thepersecution of the Protestants, and secured for them a measure oftoleration, but his enemies were too strong for him; he was driven frompower in 1568, and went into retirement; was spared during the massacreof St. Bartholomew, but it broke his heart, and he survived it only a fewdays (1505-1572). 

HOPKINS, SAMUEL, an American divine, born at Waterbury, Connecticut;was pastor at Newport; was a Calvinist in theology, but of a specialtype, as he denied imputation and insisted on disinterested benevolenceas the mark of a Christian; gave name to a party, Hopkinsians, as theywere called, who held the same views (1721-1803). 

HORATII. See CURIATII

HORATIUS FLACCUS or HORACE, Roman poet, born at Venusium, inApulia; was educated at Rome and in Athens, and when there in histwenty-first year joined Marcus Brutus, became a military tribune, andfought at Philippi, after which he submitted to the conqueror andreturned to Rome to find his estate forfeited; for a time afterwards hehad to be content with a frugal life, but by-and-by he attracted thenotice of Virgil, and he introduced him to Mæcenas, who took him into hisfriendship and bestowed on him a small farm, to which he retired and onwhich he lived in comfort for the rest of his life; his works, all inverse, consist of odes, satires, and epistles, and reveal an easy-goingman of the world, of great practical sagacity and wise remark; theyabound in happy phrases and quotable passages (65-8 B. C. ). 

HORN, CAPE, the most southern point of America, is a lofty, precipitous, and barren promontory of Hermit Island, in the FuegianArchipelago. 

HORN GATE, the gate of dreams which come true, as distinct from theIvory Gate, through which the visions seen are shadowy and unreal. 

HORNBOOK, was a sheet of vellum or paper used in early times forteaching the rudiments of education, on which were inscribed the alphabetin black or Roman letters, some monosyllables, the Lord's Prayer, and theRoman numerals; this sheet was covered with a slice of transparent horn, and was still in use in George II. 's reign. 

HORROCKS, JEREMIAH, a celebrated astronomer, born at Toxteth, nearLiverpool; passed through Cambridge, took orders, and received the curacyof Hoole, Lancashire; was devoted to astronomy, and was the first toobserve the transit of Venus, of which he gave an account in his treatise"Venus in Sole Visa" (1619-1641). 

HORSE-POWER, the unit of work of a steam-engine, being the power toraise 33, 000 lbs. One foot in one minute. 

HORSHAM (9), a market-town of Sussex, 26 m. NW. Of Brighton; has afine specimen of an Early English church, and does a thriving trade inbrewing, tanning, iron-founding, &c. 

HORSLEY, SAMUEL, English prelate, born in London; celebrated as thechampion of orthodoxy against the attacks of PRIESTLEY (q. V. ), in which he showed great learning but much bitterness, which, however, brought him church preferment; was in succession bishop of St. Davids, Rochester, and St. Asaph (1733-1806). 

HOSEA, a Hebrew prophet, a native of the northern kingdom of Israel, and a contemporary of Isaiah, the burden of whose prophecy is, Israel hasby her idolatries and immoralities forsaken the Lord, and the Lord hasforsaken Israel, in whom alone her salvation is to be found. 

HOSHANGABAD (17), capital of a district of the same name in theCentral Provinces, India, situated on the Nerbudda River, 40 m. SE. OfBhopal; is a military station, and has a considerable trade in cotton, grain, &c. 

HOSHIARPUR (22), a town in the Punjab, at the base of the SiwalikHills, 90 m. E. Of Lahore; is capital of a district, and is the seat ofan American mission. 

HOSPITALLERS, the name given to several religious brotherhoods ororders of knights under vow to provide and care for the sick and wounded, originally in connection with pilgrimages and expeditions to Jerusalem. 

HOSPODAR, a title once borne by the kings of Poland and thegovernors of Moldavia and Wallachia. 

HOSTILIUS, TULLUS, the third king of Rome from 670 to 638 B. C. ;showed more zeal for conquest than for the worship of the gods, who inthe end smote him and his whole house with fire. 

HOTTENTOTS, a name somewhat indiscriminately applied to the firstknown inhabitants of Cape Colony, who, however, comprised two maintribes, the Khoikhoi and the Bushmen, in many respects dissimilar, butspeaking languages characterised alike by harsh and clicking sounds, acircumstance which induced the early Dutch settlers to call themHottentots, which means practically "jabberers"; the great majority aresemi-civilised now, and servile imitators of their conquerors. 

HOUDON, JEAN-ANTOINE, an eminent French sculptor, born of humbleparentage at Versailles; at 20 he won the _prix de Rome_, and for 10years studied with enthusiasm the early masters at Rome, where heproduced his great statue of St. Bruno; he was elected in turn a memberof the Academy and of the Institute, Paris, and in 1805 became professorat the École des Beaux-Arts; he was unrivalled in portraiture, andexecuted statues of Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, Mirabeau, Washington, Napoleon, and others (1741-1828). 

HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, LORD, poet and patron of letters, born of good family at Fryston Hall, Pontefract; graduated at Cambridge;entered Parliament as a Conservative, but subsequently went over to theother side, and in 1863 was raised to the peerage by Palmerston; was aman of varied interests, a traveller, leader of society, philanthropist, and above all the friend and patron of authors; his works include variousvolumes of poetry, "Life of Keats, " "Monographs, Personal and Social, "&c. (1809-1885). 

HOUNSLOW (13), a town of Middlesex, 10 m. SW. Of London; railwayshave done away with its importance as a posting town; in the vicinity aregunpowder mills, barracks, and the famous Hounslow Heath. 

HOURI, a beautiful maiden who, according to the Mohammedan faith, awaits the advent of a pious Moslem in Paradise. 

HOUSTON, SAMUEL, President of the Texan Republic, born in Virginia;was adopted by a Cherokee Indian, and rose from the rank of a commonsoldier to be governor of Tennessee in 1827; as commander-in-chief inTexas he crushed the Mexicans, won the independence of Texas, and becamethe first President of the new republic in 1836; subsequently representedTexas in the United States Senate; was elected governor and deposed in1861 for opposing secession (1793-1863). 

HOUYHN`HNMS, an imaginary race of horses in "Gulliver's Travels"endowed with reason. 

HOVEDEN, ROGER OF, chronicler, born at Howden, Yorkshire; held anappointment in Henry II. 's household; was engaged in various missions tothe monastic houses, and in 1189 became an itinerant justice; hiswell-known Chronicle begins where Bede's ends, 732, and continues down to1201. 

HOWARD, CATHERINE, fifth wife of Henry VIII. , granddaughter of theDuke of Norfolk; was married to Henry in 1540 after his divorce from Anneof Clèves; two years later she was found guilty of immoral conduct priorto her marriage, and was executed (1520-1542). 

HOWARD, JOHN, a noted philanthropist, born at Hackney, Middlesex;was left in easy circumstances at his father's death; a bitter experienceas a French prisoner of war and observations made whilst acting assheriff of Bedfordshire roused him to attempt some reform of the abusesand misery of prison life; he made a tour of the county jails of England, and the mass of information which he laid before the House of Commons in1774 brought about the first prison reforms; he continued his visitationsfrom year to year to every part of the United Kingdom and to everyquarter of the Continent; during 1785-87 he made a tour of inspectionthrough the principal lazarettos of Europe, visited plague-smittencities, and voluntarily underwent the rigours of the quarantine system;he died at the Crimea whilst on a journey to the East; he published atvarious times accounts of his Journeys; his deep piety, cool sense, andsingle-hearted devotedness to his one great object won him universalrespect throughout Europe (1727-1790). 

HOWE, JOHN, a Puritan divine, born at Loughborough; was educated atOxford and Cambridge, took orders, and became the outspoken anduniversally respected chaplain to Cromwell; after the Restoration he wasejected from the Church by the Act of Uniformity; subsequently he was inturn domestic chaplain to Lord Massarene in Ireland, and pastor of aDissenting congregation in London; for some years he settled in Utrecht, but in 1687 returned to England after the Declaration for Liberty ofConscience, and became a leader of the Dissenters; he published a numberof works which display a powerful, philosophic, and earnest mind; his"The Good Man the Living Temple of God" remains a masterpiece of Puritantheology; he was a man of exceptional strength of character, and it wassaid that he could awe Cromwell into silence and Tillotson into tears(1630-1706). 

HOWE, RICHARD, EARL, admiral, born in London, son of an Irishviscount; first saw service under Anson against the Spaniards;distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War; in 1783 became FirstLord of the Admiralty, and was created an earl; during the French War in1793 he commanded the Channel Fleet, and gained "the glorious first ofJune" victory off Ushant (1726-1799). 

HOWELL, JAMES, an English writer, whose "Familiar Letters" have wona permanent place in English literature, born in Abernant, Carmarthenshire; travelled for many years on the Continent in a businesscapacity; entered Parliament in 1627; was for some years a Royalist spy, and suffered imprisonment at the Fleet; at the Restoration he was createdHistoriographer-Royal; his works are numerous, but his fame rests uponhis entertaining "Instructions for Foreigne Travell" and his graceful andwitty "Familiar Letters" (1593-1666). 

HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN, a popular American novelist, the son of aSwedenborgian journalist, born at Martin's Ferry, Ohio; adoptedjournalism as a profession, produced a popular Life of Lincoln, and from1861 to 1865 was Consul at Venice; resuming journalism he became acontributor to the best American papers and magazines, and was for anumber of years editor of the _Atlantic Monthly;_ an excellentjournalist, poet, and critic, it is yet as a novelist--witty, graceful, and acute--that he is best known; "A Chance Acquaintance, " "A ForegoneConclusion, " "A Modern Instance, " "An Indian Summer" are among his morepopular works; _b_. 1837. 

HOWITT, WILLIAM, a miscellaneous writer, who, with his equallytalented wife, MARY HOWITT (1799-1888) (_née_ Botham), did much topopularise the rural life of England, born, a Quaker's son, at Heanor, Derbyshire; served his time as a carpenter, but soon drifted intoliterature, married in 1821, and made many tours in England and otherlands for literary purposes; was a voluminous writer, pouring outhistories, accounts of travel, tales, and poems; amongst these are "RuralLife in England, " "Visits to Remarkable Places, " "Homes and Haunts of thePoets, " &c. (1792-1879). His wife, besides collaborating with him in suchworks as "Stories of English Life, " "Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, "wrote poems, tales, &c. , and was the first to translate the fairy-talesof Hans Andersen. 

HOWRAH or HAURA (130), a flourishing manufacturing town on theHooghly, opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by a floatingbridge. 

HOY, a steep, rocky islet in the Orkney group, about 1 m. SW. OfMainland or Pomona, remarkable for its huge cliffs. 

HOYLAKE (3), a rising watering-place in Cheshire, at the seaward endof Wirral Peninsula, 8 m. W. Of Birkenhead; noted for its golf-links. 

HOYLE, EDMOND, the inventor of whist, lived in London; wrote ongames and taught whist; his "Short Treatise on Whist" appeared in 1742(1672-1769). 

HROLF, ROLLO, DUKE OF NORMANDY (q. V. )

HUANCAVELI`CA (104), a dep. Of Peru, lies within the region of theCordilleras, has rich silver and quicksilver mines; the capital (4), bearing the same name, is a mining town 150 m. SE. Of Lima. 

HUB OF THE UNIVERSE, a name humorously given by Wendell Holmes toBoston, or rather the State House of the city. 

HUBER, FRANCIS, naturalist, born at Geneva; made a special study ofthe habits of bees, and recorded the results in his "Observations sur lesAbeilles" (1750-1831). 

HUBERT, ST. , bishop of Liège and Maestricht, the patron-saint ofhuntsmen; was converted when hunting on Good Friday by a milk-white stagappearing in the forest of Ardennes with a crucifix between its horns;generally represented in art as a hunter kneeling to a crucifix borne bya stag (656-728). 

HUBERT DE BURGH, Earl of Kent, chief justiciary of England underKing John and Henry III. ; had charge of Prince Arthur, but refused to puthim to death; was present at Runnymede at the signing of Magna Charta;_d_. 1234. 

HUC, a French missionary, born at Toulouse; visited China andThibet, and wrote an account of his experiences on his return(1813-1860). 

HUDDERSFIELD (96), a busy manufacturing town in the West Riding ofYorkshire, is favourably situated in a coal district on the Colne, 26 m. NE. Of Manchester; is substantially built, and is the northern centre ofthe "fancy trade" and woollen goods; cotton, silk, and machine factoriesand iron-founding are also carried on on a large scale. 

HUDIBRAS, a satire by Samuel Butler on the Puritans, published in1663, born of the reaction that set in after the Restoration. 

HUDSON, in New York State, one of the most picturesque of NorthAmerican rivers, rises amid the Adirondack Mountains, and from Glen'sFall flows S. To New York Bay, having a course of 350 m. ; is navigablefor steamboats as far as Albany, 145 m. From its mouth. It has valuablefisheries. 

HUDSON, GEORGE, the Railway King, originally a linen-draper in York, the great speculator in the construction and extension of railways, inconnection with which he made a huge fortune; acquired civic honours, andwas nearly having a statue raised to his honour, but certain frauds beingexposed he fell into disgrace and embarrassment, and died in London; hewas elected thrice over Lord Mayor of York, and represented Sunderland inParliament from 1845 to 1859 (1800-1871). 

HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator; made three unsuccessful efforts todiscover a north-east passage, then turned his course north-westward, anddiscovered in 1610 the river, strait, and bay which bear his name; hissailors in his last expedition in 1611 mutinying, set him and eightothers adrift in an open boat, and though an expedition was sent in questof him, he was nowhere to be found. 

HUDSON BAY, an inland sea in North America, 400 m. Long and 100 m. Wide, communicating with the Atlantic; discovered by Hudson in 1610. 

HUDSON BAY COMPANY, a joint-stock company founded in 1760 to obtainfurs and skins from North America, under charter granted by Charles II. , the possessions of which were in 1869 incorporated in the Dominion ofCanada. 

HUÉ (30), capital of the French protectorate Annam, on the Hué, 10m. Above its mouth, is strongly fortified with walls and a citadel. 

HUELVA (19), a thriving seaport in Spain, 68 m. SW. Of Seville, between the mouths of the Odiel and Tinto; fisheries and the exportationof copper, manganese, quicksilver, and wine are the chief industries. 

HUERTA, GARCIA DE LA, a Spanish poet, was royal librarian in Madrid;wrote tragedy of "Raguel, " thought of very highly (1729-1797). 

HUESCA (13), an interesting old Spanish town, 58 m. NE. OfSaragossa; has picturesque old churches, a university, and a palace;manufactures linen and leather. 

HUET, PIERRE DANIEL, a learned French prelate, born at Caen; a pupilof Descartes; associated with Bossuet as scholar, and editor of Origen(1630-1721). 

HUG, LEONHARD, a Catholic theologian and biblical scholar, author ofan "Introduction to the New Testament" (1765-1846). 

HUGH CAPET, the first of the Capetian dynasty of France, son of HughCapet, Count of Paris; proclaimed king in 987; his reign was a troubledone by the revolt of the very party that had raised him to the throne, and who refused to own his supremacy; Adelbert, a count of Périgueux, hadusurped the titles of Count of Poitiers and of Tours, and the king, sending a messenger to ask "Who made you count?" got for answer thecounter-challenge "Who made you king?" (946-996). 

HUGHENDEN, a parish in Buckinghamshire, in the Chiltern district, 2m. N. Of High Wycombe; is interesting as the seat of Hughenden Manor, formany years the residence of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield. 

HUGHES, THOMAS, author of "Tom Brown's School-days, " born atUffington, Berks; was at Rugby in Dr. Arnold's time, graduated at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1848; his famous story of Rugby school life, "Tom Brown's School-days, " was published in 1856, and was followed by"Tom Brown at Oxford" and other stories and biographies; he enteredParliament in 1865, and in 1882 became a County Court Judge; throughouthis life he was keenly interested in social questions and the bettermentof the working-classes (1832-1896). 

HUGO, VICTOR-MARIE, a famous French poet and novelist, born atBesançon; as a boy he accompanied his father, a general in JosephBonaparte's army, through the campaigns in Italy and Spain; at 14 heproduced a tragedy, and six years later appeared his "Odes et Ballades";in 1827 was published his famous tragedy "Cromwell, " which placed him atthe head of the Romanticists, and in "Hernani" (1830) the departure fromthe old classic novels was more emphatically asserted; his superabundantgenius continued to pour forth a quick succession of dramas, novels, essays, and poems, in which he revealed himself one of the most potentmasters of the French language; he was admitted to the French Academy, and in 1845 was created a peer; he engaged in politics first as aRoyalist and next as a Democrat, fled to Brussels after the _coupd'état_; subsequently he established himself in Jersey and then inGuernsey, where he wrote his great novels "Les Misérables, " "LesTravailleurs de la Mer, " etc. ; he returned to France in 1870, engaged inpolitics again, became a senator, and continued to produce works withundiminished energy; his writings were in the first instance a protestagainst the self-restraint and coldness of the old classic models, butwere as truly a faithful expression of his own intense and assertiveegoism, and are characteristic of his school in their exaggeratedsentiment and pervading self-consciousness (1802-1885). 

HUGUENOTS, a name formerly given to the Protestants of France, presumed to be a corruption of the German word _eingenossen_, i. E. Sworn confederates, the history of whom and their struggles andpersecutions fills a large chapter in the history of France, a causewhich was espoused at the first by many of the nobles and the bestfamilies in the country, but all along in disfavour at Court. 

HULL, or KINGSTON-UPON-HULL (260), a flourishing river-port inthe E. Riding of Yorkshire, at the junction of the Hull with the Humber, 42 m. SE. Of York; is an old town, and has many interesting churches, statues, and public buildings; is the third port of the kingdom; hasimmense docks, is the principal outlet for the woollen and cotton goodsof the Midlands, and does a great trade with the Baltic and Germany; hasflourishing shipbuilding yards, rope and canvas factories, sugarrefineries, oil-mills, etc. , and is an important centre of the east coastfisheries. 

HULLAH, JOHN, professor of music, born in Worcester; did much topopularise music in England (1812-1884). 

HULSEAN LECTURES, fruits of a lectureship tenable for one year, founded by Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's College, in 1789; deliveredannually to the number of four, bearing on revealed religion. 

HUMANIST, one who at the Revival of Letters upheld the claims ofclassical learning in opposition to the supporters of the scholasticphilosophy. 

HUMANITARIANS, a name given to those who maintain the simplehumanity of Christ to the denial of his divinity; also to those who viewhuman nature as sufficient for itself apart from all supernaturalguidance and aid. 

HUMBERT I. , king of Italy, son of Victor Emmanuel, whom he succeededin 1878; took while crown prince an active part in the movement forItalian unity, and distinguished himself by his bravery; _b_. 1844. 

HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEX. , BARON VON, great traveller andnaturalist, born in Berlin; devoted all his life to the study of naturein all its departments, travelling all over the Continent, and in 1800, with AIMÉ BONPLAND (q. V. ) for companion, visiting S. America, traversing the Orinoco, and surveying and mapping out in the course offive years Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, the results ofwhich he published in his "Travels"; his chief work is the "Kosmos, " oran account of the visible universe, in 4 vols. , originally delivered aslectures in Paris in the winter of 1827-28; he was a friend of Goethe, who held him in the highest esteem (1769-1859). 

HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON, an eminent statesman and philologist, born at Potsdam, elder brother of the preceding; represented Prussia atRome and Vienna, but devoted himself chiefly to literary and scientificpursuits; wrote on politics and æsthetics as well as philology, andcorresponded with nearly all the literary grandees of Germany(1767-1835). 

HUME, DAVID, philosopher and historian, born in Edinburgh, theyounger son of a Berwickshire laird; after trial of law and mercantilelife gave himself up to study and speculation; spent much of his life inFrance, and fraternised with the sceptical philosophers andencyclopedists there; his chief works, "Treatise on Human Nature" (1739), "Essays" (1741-42), "Principles of Morals" (1751), and "History ofEngland" (1754-61); his philosophy was sceptical to the last degree, butfrom the excess of it provoked a reaction in Germany, headed by Kant, which has yielded positive results; he found in life no connectingprinciple, no purpose, and had come to regard it as a restless aimless, heaving up and down, swaying to and fro on a waste ocean of blindsensations, without rational plot or counterplot, God or devil, and hadarrived at an absolutely _non-possumus_ stage, which, however, as hinted, was followed by a speedy and steady rebound, in speculation at allevents; Hume's history has been characterised by Stopford Brooke as clearin narrative and pure in style, but cold and out of sympathy with hissubject, as well as inaccurate; personally, he was a guileless and kindlyman (1711-1776). 

HUME, JOSEPH, a politician, born in Montrose; studied medicine, andserved as a surgeon under the East India Company in India, made hisfortune, and came home; adopted the political principles of Bentham andentered Parliament, of which he continued a prominent member till hisdeath; he was an ardent reformer, and lived to see many of the measureshe advocated crowned with success (1777-1855). 

HUMOUR, distinct from wit, and defined as "a warm, tender, fellow-feeling with all that exists, " as "the sport of sensibility and, as it were, the playful, teasing fondness of a mother for a child" . .. As"a sort of inverse sublimity exalting into our affections what is belowus, . .. Warm and all-embracing as the sun. "

HUNDRED DAYS, the name given to the period between Napoleon's returnfrom Elba and his abdication, from Mar. 10 to June 28, 1815, afterWaterloo. 

HUNDYADES JOHN CORVINUS, a Hungarian captain of the 14th century, aformidable foe of the Turks. 

HUNGARY (18, 556), the eastern part of Austro-Hungary, includingHungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and, except inmilitary and diplomatic matters and customs dues, with a considerableamount of self-government independent of Austria, differing from it, asit does, in race, language, and many other respects, to such a degree asgives rise to much dissension, and every now and then threatensdisruption. 

HUNS, THE, a horde of barbarians of Mongolian origin who invadedEurope from the shores of the Caspian Sea in two wars, the first in the4th century, which at length subsided, and the second in the 5th century, ultimately under Atilla, which, in the main body of them at all events, was driven back and even dispersed; they have been described as a racewith broad shoulders, flat noses, small black eyes buried in the head, and without beards. 

HUNT, HOLMAN, painter, born in London; became a pupil of Rossetti, and "his greatest disciple, " and joined the Pre-Raphaelite movement; hebegan with "worldly subjects, " but soon quitted these "virtually forever" under Rossetti's influence, and "rose into the spiritual passionwhich first expressed itself in his 'Light of the World, '" with thisdifference, as Ruskin points out, between him and his "forerunner, " thatwhereas Rossetti treated the story of the New Testament as a mere thingof beauty, with Hunt, "when once his mind entirely fastened on it, itbecame . .. Not merely a Reality, not merely the greatest of Realities, but the only Reality"; in this religious realistic spirit, as Ruskinfurther remarks, all Hunt's great work is done, and he notices how in allsubjects which fall short of the religious element, "his power also isshortened, and he does those things worst which are easiest to othermen"; his principal works in this spirit are "The Scape-Goat, " "TheFinding of Christ in the Temple, " "The Shadow of Death, " and the "Triumphof the Innocents, " to which we may add "The Strayed Sheep, " remarkable aswell for its vivid sunshine, "producing, " says Ruskin, "the sameimpressions on the mind as are caused by the light itself"; _b_. 1827. 

HUNT, LEIGH, essayist and poet; was of the Cockney school, a friendof Keats and Shelley; edited the _Examiner_, a Radical organ; was a busyman but a thriftless, and always in financial embarrassment, thoughlatterly he had a fair pension; lived near Carlyle, who at one time saw agood deal of him, his household, and its disorderliness, an eyesore toCarlyle, a "_poetical tinkerdom_" he called it, in which, however, hereceived his visitors "in the spirit of a king, apologising for nothing";Carlyle soon tired of him, though he was always ready to help him when inneed (1784-1859). 

HUNTER, JOHN, anatomist and surgeon, born near East Kilbride, Lanarkshire; started practice as a surgeon in London, became surgeon toSt. George's Hospital, and at length surgeon to the king; isdistinguished for his operations in the cure of aneurism; he built amuseum, in which he collected an immense number of specimens illustrativeof subjects of medical study, which, after his death, was purchased byGovernment (1728-1793). 

HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM, Indian statistician, in the Indian CivilService, and at the head of the Statistical Department; has writtenseveral statistical accounts, the "Gazetteer of India, " and otherelaborate works on India; with Lives of the Earl of Mayo and the Marquisof Dalhousie; _b_. 1862. 

HUNTINGDON (4), the county town of Huntingdonshire, stands on theleft bank of the Ouse 59 m. N. Of London; has breweries, brick-works, andnurseries, and was the birthplace of Oliver Cromwell. 

HUNTINGDON, COUNTESS OF, a leader among the Whitfield Methodists, and foundress of a college for the "Connexion" at Cheshunt (1707-1791). 

HUNTINGDONSHIRE (57), an undulating county NE. Of the Fen district, laid out for most part in pasture and dairy land; many Roman remains areto be found scattered about in it. 

HURD, RICHARD, English bishop in succession of Lichfield andWorcester; was both a religious writer and a critic; was the author of"Letters on Chivalry and Romance, " "Dissertations on Poetry, " and"Commentaries on Horace's Ars Poetica, " the last much admired by Gibbon(1720-1808). 

HURON, a lake in N. America, 263 m. Long and 70 m. Broad, the secondlargest on the average of the five on the Lawrence basin, interspersedwith numerous islands. 

HURONS, THE, a tribe of Red Indians of the Iroquois family. 

HUSKISSON, WILLIAM, an English statesman and financier;distinguished for his services when in office in the relaxation ofrestrictions on trade (1770-1830). 

HUSS, JOHN, a Bohemian church reformer; was a disciple of Wyclif, and did much to propagate his teaching, in consequence of which he wassummoned in 1414 to answer for himself before the Council of Constance;went under safe-conduct from the emperor; "they laid him instantly in astone dungeon, three feet wide, six feet high, seven feet long; burnt thetrue voice of him out of this world; choked it in smoke and fire"(1373-1415). 

HUTCHESON, FRANCIS, moral philosopher, born in Ulster, son of aPresbyterian minister; educated in Glasgow; became professor in theuniversity there and founder of the Scotch school of philosophy, who, according to Dr. Stirling, has not received the honour in that regardwhich is his due (1094-1747). 

HUTCHINSON, ANNE, a religious fanatic, born in England, settled inNew England, U. S. ; expelled from the colony for Antinomian heresy, tookrefuge in Rhode Island, and was with her family butchered by the Indians(1590-1643). 

HUTCHINSON, COLONEL, one of the Puritan leaders, and a prominentactor in the Puritan revolt, to the extent of signing the death-warrantof the king, but broke partnership as a republican with Cromwell when heassumed sovereign power, and sullenly refused to be reconciled to theProtector, though he begged him towards his end beseechingly as his oldcomrade in arms (1616-1664). 

HUTCHINSON, JOHN, a theological faddist, born in Yorkshire; in his"Thoughts concerning Religion, " derived all religion and philosophy fromthe Bible, but directly, as he insisted, from the original Hebrew, inwhich view he had a following of a few intelligent people (1674-1737). 

HUTTEN, ULRICH VON, a zealous humanist and reformer, born in thecastle of Steckelberg, in Hesse, of an ancient and noble family; alliedhimself as a scholar with Erasmus, and then with Luther as a man; enteredheart and soul into the Reformation of the latter to a rupture with theformer, and by his writings, which included invectives against the clergyand appeals to the nation, did much, amid many perils, to advance thecause of German emancipation from the thraldom of the Church (1488-1523). 

HUTTON, CHARLES, a mathematician, born in Newcastle; becameprofessor at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; wrote on mathematicsand physics (1737-1825). 

HUTTON, JAMES, celebrated geologist, born in Edinburgh; bred tomedicine, but devoted himself to agriculture and chemistry, which led onto geology; was the author of the Plutonic theory of the earth, whichascribes the inequalities and other phenomena in the crust of it to theagency of the heat at the centre (1726-1797). 

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY, eminent scientist in the department of naturalhistory, born at Ealing, Middlesex; was professor of Natural History inthe Royal School of Mines; distinguished by his studies and discoveriesin different sections of the animal kingdom, in morphology andpalæontology; was a zealous advocate of evolution, in particular theviews of Darwin, and a champion of science against the orthodoxy of theChurch; he was a man of eminent literary ability as well as scientific, and of the greatest in that regard among scientific men (1825-1895). 

HUYGENS, CHRISTIAN, a Dutch geometrician, physicist, and astronomer, born at The Hague; published the first scientific work on the calculationof probabilities, improved the telescope, broached the undulatory theoryof light, discovered the fourth satellite of Saturn, invented thependulum clock, and stands as a physicist midway between Galileo andNewton (1629-1093). 

HYDASPES, the ancient name of the Jhelum, the northernmost tributaryof the Indus. 

HYDER ALI, a Mohammedan ruler of Mysore; raised himself to becommander-in-chief of the army; organised it on the French model;unseated the rajah; conquered Calicut, Bednor, and Kananur; waged warsuccessfully against the English and the Mahrattas, and left his kingdomto his son TIPPOO SAIB (q. V. ) (1728-1782). 

HYDERABAD (370), the capital of the Nizam's dominions in the Deccan, is 6 m. In circumference, strongly protected all round by a belt of rockydesert, and a centre of Mohammedanism in India. Also the capital of Sind(58), near the apex of the delta of the Indus; manufactures silks, pottery, and lacquered ware, and is strongly fortified. 

HYDRA, THE LERNEAN, a monstrous reptile inhabiting a marsh, with anumber of heads, that grew on again as often as they were chopped off, and the destruction of which was one of the twelve labours of Hercules, an act which symbolises the toil expended in draining the fens of theworld for man's habitation. 

HYGEIA, in the Greek mythology the Goddess of Health, and daughterof Æsculapius; is represented as a virgin in a long robe, with a cup inher hand and a serpent drinking out of it. 

HYMEN, in the Greek mythology the God of Marriage, son of Apollo, and one of the Muses, represented as a boy with wings; originally anuptial song sung at the departure of the bride from her parental home. 

HYMER, a frost Jötun, whose cows are icebergs; splits rocks with theglance of his eye. 

HYMETTUS, a mountain in Attica, famous for its honey and marble. 

HYPATIA, a far-famed lady teacher of Greek philosophy in Alexandria, distinguished for her beauty and purity of life, who, one day in 415, onher return home from her lecture-room, was massacred in the streets ofthe city, at the instance, of both Jews and Christians, as a propagatorof paganism. 

HYPERBOREANS, a people blooming in youth and health, fabled by theGreeks to dwell in the extreme northern parts of the world under favourof Apollo. 

HYPERMNESTRA, the only one of the DANAIDES (q. V. ) whospared the life of her husband in spite of her father's orders. 

HYPNOTISM, the process of inducing sleep by wearying out the opticnerve of the eyes, by making the patient fix them upon a certain spot fora time, generally situated where it is a little wearisome for the eyes tofind it. The fatigue thus induced spreads from the ocular muscles to thesystem, causing deep sleep. 

HYRCANIA, an ancient province of Persia, on the E. And SE. Of theCaspian Sea, celebrated for the savage animals that inhabited itsforests, as well as the savagery of its inhabitants. 

HYRCANUS, JOHN, the son of Simon Maccabeus, king of Judea, as wellas High-Priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B. C. ; achieved theindependence of his country from the Syrian yoke, extended the borders ofit, and compelled the Edomites to accept the Jewish faith at the point ofthe sword; in the strife then rampant between the SADDUCEES (q. V. )and the PHARISEES (q. V. ) he sided with the former. 

I

IACHIMO, an arch-villain in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline, " who attemptsto violate the chastity of Imogen. 

IACHUS, the son of Zeus and Demeter, and the solemn name of Bacchusin the Eleusinian Mysteries. 

IAGO, a cool, selfish, malignant, subtle, evil-scheming knave in"Othello, " his "ancient" or ensign, who poisoned his mind againstDesdemona. 

IAMBLICHUS, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the 4th century, in thetime of Constantine, struggled, as it proved, in vain for the revival ofGreek philosophy, in the hope of thereby stemming the advance ofChristianity. 

IAMBUS, a metrical foot, consisting of two syllables, of which thefirst is short and the second long, or in which the stress is on thesecond. 

IAPETOS, in the Greek mythology a Titan, father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, as the Greeks fabled the ancestor of thehuman race. 

IBERIA, the ancient and still poetic name of Spain; anciently also aterritory inhabited by an agricultural population between the Black Seaand the Caspian, now called Georgia. 

IBIS, the Nile bird, regarded as an avatar of deity, and held sacredby the Egyptians; it did not breed in Egypt, and was supposed to be ofmystic origin; it arrives in Egypt when the Nile begins to rise. 

IBRAHIM BEY, chief of the Mamelukes of Egypt at the time ofBonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798 (1789-1816). 

IBRAHIM PASHA, viceroy of Egypt, son and successor of Mehemet-Ali;appointed generalissimo of the Egyptian army, remodelled it after theFrench fashion; was leader of the Turks against the Greeks; gainedseveral victories over them in 1828, but was obliged to retire; overranand conquered Syria from the Sultan, but was forced by the Powers tosurrender his conquest and restore it; he was Viceroy of Egypt only for asingle year, and died at Cairo (1789-1848). 

IBSEN, HENRIK, Norwegian dramatist and poet, born at Skein, inNorway; bred to medicine; is author of a succession of plays of a newtype, commencing with "Catalina, " a poor attempt, followed by "Doll'sHouse, " "Ghosts, " "Pillars of Society, " and "Brand, " deemed hismasterpiece, besides others; his characters are vividly drawn as if fromlife; he is a psychologist, and his productions have all more or less asocial bearing; _b_. 1828. 

IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, who was murdered by robbers, and whoappealed to a flock of cranes that flew past before he died to avenge hisdeath, and that proved the means of the discovery of the murderers. 

ICARUS, son of DÆDALUS (q. V. ), who, flying with his fatherfrom Crete on wax-fastened wings, soared so high that the sun melted thewax and he dropped into the sea, giving name to that part of it. 

ICE BLINK, the name given to a white light seen on the horizon, dueto reflection from a field of ice immediately beyond. 

ICELAND (71), a volcanic island larger by a third than Scotland, lying just S. Of the polar circle, between Greenland and Norway, distant250 m. From the former and 500 from the latter; consists of a plateau2000 ft. High, sometimes sloping to the sea, sometimes ending in sheerprecipices, from which rise numerous snow-clad volcanoes, some, likeHecla, still active. "A wild land of barrenness and lava, " Carlylecharacterises it, "swallowed up many months of the year in blacktempests, yet with a wild gleaming beauty in summer time, towering upthere stern and grim, with its snow jokuls and roaring geysers, andhorrid volcanic chasms, like the waste chaotic battlefield of frost andfire. " The interior comprises lava and sand tracts, and ice-fields, butoutside these are river valleys and lake districts affording pasturage, and arable land capable of producing root crops. The climate ischangeable, mild for the latitude, but somewhat colder than Scotland. There are few trees, and these small; cranberries grow among the heather, and Iceland moss is a plentiful article of food. The island exports sheepand ponies; the fisheries are important, including cod, seals, andwhales; sulphur and coal are found; the hot springs are famous, especially the Great Geyser, near Hecla. Discovered by Irishmen andcolonised by Norwegians in the 9th century, Iceland passed over to theDanes in 1388, who granted it home rule in 1893. The religion has beenProtestant since 1550; its elementary education is excellent. Reykjavik(3) is the capital; two towns have 500 inhabitants each; the rest of thepopulation is scattered in isolated farms; stock-raising and fishing arethe principal industries, and the manufacture of homespun for their ownuse. 

ICH DIEN (I serve), the motto of the Black Prince, adopted from Johnof Bohemia, and since then that of the English Prince of Wales. 

ICHNEUMON, an animal of the weasel tribe, worshipped in Egypt fromits destroying the eggs of noxious reptiles, and of the crocodile inparticular. 

ICHOR, an ethereal fluid presumed to supply the place of blood inthe veins of the Greek gods. 

ICHTHYOSAURUS (lit. A fish-reptile), an extinct marine reptile inthe shape of a fish, its limbs paddles, and with a long lizard-like tail. 

ICONIUM, the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, a flourishing cityin St. Paul's time, who planted a church there, and of importance in thetime of the Crusades; is now named Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (i. E. Breakers of images), the name given to a sectwho, in the 8th century, opposed to the presence of images in churchesand the worship paid to them, set about the demolition of them assavouring of idolatry, and even in 730 obtained a papal decree orcondemnation of the practice; the enthusiasm died out in the nextcentury, but the effect of it was felt in a controversy, which led to theseparation of the Church of the East from that of the West. 

ICTINUS, great Greek architect of the 5th century B. C. , acontemporary of Pericles, designer of temples at Bussæ and Eleusis, andjoint-designer with Callicrates of the world's one perfect building, theParthenon, at Athens (437 B. C. ). 

IDA, the name of two mountains in the East, one in Crete, on whichZeus was brought up in a cave near it, and one in Asia Minor, near Troy, "Woody Ida, " the scene of the rape of Ganymedes and of the judgment ofParis, also a seat of Cybele worship. 

IDAHO (88), one of the north-western States of the American Union, surrounded by Washington and Oregon in the W. , Nevada and Utah in the S. , Wyoming in the E. , and Montana, from which it is separated by a branch ofthe Rocky Mountains, in the NE. , the short northern boundary touchesCanada; the country is traversed by lofty mountain ranges cut up intodeep river valleys and cañons, is extremely rugged in its northern parts, and chiefly useful for cattle-raising; there is a plateau in the centre, some arid prairie land in the S. , and lake districts in the N. And in theSE. ; grain farming is restricted to fringes along the river banks; theSnake River flows through the whole S. ; silver, lead, gold, and coppermines are wrought successfully, and coal is found; the State was admittedto the Union in 1890; a fifth of the population are Mormons; there arestill 4000 Indians. Boisé City (2) is the capital. 

IDDESLEIGH, EARL OF, Sir Stafford Northcote, Conservative financierand statesman, born in London of old Devonshire stock; educated atOxford; became private secretary to Mr. Gladstone in 1842, and five yearslater was called to the bar; entering Parliament in 1885, he sat insuccession for Dudley, for Stamford, and for North Devon; under LordDerby he was Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1859, and Presidentof the Board of Trade in 1866; under Disraeli he was at the India Officein 1868, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1874; he succeeded Disraeliin the leadership of the Commons, and was raised to the peerage in 1885;was successively First Lord of the Treasury and Foreign Secretary underLord Salisbury; in 1871 Mr. Gladstone appointed him Commissioner in thesettlement of the _Alabama_ claim, and he was elected Lord Hector ofEdinburgh University in 1883; resigning from the Foreign Office inJanuary 1887, he died suddenly a few days later at the Prime Minister'sresidence (1818-1887). 

IDEALISM, that view of the universe which, in opposition toMATERIALISM (q. V. ), refers everything to and derives everythingfrom a spiritual root; is Subjective if traced no further back than the_ego_, and Objective if traced back to the _non-ego_ likewise, itscounterpart, or other, in the objective world. Idealism in art is artmore or less at work in the region of the ideal in comparative disregardof the actual. 

IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, a German astronomer, born in Prussia; anauthority on chronology, on which he wrote a handbook, as also a work onthe reckoning of time among the Chinese (1766-1846). 

IDENTICAL NOTE, a term in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon bytwo Powers to coerce a third. 

IDES, the name given in the Roman calendar to certain days that_divide_ the month; in March, May, July, and October they fall on the15th, in the rest on the 13th. 

IDOLATRY, worship paid to a mere symbol of the divine while theheart is dead to all sense of that which it symbolises; a species ofoffence against the Most High, of which many are flagrantly guilty whoaffect to regard with pity the worshipper of idols of wood or stone. "Idolatry, " says Buskin, _apropos_ of Carlyle's well-known doctrine, "issummed up in the one broad wickedness of refusing to worship Force andresolving to worship No-Force; denying the Almighty, and bowing down tofour-and-twopence with a stamp on it. "

IDOMENEUS, king of Crete, grandson of Minos, and a hero of theGreeks in the war with Troy. 

IDRIS, a giant, prince, and astronomer of Welsh tradition, whoserock-hewn chair on the summit of Cader Idris was supposed to mete out tothe bard who spent a night upon it death, madness, or poetic inspiration. 

IDUMÆA. See EDOM. 

IDUNA, a Scandinavian goddess who kept a box of golden apples whichthe gods tasted when they wished to renew their youth; she was carriedoff one day, but being sent for by the gods, came back changed into afalcon. 

IDYLL, a poem in celebration of everyday life or life in everydaycostume amid natural, often pastoral and even romantic, and at timestragic surroundings. 

IF, an islet in the Gulf of Marseilles, with a castle built byFrancis I. , and afterwards used as a State prison. 

IGGDRASIL the _Tree_ of Existence, as conceived of by the Norse, andreflecting the Norse idea of the universe, "has its roots deep down inthe kingdoms of Hela, or Death; its trunk reaches up heaven-high, andspreads its boughs over the whole universe. At the foot of it, in theDeath-Kingdom, sit the THREE NORNAS (q. V. ) watering its rootsfrom the sacred Well. "

IGNATIEFF, NICHOLAS, Russian general and diplomatist, born at St. Petersburg; was ambassador at Pekin in 1859, and at Constantinople in1864, and secured at both posts important concessions to Russia; he is azealous Panslavist and Anti-Semite, too much so to carry with him thesupport of the country; _b_. 1832. 

IGNATIUS, FATHER, the name by which the Rev. Joseph Lyne is known, born in London, educated at St. Paul's School and Glenalmond; commenced amovement to introduce monasticism into the Church of England, and built amonastery for monks and nuns near Llanthony Abbey, the members of whichfollow the rule and wear the garb of the Order of St. Benedict; _b_. 1837. 

IGNATIUS, ST. , surnamed Theophoros, an Apostolic Father of theChurch, Bishop of Antioch; died a martyr at Rome about 115, by exposureto wild beasts, in the amphitheatre; is represented in Christian art asaccompanied by lions, or exposed to them chained; left epistles which, ifgenuine as we have them, establish prelacy as the order of government inthe primitive Church, and lay especial stress on the twofold nature ofChrist. 

IGNATIUS LOYOLA. See LOYOLA. 

IGNORANTINES, a Jesuit association in the Roman Catholic Churchfounded in 1724, who give instruction to poor children gratis, with theobject of winning them over to the Catholic faith. 

IHRE, JOHAN, a learned Swedish philologist, born at Lund, of Scotchdescent; was 40 years professor of Rhetoric and Political Economy atUpsala, and was the founder of Swedish philology (1707-1780). 

ILE DE FRANCE, the province of France of which Paris is the capital;was also formerly the name of Mauritius. 

ILE DU DIABLE, an island off the coast of French Guiana, whereCaptain Dreyfus was confined. 

ILFRACOMBE, a popular watering-place on the coast of N. Devon, inthe Bristol Channel; once a considerable place. 

ILIAD, the great epic poem of Homer, consisting of 24 books, thesubject of which is the "wrath of ACHILLES" (q. V. ), and theevents which followed during the last year of the ten years' Trojan War, so called from ILION, one of the names of Troy. See ILIUM. 

ILITHYIA, the Greek goddess who presided over the travail of womanat childbirth, promoting or retarding the birth as the Fates mightordain. 

ILIUM, TROY (q. V. ), so called from Ilus, the son of Tros, who founded the city. 

ILLINOIS (3, 826), an American State as large as England and Wales;has the Mississippi for its western, the Ohio for its southern boundary, with Wisconsin and Lake Michigan in the N. And Indiana on the E. ; fourthin population, seventeenth in area; "the Prairie State" is level, wellwatered, and extremely fertile; has a climate subject to extremes, but, except in the swamps, healthy. It produces enormous quantities of wheat, besides other cereals, of tobacco and temperate fruits. Flour-milling, pork-packing, and distilling are the chief industries. The most extensivecoal-deposits in America are in this State; with navigable rivers on itsborders, and traversing it Lake Michigan, a great canal, and the largestrailway system in the Union, it is admirably situated for commercialdevelopment; originally acquired by Britain from the French, who enteredit from Canada; it was ceded to the Americans in 1783, and admitted tothe Union 1818; the State spends $12, 000, 000 annually on education, whichis compulsory, and has a large and wealthy scientific and agriculturaluniversity at Urbana. Springfield (25) is the capital; but Chicago(1, 100) is the largest city. 

ILLUMINATED DOCTOR, a title bestowed on RAYMOND LULLY (q. V. ). 

ILLUMINATI, a class or fraternity of people who affect superiorenlightenment, particularly on religious and social matters, tending oflate in the one to Deism, and in the other to Republicanism, in Franceforming a body of materialists, and in Germany a body of idealists; theformer to the disparagement of ideas, and the latter to the disparagementof reason, and both hostile to the Church. 

ILLUMINATION, THE, the name given to the "advanced" thinking classwho pride themselves in their emancipation from all authority inspiritual matters, the assumption of which they regard as an outrage notonly against the right of private judgment, but the very constitution ofman, which, they argue, is violated when respect is not before all paidto individual conviction. See AUFKLÄRUNG. 

ILLYRIA, the name anciently given to a broad stretch of mountainouscountry of varying extent lying E. Of the Adriatic Sea. The Illyrianswere the last Balkan people to be civilised; becoming a Roman province 35B. C. , Illyria furnished several emperors, among them the notoriousDiocletian. Constantine extended the province to include all the countryS. Of the Danube; at the division of the empire, Greece and Macedoniawent to the East, the rest to the West; the name was revived by Napoleon, but has since been dropped. 

ILUS, a legendary king of Troy, the grandson of Dardanus, and thefounder of Ilium. 

IMAGE WORSHIP in the Christian Church is reverence, as distinct fromthe supreme adoration of the Deity, paid to the crucifix and to pictures, images, or statues of saints and martyrs, and understood really asoffered through these to the personages whom they represent. Thepractice, unknown in apostolic or sub-apostolic times, was prevalent inthe 4th century, provoked by its excesses a severe reaction in the 8thcentury, but carefully defined by the second Council of Nice (787), hascontinued since both in the Greek and Roman communion; there is stillcontroversy as to its propriety in the Anglican Church; the Lutheransstill use the crucifix freely, but other Protestant Churches haveentirely repudiated the practice. See ICONOCLASTS. 

IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS, a remarkable work by Landor, in 6 vols. , much appreciated by many. 

IMAGINATION, the name appropriate to the highest faculty of man, anddefined by Ruskin as "mental creation, " in the exercise of which thehuman being discharges his highest function as a responsible being, "thedefect of which on common minds it is the main use, " says Ruskin, "ofworks of fiction, and of the drama, as far as possible, to supply. "

IMÂM is the title of the officer who leads the devotions inMohammedan mosques, and in Turkey conducts marriage and funeral services, as well as performs the ceremonies connected with circumcision; theoffice was filled and the title borne by Mahomet, hence it sometimessignifies head of the faith, and is so applied to the Sultan of Turkey;good Mohammedans believe in the future advent of an Imâm--the hiddenImâm--who shall be greater than the Prophet himself. 

IMAUS, a name the ancients gave to any large mountain chain in Asia, more particularly one bordering on India, or looking down upon it, as thehome of the Aryans. 

IMITATION OF CHRIST, a book of pious reflections, unique in itskind, and much esteemed by piously thoughtful people; ascribed toTHOMAS À KEMPIS (q. V. ). 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, the doctrine held by the Roman CatholicChurch that the Virgin Mary was conceived and born without taint of sin;first distinctly propounded in the 12th century, at which time a festivalwas introduced in celebration of it, and which became matter of disputein the 14th century, and it was only in 1854 that it became by a bull anarticle of the Catholic faith. 

IMMANENCE, the idea that the creative intelligence which made, withthe regulative intelligence which governs, the universe, is inherent init and pervades it. 

IMMENSITIES, CENTRE OF, an expression of Carlyle's to signify thatwherever any one is, he is in touch with the whole universe of being, andis, if he knew it, as near the heart of it there as anywhere else he canbe. 

IMMENSITY, THE TEMPLE OF, the universe as felt to be in every cornerof it a temple consecrated to worship in with wonder and awe. 

IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT, German novelist and dramatist, born atMagdeburg; fought at Waterloo; entered the public service of Prussia andobtained an appointment at Düsseldorf, where he died; his fame rests uponhis miscellaneous tales and satirical novels, such as "Münchausen"; hisdramas consisted of both tragedies and comedies (1796-1840). 

IMMORTALITY, the doctrine of the continued existence of the soul ofeach individual after death, a doctrine the belief of which is, in oneform or another, common to most religious systems; even to those whichcontemplate absorption in the Deity as the final goal of existence, as isevident from the prevalence in them of the doctrine of transmigration orreincarnation. 

IMMORTALS, a regiment of 10, 000 foot soldiers who formed thebodyguard of the ancient Persian kings; the name given to the 40 membersof the French Academy. 

IMOGEN, the daughter of Cymbeline, in Shakespeare's play of thename, a perfect female character, pronounced "the most tender and themost artless of all Shakespeare's women. "

IMO`LA (12), a town in Italy, 10 m. N. Of Faenza, with some finepalaces; manufactures leather, glass, silk, &c. 

IMPANATION, a name employed to denote the union of the body ofChrist with the bread of the Eucharist. 

IMPENETRABILITY, the name given to that quality of matter wherebytwo bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time. 

IMPERATIVE, THE CATEGORICAL. See CATEGORICAL. 

IMPERIAL FEDERATION, name given to a scheme for uniting more closelytogether the several interests of the British Empire. 

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, South Kensington, founded by the exertions ofthe Prince of Wales in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, wasopened by her in 1893; was intended to include a complete collection ofthe products of the British Empire, a grand commercial intelligencebureau, and a school of modern Oriental languages; the government to becarried on by a chartered body, whose form of constitution was grantedby a royal warrant of date April 21, 1891; the idea is for the presentabandoned, and the premises appropriated as henceforth the seat of theLondon University. 

IMPERIALISM, the name given by English politicians to the policywhich aims at the consolidation into one empire of all the colonies anddependencies along with the mother-country. 

IMPETIGO, a cutaneous eruption, generally in clusters, ofyellow-scaled pustules, which grow thicker and larger; common amongchildren ill fed and ill cared for. 

IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH, Indian judge, born at Hammersmith; educated atCambridge, and called to the bar in 1756; was sent out to Bengal as firstChief-Justice in 1774; he supported Warren Hastings's administration, andpresided over the court which sentenced Nuncomar to death for forgery; inthe quarrel over Hastings's alleged resignation he decided in favour ofthe governor; was recalled and impeached for his conduct of the Nuncomartrial in 1783, but was honourably acquitted; resigning in 1789, he sat inParliament for New Romney till 1796 (1732-1809). 

IMPONDERABLES, the name given to light, heat, and electricity whenthey were supposed to be material substances, but without weight. 

IMPRESSIONISM, a term in painting that denotes the principle of anew school originating in France before 1870, and introduced into thiscountry some 10 years later; it is a revolt against traditionalism inart, and aims at reproducing on canvas not what the mind knows or byclose study observes is in nature, but the "impression" which eye andmind gather. The influence of the movement has been strong, and promisesto be lasting both here and in Germany, and not the least interestingwork of the kind has of late years issued from the "Glasgow School" andthe "London Impressionists. "

IMPRESSMENT, legalised enforcement of service in the British navy, which has for years been in abeyance, and is not likely to be ever againrevived. 

IMPROPRIATION, the transference of the revenues of a benefice to alayman or lay body to be devoted to spiritual uses. 

IMPUTATION, the theological dogma of the transference of guilt ormerit from one to another who is descended naturally or spiritually fromthe same stock as the former, as of Adam's guilt to us by nature orChrist's righteousness to us by faith; although in Scripture the termgenerally, if not always, denotes the reckoning to a man of the merit orthe demerit involved in, not another's doings, but his own, as in asingle act of faith or a single act of unbelief, the one viewed asallying him with all that is good, or as a proof of his essentialgoodness, and the other as allying him with all that is evil, or as aproof of his essential wickedness. 

IN CÆNA DOMINI (i. E. In the Supper of the Lord), a papal bullpromulgated in the Middle Ages, denouncing excommunication against allwho dispute the claims of the Church, and the promulgation of which wasfelt on all hands to be intolerable; the promulgation has beendiscontinued since 1773. 

INACHOS, in Greek legend the first king of Argos, son of Oceanus andTethys. 

IN-AND-IN, a term applied to the breeding of animals from the sameparentage. 

INCA, a king or royal prince of the ancient original people of Peru. 

INCANDESCENT LIGHT, or ELECTRIC LIGHT, a light produced by athin strip of a non-conducting body, such as carbon, in a vacuum raisedto intense heat by an electric current. 

INCARNATION, the humanisation of the Divine in the person of Christ, a doctrine vehemently opposed in the early times of the Church by bothJews and Gnostics, by the former as inconsistent with the greatness ofGod, and by the latter as inconsistent with the inbred depravity of man. 

INCENSE, a fragrance which arises from the burning of certain gumsand burnt in connection with sundry religious observances, particularlyin the Roman Catholic Church, as an expression of praise presumably wellpleasing to God; a practice which Protestants repudiate as withoutwarrant in Scripture. 

INCHBALD, ELIZABETH, actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter ofJohn Simpson, a Suffolk farmer; came to London at the age of 18, seekinga theatrical engagement; after some adventures she met Joseph Inchbald, an actor of no note, to whom she was married in 1772; shortly afterwardsshe made her _début_ as Cordelia at Bristol; after seven years in theprovinces and nine in London, during which she failed to rise high in herprofession, she turned to literature; she wrote and adapted many plays, but the works by which she is remembered are two novels, "A Simple Story"and "Nature and Art" (1753-1821). 

INCHCOLM, an island in the Firth of Forth, near Aberdour, on theFife coast, so called as the residence of St. Columba when engaged in theconversion of the Northern Picts; has the remains of an abbey founded byAlexander I. 

INCHKEITH, an island in the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife, 2½m. N. Of Leith, and about ½ m. Long, has a lighthouse with a revolvinglight, and fortifications to protect the Forth. 

INCITATUS, the horse of CALIGULA (q. V. ); had a house and aservant to itself, was fed from vessels of gold, admitted to thepriesthood, and created a consul of Rome. 

INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN, a celebrated ballad-singer with a finetenor voice, born in Cornwall (1763-1826). 

INCORRUPTIBLE, THE, ROBESPIERRE (q. V. ), a man not to beseduced to betray his principles or party. 

INCREMENT, UNEARNED, an expression denoting increase in the value oflanded property due to increased demand and without any expenditure onthe part of the proprietor. 

INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF, a declaration made July 4, 1776, bythe North American States declaring their independence of Great Britain. 

INDEPENDENCE, THE WAR OF, the name given to the struggle which theNorth American colonists maintained against the mother country. 

INDEPENDENCE DAY, a holiday observed throughout the United Statesannually on the 4th of July in celebration of the Declaration ofIndependence in 1776 that day. 

INDEPENDENTS or CONGREGATIONALISTS are a Protestant sectderiving both names from their principle of government; repudiating bothEpiscopacy and Presbyterianism, they hold that every congregation shouldmanage its own affairs, and elect its own officers independent of allauthority save that of Christ; they profess to derive all rules of faithand practice from the Scriptures, and are closely akin to Presbyteriansin doctrine. Numerous as early as Queen Elizabeth's time, they sufferedpersecution then; many fled or were banished to Holland, whence the_Mayflower_ conveyed the Pilgrim Fathers to New England in 1620. Regaining ascendency under Cromwell, they again suffered at theRestoration; but political disabilities then imposed have gradually beenremoved, and now they are the most vigorous Dissenting body in England. The congregations in the English Union (a union for common purposes andmutual help) number 4700, those in the Scottish Union 100. 

INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, a list of books issued by the Church of Rome, which, as hostile to her teaching, are placed under her ban, and areunder penalties forbidden to be read. The first list published was byPope Paul IV. In 1557, and in 1562 the Council of Trent appointed acommittee whose special business it should be to draw up a complete listof obnoxious writings, a work which it fell to Paul IV. To finish afterthe sittings of the Council came to a close in an index issued in 1564. 

INDIA (287, 223), British dependency, consisting of the greatpeninsula in the S. Of Asia, which has the Bay of Bengal on the E. Andthe Arabian Sea on the W. , and is separated from the mainland by theHindu-Kush and the Himalaya Mountains; politically the name includesbesides the Punjab in the N. And Burma in the E. ; the centre of thepeninsula is a great plateau called the Deccan, between which and thesnow-clad Himalaya stretch the great fertile basins of the Ganges, theThar Desert, and the arid wastes of the Indus Valley; great varieties ofclimate are of course met with, but the temperature is prevailingly high, and the monsoons of the Indian Ocean determine the regularity of therainy season, which occurs from June to October; the country generally isinsalubrious; the vegetation is correspondingly varied, but largelytropical; rice, cereal crops, sugar, and tobacco are generally grown;cotton in Bombay and the Central Provinces, opium in the Ganges Valley, jute in Eastern Bengal, and indigo in Behar; coffee and tea are raised byEuropeans in the hill country on virgin soil; the chief mineral depositsare extensive coal-fields between the Ganges and the Godavari, the mostvaluable salt deposits in the world in the Punjab, and deposits of iron, the purest found anywhere, in many parts of the country, which, however, are wrought only by native methods; native manufactures are being largelysuperseded by European methods, and the young cotton-weaving industryflourishes well; the country is well populated on the whole, with arelative scarcity of big towns; the people belong to many differentraces, and speak languages representing four distinct stocks; the vastbulk of them are Brahmanists or Hindus; there are many Mohammedans, Buddhists (in Burma), and Parsees (in Bombay); 2¼ millions areChristians, and there are other religions; India has been subject to manyconquests; the Aryan, Greek, and Mussulman invasions swept from the NW. ;the Portuguese obtained a footing on the SW. Coast in the 15th century;the victories of Plassey 1757, and Seringapatam 1799, established Britishrule throughout the whole peninsula, and the principle that nativeprinces where they retained their thrones were vassals; Sind was won in1843 and the Punjab in 1849, and the powers of the East India Companytransferred to the Queen in 1857, who was proclaimed Empress in 1877; thegovernment is vested in a governor-general aided by an executive and alegislative council, under control, however, of a Secretary of State forIndia and council at home; there are governors and lieutenant-governorsof the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and of the various provinces;native States are all attached to and subject to the supervision of thegovernment of a province; there is a native army of 146, 000 men, and74, 000 European troops are maintained in the country; British rule hasdeveloped the resources of the country, advanced its civilisation, andcontributed to the welfare of the people; Indian finance is not yetsatisfactory; the currency is based on silver, the steady depreciation ofwhich metal has never ceased to hamper the national funds. 

INDIA, (1) THE IMPERIAL ORDER OF THE CROWN OF, founded in 1878, includes the Queen and certain royal princes, English and Indian, femalerelatives of the Viceroy, of the governors of Bombay and Madras, andothers in high places in India; (2) THE MOST EXALTED ORDER OF THE STAROF, founded in 1861 and since enlarged, with the sovereign for headand the viceroy as grand-master, and three different grades of knights, designed severally G. C. S. I. , K. C. S. I, and C. S. I. , a blue ribbon withwhite stripes being the badge; and (3) THE MOST EMINENT ORDER OF THEEMPIRE OF, founded in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, with queen andempress at the head, and a knighthood similar to the preceding, theirmotto, "Imperatricis auspiciis. "

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, a service which, besides embracing theordinary departments of civil administration, includes judicial, medical, territorial, and even military staff appointments, appointments dependenton the possession of regulated, more or less academic, qualifications. 

INDIAN MUTINY, a wide-spread rebellion on the part chiefly of theSepoys against British authority in 1857, and which was suppressed by astrong force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858. 

INDIAN OCEAN is that stretch of sea between Africa on the W. AndAustralia, Java, and Sumatra on the E. , which separates in the N. Intothe Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the monsoons, or trade-winds, blowhere with great regularity; from April to October they are strong fromthe SW. , from October to April more gentle in the opposite direction;there are many islands and reefs of coral formation, such as the Maldivegroup; St. Paul's and Mauritius are volcanic, while Madagascar and Ceylonare typical continental islands. 

INDIAN TERRITORY (186), a stretch of country in the basin of theArkansas, Canadian, and Red Rivers, with Kansas on the N. , Arkansas onthe E. , Oklahoma Territory on the W. , and separated by the Red River fromTexas on the S. , set apart for the occupation of the Indian tribes of thewestern prairies; formerly double its present size, it has been reducedby the purchase in 1890 of Oklahoma. ; in the centre and east are fertileplains and great forests of walnut and maple, in which deer and bearsabound; the west is a treeless prairie supporting vast herds of cattle;mineral resources are probably rich, but are undeveloped; the principaltribes have their own organisations and civilised institutions, churches, schools, banks, and newspapers; the towns are small, Tahlequah, Lehigh, and M'Alister are the chief. 

INDIANA (2, 192), one of the smaller but most populous States of theAmerican Union, lies between Lake Michigan and the Ohio River, with Ohioon the E. And Illinois on the W. ; the climate is marked by extremes ofheat and cold; the country is somewhat hilly in the S. , is mostly level, well watered, and very fertile; agriculture is the chief industry, cereals, potatoes, and tobacco forming the chief crops; there is greatmineral wealth, with extensive and varied industries, embracing iron, glass, and textile manufactures, waggon-building, and furniture-making;petroleum wells are abundant, and in one part of the territory naturalgas is found in great quantities. First occupied by the French, Indianawas acquired by Britain in 1763, ceded to America 1783, and admitted tothe Union in 1816; education in the State university and schools is free;besides Indianapolis, the capital, the largest towns are Evansville (50), Fort Wayne (30), and Terre Haute (30). 

INDIANAPOLIS (169), capital of Indiana, on the White Ford River, inthe centre of the State; a fine city, with wide, tree-lined streets, large iron, brass, and textile manufactures, and canned-meat industry; isa great railroad centre. 

INDIANS, AMERICAN, the aborigines of America, and now graduallydying out; these aborigines were called Indians by Columbus, because whenhe discovered America he thought it was India. See AMERICAN INDIANS. 

INDIA-RUBBER, CAOUTCHOUC, or GUM ELASTIC, is a product of themilky juices of several tropical and sub-tropical plants found in theWest Indies, Central and South America, West Africa, and India; there isevidence that its properties were partially known to the Spaniards in theWest Indies early in the 17th century; but its first introduction to thiscountry was about 1770, when it was employed by artists for erasingblack-lead pencil marks, hence its familiar name; it is collected bymaking incisions in the tree trunk and gathering the slowly exudingjuice, which is first solidified by drying, then purified by boiling andwashing; it is flexible and elastic, insoluble in water, and impenetrableto gases and fluids, and these qualities give it great commercialimportance; the use of pure rubber has been greatly superseded by that of"vulcanised" rubber; mixed with from 1/40 to ½ of its weight of sulphurand combined by heat, the rubber acquires greater elasticity, is nothardened by cold or rendered viscid by heat, and is insoluble in many ofthe solvents of pure rubber; its usefulness is thus largely increased andgreatly extended of late; the demand for rubber is in excess of thesupply, but no substitute has been found effective; in recent years carehas been bestowed on its economical collection and on its scientificculture. 

INDICTION, a cycle of 15 years instituted by Constantine the Great, and which began on the 24th September 812, the day of his victory overMaxentius; to find the indiction of any year add 1 and divide by 15. 

INDIUM, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and firstdiscovered in zinc-blende in 1863. 

INDIVIDUALISM, the name given to a social system which has respectto the rights of the individual as sovereign, and is strictly opposed toSocialism. 

INDO-CHINA, called also the Eastern Peninsula or Farther India, thename given to the large peninsular territory which lies between the Bayof Bengal and the Chinese Sea, lying almost wholly within the TorridZone, and embracing the empires of Burma and Annam and the kingdom ofCambodia and Siam, as well as territories under Britain and France, allnow mostly divided between the latter two and Siam; it is sparselypeopled owing to its mountainous character and the swampy lands, and thenatives are mainly of the Mongolian type. 

INDO-EUROPEAN, an epithet applied to a family of the human race withthe languages of its several members descended from the Aryans, and founddispersed over an area including the better part of India and Europe. 

INDO-GERMANIC, a term at one time employed especially among Germanwriters, synonymous with Aryan. 

INDORE, 1, a native principality (1, 094), in Central India, somewhatlarger than Wales, embraces the Vindbya and Satpura Mountains, and istraversed by the Nerbudda River; there are great forests on themountains; the valley of the river is fertile; wheat, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and large quantities of opium are raised; the climate is sultry, and at certain seasons unhealthy; the natives are chiefly MahrattaHindus; among the hills are Bhils and Gonds, the wildest tribes of India;the State is governed by a Maharajah styled Holkar, under supervision ofan agent of the Governor-General; education is progressing. INDORE, 2, on the Kuthi River, the capital (92), is a poor city of brick and mud;the palace and the British residency, however, are fine buildings; it isconnected by rail with Bombay, distant 400 m. SW. , and with Ajmere; itwas the scene of a British massacre in 1857. 

INDRA, the king of heaven and national god of the Aryans; givesvictory to his people, and is always ready to aid them; he ispre-eminently a warlike god, and as he stands on his war-chariot, drawnby five fawn-coloured horses, he is in a sort the type of an Aryanchieftain; he is sometimes assisted by other gods, but he more frequentlyfights alone; he is the dispenser, moreover, of all good gifts, and theauthor and preserver of all living; his power extends over the heavens, and he holds the earth in the hollow of his hand. 

INDUCTION, the name given to the logical process by which from astudy of particular instances we arrive at a general principle or law. The term is also applied to an electric or magnetic effect producedwithout direct contact and equal to the cause, being essentially itsreproduction. 

INDULGENCE, remission by Church authority of the guilt of a sin onthe penitent confession of the sinner to a priest, which, according toRoman Catholic theology, the Church is enabled to dispense out of theinexhaustible treasury in reserve of the merits of Christ. 

INDUS, a great river of India, 1800 m. Long; rises in Thibet, on theN. Of the Himalayas, flows NW. Through Cashmere, then SW. Through thePunjab and Sind to the sea; its upper course is through great gorges andvery rapid, but after the entrance of the Kabul River its way liesthrough arid plains, and it is navigable; after receiving the Panjnad itsvolume decreases through evaporation and the sinking of some of the manystreams into which it divides in the sand; on one of the branches of thedelta stands the thriving port of Kurrachee. 

INERTIA, that property of bodies by which they remain in a state ofrest or of motion in a straight line till disturbed by a force movingthem in the one case or arresting them in the other. 

INEZ DE CASTRO. See CASTRO. 

INFALLIBILITY, freedom from all error in the past and from allpossibility of error in the future as claimed by the Church of Rome. Thisclaim extends to all matters of faith, morals, and discipline in theChurch, and is based on an interpretation of Matt. Xvi. 18, xxviii. 19;Eph. Iv. 11-16, and other passages. It is held that the Church isincapable of embracing any false doctrine from whatever quartersuggested, and that she is guided by the Divine Spirit in activelyopposing heresy, in teaching all necessary truth, and in deciding allrelative matters of controversy. Infallibility is not claimed inconnection with matters of fact, science, or general opinion. The seat ofinfallibility has been much disputed even in the Roman Catholic Churchitself, and the infallibility of the Pope was only decreed so recently asthe Vatican Council in 1870. It was always agreed that where the Pope andBishops were unanimous they were infallible, and their unanimity might beexpressed either in a general council, or in a decree of a local counciltacitly accepted by the Pope and the rest of the Church, or even in adecree of the Pope alone if the bishops either expressly or tacitlyaffirmed it. But the Vatican Council decided "that when the Roman Pontiffspeaks _ex cathedrâ_--that is, when he, using his office as pastor anddoctor of all Christians, in virtue of his apostolic office, defines adoctrine of faith and morals to be held by the whole Church--he by theDivine assistance, promised to him by the blessed Peter, possesses thatinfallibility with which the Divine Redeemer was pleased to invest HisChurch in the definition of doctrine in faith or morals, and thattherefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in theirown nature and not because of the consent of the Church. " The GreekChurch puts forward a moderate claim to _inerrancy_, holding that as amatter of fact those councils which she regards as oecumenical have noterred in their decrees affecting faith and morals. 

INFANTE, INFANTA, the titles given respectively to the royal princesand princesses of Spain and Portugal. 

INFERI, the name given by the Latins to the nether world and thegods of it. 

INFERNO, the hell of Dante, represented as included in nine circles, of which the first six, constituting the uppermost hell, are occupied bythose who cannot govern themselves yet have no mind to harm any one else, of which the seventh, constituting the mid-hell, is occupied by those whocannot govern their thoughts, and of which the eighth and ninth, constituting the nether hell, are occupied by those who have wilfullydone harm to other people, those in the eighth in hot blood and those inthe ninth or lowest in cold blood, the former in passion and the latterwithout passion, far down _below_ the freezing-point. See Ruskin's "ForsClavigera, " more fully, and by way of authority for this. 

INFLECTION, the name given to the changes in the end of words toindicate relations, not so common in English--being usually expressedamong us by prepositions--as in Latin, Greek, and other languages, butoccurring in English as king's, mine, ours, to indicate possession;inflection in nouns is called declension, and in verbs conjugation. 

INFLUENZA, an epidemic disease, closely resembles, but is quitedistinct from, cold in the head. It is characterised by early and markeddebility and depression; though usually of short duration, attacks mustnot be disregarded; fatal results often ensue on carelessness. Convalescence is slow, and complications may ensue. The cause of themalady is obscure; sporadic cases always occur, but from time to timegreat epidemics of this disease have travelled westward over the world. Their movement seems to depend on atmospheric conditions, but isindependent of the season of the year and often contrary to the directionof the wind. Visitations occurred in Britain in 1837-38, 1847-48, and1889-91. 

INFRALAPSARIANS, those Calvinists who believe that election andpredestination are subsequent to the Fall, while the Supralapsariansbelieve that these ordinations are as old as eternity. 

INFUSORIA, a name given to certain classes of animalculæ engenderedin stagnant water infused with decaying organic matter. 

INGELOW, JEAN, poetess and novelist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, died at Kensington; her earliest work appeared anonymously, but a volumeof verses under her name was successful in 1863; her poetry is chieflyreligious and devotional; later she wrote for children; subsequently sheturned to novels, and produced besides several others "Off the Skelligs"in 1872; she will be remembered for her ballad "High Tide on the Coast ofLincolnshire, " and a song "Supper at the Mill" (1820-1897). 

INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN, a Danish poet and novelist; in thelatter regard took Scott for his model, his subjects being historical;was a man of varied literary ability (1789-1862). 

INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD, Shakespearian scholar, born nearBirmingham, passed from Cambridge, where he graduated in 1847, topractise as a solicitor, but abandoned law for literature in 1859; hisearly works were of a philosophical nature, but he is best known as theauthor of a long series of works on Shakespearian subjects, of which "TheShakespeare Fabrications" was the first and "Shakespeare: the Man and theBook" the chief; he was a Vice-President of the Royal Society ofLiterature (1823-1886). 

INGLESANT, JOHN, a celebrated romance by J. H. Shorthouse. 

INGLIS, SIR JAMES, a Fifeshire gentleman, who in the reign of JamesIV. Distinguished himself against the English and was knighted; author of"Complaint of Scotland"; _d_. 1554. 

INGLIS, SIR JOHN, English general; entered the army at 19, served inCanada in 1837; was sent to India, and distinguished himself in thePunjab in 1848; at the outbreak of the Mutiny was stationed at Lucknow, where he heroically defended the residency for 87 days till the relief ofthe city by Havelock and Outram (1814-1862). 

INGLIS, SIR ROBERT HARRY, Conservative statesman, opposed everyLiberal measure of the period, from that of Catholic Emancipation to theAbolition of the Corn Laws (1786-1855). 

INGOLDSBY, THOMAS, the pseudonym of REV. RICHARD BARHAM (q. V. ), author of "Ingoldsby Legends, " a collection of humorous tales inverse. 

INGOLSTADT (16), a Bavarian town and fortress on the Danube, 50 m. N. Of Münich, has many ancient associations; once the seat of auniversity; its manufactures now are beer, cannon, gunpowder; salt ismined in the vicinity. 

INGRAHAM, JOSEPH HOLT, author of "The Prince of the House of David, "born at Portland, Maine; after some years spent at sea, became a teacherof languages in Mississippi, and was ordained Episcopal clergyman in1855; prior to his ordination he wrote stories of adventure, "CaptainKyd, " &c. , but subsequently confined himself to biblical subjects(1809-1860). 

INGRES, JEAN DOMINIQUE AUGUSTE, a great French painter, born atMontauban; studied in Paris; in 1806 went to Rome, and 14 years after toFlorence, but became professor of Fine Arts at the Academy in Paris in1824; wounded by hostile criticisms he left Paris for Rome again in 1834, where he became Director of the French Academy in Rome; in 1841 hereturned to Paris, where he died; he followed his master David in hischoice of classical subjects, but his work met with varied reception, nowfavourable, now the reverse; the "Portrait of Cherubini, " and otherpictures, however, won for him great admiration in his later days; he wasmade a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (1781-1867). 

INGULPH, abbot of Croyland, long credited with the authorship of ahistory of the monastery, which has since been proved to be a fabricationof a later date, of probably the 13th or 14th century; he was appointedabbot in 1080; _d_. 1109. 

INKERMANN, a small Tartar village E. Of Sebastopol harbour; thescene of a battle between the Russians and allied forces, to the defeatof the former after a prolonged struggle on 5th November 1854. 

INNER TEMPLE. See INNS OF COURT. 

INNES, COSMO, lawyer and antiquary, born at Durris, of an old Scotchfamily; professor of History in Edinburgh University; author of "Scotlandin the Middle Ages, " "Lectures on Scotch Legal Antiquities, " and"Sketches of Early Scotch History" (1798-1874). 

INNES, THOMAS (FATHER INNES) Scotch historian, born inAberdeenshire, educated at Paris; became a priest in 1692; after threeyears' service in Banffshire he returned to Paris, where he held ascholastic appointment till his death; in politics a Jacobite, inreligious matters he had leanings to the Jansenist heresy; a diligentstudent of Scottish history, he produced the earliest scientificScoto-historical works; his "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants ofScotland" and "Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland"(unfinished), display honesty and penetration (1662-1744). 

INNISFAIL, an ancient name of Ireland. 

INNOCENT, the name of 13 popes: INNOCENT I. , Pope from 402 to417; INNOCENT II. , pope from 1130 to 1143; INNOCENT III. , Popefrom 1198 to 1216; INNOCENT IV. , Pope from 1243 to 1254; INNOCENTV. , Pope in 1276; INNOCENT VI. , Pope from 1352 to 1362, residedat Avignon; INNOCENT VII. , Pope from 1404 to 1406; INNOCENTVIII. , Pope from 1484 to 1492; INNOCENT IX. , Pope in 1591;INNOCENT X. , Pope from 1644 to 1655, condemned Jansenism; INNOCENTXI. , Pope from 1676 to 1689; INNOCENT XII. , Pope from 1691 to1700; INNOCENT XIII. , Pope from 1721 to 1724; of these there weretwo of note. 

INNOCENT III. , the greatest of the name, born in Arragon; succeededCelestine III. ; extended the territorial power of the Church, and madenearly all Christendom subject to its sway; essayed the recovery ofPalestine, and promoted a crusade against the Albigenses; excommunicatedOtto IV. , emperor of Germany; put England under an interdict, and deposedKing John; was zealous for the purity as well as supremacy of the Church, and countenanced every movement that contributed to enhance its influenceand stereotype its beliefs as well as its forms of worship, transubstantiation among the one and auricular confession among theother; though harsh, and even cruel, to those whom he conceived to be theenemies of the faith, he was personally a man of blameless life, and didmuch to reform the morals of the clergy. 

INNOCENT XI. , succeeded Clement X. , is celebrated for his contestwith Louis XIV. , and as giving occasion thereby to a protest of theGallican clergy, and a declaration on their part of what is known as theGALLICAN LIBERTIES (q. V. ), and for a further contest he hadwith Louis in regard to certain immunities claimed, to the scandal of theChurch, by foreign ambassadors residing in Rome, an interference whichLouis resented on behalf of his representatives among them, but, as ithappened in vain. 

INNOCENTS, THE HOLY, FEAST OF, a festival celebrated in the WesternChurch on the 28th December and in the Eastern on the 29th, tocommemorate the slaughter by Herod of the children at Bethlehem from twoyears old and under, and who have from the earliest times been includedamong the holy martyrs of the Church. 

INNS OF COURT, are four voluntary societies--Lincoln's Inn, theInner and the Middle Temple, and Gray's Inn--with whom rests theexclusive right to call men to the English bar; they provide lectures andhold examinations in law, and they have discretionary powers to refuseadmission to the bar or to expel and disqualify persons of unsuitablecharacter from it; each Inn possesses considerable property, a dininghall, library, and chapel, and is subject to the jurisdiction of anirresponsible, self-elective body of Benchers, who are usually judges orsenior counsel; these societies originated in the 13th century, when thepractice of law passed out of the hands of the clergy. 

INNSBRUCK (23), on the Inn, at the head of the Brenner Pass, 100 m. S. Of Münich; is the capital of the Austrian Tyrol, an ancient andbeautiful town, rich in art treasures, with a university and manufacturesof woollen cloth, glass ware, and stained glass. 

INO, the daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, the wife of Athamas, kingof Thebes, who was changed into a sea-deity as she fled for refuge fromher husband, who had gone raving mad and sought her life. 

INOCULATION is the introduction of disease germs into the system, usually by puncture of the skin or hypodermic injection; many diseases sointroduced assume a mild form, and render the subject not liable to thesevere form. Inoculation for smallpox, the virus being taken from actualsmallpox pustules, was practised by the ancient Brahmans and by theChinese 600 years before Christ, and its practice continued in the East. It was introduced to this country from Turkey in 1717, and extensivelypractised until superseded by Jenner's discovery of vaccination at theend of the century, and finally prohibited by law in 1840. Inoculationhas been found successful in the prevention of other diseases, notablyanthrax, hydrophobia, and recently malaria. 

INQUISITION, an ecclesiastical tribunal established in 1248 underPope Innocent IV. , and set up successively in Italy, Spain, Germany, andthe S. Of France, for the trial and punishment of heretics, of which thatestablished in Spain achieved the greatest notoriety from the number ofvictims it sacrificed, and the remorseless tortures to which they weresubjected, both when under examination to extort confession and afterconviction. The rigour of its action began to abate in the 17th century, but it was not till 1835, after frequent attempts to limit its power andsuppress it, that it was abolished in Spain. Napoleon suppressed it inFrance in 1808, and after an attempted revival from 1814 to 1820, itsoperations there came to an end. ST. DOMINIC (q. V. ) has thecredit of having invented the institution by the zeal which animated himfor the orthodoxy of the Church. 

INSANITY. See INSPIRATION. 

INSPIRATION, an earnest, divinely-awakened, soul-subduing sense andperception of the presence of the invisible in the visible, of theinfinite in the finite, of the ideal in the real, of the divine in thehuman, and, in ecstatic moments, of very God in man, accompanied with aburning desire to impart to others the vision revealed; distinguished as"seraphic" from insanity as "demonic" by this, that the inspired man seesan invisible which is there, and the insane an invisible which is _not_there, states of mind so like otherwise that the one may be, and oftenis, mistaken for the other, the inspired man taken for an insane, and theinsane man for an inspired. 

INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. According to one view the Scripturesare throughout verbally inspired, and every word in them dictated by theSpirit of God; according to another, though they are not verballyinspired, they contain a record of divine things written under divineinspiration; according to a third, though not written under divineinspiration in any part, they contain a faithful record of a divinerevelation; and according to a fourth, they contain a record merely ofwhat a succession of God-fearing men in sympathy with each other andtheir race saw and felt to be the clear purpose of God in His providenceof the world. 

INSPIRED IDIOT, Horace Walpole's name for Oliver Goldsmith. 

INSTITUTE OF FRANCE was established by the Directory in 1795, totake the place of the four academies suppressed by the Convention twoyears previously. In 1816 Louis XVIII. Gave back the old names to itsfour sections, viz. _L'Académie Française, L'Académie des Inscriptions etBelles-lettres, L'Académie des Sciences_, and _L'Académie des BeauxArts_. In 1832 was added _L'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques_. Each academy has its own separate organisation and work, and participatesbesides in the advantages of the common library, archives, and funds. Election, which is in every case subject to government confirmation, isby ballot, and every member receives an annual salary of at least 1500francs. Government votes a sum of money annually to the Institute. Members of the French Academy have special duties and privileges, and insome cases special remuneration. They allot every year prizes foreloquence and poetry; a prize "to the poor Frenchman who has done themost virtuous action throughout the year, " and one to the Frenchman "whohas written and published the book most conducive to good morals. "Membership in the Académie Française is strictly limited to 40 Frenchmen. The others have, besides, from 40 to 70 members each, also Associate, foreign and corresponding, members. The Institute centralises the pursuitof all branches of knowledge and art, and has been the model of similarnational institutes in Madrid, Lisbon, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg. 

INSTITUTES OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, a celebrated work of Calvin's, in exposition of the doctrines of the French Protestants, hence calledCalvinists in France. See CALVIN. 

INTAGLIO, name given to a gem with a design incised in the surface. 

INTELLECT, the faculty of clear and decisive intelligence, or ofinstant and sure perception. 

INTERLAKEN (2), a small town, a pretty place, on the Aar, inSwitzerland, "between the lakes" Thun and Brienz; it is near to some ofthe finest Swiss scenery, and is a famous health resort, and visitedannually by 25, 000 tourists. 

INTERNATIONAL, THE, a secret socialistic organisation, the outcomeof the teaching of Karl Marx, which, though it has changed its name, haswide-spread ramifications throughout Europe, the object of which appearsto be the emancipation of labour, and the assertion everywhere of thesovereign rights of the working-man, to the extinction of all merelynational and class interests. 

INTUITION, a name given to _immediate_ knowledge, as distinct from_mediate_ or inferential knowledge, and which is matter of consciousnessor direct perception. 

INTUS-SUSCEPTION, a displacement of the bowel, in which a higherportion becomes folded or telescoped into a lower; is a frequent cause ofobstruction, and a serious, though not always fatal, condition; the termis also applied to the process by which nutriment is absorbed and becomespart of the system. 

INVALIDES, HÔTEL DES, an institution in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. In 1674, for retired court servants and invalided soldiers; the church, the nave of which is adorned with military trophies, is surmounted by amajestic dome, under which the remains of Napoleon were deposited in1840. 

INVERARAY, county town of Argyllshire, on the NW. Shore of LochFyne, close to which is the castle, the residence of the Duke of Argyll. 

INVERNESS (21), county town of Inverness-shire and capital of theNorthern Highlands, is situated on the Ness, near the Moray Firth, amidpicturesque surroundings, is rich in interesting memories; has severalpublic institutions, several manufactures, and a considerable trade; theinhabitants are distinguished for the purity of their English. 

INVERNESS-SHIRE (90), the largest county in Scotland, stretches fromthe Moray Firth to the Atlantic, and includes many islands, Skye, theOuter Hebrides (except Lewis), and others; it embraces a large part ofthe Highlands, is very mountainous, has many glens and lochs, but littlefertile land; there are large deer forests, grouse moors, and sheep runs;Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles (4406 ft. ), is inthis county. 

INVISIBLE, THE, He who or that which cannot be seen, felt, handled, or even conceived of, and yet who or which _is_, and _alone is_, as noone, as nothing else can be. 

IO, in the Greek mythology a daughter of INACHOS (q. V. ), beloved by Zeus, whom Hera out of jealousy changed into a heifer and setthe hundred-eyed Argus to watch, but when Zeus had by Hermes slain thewatcher, Hera sent a gadfly to goad over the world, over which she rangeddistractedly till she reached Egypt, where Osiris married her, and was inconnection with him worshipped as Isis. 

IODINE, a non-metallic element originally obtained from kelp, butnow found in South America in combination with sodium, used largely bothfree and in combination in medicine and surgery, in photography, and inmaking aniline dyes. 

IODOFORM, a crystalline substance similar to chloroform incomposition, only in it iodine takes the place of chlorine; it is used insurgery as an antiseptic. 

IOLCUS, a town in Thessaly, the port from which the Argonauts sailedin quest of the Golden Fleece. 

ION, in the Greek mythology son of Apollo by Creusa, and exposed byher in the cave where she bore him, but who was conveyed by the god toDelphi and educated by a priestess, and was afterwards owned by hismother, and became the ancestor of the Ionians, her husband, Xuthus, being kept throughout in the dark. 

IONA, a fertile little island 1½ m. W. Of Mull, where St. Columbalanded from Ireland A. D. 563, and built a monastery which was forcenturies the centre of ecclesiastical life and missionary enterpriseamong the Scots of Scotland and Ireland and the Angles of the N. OfEngland. It is 3½ m. Long and 1½ broad. 

IONIA, ancient name of the western districts of Asia Minor betweenthe Hermus and the Mæander, with adjacent islands; was colonised byGreeks 1050 B. C. , and its chief cities, including Miletus, Ephesus, Samos, Chios, and later Smyrna, formed the Ionian League; the Ionianswere noted for wealth, art, and luxury; coming under Persian yoke in 557B. C. They deserted to Greece 479 B. C. , in the great war, and becameagain independent; from 387 B. C. They were again under Persia tillAlexander the Great took them and merged their history in that of thesurrounding peoples. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (250), a chain of forty mountainous islands lying offthe W. Coast of Greece, the largest being Corfu (78), Santa Maura (25), Cephalonia (80), and Zante (44). The climate is good, and there is muchfertile soil in the valleys except in Cephalonia; corn, grapes, andcurrants are grown; sulphur and coal are found in Corfu; their historyhas been very chequered; after belonging at different times to Venice, France and Turkey, they were seized by Britain and constituted adependency in 1815; never satisfied with British rule, they were a sourceof constant friction which Mr. Gladstone's mission in 1858 wasinsufficient to allay, and were handed over to Greece in 1863. 

IONIC ORDER, an order of Grecian architecture, characterised by thevolute of its capital in the form of a ram's horn, and in which thecornice is dentated, the shaft fluted, and the entablature plain orembellished. 

IONIC SCHOOL, the name of the earliest of the schools of philosophyin Greece, the prominent members of which were natives of Ionia, one andall of whom traced the beginning or basis of things back to the action ofsome physical agent, such as water, air, fire, &c. , and among whom arereckoned such men as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus. 

IOWA (1, 754), one of the United States, on the right bank of theMississippi River, with Minnesota to the N. And Missouri to the S. , andthe Missouri River on its western border; is well watered, very fertile, and, though liable to extremes of temperature, very healthy; agricultureflourishes, the country being an undulating plain and most of the soilbeing arable; cereals and root crops are raised, cattle fed; there arepoultry and dairy farms; coal, gypsum, and lead are mined; manufacturesinclude mill products, canned meats, and agricultural implements; generaleducation in the State is advanced, State policy in this respect beingliberal; Iowa was admitted to the Union, 1846; Des Moines (32) is thecapital; Iowa (7) is the seat of the State University and of someflour-mills and factories. 

IPHICRATES, a famous Athenian general, the son of a shoemaker, celebrated throughout Greece for his defeat of the Spartans in 392, aswell as for other great military exploits, for which he was rewarded byhis countrymen with almost unprecedented honours; _d_. 348 B. C. 

IPHIGENIA, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra; her fatherhaving killed a favourite deer belonging to Artemis in Aulis as he wassetting out for Troy, the goddess was offended, and CALCHAS (q. V. ), when consulted, told him she could only be appeased by thesacrifice of his daughter; this he proceeded to do, but as he waspreparing to offer her up the goddess descended in a cloud, carried heroff to Tauris, and made her a priestess in her temple. The story has beendramatised by Euripides, Racine, and Geothe. 

IPSUS, a small town in Phrygia, the scene of a great contest betweenthe generals of Alexander for succession to the empire. 

IPSWICH (57), a town in Suffolk, on the Orwell, 12 m. From the sea;is an old town, and has a number of interesting, as well as someold-fashioned, buildings; is well provided with churches and educationalestablishments, and was the birthplace of Cardinal Wolsey; manufacturesagricultural implements, and exports besides these leather, oil, coke andagricultural produce. 

IQUIQUE (16), important seaport in the N. Of Chili; exportsnitrates, iodine, and silver. 

IRAK-ARABI, ancient Babylonia watered by the Euphrates and theTigris. 

IRAN, the ancient name or plateau of Asia, extending N. And S. Between the Hindu Kush and the Persian Gulf, and E. And W. Between theIndus and Kurdistan; inhabited by the Aryans; is the official name forPersia. 

IRANIANS, the inhabitants of Iran, a people constituting animportant branch of the Indo-European family, including the Persians, Medes, &c. 

IRAWADI, a river, navigable throughout its whole course, formed bythe union of two streams from the mountains of Thibet; flows S. ThroughBurma 700 miles, passing Mandalay, and falling into the Bay of Bengal ina delta, on one branch of which stands Rangoon. 

IRELAND (5, 175), an island rather more than half the size of andlying to the west of England and Wales, from which it is divided by theNorth Channel (13 m. Wide), the Irish Sea (140 m. ), and the St. George'sChannel (50 m. ). It consists of a large undulating plain in the centre, containing extensive bogs, several large loughs--Neagh, the Erne, Allen, Derg, drained by the rivers Shannon, Barrow, Liffey, and Boyne, andsurrounded on almost all sides by maritime highlands, of which those onthe SW. , NW. , and E. Are the highest. The N. And W. Coasts are rugged andmuch indented. The climate is milder, more equable, and somewhat morerainy than that of England; but the cereal and green crops are the same. Flax is grown in the N. The tendency is to revert to pasturage however, agriculture being generally in a backward state. Unfavourable land-laws, small holdings, and want of capital have told heavily against the Irishpeasantry. Fisheries are declining. The chief manufacture is linen inBelfast and other Ulster towns. Irish exports consist of dairy produce, cattle, and linen, and are chiefly to Great Britain. Primary education islargely supported by government grants; there are many excellent schoolsand colleges; the chief universities are Dublin and the Royal (anexamining body only). In Ulster the Protestants slightly outnumber theRoman Catholics, in all other parts the Roman Catholics are in a vastmajority. Ireland was occupied by Iberian peoples in prehistoric times;these were conquered and absorbed by Celtic tribes; many kingdoms wereset up, and strife and confusion prevailed. There was Christianity in theisland before St. Patrick crossed from Strathclyde in the 5th century. Invasions by Danes, 8th to 10th centuries, and conquest by Normans underHenry II. 1162-1172, fomented the national disquiet. Under Tudor andStuart rule the history of the country is a long story of faction andfeud among the chiefs and nobles, of rebellions, expeditions, massacres, and confiscations. Sympathy with the Stuarts brought on it the scourge ofCromwell (1649) and the invasion by William III. Thereafter the penallaws excluded Roman Catholics from Parliament. The union of the Irishwith the British Parliament took place in 1801. Catholic disabilitieswere removed 1829. An agitation for the repeal of the Union was begun in1842 by Daniel O'Connell, and carried on by the Fenian movement of 1867and the Home Rule movement led by Charles Parnell. A Home Rule bill waslost in the Commons in 1886, and another in the Lords in 1893. The Churchof Ireland (Protestant Episcopal) was disestablished in 1871. Since theUnion the executive has been in the hands of a lord-lieutenant, secretary, and council appointed by the Crown. Ireland is far behindGreat Britain in wealth, and its population has been steadily declining. 

IRELAND, SAMUEL WILLIAM HENRY, a notorious forger of Shakespearianrelics, born in London, son of a dealer in old books and prints; imposedon his father and a number of lovers of the antique, till he was exposedby Malone; he published a confession of his forgeries, and died inobscurity and poverty (1777-1835). 

IRENÆUS, one of the Fathers of the Church; was bishop of Lyons, andsuffered martyrdom about 202; had been a disciple of Polycarp; wroteagainst the Gnostics in a work in Greek, which all to a few fragments inLatin is lost. 

IRE`NE, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the Greek goddess of peace;she was an object of worship both in Athens and Rome, is represented asholding in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her right hand an olivebranch. 

IRENE, empress of Constantinople, born in Athens, a poor orphangirl, famous for her beauty, her talents, and her crimes; was banished toLesbos, where she maintained herself by spinning; has been canonised bythe Greek Church for her zeal in image worship (752-803). 

IRETON, HENRY, born at Altenborough, Notts; graduated at Cambridge1629, and studied law; on outbreak of Civil War he joined theParliamentarian party, and marrying Cromwell's daughter acquired greatinfluence; took a leading part in the prosecution of the king, was one ofhis judges, and signed the warrant for his execution; kept by Cromwell inIreland in 1650, he proved a stern deputy, and died of the plague beforeLimerick; he was a man of great vigour of character, whose zeal forjustice made him almost cruel (1611-1651). 

IRIDIUM, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and found inthe ores of platinum. 

IRIS, the daughter of Thaumus (i. E. Wonder) and of the oceannymph Electra (i. E. Splendour); was the goddess of the rainbow, and assuch the messenger of the gods, particularly of Zeus and Hera, theappearance of the rainbow being regarded as a sign that communications ofgood omen were passing between heaven and earth, as it was to Noah thatthey would continue to be kept up; she is represented as dressed in along wide tunic, over which hangs a light upper garment, and with goldenwings on her shoulders. 

IRKUTSK (421), a central Siberian province, separated from China bythe Sayan Mountains; it has Lake Baikal on the E. , Yenisei and Yakutsk onthe W. And N. ; a rich pastoral country, watered by the navigable riversAngara and the Lena, agriculture, cattle rearing are prosperousindustries; there are gold, iron, and salt mines; one-third of thepopulation are forced colonists; the capital, Irkutsk (45), is the seatof government for Eastern Siberia, an ecclesiastical centre, and thechief emporium of commerce; it is the finest city in Siberia. 

IRMIN, a Teutonic tribal deity; was honoured by wooden pillars withhis image on the top, greatly reverenced by the people; the constellation"The Plough" was known as "Irmin's Chariot. "

IRON AGE, the last of the three stages, stone, bronze, iron, whichmark the prehistoric development of most now civilised peoples; these, ofcourse, occurred at different periods, and were of different duration indifferent cases; they are named from the material employed in makingcutting instruments and weapons; the forms of instruments are freer thanin the bronze period, and rectilineal gives places to free curvilinealdecoration; this age is marked, too, by the introduction of writing andthe beginning of literary and historic records. See AGES. 

IRON CITY, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, from its numerous iron-works. 

IRON CROWN, the crown of the ancient Lombard kings, a golden circletstudded with jewels, and so called as enclosing a ring of iron said tohave been one of the nails of the cross, beaten out; Napoleon had itbrought from Monza, and crowned himself with it as king of Italy. It isnow in Vienna. 

IRON DUKE, Duke of Wellington, from his iron will, it is surmised. 

IRON GATE, the name given to dangerous rapids in the Danube atOrsova, as it issues out of Hungary. 

IRON HAND, GOETZ VON BERLICHINGEN (q. V. ). 

IRON MASK, MAN WITH THE, a prisoner who in the reign of Louis XIV. Wore, when he was transferred from prison to prison, what seemed an ironmask to prevent any one discovering and revealing his identity, overwhich to this day there hangs an impenetrable veil; he is reported tohave been young and of noble form, and the conclusion is that he was aman of distinction. 

IRONCLADS were originally wooden vessels protected by iron plates;they were used at the siege of Gibraltar in 1782; the French had them inthe Crimean War, and in 1858 built four iron-plated line-of-battle ships;in 1860 England built the _Warrior_, an iron steam battleship with4½-inch plates; since then new types have succeeded each other veryquickly; the modern ironclad is built of steel and armed with steelplates sometimes 2 feet thick; the term is now loosely applied to allarmoured vessels, whether battleships, or cruisers, or gunboats, andwhether of iron or steel. 

IRONSIDES, Cromwell's troopers, a thousand strong, and raised by himin the Eastern counties of England, so called at first from theinvincibility displayed by them at Marston Moor; were selected byCromwell "as men, " he says, "that had the fear of God before them, andmade conscience of what they did. .. . They were never beaten, " he adds, "and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beatcontinually. "

IRONY is a subtle figure of speech in which, while one thing issaid, some indication serves to show that quite the opposite is meant;thus apparent praise becomes severe condemnation or ridicule; practicalirony is evinced in ostensibly furthering some one's hopes and wisheswhile really leading him to his overthrow. Life and history are full ofirony in the contrast between ambitions and their realisation. 

IRONY, SOCRATIC, the name given to a practice of Socrates withpretentious people; "affecting ignorance and pretending to solicitinformation, he was in the habit of turning round upon the sciolist andconfounding his presumption, both by the unlooked-for consequences heeduced by his incessant questions and by the glaring contradictions theother was in the end landed by his admissions. "

IROQUOIS, one of the most intelligent branches of the North AmericanIndians, comprised a confederation of five, afterwards six, tribes, amongwhom the leading place was taken by the Mohawks; their territory layinland in what is now New York State and the basin of the St. Lawrence. Numbering some 25, 000, they maintained their own against the hereditaryfoes by whom they were surrounded; they took kindly to English and Dutchsettlers, but were hostile to the French, and in the wars of the 18thcentury were allies of England against the French; their descendants, about 12, 000, in reservations in Canada and New York are a peacefulpeople, have accepted English religion and culture, and have provedthemselves skilful and industrious agriculturists. 

IRREDUCIBLE CASE, name given to a cubic equation which cannot besolved by the rule of CARDAN (q. V. ). 

IRTISH, an enormous river of Western Siberia and chief tributary ofthe Obi; its course from the Altai Mountains runs NW. Through theSiberian plains for 1200 m. ; it is navigable almost all the way insummer, and in winter it is a highway for sledge traffic; on its banksstand Semipalatinsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk. 

IRVING, EDWARD, a great pulpit orator, born in Annan, Dumfriesshire;bred for the Scotch Church, became in 1819 assistant to Dr. Chalmers inGlasgow, and removed in 1822 to the Caledonian Church, London, where heattracted to his preaching the world of fashion as well as intellect inthe city, who soon grew tired of him and left him, after which he took toextravagances which did not draw them back, and drew around him instead aset of people more fanatical than himself, and whose influence over him, to which he weakly yielded, infatuated him still more; the result wasthat he was deposed from the ministry of the Church that sent him forth, and became for a time the centre of an organisation which still exists, in a modified form, and bears his name; he was the bosom friend in hisearly days of Thomas Carlyle, and no one mourned more over his aberrationthan he, for he loved him to the end. "But for Irving, " he says, "I hadnever known what the communion of man with man means. His was the freest, brotherliest, bravest human soul mine ever came in contact with; I callhim on the whole the best man I have ever, after trial enough, found inthis world, or now hope to find. Scotland sent him forth, " he says, "aherculean man, but our mad Babylon wore him and wasted him with all herengines, and it took her 12 years"; he died in Glasgow, aged 42, "hoaryas with extreme age, " and lies buried in a crypt of the cathedral there(1792-1834). 

IRVING, SIR HENRY (John Henry Brodribb), born near Glastonbury; wasat first a clerk in London, appeared on the Sunderland stage in 1856, spent three years in Edinburgh, and gradually worked his way at Glasgowand Manchester, till he was invited to London ten years afterwards; hisperformance of Hamlet at the Lyceum in 1874 established his reputation asa tragedian; since then he has remained at the head of his profession, and both in this country and in America secured many triumphs in Macbeth, Shylock, and other Shakespearian characters, and in roles like those ofMatthias in "The Bells, " "Mephistopheles in Faust, " &c. ; he hascontributed to the literature of Acting, and received knighthood in 1895:_b_. 1838. 

IRVING, WASHINGTON, popular American essayist and historian, born ofBritish parentage in New York, was delicate in early life; his educationsuffered accordingly, and he travelled in Europe, 1804-6, visiting Italy, France, and England; returning to New York he was called to the bar, puthe devoted himself to a literary career, only interrupted by one periodof commercial life, and occasional short terms of diplomatic service; hefirst won fame by his "History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker, "1809, a good-natured satire on the Dutch settlers; the years 1815-32 hespent in Europe studying and writing; his "Sketch-Book, " 1819-20, wasvery successful, as were "Bracebridge Hall, " "Tales of a Traveller, " andother volumes which followed it; going to Spain in 1826 he began hisresearches in Spanish history which resulted in "The Life of Columbus, ""The Conquest of Granada, " and other works which introduced Englishreaders to the Spain of the 15th and 16th centuries; on his return toAmerica he was treated with great respect by his countrymen; decliningthe honours they would have given him had he turned aside to politics, hecontinued to write; among his latest works were "Mahomet and hisSuccessors" and a "Life of Washington"; much courted in society, he waskind and generous in disposition; his writings are marked by humour, observation, and descriptive power; these qualities with an excellentstyle place him in the foremost rank of American authors; he died, unmarried, at Tarrytown, New York (1783-1859). 

IRVINGITES, the name given to the Catholic Apostolic Church asfounded by Edward Irving, which is repudiated by them, as disclaiming allearthly leadership; their ministry is after the Apostolic order, includesprophets, evangelists, and pastors, and they employ material symbols intheir worship besides those of water in baptism and wine in communion, such as incense; the Eucharist they regard as a sacrifice, and theybelieve in the permanency of the spiritual gifts of the primitive Church. 

ISAAC, a Hebrew patriarch, son of Abraham, born to him when he wasold; a mild man with no great force of character, and a contrast toIshmael, his half-brother; lived to a great age. 

ISSAC I. , COMNENUS, Emperor of the East from 1057 to 1059; raised tothe throne by the army; ruled well, but falling ill and fearing he hadnot long to live. He retired and spent his two remaining years in amonastery; he was a student and annotator of Homer. 

ISSAC II. , ANGELUS, Emperor of the East; a good man, but weak;became emperor in 1185, was dethroned by his brother Alexis in 1195;reinstated by the Crusaders in 1203, but overthrown six months after in1204. 

ISAC OF YORK, the father of Rebecca in "Ivanhoe. "

ISABELLA, queen of Castile; her marriage with Ferdinand of Aragonled to the union under one sceptre of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, which was followed 10 years after by their united occupancy of the throneof all Spain; she was an able woman, and associated with her husband inevery affair of State (1451-1504). See FERDINAND V. 

ISABELLA II. , ex-queen of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand VII. ;succeeded him in 1833; was forced to leave the country in 1868; tookrefuge in France, and in 1870 abdicated in favour of her son. 

ISABEY JEAN BAPTISTE, French portrait-painter, born at Nancy;painted many of the notabilities of France in his day (1767-1855). 

ISÆUS, an Attic orator, and the teacher of Demosthenes; wrote 64orations, of which only 10 are extant, and these not on political issuesbut forensic, and particularly the law of inheritance. 

ISAIAH, one of the great Hebrew prophets, the son of one Amoz; was acitizen of Jerusalem, evidently of some standing, and who flourishedbetween 750 and 700 B. C. ; like AMOS (q. V. ), he foresaw thejudgment that was coming on the nation for its unfaithfulness, but feltassured that God would not altogether forsake His people, and that "aremnant, " God's elect among them, would be saved--that though the casketwould be shattered in pieces, the jewel it contained would be preserved. See HEBREW PROPHECY. 

ISAIAH, THE ASCENSION OF, an apocryphal book giving an incoherentaccount of the martyrdom of Isaiah, and a vision he had under the reignof Hezekiah, apparently the origin of the tradition in Heb. Xi. 37, aboutthe prophet having been "sawn asunder. "

ISAIAH, THE PROPHECIES OF, consist of two divisions, the firstextending from chap. I. To chap. Xxxix. , and the second from chap. Xl. Tothe end; these two divisions were for long believed to be throughout thework of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but modern criticism assigns them in themain to different authors, the one living 150 years after the other; andthe reasons for this conclusion are that the author of the latterbelonged to a different period of Jewish history from that of the former, is not of the same temper, and has much deeper spiritual insight, whilehis hopes and expectations are built on a more spiritual view of themethod of salvation, the Messiah of the former, for instance, being aconquering king, and that of the latter a suffering Redeemer, who to savethe nation has to bear the burden of its sins, and the brunt of them, andso bearing, bear them away. 

ISAMBERT, FRANÇOIS ANDRÉ, a noteworthy French lawyer, politician, and historian, born at Aunay; began to practise in Paris at the age oftwenty-six; becoming known in politics, he gained considerable renown bycertain works on French law and by his advocacy of the claims of theliberated slaves in the French West Indies; entering the Chamber ofDeputies after the Revolution of July 1830, he set himself to oppose theJesuits and to further freedom; "The Religious Conditions of France andEurope" and a "History of Jerusalem" were among his later works; he diedat Paris (1792-1857). 

ISANDULA, place 110 m. NW. Of Durban, where a force of Britishtroops was encamped in January 22, 1879, and was set upon and almostannihilated by a body of Zulus. 

ISAURIA, in ancient times this name was given to the northern slopesof the Taurus in Asia Minor, what is now Karamania; the Isaurians were awild, savage people; from the 1st to the 4th centuries they were theterror of neighbouring States, and gave Rome herself considerabletrouble; but from the 5th century they disappear from history. 

ISCHIA (22), a beautiful volcanic island 6 m. Off the Bay of Naples;its scenery, climate, and mineral springs make it a health resort; itproduces excellent fruits and wines; it is liable to severe earthquakes;in the last (1883), 4000 persons perished. The chief town (3) bears thesame name. 

ISCHL, a town in Upper Austria, picturesquely situated on the riverTraun, 33 m. SE. Of Salzburg; famous for its saline baths; hassalt-works, where 8000 tons of salt are annually manufactured. 

ISENGRIN, the wolf, typifying the feudal baron in the epic tale ofReynard the Fox, as the fox does the Church. See REYNARD. 

ISER, a German river, which rises in the Tyrol N. Of Innsbruck, passes through Münich, and falls into the Danube after a course of 180 m. 

ISÈRE, a river in the SE. Of France, which gives name to a dep. (572), and which, after a course of 180 m. Falls into the Rhône nearValence. 

ISERLOHN (22), a town in Prussian Westphalia, 14 m. SE. Of Dortmund;is picturesquely situated, and is engaged in iron-ware manufacture. 

ISHMAEL, the son of Abraham and the handmaid Hagar, cast out ofAbraham's household at 15; he became skilful with the bow, and founded agreat nation, the Arabs; for the offering of Isaac on Moriah the Arabssubstitute the offering of Ishmael on Arafat, near Mecca; Mahomet claimeddescent from him; he gives name in modern life to a social outcast driveninto antagonism to social arrangements. 

ISIDORE, ST. , BISHOP OF SEVILLE, born at Carthagena, a distinguishedman and ecclesiastic, who exercised great influence on LatinChristianity, and on both civil and ecclesiastical matters in Spain, andleft a large number of writings of varied interest; he was animated atonce by a severe sense of duty and by an admirable Christian spirit(570-638). Festival, April 4. 

ISINGLASS, a gelatine substance prepared from the sounds orair-bladders of certain fresh-water fishes, the sturgeon in particular;it is imported from Russia, Brazil, and the Hudson Bay Territory. 

ISIS, an Egyptian divinity, the wife and sister of Osiris and motherof Horus, the three together forming a trinity, which ischaracteristically Egyptian, and such as often repeats itself in Egyptianmythology, and typifying the life of the sun, Osiris representing thatluminary slain at night and sorrowed over by his sister Isis, reviving inthe morning in his son Horus, and wedded anew to his sister Isis as hiswife; passed into the mythology of the Greeks, Isis became identifiedfirst with Demeter and then with the Moon, while in that of Rome shefigures as the Universe-mother. 

ISLA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO DE, a Spanish Jesuit, celebrated as a preacherand a humorist and satirist of the stamp of Cervantes; his principal work"Friar Gerund, " a satire on the charlatanism and bombast of the popularpreaching friars of the day, as Don Quixote was on the false chivalry;the friars he satirised were too strong for him, and he was expelled fromSpain, retired to Italy, and died at Bologna in extreme poverty(1703-1781). 

ISLAM or ISLAMISM, the religion of Mahomet, "that we must_submit_ to God; that our whole strength lies in resigned submission toHim, whatsoever He do to us, for this world and the other; this is thesoul of Islam; it is properly the soul of Christianity; Christianity alsocommands us, before all, to be resigned to God. This is yet the highestwisdom that Heaven has revealed to our earth. " See "Heroes andHero-Worship. "

ISLAND OF SAINTS, a name given to Ireland in the Middle Ages. 

ISLANDS OF THE BLESSED, fabled islands of the far west of the ocean, where the favoured of the gods after death are conceived to dwell ineverlasting blessedness. 

ISLAY (7), a large mountainous Island 13 m. W. Of Kintyre, Scotland;much of it is cultivated; dairy produce, cattle, and sheep are exported;there are lead, copper, and manganese mines, marble quarries, and salmonfisheries; the distilleries produce 400, 000 gallons of whisky annually. 

ISLINGTON (319), a district of London, 2½ m. N. Of St. Paul's;contains the division of Holloway, Highbury, Barnsbury, and part ofKingsland. 

ISMAIL PASHA, khedive of Egypt from 1863, who was obliged by thePowers to abdicate in 1879. 

ISMAILIA, a small town on Suez Canal; was the head-quarters of thework during the construction of the Canal. 

ISMAÎLIS, one of the Mohammedan sects which support the claim of thehouse of Ali, Mahomet's cousin, to supremacy among the faithful;originating about A. D. 770, they rose to importance in the 10th centuryunder Abdallah, a Persian, who introduced Zoroastrian ideas into theircreed and prophesied the appearance of a Madhi or Messiah who should begreater than the Prophet himself; becoming latterly extremelyrationalistic the sect lost its influence in the 13th century, and itsrepresentatives in Syria and Persia are now comparatively obscure; inTurkey and Egypt, however, several Madhis have arisen, of whom the last, Mohammed Ahmed, _b_. 1843, gained possession of the Soudan, defeated theEgyptian army in 1883, two years later captured Khartoum, but died atOmdurman shortly afterwards. 

ISMENË, the sister of Antigone, who requested, as her accomplice, tobe promoted to be sharer in her fate. 

ISOCRATES, an Athenian rhetorician, of a school that was an offshootof the SOPHISTS (q. V. ), and the whole merit of whose oratorydepended upon style or literary finish and display; he is said to havestarved himself to death after the battle of Cheronea at the age of 98because he could not brook to outlive the humiliation of Greece by Philipof Macedon and the destruction of its freedom (436-338 B. C. ). 

ISODORIAN DECRETALS, a body of ecclesiastical decretals imposed uponthe Church under the name of ISODORE OF SEVILLE (q. V. ). 

ISOLDE, the wife of King Mark of Cornwall, who, under the potency ofsome philter which she had inadvertently taken, conceived an illicitpassion for Sir Tristram, her husband's nephew, the story of which iscelebrated in mediæval romance. 

ISPAHÂN (60), the ancient capital of Persia, 226 m. S. Of Teheran, on the river Zenderud, which, as its greatest glory, is spanned by anoble bridge of 34 arches; it stands in a fertile plain abounding ingroves and orchards, amid ruins of its former grandeur, and is a centreof Mohammedan learning; the inhabitants are said to have at one timenumbered a million; it produces rich brocades and velvets, firearms, sword-blades, and much ornamental ware; there are many fine buildings, and signs of returning prosperity. 

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF, the name given to the northern kingdom of the 10tribes of the Israelites which revolted from the kingdom of Judah afterthe death of Solomon. 

ISRÄELS, JOSEF, a Dutch oil and water-colour artist and etcher, bornin Gröningen; studied in Amsterdam and Paris; devoting himself to _genre_subjects, he has depicted the pathetic side of the life of the Dutchfisher-folks with great sympathy and power; he won a _grand prix_ at theParis Exhibition of 1889; _b_. 1824. 

ISRAFEEL, in the Mohammedan mythology an angel whose office it willbe to sound the trumpet on the resurrection morning. 

ISSUS, a river in Cilicia, Asia Minor, where Alexander the Greatdefeated Darius, 333 B. C. 

ISSY (12), a village ½ m. SW. Of Paris, where Davout was defeated byBlücher on 3rd July 1815, and which suffered severely during the siege ofParis by the Germans in 1870-71. 

ISTAMBOUL, the Turkish name for Constantinople. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES, one of the four Pan-Hellenic festivals; they wereperiodically celebrated in honour of Poseidon or Neptune at the isthmusof Corinth, in Greece, whence the name. 

ISTRIA (299), a mountainous territory of Austria, in the NE. Cornerof the Adriatic; yields olive-oil, figs, and vines, though often swept bysirocco and bora winds. 

ISUMBRAS, ST. , a hero of mediæval romance, a proud man subdued byGod's justice into a penitent and a humble. 

ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. The style of architecture called Italian wasfirst developed by Filippo Bruneschelli, and flourished during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries; it was an adaptation of classical circular-archform to modern requirements. In Rome it conformed most to ancient types;in Venice it assumed its most graceful form. It was more suitable todomestic than to ecclesiastical work; but the dome is an impressivefeature, and St. Peter's a noble church. 

ITALIC SCHOOL, the name given to the school of PYTHAGORAS(q. V. ) who taught philosophy in Italy. 

ITALIC VERSION, THE, a version of the Scriptures into Latin on thebasis of the Septuagint, executed in N. Italy under episcopal authorityfrom other versions in circulation; being of mixed quality and far fromsatisfactory, JEROME (q. V. ) undertook its revision with theview of a new translation into Latin known as the Vulgate direct from theHebrew and Greek originals. 

ITALY (30, 536), the central one of three peninsulas stretching intothe Mediterranean Sea, in the S. Of Europe, has the Adriatic andTyrrhenian Seas respectively on the E. And W. , and is separated fromFrance, Switzerland, and Austria in the N. By the various ranges of theAlps. Between the Alps and the Apennines lies the extensive, fertileplain of Lombardy, watered by the river Po, and containing several largelakes, such as Garda, Como, and Maggiore. The Apennines form a verypicturesque chain of mountains 5000 ft. High down the centre of thecountry. The climate varies in different districts, but is mostly warm. Malaria curses many parts in autumn. Agriculture is extensive, butprimitive in manner, and the peasantry are very poor. The most importantcrops are cereals, including rice and maize, grapes, olives, andchestnuts, and in the S. Oranges and lemons. Italian wines are ofindifferent quality. Coal and iron are scarce; sulphur is produced inlarge quantities in Sicily. There are large quarries of marble andalabaster. The most important industries are silk, glass, and porcelain. There is an extensive foreign trade, chiefly with France and GreatBritain; the exports consist of silk, sulphur, marble, fruit, and wine;the imports of coal, iron, and textile goods. The religion is RomanCatholic; education is now compulsory. The Gothic kingdom of Italy wasfounded on the ruins of the Roman Empire, A. D. 489. In succession thecountry was conquered by the forces of the Byzantine Empire, by theLombards, and by the Franks. From the 11th century onwards its historyhas been one of constant internal strife and confusion. The presence ofthe papal power in Rome, the rise of such rich trading republics as thecities of Milan, Florence, Naples, Genoa, and Venice, the pretensions ofFrench kings and German emperors, and factions like those of the Guelphsand Ghibellines, produced endless complications and ruinous wars. In the16th century the influence of the Austro-Spanish house of Charles V. Became dominant; his son, Philip II. , was king of Milan and Naples. Inmore recent times the small states of Italy were continually involved inthe wars which devastated Europe, and passed in alliance or insubordination into the hands of Austria, France, and Spain alternately. The last 50 years have seen the unification of the kingdom. After theabortive movement of Mazzini came Cavour and Garibaldi, who, after severestruggles against the Austrians in the North and the despots of SouthernItaly, proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy in 1861. By various stepsthe whole of the peninsula, with the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, havebeen brought into the kingdom. The temporal power of the Pope ceased in1870. The Government is a constitutional monarchy. Franchise isexercised by every citizen who can read and write. Conscription is inforce for army and navy. These are both strong, the navy one of the bestin Europe. Finances are bad; the debt amounts to £520, 000, 000, andtaxation is ruinous. 

ITHACA (10), one of the Ionian Islands, and one of the smallest, known now under the name Thiaki; it was the home of Ulysses, and hisdomain as king when he set out for the Trojan War, and which he did notsee again till his return after twenty years. Also a town (11) in NewYork State, U. S. , seat of CORNELL UNIVERSITY (q. V. ). 

ITHURIEL, an angel whom Milton represents as sent by Gabriel tosearch for Satan in Paradise, who had found entrance by eluding thevigilance of the guard; he was armed with a _spear_, the touch of whichcould unmask any disguise, and by means of which he discovered Satanlurking in the garden in the form of a toad. 

ITINERARY, a name given among the Romans to an account or a map ofthe principal routes through the empire and the stations along them. 

ITURBIDE, AUGUSTINE DE, a Mexican general, emancipated Mexico fromthe yoke of Spain; seized the crown and was proclaimed emperor in 1822, was obliged to abdicate next year and leave the country, but returning, was immediately arrested, and shot (1783-1824). 

IVAN (i. E. John), the name of two grand-dukes and four czars ofRussia; the two grand-dukes were Ivan I. , grand-duke from 1328 to 1340, and Ivan II. , his son, grand-duke from 1353 to 1359. 

IVAN III. , surnamed The Threatening, sought to free Russia from theyoke of the Tartars who had held it tributary for two centuries; gainedvictories over the Tartars and the Poles, and was the first to receive atMoscow ambassadors from other Powers of Europe; reigned from 1462 to1505. 

IVAN IV. , surnamed The Terrible, grandson of the preceding, assumedthe sovereignty at 14, had himself crowned in 1545, and took the title ofCzar; his first great ambition was to destroy the Tartar power, which hedid at Kasan and Astrakhan, receiving homage thereafter from almost allthe Tartar chiefs; on the death of his wife in 1563 he lost allself-restraint, and by the ferocity of his wars provoked hostility whichthe Pope, who had been appealed to, interposed to appease; in a fit ofpassion he killed his eldest son, whom he loved, remorse for whichembittered his last days and hastened his end (1530-1584). 

IVANHOE, the hero of Sir Walter Scott's novel of the name, thedisinherited son of Cedric of Rotherwood, who falls in love with Rowena, a ward of his father, but by the exhibition of his prowess as a knight isat the intercession of King Richard, reconciled to his father, with theresult that he marries Rowena. 

IVANOVA (32), a Russian town in Vladimir, 210 m. NE. Of Moscow, engaged in the manufacture of cotton, and known as the "Manchester ofRussia. "

IVANOVITCH, IVAN, a lazy, good-natured impersonation of the typicalRussian, as John Bull is of the Englishman, and Brother Jonathan of theAmerican. 

IVES, ST. , a town on the Ouse, in Huntingdonshire, 50 m. N. OfLondon, where Oliver Cromwell resided from 1631 to 1635; the chiefindustries are malting and brewing. 

IVIZA (22), the most westerly of the Balearic Isles, is hilly andwell wooded, with fertile valleys and important fisheries. 

IVORY COAST, a territory on the K. Of the Gulf of Guinea, belongingpartly to Liberia and partly to France and Britain. 

IVORY GATE, the gate spoken of in Virgil through which dreams passthat do not turn out true. See HORN GATE. 

IVRY, a village in the dep. Of Eure, NE. Of Dreux, famous for thevictory of Henry of Navarre over the Leaguers in 1590. 

IXION, the king of the LAPITHÆ (q. V. ), who being admittedto heaven attempted to do violence to Hera, and whom Zeus deluded toembrace a phantom image of her instead, whereby he became the father ofthe Centaurs, and whom Zeus thereafter punished by fastening him handsand feet to an eternally revolving wheel in hell. 

IZALIO, a volcano in the republic of San Salvador, which firstannounced its existence by a fissure opening in 1798 on the plain thatnow surrounds it, from which there vomited lava and cinders, accompaniedwith earthquake. 

J

JABALPUR (84), a town, district, and one of the four divisions ofthe Central Provinces, India; the town is an important commercial andrailway centre, situated 228 m. SW. Of Allahabad; cotton and carpets areamongst its chief manufactures. 

JACK, a familiar form of John, the most widely spread of Christian names, and said to be derived from the French JACQUES or, as others maintain, from JANKIN, a distinctive form of JOHAN or JOHN; JOHNKIN gives us JOCKand JOCKEY; from its extreme commonness it has acquired that slightlycontemptuous signification observable in such compounds as "every manJACK, " "JACK-of-all-trades, " "JACK-an-apes, " and the name as applied tothe _knaves_ in playing-cards, and to the small white ball used as a markin the game of bowls is an example of its transferred sense. 

JACKAROO, name given in Australia to a green-horn from Englandinexperienced in bush life. 

JACKDAW OF RHEIMS, one of the INGOLDSBY LEGENDS (q. V. ). 

JACKSON, 1, a prosperous manufacturing city (21) in Michigan, U. S. A. , on the Grand River, 70 m. W. Of Detroit; has various mills, iron-works, breweries, &c. , and bituminous coal-mines on its outskirts. 2, A cotton market-town (10), capital of Madison County, Tennessee, onthe South Fork of the Forked Deer River, 107 m. SE. Of Cairo, Illinois. 

JACKSON, ANDREW, GENERAL, president of the United States, born atWaxhaw, N. Carolina, adopted law as a profession, and in 1788 becamepublic prosecutor at Nashville; took a prominent part in establishing theState of Tennessee, of which he subsequently became a senator and a, judge; during the war with Britain (1812-14) be came to the front andcrowned a series of successes by his great victory over Sir E. Pakenhamat New Orleans; for a time he was governor of the newly purchased Stateof Florida, but resigning, he again entered the U. S. Senate in 1823;five years later he became President, and in 1832 was again elected; hisPresidency is associated with the readjustment of the tariff on a purelyprotective basis, which led to disputes with S. Carolina, the sweepingaway of the United States Bank, the wiping out of the national debt in1835, and the vigorous enforcement of claims against the French fordamage done during the Napoleonic wars; his imperious yet honest natureled him to make a more frequent use of the President's veto than any ofhis predecessors (1767-1845). 

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN, known as Stonewall Jackson, an Americangeneral, born in Virginia; bred for the army; distinguished himself inthe Mexican War; retired from the army in 1853, and became a professor inMathematics and Military Science in Virginia; was appointedbrigadier-general in the Confederate army at the outbreak of the CivilWar, and earned the _nom de guerre_ of "Stonewall" by his firmness at thebattle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861; distinguished himself in subsequentengagements; at Chancellorville was by mistake fired at in the dark andmortally wounded by his own men on May 6, 1863; he was a man of theCromwell stamp, and his death was not only a blow to his own party, butmatter of grief to the whole American nation (1824-1863). 

JACKSONVILLE, 1, the chief seat of commerce (17) in Florida State, is situated on St. John's River, some 20 m. From its mouth; is a busyrailway centre, and has an active river trade in lumber, cotton, fruits, &c. , and is a health resort. 2, Capital (13) of Morgan County, Illinois, is pleasantly situated on a fertile plain, 34 m. SW. Of Springfield; isnoted as an educational centre, and for its many charity asylums; itsmanufactures embrace woollens, paper, &c. 

JACOB, a Hebrew patriarch, younger son of Isaac and Rebecca, thefavourite of his mother, and had twelve sons, the fathers of the twelvetribes of Israel; his character and the story of his life are naïvelydelineated in the book of Genesis. 

JACOB, JEAN CLAUDE, a serf from the Jura Mountains, 120 years old, who was brought from his native place to figure as "dean of the humanrace" in Paris at the great federation festival of June 1790. 

JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH, a German philosopher, born atDüsseldorf; bred for business, and after engaging in it for a time threwit up for a revenue appointment; devoted all his by-hours to philosophyand correspondence with eminent men, and was appointed President of theAcademy of Sciences at Münich in 1807; he formed no system and he foundedno school; his thoughts present themselves in a detached form, and are tobe gathered from letters, dialogues, and imaginative works; he contendedfor the dogma of "immediate cognition as the special organ of thesupersensuous, " and failed to see, as SCHWEGLER notes, that saidcognition "has already described a series of subjective intermediatingmovements, and can pretend to immediacy only in entire oblivion of itsown nature and origin" (1743-1819). 

JACOBI, KARL GUSTAVO, a celebrated German mathematician, born atPotsdam, of Jewish birth; was professor at Königsberg and Berlin, and oneof the founders of the theory of determinants (1801-1851). 

JACOBINS, a political club, originally known as the Club Breton, which was founded in Paris during the French Revolution; so called fromits place of meeting in the Rue St. Honoré, which had previously been aJacobin friar convent; it exercised a great influence over the course ofthe Revolution, and had affiliated societies all over the country, working along with it; its members were men of extreme revolutionaryviews, procured the death of the king, exterminated the Girondists, roused the lowest classes against the middle, and were the ruling spiritsduring the Reign of Terror, of whom Robespierre was the chief, the fallof whom sealed their doom; they were mobbed out of their place of meetingwith execrations on Hallow-Eve 1794. 

JACOBITES, a name given to certain partisans of Eutychean sect inthe 17th century in the East, from the name of their leader. 

JACOBITES, the name given to the adherents of the Stuart dynasty inGreat Britain after their expulsion from the throne in 1688, and derivedfrom that of James II. , the last Stuart king; they made two greatattempts to restore the exiled dynasty, in 1715 and 1745, but both wereunsuccessful, after which the movement exhausted itself in an idlesentimentality, which also is by this time as good as extinct. 

JACOBS, a German Greek scholar, born at Gotha; editor of "AnthologiaGræca" (1767-1847). 

JACOBUS, a gold coin of the reign of James I. , worth 25 shillings. 

JACOBY, JOHAN, a Prussian politician, born in Königsberg; bred tomedicine, but best known as a politician in a liberal interest, whichinvolved him in prosecutions; was imprisoned for protesting against theannexation of Alsace and Lorraine; he was a man of fearless honesty, andone day had the courage to say to the Emperor William I. , "It is themisfortune of kings that they will not listen to the truth" (1805-1877). 

JACOTOT, JEAN JOSEPH, a celebrated educationalist, born at Dijon, France; after holding various educational appointments, he in 1818 becameprofessor of the French Language and Literature at Louvain, andsubsequently held the post of Director of the Military Normal School; heis noted for his "Universal Method" of education, which is based on hisassumption that men's minds are of equal calibre (1770-1840). 

JACQUARD LOOM, a loom with an apparatus for weaving figures intextiles, such as silks, muslins, and carpets, which was the invention ofan ingenious Frenchman, born in Lyons, of the name of Joseph MarieJacquard (1752-1834). 

JACQUERIE, the name given to an insurrection of French peasantsagainst the nobles in the ILE OF FRANCE (q. V. ), which broke outon May 21, 1358, during the absence of King John as a prisoner inEngland; it was caused by the oppressive exactions of the nobles, and wasaccompanied with much savagery and violence, but the nobles combinedagainst the revolt, as they did not do at the time of Revolution, preferring rather to leave the country in a pet, and it was extinguishedon the 9th June following. 

JACQUES BONHOMME, a name given to a French peasant as tamelysubmissive to taxation. 

JADE, is the common name of about 150 ornamental stones, but belongsproperly only to nephrite, a pale grey, yellowish, or white mineral foundin New Zealand, Siberia, and chiefly in China, where it is highly valued. 

JAEL, the Jewish matron who slew Sisera the Canaanitish captain, smiting a nail into his temples as he lay asleep in her tent, Judges iv. 18, 21. 

JAEN (26), a picturesque cathedral city, capital of a province ofthe same name, in Andalusia, Spain, on a tributary of the Guadalquivir, 50 m. NW. Of Granada; the province (438) lies along the valley of theGuadalquivir, and was once a Moorish kingdom. 

JAGGANNATHA. See JUGGERNAUT. 

JAGHIR, revenue from land or the produce of it, assigned in India bythe Government to an individual as a reward for some special service. 

JAHN, FRED. L. , a German patriot, born in Pomerania; did much torouse his country into revolt against the domination of France in 1813(1778-1852). 

JAHN, JOHAN, a Catholic theologian and Orientalist, born in Moravia;held professorships in Olmütz and Vienna; was distinguished as a Biblicalscholar, author of "Biblical Archæology, " in five vols. , as well as anIntroduction to the Old Testament, with Grammar, Lexicons, &c. , inconnection with the Biblical languages (1750-1816). 

JAHN, OTTO, philologist and archæologist, born at Kiel; afterholding the post of lecturer at Kiel and Greifswald he, in 1847, wasappointed to the chair of Archæology in Leipzig; becoming involved in thepolitical troubles of 1848-49, he lost his professorial position, butsubsequently held similar appointments at Bonn and Berlin; his voluminouswritings, which cover the field of Greek and Roman art and literature, and include valuable contributions to the history of music, are offirst-rate importance (1813-1869). 

JAIL FEVER, the popular name of a fever now known to be a severeform of typhus, such as happened in 1579 at the "Black Assize, " so calledas so many of those in the conduct of it died infected by the prisoners. 

JAINAS, sects of Hindus scattered up and down India, allied to theBuddhists, though ecclesiastically in open antagonism to them; theyreject the Veda of the Brahmans, and oppose to it another of their own, as also their caste and their sacerdotalism, though they observe therules of caste among themselves; like the Buddhists, they are dividedinto an ascetic class and a lay, but monasticism is not developed to thesame degree among them. There are two principal sects, "the white-gowns"and "the air-clad, " i. E. Naked, though it is only at meals, which theyeat in common, that the latter strip naked; "Not only do they abstainfrom animal food, but they drink only filtered water, breathe onlythrough a veil, and go sweeping the ground before them for fear ofswallowing or crushing any smallest animalcule. " In religion they areatheists, and admit of no Creator or of any perfection of being at thebeginning, only at the end. They distinguish between soul and body, andregard the former as eternal; evil is not in mere existence, but in life, and their Nirvâna is a blessedness without break or end. We know littleor nothing of the history of these sects; with them conduct iseverything; their origin is of later date than that of the Buddhists. SeeBARTH'S "RELIGIONS OF INDIA, " translated by the Editor. 

JALAPA (16), capital of the Mexican State of Vera Cruz, is prettilysituated at the base of the Cordilleras, 60 m. NW. Of Vera Cruz city. 

JALISCO (1, 250), a maritime state in Mexico facing the Pacific;consists chiefly of elevated plateau; enjoys a fine climate; haslong-established mining industries, some agriculture, and a growing tradein cotton and woollen goods, tobacco, &c. ; capital, Guadalajara. 

JAMAICA ("Land of Springs") (640, of which 15 are whites), a Britishcrown colony, the largest and most important of the British West IndiaIslands; is one of the Greater Antilles group, and lies some 90 m. S. Ofthe eastern end of Cuba; its greatest length E. And W. 144 m. ; istraversed by the Blue Mountains (7400 ft. ), whose slopes are clad withluxuriant forests of mahogany, cedar, satin-wood, palm, and other trees;of the numerous rivers, only one, the Black River, is navigable and thatfor only flat-bottomed boats and canoes; there are many harbours(Kingston finest), while good roads intersect the island; the climate isoppressively warm and somewhat unhealthy on the coast, but delightful inthe interior highlands; for administrative purposes the land area isdivided into three counties, Surrey, Middlesex, and Cornwall; the chieftrade-products are dye-woods, fruit, sugar, rum, coffee, and spices;discovered in 1494 by Columbus, and since 1670 a possession of England. 

JAMES, the name of three disciples of Christ; James, the elder sonof Zebedee, by order of the high-priest was put to death by HerodAgrippa; James, the younger son of Alphæus; and James, the brother of theLord, stoned to death. 

JAMES I. , king of Scotland from 1406 to 1437, son of Robert III. , born at Dunfermline; in 1406, while on a voyage to France, he wascaptured by the English and detained by Henry IV. For 18 years, duringwhich time, however, he was carefully trained in letters and in allknightly exercises; returning to Scotland in 1424 with his bride, JaneBeaufort, niece of the English king, he took up the reins of governmentwith a firm hand; he avenged himself on the nobles by whose connivance hehad been kept so long out of his throne, reduced the turbulentHighlanders to order, and introduced a number of beneficial reforms (e. G. A wider parliamentary franchise, a fixed standard for the coinage, asupreme court of civil jurisdiction, a renovated system of weights andmeasures), and widened Scotland's commercial relations with theContinent; he was a man of scholarly tastes, a patron of learning, andexhibits no mean poetic gift in his well-known poem the "King's Quhair";his vigorous and sometimes harsh and vindictive efforts to lower thepowers of the nobility procured him their inveterate hatred, and in 1437he was murdered in the Dominican monastery at Perth by a band ofconspirators (1394-1437). 

JAMES II. , king of Scotland from 1437 to 1460, son of preceding;during his minority the country was torn by rival factions amongst thenobility, the chief point of contest being the wardship of the youngking; an attempt on the part of the conspirators who had murdered JamesI. To place their leader, the Earl of Athole, on the throne, wasfrustrated; in 1449 James assumed the duties of his kingship, and in thesame year married Mary, the daughter of the Duke of Gueldres; an Englishwar then being waged on the Borders was brought to a close, and the youngking entered vigorously upon administrative reforms; in these efforts hewas hampered by the opposition of the nobility, and his fiery temper ledhim to participate in the murder of the chief obstructionist, the Earl ofDouglas; protection given to the exiled Douglases by the Yorkists ledJames to support the claims of Henry VI. In England; he was killed by thebursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh Castle (1430-1460). 

JAMES III. , king of Scotland from 1460 to 1488, son of James II. ;was during his minority under the care of his mother and Bishop Kennedyof St. Andrews, the Earl of Angus being lieutenant-general of thekingdom; but the bishop and the earl died before he was 14, and thenobility fell into faction and disorder again; the first to gain powerwas Lord Boyd (whose son married the king's sister), but a charge oftreason brought about his downfall and exile; the king married PrincessMargaret of Denmark in 1469, and gave himself up to a life of quiet easesurrounded by men of art and culture, while his brothers Albany and Mar, by their military tastes and achievements, won the affections of thenobles; James, becoming jealous, imprisoned them; Albany, who hadintrigued with Edward IV. , fled to France, Mar died in CraigmillarCastle; while the king and his army were marching to meet expectedEnglish action in 1482 the nobles, instigated by Archibald, Bell-the-Cat, seized and hanged the royal favourites at Lauder, and committed the kingto Edinburgh Castle; a short reconciliation was effected, but was soonbroken, and civil war ensued; the defeat of the royalist forces atSauchieburn took place in 1488; the king escaped from the field, but wasthrown from his horse, and taking refuge in a house at Beaton's Mill, wasthere slain (1462-1488). 

JAMES IV. , king of Scotland from 1488 to 1513, participated in therebellion which overthrew his father, James III. , and succeeded him; butin remorse for his unfilial conduct wore an iron belt all his life;during his youth his supporters carried on the government in their owninterests, and despoiled the nobles who had been loyal to the late king;but when he came of age he showed his independence in choosing goodadvisers, among them Sir Andrew Wood; his reign was marked by resistanceto the claims of the Roman pontiff, by the firm and wise administrationof law, the fostering of agriculture, of shipbuilding, and otherindustries; in 1503 James married Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. ; afterthat king's death relations between the two countries became strained;two English men-of-war captured Andrew Barton's privateers; the jewelswhich the queen inherited from her father were retained by Henry VIII. , and James maintained an alliance with Henry's enemy, France; at thesolicitation of the French queen, against the advice of his own queen andnobles, he invaded England in 1513, but the invasion ended in disaster atFlodden, where he and the flower of his army perished; he was an able buta headstrong, a pleasure-loving, and an extravagant man (1472-1513). 

JAMES V. , king of Scotland from 1513 to 1542, was only an infantwhen he succeeded to his father's throne; his mother was regent till hermarriage with young Angus, when the nobles called James IV. 's cousin, Albany, from France to assume the regency; French and English factionssprang up; Henry VIII. Intrigued in the affairs of the country; anarchyand civil war ensued, and Albany retired to France in 1524; in that yearthe queen-mother, aided by Henry, took the young king from Sir DavidLyndsay, to whom he had been entrusted, and assumed the government againin his name; the Douglas family usurped his person and the government in1525; but James asserted himself three years later, and began to reign inperson, displaying judgment and resolution, banishing the Douglases, keeping order in the Highlands and on the Borders, establishing theCollege of Justice, protecting the peasantry from the tyranny of thebarons, and fostering trade by a commercial treaty with the Netherlands;he married (1) Princess Magdalene of France in 1537, and (2) Mary ofGuise in 1538; Henry, aggrieved by James's failure to meet him inconference on Church matters, and otherwise annoyed, sent 30, 000 men intoScotland in 1542; disaffection prevented the Scottish forces from actingenergetically, and the rout of Solway Moss took place; the king, vexedand shamed, sank into a fever and died at Falkland; in this reign theReformation began to make progress in Scotland, and would have advancedmuch farther but that James had to support the clergy to play off theirpower against the nobles (1512-1542)

JAMES VI. OF SCOTLAND AND I. OF ENGLAND, son of Mary, Queen ofScots, and Darnley, born in Edinburgh Castle; was proclaimed king ofScotland when only 13 months old, in 1567; entrusted to the Earl of Mar, and educated by George Buchanan; Moray, Lennox, Mar, and Morton weresuccessively regents, till James assumed the government in 1581, executing Morton and choosing Arran and Lennox for his advisers; plotsand counter-plots, the Raid of Ruthven (1582), the siege of Stirling bysome of the nobles with 10, 000 troops, mostly from England, the surrenderof the king and the fall of Arran in 1585, the insurrection of theCatholic nobles 1491-94, and the Gowrie Conspiracy in 1600, betrayed therestlessness of the kingdom, and the weakness of the king; James marriedAnne of Denmark 1589; on the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, he succeeded tothe throne of England as JAMES I. ; was at first popular, but soonforfeited all confidence by his favouritism; he governed throughcreatures like Carr, Earl of Somerset, and the infamous Buckingham, whoseindiscretion brought about a war with Spain in 1624; James diedimmediately afterwards; he has been described by Sully as "the wisestfool in Christendom"; his conduct was certainly much less creditable thanhis conversation; he held absurdly high views of the royal prerogative;but he sold patents of nobility, and was careless of the misdeeds of hisministers; he did not live to see revolution, but he saw its precursor inthe loosening of the bonds of sympathy between sovereign and people(1566-1625). 

JAMES II. OF ENGLAND AND VII. OF SCOTLAND, the son of Charles I. , reigned in succession to Charles II. From 1685 to 1688; during theCommonwealth he was a soldier in France and Spain; at the Restorationreturned to England as Duke of York, and became Lord High Admiral;avowing himself a Catholic in 1671, the Test Act of 1673 enforced hisresignation, and thenceforward repeated attempts were made to exclude himfrom the succession; on becoming king he promised to maintain the Churchand to respect the liberties of the people, but his government all thesame was arbitrary and tyrannical; he paraded his Catholicism, persecutedthe Covenanters, subordinated English interests to French, permitted the"Bloody Assize, " suspended the Test Act, violated the rights of theUniversities, gave Church offices to Roman Catholics, and by these andmany other acts of despotism made his deposition necessary; leadingstatesmen invited William of Orange to assume the throne, and James fledto France; an invasion of Ireland in 1689 ended in his defeat at BoyneWater; he retired again to France, and lived at St. Germains till hisdeath (1633-1701). 

JAMES, EPISTLE OF, a Catholic epistle of the New Testament, presumedto have been written by James, the brother of the Lord, addressed toJewish Christians who, in accepting Christianity, had not renouncedJudaism, and the sphere in which it moves is that of Christian morality, agreeably to the standard of ethics given in the Sermon on the Mount. Theauthor looks upon Judaism as the basis of Christianity, and as on themoral side leading up to it, in correspondence with the attestation ofChrist, that "salvation is of the Jews. "

JAMES, G. P. R. , historical novelist, born in London; wrote as manyas a hundred novels, beginning with "Richelieu" in 1829, which broughthim popularity, profit, and honour; was burlesqued by Thackeray(1801-1860). 

JAMES, SIR HENRY, military engineer; superintended the geologicalsurvey of Ireland, and became in 1854 director-general of the OrdnanceSurvey (1803-1877). 

JAMES, HENRY, an American theological writer, a disciple ofSwedenborg, and an exponent of his system (1811-1882). 

JAMES, HENRY, American novelist, born in New York: studied law atHarvard, but was eventually drawn into literature, and after a spell ofmagazine work established his reputation as a novelist in 1875 with"Roderick Hudson"; most of his life has been spent in Italy and England, and the writing of fiction has been varied with several volumes offelicitous criticism, chiefly on French life and literature; his novelsare characterised by a charming style, by a delicate discriminatinganalysis of rather uneventful lives, and by an almost complete absence ofstrong dramatic situation; _b_. 1843. 

JAMES, JOHN ANGELL, most influential Congregationalist of his time, born in Dorsetshire; was pastor of Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, from1805 to 1859; won the esteem of all parties; published the "AnxiousInquirer, " and many other works (1785-1859). 

JAMES, ST. , James, the son of Zebedee, the patron saint of Spain;his attribute the sword, by which he was decapitated. 

JAMES RIVER, an important river of Virginia, U. S. , formed by thejunction of the Jackson and the Cowpasture, and flows in a south-easterlydirection across Virginia, falling into the Atlantic at the S. End ofChesapeake Bay. It has a course of 450 m. , and is navigable as far asCity Point. 

JAMESON, ANNA, _née_ Murphy, English literary lady and art critic, born in Dublin; authoress of "Sacred and Legendary Art, " "Legends of theMonastic Orders, " "Legends of the Madonna, " &c. ; left unfinished at herdeath a work on Our Lord and John the Baptist as represented in art, which was completed afterwards by Lady Eastlake (1794-1860). 

JAMESON, GEORGE, a Scotch portrait-painter, born in Aberdeen; manyof his portraits are to be met with in Scottish mansion-houses; his workhas been unduly lauded, and himself extravagantly designated the"Scottish Vandyck" (1586-1644). 

JAMESON, DR. LEANDER STARR, leader of the raid upon Johannesburg, born at Edinburgh; studied medicine in his native city and in London;established himself at Kimberley in 1878, and under the patronage of Mr. Rhodes became the popular administrator for the South Africa Company atFort Salisbury in 1891; from Mafeking in December of 1896 he started, with a body of 500 troopers, upon his ill-fated incursion into theTransvaal to assist the Uitlanders of Johannesburg; at Krugersdorp theraiders, exhausted by a 24 hours' ride, were repelled by a superior forceof Boers, and compelled to surrender; having been handed over to theBritish authorities, "Dr. Jim, " as he was familiarly called, was tried inLondon, and condemned to 15 months' imprisonment, but was liberated onaccount of ill-health after about five months' incarceration; _b_. 1853. 

JAMESON, ROBERT, naturalist, born in Leith; appointed professor ofNatural History in Edinburgh University in 1804; wrote several works onmineralogy and geology (1773-1853). 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST. , a palace, a brick building adjoining St. James's Park, London, where drawing-rooms were held, and gave name to theEnglish Court in those days as St. Stephen's does of the Parliament. 

JAMIESON, DR. JOHN, a Scotch antiquary, born in Glasgow; bred forthe Church; was Dissenting minister in Nicolson Street Church, Edinburgh;widely known as author of the "Etymological Dictionary of the ScottishLanguage"; wrote other works of less note (1759-1838). 

JAMYN, AMADIS, a French poet, a protégé of Ronsard's; was a goodGreek scholar. 

JAN MAYEN LAND, a volcanic island, 35 m. In length, situated in theArctic Ocean between Iceland and Spitzbergen; is the head-quarters ofconsiderable seal and whale fisheries; discovered in 1611 by a Dutchnavigator. 

JANE EYRE, a novel by Charlotte Brontë; published in 1847. 

JANICULUM, one of the hills of Rome, on the right bank of the Tiber. 

JANIN, JULES GABRIEL, critic and novelist, born at St. Étienne, France; took to journalism early, and established a reputation by hislively dramatic criticisms in the _Journal des Débats_; his gift of readycomposition betrayed him into a too prolific output of work, and it isdoubtful if any of his many novels and articles will long survive his dayand generation; they, however, brought him wealth and celebrity in hisown lifetime; he succeeded in 1870 to Sainte-Beuve's chair in the FrenchAcademy (1804-1874). 

JANIZARIES, a Turkish military force organised in 1330, and moreperfectly in 1336; composed originally of Christian youths takenprisoners in war or kidnapped, and trained as Mohammedans; from being atfirst 10, 000, and fostered by the privileges granted them, increased to300, 000 or 400, 000 strong, till they became unruly and a danger to theState, when, after various unsuccessful attempts to crush them, they werein 1826 overborne by the Sultan Mahmoud II. And dissolved. 

JANNÆUS, ALEXANDER, the second of the Asmonæan kings of Judea;reigned in the beginning of the century before Christ; insulted the Jewsby profaning the rites of their religion, and roused a hostility againsthim which was appeased only by his death, the news of which was receivedwith expressions of triumphant exultation. 

JANNES AND JAMBRES, the two Egyptian magicians who thought tooutrival Moses in the performance of his miracles; supposed to bereferred to in 2 Tim. Iii. 8 as "withstanding" him. 

JANSEN, CORNELIUS, a Dutch theologian and bishop of Ypres, born inLouvain; studied the works of Augustine, and wrote a book entitled"Augustinus" in exposition of that great Father's doctrine of grace, which was published after his death, and which gave occasion to a greatcontroversy between his followers, in France especially, and the Jesuits(1585-1638). 

JANSENISTS, a party in the Roman Catholic Church, supporters ofJansen's views, who, in opposition to the Jesuits, maintained theAugustinian principle of the sovereign and irresistible nature of divinegrace. The most celebrated members of the party were thePORT-ROYALISTS (q. V. ) of France, in particular Arnauld andPascal, and they were opposed not only by the Jesuits, but by both LouisXIV. And the Pope. Driven from France on the death of Louis, they tookrefuge in Holland, and thither the Pope Clement XI. Followed them, firstin 1713, hurling a bull against them, and then in 1719 byex-communicating them and driving them for good from within the pale ofthe Catholic Church. 

JANUARIUS, ST. , a Christian who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, and whose head is preserved in Naples with a phial containing his bloodwhich, on certain occasions, liquefies when brought into contact with thehead. Recourse is had to it on the occasion of public calamities, notwithout desired effects, and it is an object of worship. Festival, September 19. 

JANUARY, the first month of the year, so called as sacred toJANUS (q. V. ). 

JANUARY, EDICT OF, edict of date January 17, 1562, on whichCatherine de Médecis granted certain concessions to the Protestants. 

JANUS, a very ancient Italian deity who presided over the beginningof the several divisions of time, as well as the beginning of allenterprises, in connection with which he was worshipped; he had twoheads, or faces, one of which looked behind into the past and the otherbefore into the future, and this power of penetrating into both it issaid Saturn endowed him with as a reward for receiving him on earth whenhe was driven out of heaven. 

JAPAN (40, 719), an island empire of the N. Pacific, lying along theE. Coast of Asia, and separated from Corea and Primorsk by the Sea ofJapan, consists of Honshiu (31, 000), Shikoku (3, 000), Kyushu (6, 000), Yezo (314), and 4000 small islands; though not of volcanic origin, theislands are the most mountainous in the world, have many volcanoes andsulphur springs, and are subject to earthquakes; they are verypicturesque, and have peaks from 8000 to 12, 000 ft. High; the rivers aretoo swift for navigation; the coast, not much indented, has yet some goodharbours; the valleys are well wooded, but the soil not very fertile;temperature and climate are various; nowhere is the heat intense, but insome parts the winter is very cold; there is much rain, but on the wholeit is healthy; the chief industry is agriculture; farming is careful andintelligent; rice, cereals, pulse, tea, cotton, and tobacco are raised, and many fruits; gold, silver, all the useful metals, coal, granite, somedecorative stones are found, but good building-stone is scarce; themanufacture of porcelain, lacquer-work, and silk is extensive, and insome artistic work the Japanese are unrivalled; the chief ports areYokohama (143), on the E. Of Honshiu, which has grown up since 1854, whenthe country was opened to trade; and Hyogo (143), on the S. Coast of thesame island, where are also shipbuilding yards; the chief exports aretea, silk, and rice; imports cotton, woollen, iron goods, and chemicals;the Japanese, sprung from an ancient union of Tartars with Ainos and withS. Malays, are a kindly, courteous, law-abiding folk, with highlydeveloped artistic tastes; education is compulsory, and well providedfor; religion is Shintoism and Buddhism, but Christianity is gainingrapid ground; the government is in the hands of the Mikado, who rules nowwith the aid of ministers and two houses of parliament; education, government, army, and navy--indeed the whole modern civilisation of thecountry--is on Western lines, though until 1853 foreigners were excluded;a civil war in 1867-68 effected the change from the old feudalism, andthe amazing success of Japan in the war against China in 1894 has provedthat the new civilisation is no mere veneer; the capital is Tokyo(1, 162). 

JAPHETH, one of the three sons of Noah and the ancestor of theGentiles, as distinct from the descendants of Shem, or the Semites, andof Ham, or the Hamites. See IAPETOS. 

JAQUES, or the "melancholy" a cynical moraliser in Shakespeare's "AsYou Like It. "

JARNAC, a town on the Charente, celebrated as the scene of a victorywhich the Catholics, commanded by the Duc d'Anjou, afterwards Henry III. Obtained in 1569 over the Huguenots commanded by Condé. 

JAROSLAV (79), on the Volga, 160 m. NE. Of Moscow, is capital of thegovernment of Jaroslav; is an important river-port, a seat of theologicaland legal culture, and has cotton manufactures. 

JARPNOONK, a mesmeric or hypnotic state produced by Hindu conjurers. 

JARROW (34), in Durham, on the Tyne, 7 m. Below Newcastle; is acoal-shipping port, and has extensive shipbuilding and iron manufactures;in ancient times its monastery was made famous by the Venerable Bede. 

JARVIE, BAILIE NICOL, a Glasgow magistrate; an original character inScott's "Rob Roy. "

JASHER, BOOK OF, a Hebrew book twice quoted in the Old Testament, nolonger extant; believed to have been a collection of national ballads. 

JASMIN, JACQUES, a Gascon barber and poet, who by his romances, burlesques, and odes, published between 1835 and 1849, raised the patoisof the S. Of France to the status of a literary language, and created awholesome influence on French life and letters (1778-1864). 

JASON, a mythological Greek hero, son of Æson, king of Iolcos;brought up by the centaur Chiron, was supplanted on the throne by hishalf-brother Pelias; undertook the leadership of the Argonauticexpedition, assisted by Medea in this enterprise; he took her to wife, but cast her off for Creusa, whom Medea to avenge herself killed, withher father and her two sons by Jason, she herself escaping to Athens in achariot drawn by winged dragons; Jason took refuge from her fury in thesanctuary of Poseidon near Corinth, where the timber of the ship Argodeposited there breaking up fell upon him and crushed him to death. 

JASPER, an opaque quartz found in all colours, and spotted, striped, and clouded; is valued in ornamental lapidary work because of the polishit takes. 

JASSY (90), ancient capital of Moldavia, situated 89 m. NE. OfBucharest; is the seat of an archbishop and a university, and has a largecommunity of Jews; trades largely with Russia in corn, spirits, and wine. 

JÂTAKA, a Pâli collection of stories recounting 550 previous"births" of the Buddha, the earliest collection of popular tales, and theultimate source of many of Æsop's fables and Western folk-lore legends. 

JATS, are the principal race in the Punjab, where they number 4½millions, and are engaged in agriculture. There is much debate as totheir origin and their racial relationship. 

JAVA (23, 868), the finest island of the Indian Archipelago, lyingbetween Sumatra and Bali, with the Indian Ocean on the S. And the JavaSea separating it from Borneo on the N. , lies E. And W. , traversed by amountain chain with a rich alluvial plain on the N. ; there are manyvolcanoes; the climate is hot, and on the coast unhealthy; the mountainsare densely wooded, and the teak forests are valuable; the plain isfertile; coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, and tobacco are grown and exported;all kinds of manufactured goods, wine, spirits, and provisions areimported; the natives are Malays, more civilised than on neighbouringislands; there are 240, 000 Chinese, many Europeans and Arabs; the islandis nearly as large as England, and belongs to Holland; the chief townsare Batavia (105) and Samarang (70), both on the N. 

JAY, JOHN, American statesman, born in New York, and called to thebar in 1768; took a part in the struggle for independence second only toWashington's; represented his country subsequently in Madrid and London;was first Chief-Justice of the United States, and from 1795 to 1801governor of New York (1745-1829). 

JAY, WILLIAM, eminent Congregationalist minister, born in Wiltshire;was first a stone-mason, but entered the ministry, and after a short termof service near Chippenham was pastor of Argyle Chapel, Bath, for 62years. He was an impressive preacher and a popular writer (1769-1853). 

JAYADEVA, a Hindu poet, born near Burdwân, in Bengal, flourished inthe 12th century, whose great work, the "Gita Govinda, " the "Song of theShepherd Krishna, " has been translated by Sir Edwin Arnold as the "IndianSong of Songs, " in celebration of the love of Krishna and his wife Radha;it has often been compared with the "Song of Songs, " in the HebrewScriptures. 

JEAN D'ÉPEE (Jean, i. E. The Frenchman with the sword), a namegiven to Napoleon by his partisans who conspired for his restoration in1814. 

JEAN JACQUES, Rousseau, from his Christian name. 

JEAN PAUL, RICHTER (q. V. ), from his Christian name. 

JEANNE D'ALBRET. See D'ALBRET, JEANNE. 

JEANNE D'ARC. See JOAN OF ARC. 

JEBB, PROFESSOR, eminent Greek scholar, born in Dundee; elected in1889 Regius Professor of Greek in Cambridge; has represented Cambridge inParliament since 1891; edited "Sophocles, " "The Attic Orators, ""Introduction to Homer, " &c. ; B. 1841. 

JEDBURGH (3), county town of Roxburghshire, picturesquely situatedon the Jed, 30 m. SW. Of Berwick, and 10 m. SW. Of Kelso; is an ancienttown of many historic memories; made a royal burgh by David I. ; containsthe ruins of an abbey, and has some woollen manufactures. 

JEDDAH (46), a town on the Red Sea, 65 m. W. Of Mecca, of which itis the port, where the pilgrims disembark for the holy city; is a placeof trade, less considerable than it once was. 

JEEJEEBHOY, SIR JAMSETJEE, Indian philanthropist, a Parsee by birthand creed, born in Bombay; realised a fortune as a merchant, and employedit in releasing debtors from jail by paying their debts, and in foundinga hospital and schools; in 1857 was made a baronet (1783-1859). 

JEFFERIES, JOHN RICHARD, writer on rural subjects, born nearSwindon, Wilts, son of a gamekeeper; was first a journalist and novelist, but attained success in "The Gamekeeper at Home, " 1878; other booksdisplay a very accurate faculty of observation and description, areverence for nature, for rural scenes and people; "The Story of myHeart, " 1883, is an introspective and somewhat morbid autobiography; hedied after six years' illness at Goring, Sussex; Prof. Saintsburypronounces him "the greatest minute describer of English country lifesince White of Selborne" (1848-1887). 

JEFFERSON, JOSEPH, comedian, born in Philadelphia, of theatricallineage; was on the stage at the age of 3; made his first success in NewYork as Dr. Pangloss in 1857, and in London in 1865 began to play hismost famous rôle, Rip van Winkle, a most exquisite exhibition ofhistrionic genius; B. 1829. 

JEFFERSON, THOMAS, American statesman, born at Shadwell, Virginia;took a prominent part in the Revolution, and claimed to have drawn up theDeclaration of Independence; he secured the decimal coinage for theStates in 1783; was plenipotentiary in France in 1784, and subsequentlyminister there; third President, 1801-1807, he saw the Louisiana purchaseand the prohibition of the slave-trade; after his retirement he devotedhimself to furthering education till his death at Monticello, Va. ; he wasa man of extremes, but honest and consistent in his policy (1743-1826). 

JEFFREY, FRANCIS, LORD, a celebrated critic and lawyer, born inEdinburgh; trained for and called to the bar in 1794; with a finecultivated literary taste devoted himself principally to literarycriticism, and being a Whig in politics was associated with theoriginators of the _EDINBURGH REVIEW_ (q. V. ), and became itsfirst editor in 1802, which he continued to be till 1829, contributing toits pages all along articles of great brilliancy; he was distinguishedalso at the bar in several famous trials; became Lord Advocate ofScotland in 1830, M. P. For Edinburgh in 1832, and finally, in 1834, oneof the judges in the Court of Session; lie was a dark-eyed, nimble littleman, of alert intelligence and quick in all his movements; died atCraigcrook, near Edinburgh (1773-1850). 

JEFFREYS, BARON, of infamous memory, born in Wales; becameChief-Justice of England in 1863; was one of the advisers and promotersof the tyrannical proceedings of James II. 's reign, and notorious for hiscruel and vindictive judgments as a judge, to the indignation of thepeople; tried to escape on the arrival of William; was discovered lurkingin a public-house at Wapping, and apprehended and committed to the Tower, where he died (1648-1689). 

JEHOVAH, the name of God in the Hebrew Scriptures as_self-existent_, and the Creator and Lord of all things, in the regard ofthe Jews too sacred to be pronounced, and which in the Authorised Versionis often rendered by the word LORD in small capital letters. 

JEHOVIST, the presumed author of the Jehoistic portions of thePentateuch. See ELOHIST. 

JEKYLL, DR. , AND MR. HYDE, the good nature and the bad strugglingfor the ascendency in the same person, generally to the defeat of theformer. 

JELF, RICHARD WILLIAM, Principal of King's College, London; waseducated at Oxford, became Fellow of Oriel, canon of Christ's Church, andPrincipal of King's College; is remembered chiefly for his rigidorthodoxy and for the part he played in depriving Maurice of hisprofessorship at King's College (1798-1871). 

JEMAPPES (11), a manufacturing Belgian town, 3 m. W. Of Mons, whereDumouriez in the name of the French Republic defeated the Austrians in1792. 

JEMINDAR, a native officer in the Indian army of rank equal to thatof lieutenant in the British. 

JENA (13), in Saxe-Weimar, on the Saale, 14 m. SE. Of Weimar, an oldtown with memories of Luther, Goethe, and Schiller; has a universityfounded to be a centre of Reformation influence, and since associatedwith Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and the Schlegels, who were teachersthere; on the same day in October 14, 1806, two victories were won nearthe town by French troops over the Prussians, the collective name forboth being "the battle of Jena. "

"JENKINS'S EAR, " refers to an incident which provoked a war withSpain in 1739, viz. , the conduct of the officer of a Spanish guardshipnot far from Havana towards the captain of an English trading ship of thename of Jenkins; the Spaniards boarded his ship, could find nothingcontraband on board, but treated him cruelly, cut off his left ear, whichhe brought home in wadding, to the inflaming of the English peopleagainst Spain, with the above-named issue. 

JENNER, EDWARD, an English physician, born in Berkeley, andpractised there; was the discoverer of inoculation with cowpox as apreventive of smallpox, or vaccination as it is called, a discovery whichhas immortalised his name (1749-1822). 

JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent physician, born at Chatham; heldseveral professorships in University College; was physician to the Queenand the Prince of Wales; discovered the symptoms which differentiatetyphus from typhoid fever (1815-1899). 

JEPHTHAH, one of the Judges of Israel, famed for his rash vow in theevent of victory to offer in sacrifice the first object that came out ofhis house on his return, and which happened to be his daughter and onlychild, and whom it would seem he sacrificed, after allowing her twomonths to bewail her fate along with her maidens; it is not said herfather sacrificed her, and it is thought she was only doomed to perpetualvirginity. 

JEREMIAD, a lament over degeneracy in modern times. 

JEREMIAH, a Hebrew prophet, born at Anathoth, a priestly city 3 m. N. Of Jerusalem, where, after his removal thither, he spent as a prophetthe greater part of his life, viz. , from 629 to 588 B. C. ; his prophecywas a lifelong protest against the iniquity and folly of his countrymen, and was conceived in bitter foreboding of the hopeless ruin they werebringing down upon their heads; his faithfulness offended friend and foealike, and more than one plot was laid against his life, which was one ofever-deepening sadness and one long wail over the ruin of the country heso loved; he lived to see the issue of his prediction in the captivity ofthe people, though he did not go into captivity with them, the conquerorhaving allowed him to remain as he wished; he appears to have died inEgypt; he was the author of "Lamentations, " and it is thought of sundryof the Psalms. See HEBREW PROPHECY. 

JERICHO, an ancient city of Palestine, in the SW. Of a plain of thesame name that extends W. Of the Jordan and NW. Of the Dead Sea; it wasthe first city taken by the Israelites when they entered the Holy Land, the walls falling down before them after being compassed for seven daysby the priests blowing on rams' horns and followed by the people. 

JEROME, JEROME KLAPTA, dramatist, journalist, &c. , author of "IdleThoughts of an Idle Fellow, " "Three Men in a Boat, " "Diary of aPilgrimage, " &c. , as also of plays; editor of the _Idler_ and of a weeklymagazine journal, _To-Day_; _b_. 1861. 

JEROME, ST. , a Father of the Church, born in N. Illyria, of richparents, presumably Christian, although he first became Christian himselfof his own election after he was grown up; and from the day of hisbaptism, "he left, " as he says, "not only parents and kindred, but theaccustomed luxuries of delicate life"; his fame rests on a translation ofthe Scriptures into Latin, known as the Vulgate, which he executed atBethlehem at intervals from A. D. 385 to 404, with the design of showingto the Latin world what was and what was not contained in the originaldocuments for the faith of the Church, and with the result, that in thelong run the Old and the New Testaments were for the first time presentedto and received by the Church as both of equal, or at least commonauthority, and as both sections of one book (331-420). 

JEROME OF PRAGUE, born at Prague; studied there and at Oxford (wherehe came under Wycliffe's influence), Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne;acquired great learning, and displayed great energy and oratorical power;attracted the notice of the Kings of Poland and Hungary; joined John Hussin his agitation against the abuses of the Church; became involved in themovement against Huss, and though he recanted, afterwards withdrew hisrecantation, and was burned at Constance (about 1365-1416. )

JERROLD, DOUGLAS, dramatist and celebrated wit, born in London, sonof a theatrical magistrate; began life as a printer; composed "Black-eyedSusan"; contributed to _Punch_ "Mrs. Caudle's Lectures" among otherpieces, and edited magazines; the keenness of his satire was the reflexof a feeling heart (1803-1857). 

JERSEY (55), the largest and richest of the Channel Islands, lies 15m. Off the French coast, 100 m. S. Of Portland Bill, is oblong in shape, with great bays in the coast, and slopes from the N. To the SW. ; the soilis devoted chiefly to pasture and potato culture; the exports are earlypotatoes for the London market and the famous Jersey cattle, the purityof whose breed is carefully preserved; the island is self-governing, hasa somewhat primitive land tenure, is remarkably free from poverty andcrime, has been under the English crown since 1066; the capital is St. Helier (29), where there is a college, a public library, a harbour, and agood market. 

JERSEY CITY (206), the most populous city in New Jersey, isseparated from New York, of which it is practically a part, only by theHudson River; has no pretension to beauty, but is a busy railway centre;has very varied manufactures, including sugar, flour, machinery, andchemicals, extensive shipping interests, and great trade in iron, coal, and agricultural produce. 

JERUSALEM (41), the capital of Palestine, holy city of the Jews, belonged originally to the Jebusites, but was captured by David and madehis capital; a strong place, built on four hills 2000 ft. Above theMediterranean, enclosed within walls and protected nearly all round bydeep valleys and rising grounds beyond; it has been so often besieged, overthrown, and rebuilt that the present city stands on rubbish heaps, the ruins of ancient structures. 

JERUSALEM, KINGDOM OF, kingdom founded by Godfrey of Bouillon in1099 and overthrown by Saladin in 1187. 

JERUSALEM DELIVERED, an epic poem in 20 cantos by Tasso andpublished in 1575, the appearance of which constitutes one of the greatepochs in the history of literature. 

JERVIS, SIR JOHN, an English admiral, born in Staffordshire; enteredthe navy at 10, rose to be Rear-Admiral of the White in 1790; his greatfeat his defeat of the Spanish fleet of 27 ships with one of 15 ships offSt. Vincent in 1797, in consequence of which he was raised to the peerageas Earl St. Vincent; was buried in St. Paul's, London (1734-1823). 

JESSICA, Shylock's daughter, in the "Merchant of Venice". 

JESUITISM, popularly regarded as an attempt to achieve holy ends byunholy means, but really and radically the apotheosis of falsehood andunreality to the dethronement of faith in the true, the genuine and thereal, a deliberate shutting of the eyes to the truth, a belief in a liein the name of God, a belief in symbols and formulas as in themselvessacred, salutary, and divine, fiction superseding fact, and fancy faithin God or the divine reality of things, the embodiment of the genius ofcant persuading itself to believe that _that which is not is_, whileatheism, on the other hand, tries to persuade itself to believe that_that which is is not_. 

JESUITS, or SOCIETY OF JESUS, the religious order founded byIgnatius Loyola in 1534, and approved of by bull of Paul III. In 1540, for the conversion of heretics and the propagation of the Roman Catholicfaith, and reputed, however self-denying at times, to be unscrupulous inthe means they employ to achieve their ends, which is, broadly speaking, re-establishing over Christendom the tyranny of the Church; theyestablished themselves in the several countries of Europe, but theirpolicy was found dangerous to political liberty as well as religious, andthey are now everywhere nearly stamped out; there are nevertheless stillseveral communities of them in the south of Europe, and even colleges inEngland, Ireland, and the United States, as well as missions under themin heathen parts. 

JESUS, THE SON OF SIRACH, the author of the book ofECCLESIASTICUS (q. V. ). 

JESUS CHRIST (i. E. The anointed Divine Saviour), the Son of Godand the hope of Israel, Saviour of mankind, born in Bethlehem of theVirgin Mary four years before the commencement of the Christian era, andwho suffered death on the cross for the salvation of His people in A. D. 33, after a life of sorrow over the sins of the world and an earnestpleading with men to turn from sin unto God as revealed in Himself, inthe life He led, the words He spoke, and the death He died, and afterleaving behind Him a Spirit which He promised would guide those whobelieved in Him unto all truth, a Spirit which was and would prove to bethe spirit of His manifestation in the flesh from birth onwards to death, and through death to the very grave. See CHRISTIANITY. 

JET, a hard, black, bituminous lignite, capable of an excellentpolish and easily carved, hence useful for trinkets and ornaments, whichhave been made of it from very early times; is found in France, Spain, and Saxony, but the best supplies come from Whitby, Yorkshire. 

JETSAM, part of the cargo of a ship thrown overboard to lighten herin a case of peril. 

JEU DE PAUME, an oath which the deputies of the Third Estate took onJune 13, 1789, not to separate till they had given France a constitution. 

JEUNESSE DORÉE (lit. Gilded youth), name given to a body of youngdandies who, after the fall of Robespierre, strove to bring about acounter-revolution. 

JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY, logician and political economist, born inLiverpool; in 1866 was professor of Logic of Owens College, Manchester, and 10 years later professor of Political Economy in University College, London; distinguished himself in the departments of both chairs both as alecturer and a writer; was drowned while bathing at Bexhill, nearHastings (1835-1882). 

JEW, THE WANDERING, a Jew bearing the name of Ahasuérus, whom, according to an old legend, Christ condemned to wander over the earthtill He should return again to judgment, because He drove Him brutallyaway as, weary with the cross He carried, He sat down to rest on a stonebefore his door; in symbolic token, it is surmised, of the dispersion ofthe whole Jewish people over the earth as homeless wanderers by way ofjudgment for their rejection of Christ. 

JEWELL, JOHN, early English Protestant divine, born near Ilfracombe;educated at Oxford; became Tutor of Corpus Christi; embraced the Reformedfaith, and was secretary to Peter Martyr in 1547; he received the livingof Sunningwell, Berks, in 1551, but on Mary's accession fled toStrasburg; Elizabeth made him Bishop of Salisbury in 1559, and threeyears later he published his "Apology for the English Church, " in hisdefence of which he sought to base the faith of the Church on the directteaching of Christ apart from that of the Fathers and tradition(1522-1571). 

JEWS, THE, a people of Semitic origin, descended from Abraham in theline of Jacob; conspicuous for the profession of a religion that hasissued from them, and affected to the core the rest of the civilisedworld. Their religion was determined by a moral standard; through themmore than through any other race has the moral principle, or the law ofconscience, been evolved in humanity as the sovereign law of life, andthis at length resolved itself into a faith in one God, the sole ruler inheaven and on earth, the law of whose government is truth andrighteousness, only they stopped short with the assertion of this divineunity, and in their hard monotheism stubbornly refused, as they do still, to accept the doctrine of trinity in unity which, spiritually understoodis, as it has been well defined, the central principle of the Christianfaith, the principle that to have a _living_ morality one must have afaith in a Divine Father, a Divine Son, and a Divine Spirit, all threeequally Divine. But, indeed, it is to be noted that the Jewish religionnever was nor ever has been the religion of the Jewish people, but wasfrom first to last solely the religion of the law-givers and prophetssent to teach them, to whom they never as a race paid any heed. There wasnever such antagonism of Yea to God and Nay to Him in the history of anynation as among them; never such openness to whisperings, and suchcallousness to the thunder of God's voice; on the one side, never suchtenderness, and on the other, never such hardness, of heart. Nor exceptby their religion, which they did not believe at heart themselves, and ofwhich they have but been the vehicles, have they as a race contributedanything to the true wealth of the world, "being mere dealers in money, gold, jewels, or else old clothes, material and spiritual. " And it hasbeen noted they have all along shown a want of humour, a want of gentlesympathy with the under side, "a fatal defect, as without it no man orpeople is good for anything. " They were never good for much as a nation, and they are still more powerless for good since it was broken up, numerous as they have been, and are in their widely scattered state; forthere are 4, 500, 000 in Russia, 1, 600, 000 in Austria-Hungary, 1, 567, 000 inGermany, 567, 000 in Roumania, 300, 000 in Turkey, 120, 000 in Holland, 97, 000 in France, 72, 000 in England, 101, 000 in Italy, 50, 000 inSwitzerland, 4652 in Servia, and 15, 792 in Greece, in all, 7, 701, 261 inEurope; throughout the globe altogether 11, 000, 000, while the numbers inPalestine are increasing. 

JEYPORE (2, 832), a native state in Rajputana; has been under Britishprotection since 1818, and was loyal at the Mutiny; the soil is rocky andsandy, but there is much irrigation; copper, iron, and cobalt are found;enamelled gold ware and salt are manufactured; education is well providedfor; at the capital, Jeypore (159), the handsomest town in India, thereis a State college and a school of art; its business is chiefly bankingand exchange. 

JEZEBEL, the wicked wife of Ahab, king of Israel, whose fate isrecorded in 2 Kings ix. 30-37; gives name to a bold, flaunting woman ofloose morals. 

JINA (lit. The "victorious" one as contrasted with Buddha themerely "awakened" one) is in the religion of the JAINAS (q. V. )a sage who has achieved _omniscience_, and who came to re-establish thelaw in its purity where it has become corrupted among men; one of aclass, of which it appears there have been 24 in number, who haveappeared at intervals after long periods of time, in shapes less imposingor awe-inspiring than at first, and after less and less intervals as timegoes on The Jainas claim that Buddha was a disciple of the Jina, theirfounder, who had finished the faith to which the latter had only beenawakened. 

JINGO, a name, of uncertain derivation, given to a political partyfavourable to an aggressive, menacing policy in foreign affairs, andfirst applied in 1877 to that political section in Great Britain whichprovoked the Turco-Russian war. 

JINN, in the Arabian mythology one of a class of genii born of fire, some of them good spirits and some of them evil, with the power ofassuming visible forms, hideous or bewitching, corresponding to theircharacter. 

JOAB, the nephew and a general of David's; put to death by order ofSolomon 1014 B. C. 

JOACHIM, JOSEPH, a distinguished violinist, born near Presburg, inHungary; famous as a youthful prodigy; was encouraged by Mendelssohn; hasvisited London every year since 1844, and has been principal leader inthe Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts from the first, and became headof the Academy of Music at Berlin in 1869; the fiftieth anniversary ofhis first appearance was celebrated on March 17, 1889, when his admirerspresented him with a magnificent violin; _b_. 1831. 

JOACHIM, ST. , the husband of St. Anne, and the father of the VirginMary. 

JOAN, POPE, a woman who, in the guise of a man with maleaccomplishments, is said for two years five months and four days to havebeen Pope of Rome between Leo IV. And Benedict III. About 853-855, andwhose sex was discovered by the premature birth of a child during somepublic procession. She is said to have been of English parentage, and tohave borne the name of Gilberte. However, it is but fair to say that thestory is of doubtful authenticity. 

JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS, a French heroine, born at Domrémy, of poor parents, but nursed in an atmosphere of religious enthusiasm, andsubject, in consequence, to fits of religious ecstasy, in one of whichshe seemed to hear voices calling to her from heaven to devote herself tothe deliverance of France, which was then being laid desolate by anEnglish invasion, occupied at the time in besieging Orleans; inspiredwith the passion thus awakened she sought access to Charles VII. , thenDauphin, and offered to raise the siege referred to, and thereafterconduct him to Reims to be crowned; whereupon, permission being granted, she marched from Blois at the head of 10, 000 men, whom she had inspiredwith faith in her divine mission; drove the English from theirentrenchments, sent them careering to a distance, and thereafterconducted Charles to Reims to be crowned, standing beside him till thecoronation ceremony was ended; with this act she considered her missionended, but she was tempted afterwards to assist in raising the siege ofCompiègne, and on the occasion of a sally was taken prisoner by thebesieging English, and after an imprisonment of four months tried forsorcery, and condemned to be burned alive; she met her fate in themarket-place of Rouen with fortitude in the twenty-ninth year of her age(1412-1431). 

JOANNUS DAMASCENUS, theologian and hymn-writer, born at Damascus;was a zealous defender of image-worship; was said to have had his righthand chopped off by the machinations of his foes, which was afterwardsrestored to him by the Virgin; _d_. 754, at the age of 70. 

JOB, BOOK OF pronounced by Carlyle "one of the grandest things everwritten with pen; grand in its sincerity, in its simplicity, in its epicmelody and repose of reconcilement"; one perceives in it "the seeing eye, the mildly understanding heart, true eyesight and vision for all things;sublime sorrow and sublime reconciliation; oldest choral melody as of theheart of mankind; so soft and great as the summer midnight, as the worldwith its seas and stars"; the whole giving evidence "of a literary meritunsurpassed by anything written in Bible or out of it; not a Jew's bookmerely, but all men's book. " It is partly didactic and partly biographic;that is to say, the object of the author is to solve a problem in partspeculatively, or in the intelligence, and in part spiritually, or in thelife; the speculative solution being, that sufferings are to prove andpurify the righteous; and the spiritual, consisting in accepting them notas of merely Divine appointment, but manifestations of God Himself, whichis accomplished in the experience of Job when he exclaims at last, "Nowmine eye seeth Thee. " It is very idle to ask if the story is a real one, since its interest and value do not depend on its historic, but itsuniversal and eternal truth; nor is the question of the authorship of anymore consequence, even if there were any clue to it, which there is not, as the book offers no difficulty to the interpreter which any knowledgeof the author would the least contribute to remove. In such a case thechallenge of Goethe is _apropos_, "What have I to do with names when itis a work of the spirit I am considering?" The book of Job was for longbelieved to be one of the oldest books in the world, and to have had itsorigin among a patriarchal people, such as the Arabs, but is now prettyconfidently referred to a period between that of David and the returnfrom the captivity, the character of it bespeaking a knowledge andexperience peculiarly Jewish. 

JOCASTE, the wife of Laius, king of Thebes, and mother of Oedipus;she afterwards married him not knowing that he was her son, and ondiscovery of the crime put an end to herself, though not till after shehad become the mother of Etéocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismenë. 

JOCELIN DE BRAKELONDA, an old 12th-century St. Edmundsbury monk, wholeft behind him a "Chronical" of the Abbey from 1173 to 1202, and which, published in 1840 by the Camden Society, gave occasion to the "Past andPresent" of Thomas Carlyle; he had been chaplain to the Abbot Samson, thehero of his book, living beside him night and day for the space of sixyears, "an ingenious and ingenuous, a cheery-hearted, innocent, yetwithal shrewd, noticing, quick-witted man"; _d_. 1211. 

JODHPUR (2, 522), largest Rajputana State, under British protectionsince 1818; is backward in government, education, agriculture, andmanufactures; tin, lead, and iron are found; salt is made at SambharLake. The state revolted at the Mutiny. JODHPUR (62), the capital, is 350 m. SW. Of Delhi, and is connected by rail with Jeypore and Bombay. 

JOE MILLER, an English actor, the author of a book of jests(1684-1738). 

JOEL, a Hebrew prophet, author of a book of the Old Testament thatbears his name, and which is of uncertain date, but is written on thegreat broad lines of all Hebrew prophecy, and reads us the same morallesson, that from the judgments of God there is no outlet for the sinnerexcept in repentance, and that in repentance lies the pledge ofdeliverance from all evil and of the enjoyment of all good. 

JOHANNESBURG (40), the largest town in the Transvaal, 30 m. S. OfPretoria, and 800 m. NE. Of Cape Town; is the centre of Witwatersrandgold-mining fields. Until recently an ill-equipped town, it has maderapid progress. Since 1892 railways connect it with Delagoa Bay, Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Cape Town. Magnificent buildings and residentialsuburbs are springing up. The water-supply is bad, and dust-storms arefrequent, otherwise the climate is very healthy. Johannesburg was theseat of the dissatisfaction among the Uitlanders in 1895, which led toDr. Jameson's raid. 

JOHN, king of England from 1199 to 1216, was clever and vivacious, but the most vicious, profane, false, short-sighted, tyrannical, andunscrupulous of English monarchs; the son of Henry II. , he married Hawisaof Gloucester, and succeeded his brother Richard I. , being Richard'snominee, and the tacitly elect of the people; his nephew, Arthur, claimedthe French dominions, and was supported by the French king, Philip; in1200 he divorced Hawisa, and married Isabel of Angoulême, achild-heiress; this provoked the French barons; in the war that ensuedArthur was captured, and subsequently murdered either by John himself orby his orders; Philip invaded Normandy, and with the fall of theChâteau-Gaillard in 1204, most of the French possessions were lost to theEnglish crown; then followed John's quarrel with Pope Innocent III. Overthe election of an archbishop of Canterbury; the Pope consecrated StephenLangton; John refused to receive him; in 1208 the kingdom was placedunder an interdict, and next year the king was excommunicated; John onhis side confiscated Church property, exiled the bishops, exacted homageof William of Scotland, and put down risings in Ireland and Wales; but abull, deposing him and absolving his vassals from allegiance, forced himto submit, and he resigned his crown to the Pope's envoy in 1213; thisexaction on Innocent's part initiated the opposition to Rome whichculminated in the English Reformation; the rest of the reign was astruggle between the king, relying on his suzerain the Pope, and thepeople, barons, and clergy, for the first time on one side; war brokeout; the king was forced to sign Magna Charta at Runnymede in 1215, butthe Pope annulled the Charter; the barons appealed for help to theDauphin, and were prosecuting the war when John died at Newark(1167-1216). 

JOHN, the name of no fewer than 23 popes. J. I. , Pope from 523to 526, was canonised; J. II. , pope from 532 to 535; J. III. , Pope from 560 to 578; J. IV. , pope from 640 to 642; J. V. , Popefrom 686 to 687; J. VI. , pope from 701 to 705; J. VII. , Popefrom 705 to 707; J. VIII. , pope from 872 to 882; J. IX. , Popefrom 898 to 900; J. X. , pope from 914 to 928; J. XI. , Pope from931 to 936; J. XII. , Pope from 956 to 964--was only 18 when elected, led a licentious life; J. XIII. , pope from 965 to 972; J. XIV. , Pope from 984 to 985; J. XV. , pope in 985; J. XVI. , Pope from985 to 996; J. XVII. , pope in 1003; J. XVIII. , Pope from 1003to 1009; J. XIX. , pope from 1024 to 1033; J. XX. , Anti-Popefrom 1043 to 1046; J. XXI. , Pope from 1276 to 1277; J. XXII. , Popefrom 1316 to 1334--a learned man, a steadfast, and a courageous; J. XXIII. , Pope in 1410, deposed in 1415--was an able man, but anunscrupulous. 

JOHN, EPISTLES OF, three Epistles, presumed to have been written bythe author of the Gospel, from the correspondence between them both asregards thought and expression; the occasion of writing them was theappearance of Antichrist within the bounds of the Church, in the denialof Christ as God manifest in flesh, and the object of writing them was toemphasise the fact that eternal life had appeared in Him. 

JOHN, KNIGHTS OF ST. , a religious order of knights, founded in 1048, and instituted properly in 1110, for the defence of pilgrims toJerusalem; established a church and a cloister there, with a hospital forpoor and sick pilgrims, and were hence called the Hospital Brothers ofSt. John of Jerusalem; the knights consisted of three classes, knights ofnoble birth to bear arms, priests to conduct worship, and servingbrothers to tend the sick; on the fall of Jerusalem they retired toCyprus, conquered Rhodes, and called themselves Knights of Rhodes; drivenfrom which they settled in Malta and took the name of Knights of Malta, after which the knighthood had various fortunes. 

JOHN, PRESTER, a supposed king and priest of a mediæval kingdom inthe interior of Asia; converted to Christianity by the Nestorianmissionaries; was defeated and killed in 1202 by Genghis Khan, who hadbeen tributary to him but had revolted; he was distinguished for pietyand magnificence. 

JOHN, ST. , the Apostle, the son of Zebedee and Salome, the sister ofthe virgin Mary; originally a fisherman on the Galilæan Lake; after beinga disciple of John the Baptist became one of the earliest disciples ofChrist; much beloved and trusted by his Master; lived after His death fora time in Jerusalem, and then at Ephesus as bishop, where he died at agreat age; he lived to see the rise of the Gnostic heresy, against which, as a denial that Christ had come in the flesh, he protested with his lastbreath as an utter denial of Christ; he is represented in Christian artas either writing his Gospel, or as bearing a chalice out of which aserpent issues, or as in a caldron of boiling oil. 

JOHN, THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO, the fourth Gospel, of which traditionalleges St. John was the author, and which is presumed to have beenwritten by him at Ephesus about A. D. 78; its great design is to bearwitness to the Son of God as having come in the flesh, as being not anideal, therefore, but a real incarnation, and as in the reality of thatbeing the light and life of man; whereas the scene of the other Gospelsis chiefly laid in Galilee, that of John's is mostly in Judea, recording, as it does, no fewer than seven visits to the capital, and while itportrays the person of Christ as the light of life, it represents him asagain and again misunderstood, even by those well disposed to Him, as ifthe text of his Gospel were "the light shineth in darkness, and thedarkness comprehendeth it not"; the authenticity of this Gospel has beenmuch debated, and its composition has by recent criticism been referredto somewhere between A. D. 160 and 170. 

JOHN BULL, a humorous impersonation of the English people, conceivedof as well fed, good natured, honest hearted, justice loving, and plainspoken. 

JOHN OF GAUNT, Duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III. ; anambitious man; vainly seized the crown of Castile; supported theWycliffites against the clergy; married Blanche of Lancaster, and wasmade duke by Henry IV. (1340-1399). 

JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, on the Caithness coast, 1¾ m. W. Of DuncansbyHead, marks the northern limit of the Scottish mainland; the house wassaid to be erected, eight-sided, with a door at each side and anoctagonal table within, to compromise the question of precedence amongeight branches of the descendants of a certain Dutchman, John o' Groot. 

JOHN OF LEYDEN, originally a tailor; attained great power as anorator; joined the Anabaptists, and in 1534 established at Münster, inWestphalia, a society based on communistic and polygamic principles; butthe bishop of Münster interfered, and next year John was put to deathwith great cruelty (1509-1536). 

JOHN OF SALISBUSY, bishop of Chartres, born at Salisbury, of Saxonlineage; was a pupil of Abelard; was secretary first to Theobald and thento Thomas á Becket, archbishop of Canterbury; was present at theassassination of the latter; afterwards he retired to France and was madebishop; wrote the Lives of St. Thomas and St. Anselm, and other works ofimportance in connection with the scholasticism of the time (1120-1180). 

JOHN THE BAPTIST, the forerunner of Christ, who baptized with waterunto, or on the confession of, repentance, in anticipation of, and inpreparation for, the appearance in the immediate future of One who wouldbaptize with the Spirit and with fire; his fate is well known, and themotive of it. 

JOHN THE GOOD, king of France from 1350 to 1364, succeeded hisfather Philip VI. ; at the battle of Poitiers he was captured and carriedto England; four years later he was allowed to return on leaving his sonas hostage; the hostage made his escape; John chivalrously came back toLondon, and died in captivity (1319-1364). 

JOHN'S EVE, ST. , a festival celebrated with fires on Midsummer Eve;very universally observed and with similar rites throughout Europe, inthe Middle Ages, and the celebration of it was associated with manysuperstitious practices. 

JOHNSON, ANDREW, American President, born at Raleigh, N. Carolina;was entirely self-educated, and became a tailor; settling in Tennessee heentered the State legislature in 1839; he sat in Congress from 1843 till1853; was for four years Governor of Tennessee, and sat in the Senatefrom 1857 to 1863; though in favour of slavery, he discountenancedsecession and supported Lincoln, whom he succeeded as President in 1865, and whose policy he continued; but he lost the confidence of Congress, which indeed he treated somewhat cavalierly; his removal of SecretaryStanton led to his impeachment for violation of the Tenure of Office Act;he was tried before the Senate, but acquitted, and completed his term(1808-1875). 

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, the great English lexicographer, born in Lichfield, the son of a bookseller; received his early education in his native townand completed it at Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1728; in 1736 he marrieda widow named Porter, who brought him £800; started a boarding-school, which did not prosper, and in the end of a year he removed to Londonalong with David Garrick, who had been a pupil under him; here he becameconnected with Cave, a printer, the proprietor of the _Gentleman'sMagazine_, with whom he had previously corresponded, and contributed tothe pages of the magazine, earning thereby a meagre livelihood, eking outhis means by reporting Parliamentary debates in terms which expressed thedrift of them, but in his own pompous language; in 1740 he published apoem entitled the "Vanity of Human Wishes, " and about the same timecommenced his world-famous Dictionary, which was Published in 1755, "agreat, solid, square-built edifice, finished, symmetrically complete, thebest of all dictionaries"; during the progress of the Dictionary Johnsonedited the _Rambler_, writing most of the contents himself, carrying iton for two years; in 1758 he started the _Idler_; in 1762 the kinggranted him a pension of £300, and by this he was raised above thestraitened circumstances which till then had all along weighed upon him, and able to live in comparative affluence for the last 22 years of hislife; five years after he instituted the Literary Club, which consistedof the most celebrated men of the time, his biographer, Boswell, havingby this time been introduced to him, as subsequently the family of Mr. Thrale; in 1770 he began his "Lives of the English Poets, " and in 1773 hemade a tour in the Highlands along with Boswell, of which journey heshortly afterwards published an account; Johnson's writings are now dead, as are many of his opinions, but the story of his life as written byBOSWELL (q. V. ) will last as long as men revere those qualitiesof mind and heart that distinguish the English race, of which he is thetypical representative (1709-1783). 

JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH, cartographer, born at Kirkhill, Midlothian; was an engraver by trade, and devoted himself with singularsuccess to the preparation of atlases; the "National Atlas" was publishedin 1843, and the "Royal Atlas of Geography" (1861) was the finest tillthen produced; he also executed atlases physical, geological, andastronomical, and constructed the first physical globe; honours wereshowered upon him by home and foreign geographical societies; he died atBen Rhydding (1804-1871). 

JOHNSTON, JAMES FINLAY WEIR, agricultural chemist, born at Paisley, educated at Glasgow; acquired a fortune by his marriage in 1830, anddevoted himself to studying chemistry; after some years in Sweden he waschosen lecturer in Durham University, but he resided in Edinburgh, andwrote his "Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry, " since translated intomost European languages, and his "Chemistry of Common Life"; he died atDurham (1796-1855). 

JOHNSTONE (10), a Renfrewshire manufacturing town, on the BlackCart, 3½ m. W. Of Paisley; has flax, cotton, paper, and iron industries. 

JOHNSTOWN (22), a city of Pennsylvania, engaged in iron and steelmanufactures; was overwhelmed by the bursting of a reservoir, May 31, 1889. 

JOHORE (200), a Mohammedan State in the S. Of the Malayan Peninsula, 15 m. N. Of Singapore; half the population are Chinese; exports gambier, pepper, and coffee. 

JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE, French chronicler, seneschal of Champagne, born in Châlons-sur-Marne; author of the "Vie de St. Louis"; followedLouis IX. In the crusade of 1248, but refused to join in that of 1270; helived through six reigns, and his biography of his sovereign is one ofthe most remarkable books of the Middle Ages; his "Vie de St. Louis"deals chiefly with the Crusade, and is, says Prof. Saintsbury, "one ofthe most circumstantial records we have of mediæval life and thought"; itis gossipy, and abounds in digressions (1224-1319). 

JOKAI MAURICE or MORITZ, Hungarian novelist and voluminousauthor, born at Komorn; published his first novel, "Working Days, " in1845; in 1848 took a prominent part in the Hungarian struggle, butafterwards devoted himself to literature; wrote over 300 books, novels, romances, dramas, essays, and poems, and edited several newspapers; hiswork resuscitated Hungarian literature; was in his old age an abledebater in the House of Representatives; _b_. 1825. 

JONAH, a Hebrew prophet, who, born in Gathhepher, belonged to thenorthern kingdom of Israel; prophesied in the reign of Jeroboam II. , andwhose special mission it was, at the bidding of the Lord, to preachrepentance to the people of Nineveh; his book, which records his missionand the story of it, written apparently, as by God's dealings with theNinevites he had himself been, to admonish the Jews that the heathennations whom they regarded as God's enemies were as much the objects ofHis mercy as themselves. 

JONATHAN, BROTHER, an impersonation of the American people, given tothem from the name of one Jonathan Trumbull, in whose judgment Washingtonhad great confidence, and whom he said he would have to consult at acrisis of his affairs. 

JONES, EBENEZER, poet, born in Islington; author of "Studies inSensation and Event, " fraught with genuine poetic feeling; published apamphlet on "Land Monopoly, " in which he advocated the nationalisation ofland, apparently as a disciple of Carlyle (1820-1860). 

JONES, EDWARD BURNE. See BURNE-JONES. 

JONES, ERNEST, Chartist leader and poet, born at Berlin, of Englishparentage, educated at Göttingen; came to England in 1838, and six yearslater was called to the bar; in 1845 he threw himself into the Chartistmovement, and devoted the rest of his life to the amelioration andelevation of the working-classes, suffering two years' (1848-1850)solitary imprisonment for a speech made at Kensington; he wrote, besidespamphlets and papers in the Chartist cause, several poems; "The Revolt ofHindostan" was written in prison, with his own blood, he said, on thefly-leaves of a prayer-book; he never succeeded in getting intoParliament (1819-1869). 

JONES, HENRY ARTHUR, dramatist, born at Grandborough, Bucks; authorof the "Silver King, " "Judah, " the "Dancing Girl, " and many other plays;_b_. 1831. 

JONES, INIGO, architect, born in London, son of a cloth-worker;studied in Italy, and, returning to England, obtained the patronage ofJames I. , and became chief architect in the country; the Royal Chapel atWhitehall is reckoned his masterpiece; Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, isfrom his design; his style follows Palladio of Venice (1573-1652). 

JONES, PAUL, a naval adventurer, whose real name was John Paul, bornin Kirkcudbright, Scotland, son of a gardener; took to the sea, engagedin the slave-trade, settled in Virginia, threw in his lot with thecolonists and against the mother-country, and offered his services as asea-captain in the war with a ship of 18 guns; he in 1778 infested theBritish coast, and made a descent on the shores of his native county; hissympathies were with the French in their struggles for liberty, and hefought in their service as well, making the "proud Forth quake at hisbellying sails, " and capturing two British war-vessels off FlamboroughHead; he died in Paris, where he languished in poverty, but the NationalAssembly granted him a "ceremonial funeral, " attended by a deputation;"as good, " reflects Carlyle in his apostrophe to him--"as good had beenthe natural Presbyterian kirk-bell, and six feet of Scottish earth, amongthe dust of thy loved ones" (1747-1792). 

JONES, SIR WILLIAM, English Orientalist, born in London; passedthrough Oxford to the English bar in 1774, and was made a judge in Bengalin 1783; early devoted to Eastern languages and literature, he publishednumerous translations and other works, concluding with "Sakuntala" and"The Laws of Manu"; he founded the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, where hedied (1746-1794). 

JONGLEURS, were mediæval minstrels of Provence and Northern France, who sang and often composed songs and tales, but whose jesting andbuffoonery distinguished them from the knightly troubadours andtrouvères. 

JONSON, BEN, dramatist, born at Westminster, posthumous son of aclergyman of Scottish descent; was in his youth first a bricklayer, afterwards a soldier in the Netherlands, whence he returned about 1592;married a shrew, and became connected with the stage; he was one of themost learned men of his age, and for forty years the foremost, exceptShakespeare, in the dramatic and literary world; killing his challengerin a duel nearly cost him his life in 1598; he was branded on the leftthumb, imprisoned, and his goods confiscated; in prison he turnedCatholic, but twelve years later reverted to Protestantism; the openingof the century brought an unpleasant difference with Dekker and Marston, and saw the famous Mermaid Club at its zenith; for nine years afterShakespeare's death he produced no dramas; in 1619 he received a degree, M. A. , from Oxford, the laureateship, and a small pension from the king;now a widower, he founded with Herrick, Suckling, Carew, and others theApollo Club at the Devil Tavern; in the new reign he turned again todramatic work with sadly diminished power; he died in poverty, but wasburied in Westminster Abbey, his tombstone bearing the words "O rare BenJonson"; he wrote at least sixteen plays, among them "Every Man is hisHumour" (1598), in which Shakespeare acted, "The Poetaster" (1601), whichvexed Dekker, the tragedy of "Sejanus" (1603), "The Silent Woman" (1609), a farcical comedy, Dryden's favourite play, and his most elaborate andmasterly work, "The Alchemist" (1610); he wrote also thirty-five masquesof singular richness and grace, in the production of which Inigo Jonesprovided the mechanism; but his best work was his lyrics, first of whichstands "Drink to me only with thine eyes, " whose exquisite delicacy andbeauty everybody knows (1573-1637). 

JOPPA, an ancient town and seaport, now Jaffa, on the coast ofPalestine, 35 m. NW. From Jerusalem; a place of note in sacred andmediæval history; here Jonah took ship to Tarshish. 

JORDAENS, JAKOB, a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Antwerp; wasa friend of Rubens, and ranks next him among the Flemings (1615-1678). 

JORDAN, a river of Palestine, which rises on the western side ofMount Hermon, and flows S. Below Cæsarea-Philippi within banks, afterwhich it expands into lagoons that collect at length into a mass in LakeMerom (Huleh), 2 m. Below which it plunges into a gorge and rushes on for9 m. In a torrent, till it collects again in the Sea of Galilee to loseitself finally in the Dead Sea after winding along a distance of 65 m. Asthe crow flies; at its rise it is 1080 ft. Above and at the Dead Sea 1300ft. Below the sea-level. 

JORDAN, MRS. DOROTHEA, the stage name of Miss Bland, daughter of anactress, born at Waterford; played first in Dublin, then in Yorkshire, and appeared at Drury Lane in "The Country Girl" in 1785; her popularitywas immense, and she maintained it for thirty years in the roles of boysand romping girls, her wonderful laugh winning lasting fame; she attainedconsiderable wealth, and was from 1790 to 1811 the mistress of the Dukeof Clarence, who, when William IV. , ennobled her eldest son; she died, however, in humble circumstances in St. Cloud, near Paris (1762-1816). 

JORTIN, JOHN, English divine, born in London, of Huguenot descent;held various appointments, was a prebend of St. Paul's, wrote onecclesiastical history (1698-1770). 

JORULLO, a volcano in Mexico, 150 m. SW. Of Mexico city, rose onenight from a high-lying plateau on Sept. 8, 1759, the central crater ata height 4625 ft. Above the sea-level. 

JOSEPH, the name of four persons in scripture. 1, JOSEPH, theson of Jacob and Rachel, and the story of whose life is given in Genesis. 2, JOSEPH, ST. The carpenter, the husband of the Virgin Mary and thereputed father of Jesus. 3, JOSEPH OF ARAMATHEA, a member of theJewish Sanhedrin, who begged the body of Jesus to bury it in his owntomb. 4, JOSEPH, surnamed BARSABAS, one of the disciples ofJesus, and deemed worthy to be nominated to fill the place vacated byJudas. 

JOSÉPHINE, the Empress of the French, born in Martinique; came toFrance at the age of 15; was in 1779 married to Viscount Beauharnais, whowas one of the victims of the Revolution, and to whom she bore adaughter, Hortense, the mother of Napoleon III. ; married in 1796 toNapoleon Bonaparte, to whom she proved a devoted wife as well as a wisecounsellor; she became empress in 1804, but failing to bear him anychildren, was divorced in 1809, though she still corresponded withNapoleon and retained the title of Empress to the last, living atMalmaison, where she died (1763-1814). 

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS, Jewish historian, born at Jerusalem, of royal andpriestly lineage; was a man of eminent ability and scholarlyaccomplishments, distinguished no less for his judgment than hislearning; gained favour at Rome; was present with Titus at the siege ofJerusalem, and by his intercession saved the lives of several of thecitizens; he accompanied Titus back to Rome, and received the freedom ofthe city; devoting himself there to literary studies, wrote the "Historyof the Jewish War" and "Jewish Antiquities"; he was of the Pharisaicparty, but his religious views were rationalistic; he discards themiraculous; takes no note of the rise of Christianity or of the person ofits Founder (37-98). 

JOSHUA, a Jewish military leader, born of the tribe of Ephraim, theminister and successor of Moses, under whose leadership the Jews obtaineda footing in the Land of Canaan. 

JOSHUA, THE BOOK OF, a book of the Bible, is closely connected withthe Pentateuch, and now regarded as the continuation and completion ofit, constituting along with it what is called the Hexateuch, or sixfoldbook; it covers a period of 25 years, and contains a history of Israelunder the guidance of Joshua, commencing with his appointment as leaderand concluding with his death. 

JOSIAH, a king of Judah from 639 to 609 B. C. ; was zealous for therestoration of the Jewish worship according to the ritual of Moses, asrecently come to light in the discovery by Hilkiah the high-priest of the"Book of the Law"; he fell in battle before an invading Assyrian host. 

JOSS, a Chinese god or his idol. 

JÖTUNHEIM, the abode of the Jötuns in the Norse mythology, asAsenheim is that of the Norse deities. 

JÖTUNS, a race of giants in the Norse mythology, "huge, shaggybeings of a demonic character, representing the dark hostile Powers ofNature, such as Frost, Fire, Sea-tempest, who dwelt in Jötunheim, adistant, dark chaotic land . .. In perpetual internecine feud with thegods, or friendly powers, such as Summer-heat and the Sun, and who dweltfar apart. "

JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMI, French general; distinguished himself in theRhine and Italian campaigns, and fell mortally wounded at the battle ofNovi; one of the most promising generals France ever had (1769-1799). 

JOUBERT, JOSEPH, author of "Pensées, " born in Montignac, Périgord;educated in Toulouse, succeeded to a small competency, came to Paris, gotaccess to the best literary circles, and was the most brilliant figure inthe salon of Madame de Beaumont; his works were exclusively _pensées_ andmaxims, and bear at once on ethics, politics, theology, and literature;"There is probably, " Professor Saintsbury says, "no writer in anylanguage who has said an equal number of remarkable things on an equalvariety of subjects in an equally small space and with an equally highand unbroken excellence of style and expression;. .. All alike have thecharacteristic of intense compression; he describes his literary aim inthe phrase 'tormented by the ambition of putting a book into a page, apage into a phrase, and a phrase into a word'" (1754-1824). 

JOUFFROY D'ABBANS, CLAUDE, MARQUIS DE, is claimed by the French asthe first inventor of the steamboat; he made a paddle-steamer ply on theRhône in 1783, but misfortunes due to the Revolution hindered hisprogress, till he was forestalled by Fulton on the Seine in 1803(1751-1832). 

JOUGS, an iron collar hung by a chain in some public place, wasfastened round a culprit's neck, who was thus exposed in a sort ofpillory; in use in Scotland from the 16th to the 18th centuries. 

JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT, a celebrated physicist, born at Salford; wasa pupil of Dalton's, and devoted his time to physical and chemicalresearch; made discoveries in connection with the production of heat byvoltaic electricity, demonstrated the equivalence of heat and energy, andestablished on experimental grounds the doctrine of the conservation ofenergy (1818-1889). 

JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COMTE VON, marshal of France, born atLimoges; gained for the Republic the victory of Fleurus in 1794, but wasin 1795 defeated at Höchst, and subsequently by the Archduke Charles ofAustria; served under Napoleon, and became Governor of the Hôtel desInvalides under Louis Philippe (1762-1833). 

JOWETT, BENJAMIN, Master of Balliol College, Oxford, born atCamberwell; was a fellow and tutor of his college till his election tothe mastership in 1870; his name will always be associated with BalliolCollege, where his influence was felt, and made the deepest impression;he wrote an article "On the Interpretation of Scripture" in the "Essaysand Reviews, " and a commentary on certain epistles of St. Paul, but heachieved his greatest literary successes by his translations of Plato's"Dialogues, " the "History" of Thucydides, and the "Politics" of Aristotle(1817-1893). 

JUAN, DON, a poem of Byron's, a work which, as Stopford Brookeremarks, "was written in bold revolt against all the conventionality ofsocial morality, religion, and politics, and in which--escaped from hismorbid self, he ran into the opposite extreme--he claimed for himself andothers absolute freedom of individual act and thought in opposition tothe force of society which tends to make all men after one pattern. "

JUAN FERNANDEZ, a mountainous island 3000 ft. High, off the Chiliancoast, 420 m. W. Of Valparaiso; was the lonely residence of ALEXANDERSELKIRK (1704-1709) (q. V. ); was used as a penal settlement from1819 to 1835, and is inhabited by a few seal and sea-lion hunters. 

JUAREZ, BENITO, president of Mexico, born in Oaxaca, of Indianextraction; was elected to the Presidency twice over, in 1861 and 1867(1806-1872). 

JUBA, a great river rising in the Abyssinian mountains and flowingS. Into the Indian Ocean, with a town of the same name at its mouth;marks the northern limit of British East Africa. 

JUBILEE, a festival among the Jews every fiftieth year incelebration of their emancipation from Egypt. 

JUBILEE, YEAR OF, a year during which it was required that all landwhich had passed out of the original owner's hands during the 50 yearspreceding should be restored, all who during that time had been forced tosell their liberty should be released, and all debts contracted in thatperiod should be remitted, a requirement, however, which does not appearto have been very rigorously or regularly observed. 

JUDÆA, a southern district of Palestine extending in one directionbetween Samaria and the desert of Arabia, and in the other between theMediterranean and the Dead Sea. 

JUDAH, KINGDOM OF, the kingdom in the S. Of Palestine of the twotribes of Judah and Benjamin that remained true to the house of Davidafter the revolt of the other ten under Jeroboam, who formed what wascalled the kingdom of Israel, a larger, but a weaker. 

JUDAIZERS, a party, called also EBIONITES, in the primitiveChurch who sought to overlay the simple ordinances of Christianity withJudaic observances and rites, "a yoke which neither they nor theirfathers were able to bear. "

JUDAS, surnamed ISCARIOT, one of the twelve Apostles of Christ, who from some infatuation that unaccountably possessed him, and to hiseverlasting infamy, betrayed his Master to His enemies for 30 pieces ofsilver; was designated by Christ as the Son of Perdition. 

JUDAS MACCABÆUS, a son of MATTATHIAS (q. V. ), who succeededhis father in the leadership of the Jews against the Syrians in the warof the Maccabees, and who gave name to the movement, a man of chivalrictemper, great energy, firm determination, dauntless courage, and powerfulphysique; who, with the elect of his countrymen of kindred spiritencountered and overthrew the Syrians in successive engagements, tillbefore a great muster of the foe his little army was overwhelmed andhimself slain in 160 B. C. See MACCABEES. 

JUDE, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in the New Testament, of which Judas, the brother of James, was the author; written to some unknown communityin the primitive Church, in which a spirit of antinomian libertinism hadarisen, and the members of which are denounced as denying the sovereignauthority of the Church's Head by the practical disobedience and scorn ofthe laws of His kingdom. For the drift and modern uses of this epistlesee Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera, " chaps. Lxvi. And lxvii. , where it is shownthat the enemies of the faith in Jude's day are its real enemies in ours. 

JUDGES, BOOK OF, a book of the Old Testament; gives an account of aseries of deliverances achieved on behalf of Israel by ministers of Godof the nation so called, when, after their occupation of the land, nowthis tribe and now that was threatened with extinction by the Canaanites;these deliverers bore the character of heroes rather than judges, butthey were rather tribal heroes than national, there being as yet no kingin Israel to unite them into one; of these the names of twelve are given, of which only six attained special distinction, and their rule covered aperiod of 300 years, which extended between the death of Joshua and thebirth of Samuel; the story throughout is one: apostasy and consequentjudgment, but the return of the Divine favour on repentance insured. 

JUDGMENT, PRIVATE, assumption of judgment by individual reason onmatters which are not amenable to a lower tribunal than the universalreason of the race. 

JUDITH, a wealthy, beautiful, and pious Jewish widow who, asrecorded in one of the books of the Apocrypha called after her, entered, with only a single maid as attendant, the camp of the Assyrian army underHolofernes, that lay investing Bethulia, her native place; won theconfidence of the chief, persuaded him to drink while alone with him inhis tent till he was brutally intoxicated, cut off his head, and makinggood her escape, suspended it from the walls of the place, with the issueof the utter rout of his army by a sally of the townsfolk. 

JUDSON, ADONIRAM, Burmese missionary and scholar, born at Maiden, Mass. ; sailed for Burma 1812, and for 40 years laboured devotedly, translating the Bible into Burmese, and compiling a Burmese-Englishdictionary; he died at sea on his way home (1788-1850). 

JUGGERNAUT (22) or PURI, a town on the S. Coast of Orissa, inBengal; one of the holy places of India, with a temple dedicated toVishnu, and containing an idol of him called Jagannâtha (or the Lord ofthe World), which, in festival times, attracts thousands of pilgrims toworship at its shrine, on one of which occasions the idol is draggedforth in a ponderous car by the pilgrims and back again, under the wheelsof which, till prohibited, multitudes would throw themselves to becrushed to death in the hope of thereby attaining a state of eternalbeatitude. 

JUGURTHA, king of Numidia; succeeded by violent measures to thethrone, and maintained his ground in defiance of the Romans, who took uparms against him and at last led him captive to Rome to die of hunger ina dungeon. 

JUKES, JOSEPH BEET, geologist, born near Birmingham; graduated atCambridge; took part in several expeditions, and finally became lecturerin the Royal College of Science, Dublin, where he died; he publishedamong other works a "Student's Manual of Geology" (1811-1869). 

JULIA, daughter and only child of Augustus Cæsar; celebrated for herbeauty and the dissoluteness of her morals, and became the wife insuccession of Marcellus, Agrippa, and Tiberius. 

JULIAN THE APOSTATE, Roman emperor for 18 months, from 361 to 363;was born at Constantinople, his father being a half-brother ofConstantine the Great, on whose death most of Julian's family weremurdered; embittered by this event, Julian threw himself into philosophicstudies, and secretly renounced Christianity; as joint emperor with hiscousin from 355 he showed himself a capable soldier, a vigorous and wiseadministrator; on becoming sole emperor he proclaimed his apostasy, andsought to restore paganism, but without persecuting the Church; thoughpainted in blackest colours by the Christian Fathers, he was a lover oftruth, chaste, abstinent, just, and affectionate, if somewhat vain andsuperstitious; he was killed in an expedition against Persia; severalwritings of his are extant, but a work he wrote against the Christians islost (331-363). 

JÜLICH, a duchy on the W. Bank of the Rhine, its capital a place ofthe same name, 20 m. W. Of Köln. 

JULIEN, STANISLAS AIGNAN, an eminent Sinalogue, born in Orleans, originally eminent in Greek; turned his attention to Chinese, and in 12months time translated a part of one of the classical works in thatlanguage; originally professor of Greek, he became in 1827 professor ofChinese in the College of France in succession to Rémusat; he was notless distinguished as a Sanskrit and Pâli scholar (1797-1873). 

JULIUS, the name of three popes: ST. J. I. , Pope from 337 to332; J. II. , pope from 1502 to 1513; J. III. , Pope from 1550 to1555, of which only J. II. Deserves notice. J. II. , an Italian bybirth, was more of a soldier than a priest, and, during his pontificate, was almost wholly occupied with wars against the Venetians for therecovery of Romagna, and against the French to drive them out of Italy, in which attempt he called to his aid the spiritual artillery at hiscommand, by ex-communicating Louis XII. And putting his kingdom under aninterdict in 1542; he sanctioned the marriage of Henry VIII. WithCatharine of Aragon, commenced to rebuild St. Peter's at Rome, and wasthe patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael. 

JULLIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE, a distinguished musical conductor, born inthe Basses-Alpes; did much to popularise music by large bands, but he wasunfortunate in his speculations, and died insane and in debt (1812-1860). 

JULY, the seventh month of the year, so called in honour of JuliusCæsar, who reformed the calendar, and was born in this month; it wasfamous as the month of the outbreak of the second Revolution of France inParis in 1830. 

JUMNA, the chief affluent of the Ganges, which it joins atAllahabad, rises in the Punjab, and flows through the North-WestProvinces, having Delhi and Agra on its banks; its course is 860 m. , andit falls over 10, 000 ft. ; its waters are used for irrigation by means ofcanals, being of little use for navigation. 

JUMPERS, name of a certain religious sect in America, from thedancing associated with its services. 

JUNE, the sixth month of the year, so named from the Roman _gens_ orclan Junius, or perhaps from Juno. 

JUNG STILLING, a German mystic, born in Nassau; first a tailor, thena schoolmaster; went to Strasburg, became intimate with Goethe, studiedmedicine there, and afterwards practised in Elberfeld; became professorof Political Economy at Marburg and in Heidelberg; is best known by hisautobiography: Kant and Lavater were friends of his (1740-1817). 

JUNGFRAU (Maiden), a peak of the Bernese Alps, 13, 671 ft. In height;was first ascended by the brothers Meyer in 1811. 

JUNIUS, LETTERS OF, seventy letters on public affairs which appearedunder that signature in the _Public Advertiser_ 1769 to 1772, and werewith others reprinted in book form; were, though severe in tone, theprototype of the modern leading article. Their authorship has never beendiscovered; but some hold that evidence points to Sir Philip Francis asresponsible for them. 

JUNK, a Chinese boat with a flat bottom, a square prow, a highstern, and a pole for mast. 

JUNKER, a name given in Germany to the younger members of thearistocracy, or of the landed gentry, as representing a reactionary partyin modern politics. 

JUNO, a Roman goddess, the wife of Jupiter, and the queen of heaven, corresponding to the HERA (q. V. ) of the Greeks; the impersonation ofwomanhood, and the special protectress of the rights of women, especiallymarried women, and bore the names of _Virginalis_ and _Matrona_. She wasthe patroness of household and even state economy. See ZEUS. 

JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUC D'ABRANTES, French general; was Napoleon'saide-de-camp in his first Campaign in Italy; took part in the expeditionto Egypt; distinguished himself in the invasion of Portugal, but soonexperienced reverse after reverse; in a fit of madness he threw himselfone day out of a window, and died from the effect (1771-1813). 

JUNTO, the name given to a Whig faction in the reign of WilliamIII. , that for 20 years exercised a great influence in the affairs of thenation, of which Russell, Lord-Keeper Somers, and Charles Montague werethe leading members. 

JUPITER. See ZEUS. 

JUPITER, one of the exterior planets of the solar system, and thelargest; revolves in an orbit outside that of the asteroids, at a meandistance from the sun of 480 millions of miles, completing its revolutionround the sun in 4338 days, and taking 10 hours to revolve on its ownaxis; it is surrounded by belts considered to be openings in the cloudyatmosphere which invests it, and is accompanied by four moons, all nearlyof the same size but at different distances, and with different periodsof revolution round it; it is in volume 1300 times larger than that ofthe earth, while its weight is only 300 times that of the earth, istherefore less than one-fourth of the density of the earth. 

JUPITER CARLYLE, a sobriquet given to the REV. ALEXANDERCARLYLE (q. V. ), from his resemblance to the artist's conception ofJupiter, particularly in the head. 

JUPITER SCAPIN, a nickname given by the Abbé de Pradt to Napoleon, after a valet of the name of Scapin in a comedy of Molière's, noted forhis knaveries. 

JURA, an Argyllshire island NE. Of Islay, mountainous (2500 ft. );the eastern slopes yield some crops, but most of the island is deerforest and cattle-grazing land. 

JURY, a body of citizens set to try a question of fact, or to assessdamages; in England and Ireland a jury numbers 12, and its verdict mustbe unanimous; in Scotland the verdict is by majority, and the jurynumbers 12 in civil and 15 in criminal cases. 

JUSSIEU, ANTOINE LAURENT DE, celebrated French botanist, born atLyons; his book, entitled "Genera Plantarum, " published in 1789, laysdown the principle on which the modern classification of plants is based;he was one of a family of botanists (1748-1836). 

JUSTICE, 1, HIGH COURT OF, one of the two great sections of theEnglish Supreme Courts; 2, LORD CHIEF, the chief judge of theQueen's Bench division of it; 3, LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, supreme judgein Scotland, the Lord President of the Court of Session; 4, OF THEPEACE, the title of a petty county or borough magistrate ofmultifarious duties and jurisdiction; 5, LORDS JUSTICES, judges ofthe English Court of Appeal. 

JUSTICE, BED OF, a formal session of Parliament of Paris under thepresidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of royal edicts. 

JUSTICIARY COURT, the highest court for the trial of criminal casesin Scotland. 

JUSTIN, surnamed the Martyr, an early Christian apologist, born inSichem, Samaria; a heathen by birth, who studied philosophy in the Stoicand Platonic schools, and was converted to Christianity from observingthe strength of the convictions with which it was embraced; was theauthor of two "Apologies for the Christians, " rather than forChristianity or its dogmas, and a "Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, " andsuffered martyrdom in 168. Festival, June 12. 

JUSTINIAN I. , Roman emperor and jurist, born in Illyria; becameco-emperor with Justin I. In 527; married the infamous Theodora, and for38 years enjoyed a reign, the most brilliant of the late Empire, but notwithout dangers from foes outside and factions within; his fame rests onthe codification and reform of the laws which he carried out; he improvedthe status of slaves, revised the laws of divorce and of intestatesuccession; and in his "Digest, " "Institutes, " and other sections of the"Corpus Juris Civilis, " first gave definiteness to Roman law and laid thebasis of the civil law of most modern nations (482-565). 

JUSTINIAN PANDECTS, a code of Roman laws compiled under thedirection of the Emperor Justinian, with a digest of the commentaries ofthe jurists thereupon. 

JUTLAND, at the mouth of the Baltic Sea, is the only Europeanpeninsula that stretches northward; it comprises the continental portionof the kingdom of Denmark. 

JUVENAL, a celebrated Latin poet and satirist, born at Aquinum; afriend of Martial and contemporary of Statius and Quintilian; hissatires, 16 in number, are written in indignant scorn of the vices of theRomans under the Empire, and in the descriptions of which the historianfinds a portrait of the manners and morals of the time (42-120). 

JUXON, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Chichester; becamein succession bishop of Worcester and bishop of London, and attendedCharles I. In prison and on the scaffold; lived in privacy till theRestoration, four months after which he was made archbishop, and diedabout two years after his elevation (1582-1663). 

K

KAABA. See CAABA. 

KABUL (70), on the Kabul River, at the foot of the Takht-i-ShahHills, 650 m. NW. Of Delhi, is the capital of Afghanistan, an ancient, mud-built city, but progressing; noted for its fruit and trading incarpets, camel-hair cloth, and skins; the town was taken by GeneralPollok 1842, avenging the death of Burnes and Macnaughten, and by GeneralRoberts in 1879, avenging the murder of Cavagnari. 

KABYLES, the name given to a division of the Berbers of N. Africa, who occupy the coast and tablelands of Mauritania, and are indigenous toit. 

KADIJAH, a rich widow, the wife of Mahomet, who had been her stewardand factotum, and whom he married when she was forty and himself onlytwenty-five, and with whom he lived till her death, "loving her truly andher alone, " himself now a man of fifty; he had begun his mission as aprophet before she died, and one service she did him he never forgot asthe greatest of them all: she believed in him, when no one else did. 

KADRIS, a set of Mohammedan dervishes who lacerate themselves withscourges, like the Flagellants. 

KAFFIRS, including Kaffirs proper and Zulus, a division of the Bantunegroes, found all over S. Africa, are a pastoral and latterlyagricultural people of fine physique, naturally hospitable, honest, andtruthful, but now much contaminated by the white man; Kaffir wars brokeout in 1834, 1846, 1850, and 1877; the name, which means infidel, wasoriginally applied by the Mohammedans to all pagans. 

KAFIRISTAN (200), a lofty mountainous region in the E. OfAfghanistan, S. Of the Hindu-Kush, with the Panjshir, Kabul, and ChitralRivers on the W. , S. , and E. ; the people are undersized, pastoral, anddevoted to their Aryan faith, which here has its last stronghold, notorganised politically, but united in their love of independence andhatred of Mohammedanism. 

KAIRWAN` (5), the sacred city of Northern Africa, in Tunis, 80 m. S. Of Tunis, a _decayed_ town, was the chief seat of the Mohammedans in N. Africa, and a sacred city; manufactures copper vessels, carpets, andarticles of leather. 

KAISAR-I-HIND (i. E. Cæsar of India), a title applied to QueenVictoria as Empress of India since 1876. 

KAISER, the name, derived from the Latin Cæsar, given to the emperorof the old German Empire or Reich, and resumed by the modern Emperor, William I. , and his successors. 

KAISER WILHELM'S LAND (116), the N. Of the eastern half of NewGuinea, belonging partly to Britain, partly to Holland, and partly toGermany. 

KAITHAL (15), in the Punjab, 90 m. NW. Of Delhi, an ancient town, with saltpetre refineries; has old associations with the Hindumonkey-god, HANUMAN (q. V. ). 

KÂLA, the Hindu Chronus, or god of time, who, as in the Greekmythology, at once produces and devours all things. 

KALAHARI DESERT, in S. Africa, stretches far northward from theOrange River between German SW. Africa and the Transvaal, an elevatedplateau, not really desert, but covered with scrub and affording coarsepasturage for cattle. 

KALAMAZOO` (18), a railway centre and flourishing town in the SW. OfMichigan, 144 m. NE. Of Chicago; manufactures machinery, paper, andflour. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, invented by Sir David Brewsterin 1817, consisting of a cylinder with two mirrors set lengthwise inside, two plates of glass with bits of coloured glass loose between at one endand an eye-hole at the other, presents varying patterns on rotation. 

KALEVALE, a collection of popular songs current among the peasantryof Finland from earliest times. 

KALI (i. E. The black one), one of the names of the wife of SIVA (q. V. ), and of whom she is the female counterpart, and has been identified withthe GREEK HECATE (q. V. ); she is represented with a necklace of humanheads. 

KÁLIDÁSA, a great Indian dramatist and poet, probably of the 6thcentury A. D. ; was author of "The Lost Ring" and "The Hero and theNymph, " translated by Sir William Jones, much praised by Goethe and MaxMüller. 

KALMAR (12), seaport in SE. Of Sweden, on an island in Kalmar Sound;carries on a large timber trade, and manufactures of tobacco and matches. 

KALMUCKS, the name given to the Western Moguls, inhabiting CentralAsia, and considerably intermingled with their neighbours, the Russians, Persians, and Turks; they are Buddhists, nomadic, and have herds ofhorses and cattle. 

KALPA, a Braminical name for the immense period of time whichseparates one destruction of the world from the next, a day and a nightof Brahma. 

KALPI (14), a decaying town in the NW. Provinces of India, on theJumna, 50 m. SW. Of Cawnpore; was the scene of the defeat of 12, 000mutineers in 1858; manufactures paper, and exports grain and cotton. 

KÂMA, the Hindu Cupid, or god of love, a potent god of the Hindupantheon, able to subdue nearly all the rest of the gods except Siva, whoonce with a single glance of his Cyclop eye reduced him to ashes fordaring to bring trouble into his breast; he is one of the primitive godsof the Hindu pantheon, like the EROS (q. V. ) of the Greeks. 

KAMCHATKA (7), a long narrow peninsula on the E. Coast of Siberia, stretching southwards between the Behring Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk, with a precipitous coast and a volcanic range of mountains down thecentre, has a cold, wet climate, grass and tree vegetation, and many hotsprings; the people live by fishing, hunting, and trading in furs; theyare Russianised, the peninsula having been Russian since the 17thcentury. 

KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD, Scottish judge and philosopher, born inBerwickshire; became an advocate in 1723 and judge in 1752; wrote bookson law, "Essays on Morality and Natural Religion, " and otherphilosophical works, in which he indulged in a wide and often fancifulrange of speculation; was noted for his sociality and public spirit, anddied at Edinburgh (1696-1782). 

KAMPEN (19), a reviving Dutch town on the Yssel, 3 m. From theZuyder Zee, and 5½ m. W. Of Zwolle; has shipbuilding and fishingindustries; the inhabitants are the proverbial fools of Holland. 

KAMPTULICON, a floorcloth composed of cork and india-rubber orsimilar substance. 

KAMTHI (43), a town of recent origin in the Central Provinces ofIndia, 9 m. NW. Of Nagpur; trades in cattle and grain, salt, and timber. 

KANARA, a rainy district on the W. Coast of India, between Goa andMalabar, mostly malarial forest country, with the Ghat Mountains and manyrivers. NORTH KANARA (446) is in Bombay Presidency. SOUTHKANARA (1, 056), capital Mangalore, is in Madras. 

KANARIS, CONSTANTIN, an intrepid Greek sea-captain who distinguishedhimself by his exploits in the Greek War of Independence, particularly inthe destruction of the Turkish vessels by means of fire-ships; heattained the rank of admiral in 1862, and took part in the revolutionwhich overthrew King Otho (1780-1877). 

KANDAHAR, capital of Southern Afghanistan, near the Argandab River, 200 m. SW. Of Kabul; a well-watered, regularly built town in the middleof orchards and vineyards; is of great political and commercialimportance; a centre of trade with India, Persia, and Turkestan; it washeld by the British through the war of 1839-41, and again in 1880-81;population variously estimated from 25, 000 to 100, 000. 

KANDY (20), a town on a mountain lake in the middle of Ceylon, 75 m. NE. Of Colombo; is a railway centre; has the ruins of the palace of theold native kings, and a temple with the famous tooth of Buddha. 

KANE, ELISHA KENT, an American explorer, born in Philadelphia; bredto medicine; became a surgeon in the navy; acquired a taste foradventure; from his experiences in such accompanied, in 1850, the firstGrinnell expedition to the Arctic seas, and commanded the second in 1853, after three years returning with many discoveries; he wrote accounts ofboth expeditions (1820-1857). 

KANE, SIR ROBERT, chemist, born in Dublin; originator of the _DublinJournal of Medical Science_ in 1832, and of the Irish Museum of Industryin 1846; was President of Queen's College, Cork, and President of theRoyal Irish Academy in 1876; Published "Elements of Chemistry, " and otherworks (1810-1890). 

KANSAS (1, 427), the central State of the American Union; lies in thebasin of the Kansas and Arkansas Rivers, between Nebraska on the N. AndOklahoma on the S. , with Colorado on the W. And Missouri on the E. It isa rolling prairie, with a fine climate subject to occasional extremes, and a rainfall, except in some districts, sufficient; raises crops ofgrain and sugar, and affords excellent grazing ground. Pork and beefpacking, flour-milling, and iron-founding industries are carried on. TheState University is at Lawrence, an agricultural college at Manhattan, and good schools in every town. Previous to its admission to the Union in1859 Kansas was the scene of violent conflicts between pro- andanti-slavery parties for five years. In the Civil War it joined theNorth. The capital is Topeka (31), and the largest other towns KansasCity (38) and Wichita (23). 

KANSAS CITY, two contiguous towns on the S. Bank of the MissouriRiver, 280 m. W. Of St. Louis, are so called. The larger and moreeasterly one (164) is the second city of Missouri; an important railwaycentre, and distributes the agricultural products of a large region; haspork-packing industries and iron manufactures. The smaller, westerly city(51), is in Kansas, the largest town of that State; has a remarkableelevated railway. 

KANT, IMMANUEL, a celebrated German philosopher, born in Königsberg, the son of a saddler, of Scotch descent, and fortunate in both hisparents; entered the university in 1740 as a student of theology; gavehimself to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and physics; wrote anessay, his first literary effort, on "Motive Force" in 1747; settled atthe University as a private lecturer on a variety of academic subjects in1755; became professor of Logic and Metaphysics in 1770, when he was 46, and continued till his retirement, in 1797, from the frailties of age, spending the last 17 years of his life in a small house with a garden ina quiet quarter of the town; his great work, the "Kritic of Pure Reason, "was published in 1781, and it was followed by the "Kritic of PracticalReason" in 1788, and the "Kritic of Judgment" in 1790; his worksinaugurate a new era in philosophic speculation, and by the adoption of acritical method dealt a death-blow to speculative dogmatism on the onehand and scepticism on the other; it was, he says, the scepticism of Humethat first broke his dogmatic slumber, so that had Hume not been, he hadnot been, and the whole course of modern thought different; Kant by hiscritical method did for philosophy what Copernicus did for astronomy; hecentralised the intelligence in the reason or soul, as the latter did theplanetary system in the sun; Kant was a lean, little man, of simplehabits, and was never wedded (1724-1804). 

KAOLIN, a fine white clay, a hydrous silicate of alumina, which doesnot colour when fired; used in making porcelain; called also China clay. 

KAPELLMEISTER, director of an orchestra or choir, more particularlyof the band of a German prince. 

KAPILA, the founder of the Sankhya system of HINDU PHILOSOPHY(q. V. ); was regarded as an incarnation of VISHNU (q. V. ). 

KARA, a gold-mining district in East Siberia, 300 m. From Chita, ofwhich the mines are the private property of the Czar, and are worked byconvicts, who are often disgracefully treated, many of them merelypolitical offenders. 

KARA SEA is a portion of the Arctic Sea, on the NE. Corner ofRussia, between Nova Zembla and the Yalmal; receives the rivers Obi andYenisei, and is navigable from July to September. 

KARAITES, a Jewish sect which originated in the 8th century; adheredto the letter of Scripture and repudiated all tradition; were strictSabbatarians. 

KARAKORUM, a range of the Himalayas, extending from the Hindu-Kusheastward into Thibet, and a pass in the centre of it 18, 000 ft. High. Also the name of the old capital of Mongolia. 

KARAMSIN, a Russian historian; his first work was "Letters of aRussian Traveller, " in 6 vols. , published in 1797-1801, which gained hima high reputation, and it was followed by his "History of Russia, " in 12vols. , published in 1816-1829, for the materials of which he had access, to the most authentic documents as imperial historiographer, an office towhich he was appointed in 1803, and the work is a work in the highestrepute (1766-1826). 

KARIKAL (93), a French possession in India, on the Coromandel coast, 150 m. S. Of Madras; rears and exports rice in large quantities. 

KARLI, a famous temple-cave in Bombay Presidency, on theBombay-Poona road; dates from the 1st century B. C. At latest. 

KARMA, the unbroken sequence, according to the Theosophists, ofcause and effect, in which every effect is regarded the cause of thenext. 

KARMAN, the name given in the Brahminical philosophy and in Buddhismto that act of the soul by which, as is conceived, it determines its owndestiny, a truly serious conception, and in itself soul affecting. 

KARMATHIANS, originally a secret society of the Ismaîlis, developedinto a religious and communistic sect, and waged a great peasants' warunder successive leaders between A. D. 900 and 950; Mecca was captured930; the movement of the Karmathians did much to overthrow the power ofthe Khalifate. 

KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE, French novelist, born at Paris;entered journalism, became editor of the _Figaro_ 1839, started _LesGuepes_ the same year, retired to Nice 1855, and there died; his chiefnovel is "Géneviève, " and best known book, "Voyage autour de mon Jardin"(1808-1890). 

KARROO, the name of a barren tract of tableland in South Africa witha clay soil, which, however, bursts into grassy verdure and blossom afterrain; the Great Karroo, which is 850 m. Long and about 80 m. Broad, is3000 ft. Above the sea-level, while the Little Karroo is 1000 ft. Lower;large flocks of sheep are pastured on them, and the value of the land hasimmensely increased within late years. 

KARS (9), an almost impregnable fortress on the Russo-Turkishfrontier in Asia, 100 m. E. Of the Caspian Sea; was successfully held bythe Turks under General Williams in 1855, of which Laurence Oliphantwrote an account, but captured by Russia in 1877, and ceded to her by theTreaty of Berlin, 1878; it is a strong place, and a prize to any powerthat possesses it. 

KARUN RIVER, rising in the Zarduh Koh Mountains W. Of Ispahân; flowsW. And S. Past Shuster into the Persian Gulf; is the sole navigablewaterway of Persia, and was thrown open to trade 1888. 

KASCHAU (29), a beautiful town in Northern Hungary, on the HernadRiver, 140 m. NW. Of Budapest; has a royal tobacco factory, is noted forhams, has an agricultural school and a Jesuit university. 

KASHGAR (120), political capital and second largest city of ChineseTurkestan, on the Kizil River; has cotton, silk, carpet, and saddleryindustries, and trades with Russia; it is the centre of Mohammedanism inEastern Turkestan, a pilgrim city; has been in Chinese hands since 1758, but is chiefly under Russian influence. 

KASSALA (3), a fortified town in the Soudan, near the Abyssinianboundary, on the Chor-el-Gash, a tributary of the Atbara, is 260 m. S. OfSuakim; suffered severely from the Madhist rising of 1883-1885. 

KATAKAMA, the square style of writing of the Japanese. 

KATER, HENRY, a physicist, born in Bristol; bred to the law, butentered the army, and went out to India, where, to the injury of hisconstitution, he was for seven years engaged on the trigonometricalsurvey of the country; devoted the rest of his life to scientificresearch; he contributed to the _Philosophical Transactions_, determinedthe length of the seconds pendulum at the latitude of London, andinvented the floating collimator (1777-1835). 

KATKOFF, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVITCH, Russian journalist and publicist, born at Moscow, educated at Moscow, Königsberg, and Berlin; becameprofessor of Philosophy in Moscow and in 1801 editor of the _MoscowGazette_; though at first an advocate of parliamentary government, hebecame a violent reactionary, made his paper the most influential inRussia, and had great influence in public affairs; he is said to havedetermined the reactionary policy of Alexander III. (1818-1887). 

KATRINE, LOCH, a long narrow beautiful lake in the Trossachs, Scotland, about 30 m. N. Of Glasgow, to which it affords an abundantwater supply, is 8 m. Long and ¾ broad; the splendid scenery of it isdescribed in Scott's "Lady of the Lake. "

KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA, painter, born in the Tyrol; gave early evidenceof artistic talent; came to London, and became one of the first membersof the Royal Academy; produced pictures on classical and mythologicalsubjects, as well as portraits of the royal family among others; herstory forms the basis of a fiction by Miss Thackeray (1741-1807). 

KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINO VON, Russian general, of German descent; didmuch to contribute to the establishment of the Russian power in CentralAsia (1818-1882). 

KAULBACH, WILHELM VON, German painter, head of the new Germanschool, born in Waldeck; was a pupil of Cornelius, and associated withhim in painting the frescoes in the Glyptothek in Münich; among otherworks, which have made his name famous, he executed the splendid seriesof compositions that adorn the vestibule of the Berlin Museum; heillustrated Goethe's "Faust" and his "Reinecke Fuchs" (1805-1874). 

KAUNITZ, PRINCE VON, Austrian statesman, born at Vienna; underCharles VI. And Maria Theresa distinguished as a diplomatist at theCongress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and sided with France in the SevenYears' War; was for nearly 40 years "the shining star and guide ofAustrian politics, and greatest of diplomatists in his day, supreme Jovein that extinct Olympus; regarded with sublime pity, not unalloyed tocontempt, all other diplomatic beings"; he shared with Colonne the_sobriquet_ of the "European coach-driver"; he was sold body and soul tothe interests of Austria (1711-1794). 

KAVANAGH, JULIA, novelist, born in Tipperary, a very dainty littlelady; wrote "Madeleine, " "Woman in France, " "Women of Letters, " "Women ofChristianity, " &c. ; spent most of her life in France (1824-1877). 

KAWI, the old language of Java found in old documents andinscriptions. 

KAY, SIR, a rude and boastful Knight of the Round Table, foster-brother of King Arthur, who from his braggart ways often madehimself the butt of the whole court. 

KAY, JOHN, a Scottish caricaturist, born near Dalkeith; beganbusiness in Edinburgh first as a barber and then as a print-seller;author of sketches of local celebrities, now collected in two volumes, and of much interest and value as a record of the Edinburgh of his time(1742-1826). 

KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM, historian of English India, an officer inthe Bengal Artillery, retired in 1841; in 1856 entered the East IndiaCompany's service in England, and was subsequently a secretary in theGovernment India Office; he wrote "History of the Sepoy War 1857-58, " and"Essays of an Optimist" (1814-1876). 

KEAN, CHARLES JOHN, actor, second son of the succeeding, born inWaterford; made his first appearance in Drury Lane in 1827, which provedunsuccessful, but by assiduous study and his marriage with Helen Tree, apopular actress who played along with him, he rose in the profession andbecame lessee of the Princess's Theatre, London, where he distinguishedhimself by his revivals of Shakespeare's plays, with auxiliary effectsdue to scenery and costume; he was at his best in melodramas, such as"Louis XI. " (1811-1868). 

KEAN, EDMUND, distinguished English tragedian, born in London; trodthe stage from his infancy; his first success was Shylock in the"Merchant of Venice" in 1814, and the representation of it was followedby equally famous representations of Richard III. , Othello, and Sir GilesOverreach; he led a very dissipated life, and under the effects of it hisconstitution gave way; he broke down one evening beside his son as Iago, as he was playing the part of Othello, was carried off the stage, andnever appeared on the boards again (1787-1833). 

KEARY, ANNIE, novelist, born in Yorkshire; began as a writer ofchildren's books, "Castle Daly, " an Irish novel, among her best; was awoman of a sympathetic nature, and was devoted to works of benevolence(1825-1882). 

KEATS, JOHN, was the son of a livery-stable proprietor, born atFinsbury, London; never went to a university, but was apprenticed to aLondon surgeon, and subsequently practised medicine himself in London;abandoning his profession in 1817, he devoted himself to literature, madethe acquaintance of Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Lamb, Wordsworth, and otherliterary men; left London for Carisbrooke, moved next year to Teignmouth, but on a visit to Scotland contracted what proved to be consumption; in1819 he was betrothed to Miss Fanny Browne, and struggled againstill-health and financial difficulties till his health completely gave wayin the autumn of 1820; accompanied by the artist Joseph Severn he went toNaples and then to Rome, where, in the spring following, he died; hisworks were three volumes of poetry, "Poems" 1817, "Endymion" 1818, "Lamia, Isabella and other Poems, " including "Hyperion" and "The Eve ofSt. Agnes" 1820; he never reached maturity in his art, but the dignity, tenderness, and imaginative power of his work contained the highestpromise; he was a man of noble character, sensitive, yet strong, unselfish, and magnanimous, by some regarded as the most original ofmodern poets (1795-1821). 

KEBLAH, the point of the compass to which people turn their faceswhen they worship, as the Mohammedans do to Mecca when they pray. 

KEBLE, JOHN, English clergyman, author of the "Christian Year, " bornin Fairford, Gloucestershire; studied at Oxford, and became Fellow ofOriel College in 1811; in 1827 appeared the "Christian Year, " which hepublished anonymously; in 1831 was appointed professor of Poetry inOxford, and that same year issued an "Address to the Electors of theUnited Kingdom" against the Reform Bill; he was one of four whooriginated the Tractarian movement at Oxford, and was the author ofseveral of the "Tracts for the Times"; in 1835 he was presented to thevicarage of Hursley, which he held till his death; he was author of "LyraInnocentium, " and along with Newman and others of "Lyra Apostolica"; thesecession of Newman rather riveted than loosened his attachment to theEnglish Church (1792-1866). 

KEDRON, a wady E. Of Jerusalem, traversed by a brook in the rainyseason, and which runs in the direction of the Dead Sea. 

KEELHAULING, a naval punishment of the 17th and 18th centuries;consisted in dropping the victim into the sea from one yardarm, haulinghim under the keel and up to the yardarm on the other side; is now a termfor a severe rebuke. 

KEELING ISLANDS. See COCOS ISLANDS. 

KEEWATIN, a district in Canada under the jurisdiction of thegovernment of Manitoba, and N. Of it; the mineral wealth is great, andincludes copper and silver. 

KEHAMA, a Hindu rajah who obtains and sports with supernaturalpowers, whose adventures are given in Southey's "Curse of Kehama. "

KEIGHLEY (30), a Yorkshire town, on the Aire, 9 m. NW. Of Bradford;manufactures woollen and worsted fabrics and spinning-machinery. 

KEIGHTLEY, THOMAS, man of letters, born in Dublin; wrote a number ofschool manuals, and "Fairy Mythology" (1789-1872). 

KEIM, THEODOR, a German theologian, born at Stuttgart, professor atZurich and afterwards at Giessen; his great work, to which others werepreliminary, was his "History of Jesu of Nazara, " in which he presentsthe person of Christ Himself as the one miracle in the story and thateclipses every other in it, and makes them of no account comparatively(1823-1878). 

KEITH, JAMES, known as Marshal Keith, born near Peterhead, of an oldScotch family, Earls Marischal of Scotland; having had to leave thecountry for his share in the Jacobite rebellion, fled first to Spain andthen to Russia, doing military service in both, but quitted both in 1747for service in Prussia under Frederick the Great, who soon recognised theworth of him, and under whom he rose to be field-marshal; hedistinguished himself in successive engagements, and fell shot throughthe heart, when in the charge of the right wing at Hochkirch; as heopened his way by his bayonet the enemy gathered round him after beingtwice repulsed (1696-1758). 

KEITH, LORD, English admiral, born near Stirling; served in variousparts of the world, and distinguished himself in the American and Frenchwars. 

KELAT (14), capital of Beluchistan, in a lofty region 140 m. S. OfKandahar; is the residence of a British agent since 1877, and was annexedas a British possession in 1888. It is a military stronghold, and ofgreat importance in a military point of view. 

KELLER, FERDINAND, Swiss archæologist; his reputation rests on hisinvestigations of lake-dwellings in Switzerland in 1853-54 (1800-1881). 

KELLER, GOTTFRIED, distinguished poet and novelist, born in Zurich;his greatest remance, and the one by which he is best known, is "DerGrüne Heinrich"; wrote also a collection of excellent tales entitled, "Die Leute von Seldwyla" (1819-1890). 

KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE, Duke of Valmy, French general bornin Alsace, son of a peasant; entered the army at 17; served in the SevenYears' War; embraced the Revolution; defeated the Duke of Brunswick atValmy in 1792; served under Napoleon as commander of the reserves on theRhine, but supported the Bourbons at the Restoration (1735-1820). 

KELLS (2), an ancient town in co. Meath, with many antiquities;gives its name to the "Book of Kells, " a beautiful 9th-century Kelticilluminated manuscript of the Gospels, now in the library of TrinityCollege, Dublin. 

KELP, an alkaline substance derived from the ashes of certainsea-weeds, yielding iodine, soda, potass, and certain oils; kelp-burningwas formerly a valuable industry in Orkney and the Hebrides. 

KELPIE, an imaginary water-spirit which, it is said, appearsgenerally in the form of a horse. 

KELSO, a market-town in Roxburghshire, beautifully situated on theTweed, where the Teviot joins it, with the ruins of an abbey of the 12thor the early 13th century. 

KELVIN, LORD. See THOMSON, WILLIAM. 

KEMBLE, a family of three sons and one daughter, children of RogerKemble, a provincial theatrical manager, all actors, of whom the greatestwas the eldest, Sarah, MRS. SIDDONS (q. V. ). 

KEMBLE, ADELAIDE, daughter of Charles, was noted as an operaticsinger, but retired from the stage on her marriage 1842 (1814-1879). 

KEMBLE, CHARLES, son of Roger, born at Brecon; appeared first atSheffield as Orlando, in 1792, and two years later came to London, wherehe continued playing till 1840, when he was appointed Examiner of Plays(1775-1854). Two daughters of Charles also won fame on the stage. 

KEMBLE, FRANCES ANNE, daughter of Charles, born in London; made her_début_ in 1829, and proved a queen of tragedy; in 1832 went to America, where, in 1834, she married a planter, from whom she was divorced in1848; resuming her maiden name, Fanny Kemble, she gave Shakespearianreadings for 20 years (1809-1893). 

KEMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL, Anglo-Saxon scholar, born in London, son ofCharles Kemble; edited writings belonging to the Anglo-Saxon period; hischief work "The Saxons in England" (1807-1857). 

KEMBLE, JOHN PHILIP, eldest son of Roger, born at Prescot, Lancashire; began to study for the Roman Catholic priesthood, but adoptedthe stage, and appeared first at Wolverhampton in 1776; after touring inYorkshire and Ireland he came to London in 1783, playing Hamlet at DruryLane; became manager of that theatre in 1788; in 1802 transferred himselfto Covent Garden, where, on the opening of the new house in 1809, the"Old Price" riots brought him ill-will; he retired in 1817, and lived atLausanne till his death (1757-1823). 

KEMBLE, STEPHEN, son of Roger, was from 1792 till 1800 manager ofEdinburgh Theatre (1758-1822). 

KEMP, GEORGE MEIKLE, architect, born in Moorfoot, Peeblesshire; breda millwright, became a draughtsman, studied Gothic architecture, anddesigned the Scott Monument in Edinburgh; was drowned one evening in theUnion Canal before the work was finished (1796-1844). 

KEMPEN, a Prussian town, 27 m. NW. Of Düsseldorf; manufacturestextile fabrics in silk, cotton, linen, &c. ; was the birthplace of Thomasà Kempis. 

KEMPENFELT, RICHARD, British admiral, born at Westminster;distinguished himself in several actions, was on board of the _RoyalGeorge_ as his flagship when she went down at Spithead, carrying himalong with her and over a thousand others also on board at the time; hewas a brave and skilful officer, and his death was a great loss to theservice (1718-1782). 

KEMPIS, THOMAS À, born at Kempen, near Düsseldorf, son of a poor buthonest and industrious craftsman named Hämerkin; joined, while yet ayouth, the "Brotherhood of Common Life" at Deventer, in Holland, and at20 entered the monastery of St. Agnes, near Zwolle, in Oberyssel, wherehe chiefly resided for 70 long years, and of which he became sub-prior, where he spent his time in acts of devotion and copying MSS. , that of theBible, among others, in the Vulgate version of it, as well as in theproduction of works of his own, and in chief the "Imitation of Christ, " awork that in the regard of many ranks second to the Bible, and is thoughtlikely to survive in the literature of the world as long as the Bibleitself; it has been translated into all languages within, as well asothers outside, the pale of Christendom, and as many as six thousandeditions, it is reckoned, have issued from the press; it is fivecenturies and a half since it was first given to the world, and it hasever since continued to be a light in it to thousands in the way of aholy and divine life; it draws its inspiration direct from thefountain-head of Holy Scripture, and is breathing full of the same spiritthat inspires the sacred book (1380-1471). 

KEN, THOMAS, English prelate, born at Little Berkhampstead; isfamous as the author of hymns, especially the morning one, "Awake, mySoul, " and the evening one, "Glory to Thee, my God"; was committed to theTower for refusing to read James II. 's "Declaration of Indulgence, " anddeprived of his bishopric, that of Bath and Wells, for refusing to takethe oath of allegiance to William III. (1637-1711). 

KENDAL (14), a Westmorland market-town on the Kent, 38 m. S. OfCarlisle; manufactures heavy woollen goods, paper, and snuff; it owes theintroduction of its woollen manufacture to the settlement in it ofFlemings in the reign of Richard III. 

KENIA, MOUNT, a mountain in British East Africa, 10° S. Of theEquator, 18, 000 ft. Above the sea-level, and one of the highest on thecontinent. 

KENILWORTH (4), a Warwickshire market-town, 5 m. N. Of Warwick;noted for its castle, where, as described by Scott in his novel of thename, Leicester sumptuously entertained Elizabeth in 1575; has sometanworks, tanning being the chief industry. 

KENNAQUHAIR (i. E. Know-not-where), an imaginary locality inScott's "Monastery. " See WEISSNICHTWO. 

KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL, head-master of Shrewsbury, son of aschoolmaster, born at Birmingham; after a brilliant career at Cambridgebecame, in 1828, Fellow of St. John's, in 1830 assistant-master atHarrow, and in 1830 was appointed to Shrewsbury, where he proved one ofthe greatest of schoolmasters (1804-1889). 

KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN, English Hebraist, born at Totnes, Devonshire, educated at Oxford; became Fellow of Exeter, Radcliffe librarian, and in1770 canon of Christ Church; from 1753 he organised and took part in anextensive collation of Hebrew texts, issuing in 1776-80 the "Hebrew OldTestament, with Various Readings" (1718-1783). 

KENSAL GREEN, a cemetery in the NW. Of London; celebrated as theburial-place of many eminent men, Thackeray in chief. 

KENSINGTON (166), a West London parish, in which stand the Palace(Queen Victoria's birthplace), the Albert Memorial and Hall, SouthKensington Museum, the Royal College of Music, the Imperial Institute, and many other institutions: contains also Holland House, and has longbeen the place of residence of notably artistic and literary men. 

KENT (1, 142), English maritime county in the extreme SE. ; liesbetween the Thames estuary and the Strait of Dover, with Surrey andSussex on the W. ; it is hilly, with marshes in the SE. And on the Thamesshore; is watered by the Medway, Stour, and Darent; has beautifulscenery, rich pasturage, and fine agricultural land, largely under hopsand market-gardens; a large part of London is in Kent; Maidstone (32) isthe county town; Rochester (26) and Canterbury (23) are cathedral cities;Woolwich (99), Gravesend (35), and Dover (33) are seaports, and Margateand Ramsgate watering-places. 

KENTIGERN, ST. , or ST. MUNGO, the Apostle of Cumbria, born atCulross, the natural son of a princess named Thenew; entered themonastery there, where he had been trained from a boy, and founded amonastery near Glasgow and another in Wales; was distinguished for hismissionary labours; was buried at Glasgow Cathedral (518-603). 

KENTISH FIRE, vehement and prolonged derisive cheering, so calledfrom indulgence in it in Kent at meetings to oppose the CatholicEmancipation Bill of 1829. 

KENTUCKY (1, 859), an American State in the S. Of the Ohio basin, with the Virginias on its E. And Tennessee on its S. Border and theMississippi River on the W. ; is watered by the Licking and KentuckyRivers that cross the State from the Cumberland Mountains in the SE. Tothe Ohio, and the Tennessee River traverses the western corner; theclimate is mild and healthy; much of the soil is extremely fertile, giving hemp and the largest tobacco crops in the Union; there are denseforests of virgin ash, walnut, and oak over two-thirds of the State, andon its pasturage the finest stock and horses are bred; coal is found inboth the E. And the W. , and iron is plentiful; the chief industries arewhisky distilling, iron smelting and working; admitted to the Union in1792, Kentucky was a slave-holding State, but did not secede in the CivilWar; the capital is Frankfort (8), the largest city Louisville (160); theState University is at Lexington (29). 

KEPLER, JOHN, illustrious astronomer, born at Weil der Stadt, Würtemberg, born in poverty; studied at Tübingen chiefly mathematics andastronomy, became lecturer on these subjects at Grätz; joined Tycho Brahéat Prague as assistant, who obtained a pension of £18 for him from theAustrian government, which was never paid; removed to Lintz, where SirHenry Wotton saw him living in a _camera obscura_ tent doing ingeniousthings, photographing the heavens, "inventing toys, writing almanacs, andbeing ill off for cash . .. An ingenious person, if there ever was oneamong Adam's posterity . .. Busy discovering the system of theworld--grandest conquest ever made, or to be made, " adds Carlyle, "by thesons of Adam"; he was long occupied in studying the "'motions of thestar' Mars, with calculations repeated seventy times, and with thediscovery of the planetary laws of the Universe"; these last are calledfrom his discovery of them Kepler's Laws; the first, that the planetsmove on elliptic orbits, the sun in one of the foci; the second, that, indescribing its orbit, the radius vector of a planet traverses equal areasin equal times; and the third, that the square of the time of therevolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distancefrom the sun; poverty pursued Kepler all his days, and he died of feverat Ratisbon (1571-1630). 

KEPLER'S LAWS. See KEPLER, JOHN. 

KEPPEL, AUGUSTUS, VISCOUNT, son of the Earl of Albemarle; enteredthe navy, and was in several engagements between 1757 and 1778; whenencountering the French off Ushant he quarrelled with hissecond-in-command and let them escape; was court-martialled, butacquitted; he was afterwards First Lord of the Admiralty (1725-1786). 

KER, DR. JOHN, minister and professor, was horn in Peeblesshire, brought up in Edinburgh; studied there and in Halle, was chosen to fillthe chair of Practical Training in the U. P. Theological College in 1876;published some "Sermons, " and "The Psalms in History and Biography"(1819-1886). 

KERATIN, a substance forming the chief constituent in the hair, nails, and horn of animals. 

KERGUELEN'S LAND, an island with rugged coasts, 85 m. Long by 70wide, of volcanic origin, in the Antarctic Ocean; so called after itsdiscoverer in 1772, changed to Desolation Island in 1776 by Captain Cook;belongs to France. 

KERMAN (300), an eastern province of Persia, the N. And the NE. Ofit a desolate salt waste, and with a chief town (30) of the name in themiddle of it, once a great emporium of trade; manufactures carpets. 

KERNER, ANDREAS, a lyric poet of the Swabian school, born inWürtemberg; studied and wrote on animal magnetism and spiritualism(1786-1862). 

KEROSENE, a refined petroleum used as oil for lamps. 

KERRY (179), maritime county in the SW. Of Ireland, between theShannon and Kenmare Rivers, with Limerick and Cork on the E. ; has arugged, indented coast, Dingle Bay running far inland; is mountainous, having Mount Brandon, the Macgillicuddy, and Dunkerron ranges, andcontains the picturesque Lakes of Killarney; there is little industry oragriculture, but dairy-farming, slate-quarrying, and fishing areprosecuted; iron, copper, and lead abound, but are not wrought; thepopulation is Roman Catholic; county town, Tralee (9). 

KERTCH (30), a seaport of the Crimea, on the eastern shore; had alarge export trade, which suffered during the Crimea War, but has revivedsince. 

KESWICK (4), a Cumberland market-town and tourist centre and capitalof the Lake District, on the Derwent, 20 m. SW. Of Carlisle; manufactureswoollens, hardware, and lead-pencils; is the seat of an annual religiousconvention which gives its name to a phase of Evangelicalism. 

KET, ROBERT, a tanner in Norfolk, leader of an insurrection in thecountry in 1549, was after seizing Norwich driven out by the Earl ofWarwick, captured, and hanged. 

KETTERING (20), market-town in Northamptonshire; manufactures bootsand shoes, stays, brushes, &c. 

KEW (2), a village on the Thames, in Surrey, 6 m. W. Of Hyde Park, where are the Royal Botanic Gardens, a national institution since 1840, and an observatory. 

KEY, FRANCIS SCOTT, author of "The Star-spangled Banner, " born inMaryland, U. S. ; wrote the words that have immortalised him when he sawthe national flag floating over the ramparts of Baltimore in 1814(1780-1857). 

KEY WEST (10), a seaport, health resort, and naval station on acoral island 60 m. SW. Of Caple Sable, Florida; it has a good harbour andstrong fort; was the basis of operations in the Spanish-American War, 1898; exports salt, turtles, and fruit, and manufactures cigars. 

KEYNE, ST. , a pious virgin, lived in Cornwall about 490, and lefther name to a church and to a well whose waters are said to give theupper hand to whichever of a bridal pair first drinks of them after thewedding. 

KEYS, HOUSE OF, the third estate in the Isle of Man, consisting of24 members chosen by themselves, when a vacancy occurs, by presenting tothe Governor "two of the oldest and worthiest men in the isle" for hisselection. 

KEYS, POWER OF THE, power claimed, according to Matt. Xvi. 19, bythe authorities of the Church to admit or exclude from church membership, a power the Roman Catholics allege conferred at first on St. Peter andafterwards on his successors in office. 

KHAMSIN (fifty), a hot sand wind which blows in Egypt from thedesert for fifty days, chiefly before and after the month of May. 

KHAN, the title of a Tartar sovereign or prince; also an Eastern innor caravansary. 

KHANDESH, a district of Bombay in the valley of the Tapti; a greatcotton-growing centre; Dhulia, the capital. 

KHARKOFF (194), important town in Little Russia, 350 m. NE. OfOdessa; has immense horse and wool fairs, and manufactures sugar, soap, felt, and iron; it is a Greek bishopric, a university seat, and hasvarious schools of learning. 

KHARTOUM (60), a caravan depôt in the Soudan, just above theconfluence of the Blue and White Niles, 1100 m. S. Of Cairo; was anactive slave-trade centre, and commercially important; was captured bythe Mahdists in 1885, when General Gordon fell; retaken by Lord Kitchenerin 1898; lately has been superseded by Omdurman on the opposite bank ofthe Nile. 

KHATMANDU (50), the capital of Nepal, India, at the confluence ofthe Baghmati and Vishnumati Rivers, 60 m. N. Of the British frontier; isthe centre of a considerable trade. 

KHEDIVE, the official title of the Viceroy of Egypt since 1867, thefirst to hold it being Ismail, the son of IBRAHIM PASHA (q. V. ), by grant of the Sultan, his suzerain. 

KHERSON (62), on the Dnieper, 19 m. From the sea and 60 m. E. OfOdessa; capital of the Russian government of Kherson; has been surpassedin importance by Odessa; its trade is in timber, and industries aresoap-making, brewing, and wool-cleansing. 

KHINGANS, THE, a range of volcanic mountains on the E. Of the desertof Gobi. 

KHIVA (500), a Turkestan province or khanate in Central Asia, S. Ofthe Sea of Aral; is under Russian protection since 1873; a sandy desertwith many oases, and in some parts well irrigated from the Oxus; itproduces wheat, rice, cotton, and fruit; climate subject to extremes. KHIVA, the capital (20), on a canal connected with the Amu, somedistance from the left bank of the Oxus, and 300 m. NW. Of Merv, is atown of earth huts; it was at one time one of the chief slave-markets inAsia till the traffic was put a stop to by Russia. 

KHORASSAN, the largest province of Persia; is on the Afghan border, mountainous, and fertile only in the N. Among the valleys of the Elburzrange; grain, tobacco, and medicinal plants are grown; gold and silver, turquoises, and other gems found. The capital is Meshed (50), a sacredMoslem city, with carpet, jewellery, and silk manufactures. 

KHYBER PASS, a narrow defile 33 m. Long, in one place only 10 ft. Wide, through not lofty but precipitous mountains; lies to the NW. OfPeshawur, and is the chief route between the Punjab and Afghanistan; wasthe scene of a British catastrophe in the war of 1839-42, but has beenrepeatedly forced since, and since 1879 has been under British control. 

KIAKHTA (9), a Russian town in Transbaikalia, Siberia, on theborders of China; an emporium of trade between China and Russia. 

KIAO-CHAU, a province of Shantung, China; occupied by Germany in1897, and ceded to her on a 99 years' lease by China in 1898; extends toabout 160 m. Along the coast, and about 20 m. Inland. 

KIDD, WILLIAM, a noted pirate, born of Covenanting parents atGreenock; went to sea early, and served in privateering expeditions withdistinction; appointed to the command of a privateer about 1696, andcommissioned to suppress the pirates of the Indian Ocean, he went toMadagascar, and there started piracy himself; entering Boston harbour in1700 he was arrested, sent to London, tried on a charge of piracy andmurder, and executed in 1701. 

KIDDERMINSTER (26), in the N. Of Worcester, 18 m. SW. Of Birmingham;has been since 1735 noted for its carpets; manufactures also silk, paper, and leather; was the scene of Richard Baxter's labours as vicar, and thebirthplace of Sir Rowland Hill. 

KIEFF (184), on the Dnieper, 300 m. N. Of Odessa, is a holy city, the capital of the province of Kieff, strongly fortified, and one of theoldest towns in Russia, where Christianity was proclaimed the religion ofthe country in 988; has St. Vladimir's University, theological schools, and Petchersk monastery; a pilgrim resort; industries unimportant, include tanning and candle-making; trade chiefly in the hands of theJews. 

KIEL (69), on the Baltic, 60 m. N. Of Hamburg, is the capital ofSchleswig-Holstein, a German naval station and important seaport, withshipments of coal, flour, and dairy produce; has shipbuilding and brewingindustries, a university and library, and is the eastern terminus of theBaltic Ship Canal, opened 1895. 

KIEPERT, HEINRICH, distinguished German cartographer, born atBerlin; was professor of Geography there; his chief works an "Atlas ofAsia Minor, " and his "Atlas Antiquus"; _b_. 1818. 

KIERKEGAARD, SÖREN AABY, philosophical and religious thinker, bornat Copenhagen; lived a quiet, industrious, literary life, and exerted achief influence on 19th-century Dano-Norwegian literature; his greatestworks are "Either-Or, " and "Stadia on Life's Way" (1813-1855). 

KIESELGHUR, powder used for polishing and in the manufacture ofdynamite, formed from shells of microscopic organisms. 

KILDA, ST. , a lonely island in the Atlantic, 60 m. W. Of Harris, 3m. Long by 2 broad, with a precipitous coast and a few poor inhabitants, who live by fishing and fowling. 

KILDARE (70), inland Irish county, in Leinster, in the upper basinsof the Liffey and Barrow, W. Of Dublin and Wicklow; is level and fertile, with the great Bog of Allen in the N. , and in the centre the Curragh, agrassy plain; agriculture is carried on in the river basins; the countytown is Naas (4); other towns Maynooth, with the Roman Catholictheological college, and Kildare. 

KILIAN, ST. , the first apostle of the Franks, an Irish monk; deputedby the Pope in 686. 

KILIMA-NJARO, a volcanic mountain group, 19, 000 ft. High, on thenorthern border of German East Africa, 170 m. From the coast, with twopeaks, Kibo and Kimawenzi; in 1894 an Austrian communistic settlement wasestablished on the slopes. 

KILKENNY (87), inland Irish county in Leinster, surrounded byWaterford, Tipperary, Queen's County, Carlow, and Wexford, watered by theBarrow, Suir, and Nore; extremely fertile in the S. And E. , producingfine corn, hay, and green crops; is moorland, and devoted tocattle-rearing in the N. , where also anthracite coal is abundant. Kilkenny (11), the county town, is noted for a fine black marble quarriednear it. 

KILLARNEY (5), market-town and tourist centre, in co. Kerry, Ireland, on the shores of the lake, 15 m. SE. Of Tralee; has a RomanCatholic cathedral and some arbutus-carving industry. 

KILLARNEY, THE LAKES OF, three beautiful lakes at the northern footof the Macgillicuddy Reeks, in the basin of the Leane, much resorted toby tourists. 

KILLIECRANKIE, PASS OF, 15 m. NW. Of Dunkeld, in Perthshire, whereGeneral Mackay was defeated by Claverhouse, who fell, in 1689; istraversed by a road and a railway. 

KILMAINHAM (5), a suburb of Dublin, with a royal hospital fordisabled soldiers and a jail; the treaty of Kilmainham was an agreementsaid to have been made in 1882 between Gladstone and Parnell, who wasthen confined in Kilmainham jail, affecting Irish government and policy. 

KILMARNOCK (28), on the Irvine, 20 m. SW. Of Glasgow, largest townin Ayrshire; is an important railway centre, has extensive engineerworks, carpet factories, and breweries; is in the middle of a rich coaland iron district, and has a great annual cheese and dairy produce show. 

KIMBERLEY (29), 500 m. NE. Of Cape Town; is capital of GriqualandWest, and chief inland town in South Africa, in a dry but healthysituation; exists in virtue of diamond mines in the vicinity, the richestin the world. Also the name of a district in the N. Of West Australia, adistrict of rising prosperity. 

KIMBERLEY, EARL OF, English Liberal statesman, son of BaronWodehouse; succeeded to the title 1846; was twice over Under-Secretaryfor Foreign Affairs, and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 1864-66; in 1866created Earl of Kimberley, he was in succession Lord Privy Seal, ColonialSecretary, Secretary for India, and Foreign Secretary; _b_. 1826. 

KIMCHI, DAVID, a Jewish rabbi, born at Narbonne; wrote a Hebrewgrammar and lexicon, which forms the basis of all subsequent ones, alsocommentaries on most books of the Old Testament (1160-1235). 

KINCARDINESHIRE (35), east coast Scottish county, lying betweenAberdeen and Forfar, faces the North Sea, with precipitous cliffs; hasmuch fertile soil under corn, green crops, and small fruit, also pastureand grazing land where cattle are reared; the fishing is important, andthere are some coarse linen factories; chief towns, Stonehaven (5) andBervie (1). 

KINDERGARTEN, schools conducted according to Froebel's system forthe development of the power of observation and the memory of youngchildren. 

KINEMATICS, the science of pure motion under the categories of spaceand time, irrespective of consideration of the forces determining it andthe mass of the body moved. 

KINEMATOGRAPH, a photographic apparatus by which an impression istaken of closely consecutive stages in the development of a scene. 

KINETICS, the science of the action of forces causing motion; boththis law and the two preceding are derived from a Greek word signifying"to move. "

KING, WILLIAM RUFUS, American statesman and diplomatist, born inNorth Carolina; was a member of Congress and the Senate, andVice-President of the Republic, represented the United States both at St. James's and in France (1755-1827). 

KING NIBELUNG, king of the NIBELUNGEN (q. V. ), who left histwo sons an inexhaustible hoard of wealth, so large that 12 waggons in 12days at the rate of 3 journeys a day could not carry it off. 

KING OF THE ROMANS, a title assumed by the Emperor Henry II. , andafterwards conferred on the eldest son of the emperor of Germany. 

KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, historian, born near Taunton; bred forthe bar, gave up the legal profession, in which he had a lucrativepractice, for literature; is the author of two works, "Eothen" and the"History of the War in the Crimea, " in 8 vols. , the former a brilliantlywritten book of travels in the East, published in 1844, the latter aminute record of the war, of which the last vol. Was published in 1890, pronounced by Prof. Saintsbury, in a literary point of view, to be "animposing failure" (1809-1891). 

KINGMAKER, THE, a title popularly given to Richard Nevil, Earl ofWarwick, who was instrumental in raising Edward IV. To the throne ofEngland by dethroning Henry VI. , and afterwards in restoring Henry by thedefeat of Edward. 

KINGS, THE BOOK OF, two books of the Old Testament, originally one, but divided in the Septuagint into two, containing the history of theJewish kingdom under the kings from its establishment under David to itsfall, and covering a period from 1015 B. C. To 560 B. C. , during whichtime the kingdom fell into two, that of Israel and that of Judah, thecaptivity of the former, occurring 130 years before that of the latter;the author, who is unknown, wrote the history at the time of thecaptivity, and his object is didactic of the effect on the history of anation of its apostasy from faith in its God, not, however, without apromise of restoration in the case of repentance. 

KING'S COLLEGE, London, a Church of England institution, withfaculties of Theology, Arts, Science, and Medicine, Evening Class, CivilService and Art departments, a preparatory School and a Ladies'department; it grants the title of associate. 

KING'S COUNSEL or QUEEN'S COUNSEL are those barristers inEngland and Ireland who, having been successful in their profession havereceived the letters-patent conferring that title and right of precedencein all courts; the appointment is honorary and for life, but in actingagainst the Crown a Q. C. Must obtain leave by special license, which isalways granted. 

KING'S COUNTY (66), an inland Irish county on the left bank of theShannon, between Tipperary and West Meath; is mostly flat, a quarter ofit bogland and a quarter under crops; the chief towns are Tullamore (5), the county town, on the Grand Canal, and Birr or Parsonstown (4), whereLord Rosse's great telescope is. 

KINGSLEY, CHARLES, canon of Westminster and chaplain to the Queen, born at Holne Vicarage, near Dartmoor; studied at Cambridge; becamerector of Eversley, in Hampshire, in 1844; was the author in 1848 of adrama, entitled "The Saint's Tragedy, " with St. Elizabeth of Hungary forheroine, which was followed successively by "Alton Locke" (1849), and"Yeast" (1851), chiefly in a Socialistic interest; "Hypatia, " a brilliantbook in the interest of early Christianity in Alexandria and "WestwardHo!" a narrative of the rivalry of England with Spain in the days ofElizabeth, and besides other works, including "Two Years Ago, " "WaterBabies, " and "Hereward the Wake, " he was the author of the popularballads of "The Three Fishers, " "The Starlings, " and "The Sands of Dee";his writings had a great influence on his contemporaries, particularly onyoung men; Professor Saintsbury writes an appreciative estimate ofKingsley (1819-1875). 

KINGSLEY, HENRY, younger brother of the preceding; after a briefexperience of life in Australia he returned home to start on the careerof letters in rivalry with his brother, and distinguished himself byexhibitions of similar literary ability, as a novelist especially, aswell as kindred sympathies; his principal novels were "Geoffrey Hamlyn, "one of the best novels on Australian life; "Ravenshoe, " his masterpiece, and "The Hillyars and the Burtons" (1830-1876). 

KINGSTON, 1, capital (13) of Frontenac County, Ontario, on the NE. Shore of the Lake, 150 m. E. Of Toronto, an important commercial townwith shipbuilding and engineering works; is the seat of Queen'sUniversity, military and medical colleges, and an observatory. 2, Capital(47) of Jamaica, on a great bay on the S. Coast, on the edge of asugar-growing district; exports sugar, tobacco, and dye-woods, andimports cotton, flour, and rice. 3, a town (21) on the Hudson, N. Y. , hasgreat blue stone-flag quarries, and cement-works, breweries, andtanneries. 

KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES (27), in Surrey, 10 m. SW. Of London, has afine church and other buildings, and malting industry. 

KINGSTON, W. H. G. , popular boys' story-writer, born in London, spent his youth in Oporto, was interested in philosophic schemes, andhelped to arrange the Anglo-Portuguese commercial treaty; he wrote 120tales, of which the "Three Midshipmen" series is the best, and died atWillesden (1814-1880). 

KINGSTOWN, seaport of Dublin, 7 m. SE. ; was till 1817 but a fishingvillage; has a harbour designed by Rennie, which cost £525, 000; wasoriginally Dunleary, and changed into Kingstown on George IV. 's visit in1821. 

KINKEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, German poet and writer on æsthetics, bornnear Bonn; studied for the Church, but became lecturer on Art in Bonn, 1846; two years later he was imprisoned for revolutionary proceedings;escaped in 1850 to England, and became professor at Zurich in 1866; wrote"Otto der Schütz, " an epic, and "Nimrod, " a drama (1815-1882). 

KINROSS (7), small Scottish county lying between Perth and Fife, round Loch Leven, is agricultural and grazing, with some hills of nogreat height, and coal mines; the co. Town, KINROSS (2), is on theW. Shore of Loch Leven; manufactures tartan. 

KINSALE (5), a once important seaport in co. Cork, at the mouth ofthe Bandon, 13 m. S. Of Cork; has lost its trade, and is now a summerresort and fishing station; King James II. Landed here in 1689, andre-embarked in 1690. 

KINTYRE, a long narrow isthmus on the W. Coast of Scotland, betweenthe Atlantic and the Firth of Clyde, is chiefly hill and grass country;but at Campbeltown are great distilleries; at Machrihanish Bay, on the W. Coast, are fine golfing links. 

KIPCHAKS, a nomadic Turkish race who settled on the south-easternsteppes of Russia about the 11th century, and whose descendants stilloccupy the district. 

KIPLING, RUDYARD, story-teller and poet, born in Bombay, andeducated in England; went out to India as a journalist; his storiesrespect Anglo-Indian, and especially military, life in India, and his"Soldiers Three, " with the rest that followed, such as "Wee WillieWinkie, " gained for him an immediate and wide reputation; as a poet, hismost successful effort is his "Barrack-Room Ballads, " instinct with amartial spirit, in 1864; he is a writer of conspicuous realistic power;he deems it the mission of civilisation to drill the savage races inhumanity; _b_. 1865. 

KIRBY, WILLIAM, entomologist, born in Suffolk; distinguished as theauthor of "Monographia Apium Angliæ, " and "Introduction to Entomology";was rector of Barham, Suffolk, for 68 years (1759-1850). 

KIRGHIZ, a nomadic Turkish people occupying the Kirghiz steppes, animmense tract E. Of the Ural River and the Caspian Sea, numbering 2½millions, adventurous, witty, and free-spirited; refuse to settle; retainancient customs and characteristics, and are Moslems only in name. 

KIRK SESSION, an ecclesiastical court in Scotland, composed of theminister and elders of a parish, subject to the Presbytery of thedistrict. 

KIRKCALDY (27), a manufacturing and seaport town in Fifeshire, extending 4 m. Along the north shore of the Forth, known as the "langtoon. " It was the birthplace of Adam Smith, and one of the scenes of theschoolmastership period of Thomas Carlyle's life; manufactures textilefabrics and floorcloth; is a busy town. 

KIRKCUDBRIGHT (40), a Scottish county on the Solway shore betweenWigtown and Dumfries, watered by the rivers Nith, Dee, and Cree; hasMount Merrick on the NW. Border, and Loch Dee in the middle; one-third ofits area cultivated, the rest chiefly hill pasturage. County townKIRKCUDBRIGHT (3), on the Dee, 6 m. From the Solway; held St. Cuthbert's church. 

KIRKDALE CAVE, a cave in the vale of Pickering, Yorkshire, discovered by Buckland to contain the remains of a number of extinctspecies of mammals. 

KIRKE'S LAMBS, the soldiers of Colonel Kirke, an officer of theEnglish army in James the Second's time, distinguished for their acts ofcruelty inflicted on the Monmouth party. 

KIRKINTILLOCH (10), a town on the Forth and Clyde Canal, 7 m. N. OfGlasgow, manufactures chemicals, has calico works, and mines of coal andiron. 

KIRKWALL (4), capital of Orkney, in the E. Of Mainland, 35 m. NE. OfThurso; has a fine cathedral named St. Magnus, and some shipping trade;it was in mediæval times subject to Norway, and was the residence of thejarls. 

KIRRIEMUIR (4), a small Forfarshire town, 5 m. NW. Of Forfar, nativeplace of J. M. Barrie, and the "Thrums" of his books; manufactures brownlinens. 

KIRSCHWASSER (cherry water), a liqueur formed from ripe cherrieswith the stones pounded in it after fermentation and then distilled. 

KISFALUDY, KAROLY, Hungarian dramatist, brother of the following, was founder of the national drama, and with his brother ranks high in theliterature of the country (1788-1830). 

KISFALUDY, SANDOR, a Hungarian lyric poet, "Himfy's Loves" his chiefwork, was less distinguished as a dramatist (1772-1844). 

KISSINGEN (4), Bavarian watering-place on the Saale, 65 m. E. OfFrankfort-on-the-Main, visited for its saline springs by 14, 000 peopleannually; its waters are used both internally and externally, and aregood for dyspepsia, gout, and skin-diseases. 

KITCAT CLUB, founded in 1688 ostensibly to encourage literature andart, and named after Christopher Catt, in whose premises it met; becameultimately a Whig society to promote the Hanoverian succession;Marlborough, Walpole, Congreve, Addison, and Steele were among thethirty-nine members. 

KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM, HORATIO HERBERT, LORD, son of Col. Kitchener;joined the Royal Engineers, and was first engaged in survey work inPalestine and Cyprus; became a major of cavalry in the Egyptian army1882, served in the 1884 expedition, was governor of Suakim 1886, andafter leading the Egyptian troops at Handub 1888 was made aide-de-camp tothe Queen, C. B. , and adjutant-general in the Egyptian army; he wasappointed Sirdar, commander-in-chief of that army, in 1892, organised andled the expedition of 1898 which overthrew the Khalifa at Omdurman, andfor which he was awarded a peerage and received many honours, the freedomof the cities of London and Edinburgh, &c. ; a gift of £30, 000 was votedby the Government in 1899; _b_. 1850. 

KIZIL (red river), the ancient Halys, the largest river in AsiaMinor, which flows into the Black Sea 40 m. E. Of Sinope after a courseof 450 m. 

KLAPKA, a Hungarian patriot, distinguished in arms against theAustrians during the revolution, and for his heroic defence of Komorn inthe end (1820-1892). 

KLAPROTH, JULIUS VON, Orientalist and philologist; was anaccomplished Chinese scholar; explored Siberia and Caucasia (1783-1835). 

KLAUS, PETER, the German prototype of Rip Van Winkle, a goat-herdwho slept for the same number of years and at the end had similarexperiences. 

KLAUSTHAL (9), in Hanover, 25 m. NE. Of Göttingen, is the chiefmining town of the northern Hartz Mountains, and the seat of the Germanmining administration, surrounded by silver, copper, lead, and zincmines. 

KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE, French general, born at Strasburg; originallyan architect, served with distinction in the Revolutionary army, accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and was left by him in command, where, after a bold attempt to regain lost ground and while in the act ofconcluding a treaty with the Turks, he was assassinated by an Arabfanatic (1753-1800). 

KLEIST, HEINRICH VON, German dramatist and poet, born atFrankfort-on-the-Oder; entered the army, but afterwards devoted himselfto literature; slow recognition and other trials preyed on his mind, andhe shot himself near Potsdam (1777-1811). 

KLONDIKE, a small section of Yukon, a territory in the extreme NW. Of N. America, and a present-day centre of pilgrimage by gold-seekerssince the recent discovery of the gold-fields there. 

KLOPSTOCK, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB, German poet, born at Quedlinburg;distinguished as the author of an epic poem entitled the "Messiah, " whichis his chief work, his treatment of which invested him with a certainsense of sanctity, and the publication of which did much to quicken andelevate the literary life of Germany (1724-1803). 

KNARESBOROUGH (5), Yorkshire market-town, 14 m. W. Of York;manufactures woollen rugs, grinds flour, and trades in corn. 

KNELLER, SIR GODFREY, portrait-painter, born at Lübeck; studiedunder Rembrandt and at Italy, came to England in 1674, and was appointedcourt painter to Charles II. , James II. , William III. , and George I. ;practised his art till he was seventy, and made a large fortune(1646-1723). 

KNICKERBOCKER, the imaginary author of the fictitious "History ofNew York, " by Washington Irving. 

KNIGHT, CHARLES, London publisher and editor, publisher for theUseful Knowledge Society, of "Library of Entertaining Knowledge, " of the"Penny Magazine, " and the "Penny Cyclopædia, " &c. , as well as a"Pictorial Shakespeare, " edited by himself (1791-1873). 

KNIGHTHOOD, a distinction granted to commoners, ranking next tobaronet, now bestowed by the crown; formerly knighthood was a militaryorder, any member of which might create new knights; it was originallythe highest rank of CHIVALRY (q. V. ); it was an order of manysubdivisions developed during the crusades, and in full flower before theNorman conquest of England. 

KNIGHTS OF LABOUR, an American labour organisation, founded in 1869, resembling a union of all trades, male and female; in 1886 had 730, 000members, which have since disagreed and fallen off. 

KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE, King Arthur's knights, so called fromthe round table at which they sat, so that when seated there might seemno precedency, numbered popularly at twelve, though reckoned by some atforty. 

KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE, English gentry representing a middle classbetween the barons and the peasants, acting as members of Parliament forthe county they belonged to. 

KNOWLES, SHERIDAN, dramatist, born at Cork; was connected with thestage first as actor and then as an author of plays, which include"Virginius, " "The Hunchback, " and "The Wife"; latterly he gave up thestage, and took to preaching in connection with the Baptist body(1784-1862). 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a party in the United States that sprung up in 1853and restricted the right of American citizenship to those who were bornin America or of an American parentage, so called because to thoseinquisitive about their secret organisation they uniformly answered "Iknow nothing. "

KNOX, JOHN, the great Scottish Reformer, born at Giffordgate, Haddington, in 1505; studied at Glasgow University; took priest's orders;officiated as a priest, and did tutoring from 1530 to 1540; came underthe influence of George Wishart, and avowed the Reformed faith; tookrefuge from persecution in St. Andrews Castle in 1547; was there summonedto lead on the movement; on the surrender of the castle was takenprisoner, and made a slave in a French galley for 19 months; liberated in1549 at the intercession of Edward VI. , came and assisted the Protestantcause in England; was offered preferments in the Church, but declinedthem; fled in 1553 to France, from the persecution of Bloody Mary;ministered at Frankfort and Geneva to the English refugees; returned toScotland in 1555, but having married, went back next year to Geneva; wasin absence, in 1557, condemned to be burned; published in 1558 his "FirstBlast against the Monstrous Regiment of Women"; returned to Scotland forgood in 1559, and became minister in Edinburgh; saw in 1560 thejurisdiction of the Pope abolished in Scotland; had successive interviewswith Queen Mary after her arrival at Leith in 1561; was tried forhigh-treason before the Privy Council, but acquitted in 1563; began his"History of the Reformation in Scotland" in 1566; preached in 1567 atJames VI. 's coronation in Stirling; was in 1571 struck by apoplexy; diedin Edinburgh on the 24th November 1572, aged 67, the Regent Mortonpronouncing an _éloge_ at his grave, "There lies one who never feared theface of man. " Knox is pronounced by Carlyle to have been the oneScotchman to whom, "of all others, his country and the world owe a debt";"In the history of Scotland, " he says, "I can find properly but oneepoch; we may say it contains nothing of world interest at all but thisReformation by Knox. .. . It is as yet a country without a soul . .. Thepeople now begin to _live_ . .. Scottish literature and thought, Scottishindustry, James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott (little as he dreamt ofdebt in that quarter), and Robert Burns, I find Knox and the Reformationacting on the heart's core of every one of these persons and phenomena; Ifind that without the Reformation they would not have been; or, " he adds, "the Puritanism of England and of New England either"; and he sums up hismessage thus: "Let men know that they are men, created by God, responsible to God; who work in any meanest moment of time what will lastthrough eternity. This great message, " he adds, "Knox delivered with aman's voice and strength, and found a people to believe him. "

KOBDO, a town in Mongolia, the entrepôt of Russian dealers inconnection with the Altai mines. 

KOCH, ROBERT, an eminent bacteriologist, born at Klansthal, inHanover; famous for his researches in bacteriology; discovered sundrybacilli, among others the cholera bacillus and the phthisis bacillus, anda specific against it; _b_. 1843. 

KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE, popular French novelist and dramatist, bornnear Paris, and educated for a mercantile career, but turned to writingand produced a series of works, not of first merit, but illustratingcontemporary French middle-class life (1794-1871). 

KOHELETH (the preacher, originally gatherer), the Hebrew name forthe book of Ecclesiastes, and a personification of wisdom. 

KOLA, a small town, the most northerly in Russia, on a peninsula ofthe same name, with a capacious harbour. 

KOLIN, a Bohemian town on the Elbe, 40 m. SE. Of Prague, whereFrederick the Great was defeated by Marshal Daun in 1757. 

KÖLLIKER, an eminent embryologist, born at Zurich; professor ofAnatomy at Würzburg; _b_. 1817. 

KÖLN, the German name for COLOGNE (q. V. ). 

KÖNIG, FRIEDRICH, German mechanician, born in Eisleben; bred aprinter, and invented the steam-press, or printing by machinery(1774-1833). 

KÖNIGGRÄTZ (16), a Bohemian town 60 m. E. Of Prague; was the sceneof a terrible battle called Sa'dowa, in Austria, where the Germansdefeated the Austrians in 1866. 

KÖNIGSBERG (161), the capital of E. Prussia, on the Pregel, withseveral manufactures and an extensive trade; has a famous university, andis the birthplace of Kant, where also he lived and died. 

KORÂN (i. E. Book to be read), the Bible of the Mohammedans, accepted among them as "the standard of all law and all practice; thingto be gone upon in speculation and life; it is read through in themosques daily, and some of their doctors have read it 70, 000 times, andhard reading it is"; it contains the teaching of Mahomet, collected byhis disciples after his death, and arranged the longest chapters firstand the shortest, which were the earliest, last; a confused book. 

KORDOFAN (280), an Egyptian Soudanese province on the W. Bank of theNile; an undulating dry country, furnishing crops of millet, andexporting gums, hides, and ivory; was lost in the Mahdist revolt of 1883, but recovered by Lord Kitchener's expedition in 1898; El Obeid (30), thecapital is 230 m. SW. Of Khartoum. 

KOREISH, the chief tribe among the Arabs in Mahomet's time, and towhich his family belonged. 

KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR, a German soldier poet, often called the GermanTyrtæus, born in Dresden; famous for his patriotic songs and theirinfluence on German patriots; fell in a skirmish with the French atMecklenburg (1791-1813). 

KOSCIUSKO, THADDEUS, Polish general and patriot, born in Lithuania, of noble parentage, bred to arms; first saw service in the American Waron the side of the colonists, and returning to Poland, twice over didvaliant service against Russia, but at length he was taken prisoner atthe battle of Maciejowice in 1794; he was subsequently set at liberty bythe Emperor Paul, when he removed to America, but soon returned to settlein Switzerland, where he died by a fall of his horse over a precipice; hewas buried at Cracow beside John Sobieski (1746-1817). 

KOSSUTH, LOUIS, Hungarian patriot, born near Zemplen; studied forhis father's profession, the law, but giving that up for politics, becameeditor of several Liberal papers in succession; elected member of theDiet at Pesth in 1847, he next year demanded autonomy for Hungary, andset himself to drive out the Hapsburgs and establish a republic; heraised a large army and large funds, but Russia aided Austria, and thestruggle, though hopeful at first, proved in vain, defeated at Temesvarand escaping to Turkey, he came to England in 1851, was enthusiasticallyreceived, and lived there for many years; ultimately he resided in Turin, studied science, and died there (1802 or 1806-1894). 

KOTZEBUE, German dramatist, born at Weimar; went to St. Petersburg, obtained favour at court and a government appointment; was banished toSiberia, but regained the favour of Paul, and was recalled; on Paul'sdeath he returned to Germany, but went back to Russia from fear ofNapoleon, whom he had violently attacked; he had a facile pen, and wroteno fewer than 200 dramatic pieces; his strictures on the Germanuniversity students greatly exasperated them, and one of them attackedhim in his house at Mannheim and stabbed him to death (1761-1819). 

KOUMISS, an intoxicating beverage among the Kalmucks, made byfermentation from mare's milk. 

KOVALEVSKY, ALEXANDER, Russian embryologist, professor at St. Petersburg; studied and wrote on the Ascidians; _b_. 1840. 

KRAKATAO, a volcanic island in the narrow Strait of Sunda, betweenJava and Sumatra; was the scene of a terrific eruption in 1883, causing atidal wave that swept round the globe, and raising quantities of dustthat made the sunsets in Britain even more than usually red for threeyears. 

KRAKEN, a huge fabulous sea-monster, reported as at one time seen inthe Norwegian seas; it would rise to the surface, and as it plunged downdrag ships and every floating or swimming thing along with it. 

KRAPOTKIN, PRINCE PETER, a Russian Nihilist, born in Moscow; becamea member of the INTERNATIONAL (q. V. ); was arrested in Russiaand imprisoned, but escaped, as also in France, but released, and settledin England; has written extensively on Socialistic subjects; _b_. 1842. 

KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, born atEisenberg; studied under Fichte and Schelling, and was himself lecturersuccessively in Jena, Dresden, Berlin, Göttingen, and Münich, where hedied; of the school of Kant, his work has suffered through the pedantryof his style; he wrote "The Ideal of Humanity, " and many philosophicaltreatises (1781-1832). 

KREFELD (105), in Rhenish Prussia, 12 m. NW. Of Düsseldorf;important manufacturing town; noted for its silk and velvet factoriesfounded by Protestant refugees; has also machinery and chemical works. 

KREMLIN, gigantic pile of buildings in Moscow of all styles ofarchitecture;, including palaces, cathedrals, museums, governmentoffices; founded by Ivan III. In 1485. 

KREUZER, a German coin, worth one-third or one-fifth of an Englishpenny. 

KRIEGSSPIEL, a military game played on large-scale maps with metalblocks for troops, and designed to represent as fully as possible theconditions of warfare; was invented by a Prussian lieutenant in 1824. 

KRILOF, IVAN ANDREEVICH, the great Russian fabulist, born at Moscow, son of a soldier; began his literary career writing dramas and editingmagazines; was some time secretary to the governor of Livonia, and foryears lived an idle roving life; at 40 his fables in the Moscow_Spectator_ brought him fame in 1805; next year he was appointed to aGovernment post at St. Petersburg, and in 1821 to a post in the ImperialPublic Library; he was an eccentric, much-loved man, and the humour andsympathy of his writings have won for him the title of the La Fontaine ofRussia (1768-1844). 

KRISHNA (i. E. The swarthy one), the man-god, or god-man, viewedas the 8th and final incarnation or avatar of VISHNU (q. V. ), inwhose manifestation the latter first reveals himself as supreme divinity, being, as the Theosophist might say, his Mahatma. See THEOSOPHY. 

KRÜDENER, MADAME DE, novelist, born at Riga; authoress of anautobiographical novel entitled "Valérie"; lived partly at St. Petersburgand partly at Paris; was a mystic religious enthusiast and politicalprophetess (1764-1824). 

KRÜGER, S. J. PAUL, President of the Transvaal Republic, born atRastenburg; became member of the Executive Council in 1872; in 1882 waschosen President, and has been three times elected to the same officesince; a man of sturdy, stubborn principles, a champion of the rights ofthe Boers, and a cunning diplomatist; _b_. 1825. 

KRUMMACHER, FREDERICK, German theologian, author of "Elijah theTisbite, " a popular work; was an opponent of the Rationalists(1796-1868). 

KRUPP, ALFRED, metal and steel founder, born at Essen, where throughhis father he became the proprietor of a small foundry which grew in hishands into such dimensions as to surpass every other establishment of thekind in the world; the BESSEMER (q. V. ) process was earlyintroduced here in the manufacture of steel, which Krupp was the first toemploy in the manufacture of guns; the works cover an immense area, andemploy 20, 000 people, and supply artillery to every Government of Europe(1810-1887). 

KUBERA or KUVERA, the Hindu Plutus, or god of riches, represented as deformed and mounted on a car drawn by hobgoblins. 

KUBLAI KHAN was a great Mongol emperor of the 13th century; built upan empire which included all the continent of Asia (except India, Arabia, and Asia Minor) and Russia, the most extensive that ever existed; he wasan enlightened prince, adopted Chinese civilisation, promoted learning, and established Buddhism throughout his domains. 

KUENEN, ABRAHAM, a Dutch Biblical critic, born at Haarlem; studiedat Leyden, and became professor there; distinguished for his researcheson the lines of the so-called higher criticism bearing upon the literaryhistory of the books of the Old Testament, beginning with that of thePentateuch (1828-1891). 

KUEN-LUN, N. Of Thibet, a great snow-clad mountain range, 18, 000 to25, 000 ft. High; stretches for 700 m. , with a breadth of 100 m. It wasexplored by General Prjevalski, a Russian, 1876-88. 

KULM, a Bohemian village on the left bank of the Elbe, 50 m. NW. OfPrague, where the French under Vandamme surrendered to the Russians andPrussians in 1813. 

KUNERSDORF, a village near Frankfort-on-Oder, where Frederick theGreat was defeated by Russians and Austrians in 1759. 

KURDISTAN (2, 250), a stretch of plateau and mountain land inTurkish, Persian, and Russian Trans-Caucasian territory, consisting ofgrassy plains and lofty ranges through which rivers like the Zabs, Batman-su, and Euphrates force their way; is inhabited by a partly nomad, partly agricultural people of ancient stock, who export wool, gum, andhides; the Kurds retain their old customs and organisation, are subjectto their own chiefs, impatient of the rule of the Porte and the Shah;predatory by instinct, but brave and chivalrous; they are Moslems andNestorians. 

KURILE ISLANDS, a chain of 26 islands, being a continuation of thepeninsula of Kamchatka, enclosing the sea of Okhotsk; very sparselyinhabited. 

KURRACHEE (105), the chief port of the Punjab; situated on the deltaof the Indus, with an extensive harbour and trade. 

KURTZ, HEINRICH, German theologian, professor at Dorpat; author, among other works, of a "Handbook of Church History"; _b_. 1809. 

KURUMAN, in Bechuanaland, 140 m. NW. Of Kimberley; is the placewhere Livingstone and Moffat laboured. 

KYD, THOMAS, Elizabethan dramatist, born in London, and trained ascrivener, but won fame as a writer of tragedies, of which the best was"The Spanish Tragedy" (1557-1595). 

KYOTO (298), from 784 to 1868 the capital of Japan, on the KamoRiver, inland, 190 m. W. Of Yedo; is still the centre of JapaneseBuddhism, and is noted for its pottery, bronze-work, crapes, and velvets. 

KYRIE ELEISON, means "Lord have mercy upon us, " and with CHRISTEELEISON, "Christ have mercy upon us, " occurs in all Greek liturgies, in the Roman Mass, and in the English Prayer Book, where it forms the"lesser litany. "

KYRLE, JOHN, philanthropist, born in Gloucestershire; celebrated byPope as the "Man of Ross, " from the name of the place in Herefordshirewhere he lived; was distinguished for his benefactions; has given name toa society founded, among other things, for the betterment of the homes ofthe people (1637-1724). 

L

LAB`ARUM, the standard, surmounted by the monogram of Christ, whichwas borne before the Emperor Constantine after his conversion toChristianity, and in symbol of the vision of the cross in the sky whichled to it. It was a lance with a cross-bar at its extremity and a crownon top, and the monogram consisted of the Greek letter for Ch and R. 

LABÉ, LOUISE, poetess, surnamed "La belle Cordière" as the wife of arope-maker, born in Lyons; wrote in prose "Dialogue d'Amour et de Folie, "and elegies and sonnets, with "a singular approach to the ring ofShakespeare's" (1526-1566). 

LABICHE, EUGENE, a French dramatist, born at Paris; his dramas giveevidence of a genius of inexhaustible fertility of invention, wit, andhumour; his best-known play "Le Voyage de M. Perrichon, " 1860(1815-1888). 

LABLACHE, a celebrated operatic deep bass singer, born in Naples, ofFrench origin; he created quite a _furore_ wherever he went; was teacherof singing to Queen Victoria (1794-1858). 

LABOULAYE, RENÉ DE, a French jurist, born in Paris; was a Moderatein politics; wrote on French law, and was the author of some tales of ahumorous turn, such as "Paris in America" (1811-1883). 

LABOURDONNAIS, MARÉ DE, French naval officer, born at St. Malo, Governor of the Isle of France; distinguished himself against the Englishin India; was accused of dishonourable conduct, and committed to theBastille, but after a time found guiltless and liberated (1699-1753). 

LABRADOR (6), the great peninsula in the E. Of Canada, washed byHudson's Bay, the Greenland Sea, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence; is a hightableland, with many lakes and rivers, and forests of birch and fir. Theclimate is much too severe for agriculture. Summer is very short, andplagued with mosquitoes. The rivers abound in salmon; the fox, marten, otter, and other animals are trapped for their fur; iron and labradoriteare plentiful. The population is largely Eskimo, christianised by theMoravians. The name Labrador specially belongs to the region along theeastern coast, between Capes St. Louis and Chudleigh, presenting a barrenfront to the sea, precipitous, much indented, and fringed with rockyislands. This region is governed by Newfoundland; its chief industry iscod and herring fishing. 

LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE, a celebrated French moralist, born at Paris;was tutor to the Duke of Bourbon, the grandson of the great Condé, andspent a great part of his life in Paris in connection with the Condéfamily; his most celebrated work is "Les Caractères de Théophrastus"(1687), which abounds in wise maxims and reflections on life, but gaveoffence to contemporaries by the personal satires in it under disguisednames; he ranks high as a writer no less than as a moralist; his style is"a model of ease, grace, and fluency, without weakness in his characters;a book, " adds Professor Saintsbury, "most interesting to read, andespecially to Englishmen" (1645-1696). 

LABUAN (6), a small island, distant 6 m. From the W. Coast of NorthBorneo, ceded to Britain in 1846, and administered by the British NorthBorneo Company; has rich coal-beds; its town, Victoria, is a market forBorneo and the Sulu Archipelago, and exports sago, camphor, and pearls;the population is chiefly Malay and Chinese. 

LABYRINTH, a name given to sundry structures composed of winding passagesso intricate as to render it difficult to find the way out, and sometimesin. Of these structures the most remarkable were those of Egypt and ofCrete. The Egyptian to the E. Of Lake Moeris, consisted of an endlessnumber of dark chambers, connected by a maze of passages into which itwas difficult to find entrance; and the Cretan, built by Dædalus, at theinstance of Minos, to imprison the Minotaur, out of which one who enteredcould not find his way out again unless by means of a skein of thread. Itwas by means of this, provided him by ARIADNE, PERSEUS (q. V. ) found hisway out after slaying the MINOTAUR (q. V. ). 

LAC, a term employed in India for a hundred thousand, a croreamounting to 100 lacs, usually of money. 

LACCADIVES, THE, or THE HUNDRED THOUSAND ISLES (14), agroup of low-lying coral islands 200 m. W. Of the Malabar coast of India, mostly barren, and yielding chiefly cocoa-nuts; the population beingHindus professing Mohammedanism and poorly off. 

LACÉPÈDE, COMTE DE, French naturalist, born at Agen; was entrustedby Buffon to complete his Natural History on his death; wrote on his ownaccount also the natural histories of reptiles, of fishes, and of man(1756-1825). 

LACHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE, a French Jesuit, an extremely politic memberof the fraternity in the reign of Louis XIV. ; had a country house E. OfParis, the garden of which is now the cemetery Père la Chaise(1624-1709). 

LACHESIS, the one of the three Fates that spun the thread of lifeand apportioned the destinies of man. See PARCÆ. 

LACHMANN, KARL, a German philologist and classical scholar, born atBrunswick, professor at Berlin; besides sundry of the Latin classics, inparticular Lucretius, he edited the Nibelungen Lied, and the Greek NewTestament, as well as contributed important critical essays on thecomposition of the "Iliad, " which he regarded as a collection of laysfrom various independent sources (1783-1851). See ILIAD. 

LACHRYMA CHRISTI, a sweet wine of a red or amber colour, producedfrom grapes grown on Mount Vesuvius. 

LACONIA, ancient name for Sparta, the inhabitants of which werenoted for the brevity of their speech. 

LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRY, a celebrated French preacher, andone of the most brilliant orators of the century; bred for the bar; heldsceptical opinions at first, but came under the influence of religion;took orders as a priest and became associated with Montalembert andLamennais as joint-editor of the _Avenir_, a journal which advocatedviews at once Ultramontane and radical, but which, being condemned by thePope, was discontinued; after this he took to preaching, and immensecrowds gathered to hear his conferences, as they were called, in thechurch of Notre Dame, where, to the astonishment of all, he appeared inthe pulpit in guise of a Dominican monk with the tonsure; he wasafterwards elected member of the Constitutent Assembly, where he sat inhis monk's attire, but he soon retired; he ended his days as head of theMilitary College of Sorrèze (1802-1861). 

LACRATELLE, French historian, born at Metz; began life as ajournalist; became professor of History in Paris University; wrote ahistory of the 18th century and of the French Revolution, showing verygreat accuracy of detail, if little historical insight (1766-1855). 

LA CROSSE, the national game of Canada, of Indian derivation; isplayed twelve a side, each armed with a long-handled racquet or crosse, the object of the game being to drive an india-rubber ball through theopponents' goal. 

LACTANTIUS, a Christian apologist of the early part of the 14thcentury, who, from his eloquent advocacy of the Christian faith, wasstyled the Christian Cicero; he was a pagan born, and by profession arhetorician. 

LADISLAUS, the name of seven kings of Hungary, of which the first(1077-1095) received canonisation for his zeal on behalf of Christianity. 

LADOGA, a lake as large as Wales and the largest in Europe, in theNW. Of Russia, not far from St. Petersburg; it is the centre of anextensive lake and river system, receiving the Volkhov, Syas, and Svir, and drained into the Gulf of Finland by the Neva; but so dangerous isnavigation, owing to sunken rocks and shoals and to the storms thatprevail during the open months, that the extensive shipping is carriedround the S. Shores by the Ladoga and the canals. 

LADRONES or MARIANA ISLANDS (10), a well-watered, thickly-wooded group in the North Pacific, 1400 m. E. Of the Philippinesand belonging to Spain; produce cotton, indigo, and sugar, but the tradeis of little worth; the only town is San Ignazio de Agaña, on the largestisland, Guam. 

LADY CHAPEL, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary attached to achurch. 

LADY DAY, the festival of the annunciation of the Virgin Mary, March25; a quarter-day in England and Ireland. 

LADY OF ENGLAND, title of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. And wife ofGeoffrey Plantagenet, conferred on her by a council held at Westminster, 1141. 

LADY OF SHALOTT, a maiden of great beauty, the subject of a poem byTennyson, in love with Lancelot, who died because her love was notreturned. 

LADY OF THE LAKE, the name given to Vivien, the mistress of Merlin, who dwelt in an imaginary lake, surrounded by a court of knights anddamsels; also to Helen Douglas, a heroine of Scott's, who lived with herfather near Loch Katrine. 

LA FAYETTE, MADAME DE, novelist, born in Paris; is credited withbeing the originator of the class of fiction in which character and itsanalysis are held of chief account; she was the daughter of the governorof Havre, and contracted a Platonic affection for La Rochefoucauld in hisold age, and was besides on intimate terms with Madame Sévigné and themost eminent literary men of the time; her "Princess de Clèves" is aclassic work, and the merit of it is enhanced by the reflection that itpreceded by nearly half a century the works both of Le Sage and Defoe(1634-1693). 

LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE, born in the castle of Chavagnac; went toAmerica in 1777, took an active and self-sacrificing part in the War ofIndependence; was honourably distinguished at the battle of Brandywine;sailed for France, brought over auxiliaries; he commanded Washington'svanguard in 1782; returned to Paris, and was made commander-in-chief ofthe National Guard in 1789; would have achieved the Revolution with theminimum of violence and set up a republic on the model of the Washingtonone; was obliged to escape from France during the Reign of Terror; wasimprisoned five years at Olmütz, but was liberated when Napoleon appearedon the scene; as a consistent republican showed no favour to Napoleon;took part in the Revolution of 1830, became again commander-in-chief ofthe National Guard and a supporter of Louis Philippe, the citizen king;characterised by Carlyle as "a constitutional pedant; clear, thin, inflexible, as water turned to thin ice" (1757-1834). 

LAFITTE, JACQUES, French banker and financier; played a conspicuouspart in the Revolution of 1830, and by his influence as a liberalpolitician with the French people secured the elevation of Louis Philippeto the throne; in the calamities attendant on this Revolution his housebecame insolvent, but he was found, after paying all demands, to be worthin francs nearly seven millions (1767-1844). 

LAFONTAINE, JEAN DE, celebrated French author, born atChâteau-Thierry, in Champagne; a man of indolent, gay, and dissipatedhabits, but of resplendent genius, known to all the world for hisinimitable "Tales" and "Fables, " and who was the peer of all thedistinguished literary notabilities of his time; the former, published in1665, too often transgress the bounds of morality, but are distinguishedby exquisite grace of expression and sparkling wit; the latter, publishedin 1668, have an irresistible charm which no reader can withstand; he wasthe author also of the "Amours of Cupid and Psyche"; he was the friend ofBoileau, Molière, and Racine, and in his later years a confirmed Parisian(1621-1695). 

LA FORCE, DUC DE, maréchal of France under Henry IV. , and one of themost distinguished; escaped when an infant the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1558-1652). 

LAGOS (40), a large and thriving commercial town in a colony (100)of the name subject to Britain, on the Guinea Coast of Africa. 

LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS, COMTE, famous mathematician, born at Turinof French parentage; had gained at the age of twenty a Europeanreputation by his abstruse algebraical investigations; appointed directorof Berlin Academy in 1766, he pursued his researches there for twenty-oneyears; in 1787 he removed to Paris, where be received a pension from theCourt of 6000 francs, and remained till his death; universally respected, he was unscathed by the Revolution; appointed to several offices, hereceived the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour from Napoleon, who madehim a count (1736-1813). 

LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE, French littérateur and critic, born inParis; wrote dramas and éloges, but his best-known work is his "Cours deLittérature" in 12 vols. , of little account except for its criticism ofFrench literature, in which he showed not a little pedantry andill-temper as well as acuteness; he was zealous for the Revolution atfirst, but drew back when extreme measures were adopted and became a warmroyalist, for which he was sentenced to deportation, but left at liberty(1739-1803). 

LA HOGUE, a cape with a roadstead on NE. Of France, where a Frenchfleet sent by Louis XIV. To invade England on behalf of James II. Wasdestroyed in 1692. 

LAHORE (177), an ancient walled city on the Ravi, a tributary of theIndus, 1000 m. NW. Of Calcutta, is the capital of the Punjab, and animportant railway centre; it has many fine buildings, both English andnative, including a university and a medical school, but the situation isunhealthy; half the population are Mussulmans; the trade isinconsiderable; the district of Lahore (1, 075) one of the most importantin the province, is well irrigated by the Bári Doab Canal, and producesfine crops of cereals, pulse, and cotton. 

LAIDLAW, WILLIAM, Sir Walter Scott's factor at Abbotsford, born inSelkirkshire; having failed in farming, entered Scott's service in 1817and remained his trusted and faithful friend, advising him in his schemesof improvement and acting latterly as his amanuensis till his death in1832; thereafter he was factor in Ross-shire, where he died; he had somepoetic gift of his own, and contributed to the third volume of the"Minstrelsy" (1780-1845). 

LAING, DAVID, a learned antiquary, profound in his knowledge ofScottish ecclesiastical and literary history, born, the son ofbookseller, at Edinburgh, followed for thirty years his father's trade;was appointed to the charge of the Signet Library in 1837; was secretaryto the Bannatyne Club, and in 1864 received the degree of LL. D. FromEdinburgh University; he contributed many valuable papers to the_Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, collected andedited much of the ancient poetry of Scotland, and acquired a privatelibrary of manuscripts and volumes of great value (1799-1878). 

LAING, MALCOLM, Scottish historian, born in Orkney; passed throughEdinburgh University to the Scottish bar, to which he was called in 1785, but proved an unsuccessful advocate; turning to literature, he edited"Ossian, " and wrote a "History of Scotland from James VI. To Anne"(1800), in a subsequent edition of which he inserted the well-knownattack on Mary Stuart (1762-1818). 

LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans celebrated for their beauty, the one a native of Corinth, who lived at the time of the PeloponnesianWar, and the other belonging to Sicily, and who, having visited Thessaly, was stoned to death by the women of the country out of jealousy. 

LAISSEZ-FAIRE (lit. Let things alone and take their course), thename given to the let-alone system of political economy, in opposition toState interference, or State regulation, in private industrialenterprise. 

LAKE DISTRICT, a district in Cumberland and Westmorland, 20 m. Longby 25 m. Broad, abounding in lakes, environed with scenery of rarebeauty, and much frequented by tourists. 

LAKE DWELLINGS, primitive settlements, the remains of which havebeen found in many parts of Europe, but chiefly in Switzerland, the N. OfItaly, and in Scotland and Ireland. They were constructed in variousways. In the Swiss lakes piles, consisting of unbarked tree trunks, weredriven in a short distance from the shore, and strengthened more or lessby cross beams; extensive platforms laid on these held small villages ofrectangular wooden huts, thatched with straw and reeds. These weresometimes approachable only in canoes, more often connected with theshore by a narrow bridge, in which case cattle were kept in sheds on theplatforms. In Scotland and Ireland the erection was rather an artificialisland laid down in 10 or 12 ft. Of water with brushwood, logs, andstones, much smaller in size, and holding but one hut. The Swissdwellings, the chief of which are at Meilen, on Lake Zurich, date fromvery early times, some say 2000 years before Christ, and contain remainsof the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, weapons, instruments, pottery, linencloth, and the like. The relic of latest date is a Roman coin of A. D. 54. The British remains are much more recent, belonging entirely to theIron period and to historic times. The object sought in these structuresis somewhat obscure--most probably it was the security their insularnature afforded. 

LAKE POETS, a school of English poets, the chief representatives ofwhich were Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who adorned the beginningof the 19th century, and were so designated by the _Edinburgh Review_because their favourite haunt was the LAKE DISTRICT (q. V. ) inthe N. Of England, and the characteristic of whose poetry may be summedas a feeling of and a sympathy with the pure spirit of nature. 

LAKSHMI, in the Hindu mythology the wife of Vishnu and the goddessof beauty, pleasure, and victory; she is a favourite subject of Hindupainting and poetry. 

LALANDE, a French astronomer; was professor of Astronomy in theCollege of France, and produced an excellent treatise on the subject intwo vols. (1732-1807). 

LALLA-ROOKH, the title of a poem by Moore, from the name of theheroine, the daughter of the Mogul Emperor, Aurungzebe; betrothed to theyoung king of Bacharia, she goes forth to meet him, but her heart havingbeen smitten by a poet she meets on the way, as she enters the palace ofher bridegroom she swoons away, but reviving at the sound of a familiarvoice she wakes up with rapture to find that the poet of her affectionwas none other than the prince to whom she was betrothed. 

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, or BARON DE TOLLENDAL, a French general, bornat Romans, in Dauphiné, of Irish descent; saw service in Flanders;accompanied Prince Charles to Scotland in 1745, and was in 1756 appointedGovernor-General of the French settlements in India, but being defeatedby the English he was accused of having betrayed the French interests, and executed after two years' imprisonment in the Bastille (1702-1766). 

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, MARQUIS DE, son of the preceding; successfullyvindicated the conduct of his father, and received back his paternalestates that had unjustly been forfeited; supported LA FAYETTE(q. V. ) at the time of the Revolution, and followed his example; wasarrested in 1792, but escaped to England; returning to France, hesupported the Bourbon dynasty at the Restoration; wrote a "Defence of theFrench Emigrants, " and a Life of the Earl of Strafford, Charles I. 'sminister (1751-1830). 

LAMAISM, Buddhism as professed in Thibet and Mongolia, or theworship of Buddha and his DHARMA (q. V. ); conceived of asincarnated in the SANGHA (q. V. ) or priesthood, and especiallyin the Grand Lama or Dalai Lama, the chief priest; a kind ofhero-worship, or at all events saint-worship; long since sunk into mereIDOLATRY (q. V. ). 

LAMARCK, a French naturalist, born at Bazentin, Picardy; entered thearmy at the age of 17, and after serving in it a short time retired anddevoted himself to botany; in his "Flora Française" published (1773)adopted a new method of classification of plants; in 1774 became keeperof what ultimately became the Jardin des Plantes, and was professor ofZoology, devoting himself to the study of particularly invertebrateanimals, the fruits of which study appeared in his "Histoire Naturelledes Animaux sans Vertèbres"; he held very advanced views on the matter ofbiology, and it was not till the advent of Darwin they were appreciated(1744-1820). 

LA MARMORA, MARQUIS DE, an eminent Italian general and statesman, born at Turin; fell under the rebuke of Bismarck for an indiscretion as adiplomatist (1801-1878). 

LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE, a French author, politician, and poet, born in Mâcon; his poetic effusions procured for him admission into theFrench Academy, and in 1834 he entered the Chamber of Deputies; hisability as a poet, and the independent attitude he maintained in theChamber, gained for him a popularity which his action in 1848 contributedto increase, but it suffered eclipse from the moment he allied himselfwith Ledru-Rollin; after serving in the Provisional Government of 1848 hestood candidate for the Presidency, but was defeated, and on the occasionof the _coup d'état_, he retired into private life; he published in 1819"Méditations Poétiques, " in 1847 the "Histoire de Girondins, " besidesother works, including "Voyage en Orient"; he was "of the second order ofpoets, " says Professor Saintsbury, "sweet but not strong, elegant but notfull;. .. A sentimentalist and a landscape painter" (1790-1869). 

LAMB, CHARLES, essayist and critic, born in London, and educated atChrist's Hospital, where he had Coleridge for school-fellow; was for 35years a clerk in the East India Company's office, on his retirement fromwhich he was allowed a pension of £450; it was as a poet he made hisfirst appearance in literature, but it was as an essayist he attaineddistinction, and chiefly by his "Essays of Elia" he is best known andwill be longest remembered; he was the friend of Wordsworth, Southey, andothers of his illustrious contemporaries, and is famous for his wittyremarks, to which his stammering tongue imparted a special zest; he wasnever married; his affection for his sister Mary, for whom he composedhis "Tales from Shakespeare, " is well known, and how in her weakness frominsanity he tenderly nursed her (1775-1834). 

LAMBALLE, PRINCESSE DE, a young widow, the devoted friend of MarieAntoinette, born at Turin; was for her devotion to the queen one of thevictims of the September massacres and brutally outraged; "she wasbeautiful, she was good, she had known no happiness" (1748-1792). 

LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH, German philosopher and mathematician; wasthe successor and rival of Leibnitz in both regards, and was patronisedby Frederick the Great (1619-1728). 

LAMBERT, JOHN, one of Cromwell's officers in the civil war, born inYorkshire; served in the successive engagements during the war from thatof Marston Moor onwards, and assisted at the installation of Cromwell asProtector, but declined to take the oath of allegiance afterwards; on thedeath of the Protector essayed with other officers to govern the country, an attempt which was defeated by Monk, and for which he was imprisoned, tried, and banished (1619-1683). 

LAMBETH (275), part of the SW. Quarter of London, and aparliamentary borough in Surrey returning four members; abounds inmanufactories, contains St. Thomas's Hospital and Lambeth Palace, theofficial residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, with a magnificentlibrary and important historic portrait-gallery. 

LAMENNAIS, FÉLICITÉ, ROBERT DE, a French theologian and journalist, born at St. Malo; began life as a free-thinker, but by-and-by became aRoman Catholic of the extreme ultramontane type; in 1820 went to Rome andwas offered a cardinalate, but in 1830 his views changed, and he joinedMontalembert and Lacordaire in the conduct of _L'Avenir_, a journal whichadvocated religious and political freedom, on the condemnation of whichby the Pope he became again a free-thinker and revolutionary; hisinfluence on French literature was great, and affected both Michelet andVictor Hugo (1782-1854). 

LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF, one of the poetical books of the OldTestament, ascribed to Jeremiah and historically connected with hisprophecies, written apparently after the fall of Jerusalem and in sightof its ruins, as lamentation over the general desolation in the landconnected therewith. 

LAMMAS DAY, the first of August, literally "the loaf-mass" day orfestival day at the beginning of harvest, one of the cross quarter days, Whitsuntide, Martinmas, and Candlemas being the other three. 

LAMMERMOORS, a range of hills separating the counties of Haddingtonand Berwick, extending from Gala Water to St. Abb's Head, the Lammer Lawbeing 1733 ft. 

LA METTRIE, a French physician and materialist, born at St. Malo;bred to medicine, served as an army surgeon at Dettingen and Fontenoy;his materialistic views were given first in a publication entitled"D'Histoire Naturelle de l'Âme, " and at length in his "L'Homme Machine, "both in profession of a materialism so gross and offensive, beingabsolutely atheistic, that he was glad to escape for shelter to Berlinunder the wing of Frederick the Great (1709-1754). 

LAMOTTE, COUNTESS DE, born at Fontelle, in Aube, who came up toParis a shifty adventuress and played a chief part in the notoriousaffair of the DIAMOND NECKLACE (q. V. ), which involved so manyhigh people in France in deep disgrace (1756-1791). See CARLYLE'S"MISCELLANIES. "

LANARK (5), county town of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 31 m. SE. OfGlasgow; has a cattle-market and some weaving industry, and is forparliamentary purposes in the Falkirk group of burghs. 

LANARKSHIRE (1, 106), inland Scottish county occupying the Clydevalley, in size the twelfth, but first in wealth and population. Themiddle and south are hilly, with such outstanding peaks as Tinto, and areadapted for cattle and sheep grazing and for dairy-farming. The lowernorth-western portion is very rich in coal and iron, the extensive miningand manufacture of which has given rise to many busy towns such asGlasgow, Motherwell, Hamilton, Coatbridge, and Airdrie; fireclay, shale, and lead are also found; the soil is various; comparatively little grainis grown; there are large woods. The orchards of the river side havegiven place mostly to market gardens, which the proximity of great townsrenders profitable. The industries, besides iron and coal, are veryextensive and varied, and include great textile works. 

LANCASHIRE (3, 927), English county stretching from the CumberlandMountains in the N. To the Mersey in the S. Along the shores of the IrishSea; is the wealthiest and most populous county, and the indentations ofthe coast-line adapt it to be the chief outlet westward for Englishtrade, more than a third of England's foreign commerce passing throughits ports. The country is mostly low, with spurs of the Yorkshire hills;it is rich in minerals, chiefly coal and iron; its industrial enterpriseis enormous; nearly half of the cotton manufacture of the world iscarried on in its towns, besides woollen and silk manufacture, the makingof engineer's tools, boots and shoes. The soil is a fertile loam, undercorn and green crops and old pasture. Lancaster is the county town, butthe largest towns are Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, and Blackburn. Thenorthern portion, detached by Morecambe Bay, is known as Furness, belongsreally to the Lake District, and has Barrow-in-Furness, with its largeshipbuilding concerns, for its chief town. Lancashire has long been aninfluential political centre. 

LANCASTER (31), picturesque town near the mouth of the Lune, 50 m. NW. Of Manchester, is the county town of Lancashire, and manufacturesfurniture, cotton, machinery, and railway plant; it was disfranchised in1867 for corrupt practices. 

LANCASTER, JOSEPH, educationist, born in Southwark, and founder ofthe Monitorial System; had a chequered career, died in poverty(1778-1838). 

LANCELOT OF THE LAKE, one of the Knights of the Round Table, famousfor his gallantry and his amours with Queen Guinevere; was called of theLake because educated at the court of the LADY OF THE LAKE (q. V. );he turned hermit in the end, and died a holy man. 

LAND LEAGUE, an organisation founded by DAVITT (q. V. ) inIreland in 1879 to deal with the land question, and suppressed in 1881 asillegal. 

LANDAMAN, name given to the chief magistrate in certain Swisscantons, also to the President of the Swiss Diet. 

LANDER, RICHARD, African explorer, born in Truro, Cornwall;accompanied Clapperton as his servant; along with his brother Johndiscovered the lower course of the Niger; on the third expedition waswounded in a conflict with the natives, and died at Fernando Po(1804-1834). 

LANDES, sandy plains along the French coast between the Garonne andthe Pyrenees, covered with heath and broom. 

LANDGRABBER, name given in Ireland to one in the possession oroccupancy of land from which another has been evicted. 

LANDGRAVE, title given to certain counts of the old German empirewho had the rank of princes. 

LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH, known as L. E. L. , authoress, born inChelsea; a charming woman, who wrote well both in verse and prose; wasMrs. Hemans's successor; having taken prussic acid by mistake had atragic end (1802-1838). 

LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE, eminent literary man, born in Warwick, a manof excitable temperament, which involved him in endless quarrels leadingto alienations, but did not affect his literary work; figured first as apoet in "Gebir" and "Count Julian, " to the admiration of Southey, hisfriend, and De Quincey, and ere long as a writer of prose in his"Imaginary Conversations, " embracing six volumes, on which recent criticshave bestowed unbounded praise, Swinburne in particular; he died inFlorence separated from his family, and dependent on it there for sixyears; Carlyle visited him at Bath in 1850, and found him "stirringcompany; a proud, irascible, trenchant, yet generous, veracious, and verydignified old man; quite a ducal or royal man in the temper of him"(1775-1864). 

LAND'S END, a bold promontory of granite rock on the SW. Coast ofCornwall. 

LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY, greatest English animal-painter, born inLondon, the son of an engraver and writer on art, trained by his father, sketched animals before he was six years old, and exhibited in the RoyalAcademy before thirteen; in his early years he portrayed simply the formand colour and movement of animal life, but after his twenty-first yearhe added usually some sentiment or idea; elected A. R. A. In 1826, and R. A. In 1830; he was knighted in 1853; five years later he won a gold medalin Paris; in 1859 he modelled the Trafalgar Square lions; after 1861 hesuffered from mental depression, and declined the Presidency of the RoyalAcademy in 1866 (1802-1873). 

LANDSTURM, the name given to the last reserve in the German army, which is never called out except in time of war. 

LANDTHING, the name of the Upper House in the Danish Parliament. 

LANDWEHR, a military force in Germany and Austria held in reserveagainst a time of war, when it is called out to do ordinary militaryduty. In Germany those capable of bearing arms have to serve in it fiveyears after completing their seven years' term of regular service. 

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM, eminent Arabic scholar, born at Hereford; setout for Egypt in 1825; studied the language and manners, and returned in1828; published in 1836 an "Account of the Manners and Customs of theModern Egyptians"; translated in 1840 "The Arabian Nights, " and spentseven years in Egypt preparing an Arabic Lexicon which he had all butfinished when he died; it was completed and edited by S. Lane-Poole(1801-1876). 

LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Pavia; went to France, entered the monastery of Bec, and became prior in 1046, and wasafterwards, in 1062, elected prior of the abbey of St. Stephen at Caen;and came over to England with William the Conqueror, who appointed him tothe archbishopric rendered vacant by the deposition of Stigand; he wasWilliam's trusted adviser, but his influence declined under Rufus; _d_. 1089. 

LANFREY, PIERRE, historian, born at Chambéry; wrote an elaborateHistory of Napoleon to, it is reckoned, the irreparable damage of itshero (1828-1877). 

LANG, ANDREW, a versatile writer, born in Selkirk; has distinguishedhimself in various departments of literary work, as a poet, afolk-lorist, a writer of fancy tales, a biographer, and a critic; hascomposed "Ballads and Lyrics of Old France, " "Ballads in Blue China"; hastranslated Homer into musical prose, and written the Lives of SirStafford Northcote and John Gibson Lockhart; he began his literary careeras a journalist, and his assiduity as a writer has never relaxed; _b_. 1844. 

LANGE, FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, born near Solingen, son of thefollowing; became professor at Marburg; wrote a "History of Materialism"of great value (1828-1875). 

LANGE, JOHANN PETER, a German theologian, born near Elberfeld;became professor at Bonn; his works are numerous, but is best known byhis "Life of Christ" and his "Christian Dogmatic" (1802-1884). 

LANGHORNE, JOHN, an English divine and poet, horn at Kirkby Stephen;was a prebend of Wells Cathedral; wrote a poem entitled "Genius andVirtue, " and executed with a brother a translation of Plutarch's Lives(1735-1779). 

LANGLAND, or LANGLEY, WILLIAM, the presumed author of the"Vision of Piers Plowman, " and who lived in the 14th century. 

LANGRES (10), a French town, strongly fortified, near the sources ofthe Marne, rich in antiquities, and one of the oldest towns in France;has manufactures and a considerable trade. 

LANGTON, STEPHEN, archbishop of Canterbury, born in England buteducated in France; a man of ability and scholarly attainments; in 1206visited Rome, was made Cardinal by Innocent III. , presented to theArchbishopric, and consecrated at Viterbo in 1207; King John refused toacknowledge him, and the kingdom was put under an interdict, a quarrelwhich it took five years to settle; established in the primacy, theprelate took up a constitutional position, and mediated between the kingand the barons to the advancement of political liberty; _d_. 1228. 

LANGUEDOC, a province in the S. Of France, annexed to the Frenchcrown in 1361, and now divided into nine departments, borders on theRhône. 

LANKA, name given to Ceylon in the Hindu mythology. 

LANNES, JEAN, DUC DE MONTEBELLO, marshal of France, born atLectoure; was much esteemed by Napoleon, whom he zealously supported;went with him to Egypt, was with him at Marengo, distinguished himself atAusterlitz and in Spain, and fell mortally wounded at Essling(1769-1809). 

LANSDOWNE, HENRY, THIRD MARQUIS OF, liberal politician, born inLondon; educated at Edinburgh and Cambridge; sat in the Commons as memberfor Calne from 1801 and for Cambridge from 1806, and succeeded to thepeerage in 1809; on the accession of the Liberals to power he joined theCabinet of Canning, presided at the Foreign Office in Goderich'sadministration, became President of the Council under Lord Grey in 1830, and, twice refusing the Premiership, was a member of every LiberalGovernment till 1858, when he retired from public life; he was thetrusted adviser of his party, and friend of the Queen till his death(1780-1863). 

LANSDOWNE, HENRY, FIFTH MARQUIS OF, Liberal statesman, grandson ofthe above, educated at Oxford; succeeded to the peerage in 1866, and heldoffice in Liberal Governments, Lord of the Treasury 1868-72, Under-Secretary for War 1872-74, and Under-Secretary for India 1880; hewas Governor-General of Canada 1883-88, and Viceroy of India 1888-94; in1895 he joined Lord Salisbury's ministry as a Liberal-Unionist, becomingSecretary for War; _b_. 1845. 

LANTERNE, LA, a stout lamp-iron at the corner of a street in Paris, used by the mob for extemporised executions during the Revolution byLynch law. 

LAOCÖON, a priest of Apollo, in Troy, who having offended the godby, for one thing, advising the Trojans not to admit the wooden horse ofthe Greeks within the walls, was, with his two sons, while engaged insacrificing to Poseidon, strangled to death in the coils of two enormousserpents sent to kill him, a subject which is the theme of one of thegrandest relics of ancient sculpture now in existence and preserved inthe Vatican. 

LAODAMIA, a Grecian lady, who accompanied her husband to the TrojanWar, and who, on his death on the field, begged the gods to restore himto her for three hours, a prayer which was granted, but with the resultthat at the end of the time she died along with him and accompanied himon his return to Hades. 

LAODICEA. Eight ancient cities bore this name; the chief, situatedon the Lycus, in Phrygia, lay on the way between Ionia and the Euphrates;was a city of great commerce and wealth, the seat of schools of art, science, medicine, and philosophy, and of an early Christian bishopric;though the Church was stigmatised in the Revelation, two councilsassembled here in A. D. 363 and 476, the former of which influenced thedetermination of the canon of both Testaments; the city, destroyed by theMohammedan invasions, is now in ruins. 

LAOMEDON, the founder of Troy, who persuaded Apollo and Neptune toassist him in building the walls, but refused the recompense when thework was finished, in consequence of which the latter sent a monster toravage the country, which could be propitiated only by the annualsacrifice to it of a young maid, till one year the lot fell on Hermione, the king's daughter, when Hercules, persuaded by the king, slew themonster and delivered the maiden. 

LAOTZE (i. E. The old Philosopher), a Chinese sage, born in theprovince of Ho-nan about 565 B. C. , a contemporary of Confucius, whowrote the celebrated "Tao-te-King, " canon, that is, of the Tao, or divinereason, and of virtue, one--and deservedly so on account of its highethics--of the sacred books of China; he was the founder of one of thethree principal religions of China, Confucianism and Buddhism being theother two, although his followers, the Tao-sze as they are called, arenow degenerated into a set of jugglers. 

LA PÉROUSE, a celebrated French navigator, born near Albi, inLanguedoc; after distinguished services in the navy was in 1785 sent withtwo frigates on a voyage of discovery by Louis XVI. ; "the bravenavigator" went forth, sailing along the Pacific shores of America andAsia as far as Botany Bay, but never returned; "the seekers search farseas for him in vain; he has vanished trackless into blue immensity, andonly some mournful mysterious shadow of him hovers long in all heads andhearts" (1741-1788). 

LAPITHÆ, a race inhabiting the mountains of Thessaly; subject toPerithous, who, on the occasion of his marriage with Hippodamia, invitedhis kinsfolk the Centaurs to the feast, but these, under intoxicationfrom the wine, attempting to carry off the bride and other women, wereset on by the Lapithæ and, after a bloody struggle, overpowered. 

LAPLACE, a celebrated French mathematician, born atBeaumont-en-Auge, Normandy; the son of a farmer; after teaching in hisnative place went to Paris (1767), where he became professor in the RoyalMilitary School; becoming member of the Académie des Sciences in 1785, heattained a position among mathematicians and astronomers almost equal toNewton's; his "Three Laws" demonstrated the stability of the solarsystem; he published many treatises on lunar and planetary problems, electricity, magnetism, and a Nebula-hypothesis; his "Mécanique Céleste"is unrivalled in that class of work; surviving the Revolution he becameimplicated in politics without success or credit; he received hismarquisate from Louis XVIII. In 1817, when he became President of theFrench Academy; "LAGRANGE (q. V. ) has proved that on Newton'stheory of gravitation the planetary system would endure for ever;Laplace, still more cunningly, even guessed that it could not have beenmade on any other scheme" (1749-1827). 

LAPLAND (28), a stretch of country in the N. Of Europe, between theAtlantic and the White Sea; is divided between Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Its climate is very severe; mountainous in the W. , it becomesmore level in the E. , where are many marshes, lakes, and rivers; thesummer is never dark, and there are six to eight weeks of winter neverlight. The Lapps, of whom 18, 000 are in Norwegian Lapland, are closelyallied to the Finns, small of stature, thick lipped, and with smallpiercing eyes; proverbially uncleanly, not very intelligent, aregood-natured, but untruthful and parsimonious; nominally Christian, butvery superstitious; they are kindly treated by both Norway and Sweden. The mountain Lapps are nomads, whose wealth consists of herds ofreindeer, which supply nearly all their wants. The sea Lapps live byfishing. The forest and river Lapps, originally nomads, have adopted asettled life, domesticated their reindeer, and taken to hunting andfishing. 

LA PLATA (65), a new city, founded in 1884 as capital of the prov. Of Buenos Ayres, 30 m. SE. Of Buenos Ayres city; rapidly built, it hascontinued to grow, and has now some handsome buildings, a college, andcotton and woollen manufactures; a canal connects it with the La PlataRiver. 

LA PLATA RIVER, a broad estuary in South America, from 28 to 140 m. Broad and 200 m. Long, with Uruguay on the N. And the Argentine Republicon the S. , through which the Uruguay and Paraná rivers pour into theAtlantic; it is much exposed to storms; its best harbour is at MonteVideo. 

LAPSI, name given to apostates in the early Christian Church. 

LAPUTA, a flying island inhabited by speculative philosophers, visited by Gulliver in his "Travels, " who, when their minds began to betoo much absorbed in their studies, were wakened up by a set ofattendants called "Flappers" armed with dried bladders full of smallpebbles or "dried peas" attached to the end of a stick, with which theystruck them gently about the mouth and ears. 

LARDNER, DIONYSIUS, a popular scientist, born in Dublin; wrote anumber of scientific works; edited a Cyclopedia, being a series ofvolumes on scientific subjects; was professor of Natural Philosophy andAstronomy in University College, London, but from a misdemeanour had tovacate his chair and emigrate to America (1793-1859). 

LARDNER, NATHANIEL, an English divine, ecclesiastically aPresbyterian but theologically a Unitarian, author of "Credibility of theGospel History" and "Jewish and Heathen Testimonies" in favour ofChristianity (1684-1768). 

LARES, household deities of the Romans; originally deified ancestorsof the families whose family life they protected, and images of whom werekept in some shrine in the house near the hearth. Besides these domesticlares, there were public lares, who were protectors of the wholecommunity. Both classes were objects of worship. 

LARISSA (13), the capital of Thessaly, in Greece; stands in a sandyplain; is the seat of a Greek archbishop; has mosques as well aschurches. 

LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, a great maxim writer, member ofa French family of Angoumois, born at Paris; played a conspicuous part inthe war of the Fronde; was present at several engagements, and waswounded twice over, and retired at length in shattered health; he passedthe rest of his days at court, where he enjoyed the society of the mostdistinguished ladies of the time; his "Maxims" appeared in 1665, and wereimmediately appreciated; they bear one and all on ethical subjects, andare the fruit of a life of large and varied commerce with the race(1613-1680). 

LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN, HENRI, COMTE DE, a celebrated Vendéan royalist;the peasants of La Vendée having in 1792 risen in the royal cause, heplaced himself at the head of them, and after gaining six victories waskilled fighting in single combat while defending Nouaillé (1772-1794). 

LAROUSSE, PIERRE, a celebrated French grammarian and lexicographer;best known by his "Grand Dictionnaire Universel du xix^{me} Siècle"(1817-1875). 

LARRY, DOMINIQUE JEAN, BARON, a celebrated military surgeon;distinguished for the organisation he instituted of the "flyingambulance" for the care of the wounded in battle; accompanied Napoleon toEgypt; served in the Russian campaign; was wounded and taken prisoner atWaterloo; wrote treatises on army surgery (1766-1842). 

LA SALLE, ROBERT CAVELIER SIEUR DE, a French explorer, born atRouen; set out from Canada and explored the North American continentalong the course of the Mississippi as far as the Gulf of Mexico, planting the French flag at what he thought was, but was not, the mouthof the river; was assassinated by one of his retinue in the end(1640-1687). 

LASCARS, East Indians serving as seamen on board of British vessels, who have proved very tractable, and make excellent sailors; they aremostly Mohammedans. 

LASCARSIS, CONSTANTINO, an eminent Greek scholar, born in Phrygia;on the fall of Constantinople in 1453 came with his brother John toItaly, published a Greek grammar, opened a school at Rome and Naples forGreek and Rhetoric, and did much to propagate in Italy a taste forHellenic literature (1445-1535). 

LAS CASAS, BARTHOLOMÉ DE, a celebrated Spanish priest, surnamed theApostle of the Indians, born at Seville; visited the West Indies earlyunder Columbus; took a deep interest in the natives; was grieved to seethe usage they were subjected to there, as well as elsewhere, under therule of Spain, and spent his life in persuading his countrymen to adopt amore lenient and humane treatment; crossed the ocean twelve times ontheir behalf; was made Bishop of Chiapa, in Mexico, in 1554; died inMadrid (1474-1566). 

LAS CASES, French historiographer; became attached to Napoleon andaccompanied him to St. Helena, and after his death published his Memorialof St. Helena, with an account of Napoleon's life and the treatment hewas subjected to there (1766-1842). 

LASCO, JOHANNES, a Protestant Reformer, born in Poland; studied atRome and Bologna, and entered holy orders; became acquainted with Erasmusat Basel, and joined the Reformation movement; settled at Emden; acceptedan invitation from Cranmer to London, and ministered to a Protestantcongregation there, but left it on the accession of Mary, and in 1556returned to Poland and contributed largely to the movement already begunthere (1490-1560). 

LAS PALMAS (17), the capital of the Canary Islands, on the NE. Ofthe Grand Canary, the second largest of the group; is the seat of theGovernment, and a health resort. 

LASSALLE, FERDINAND, founder of Socialism in Germany, born atBreslau, of Jewish parents; attended the universities of Breslau andBerlin; became a disciple of Hegel; took part in the Revolution of 1848, and was sent to prison for six months; in 1861 his "System of AcquiredRights" started an agitation of labour against capital, and he was againthrown into prison; on his release founded an association to secureuniversal suffrage and other reforms; returning to Switzerland heconceived a passionate affection for a lady betrothed to a noble whom shewas compelled to marry, and whom he challenged, but by whom he wasmortally wounded in a duel (1825-1864). 

LASSELL, WILLIAM, astronomer, born at Bolton, discovered thesatellite of Neptune, and the eighth satellite of Saturn, in anobservatory of his own, with instruments of his own construction(1799-1880). 

LASSEN, CHRISTIAN, eminent Orientalist, born at Bergen; studied Pâliwith Burnouf in Paris; became professor of Indian Languages andLiterature in Bonn; contributed largely to our knowledge of cuneiforminscriptions, and wrote, among other works, an epoch-making work entitled"Indische Alterthumskunde. "

LASSO, a well-plaited strip of hide, with a noose, to catch wildhorses or cattle with. 

LATAKIA (10), a seaport on the coast of Syria; exports a tobacco ofa fine quality, to which it gives name. 

LATEEN SAIL, a triangular sail common on the Mediterranean. 

LATERAN, the palace, originally a basilica, built by Constantine inRome about 333, the residence of the Pope till 1308, and from which nofewer than five Ecumenical Councils receive their names as held in it, namely, those of 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1518; the church, called theChurch of St. John Lateran, is the cathedral church of Rome. 

LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, ethnologist and philologist, born atBillingborough Vicarage, Lincolnshire, graduated at Cambridge 1832. Andbecame Fellow of King's College; qualifying in medicine he heldappointments in the London hospitals, but meanwhile was attracted tophilology and ethnology, appointed professor of English Language andLiterature in University College, London, 1839, and director of theethnological department of the Crystal Palace, 1852; in 1862 heaffirmed, against the most weighty authorities, that the Aryan stock isoriginally European, not Asian, a view which has since found favour; hepublished his "English Language" in 1841, and "The Natural History of theVarieties of Mankind" in 1850, and was pensioned in 1863 (1812-1888). 

LATIMER, HUGH, Bishop of Worcester, born near Leicester; studied atCambridge, and entered the Church, but soon adopted the Reformeddoctrines, gained the favour of Henry VIII. By approving of his divorce, and was appointed bishop; by his labours in Worcester as a preacher ofthe Reformed faith he lost the royal favour, and was twice committed tothe Tower for his obstinacy, he the while resigning his appointment;under Edward VI. His zeal as a preacher had full scope, but under Maryhis mouth was gagged, and he was burnt at the stake along with Ridley, opposite Balliol College, Oxford (1490-1545). 

LATIN UNION, a convention in 1865, between France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, and Greece, to establish an international monetary standard. 

LATITUDINARIANS, the name given to a body of theologians belongingto the Church of England who, at the end of the 17th century, sought, inthe interest of religion, to affiliate the dogmas of the Church, with theprinciples of philosophy as grounded on reason; they were mostly of theschool of Plato, and among their leaders were Cudworth and Henry More. 

LATONA, the Latin name for Greek LETO (q. V. ). 

LATOUR D'AUVERGNE, CORRET DE, a French grenadier, born in Brittany;celebrated for his intrepidity and his self-sacrificing patriotism;distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolution; would accept nopromotion, and declined even the title of "First Grenadier of theRepublic" which Bonaparte wished to confer on him, but by which he isknown to posterity (1743-1800). 

LATRIELLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ, French naturalist, born at Brives, inCorrèze; one of the founders of the science of Entomology; succeededLamarck as professor in Natural History in the Jardin des Plantes; wroteseveral works on entomology (1762-1833). 

LATRIA, the name given in Catholic theology to the worship of God, as distinguished from DULIA (q. V. ), their name for the worshipof saints. 

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS, a series of pamphlets published by Carlyle in1850, in vehement denunciation of the political, social, and religiousimbecilities and injustices of the period. 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See MORMONS. 

LAUD, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Reading, son of aclothier; studied at and became a Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, was ordained in 1601; early gave evidence of his High-Church proclivitiesand his hostility to the Puritans, whom for their disdain of forms heregarded as the subverters of the Church; he rose by a succession ofpreferments, archdeaconship of Huntingdon one of them, to the Primacy, but declined the offer of a cardinal's hat at the hands of the Pope, andbecame along with Strafford a chief adviser of the unfortunate CharlesI. ; his advice did not help the king out of his troubles, and hisobstinate, narrow-minded pedantry brought his own head to the block; hewas beheaded for treason on Tower Hill, Jan. 10, 1645; he "could _see_ noreligion" in Scotland once on a visit there, "because he saw no ritual, and his soul was grieved" (1573-1645). 

LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF, Scottish Secretary under CharlesII. , professed Covenanting sympathies in his youth, and attended theWestminster Assembly of Divines as a Commissioner for Scotland 1643;succeeding to the earldom in 1645 he joined the Royalists in the CivilWar, was made prisoner at Worcester 1651, and confined for nine years;receiving his Scottish office at the Restoration he devoted himself toestablishing by every means the absolute power of the king in Church andState; his measures were responsible for the rising of 1666 and in partfor that of 1677; but he made the Episcopal Church quite subservient;appointed to the Privy Council, he sat in the "Cabal" ministry, was madeduke in 1672, and in spite of intrigues and an attempt to censure him inthe Commons, remained in power till 1680; he was shrewd, clever, witty, sensual, and unscrupulous; then and still hated in Scotland (1616-1682). 

LAUENBURG (49), a duchy of N. Germany, between Holstein andMecklenburg, was annexed to Prussia in 1876. 

LAUGHING PHILOSOPHER, a name given to Democrates of Abdera for acertain flippancy he showed. 

LAUNCESTON (17), on the Tamar, the second city in Tasmania, is thechief port and market in the N. , a fine city, carrying on a good tradewith Australian ports, and serving as a summer resort to Melbourne. 

LAURA, a young Avignonese married lady, for whom Petrarch conceiveda Platonic affection, and who exercised a lifelong influence over him. 

LAUREATE, POET, originally an officer of the royal household whosebusiness it was to celebrate in an ode any joyous occasion connected withroyalty, originally the sovereign's birthday; it is now a mere honourbestowed by royalty on an eminent poet. 

LAURIER, SIR WILFRED, Premier of Canada since 1896, and the firstFrench-Canadian to attain that honour, born in St. Lin; bred for the bar, soon rose to the top of his profession; elected in 1871 as a Liberal tothe Quebec Provincial Assembly, where he came at once to the front, andelected in 1874 to the Federal Assembly, he became distinguished as "thesilver-tongued Laurier, " and as the Liberal leader; his personality is aswinning as his eloquence, and he stood first among all the Colonialrepresentatives at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897; _b_. 1841. 

LAUSANNE (33), a picturesque town on the slopes of the Jura, 1 m. From the N. Shore of Lake Geneva, is the capital of the Swiss canton ofVaud; noted for its educational institutions and museums, and for itsmagnificent Protestant cathedral; it has little industry, butconsiderable trade, and is a favourite tourist resort; here took placethe disputation between Calvin, Farel, and Viret, and here Gibbon wrotethe "Decline and Fall. "

LAVA, a general term for all rocks originating in molten streamsfrom volcanoes, includes traps, basalts, pumice, and others; the surfaceof a lava stream cools and hardens quickly, presenting a cellulosestructure, while below the heat is retained much longer and the rock whencooled is compact and columnar or crystalline; the largest recorded lavaflow was from Skaptar Jökull, Iceland, in 1783. 

LAVALETTE, COUNT DE, French general, born at Paris; condemned todeath after the Restoration as an accomplice of Napoleon, he was savedfrom death by the devotion of his wife, who was found in the prisoninstead of him on the morning appointed for his execution (1769-1830). 

LA VALLIÈRE, DUCHESSE DE, a fascinating woman, born at Tours, whobecame the mistress of Louis XIV. ; supplanted by another, she became aCarmelite nun in 1674 in the Carmelite nunnery in Paris, and continueddoing penance there as would seem till her death (1644-1710). 

LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR, German clergyman, a mystic thinker andwriter on physiognomy, born at Zurich; wrote "Outlooks to Eternity, " anda work on physiognomy, or the art of judging of character from thefeatures of the face (1741-1804). 

LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, one of the founders of modern chemistry, born in Paris; to prosecute his researches accepted the post offarmer-general in 1769, introduced in 1776 improvements in manufacturinggunpowder, discovered the composition of the air and the nature ofoxygen, applied the principles of chemistry to agriculture, and indicatedthe presence and action of these principles in various other domains ofscientific inquiry; called to account for his actions as farmer-general, one in particular "putting water in the tobacco, " and condemned to theguillotine; he in vain begged for a fortnight's respite to finish someexperiments, "the axe must do its work" (1742-1794). 

LAW, JOHN, financier and speculator, son of a goldsmith and banker, born at Edinburgh; was early noted for his calculating power; visitingLondon in 1691 he got into debt, sold his estate, killed a man in a duel, and escaped to Amsterdam, where he studied finance; came to Scotland withfinancial proposals for the Government in 1700, but they were refused, and he spent some years on the Continent as a gambling adventurer; in1716 he and his brother William started a private bank in Paris, thesuccess of which induced the Regent Orleans in 1718 to institute the"Royal Bank of France, " with Law as director; next year he floated the"Mississippi Scheme" for the settlement of Louisiana, but after a show ofsuccess the scheme proved a bubble; he had to fly to Brussels, hisproperty being confiscated; he died at Venice, poor, but scheming to theend (1671-1729). 

LAW, WILLIAM, author of "A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life, "born at Kingscliffe, Northamptonshire, son of a grocer; entered Cambridgein 1705; became a Fellow, and took orders in 1711; became associated withthe family of the elder Gibbon, father of the historian, in 1727, andspent ten years with them as tutor, friend, and spiritual director; in1740 he retired to Kingscliffe, where he spent the remainder of his lifein seclusion, shared by Miss Hester Gibbon, the historian's aunt, andMrs. Hutcheson, a widow of means, occupying themselves much withcharitable schemes; Law was an able theologian and dialectician, and anexponent of German mysticism; his writings contributed greatly to theevangelical revival (1686-1761). 

LAWRENCE, JOHN, LORD, the "Saviour of India, " born of Irishparentage at Richmond, Yorkshire; entered the Bengal Civil Service in1829, and on the annexation of the Punjab was appointed Commissioner andafterwards Lieutenant-Governor; by his justice and the reforms he carriedthrough he so won the esteem of the Sikhs that at the Mutiny he was ableto disarm the Punjab mutineers, raise 50, 000 men, and capture Delhi;returning to England he received a pension of £1000 a year, was madesuccessively baronet and Privy Councillor, and sent out again asGovernor-General of India in 1863; his rule was characterised by wisepolicy and sound finance; he disapproved of English interference inAfghan affairs; he was raised to the peerage in 1869 (1811-1879). 

LAWRENCE, ST. , a deacon of the Church at Rome, who sufferedmartyrdom in the time of Valerian, 258, by being broiled on a gridiron, which he is represented in Christian art as holding in his hand. 

LAY BROTHER, a member of a monastery under the three monastic vows, but not in holy orders. 

LAYAMON, early English poet who flourished in the 12th century, andwas by his own account priest near Bewdley, on the Severn; was author ofa long poem or chronicle of 32, 250 lines called "Brut d'Angleterre, " andwhich is of interest as showing how Anglo-Saxon passed into the Englishof Chaucer. 

LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY, English traveller and diplomatist, born atParis; spent his boyhood in Italy, and studied law in London; between1845 and 1847 he conducted excavations at the ruins of Nineveh, securingfor the British Museum its famous specimens of Assyrian art, and on hisreturn published works on "Nineveh and its Remains" and "Monuments ofNineveh"; he received the freedom of London, Oxford gave him D. C. L. , andAberdeen University chose him for Lord Rector; entering Parliament in1852, he sat for Aylesbury and for Southwark, and was Under-secretary forForeign Affairs 1861-06; in 1809 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid, andfrom 1877 till 1880 represented England at Constantinople, where hisphilo-Turkish sympathies provoked much comment; he was a noted linguist(1817-1894). 

LAZZARONI, an indolent class of waifs under a chief who used tolounge about Naples, and proved formidable in periods of revolution; theysubsisted partly by service as messengers, porters, &c. , and partly asbeggars. 

LEAGUE AND COVENANT, SOLEMN. See COVENANT. 

LEAGUE, THE, specially a coalition organised in 1576 by the Duke ofGuise to suppress the Reformed religion in France by denying civil andreligious liberty to the Huguenots, and specially to prevent theaccession of Henry IV. As a Protestant to the throne. 

LEAMINGTON (27), a fashionable Warwickshire watering-place of moderndate on the Learn, 15 m. SE. Of Birmingham. It has chalybeate, saline, and sulphurous springs, to which visitors have gathered since the end of18th century; brewing and kitchen-range making are carried on; Leamingtonand Warwick return one member of Parliament. 

LEANDER. See HERO. 

LEANING TOWER, specially a campanile of white marble at Pisa, inItaly, 178 ft. In height, and which leans 14 ft. Off the perpendicular. 

LEAR, a legendary British king, the hero of one of Shakespeare'stragedies, the victim of the unnatural conduct of two of his daughters. 

LEAR, EDWARD, English painter, and author of "Book of Nonsense, "composed for the grandchildren of the Earl of Derby in 1848, and after of"More Nonsense Rhymes, " which were widely popular with young people;painted landscapes in Greece and Asia Minor (1812-1888). 

LEATHER STOCKING, NATTY, a character in Cooper's novel the"Pioneers, " "a melodious synopsis of man and nature in the West. "

LEATHES, STANLEY, prebendary of St Paul's, born in Bucks; has heldseveral clerical appointments; is professor of Hebrew in King's College, London, and is author of a number of works bearing on Christianity; _b_. 1830. 

LEBANON (i. E. "the White Mountain"), a range on the northernborder of Palestine, which rises to a height of 10, 000 ft. , and isdivided into two by a valley, the ancient Coele-Syria, which the Leontesand Orontes water, the eastern range being called Anti-Lebanon. 

LE BRUN, CHARLES, a celebrated French painter, born in Paris;studied in Rome, settled in Paris, and patronised by Colbert; heexercised for about 40 years a great influence on the art of the period;he decorated Versailles and the Louvre, but with the death of his patronhe sunk into obscurity and pined and died (1619-1690). 

LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR, theologian, born in Würtemberg; wasprofessor at Leipzig; wrote "History of Deism, " "Life of Wiclif, " and"Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times" (1811-1888). 

LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE, historian and suggestive writer, born near Dublin; represents Dublin University in Parliament; is theauthor of "Leaders of Public Opinion, " 1861; "The Rise and Influence ofthe Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, " 1865; the "History of EuropeanMorals from Augustus to Charlemagne, " 1869; and the "History of theEighteenth Century, " 1878-90; _b_. 1838. 

LECLAIRE, EDME-JEAN, French economist, and experimentalist in thematter of the union of capital and labour; adopted the system ofprofit-sharing in 1842, with important results (1801-1872). 

LE CLERC, JOHN, otherwise Johannes Clericus, liberal Swisstheologian and controversialist, born at Geneva; studied philosophy andtheology there, and at Paris and London; became professor in theRemonstrant Seminary in Amsterdam in 1684, but lost his speech in 1728;his voluminous writings include commentaries on the whole Bible, whichcontained opinions on the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch, and the inspiration of the wisdom books, then startling but since much infavour (1657-1736). 

LECONTE DE LISLE, a French poet, a Creole, born in the Isle ofBourbon, author of "Poésies Barbares" and "Poésies Antiques, " andtranslator of Homer, Sophocles, Theocrates, and other classics; histranslations are wonderfully faithful to the originals (1820-1894). 

LECTERN, a stand with a desk for a book from which the service isread in a church. 

LEDA, in the Greek mythology the wife of the Spartan king Tyndareus, who was visited by Zeus in the form of a swan and became the mother ofCastor and Pollux; was frequently the subject of ancient art. 

LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRA AUGUSTE, a French democrat, born near Paris;called to the bar in 1830; became a leader of the democratic movement inthe reign of Louis Philippe, and gained the title of the "Tribune of theRevolution"; in 1848 he became a member of the Provisional Government;was Minister of the Interior; secured for France the privilege ofuniversal suffrage; his opposition to Louis Napoleon obliged him to seekrefuge in England, where he took part in a general democratic movement, and an amnesty being granted, he returned to France in 1870; was electedto the Assembly, but his power was gone; died suddenly (1807-1874). 

LEE, ROBERT EDWARD, Confederate general in the American Civil War, born at Stratford, Virginia, son of a soldier of old and distinguishedfamily, and educated at West Point; became captain of Engineers in 1838;he distinguished himself in the Mexican War of 1846; was from 1852 till1855 head of the U. S. Military Academy; was in active service again inTexas 1855-59 as an officer of Cavalry; on the secession of the SouthernStates, though disapproving of the war, deeming Virginia to have a claimbefore the Union to his loyalty, resigned his commission, and wasappointed general, third in rank, by the Confederate Congress ofVirginia, 1861; after various services he succeeded General Johnston incommand of the army at Richmond; won the seven days' battle againstM'Clellan; invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, but was forced to surrenderwith 28, 000 men to Grant at Appomatox, in Virginia, April 9, 1865;forfeiting his estates he became President of the Washington University(since called Washington and Lee), Lexington, Virginia, which post heheld till his death; he was a man of devout religious faith, a high senseof duty, great courage and ability as a soldier (1807-1870). 

LEE, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, born at Tweedmouth; was ministerof Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and professor of Biblical Criticism in theUniversity; reformed the Presbyterian worship to some extent on theAnglican model, and suffered no small persecution at the hands of theconservative party in the Church for these innovations; his proclivitiesotherwise were rationalistic (1804-1868). 

LEE, SAMUEL, English Orientalist, born in Shropshire; professor inCambridge first of Arabic and then of Hebrew; was the author of a Hebrewgrammar and lexicon, and a translation of the Book of Job (1783-1852). 

LEECH, JOHN, English artist, born in London; was educated at theCharterhouse, and a fellow pupil there of Thackeray's; displayed early aturn for caricature; produced a set of illustrations for the "IngoldsbyLegends"; joined the staff of _Punch_ in 1844, and remained a member ofit till his death; here he distinguished himself by his cartoons and hishumorous illustrations of scenes and characters of English life andsociety, and showed himself an artist more than a caricaturist; his workwas not limited to _Punch_; he contributed illustrations also to _Once aWeek_, the _Illustrated London News_, and other publications of the time(1817-1864). 

LEEDS (368), fifth city in England, largest in Yorkshire, on theAire, 25 m. SW. Of York, in the West Riding; has been noted for itstextile industry since the 16th century, now its woollen manufactures ofall kinds are the largest in England, and besides other industries, thereare very large manufactures of ready-made clothing, leather, boots andshoes, and iron. There are many fine buildings: St. Peter's Church is thelargest; St. John's, consecrated in 1634, still retains the fittings of a"Laudean" church. There is a magnificent infirmary, a grammar-school, andart-gallery. The Yorkshire College is affiliated with VictoriaUniversity. Dr. Priestley was a native. A Parliamentary borough onlysince 1832, it now returns five members. 

LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, DUKE OF, English statesman, son of aYorkshire baronet, after the Restoration entered Parliament as member forYork and supporter of King and Church; his advance was rapid till he wasLord High Treasurer and Earl of Danby in 1674; constantly intriguing, hewas impeached by the Commons in 1678, and kept for five years in theTower without trial; returning to public life he opposed James II. 'spolicy regarding the Church, and joined in the movement which set Williamof Orange on the English throne; appointed President of the Council, hewas again guilty of corrupt practices; he became Duke of Leeds in 1694, but in 1695 was impeached a second time, and though he again escapedcondemnation he never regained power (1631-1712). 

LEEUWENHOEK, ANTON VAN, an early microscopist, born at Delft; theinstrument he used was of his own construction, but it was the means ofhis arriving at important discoveries, one of the most so that ofcapillary circulation; stoutly opposed the theory of spontaneousgeneration (1632-1673). 

LEFORT, FRANÇOIS JACOB, Russian officer, born in Geneva, son of amerchant; after serving in France and Holland, in 1675 entered theservice and gained the favour of Peter the Great, organised the army onthe French model, laid the foundation of a navy, and diedcommander-in-chief both of the land forces and the navy (1656-1699). 

LEFT, THE, the opposition in a Continental Legislative Assembly, assitting on the left of the chair; also the liberal section of aphilosophical school. 

LEGALISM, adherence to the strict letter of the law often indisregard of the spirit and even in defiance of it. 

LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD, poet, journalist, and critic, born inLiverpool, of a Guernsey family; has been connected with and contributedto several London journals; is author of "My Lady's Sonnets, " "GeorgeMeredith: some Characteristics, " "The Religion of a Literary Man, " &c. ;is successful as a lecturer as well as a littérateur; _b_. 1866. 

LEGATE, the title of the Pope's representative or ambassador; inmedieval times this office was attached to certain bishoprics, and thebishops were styled _legati nati;_ besides these there were _legati alatere_, generally cardinals, and _legati missi_, or nuncios speciallyappointed; legates used to claim full papal jurisdiction within theirprovinces, which caused many disputes; now they are ambassadors forspiritual purposes at Roman Catholic Courts--Vienna, Münich, Madrid, Lisbon, and Paris--and do not interfere with the authority of thebishops. 

LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE, brilliant French mathematician, contemporaryof Lagrange and Laplace, born at Toulouse; obtained the professorship ofMathematics in the Military School at Paris, and was elected to theAcademy of Sciences in 1783; he was one of the commissioners to determinethe length of the metre, and held many posts under the Republic and theEmpire; among many works his best known is the "Elements of Geometry"(1794), translated into English by Carlyle (1752-1833). 

LEGGE, JAMES, a Chinese scholar, born in Huntly, Aberdeenshire;studied at King's College, Aberdeen; was sent out as missionary to theChinese by the London Missionary Society in 1839, laboured for 30 yearsat Hong-Kong, and became professor of the Chinese Language and Literatureat Oxford in 1876; edited with a translation and notes the Chineseclassics, the "four _Shu_, " and the "five _King_, " and gave lectures onthe religions of China as compared with Christianity; _b_. 1815. 

LEGHORN (106), a flourishing Italian seaport, on the W. Coast, 60 m. From Florence; is a fine city, with broad streets and many canals; itsexports include wine, silk, oil, marble, and straw hats; it importsspirits, sugar, and machinery; it does a large and increasing coastingtrade, and manufactures coral ornaments; its prosperity dates from the15th century; it was a free port till 1868. 

LEGION, among the ancient Romans a body of soldiers consisting ofthree lines, the _hastati_, the _principes_, and the _triarii_, ranged inorder of battle one behind the other, each divided into ten maniples, andthe whole numbering from 4000 to 6000 men; to each legion was attachedsix military tribunes, who commanded in rotation, each for two months;under Marius the three lines were amalgamated, and the whole divided intoten cohorts of three maniples each; under the original arrangement the_hastati_ were young or untrained men, the _principes_ men in their fullmanhood, and the _triarii_ veterans. 

LEGION OF HONOUR, an order of merit instituted on republicanprinciples on May 10, 1802, by Bonaparte when First Consul in recompenseof civil and military services to the country; it originally consisted offour classes, but now comprehends five: grand crosses, grand officers, commanders, officers, and chevaliers, each, of military or naval men, with pensions on a descending scale and all for life; their badge, awhite star of five rays, bearing on the obverse an image of the republicand on the reverse two tricolor flags. 

LEGITIMISTS, a name given to supporters of the Bourbon dynasty inFrance as opposed to the Orleanists, who supported the claims of LouisPhilippe. 

LEIBNITZ, German philosopher, mathematician, and man of affairs, born in Leipzig; studied law and took the degree of Doctor of Laws atAltorf; spent a good part of his life at courts, visited Paris and Londonand formed a friendship with the savans in both cities, and finallysettled in Hanover, where he moved much in the circle of the ElectressSophia and her daughter Sophia Charlotte, the Prussian Queen, whom heentertained with his philosophy of the "infinitely little, " as it hasbeen called; he discovered with Newton the basis of the differentialcalculus, and concocted the system of monods (his "Monodology"), betweenwhich and the soul, he taught, there existed a "pre-established harmony, "issuing in the cosmos; he was an optimist, and had for his motto theoft-quoted phrase, "Everything is for the best in the best of possibleworlds"; his principal works in philosophy are his "Théodicée, " writtenat the instance of Sophia Charlotte and in refutation of Bayle, and his"Monodologie, " written on the suggestion of Prince Eugene (1646-1716). 

LEICESTER (209), county town of Leicestershire, on the Soar, 40 m. E. Of Birmingham; is an ancient town, with several historic buildings;has grown rapidly of late owing to its hosiery, boot and shoe, andiron-founding industries; it sends two members to Parliament. 

LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF, Queen Elizabeth's favourite, fifth son of the Duke of Northumberland; won the queen's favour by hishandsome appearance and courtly address; received many offices andhonours, and on the death, under suspicious circumstances, of hisCountess, Amy Robsart, aspired to her hand; still favoured, in spite ofhis unpopularity in the country, he was proposed as husband to Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563; he married the dowager Lady Sheffield in 1573, and afterwards bigamously the Countess of Essex; after a short term ofdisfavour he was appointed commander in the Netherlands, and subsequentlyat Tilbury Fort, but proved an incapable soldier (1532-1588). 

LEICESTERSHIRE (374), English midland county, bounded by Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, Northampton, Warwick, and Derby shires; is anundulating upland watered by the Soar, and mostly under pasture. Leicester cattle and sheep are noted, and its Stilton cheeses. There arecoal deposits and granite and slate quarries in the N. The chief townsare Leicester, the county town, Loughborough, and Hinckley. 

LEIGH, AURORA, the heroine of Mrs. Browning's poem of the same name. She styled it "a novel in verse, " and wrote of it, it is "the most matureof my works, and the one into which my highest convictions upon Life andArt have entered. "

LEIGHTON, FREDERICK, LORD, eminent English artist, born atScarborough; studied in the chief art-centres of the Continent; his firstexhibit at the Royal Academy being "Cimabue's Madonna carried inProcession through Florence, " which was followed by a numerous array ofothers of classic merit, and showing the scholar as well as the artist;he distinguished himself in sculpture as well as painting, and diedPresident of the Royal Academy after being ennobled (1830-1897). 

LEIGHTON, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, the son of a Puritanclergyman in London, who wrote a book against prelacy, and sufferedcruelly at the hands of Laud in consequence; studied at Edinburgh;entered the Church, and became Presbyterian minister at Newbattle in1641, but resigned in 1653; was made Principal of Edinburgh University;reluctantly consented to accept a bishopric, and chose the diocese ofDunblane, but declined all lordship connected with the office; was for atime archbishop of Glasgow; retired to England in 1674, and lived tenyears afterwards with a widowed sister in Sussex; he was a most saintlyman, and long revered as such by the Scottish people; his writings, whichare highly imaginative, were much admired by Coleridge (1611-1684). 

LEIOTRICHI, a primitive race of people distinguished by their smoothhair. 

LEIPZIG (357), in the W. Of Saxony, and largest city of thatkingdom; is the third city in Germany. The old portion is narrow andquaint, with historic buildings; the new is well built, with splendidedifices. It is the seat of the supreme court of the Empire, of an olduniversity which has a magnificent library and well-equipped medicalschool, and of one of the finest conservatories of music in Europe. Itschief trade is in books, furs, leather, and cloth, and its chiefindustries type-founding and pianoforte-making. It was the birthplace ofLeibnitz and Wagner, and is associated also with Bach and Mendelssohn. 

LEITH (68), chief seaport in E. Of Scotland, on the Forth, contiguous to Edinburgh and the port of it; is an old, unattractive, butbusy town. The harbour comprises five docks. The imports are corn, flour, wines, sugar, and fruit; the exports, coal, iron, paraffin, and whisky. There are shipbuilding and engineering works, breweries, distilleries, and other industries. Leith Fort, between the town and Newhaven, is thehead-quarters of the artillery for Scotland. 

LEITHA, an Austrian stream which flows NE. And falls into the DanubeE. Of Vienna; divides Cis-Leithan from Trans-Leithan. 

LELAND, CHARLES, an American writer, born at Philadelphia; bred tothe bar, but left law for literature, and contributed to the journals;has taken interest in and written on the industrial arts, social science, folk-lore, the gypsies, &c. ; his works are numerous, and of a humorous orburlesque character, and include "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams, " "TheLegends of Birds, " "Hans Breitmann's Ballads, " &c. ; _b_. 1824. 

LELAND, JOHN, English antiquary, born in London; travelled much onthe Continent and amassed vast learning; held a commission from HenryVIII. To examine the antiquities and libraries of England, in fulfilmentof which charge he spent six years in collecting a world of things thatwould otherwise have been lost, and the rest of his life, till he wentinsane, in arranging them (1506-1552). 

LELAND, JOHN, a Nonconformist minister, born in Wigan; wrote chieflyin defence of Christianity against the attacks of the Deists (1691-1766). 

LELY, SIR PETER, a painter, born in Westphalia; settled in London;took to portrait-painting, and was patronised by Charles I. And II. , aswell as by Cromwell; he painted the portraits of his patrons, and thebeauties of Charles II. 's court; was Vandyck's successor (1618-1680). 

LEMAN LAKE, the LAKE OF GENEVA (q. V. ). 

LEMBERG (128), the capital of Austrian Galicia, from its centralposition and ready communication with rivers and railways, enjoys anextensive trade; Polish is the prevailing language; there is aflourishing university, and of the population 40, 000 are Jews. 

LEMMING RAT, a rodent, which "travelling in myriads seawards fromthe hills, " as seen in Norway, "turns not to the right or the left, eatsits way through whatever will eat, and climbs over whatever will not eat, and perishes before reaching the sea, its consistent rigidly straightjourney, a journey nowhither. " See the Application in the "LatterPamphlet, " No. 6. 

LEMNOS (30), an island plateau in the Ægean Sea, 30 m. SW. Of theDardanelles, Turkish since 1657; produces corn, wine, and tobacco, and isa place of exile for Turkish prisoners; the population is mostly Greek;chief town Kastro (3), on the W. Coast. 

LEMON, MARK, editor of _Punch_ from 1843 to his death, born inLondon; began his career as a dramatist, story-teller, and song-writer, writing 60 pieces for the stage and 100 songs (1809-1870). 

LEM`URES, a name given by the Romans to the spirits of the dead, andwho, such of them as are ghosts of the wicked, wander about at night asspectres, and tormented themselves, torment and frighten the living. 

LENCLOS, NINON DE, a woman celebrated for wit and beauty, born inParis, whose salon in the city was frequented by all the notablepersonages of the period; she was a woman of superior mental endowmentsas well as polished manners, but of loose morality and want of heart(1616-1705). 

LENNEP, JACOB VAN, a Dutch dramatist and novelist, born atAmsterdam; bred to the bar and practised as a lawyer; was a devotedstudent of English literature, and executed translations from Englishpoets; was called by his countrymen the Walter Scott of Holland(1802-1868). 

LENNOX, an ancient district of Scotland that included Dumbartonshireand part of Stirlingshire. 

LENORE, the heroine of a celebrated ballad by Bürger, the Germanlyric poet, a maiden whose lover dies and whose spectre appears to her onhorseback and carries her off mounted behind him. 

LENORMANT, FRANÇOIS, a distinguished archæologist, born at Paris, aman of genius and of vast learning; his chief works "Manuel d'HistoireAncienne de l'Orient, " "Lettres Assyriologues, " "Les PremièresCivilisations, " and "Les Sciences Occultes en Asie" (1837-1883). 

LENS, a piece of glass adapted as convex or concave so as to changethe direction of the rays of light passing through it and magnify ordiminish the apparent size of an object. 

LENT, a period of fasting previous to Easter, at first lasting only40 hours, was gradually extended to three, four, or six days, thendifferent Churches extended it to three and six: weeks; in the 6thcentury Gregory the Great fixed it for the West at 40 days from AshWednesday to Easter, excluding Sundays; in the Eastern Church it beginson the Monday after quinquagesima and excludes both Saturdays andSundays; in the Anglican Church the season is marked by special services, but the fast is not rigidly kept. 

LENTHALL, WILLIAM, Speaker of the Long Parliament; is famous for hisanswer to the demand of Charles to point out to him five members he hadcome to arrest, "May it please your Majesty, " said he, failing on hisknees, "I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak but as the Housedirects me" (1591-1662). 

LEO, the fifth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters on July 22. 

LEO, the name of six emperors of the East, of which the chief wasLeo III. , surnamed the Isaurian, born in Isauria; raised to the imperialthrone by the army, defeated by sea and land the Saracens who threatenedConstantinople; ruled peacefully for nine years, when he headed theICONOCLAST MOVEMENT (Q. V. ), which provoked hostility and ledto the revolt of Italy from the Greek empire; _d_. 741. 

LEO, the names of 13 popes: L. I. , ST. , Pope from 410 to 461;L. II. , ST. , pope from 682 to 683; L. III. , Pope from 795 to816; L. IV. , pope from 847 to 855; L. V. , Pope in 903; L. VI. , Pope from 928 to 929; L. VII. , Pope from 936 to 939; L. VIII. , Pope from 963 to 965; L. IX. , ST. , Pope from 1049 to1054; L. X. , pope from 1513 to 1521; L. XI. , Pope in 1605; L. XII. , Pope from 1823 to 1829; L. XIII. , Pope since 1878. Ofthese only the following deserve mention:--

LEO I. , saint, surnamed the GREAT; was distinguished for hiszeal against heretics, presided at two councils, and persuaded Attila toretire from Rome on his invasion of Italy, as he persuaded Genseric fouryears later to moderate the outrages of his troops in the city; hisletters are in evidence of the jurisdiction of the Roman over theuniversal Church. Festival, Nov. 10. 

LEO III. , proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the West in 800; drivenin 799 from the papal chair by a conspiracy, he was reinstated byCharlemagne, who next year visited the city and was crowned by himemperor. 

LEO IX. , saint; was elected at the Diet of Worms in 1048, welcomedat Rome, and applied himself zealously to the reform of Churchdiscipline; being defeated in the field by Guiscard, suffered a 10 years'imprisonment, fell ill and died. 

LEO X. , Giovanni de' Medici, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, sovereign of Florence; was distinguished as a patron of art, science, andletters, and as occupant of the chair of St. Peter at the outbreak of theReformation, and as by his issue of indulgences for the replenishment ofhis treasure provoking the movement and rousing the ire of Luther, whichset the rest of Europe on fire. 

LEO XIII. , 257th Pope of Rome, born at Carpineto; distinguished atcollege in mathematics, physics, and philosophy; took holy orders in1837, was nuncio to Belgium in 1843, became bishop of Perugia in 1846, cardinal 1853, and Pope in 1878; holds to his rights as Pope both secularand spiritual; believes in the Catholic Church as the only regenerator ofsociety, and hails every show of encroach it makes on the domain ofProtestantism as promise of its universal restoration; _b_. 1810. 

LEON, an ancient kingdom in the NE. Of Spain, united with Castile in1230, with a capital of the same name 256 m. NW. Of Madrid. Also the nameof a city in Nicaragua and another in Mexico. 

LEONARDO DA VINCI, celebrated painter and sculptor of the Florentineschool, born at Vinci in the Val d'Arno; showed early a wonderfulaptitude for art; studied under Andrea del Verrocchio, but so surpassedhim in his work as to drive him to renounce the painter's art; his greatwork, executed by him at Milan, was the famous picture of the "LastSupper, " which he painted in oil about 1497 on the wall of the refectoryof the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle Grazie; it perished fromthe dampness of the wall almost as soon as it was finished, but happilycopies were taken of it before decay had ruined it; besides, Leonardo didin 1503 at Florence the famous cartoon of the Battle of the Standard; hewas a man of imposing personal appearance, of very wide range of ability, and distinguished himself in engineering as well as art; he wrote a"Treatise on Painting, " which has been widely translated (1452-1519). 

LEONIDAS, king of Sparta from 491 to 480 B. C. ; opposed Xerxes, thePersian, who threatened Greece with a large army, and kept him at bay atthe Pass of Thermopylæ with 300 Spartans and 5000 auxiliaries till he wasbetrayed by EPHIALTES (q. V. ), when he and his 300 threwthemselves valiantly on the large host, and perished fighting to the lastman. 

LEONIDS, meteors which descend in showers during November in certainyears, their chief centre being the constellation Leo. 

LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, modern Italian poet, born near Ancona; aprecocious genius; an omnivorous reader as a boy, and devoted toliterature; of a weakly constitution, he became a confirmed invalid, anddied suddenly; had sceptical leanings; wrote lyrics inspired by a certainsombre melancholy (1788-1837). 

LEOPOLD I. , king of the Belgians, son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg; inhis youth served in the Russian army; visited England in 1815, andmarried Princess Charlotte, who died two years later; he declined thethrone of Greece in 1830, but accepted that of the Belgians in 1831, andproved a wise, firm, constitutional sovereign; in 1832 he married theFrench princess Louise; he was succeeded by his son Leopold II. (1790-1865). 

LEOPOLD II. , king of the Belgians, born at Brussels, son andsuccessor of Leopold I. ; has travelled much in Europe and Asia Minor;founded, and is now ruler of, the Congo Free State; married in 1853 theArchduchess Maria of Austria, by whom he has had three daughters; _b_. 1835. 

LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD, a celebrated Egyptologist, born in PrussianSaxony; took at first to the study of philology under Bopp, but earlydevoted himself to the study of the antiquities of Egypt; headed in 1842an expedition of research among the monuments under the king of Prussia, which occupied five years, and was fertile in important results, amongothers the production of a work in 12 vols. On the subject entitled"Denkmäleraus Egypten und Ethiopien, " issued between 1849 and 1860; hewas the author also of works on philology (1810-1884). 

LERNÆAN HYDRA, a monster with nine heads, one of them immortal, thatinfested a swamp near Lernæ, and which Hercules was required to slay asone of his twelve labours, only as often as he cut off one head two grewon, but with the assistance of Iolcus his servant he singed off the eightmortal ones, cut down the ninth, and buried it under a huge rock. 

LERWICK (31), the capital of Shetland, on the E. Of Mainland;fishing and knitting the chief industries. 

LE SAGE, ALAIN RENÉ, French dramatist and novelist, born at Sarzeau, in Brittany; educated at a Jesuit school at Vannes; went to Paris in1692; studied the Spanish language and literature, and producedtranslations of Spanish works and imitations; some of his dramas attainedgreat popularity, and one in particular, the "Turcaret, " a satire on thetime generally, and not merely, as represented, on financiers of theperiod, gave offence; but the works by which he is best known are hisnovels "Le Diable Boiteux" and "Gil Blas, " his masterpiece (1668-1747). 

LESBOS (36), modern name Mytilene, a mountainous island, the largeston the Asia Minor coast, 10 m. Off shore and 20 m. N. Of the Gulf ofSymrna; has a delightful climate, disturbed by earthquakes, fertile soil, and produces fine olive-oil. In ancient Greek days it was a cradle ofliterature, the home of Sappho, and famous for its wine; Turkish since1462, its population is mostly Greek; chief town Castro (12), on the E. Coast. 

LESE-MAJESTY, name given to a crime against the sovereign. 

LESLIE, name of a Scottish family distinguished in Scottish historyas well as for military service in foreign parts. 

LESLIE, CHARLES, non-juring controversial divine, born in Dublin, wrote "A Short and Easy Method with the Jews, " and another with theDeists (1650-1722). 

LESLIE, SIR JOHN, natural philosopher and professor, born at Largo, Fifeshire; educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh University; visitedAmerica in 1788, and returned to London 1790; for fifteen years he wasengaged in scientific investigation, invented several instruments, andpublished his "Inquiry into the Nature of Heat, " for which he receivedthe Rumford Medal from the Royal Society; appointed to the chair ofMathematics in Edinburgh in 1805, he was transferred to that of NaturalPhilosophy in 1819; continued his researches and inventions, and shortlybefore his death was knighted (1766-1832). 

LESPINASSE, a French lady, born in Lyons, famous for her wit, towhom D'Alembert was much attached, and the centre of a learned circle inParis in her time (1731-1776). 

LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE, French diplomatist, born at Versailles;conceived the scheme of connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean in1854, and saw it finished as the Suez Canal in 1869; projected a similarscheme for a canal at Panama, but it ended in failure, disgrace, and ruinto the projectors as well as others (1805-1894). 

LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM, a German author, and founder of modernGerman literature, born at Kamenz, Saxony, son of the pastor there; sentto study theology at Leipzig, studied hard; conceived a passion for thestage; wrote plays and did criticisms; wrote an essay on Pope; tookEnglish authors as his models, revolted against those of France; made ithis aim to inaugurate or rather revive a purely German literature, andproduced examples regarded as classics to this day; his principal dramas, all conceived on the soil, are "Miss Sara Sampson, " "Mina von Barnhelm, ""Emilia Galotti, " and "Nathan der Weise, " and his principal prose worksare his "Fables" and "Laocoon, " a critical work on art still in highrepute (1729-1781). 

L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER, a zealous Royalist, born in Norfolk; was forhis zeal in the royal cause committed to prison; having escaped, he wasallowed to live in retirement under Cromwell, but woke up a vigorouspamphleteer and journalist in the old interest at the Restoration, "wounding his Whig foes very sorely, and making them wince"; hetranslated Josephus, Cicero's "Offices, " Seneca's "Morals, " the"Colloquies" of Erasmus, and Quevedo's "Visions, " his most popular work(1616-1704). 

LETHE (i. E. Oblivion), in the Greek mythology a stream in thenether world, a draught of the waters of which, generally extended to theghosts of the dead on their entrance into Pluto's kingdom, obliteratedall recollection of the past and its sorrows. 

LETO (i. E. The hidden one), one of the Titan brood, who became byZeus the mother of Apollo and Artemis, and for whose confinement, in herpersecution by Hera, Poseidon by a stroke of his trident fixed the tillthen floating island of Delos to the sea-bottom. 

LETTER OF MARQUE, a commission to the captain of a merchant ship ora privateer to make reprisals on an enemy's ships or property. 

LETTERS PATENT, a document under seal of the government grantingsome special privilege to a person. 

LETTRES DE CACHET (i. E. Sealed letters), warrants ofimprisonment, issued prior to the Revolution, sealed with the privateseal of the king, in contradistinction from _lettres patentées_, whichwere sealed by the Great Seal of the kingdom. See CACHET, LETTREDE. 

LEUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher of the 6th century B. C. , the founderof the Atomic theory of things, of which DEMOCRITUS (q. V. ) wasthe chief expounder. 

LEUCTRA, a village in Boeotia, to the S. Of Thebes, where in 371B. C. Epaminondas and his Thebans overthrew the ascendency of Sparta. 

LEUTHEN, a village in the W. Of Breslau, in Silesia, where Frederickthe Great defeated the Austrians with great loss in 1757. 

LEVANA, the title of a book by Jean Paul on the education ofchildren; title from the name of a Roman goddess, the protectress offoundlings. 

LEVANT (i. E. The Rising), a name given to the E. Of theMediterranean and the regions adjoining by the western peoples of theMediterranean. 

LEVEE, a morning reception held by the sovereign or some one of highrank. 

LEVELLERS, a party of violent red-hot Republicans, led on by JohnLilburne, who appeared in the time of the Commonwealth, but weresuppressed by Cromwell. 

LEVER, CHARLES JAMES, a novelist, born at Dublin, was by professiona physician; author of a numerous series of Irish stories written in arollicking humour, "Harry Lorrequer" and "Charles O'Malley" among thechief; was a contributor to and for some time editor of _DublinUniversity Magazine_; held ultimately various consular appointmentsabroad, and after that wrote with success in a more sober style(1806-1872). 

LEVERRIER, URBAN JEAN JOSEPH, French astronomer, born at St. Lô;distinguished in chemistry before he devoted himself to astronomy; roseto eminence in the latter science by a paper on the variations in theorbits of the planets, and was led to the discovery of the planet Neptunefrom perturbations in the orbit of the planet Uranus; he indicated thespot where the planet would be found, and it was actually discovered afew days after by Galle at Berlin (1811-1877). 

LEVI, LEON, commercial economist, born at Ancona; settled in Englandand was naturalised; drew attention to the want of commercialorganisation, and to whose pleading the first chamber of commerce, thatof Liverpool, owes its existence; became professor of Commercial Law inKing's College, London (1821-1888). 

LEVIRITE LAW, a law among the Jews which ordained if a husband diedwithout issue that his brother should take his widow to wife and raise upseed to him (Deut. Xxv. 5-10). 

LEVITES, a body of men divided into courses, the servants of thepriests in the worship of the Temple of Jerusalem; they were notpermitted to enter the sanctuary or serve at the altar, their dutiesbeing limited to keeping watch over the Temple, slaying the victims, andmaking other preparations for the sacred services. 

LEVITICAL DEGREES, relationships that preclude marriage, so calledas presumably fixed by the Levitical priesthood of the Jews. 

LEVITICUS, the third book of the Pentateuch, so called as containingthe laws and ordinances appointed to regulate the services of thesanctuary as conducted by a priesthood of the tribe of Levi, thenarrative portion of it recording the consecration of Aaron and his sons, the death of Nadab and Abihu, and the stoning of the blasphemer, embracing a period of only one year, and the legislation of it no longerissuing from Mount Sinai, but from the door of the Tabernacle. 

LEWALD, FANNY, an eminent German novelist, born at Königsberg, ofJewish parents; professed Christianity and was married to Adolf Stahr;was a realist in art and a zealous woman's rights advocate (1811-1889). 

LEWES (11), the county town of Sussex, finely situated on a slope ofthe South Downs, 10 m. NE. Of Brighton; was the scene of a victory ofSimon de Montfort in 1264 over the forces of Henry III. ; has a trade incorn and malt, and tanneries. 

LEWES, GEORGE HENRY, a versatile man of letters, born in London, theson of an actor; wrote a "Biographical History of Philosophy" from thePositivist standpoint, published originally in 1845, and a "Life ofGoethe" in 1855, "Seaside Studies, " "Problems of Life and Mind, " &c. , andedited the _Fortnightly Review_; he did much to popularise both scienceand philosophy; though a married man with children, formed a connectionwith George Eliot, and died in her house (1817-1878). 

LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNWALL, English statesman and politicalphilosopher, born in London; held several important posts under and inthe governments of the day; wrote on "Early Roman History, " "TheInfluence of Authority on Matters of Opinion, " "The Best Form ofGovernment, " "Ancient Astronomy, " &c. (1806-1863). 

LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY, romancer, familiarly known as Monk Lewisfrom the name of his principal novel, the "Monk, " which was written, along with others, in Mrs. Radcliffe's vein and immensely popular, andliterally swarmed with ghosts and demons (1773-1818). 

LEYDEN, one of the chief towns of Holland and characteristicallyDutch, 15 m. NW. Of The Hague, with a famous university founded by thePrince of Orange in 1576, containing the richest natural history museumin the world; it is noted for the bravery and power of endurance of itsinhabitants, manifest for a whole year (1573-74) during the War ofIndependence. 

LEYDEN, JOHN, poet and Orientalist, born in Denholm, son of ashepherd; bred for the Church, his genius and abilities attracted thenotice of influential people; was introduced to Scott, and assisted himin his "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border"; went to India as a militarysurgeon; studied and prelected on the native dialects; became a judge inCalcutta; died of fever (1775-1811). 

LEYDEN, JOHN OF, leader of the Anabaptists in Münster, born in TheHague; beset with his followers, who regarded him as a prophet, inMünster, he was taken alive after a siege of six months and tortured todeath in 1536. 

LEYDEN, LUCAS VAN, an eminent early Dutch painter and engraver, bornin Leyden; succeeded in every branch of painting, and, like Dürer, engraved his own pictures; his works are highly valued, and some of themvery rare; he spent his means in high living and died young, only 39(1494-1533). 

LEYDEN JAR, an electric condenser, a cylindrical glass bottle linedinside and outside with metal to within a short distance from the top, while a brass rod connected with the inside coating extends upwardthrough a wooden stopper terminating in a knob. 

LEYS SCHOOL, the Cambridge school founded in 1875 to supply underunsectarian religious influences a high-class education, the founders ofit having been chiefly members of the Methodist body. 

LHASSA (seat of the gods) (50), the capital of Thibet, and themetropolis of the Buddhist world in the Chinese Empire, stands in themiddle of a plain 11, 900 ft. Above the sea-level; on a hill in the NW. Ofthe centre of the city, a conical hill called Potala, amid temples andpalaces, is the residence of the Grand Lama; the monasteries are 15 innumber, and the priests 20, 000, and it is the centre of the caravantrade. 

L'HÔPITAL. See HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE L'. 

LI, a Chinese mile, equal to one-third of an English mile. 

LIA-FAIL, the stone of destiny on which the Irish kings used to becrowned, which was at length removed to Scone, in Perthshire, and is nowin Westminster under the coronation chair, having been removed thither byEdward I. 

LIBERALISM, MODERN, "practically summed up" by Ruskin, in "thedenial or neglect of the quality and intrinsic worth in things, theincapacity of discerning or refusal to discern worth and unworth inanything, and least of all in man. "

LIBERAL-UNIONIST, one of the Liberal party in English politics, which in 1886 quitted the Liberal ranks and joined the Conservative partyin opposition to the Home Rule policy of Mr. Gladstone. 

LIBERATIONIST, one who advocates the emancipation of the Church fromState control. 

LIBERIA (1, 500), a negro republic on the Grain Coast of Africa, founded in 1822 by American philanthropists as a settlement for freedmen, with a constitution after the model of the United States. 

LIBERTY, FRATERNITY, AND EQUALITY, the trinity of modern democracy, and which first found expression as a political creed in the FrenchRevolution, of which the first term is now held to require definition, the second to have only a sentimental basis, and the third to be inviolation of the fact of things; universal suffrage is the expression ofit politically. 

LIBRATION, the name given to certain apparent movements in the moonas if it swayed like a balance both in latitude and longitude in itsrevolution round the earth. 

LIBRI-CARRUCCI, COUNT, Italian mathematician; professor at Pisa, butobliged to resign for his liberal opinions and take refuge in France, where he was made professor at the Sorbonne, was a kleptomaniac in thematter of books (1803-1869). 

LIBYA, a name by the early geographers to the territory in Africawhich lay between Egypt, Ethiopia, and the shores of the Atlantic. 

LICHFIELD (8), ancient ecclesiastical town in Staffordshire, 15 m. SE. Of Stafford, an episcopal see since 656, with a cathedral in EarlyEnglish style, recently completely restored; has an ancient grammarschool, a museum, and school of art; the birthplace of Samuel Johnson;its industries are brewing, coachbuilding, and implement making. 

LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH, German physicist and satirist, bornnear Darmstadt; was educated at Göttingen, and appointed professor therein 1770; he wrote a commentary on Hogarth's copperplates; his reputationin Germany as a satirist is high (1742-1799). 

LICINIUS, CAIUS, a Roman tribune and consul, of plebeian birth, author of several laws intended to minimise the distinction politicallybetween patrician and plebeian, in office between 376 and 361 B. C. 

LICK OBSERVATORY, an observatory built at the expense of James Lick, an American millionaire, on one of the peaks of Mount Hamilton, California, with a telescope that has the largest object-glass of any inthe world. 

LICTOR, an officer in Rome who bore the FASCES (q. V. )before a magistrate when on duty. 

LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE, Greek lexicographer, graduated at Oxford in1833; was tutor of Christ Church, and in 1845 appointed professor ofMoral Philosophy; he was successively Head-master of Winchester, Dean ofChrist Church, and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford from 1870 to 1874; his greatwork is a Greek lexicon (first edition 1843, last 1883), of which he wasjoint-author with Dr. Robert Scott, and which is the standard work of itskind in English; _b_. 1811. 

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY, canon of St. Paul's, London, born in Hants;educated at Christ Church, Oxford; eminent both as a scholar and apreacher; author of an eloquent course of lectures, the Bampton, "On theDivinity of Jesus Christ"; belonged to the Liberal section of theHigh-Church party (1829-1890). 

LIEBIG, BARON VON, eminent German chemist, born at Darmstadt; in1824 attracted the attention of Alexander von Humboldt by a paper beforethe Institute of France on fulminates, and was appointed to the chair ofChemistry in Giessen, where he laboured 28 years, attracting studentsfrom all quarters, and where his laboratory became a model of many otherselsewhere; wrote a number of works on chemistry, inorganic and organic, animal and agricultural, and their applications, as well as papers andletters; accepted a professorship in Münich in 1852, and in 1860 wasappointed President of the Münich Academy of Sciences (1803-1873). 

LIÈGE (160), a town in Belgium and capital of the Walloons, in avery picturesque region at the confluence of the Ourthe with the Meuse, the busiest town in Belgium and a chief seat of the woollen manufacture;it is divided in two by the Meuse, which is spanned by 17 bridges; it isthe centre of a great mining district, and besides woollens hasmanufactures of machinery, and steel and iron goods. 

LIEGNITZ (46), a town in Silesia, 40 m. NW. Of Breslau, whereFrederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians in 1760. 

LIFEGUARDS, the British royal household troops, consisting ofcavalry and infantry regiments. 

LIGHTFOOT, JOHN, Orientalist and divine, born at Stoke-upon-Trent, son of a clergyman, educated at Cambridge; took orders and was rector ofAshley, Staffordshire, till 1642; next year he was one of the mostinfluential members of the Westminster Assembly; in 1652 he was made D. D. , was Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge in 1653, and subsequently prebendaryof Ely; one of England's earlier Hebrew scholars, the great work of hislife was the "Horæ Hebraicæ et Talmudicæ, " published in large partposthumously (1602-1675). 

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER, bishop of Durham, born at Liverpool; was aFellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was eminent among English scholarsas a New Testament exegete, became bishop of Durham in 1879; died atBournemouth (1828-1889). 

LIGNY, a village 13 m. From Charleroi, where Napoleon defeatedBlücher two days before the battle of Waterloo while Wellington andMarshal Ney were engaged at Quatre Bras. 

LIGUORI, ST. ALPHONSE MARIA DI, founder of the Redemptorists, bornat Naples of a noble family; bred to the law, but devoted himself to areligious life, received holy orders, lived a life of austerity, and gavehimself up to reclaim the lost and instruct the poor and ignorant; was aman of extensive learning, and found time from his pastoral labours tocontribute extensively to theological literature and chiefly casuistry, to the extent of 70 volumes; was canonised in 1839; the order he foundedis called by his own name as well (1696-1787). 

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, a name given by Bonaparte to the republic ofGenoa, founded in 1797. 

LI HUNG CHANG, an eminent and enlightened Chinese statesman; isfavourable to European culture and intercourse with Europe; was sent as aspecial envoy to the Czar's coronation in 1896, and afterwards visitedother countries in Europe, including our own, and the States and Canada;_b_. 1823. 

LILBURNE, JOHN, a victim of the Star-Chamber in the time of CharlesI. , and exposed on the pillory as well as fined and imprisoned; joinedthe Parliamentary ranks and fought for the Commonwealth, but as anIndependent indulged in violent harangues against Cromwell, and wascommitted to the Tower, but on his release turned Quaker (1618-1657). 

LILITH or LILIS, the name of Adam's first wife, whom, accordingto Jewish tradition, he had before Eve, and who bore him in that wedlockthe whole progeny of aërial, aquatic, and terrestrial devils, and who, itseems, still wanders about the world bewitching men to like issue andslaying little children not protected by amulets against her. 

LILLE (161), chief town in the department of Nord, in the extreme N. Of France, 60 m. Inland from Calais, an ancient and at present verystrong fortress, is in a fertile district; the town, rebuilt in moderntimes, has a Catholic university, a medical school, library, and artgallery, and thriving industries, linen, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and manyothers. 

LILLIPUT, a country inhabited by a very diminutive race of men notlarger in size than a man's finger, visited by Gulliver in his travels. 

LILLO, GEORGE, English dramatist, born in London, by trade ajeweller; wrote seven comedies, of which "The Fatal Curiosity" and"George Barnwell" are the best and the best appreciated (1693-1739). 

LILLY, WILLIAM, an English astrologer, born in Leicestershire, whomade gain by his fortune-telling during the Commonwealth periodespecially, but got into trouble afterwards as a presumed mischief-maker(1602-1681). 

LIMA (200), capital of Peru, 6 m. Inland from Callao, its port, apicturesque but somewhat shabby city, 700 ft. Above the sea-level, regularly built, with many plazas; has a cathedral and 70 churches;trade is in the hands of foreigners, mostly Germans, and industries areunimportant; it was founded by Pizarro, and his bones lie buried in thecathedral. 

LIMBURG, in the basin of the Meuse, formerly a duchy, was aftervarious fortunes divided in 1839 into Belgian Limburg (225), on the W. Ofthe river, capital Hasselt (13), and Dutch Limburg (262), on the E. , capital Maestricht (33); partly moorland and partly arable, it has coal, iron, sugar, and tobacco industries. 

LIMBUS or LIMBO, according to Catholic theologians a region onthe confines of Hades tenanted, the _limbus patrum_, by the souls of goodmen who died before Christ's advent, and the _limbus infantium_, by thesouls of unbaptized infants, both of whom await there the resurrectionmorn to join the ransomed in heaven. 

LIMELIGHT, a bright light caused by making a stream of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, play in a state of ignition on a piece of compactquicklime. 

LIMERICK (159), Irish county on the S. Of the Shannon estuary, between Tipperary and Kerry, watered by the Mulcai, Maigue, and Deel;hilly in the S. , is mostly fertile, and under corn and green crops;cattle are reared and dairy products exported; some woollens and papermanufactured. There are many antiquities. Limerick (37), the county town, on the Shannon, is the fourth Irish seaport, and manufactures a littlelace. 

LIMITED LIABILITY, liability on the part of the shareholders of ajoint-stock company limited by the amount of their shares. 

LIMOGES (68), chief town in the dep. Of Haute-Vienne, on the VienneRiver, 250 m. S. Of Paris; has a Gothic cathedral; is one of the chiefmanufacturing towns of France. Its porcelain and woollen cloths arewidely famed; it has a large transit trade; it gives name to a fine kindof surface enamel, which was brought to perfection there. 

LINCOLN (44), capital of Lincolnshire, on the Witham, 130 m. N. OfLondon; is a very old and quaint city, with one of the finest cathedralsin England, and many historic buildings. Its annual spring horse-fair isamong the largest in the world. It manufactures agricultural instruments, and trades in flour. Its stands on the Oolitic Ridge, and commands a wideview of the Trent Valley. 

LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, sixteenth President of the United States, bornnear Hodgensville, Kentucky; spent his boyhood there and in the Indianaforests, and picked up some education in the backwoods schools; passedsome years in rough work; he was clerk in a store at New Salem, Illinois;became village postmaster and deputy county surveyor, and began to studylaw; from 1834 to 1842 he led the Whigs in the State legislature, and in1846 entered Congress; he prospered as a lawyer, and almost leftpolitics; but the opening of the slavery question in 1854 recalled him, and in a series of public debates with Stephen Douglas established hisreputation as debater and abolitionist; unsuccessful in his candidaturefor the Senate, he was nominated by the Republicans for the Presidency, and elected 1860; his election was the signal for the secession of theSouthern States; Lincoln refused to recognise the secession, accepted thewar, and prosecuted it with energy; on New Year's day, 1863, heproclaimed the emancipation of the negroes, and was re-elected Presidentin 1864, but shortly after his second inauguration was assassinated; hewas a man of high character, straightforward, steadfast, and sympathetic(1809-1865). 

LINCOLN'S INN. See INNS OF COURT. 

LINCOLNSHIRE (473), maritime county in the E. Of England, betweenthe Humber and the Wash, next to Yorkshire in size, consists of uplandcountry in the W. , chalk downs in the E. , and fens in the S. , but thesewell reclaimed and cultivated. It is watered by the Trent, Witham, andWelland, and crossed by numerous canals. Iron abounds in the W. ; sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. Grimsby is a shipping and fishing centre. Sir Isaac Newton and Lord Tennyson were born in the county, which hasmany historic associations. 

LINCRUSTA WALTON, a plastic material invented by Walton, capable ofbeing moulded into raised patterns for decorating walls, &c. 

LIND, JENNY (Madame Otto Goldschmidt), the Swedish nightingale, bornat Stockholm; giving evidence of her power of song in childhood, she wasput under a master at nine; too soon put to practise in public, her voiceat twelve showed signs of contracting, but after four years recovered itsfull power, when, appearing as Alice in "Robert le Diable, " the effectwas electric; henceforth her fame was established, and followed her overthe world; in 1844 she made a round of the chief cities of Germany; madeher first appearance in London in 1847, and visited New York in 1851, where she married, and then left the stage for good, to appear only nowand again at intervals for some charitable object; she was plain looking, and a woman of great simplicity both in manners and ways of thinking(1821-1882). 

LINDLEY, JOHN, distinguished botanist, born near Norwich; wroteextensively on botany according to the natural system of classification, and did much to popularise the study; was professor of the science inLondon University (1799-1865). 

LINDSAY, name of a Scottish family of Norman extraction, and thatfirst figures in Scottish history in the reign of David I. 

LINDSAY or LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID, OF THE MOUNT, Scottish poet, born at the Mount, near Cupar, Fife, at the grammar-school of which hewas educated, as afterwards at St. Andrews University; was usher to JamesV. From his childhood, and knighted by him after he came of age; diddiplomatic work in England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark; isfamous as the author of, among others, three poems, the "Satire of theThree Estates, " "Dialogues between Experience and a Courtier, " and the"History of Squire Meldrum, " of which the first is the most worthy ofnote, and is divided into five parts, the main body of it a play of anallegorical kind instinct with conventional satire; without being apartisan of the Reformation, his works, from the satire in them beingdirected against the Church, contributed very materially to its receptionin Scotland approximately (1490-1555). 

LINGA, a symbol in the phallus worship of the East of the male orgenerative power in nature. This worship prevails among the Hindu sect ofthe Givas or Sivas, and the symbol takes the form of the pistil of aflower, or an erect cylindrical stone. 

LINGARD, JOHN, historian, born at Winchester, the son of acarpenter; besides a work on the "Antiquity of the Anglo-Saxon Church, "wrote a "History of England from the Roman Invasion to the Reign ofWilliam III. , " the first written that shows anything like scholarlyaccuracy, and fairly impartial, though the author's religious views as aRoman Catholic, it is alleged, distort the facts a little (1771-1851). 

LINGUA FRANCA, a jargon composed of a mixture of languages used intrade intercourse. 

LINLITHGOW (4), the county town of Linlithgowshire, 16 m. W. OfEdinburgh, on the S. Shore of a loch of the name, with a palace, thebirthplace of James V. ; the county (52) lying on the S. Shore of theForth, and rich in minerals. 

LINNÆUS, or more properly LINNÉ, KARL VON, great Swedishnaturalist, specially in the department of botany, a branch to the studyof which he was devoted from his earliest years; he was the founder ofthe system of the classification of plants which bears his name, andwhich is determined by the number and disposition of the reproductiveorgans, but which is now superseded by the natural system of Jussieu; hewas professor at Upsala, and his works on his favourite subject werenumerous, and extended far and wide his reputation as a naturalist(1707-1778). 

LINNELL, JOHN, English painter, painted portraits at first, but inthe end landscapes, of which last "The Windmill" and a wood scene are inthe National Gallery; he was a friend and an admirer of William Blake(1807-1882). 

LINOLEUM, a floorcloth, being a composition of cork and linseed oilwith chloride of silver. 

LINOTYPE, a contrivance for setting and casting words or lines forprinting. 

LINZ (47), the capital of the crownland of Upper Austria, on theright bank of the Danube; a busy commercial place, a great railwaycentre, and the seat of the manufacture of woollen goods, linen, tobacco, &c. ; is also of great strategical importance in time of war. 

LION, THE, the king of animals, was the symbol of power, courage, and virtue, and in Christian art of the resurrection; is in general, asMr. Fairholt remarks, "a royal symbol, and in emblem of dominion, command, magnanimity, vigilance, and strength; representing when_couchant_ sovereignty, when _rampant_ magnanimity, when _passant_resolution, when _guardant_ prudence, when _saliant_ valour, when_sciant_ counsel, and when _regardant_ circumspection. "

LIP`ARI ISLANDS (22), a group of islands of volcanic origin, 12 innumber, off the N. Coast of Sicily, in two of which, Vulcano andStromboli, the volcanic force is still active, the latter emitting cloudsof steam at intervals of five minutes. 

LIPPE (128), an old N. German principality, the principal towns ofwhich are Detmold, Lemgo, and Horn. 

LIPPI, FILIPPINO, Italian painter, son of the succeeding; ispresumed to have been a pupil of BOTTICELLI'S (q. V. ); hisearliest known work is the "Vision of St. Bernard" in Florence, and heexecuted various works in Bologna, Genoa, and Rome; painted frescoes andaltar-pieces, and scenes in the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul(1460-1504). 

LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO, Italian painter, born at Florence; left anorphan, was brought up in a monastery, where his talent for art wasdeveloped and encouraged; went to Ancona, was carried off by pirates, butprocured his release by his skill in drawing, and returning to Italypractised his art in Florence and elsewhere, till one day he eloped witha novice in a nunnery who sat to him for a Madonna, by whom he became thefather of a son no less famous than himself; he prosecuted his art amidpoverty with zeal and success to the last; distinguished by Ruskin (Forsxxiv. 4) as the only monk who ever did good painter's work; he hadBotticelli for a pupil (1412-1469). 

LIPSIUS, JUSTUS, an erudite Belgian scholar, with fast and loosereligious principles; was the author of numerous learned works(1547-1579). 

LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT, distinguished German theologian, born inGera; professor in succession at Vienna, Kiel, and Jena; wrote ondogmatics, the philosophy of religion, and New Testament criticism(1830-1892). 

LISBON (301), the capital of Portugal, a magnificent town, built onthe N. Bank of the Tagus, 9 m. From its mouth, extends along the banks ofthe river 9 m. And inland 5 m. ; it boasts of an array of fine buildingsand squares, a number of literary and scientific institutions, and aspacious harbour; is remarkable for a marble aqueduct which brings watermore than 10 m. Across the valley of Alcantara; the manufactures includetobacco, soap, wool, and chemicals, and the exports wine, oil, andfruits; it suffered from an earthquake of great violence in 1755, bywhich the greater part of the city was destroyed, and from 30, 000 to40, 000 of the inhabitants were killed. 

LISTER, JOSEPH, LORD, eminent surgeon, born at Upton, Essex; thefounder of modern antiseptic surgery, and is as such reckoned among theworld's greatest benefactors; was President of the British Association in1896, and is surgeon-extraordinary to the Queen; _b_. 1827. 

LISTON, JOHN, an English actor of low comedy, and long famous on theLondon stage, to which he was introduced by Charles Kemble; _d_. 1846. 

LISTON, ROBERT, a celebrated surgeon, born in Linlithgowshire;studied in Edinburgh and London; was distinguished as an operator; wasprofessor of Clinical Surgery in University College, London, and authorof "Elements of Surgery" and "Practical Surgery" (1794-1847). 

LISZT, ABBÉ FRANZ, famous pianist, a Hungarian by birth; born with agenius for music, his first efforts at composition were not successful, and it was not till he heard what Paganini made of the violin that hethought what might be made of the piano, and that he devoted himself tothe culture of piano music, with the result that he not only became thefirst pianist himself, but produced a set of compositions that had theeffect of raising the art to the highest pitch of perfection; he was azealous Catholic, and took holy orders, but this did not damp his ardouror weaken his power as a musician; he spent the greater part of his lifeat Weimar, but he practised his art far and wide, and his last visit toEngland in 1886, the year on which he died, created quite a flutter inmusical circles (1811-1886). 

LITANY, a form of supplication in connection with some impendingcalamity in which the prayer of the priest or officiating clergyman isresponded to by the congregation. 

LITERATURE, defined by Carlyle "as an 'apocalypse of nature, ' arevealing of the 'open secret, ' a 'continuous revelation' of the God-likein the terrestrial and common, which ever endures there, and is broughtout now in this dialect, now in that, with various degrees ofclearness . .. There being touches of it (i. E. The God-like) in thedark stormful indignation of a Byron, nay, in the withered mockery of aFrench sceptic, his mockery of the false, a love and worship of thetrue . .. How much more in the sphere harmony of a Shakespeare, thecathedral music of a Milton; something of it too in those humble, genuine, lark-notes of a Burns, skylark starting from the humble furrow far overheadinto the blue depths, and singing to us so genuinely there. "

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy occupying portions of the valleysof the Dwina, Niemen, Dnieper, and Bug; for centuries connected withPoland; passed to Russia in 1814. The Lithuanians are a distinct race ofthe Indo-European stock, fair and handsome, with a language of theirown, and a literature rich in folk-lore and songs. Of a strong religioustemperament, they embraced Christianity late (13th century), and stillretain many pagan superstitions; formerly serfs, they are now a humblepeasantry engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, and bee-keeping. 

LITMUS, a colouring matter obtained from certain lichens;extensively used in chemical experiments to detect acids, for instance. 

LITTLE CORPORAL, a name given to Bonaparte after the battle of Lodifrom his small stature, he being only 5 ft. 2 in. 

LITTLE ENGLANDERS, those politicians who hold that English statesmenshould concern themselves with England only and its internal affairs. 

LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS, English jurist of the 15th century; wasrecorder of Coventry in 1450, judge of Common Pleas 1466, and knighted in1475; his work on "Tenures" was the first attempt to classify the law ofland rights, and was the basis of the famous "Coke upon Littleton"; _d_. 1481. 

LITTRÉ, a celebrated French scholar, physician, philologist, andphilosopher, born in Paris; wrote on medical subjects, and translatedHippocrates; was of the Positivist school in philosophy, and owes hisfame chiefly to his "Dictionnaire de la Langue Française, " published in1863-72, and on which he spent forty years' labour (1801-1881). 

LITURGY is sometimes used as including any form of public worship, but more strictly it denotes the form for the observance of theEucharist. As development from the simple form of their institution inthe primitive Church liturgies assumed various forms, and only by degreescertain marked types began to prevail: viz. , the Roman, ascribed to St. Peter, in Latin, and prevailing in the Roman Catholic Church all over theworld; the Ephesian, ascribed to St. John, in corrupt Latin, included theold Scottish and Irish forms, heard now only in a few places in Spain;the Jerusalem, ascribed to St. James, in Greek, the form of the GreekChurch and in translation of the Armenians; the Babylonian, ascribed toSt. Thomas, in Syriac, used still by the Nestorians and Christians of St. Thomas; and the Alexandrian, ascribed to St. Mark, in a Græco-Copticjargon, in use among the Copts; these all contain certain commonelements, but differ in order and in subsidiary parts; the Anglicanliturgy is adapted from the Roman; other Protestant liturgies or forms ofservice are mostly of modern date and compiled from Scripture sources. 

LIVA, an Italian coin worth 9½ d. , and the monetary unit in thecountry. 

LIVERPOOL (585), the third city and first seaport of Great Britain, in Lancashire, on the Mersey, 3 m. From the sea, formerly the chief seatof the slave interest in Britain; owed its present prosperity to theimpulse of the cotton trade at the end of the 18th century; progressingrapidly it has now docks stretching six miles along the Mersey, whichreceive a sixth of the tonnage that visits British ports; through itpasses a third of our foreign trade, including enormous imports of wheatand cotton and exports of cotton goods; it possesses shipbuilding andengineering works, iron-foundries, flour, tobacco, and chemicalfactories; the public buildings, town hall, exchange, colleges, andobservatory are fine edifices; it was the native place of W. E. Gladstone. 

LIVERPOOL, EARL OF, ROBERT JENKINSON, English statesman, educated atOxford; entered Parliament 1791, and as Foreign Secretary negotiated thepeace of Amiens in 1802; becoming Lord Hawkesbury in 1803, he became HomeSecretary under Pitt, and succeeding to the earldom in 1808; was WarSecretary under Perceval in 1800, Premier from 1812 to 1827; heliberalised the tariff and maintained a sound finance, uniting andholding together the Tory party at a critical period (1770-1828). 

LIVERYMEN, name given to members of the several guilds orcorporations of London and freemen of the city, so called as entitled towear the livery belonging to their respective companies; they possesscertain privileges of a civic character. 

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID, African traveller and missionary, born inBlantyre, Lanarkshire; began life as a mill-worker, studied medicine andtheology at Glasgow, and was sent out to Africa by the London MissionarySociety in 1840, landed at Port Natal, and addressed himself tomissionary work; moving north, he arrived at Lake Ngami in 1849, andascending the Zambesi in 1853 arrived at Loanda next year; later on heexplored the course of the Zambesi and its tributaries, discovered LakeNyassa, and set himself to discover the sources of the Nile, but thisexpedition proved too much for him, and he died exhausted; his body wasembalmed, brought home to England, and buried in Westminster Abbey(1815-1873). 

LIVIUS, TITUS (LIVY), illustrious Roman historian, born at Patavium(Padua); appears to have settled early in Rome and spent the most of hislife there; his reputation rests on his "History of Rome from theFoundation of the City to the Death of Drusus, " it consisted of 142chapters, but of these only 30 remain entire and 5 in fragments, bequeathing to posterity his account of the early history of the city andof the wars with Hannibal (59-17 B. C. ). 

LIVONIA (1, 260), Russian Baltic province on the Gulf of Riga; isflat and marshy, and only moderately fertile; produces rye, barley, andpotatoes; its chief industries are distilling, brewing, andiron-founding, and fishing; four-fifths of the population are Letts andEsthonians, only 5 per cent. Are Russian; the original Finnic Livoniansare almost extinct; capital Riga (180). 

LIVRAISON, part of a serial issued from time to time. 

LLANDUDNO (6), a fashionable watering-place at the foot of GreatOrmes Head, Carnarvon, frequented by people from Yorkshire andLancashire. 

LLANELLY (32), a manufacturing seaport in Carmarthenshire forshipping coal, iron, and copper. 

LLANOS, vast level plains twice the size of Great Britain in the N. Of South America, in the basin of the Orinoco, covered in great part withtall grass and stocked in the rainy season with herds of cattle; duringthe dry season they are a desert. 

LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO, Spanish historian, is the author of severalworks, but his celebrity is mainly due to his "History of the SpanishInquisition, " of which in 1789 he became the secretary (1760-1823). 

LLOYD'S, a part of the Royal Exchange, London, appropriated to theuse of underwriters and for marine intelligence, frequented by thoseinterested in merchant shipping; so called from Lloyd's Coffee-house, formerly the head-quarters of the class. 

LOAD-LINE, line painted on the outside of a vessel to mark theextreme of immersion in loading her with a cargo. 

LOADSTONE or LODESTONE, an iron ore remarkable for its magneticquality or power of attracting iron; it derived its name from its use asa leading stone in the compass to mariners. 

LOBBY, THE, hall connected with a legislative assembly to which thepublic have access. 

LOCAL OPTION, licence granted to the inhabitants of a district toextinguish or reduce the sale of intoxicants in their midst. 

LOCHABER, a Highland district in the S. Of Inverness-shire. 

LOCHABER AXE, an axe with a broad blade and a long handle formerlyin use among the Highlanders as a weapon. 

LOCHIEL, a Highland chief, Sir Evan Cameron his name, head of theCameron clan, who held out against William III. 's rule in the Highlands, but ultimately took the oath of allegiance; _d_. 1719. 

LOCHINVAR, hero of a ballad in Scott's "Marmion, " who carries offhis sweetheart just as she is about to be sacrificed in marriage toanother whom she loathes. 

LOCHLEVEN, Scottish lake in Kinross-shire overshadowed by Benartyand the West Lomond, is 23 m. NW. Of Edinburgh; in a castle on one of itsislands Mary Stuart was imprisoned 1567-68; it is now famous for itstrout. 

LOCKE, JOHN, English philosopher, the father of modern materialismand empiricism, born in Wrington, Somerset; studied medicine, but did notpractise it, and gave himself up to a literary life, much of it spent inthe family of the celebrated Earl of Shaftesbury, both at home with itand abroad; his great work is his "Essay on the Human Understanding" in1690, which was preceded by "Letters on Toleration, " published before theexpulsion of James II. , and followed by the "Treatise on Government" thesame year, and "Thoughts on Education" in 1693; his "Essay" was writtento show that all our ideas were derived from experience, that is, throughthe senses and reflection on what they reveal, and that there are noinnate ideas; "Locke, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "is eminently" (that is, before all his contemporaries) "of such stuff as dreams are _not_ madeof"--is wholly a prosaic practical man and Englishman (1632-1704). 

LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON, man of letters, born in Cambusnethan; bredfor the Scottish bar and practised at it; contributed to _Blackwood_, wrote in collaboration with John Wilson "Peter's Letters to hisKinsfolk"; married Sophia Scott, Sir Walter's daughter, in 1820, lived agood deal near Abbotsford, wrote some four novels and "Spanish Ballads, "became editor of the _Quarterly_ in 1825, and began in 1837 his "Life ofScott, " a great work, and his greatest; died at Abbotsford, health brokenand in much sorrow; his "Life" has been interestingly written by AndrewLang (1794-1854). 

LOCKOUT, the exclusion of workmen from a factory by the employer tobring them to terms which they decline to accept. 

LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN, astronomer, born at Rugby; became clerkin the War Office in 1857, was secretary to the Royal Commission onScientific Instruction in 1870, and was transferred to the Science andArt Department in 1875; he directed Government eclipse expeditions toSicily, India, Egypt, and the West Indies; in 1860 he became F. R. S. , received the Society's Rumford medal in 1874, next year was appointedcorresponding Member of the Institute of France and received the Janssenmedal in 1891; he was knighted in 1897; he made important discoveries inspectrum analysis, and has written several astronomical works; _b_. 1836. 

LOCO-FOCOS, the name, which denotes lucifer-matches, given to anultra-democratic or radical party in the United States because at ameeting when on one occasion the lights were extinguished the matcheswhich they carried were drawn and the lamps lit again. 

LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece of two distinct tribes occupyingdifferent districts of the country. 

LODI (18), a town in Lombardy, 18 m. SE. Of Milan, on the Adda, famous for a signal victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians in 1796 inthe face of a tremendous fire. 

LOEWE, GOTTFRIED, German composer; composed oratorios, operas, andpianoforte pieces; sang and played in London in 1847 (1796-1869). 

LOFODEN ISLANDS (20), a rugged mountainous chain on the NW. Norwegian coast within the Arctic circle, with winters rendered mild bythe Gulf Stream, afford pasturage for sheep; the waters between them andthe mainland are a rich cod-fishing ground, visited by thousands of boatsbetween January and March. 

LOGAN, JOHN, a Scotch poet, born at Soutra; was for a time ministerin South Leith church, but was obliged to resign; was the author of alyric, "The Braes of Yarrow" and certain of the Scotch paraphrases(1748-1788). See BRUCE, MICHAEL. 

LOGARITHM, the exponent of the power to which a fixed number, calledthe base, must be raised to produce a certain given number. 

LOGIC, the science of correct thinking or of the laws which regulatethought, called also dialectics; or in the Hegelian system "thescientific exposition and development of those notions or categorieswhich underlie all things and all being. "

LOGIC SPECTACLES, Carlyle's name for eyes that can only discern theexternal relations of things, but not the inner nature of them. 

LOGOS, an expression in St. John's gospel translated the Word (inchap. I. ) to denote the manifestation of God, or God as manifested, defined in theology as the second person of the Deity, and viewed asintermediary between God as Father and God as Spirit. 

LOG-ROLLING, mutual praise by authors of each other's work. 

LOHENGRIN, hero of a German 13th-century poem; son of Parzival, anda Knight of the Grail; carried by a swan to Brabant he delivered andmarried the Princess Elsa; subsequently returning from war against theSaracens, she asked him of his origin; he told her, and was at oncecarried back again by the swan. Wagner adapted the story in his opera"Lohengrin. "

LOIRE, the largest river in France, 630 m. , rises in the Cévennes, flows northwards to Orleans and westward to the Bay of Biscay, through avery fertile valley which it often inundates. It is navigable for 550 m. , but its lower waters are obstructed by islands and shoals; it isconnected by canals with the Seine, Saône, and Brest Harbour. 

LOKI, in the Norse mythology, a primitive spirit of evil who mingleswith the Norse gods, distinguished for his cunning and ensnaring ways, whose devices are only evil in appearance, and are overruled for good. 

LOLLARDS, originally a religious community established at Antwerp in1300, devoted to the care of the sick and burial of the dead, and aspersecuted by the Church, regarded as heretics. Their name became asynonym for heretic, and was hence applied to the followers of Wycliffein England and certain sectaries in Ayrshire. 

LOMBARD, PETER, a famous schoolman, born in Lombardy in the 12thcentury, of poor parents; was a disciple of Abelard; taught theology at, and became Bishop of, Paris; was styled the Master of Sentences, asauthor of a compilation of sentences from Augustine and other ChurchFathers on points of Christian doctrine, and long used as a manual inscholastic disputations. 

LOMBARDS, a German people, settled at the beginning of our era aboutthe lower Elbe. In the 5th century we find them in Moravia, and a centurylater established, a powerful people, between the Adriatic and theDanube. They invaded Italy in 568, and in three years had mastered theNorth, but abandoning their Arian faith they gradually becameItalianised, and after the overthrow of their dynasty by Charlemagne in774 they became merged in the Italians. From the 13th century Italianmerchants, known as Lombards, from Lucca, Florence, Venice, and Genoa, traded under much odium, largely in England as wool-dealers and bankers, whence the name Lombard Street. 

LOMBARDY (3, 982), an inland territory of Northern Italy between theAlps and the Po, Piedmont, and Venetia. In the N. Are Alpine mountainsand valleys rich in pasturage; in the S. A very fertile, well irrigatedplain, which produces cereals, rice, and sub-tropical plants. The cultureof the silkworm is extensive; there are textile and hardwaremanufactures. The chief towns are Milan, Pavia, and Corno. Austrian in1713, Napoleon made it part of the kingdom of Italy in 1805; it wasrestored to Austria in 1815, and finally again to Italy in 1859. 

LOMOND, LOCH, an irregularly-shaped lake in Dumbarton and Stirlingshires, 22 m. Long and of varying breadth; contains a number of smallwooded islands; on the eastern shore rises Ben Lomond to the height of3192 ft. 

LONDON (5, 633), on the Thames, 50 m. From the sea, the capital ofthe British Empire, is the most populous and wealthiest city in theworld. An important place in Roman times, it was the cap. Of the EastSaxons, and has been the metropolis of England since the Norman Conquest;it possesses, therefore, innumerable historic buildings and associations. Often devastated by plague and fire, its progress has never been stayed;its population has more than quadrupled itself this century, and morethan doubled since 1850. The City of London proper occupies one squaremile in the centre, is wholly a commercial part, and is governed by anannually elected mayor and aldermen; is the seat of a bishopric, with St. Paul's for cathedral. The City of Westminster is also a bishopric under ahigh steward and high bailiff, chosen by the dean and chapter. These twocities, with twenty-five boroughs under local officers, constitute themetropolis, and since 1888 the county of the city of London, and send 59members to Parliament. Streets in the older parts are narrow, but newerdistricts are well built; the level ground and density of buildingdetracts from the effect of innumerable magnificent edifices. Buckingham, Kensington, and St. James's are royal residences; the Houses ofParliament are the biggest Gothic building in the world; St. Paul's, built by Sir Christopher Wren, contains the remains of Nelson andWellington, Reynolds, Turner, and Wren himself. Westminster, consecrated1269, is the burial-place of England's greatest poets and statesmen, andof many kings; the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand were opened in1882. London has a University (an examining body), 700 colleges andendowed schools, among which Westminster, Christ's Hospital, and theCharterhouse are famous, many medical hospitals, and schools andcharitable institutions of all kinds. London is the centre of the Englishliterary and artistic world, and of scientific interest and research;here are the largest publishing houses, the chief libraries andart-galleries, and museums; the British Museum and Library, the NationalGalleries, &c. , and magnificent botanical and zoological gardens. Londonis also a grand emporium of commerce, and the banking centre of theworld. It has nine principal docks; its shipping trade is unrivalled, 55, 000 vessels enter and clear annually; it pays more than half thecustom duties of the kingdom, and handles more than a quarter of thetotal exports; its warehouse trade is second only to that of Manchester;it manufactures everything, chiefly watches, jewellery, leather goods, cycles, pianos, and glass. The control of traffic, the lighting, andwater-supply of so large a city are causing yearly more serious problems. 

LONDON (30), the cap. Of Middlesex county, Ontario, near the S. Endof the peninsula, in the middle of a fertile district, and a risingplace. 

LONDONDERRY (152), maritime county in Ulster, washed by Lough Foyleand the Atlantic, surrounded by Donegal in the W. , Tyrone in the S. , andAntrim in the W. , and watered by the Foyle, Roe, and Bann Rivers, somewhat hilly towards the S. , is largely under pasture; the cultivatedparts grow oats, potatoes, and flax; granted to the Corporation andGuilds of London in 1609, a large part of the land is still owned bythem. The county town, LONDONDERRY (33), manufactures linen shirts, whisky, and iron goods, and does a considerable shipping trade. Its siegeby the troops of James II. In 1689 is memorable. 

LONG, GEORGE, a distinguished classical scholar, born in Lancashire;became professor of Greek in London University; edited several usefulworks, among others the "Penny Cyclopædia, " on which he spent 11 years ofhis life (1800-1870). 

LONG ISLAND (774), a long narrow island, 115 m. Long by from 12 to24 broad, belonging to New York State, off the shores of New York andConnecticut, from which it is separated by the East River and Long IslandSound. It is low, much of it forest and sandy waste land, with greatlagoons in the S. The chief industry is market-gardening; fisheries andoyster-beds are valuable. Principal towns, Brooklyn, Long Island City, and Flushing. 

LONG PARLIAMENT, the celebrated English Parliament which assembled3rd November 1640, and was dissolved by Cromwell 20th April 1653, andwhich was afterwards restored, and did not finally decease till 16thMarch 1660. 

LONG TOM COFFIN, a character in Cooper's novel "The Pilot, " and ofwider celebrity than any of the sailor class. 

LONGCHAMP, a racecourse on the W. Side of the Bois du Boulogne, Paris. 

LONGCHAMP, WILLIAM DE, a low-born Norman favourite of Richard I. , made by him bishop of Ely; became Justiciar of England 1190, and PapalLegate 1191; clever, energetic, just, and faithful, he yet incurreddislike by his ambition and arrogance, and was banished to Normandy; hisenergy in gathering the money for Richard's ransom restored him tofavour, and he became Chancellor; _d_. 1197. 

LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH, American poet, born at Portland, Maine;after studying on the Continent, became professor of Modern Languages inHarvard University; wrote "Hyperion, " a romance in prose, and asuccession of poems as well as lyrics, among the former "Evangeline, ""The Golden Legend, " "Hiawatha, " and "Miles Standish" (1807-1882). 

LONGINUS, DIONYSIUS CASSIUS, a learned Greek philosopher, rhetorician, and critic, and eminent in all three departments, being inphilosophy a Platonist of pure blood; his fame as a teacher reached theears of Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, and being invited to her court hebecame her political adviser as well as the educator of her children, buton the surrender of the place he was beheaded by order of the EmperorAurelian as a traitor; he wrote several works, but the only one thatsurvives to some extent is his "Treatise on the Sublime, " translated byBoileau (210-273). 

LONGMANS, famous and oldest publishing house in London; founded byThomas Longman of Bristol in 1726, and now in the hands of the fifthgeneration; has been associated with the production of Johnson's"Dictionary, " Lindley Murray's "Grammar, " the works of Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, and Scott, and Macaulay's "Lays, " "Essays, " and"History"; it absorbed the firm of Parker in 1863, and of Rivington in1890. 

LÖNNROT, ELIAS, a great Finnish scholar, born in Nyland; wasprofessor at Helsingfors; was editor of ancient Finnish compositions, andauthor of a Finnish-Swedish Dictionary (1802-1884). 

LOPE DE VEGA. See VEGA. 

LORD OF THE ISLES, assumed title of Donald, a chief of Islay, who in1346 reduced the whole of the Western Isles under his authority, andborne by his successors, and, as some allege, his ancestors as well. 

LORELEI or LURLEI, a famous steep rock, 430 ft. High, on theRhine, near St. Goar; dangerous to boatmen, on which it was fabled asiren sat combing her hair and singing to lure them to ruin; the subjectof an exquisite Volkslied by Heine. 

LORETTO, a city in Italy, 14 m. SE. Of Ancona; celebrated as thesite of the SANTA CASA (q. V. ), and for the numerous pilgrimsthat annually resort to the holy shrine. 

L'ORIENT (41), a seaport in Morbihan; contains the principalshipbuilding yard in France; was founded by the French East India Companyin 1664 in connection with their trade in the East. 

LORNE, MARQUIS OF, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll; enteredParliament in 1868; married Princess Louise, fourth daughter of QueenVictoria, in 1871; became Governor-General of Canada in 1878, member ofParliament for South Manchester in 1895, and is Governor of WindsorCastle; _b_. 1845. 

LORRAINE, a district in France, between Metz and the Vosges;belonged originally to Germany, became French in 1766, and was restoredto Germany in 1871. 

LORRAINE, CLAUDE. See CLAUDE LORRAINE. 

LOS ANGELES (11), a city in South California, 345 m. SE. Of SanFrancisco, and founded in 1781; is the centre of a great orange-growingdistrict, and a health resort. 

LOST TRIBES, the ten tribes of the race of Israel whom the Assyrianscarried off into captivity (see 2 Kings xvii. 6), and of whom all tracehas been lost, and only in recent years guessed at. 

LOTOPHAGI. See LOTUS EATERS. 

LOTUS EATERS or LOTOPHAGI, an ancient people inhabiting adistrict of Cyrenaica, on the NE. Coast of Africa, who lived on the fruitof the lotus-tree, from which they made wine. Ulysses and his companionsin their wanderings landed on their shores, but the soothing influence ofthe lotus fruit so overpowered them with languor, that they felt noinclination to leave, or any more a desire to pursue the journeyhomewards. See Tennyson's poem "The Lotus-eaters. "

LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN, German philosopher, born at Bautzen, inSaxony; professor successively at Göttingen and Berlin; believed inmetaphysics as well as physics, and was versant in both; "Microcosmus" ishis principal work, published in 1864; he founded the system of"teleological idealism, " based on ethical considerations; he repudiatedagnosticism, and had as little patience with a mere mechanical view ofthe universe as Carlyle (1817-1881). 

LOUDON, JOHN CLAUDIUS, botanist and horticulturist, born atCambuslang, Lanarkshire; wrote largely on plants and their cultivation, and an "Arboretum" on trees and shrubs (1783-1843). 

LOUIS I. , LE DÉBONNAIRE (i. E. The Gentle), was king of Francefrom 814 to 840 in succession to his father Charlemagne, but was too meekand lowly to rule, and fitter for a monk than a king; suffered himself tobe taken advantage of by his nobles and the clergy; was dethroned by hissons, and compelled to retire into a cloister, from which he was twiceover brought forth to stay the ravages of their enemies; he divided hiskingdom among them during his lifetime, and bequeathed it to them toguard over it when he was gone, to its dismemberment. 

LOUIS VI. , LE GROS (i. E. The Fat), was son of Philip I. ; wasassociated in the royal power with his father from 1098 to 1108, and soleking from 1108 till 1137; in his struggle against the great vassals he, by the help of the clergy and the bourgeois, centralised the governmentin the crown; had trouble with Henry I. Of England as Lord Superior ofNormandy, and was defeated by him in battle in 1119; under his reign theburgesses achieved their independence, and though he did nothing toinitiate the movement he knew how to profit from the achievement in theinterest of the monarchy. 

LOUIS VII. , THE YOUNG, son of the preceding, married Eleanor ofAquitaine; took part in the second crusade; on his return divorced hisqueen for her profligacy in his absence, who married Henry II. OfEngland, and brought with her as dowry to Henry the richest provinces ofFrance, which gave rise to the Hundred Years' War (1120-1180). 

LOUIS VIII. , THE LION, son of Philip Augustus; offered by the baronsof England the crown of England, he was crowned at London in 1216, butdefeated at Lincoln next year, he was obliged to recross the Channel;became king of France in 1223; he took several towns from the English, and conducted a crusade against the Albigenses (1187-1226). 

LOUIS IX. , SAINT LOUIS, son of the preceding; was a minor at thedeath of his father, and the country was governed by his mother, Blancheof Castile, with a strong hand; on attaining his majority he foundhimself engaged with the English under Henry, who had been called on toassist certain of the great barons in revolt, but in 1242 he defeatedthem in three engagements; under a vow he made during a dangerous illnesshe became a crusader, and in 1249 landed in Egypt with 40, 000 men, but inan engagement was taken prisoner by the Saracens; released in 1250 onpayment of a large ransom, though he did not return home for two yearsafter, till on hearing of the death of his mother, who had been regentduring his absence; on his return he applied himself to the affairs ofhis kingdom and the establishment of the royal power, but undertaking asecond crusade in 1270, he got as far as Tunis, where a plague broke outin the camp, and he became one of the victims, and one of his sons beforehim; he was an eminently good and pious man, and was canonised byBoniface VIII. In 1297 (1215-1270). 

LOUIS XI. , son of Charles VII. , born at Bourges, of a cruel andtreacherous nature, took part in two insurrections against his father, bywhom he had been pardoned after the first and from whom he had to fleeafter the second for refuge to Burgundy, where he remained till hisfather's death in 1461; he signalised the commencement of his reign bysevere measures against the great vassals, which provoked a revolt, headed by the Dukes of Burgundy and Bretagne, which he succeeded insubduing more by his crafty policy than force of arms; involvedafterwards in a war with Charles the Bold of Burgundy and soliciting aninterview, he was discovered by Charles to have been sowing treason amonghis subjects, taken prisoner, and only released on a solemn protestationof innocence; notwithstanding the sinister and often cruel character ofhis policy, he did much to develop the resources of the country andadvance the cause of good government by the patronage of learning; thecrimes he had committed weighed heavily on his mind towards the end ofhis days, and he died in great fear of death and the judgment(1423-1483). 

LOUIS XIII. , the son of Henry IV. ; being only nine years old at thedeath of his father, the government was conducted by Marie de' Medicis, his mother, and at his accession the country was a prey to civildissensions, which increased on the young king's marriage with a Spanishprincess; the Huguenots rose in arms, but a peace was concluded in 1623;it was now Richelieu came to the front and assumed the reins with histhreefold policy of taming the nobles, checkmating the Huguenots, andhumbling the house of Austria; Rochelle, the head-quarters of theHuguenots, revolted, the English assisting them, but by the strategyadopted the city was taken and the English driven to sea; henceforth theking was nobody and the cardinal was king; the cardinal died in 1642 andthe king the year after, leaving two sons, Louis, who succeeded him, andPhilip, Duke of Orleans and the first of his line (1601-1644). 

LOUIS XIV. , the "Grand Monarque, " son of the preceding, was onlynine when his father died, and the government was in the hands of hismother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, her minister; under theregency the glory of France was maintained in the field, but her internalpeace was disturbed by the insubordination of the parlement and thetroubles of the Fronde; by a compact on the part of Mazarin with Spainbefore he died Louis was married to the Infanta Maria Theresa in 1659, and in 1660 he announced his intention to rule the kingdom alone, whichhe did for 54 years with a decision and energy no one gave him creditfor, in fulfilment of his famous protestation _L'état, c'est moi_, choosing Colbert to control finance, Louvois to reorganise the army, andVauban to fortify the frontier towns; he sought to be as absolute in hisforeign relations as in his internal administration, and hence the longsuccession of wars which, while they brought glory to France, ended inexhausting her; at home he suffered no one in religious matters to thinkotherwise than himself; he revoked the Edict of Nantes, sanctioned thedragonnades in the Cévennes, and to extirpate heresy encouraged everyform of cruelty; yet when we look at the men who adorned it, the reign ofLouis XIV. Was one of the most illustrious in letters and the arts in thehistory of France: Corneille, Racine, and Molière eminent in the drama, La Fontaine and Boileau in poetry, Bossuet in oratory, Bruyère andRochefoucauld in morals, Pascal in philosophy, Saint-Simon and Retz inhistory, and Poussin, Lorraine, Lebrun, Perault, &c. , in art (1636-1715). 

LOUIS XV. , _Bien-Aimé_ (i. E. Well-Beloved), great-grandson of thepreceding, and only five at his death, the country during his minoritybeing under the regency of Philip, Duke of Orleans; the regency wasrendered disastrous by the failure of the Mississippi Scheme of Law and awar with Spain, caused by the rejection of a Spanish princess for Louis, and by his marriage to Maria Lesczynski, the daughter of Stanislas ofPoland; Louis was crowned king in 1722 and declared of age the followingyear; in 1726 Cardinal Fleury, who had been his tutor, became hisminister, and under him occurred the war of the succession to Poland, concluded by the treaty of Vienna, and the war of the Austriansuccession, concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; with the death ofhis minister Louis gave way to his licentious propensities, and in allmatters of state allowed himself to be swayed by unworthy favourites whopandered to his lusts, the most conspicuous among them being Madame dePompadour and Dame de Barry, her successor in crime; under them, and thecorrupt court they presided over, the country went step by step to ruin, and she was powerless to withstand the military ascendency of England, which deprived her of all her colonies both in the East and in the West;though Choiseul, his last "substantial" minister, tried hard by a familycompact of the Bourbons to collect her scattered strength; the situationdid not trouble Louis; "it will last all my time, " he said, and he letthings go; suffering from a disease contracted by vice, he was seizedwith confluent smallpox, and died in misery, to the relief of the nation, which could not restrain its joy (1710-1774). 

LOUIS XVI. , the grandson of the preceding and his successor; had in1770 married Marie Antoinette, the youngest daughter of Maria Theresa ofAustria, and a woman young, beautiful, and accomplished, in high esteemfor the purity of her character; his accession was hailed withenthusiasm, and he set himself to restore the ruined finances of thecountry by taking into his counsel those who could best advise him in herstraitened state, but these one and all found the problem an impossibleone, owing to the unwillingness of the nobility to sacrifice any of theirprivileges for the public good; this led to the summoning of theStates-General in 1789, and the outbreak of the Revolution by the fall ofthe Bastille in July of that year; in the midst of this Louis, well-intentioned but without strength of character, was submissive to thewishes of his court and the queen, lost his popularity by his hesitatingconduct, the secret support he gave to the EMIGRANTS (q. V. ), his attempt at flight, and by his negotiations with foreign enemies, andsubjected himself to persecution at the hands of the nation; he wastherefore suspended from his functions, shut up in the Temple, arraignedbefore the Convention, and condemned to death as "guilty of conspiracyagainst the liberty of the nation and a crime against the general safetyof the State"; he was accordingly guillotined on the 21st January; heprotested his innocence on the scaffold, but his voice was drowned by thebeating of drums; he was accompanied by the Abbé Edgeworth, hisconfessor, who, as he laid his head on the block, exclaimed, "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven" (1754-1793). 

LOUIS XVII. , second son of the preceding, shut up in the Temple, was, after the execution of his mother, proclaimed king by the Emigrants, and handed over in his prison to the care of one Simon, a shoemaker, inservice about the prison, to bring him up in the principles ofSansculottism; Simon taught him to drink, dance, and sing the_carmagnole_; he died in prison "amid squalor and darkness, " his shirtnot changed for six months (1785-1796). 

LOUIS XVIII. , brother of Louis XVI. , and called Monsieur during hisbrother's reign, flew from Paris and joined the Emigrants along with hisbrother, Count d'Artois, and took up arms, which he was compelled toforego, to wander from one foreign Court to another and find refuge atlast in England; on Napoleon's departure for Elba he returned to Franceand was installed on the throne as _Louis le Desiré_, but by thereappearance of the former on the scene he was obliged to seek refuge inBelgium, to return for good after the battle of Waterloo, July 9, 1815, with Talleyrand for minister and Fouché as minister of police; he reignedbut a few years, his constitution being much enfeebled by a disease(1755-1824). 

LOUIS NAPOLEON (Napoleon III. ), nephew of the first emperor, born atParis, brought up at Augsburg and in Switzerland; became head of thefamily in 1832; he began a Bonapartist propaganda, and set himself torecover the throne of France; an abortive attempt in 1836 ended in ashort exile in America and London, and a second at Boulogne in 1840landed him in the fortress of Ham under sentence of perpetualimprisonment; escaping in 1846 he spent two years in England, returningto France after the Revolution of 1848; elected to the ConstituentAssembly and the same year to the Presidency he assumed the headship ofthe Republic, and posed as the protector of popular liberties andnational prosperity; struggles with the Assembly followed; he won thefavour of the army, filled the most important posts with his friends, dissolved the Constitution in 1851 (Dec. 2), was immediately re-electedPresident for ten years, and a year later assumed the title of Emperor;he married the Spanish Countess Eugénie in 1853, and exerted himself bypublic works, exhibitions, courting of the clergy, gagging of the press, and so on to strengthen his hold on the populace; in the Crimean War(1854-56) and the Lombardy campaign (1859) he was supported by Britain;in 1860 he annexed Savoy and Nice; ten years later suspecting theenthusiasm of the army, he plunged into war with Germany to rekindle itsardour, on a protest arising from the scheme to put Leopold ofHohenzollern on the Spanish throne; France was unprepared, disasterfollowed disaster; the Emperor surrendered to the Germans at Sedan, Sept. 2, 1870; a prisoner till the close of the war, he came to England in 1871and resided with the Empress at Chislehurst till his death (1808-1873). 

LOUIS PHILIPPE, king of the French from 1830 till 1848, born atParis, eldest son of the Duke of Orleans, renounced his titles along withhis father, and joined the National Guard and the Jacobins at theRevolution as M. Egalité; after the defeat of Neerwinden 1793, where hecommanded the centre, he fled to Austria and Switzerland and supportedhimself by teaching; after three years in the United States he came toLondon in 1800, and on the fall of Napoleon repaired to Paris andrecovered his estates; he gained popularity with the _bourgeoisie_, andwhen the Revolution of July 1830 overthrew Charles X. He succeeded to thethrone as the elected sovereign of the people; under the "citizen king"France prospered; but his government gradually became reactionary andviolent; he used his great wealth in giving bribes, tampered with trialby jury and the freedom of the press, and so raised against him both theold aristocracy and the working-classes; political agitation culminatedin the Revolution of February 1848; he was forced to abdicate and escapedwith his queen to England, where he died (1773-1850). 

LOUIS-D'OR, an old French gold coin which ranged in value from 16s. 7d. To 18s. 9¾d. , and ceased to be issued in 1795. 

LOUISIANA (1, 119), an American State on the Gulf of Mexico, betweenthe Mississippi and Sabine Rivers, with Arkansas on the N. And traverseddiagonally by the Red River, is half upland and half alluvial; much ofthe lower level in the S. Is marshy, subject to tidal flow or riverinundation, and is covered by swampy woods, but is being reclaimed andplanted with rice; on the uplands cattle are grazed, there are pine andoak forests, while the arable land is under cotton, sugar, oranges, andfigs; the principal manufactures are shingles and tanks, cotton-seed oil, tobacco, and clothing; there is a State University and agricultural andmechanical college at Baton Rouge; the Southern and Tulane Universitiesare in New Orleans; free schools are throughout the State. Founded byFrance, but held by Spain from 1762 till 1800, ceded again to France andsold to the United States by Napoleon, it was admitted to the Union in1812. In the Civil War a hundred battles were fought within the State andNew Orleans was captured, which left ruin behind; but since 1880prosperity has returned, property is increasing fast, and finances arehealthy. 

LOUISVILLE (205), on the left bank of the Ohio River, the largestcity in Kentucky, is well built and regular, with a Roman Catholiccathedral, many colleges and charitable institutions; it is the largesttobacco market in the world, has pork packing, distilling, tanning, andmany other industries. 

LOURDES, a French town in the dep. Of the Hautes-Pyrénées, with agrotto near by in which the Virgin Mary, as is alleged, appeared to agirl of the place in 1858, and to which multitudes have since resorted inthe hope of being healed of their maladies from the waters which springup on the spot. 

LOUTH (71), the smallest Irish county, in Leinster, stretches fromCarlingford Bay to the estuary of the Boyne, washed by the Irish Sea; thecountry is flat and the soil fertile, potatoes, oats, and barley aregrown; there are coarse linen manufactures and oyster fisheries; rich inantiquities, its chief towns are Dundalk (12), Drogheda (12), and Ardee(2). 

LOUVET, French romancer, born in Paris; author of the "Chevalier deFaublas, " which gives a picture of French society on the eve of theRevolution, in which the author played a part (1760-1797). 

LOUVOIS, MARQUIS OF, War Minister of Louis XIV. , born in Paris; wasa man of great administrative ability in his department, but for theglory of France and his own was savage for war and relentless in theconduct of it, till one day in his obstinate zeal, as he threatened tolay the cathedral city of Trèves in ashes, the king, seizing the tongsfrom the chimney, was about to strike him therewith, and would havestruck him, had not Madame de Maintenon, his mistress, interfered andstayed his hand; he died suddenly, to the manifest relief of his royalmaster (1641-1691). 

LOUVRE, an open turret or lantern on ancient roofs for the escape ofsmoke or foul air. 

LOUVRE, a great art museum and gallery in Paris, containingEgyptian, Assyrian, classic, mediæval, and modern relics and arttreasures of priceless value; here is housed the Venus of Milo. 

LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, LORD, a Highland chief connected withInverness, who, being outlawed, fled to France and got acquainted withthe Pretender, in whose interest he returned to Scotland to excite arising, but betraying the secret to the government was imprisoned in theBastille on his going back to France; on his release and return heopposed the Pretender in 1715, but in 1745 espoused the cause of PrinceEdward; was arrested for treason, convicted, and beheaded on Tower Hill(1667-1747). 

LOVEDALE, a mission station in South Africa, 650 m. NE. Of CapeTown, founded in 1841, and supported by the Free Church of Scotland. 

LOVELACE, one of the principal characters in Richardson's "ClarissaHarlowe"; is the type of a young heartless seducer. 

LOVELACE, RICHARD, English cavalier and poet, born at Woolwich, heirof great wealth, but lost his all in supporting the royal cause, and dieda ruined man; was the handsomest man of his time, and the author of acollection of poems entitled "Lucasta" (1618-1658). 

LOVER, SAMUEL, an Irish novelist and poet, born in Dublin; startedas a painter, but soon gave himself to literature; was the author of"Rory O'More" and "Handy Andy, " as also of some lyrics and ballads of astirring character (1797-1868). 

LOW CHURCH, that section of the Church of England which, in contrastwith the High Church party, is not exclusive in its assertion of Churchauthority and observances, and in contrast with the Broad Church party isnarrowly evangelical in its teaching. 

LOW LATIN, Latin as spoken and written in the Middle Ages, being adegeneration of the classical which began as early as the time of Ciceroand developed unchecked with the dismemberment of the Roman empire. 

LOW MASS, mass performed by a single priest and without musicalaccompaniment. 

LOW SUNDAY, name given in Catholic countries to the next Sundayafter Easter, in contrast with the style of the festival just closed. 

LOWE, SIR HUDSON, English general, born in Ireland; served withcredit in various military enterprises, and was appointed governor of St. Helena in 1815, and held that office during Napoleon's incarcerationthere; a much abused-man for his treatment of his prisoner, particularlyby the French, who dub him "Napoleon's jailer"; died in London in poorcircumstances; wrote a defence of his conduct (1770-1844). 

LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL, American essayist, poet, and diplomatist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, son of a clergyman; graduated atHarvard in 1838, studied law, but acquiring extensive scholarship devotedhimself to literature; volumes of poems were published by him in 1840 and1844, but the Mexican War of 1846 and the Civil War of 1861-65 calledforth respectively the first and second series of "Biglow Papers, " inrustic dialect, the highest expression of his genius and the finestmodern English satire; he was an ardent abolitionist; succeedingLongfellow in the chair of Modern Languages and Literature in Harvard in1855, he visited Europe to study, returned as U. S. Minister to Spain in1877, was transferred to England 1880-1885; of his prose work "My StudyWindows" and "Among my Books" are essays on literary subjects, "FiresideTravels" contain reminiscences, and his last work was a "Life ofHawthorne"; he died at Cambridge in the house of his birth (1818-1891). 

LOWER EMPIRE, name given to the Byzantine empire. 

LOWESTOFT (23), seaport and watering-place at the mouth of theWaveney, in Suffolk, 120 m. NE. Of London, the most easterly town inEngland; has a good harbour, an old parish church, and a largefish-market; the Dutch were defeated off Lowestoft in 1665. 

LOWTH, ROBERT, a distinguished English prelate, born in Hants; wasprofessor of Poetry in Oxford, and bishop in succession of St. Davids, Oxford, and London; wrote "Prelectiones" on the poetry of the Hebrews, acelebrated work, and executed a translation of Isaiah (1710-1787). 

LOYOLA, IGNATIUS, the founder of the Order of the Jesuits, born inthe castle of Loyola, in the Basque Provinces of Spain, of a nobleSpanish family; entered the army, and served with distinction, but beingseverely wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, he gave himself up to a lifeof austere religious devotion, and conceived the idea of enlisting andorganising a spiritual army for the defence of the Church at home and thepropagation of the faith in the realms of heathendom; it seemed to him atime when such an organisation should be formed, and he by-and-by got anumber of kindred spirits to join him, with the result that he and hisconfederates did, on Ascension Day, 1534, solemnly pledge themselves inthe subterranean chapel of the Abbey of Montserrat to, through life anddeath, embark in this great undertaking; the pledge thus given wasconfirmed by the pope, Pope Pius III. , the Order formed, and Ignatius, in1547, installed as general, with absolute authority subject only to thePope, to receive canonisation by Gregory XV. In 1622 (1481-1566). 

LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN, scientist, born in London; banker by profession;as a member of Parliament has accomplished several economic reforms; isauthor of "Prehistoric Times, " "The Origin of Civilisation and thePrimitive Condition of Man, " and various books on natural science; his"Pleasures of Life" has been very popular, and gone through between 30and 40 editions; _b_. 1834. 

LÜBECK (64), a German free city on the Trave, an old-fashionedplace, but with wide, open streets, 12 m. From the Baltic, 40 m. NE. OfHamburg; joined the North German Federation in 1866, and the CustomsUnion in 1868. It has a 12th-century cathedral, some fine old churches, scientific and art collections; with unimportant industries; its Balticand German transit trade is extensive. 

LUCAN, a Latin poet, born at Corduba (Cordova), in Spain; was anephew of Seneca, and brought early to Rome; gave offence to Nero, andwas banished from the city; joined in a conspiracy against the tyrant, and was convicted, whereupon he caused his veins to be opened and bled todeath, repeating the while the speech he had composed of a woundedsoldier on the battlefield dying a like death; he was the author of apoem entitled "Pharsalia" on the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey(39-65). 

LUCARIS, CYRIL, eminent ecclesiastic in the Greek Church, born inCrete, who embraced and propagated Protestantism; became a victim ofpersecution, and had a mysterious fate (1572-1637). 

LUCCA (20), cap. Of the Italian prov. Of Lucca (309), on theSerchio, 12 m. NE. Of Pisa; has an extensive trade in olive-oil, silk, and capers, the specialty of the province. Its cathedral has a veryancient cedar crucifix, fine paintings, and valuable archives. There areother ancient churches, scientific and artistic institutes, and awonderful aqueduct of 459 arches. The natives are known over Europe asstucco figure-sellers and organ-grinders. 

LUCERNE (36), a Swiss canton E. Of Berne, mountainous in the S. , where cattle are pastured and much cheese made; in the N. And in thevalleys fertile with corn and fruit crops; is German speaking, and RomanCatholic; its highest elevation, Mount Pilatus, is 7000 ft. Stretchingfrom the eastern corner is Lake Lucerne, one of the most beautiful inEurope. The cap. Lucerne (20), on the shores of the lake, is a busytourist centre; outside its walls is the famous Lion of Lucerne, designedby Thorwaldsen, in memory of the Swiss Guard slain while defending theTuileries in Paris in 1792, and cut out of the solid rock. 

LUCIAN, a Greek writer, born in Samosata, in Syria, in the earlypart of the 2nd century; he travelled much in his youth; acquired acynical view of the world, and gave himself to ridicule the philosophicalsects and the pagan mythology; his principal writings consist of"Dialogues, " of which the "Dialogues of the Dead" are the best known, thesubject being one affording him scope for exposing the vanity of humanpursuits; he was an out and out sceptic, found nothing worthy ofreverence in heaven or on earth. 

LUCIFER (i. E. Light-bringer), name given to Venus as the morningstar, and by the Church Fathers to Satan in interpretation of Isaiah xiv. 12. 

LÜCKE, FRIEDRICH, German theologian, professor first at Bonn andthen at Göttingen; wrote commentaries on John's Gospel and the Apocalypse(1791-1855). 

LUCKNOW (273), fourth city in India, cap. Of the prov. Of Oudh, onthe Gumti, a tributary of the Ganges, 200 m. NW. Of Benares; is a centreof Indian culture and Mohammedan theology, an industrial and commercialcity. It has many magnificent buildings, Canning and Martinière Colleges, various schools and Government offices. It manufactures brocades, shawls, muslins, and embroideries, and trades in country products, Europeancloth, salt, and leather. Its siege from July 1857 to March 1858, itsrelief by Havelock and Outram, and final deliverance by Sir ColinCampbell, form the most stirring incidents of the Indian Mutiny. 

LUCRETIA, a Roman matron, the wife of Collatinus, whose rape by ason of Tarquinus Superbus led to the dethronement of the tyrant, theexpulsion of his family from Rome, and the establishment of the Romanrepublic. 

LUCRETIUS, TITUS CARUS, a Roman poet of whose personal historynothing is known, only that he was the author of a poem entitled "DeRerum Naturâ, " a philosophic, didactic composition in six books, in whichhe expounds the atomic theory of Leucippus, and the philosophy ofEpicurus; the philosophy of the work commends itself only to the atheistand the materialist, but the style is the admiration of all scholars, andhas ensured its translation into most modern languages (about 95-31 B. C. ). 

LUCULLUS, LUCIUS, a Roman general, celebrated as conqueror ofMithridates, king of Pontus, and for the luxurious life he afterwards ledat Rome on the wealth he had amassed in Asia and brought home with him;one day as he sat down to dine alone, and he observed his servant hadprovided for him a less sumptuous repast than usual, he took him sharplyto task, and haughtily remarked, "Are you not aware, sirrah, thatLucullus dines with Lucullus to-day?"

LUDDISM, fanatical opposition to the introduction of machinery as itoriginally manifested itself among the hand-loom weavers of the Midlands. 

LUDDITES name assumed by the anti-machinery rioters of 1812-1861, after a Leicestershire idiot, Ned Ludd, of 1780; appearing first atNottingham, the agitation spread through Derby, Leicester, Cheshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, finally merging in the wider industrial andpolitical agitations and riots that marked the years that followed thepeace after Waterloo. 

LUDLOW, EDMUND, a republican leader in the Civil War against CharlesI. , born in Wiltshire of good family; entered the army of the Parliament, and was present in successive engagements, but opposed Cromwell on hisassumption of the Protectorate, and was put under arrest; reasserted hisrepublicanism on Cromwell's death, but died in exile after theRestoration; left "Memoirs" (1630-1693). 

LUDOVICUS VIVES, a humourist, born in Valentia, Spain; studied atParis, wrote against scholasticism, taught at Oxford, was imprisoned foropposing Henry VIII. 's divorce; died at Bruges (1472-1540). 

LUGA`NO, a lake partly in the Swiss canton of Ticino and partly inthe Italian province of Como, 15 m. By 2 m. , in the midst of picturesquegrand scenery, with a town of the name on the NW. Side amid vineyards andolive plantations. 

LUINI, BERNARDINO, a painter of the Lombard school, born at Luino, in the territory of Milan, and a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, so that someof his works, which though they show a grace and delicacy of their own, pass for those of his master; is famed for his works in oil as well as infresco; is, in Ruskin's regard, one of the master painters of the world(1460-1540). 

LUKE or LUCANUS, author of the third Gospel, as well as theActs, born in Antioch, a Greek by birth and a physician by profession, probably a convert, as he was a companion, of St. Paul; is said to havesuffered martyrdom and been buried at Constantinople; is the patron saintof artists, and represented in Christian art with an ox lying near him, or in the act of painting; his Gospel appears to have been written beforethe year 63, and shows a Pauline interest in Christ, who is representedas the Saviour of Jew and Gentile alike; it was written for a GentileChristian and in correspondence with eye-witnesses of Christ's life anddeath. 

LULLI, a composer of operatic music, born in Provence; was directorof the French opera in the reign of Louis XIV. (1633-1687). 

LULLY, RAYMOND, the _Doctor Illuminatus_, as he was called, born atPalma, in Majorca, who was early smitten with a zeal for the conversionof the Mohammedans, in the prosecution of which mission he invented a newmethod of dialectic, called after him _Ars Lullia_; held publicdiscussions with the Mohammedans, who showed themselves as zealous toconvert him as he was to convert them, till he ventured in his over-zealwhen in Africa among them to threaten them with divine judgment if theydid not abjure their faith, upon which they waxed furious, dragged himout of the city, and stoned him to death in the year 1315; his works, several on alchemy, fill 16 volumes. 

LUNAR CYCLE, a period of time at the close of which the new moonsreturn on the same days of the year. 

LUNAR MONTH, a month of 29 days, the time of the revolution of themoon, a lunar year consisting of 12 times the number. 

LUNAR THEORY, an explanation by mathematical reasoning ofperturbations in the movements of the moon founded on the law ofgravitation. 

LUNAR YEAR, a period of 12 synodic lunar months, being about 354. 5days. 

LUND (14), a city in the S. Of Sweden, 10 m. NE. Of Malmö, once thecapital of the Danish kingdom, the seat of an archbishop, with aRomanesque cathedral and a flourishing university. 

LUNDY ISLAND, a precipitous rugged island 3 m. Long by 1 m. Broad, belonging to Devon, with the remains of an old castle, and frequented bymyriads of sea-fowl. 

LÜNEBURG (21), on the Ilmenau, 30 m. SE. Of Hamburg, an ancientGerman city with old Gothic churches, once the capital of an independentduchy, now in Hanover; has salt and gypsum mines, iron and chemicalmanufactures; the British royal house is descended from the princes ofBrunswick-Lüneburg. 

LUPERCALIA, a Roman festival held on Feb. 15 in honour of Lupercus, regarded as the god of fertility, in the celebration of which dogs andgoats were sacrificed and their skins cut up into thongs, with which thepriests ran through the city striking every one, particularly women, thatthrew themselves in their way. 

LUPERCUS, an ancient Italian god, worshipped by shepherds as theprotector of their flocks against wolves. 

LUPUS, a chronic disease of the skin, characterised by thetuberculous eruptions which eat into the skin, particularly of the face, and disfigure it. 

LUSATIA, a district of Germany, between the Elbe and the Oder, originally divided into Upper and Lower, belongs partly to Saxony andpartly to Prussia; it swarmed at one time with Wends. 

LUSIAD or LUSIADES, a poem of Camoëns in ten cantos, incelebration of the discoveries of the Portuguese in the East Indies, andin which Vasco da Gama is the principal figure; it is a genuine nationalepic, in which the poet passes in review all the celebrated exploits andfeats that glorify the history of Portugal. 

LUSITANIA, the ancient name of Portugal, still used as the name ofit in modern poetry. 

LUSTRUM, a sacrifice for expiation and purification offered by oneof the censors of Rome in name of the Roman people at the close of thetaking of the census, and which took place after a period of five years, so that the name came to denote a period of that length. 

LUTETIA, the ancient name of Paris, _Lutetia Parisiorum_, mud-townof the borderers, as Carlyle translates it. 

LUTHER, MARTIN, the great Protestant Reformer, born at Eisleben, inPrussian Saxony, the son of a miner, was born poor and brought up poor, familiar from his childhood with hardship; was sent to study law atErfurt, but was one day at the age of 19 awakened to a sense of higherinterests, and in spite of remonstrances became a monk; was for a time indeep spiritual misery, till one day he found a Bible in the convent, which taught him for the first time that "a man was not saved by singingmasses, but by the infinite grace of God"; this was his awakening fromdeath to life, and to a sense of his proper mission as a man; at thisstage the Elector of Saxony was attracted to him, and he appointed himpreacher and professor at Wittenberg; on a visit to Rome his heart sankwithin him, but he left it to its evil courses to pursue his own wayapart; if Rome had let him alone he would have let it, but it would not;monk Tetzel arrived at Wittenberg selling indulgences, and hisindignation was roused; remonstrance after remonstrance followed, but thePope gave no heed, till the agitation being troublesome, he issued hisfamous "fire-decree, " condemning Luther's writings to the flames; thisanswer fired Luther to the quick, and he "took the indignant step ofburning the decree in 1520 at the Elster Gate of Wittenberg, Wittenberglooking on with shoutings, the whole world looking on"; after this Lutherwas summoned to the Diet of Worms, and he appeared there before themagnates, lay and clerical, of the German empire on April 17, 1521; howhe demeaned himself on that high occasion is known to all the world, andhis answer as well: "Here stand I; I can do no other; so help me God";"it was the grandest moment in the modern history of man"; of theawakening this produced Luther was the ruling spirit, as he had been themoving one, and he continued to be so to the end of his life; hiswritings show the man as well as his deeds, and amid all the turmoil thatenveloped him he found leisure to write and leave behind him 25 quartovolumes; it is known the German Bible in use is his work, executed by himin the Castle of Wartburg; it was begun by him with his back to the wall, as it were, and under the protestation, as it seemed to him, of theprince of darkness himself, and finished in this obstructive elementpretty much throughout, the New Testament in 1522, the Pentateuch in1523, and the whole, the Apocrypha included, in 1534; he was fond ofmusic, and uttered many an otherwise unutterable thing in the tones ofhis flute; "the devils fled from his flute, " he says; "death-defiance onthe one hand, and such love of music on the other, I could call these, "says Carlyle, "the two opposite poles of a great soul, between these twoall great things had room. .. . Luther, " he adds, "was a true great man, great in intellect, in courage, in affection, and integrity, . .. Great asan Alpine mountain, but not setting up to be great at all--his, as allgreatness is, an unconscious greatness" (1488-1546). 

LUTHERANISM, that form of Protestantism which prevails in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Northern Germany. See LUTHERANS. 

LUTHERANS, the name given to that school of the Protestant Churchwhich accepted Luther's doctrine, especially that of the Eucharist, inopposition to that of the members of the Reformed Church, who assented tothe views in that matter of Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer; the formermaintaining the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and that the graceof Christ is communicated in the celebration of it, and the lattermaintaining that it is a merely commemorative ordinance, and the means ofgrace to the believing recipient only. 

LUTTERWORTH, a small town in Leicestershire, on the Swift, 8 m. NE. Of Rugby, of the church of which Wiclif was rector, and where he wasburied, though his bones were afterwards, in 1428, dug up and burned, andthe ashes cast into the river. 

LÜTZEN, a small town in Prussian Saxony, the vicinity of it thescene of a victory of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and of another byNapoleon over the combined forces of Russia and Prussia in 1813. 

LUX, the name given to the unit of the intensity of electric light. 

LUX, ADAM, a young Parisian; smitten with love for Charlotte Corday, proposed a statue to her with the inscription "Greater than Brutus, "which brought him to the guillotine. 

LUXEMBURG (211), grand-duchy, a small, independent territory at thecorner where Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia meet, is a plateauwatered by the Moselle on its eastern boundary, and the tributary Sauer;is well wooded and fertile, yielding wheat, flax, hemp, and wine. Ironore is mined and smelted; leather, pottery, sugar, and spiritsmanufactured. The population is Low-German and Roman Catholic; thelanguage of the educated, French. The government is in the hands of agrand-duke, the Duke of Nassau, and a house of 42 representatives. Forcommercial purposes Luxemburg belongs to the German Customs Union. Thecapital is LUXEMBURG (18). There is a Belgian province ofLUXEMBURG (212), until 1839 part of the grand-duchy. 

LUZON (3, 200), the largest of the Philippines; about one-half largerthan Ireland; is the most northerly of the group; is clad with forests, and yields grain, sugar, hemp, and numerous tropical products. Thecapital is Manila. 

LYCAON, a king of Arcadia; changed into a wolf for offering humanflesh to Zeus, who came, disguised as mortal, to his palace on the sameerrand as the angels who visited Lot in Sodom. According to anothertradition he was consumed, along with his sons, by fire from heaven. 

LYCEUM, a promenade in Athens where Aristotle taught his pupils ashe walked to and fro within its precincts. 

LYCIAS, an Athenian orator, who flourished in the 4th century B. C. ;assisted in the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants, and distributed amongthe citizens his large fortune which the Tyrants had confiscated. 

LYCIDAS, the name of an exquisite dirge by Milton over the death bydrowning of his friend Edward King. 

LYCURGUS, the legislator of Sparta, who lived in the 9th centuryB. C. ; in the interest of it as king visited the wise in other lands, andreturned with the wise lessons he had learned from them to frame a codeof laws for his country, which was fast lapsing into a state of anarchy;when he had finished his work under the sanction of the oracle at Delphihe set put again on a journey to other lands, but previously took oath ofthe citizens that they would observe his laws till his return; it was hispurpose not to return, and he never did, in order to bind his countrymento maintain the constitution he gave them inviolate for ever. 

LYDGATE, JOHN, an early English poet; was a monk of Bury St. Edmundsin the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries; was a teacherof rhetoric as well as a poet, and a man of some note in his day. 

LYDIA, a country of Asia Minor; seat of an early civilisation, and acentre of influences which affected both the religion and culture ofGreece; was noted for its music and purple dyes. 

LYELL, SIR CHARLES, celebrated English geologist, born at Kinnordy, in Forfarshire; bred for and called to the bar; he left his practice, andgave himself to the study of geology, to which he had been attracted byAlexander Buckland's lectures when he was at Oxford; his great work washis "Principles of Geology, " which, published in 1830, created quite arevolution in the science; it was followed by his "Student's Elements ofGeology, " which was modified by his conversion to Darwin's views, and by"Antiquity of Man, " written in defence of Darwin's theory (17971875). 

LYLY, JOHN, English dramatist, born in Kent; was the author of nineplays on classical subjects, written for the court, which were precededin 1579 by his once famous "Euphues, or Anatomy of Wit, " followed by asecond part next year, and entitled "Euphues and his England, " and thatfrom the fantastic, pompous, and affected style in which they werewritten gave a new word, Euphuism, to the English language (1553-1606). 

LYNCH LAW, the name given in America to the trial and punishment ofoffenders without form of law, or by mob law; derived from the name of aman Lynch, dubbed Judge, who being referred to used to administer justicein the far West in this informal way. 

LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON, thrice Lord Chancellor ofEngland, born at Boston, Massachusetts, son of an artist; was brought upin London, educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1804;acquiring fame in the treason trials of the second decade, he enteredParliament in 1808, was Solicitor-General 1819, Attorney-General 1819, Master of the Rolls 1826, and Lord Chancellor in three governments1827-30; Chief Baron of the Exchequer 1830-34; he was Lord Chancellor inPeel's administrations of 1834-35 and 1841-46; he was great as a debater, and a clear-headed lawyer, but not earnest enough for a statesman(1772-1863). 

LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, LORD, soldier, born in Perthshire; raisedin 1793 the 90th Regiment of Foot, and served with it at Quibéron andIsle Dieu; thereafter distinguished himself in various ways at Minorca1798, and Malta 1800, in the Peninsular wars, and in Holland; founded theSenior United Service Club in 1817; was created baron and general 1821, and died in London (1748-1843). 

LYON COURT, the Herald's College of Scotland, consisting of threeheralds and three pursuivants. 

LYON KING OF ARMS, the legal heraldic officer of Scotland, whopresides over the Lyon Court. 

LYONS (398), the second city of France, at the junction of the Rhôneand Saône, 250 m. S. Of Paris; has a Roman Catholic university, andvaluable museum, library, and art collections, many old churches andbuildings, and schools of art and industries; the staple industry issilk, weaving, dyeing, and printing; there are also chemical, machinery, and fancy ware manufactures, and it is an emporium of commerce betweenCentral and Southern Europe; of late years Lyons has been a hot-bed ofultra-republicanism. 

LYRIC POETRY, poetry originally accompanied by the lyre, in whichthe poet sings his own passions, sure of a sympathetic response fromothers in like circumstances with himself. 

LYSANDER, a Spartan general and admiral who put an end to thePeloponnesian War by defeat of the Athenian fleet off Ægospotami, and ofwhom Plutarch says in characterisation of him, he knew how to sew theskin of the fox on that of the lion; fell in battle in 395 B. C. 

LYSIMACHUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, who becameking of Thrace and afterwards of Macedonia; _d_. 281 B. C. 

LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT, EARL OF, statesman and novelist, under the_nom de plume_ of Owen Meredith; entered the diplomatic service at anearly age, became viceroy of India in 1876, and ambassador at Paris in1892. 

LYTTON, GEORGE EDWARD BULWER, LORD, statesman and novelist, born inLondon; entered Parliament at the age of 26, began his parliamentarycareer as a Whig, but became a Conservative and ranked in that party forthe greater part of his life; "Pelham, " published in 1828, was his firstnovel, and this was followed by a long list of others of endless variety, all indicative of the conspicuous ability of the author, and to the lastgiving no sign of decay in power; he was the author of plays as well asnovels (1803-1873). 

M

MAB, QUEEN, the fairies' midwife that brings dreams to the birth, tobe distinguished from Titania, the Queen. 

MABILLON, JEAN, a French Benedictine and eminent scholar; wrote ahistory of his order and edited St. Bernard's works (1632-1707). 

MABLY, GABRIEL BONNET DE, French author, was born at Grenoble, brother of Condillac; educated at Lyons, and became secretary to CardinalTencin, but most of his life was spent in study, and he died in Paris;his "Romans and the French" is not complimentary to his countrymen; hewas a great admirer of the ancients (1709-1785). 

MABUSA, JAN, real name Gossaert, Flemish artist, born at Mabuse, lived and died at Antwerp; his work is not great but careful, his figurescatch the stiffness of his favourite architectural backgrounds; his earlyperiod is strongly national, but a visit to Italy with Philip of Burgundybrought him under southern influences and contributed to intensify hiscolour (1470-1532). 

MACADAM, JOHN LOUDON, Scottish engineer, born at Ayr; inventor ofthe system of road-making which bears his name; he made his fortune as amerchant in New York, but spent it in road-making (1756-1836). 

MACAIRE, ROBERT, a noted criminal and assassin that figures inFrench plays; was convicted of a murder in trial by combat with a witnessin the shape of the dog of the murdered man. 

MACAO, small island at the mouth of the Canton River, 100 m. S. OfCanton, forming with Colovane and Taipa since 1557 a Portuguese station(50, mostly Chinese); is a very healthy port, though very hot; formerlyit was a centre of the Coolie trade, abolished in 1873, but its anchorageis bad, and since the rise of Hong-Kong its commerce has sufferedseverely; chief import opium, export tea; it is the head-quarters ofFrench missions in China. 

MACARIUS, ST. , a hermit of the Thebaïd, where he spent 60 years of alife of solitude and austerity (300-390). Festival, January 13. 

MACARONI, a fine wheaten paste made into long thin tubes, andmanufactured in Italy and the S. Of France. 

MACASSAR, southern portion and chief town (20) at SW. Corner ofCelebes; exports coffee, spices, timber, and "Macassar" oil. 

MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, LORD, essayist and historian, born atRothley Temple, Leicestershire, son of Zachary Macaulay thephilanthropist, and so of Scottish descent; graduated at Cambridge 1822, proving a brilliant debater in the Union, and became Fellow of Trinity1824; called to the bar 1826, he preferred to follow literature, havingalready gained a footing by some poems in _Knight's Quarterly_ and by hisessay on "Milton" in the _Edinburgh Review_ (1825); in 1830 he enteredParliament for a pocket-borough, took an honourable part in the Reformdebates, and in the new Parliament sat for Leeds; his family were now instraitened circumstances, and to be able to help them he went out toIndia as legal adviser to the Supreme Council; to his credit chieflybelongs the Indian Penal Code; returning in 1838, he representedEdinburgh in the Commons with five years' interval till 1856; the "Laysof Ancient Rome" appeared in 1842, his collected "Essays" in 1843, twoyears later he ceased writing for the _Edinburgh;_ he was now workinghard at his "History, " of which the first two volumes attained a quiteunprecedented success in 1848; next year he was chosen Lord Rector ofGlasgow University; 1855 saw the third and fourth volumes of his"History"; in 1857 he was made a peer, and many other honours wereshowered upon him; with a tendency to too much declamation in style, apoint of view not free from bias, and a lack of depth and modesty in histhinking, he yet attained a remarkable amount and variety of knowledge, great intellectual energy, and unrivalled lucidity in narration(1800-1859). 

MACBETH, a thane of the north of Scotland who, by assassination ofKing Duncan, became king; reigned 17 years, but his right was disputed byMalcolm, Duncan's son, and he was defeated by him and fell at Lumphanan, December 5, 1056. 

MACCABEES, a body of Jewish patriots, followers of Judas Maccabæus, who in 2nd century B. C. And in the interest of the Jewish faithwithstood the oppression of Syria and held their own for a goodly numberof years against not only the foreign yoke that oppressed them, butagainst the Hellenising corruption of their faith at home. 

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, two books of the Apocrypha which give, thefirst, an account of the heroic struggle which the Maccabees maintainedfrom 175 to 135 B. C. Against the kings of Syria, and the second, of anintercalary period of Jewish history from 175 to 160 B. C. , much of it oflegendary unreliable matter; besides these two a third and a fourth of astill more apocryphal character are extant. 

M'CARTHY, JUSTIN, writer and politician, began life as a journalist;is the author of a "History of Our Own Times" and a "History of the FourGeorges, " as well as a number of novels; represents North Longford inParliament; _b_. 1830. 

M'CHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY, the subject of a well-known memoir byAndrew Bonar, was born in Edinburgh, educated at the university there, and was minister of St. Peter's, Dundee, from 1836 till his death; he isesteemed a saint by pious evangelical people, by whom the memoirs of himare much prized (1813-1843). 

M'CLELLAN, American general, born in Philadelphia; served in theMexican War, and in the War of Secession, eventually ascommander-in-chief; was author of military engineering works (1826-1882). 

MACCLESFIELD (36), Cheshire manufacturing town on the Bollin, 15 m. S. Of Manchester; has a 13th-century church, and a grammar-school foundedby Edward VI. ; its staple industry is silk manufactures; there arebreweries, and mining and quarrying near. 

MACCLINTOCK, Arctic navigator, born at Dundalk; sent out by LadyFranklin to discover the fate of Sir John and his crew; wrote an accountof the voyage (1819-1891). 

M'CLURE, Arctic navigator, born in Wexford; went out in search ofFranklin, and discovered the North-West Passage in 1850 (1807-1873). 

M'CRIE, THOMAS, a Scotch seceder, born in Dunse; was minister inEdinburgh; author of the "Life of John Knox, " published in 1812; defendedthe Covenanters against Scott; he was a man of dignified militarypresence (1772-1835). 

M'CULLOCH, HORATIO, a Scottish landscape-painter, born in Glasgow;was distinguished for his Highland landscapes (1806-1867). 

M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSEY, political economist, born in Isle ofWhithorn; contributed to the _Scotsman_ and _Edinburgh Review;_ wrote"Principles of Political Economy, " and edited Dictionaries of Commerceand Geography (1789-1864). 

MACCUNN, HAMISH, Scottish composer, born at Greenock; entered theRoyal College of Music in 1883, and became junior professor of Harmony atthe Royal Academy; his fertility in melody and mastery of the orchestraare devoted to music of strong national characteristics, as his overture"Land of the Mountain and the Flood, " and his choral work "The Lay of theLast Minstrel" show; _b_. 1868. 

MACDONALD, marshal of France, born at Sancerre, of Scotch descent, entered the army at the time of the Revolution as a lieutenant, andrapidly rose in rank; served with distinction under Napoleon, especiallyat Wagram, when he was made Duke of Taranto; supported the Bourbons ontheir restoration (1765-1840). 

MACDONALD, SIR CLAUDE M. , British Minister at Peking; served in thearmy in Egypt in 1882 and 1884, as a diplomatist in Zanzibar in 1887, andon the coast of Africa as commissioner in 1888; was sent to Peking in1896; _b_. 1852. 

MACDONALD, FLORA, a devoted Jacobite who, at the risk of her ownlife, screened Prince Charles Edward after his defeat at Culloden fromhis pursuers, and saw him safe off to France, for which she wasafterwards confined for a short time in the Tower (1722-1790). 

MACDONALD, GEORGE, novelist, born in Huntly; trained for theministry, but devoted himself to literature; is the author, among otherworks, of "Robert Falconer, " "David Elginbrod, " and "Alec Forbes"; hisinterests are religious, and his views liberal, particularly on religiousmatters; _b_. , 1824. 

MACE, THE, the symbol of authority in the House of Commons; isplaced on the table when the House is sitting, and is under the table asa rule when the Speaker is not in the chair. 

MACEDONIA, an ancient kingdom lying between Thrace and Illyria, theBalkans and the Ægean; mostly mountainous, but with some fertile plains;watered by the Strymon, Axius, and Heliacmon Rivers; was noted for itsgold and silver, its oil and wine. Founded seven centuries B. C. , themonarchy was raised to dignity and power by Archelaus in the 5th century. Philip II. (359 B. C. ) established it yet more firmly; and his son, Alexander the Great, extended its sway over half the world. His empirebroke up after his death, and the Romans conquered it in 168 B. C. Ægæand Pella were its ancient capitals, Philippi, Thessalonica, andAmphipolis among its towns. After many vicissitudes during the MiddleAges it is now a province of Turkey. 

MACEDONIANS, a sect in the early Church who taught that the HolyGhost was inferior to the Father and the Son, so called from Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, their leader. 

MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER, musical author and composer, bornin London; studied at the Royal Academy, and became professor there in1834; in many operatic works he aimed at restoring old English musicalcharacteristics, and wrote also cantatas "Lenore, " "May-Day, " &c. , andoratorios, of which "John the Baptist" (1873) was the first; but hischief merit lies in his writings on theory (1813-1887). 

MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO, statesman and historian, born in Florence, ofan ancient family; was secretary of the Florentine Republic from 1498 to1512, and during that time conducted its diplomatic affairs with a skillwhich led to his being sent on a number of foreign embassies; he wasopposed to the restoration of the Medici family, and on the return of itto power was subjected to imprisonment and torture as a conspirator, butwas at last set at liberty; he spent the remainder of his life chiefly inliterary labours, producing among other works a treatise on government, entitled "The Prince, " the principles of which have established for him anotoriety wide as the civilised world (1469-1530). 

MACHIAVELLISM, the doctrine taught by Machiavelli in "The Prince, "that to preserve the integrity of a State the ruler should not feelhimself bound by any scruple such as may suggest itself by considerationsof justice and humanity; the State he regards as too precious aninstitution to endanger by scruples of that sort. 

M'IVOR, FLORA, the heroine in Scott's "Waverley. "

MACK, KARL, Austrian general, born in Franconia; notorious for hismilitary incapacity and defeats; confronted by Napoleon at Ulm in 1805, he surrendered with 28, 000 men without striking a blow; for this he wastried by court-martial, and sentenced to death, which was commuted toimprisonment for life, from which he was released at the end of a year(1752-1826). 

MACKAY, CHARLES, journalist, novelist, and critic; wrote anautobiography entitled, "Forty Years' Recollections of Life, Literature, and Public Affairs"; was the father of Eric Mackay, author of"Love-Letters of a Violinist" (1814-1889). 

MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL, composer, born at Edinburgh;studied in Germany and at the Royal Academy; was teacher and conductor inhis native city from 1865 to 1878, lived thereafter in Italy; was madePrincipal of the Royal Academy of Music in 1887, and knighted in 1895;his opera "Colomba" (1883) first brought him fame; among his works, whichare of every kind, his oratorio, "The Rose of Sharon" (1884), is reckonedbest; _b_. 1847. 

MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE, eminent Scottish lawyer, born in Dundee;became King's Advocate for Scotland; wrote on law and on other subjectsin a style which commended itself to such a critic as Dryden, though byhis severe treatment of the Covenanters he earned in Scotland theopprobrious title of the "bluidy Mackenzie" (1636-1691). 

MACKENZIE, HENRY, novelist, born in Edinburgh; bred to law; authorof "The Man of Feeling, " "The Man of the World, " and "Julia de Roubigné, "written in a sentimental style; held the office of Controller of Taxes inScotland by favour of Pitt (1745-1831). 

MACKENZIE RIVER, a river in N. America, rises in the RockyMountains; is fed by mighty streams in its course, and falls into theArctic Ocean after a course of over 2000 m. In length. 

M'KINLEY, WILLIAM, American statesman, of Scottish parentage; servedin the Civil War; born at Niles, Ohio; entered Congress in 1877; made hismark as a zealous Protectionist; passed in 1890 a tariff measure namedafter him; was elected to Presidency as the champion of a sound currencyin opposition to Mr. Bryan in November 1896; _b_. 1844. 

MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES, philosopher and politician, born inInverness-shire; took his degree in medicine, but went to the London bar;was a Whig in politics; wrote "Vindiciæ Gallicæ" in reply to Burke'sphilippic; defended Peltier, Bonaparte's enemy, in a magnificent style, and contributed a masterly preliminary "Dissertation on Ethics" to the"Encyclopædia Britannica" (1763-1832). 

MACLAREN, IAN (_nom de plume_ of Rev. John Watson), born in Essex, of Scottish parents; studied in Edinburgh; was minister of the FreeChurch in Logiealmond and in Glasgow, and translated to Sefton ParkPresbyterian Church, Liverpool, In 1880; wrote a series of idyllsentitled "Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush, " and a second series entitled"The Days of Auld Lang Syne"; both had a large circulation, and a numberof other works, religious as well as fictitious; _b_. 1850. 

MACLAURIN, COLIN, mathematician, born in Kilmoden, Argyllshire; wasprofessor of Mathematics in Aberdeen and in Edinburgh; wrote a "Treatiseon Fluxions, " in defence of Newton against Berkeley, and an "Account ofNewton's Discoveries"; did much to give an impetus to mathematical studyin Scotland (1698-1746). 

MACLEOD, NORMAN, liberal Scottish clergyman, born at Campbeltown, son of the manse; a genial, warm-hearted man; an earnest, powerful, andvigorous preacher, and a humorous writer; a visit to India in connectionwith missions shortened his days (1817-1872). 

MACLISE, DANIEL, painter, born at Cork, of Scottish extraction;among his oil-paintings are "Mokanna Unveiling, " "All Hallow Eve, ""Bohemian Gipsies, " and the "Banquet Scene in Macbeth, " his last workbeing a series of cartoons painted in fresco for the palace ofWestminster illustrative of the glories of England (1811-1870). 

MACMAHON, DUKE OF MAGENTA, marshal of France, born at Sully, ofIrish descent, second President of the third French republic from 1873 to1879; distinguished himself in Algeria and at the Crimea, and took partin the Franco-German War to his defeat and capture (1808-1893). 

MACPHERSON, JAMES, a Gaelic scholar, born in Ruthven, Inverness-shire; identified with the publication of the poems of Ossian, the originals of which he professed to have discovered in the course of atour through the Highlands, and about the authenticity of which there hasbeen much debate, though they were the making of his fortune; he wasburied in Westminster Abbey at his own request and expense (1738-1796). 

MACRAMÉ LACE, a coarse lace made of twine, used to decoratefurniture generally. 

MACREADY, WILLIAM CHARLES, English tragedian, born in London; hebegan his career as an actor in Birmingham in the character of Romeo, andwas enthusiastically received on his first appearance in London; wasdistinguished for his impersonation of Shakespeare's characters, butsuffered a good deal from professional rivalries; leased in successionCovent Garden and Drury Lane theatres with pecuniary loss, and when hetook farewell of the stage he was entertained at a banquet, attended by ahost of friends eminent in both art and literature (1793-1873). 

MACROMETER, an optical instrument to determine the size or distanceof inaccessible objects. 

MACTURK, CAPTAIN HECTOR, "the man of peace" in "St. Ronan's Well. "

MADAGASCAR (3, 500), largest island in the world but two, in theIndian Ocean, 300 m. Off the Mozambique coast, SE. Africa; is nearlythree times the size of Great Britain, a plateau in the centre, with low, fertile, wooded ground round about; has many extinct volcanoes and activehot springs; the highest peak is Ankàratra (9000 ft. ), in the centre; theNW. Coast has some good harbours; there are 300 m. Of lagoons on the E. ;the biggest lake is Alaotra, and the rivers flow mostly W. ; the climateis hot, with copious rains, except in the S. ; rice, coffee, sugar, andvanilla are cultivated; many kinds of valuable timber grow in theforests, and these, with cattle, hides, and india-rubber, constitute theexports; gold, iron, copper, lead, and sulphur are found, and the nativesare skilled in working metals; the Malagasys possess civilisedinstitutions; slavery was abolished in 1879; a quarter of the populationis Christian; the heathen section, though untruthful and immoral, areaffectionate, courageous, and loyal; Antanànarìvo (100), the capital, issituated in the interior, and has many fine buildings; chief ports, Tamatave on the E. And Majunga on the NW. Coasts; the island has beenunder French protection since 1890, and is a French colony since 1896. 

MADEIRA (140), the chief of a group of small volcanic islands withprecipitous coasts, in the Atlantic, 400 m. Off Morocco; has peaks 6000ft. High and deep picturesque ravines; the island is a favourite resortfor consumptives; the climate is very mild and equable, the rainfallmoderate, and the soil fertile; crops of cereals and potatoes are raised;oranges, lemons, grapes, figs, and bananas abound; Madeira wine isfamous, and the chief export; Funchal (21) is the capital, with anexposed harbour and some good buildings; the islands form a province ofPortugal. 

MADEIRA RIVER (i. E. River of the wood), formed by the junction ofthe Mamoré and Beni on the borders of Bolivia and Brazil, flows 900 m. NE. , and joins the Amazon, as an affluent its longest and largest, andforms a magnificent navigable waterway. 

MADELEINE, CHURCH OF THE, one of the principal and wealthiestchurches in Paris, erected in the style of a Greek temple, and thebuilding of which, began in 1764, was not finished till 1842, both theinterior and exterior of which has been adorned by the most distinguishedartists. 

MADGE WILDFIRE, a pretty but giddy girl in the "Heart ofMidlothian, " whom seduction and the murder of her child drove crazy. 

MADISON, JAMES, American statesman and President, born at PortConway, Virginia, educated at Princeton; devoted himself to politics in1776; he took part in framing the Virginia constitution, and subsequentlysecured religious liberty in the State; with Jay and Hamilton hecollaborated to establish the federation of the States and to frame theFederal Constitution; the "three-fifths" rule, which won the adhesion ofthe slave-holding States, was his suggestion; elected to the firstCongress, he attached himself to Jefferson's party, and was Secretary ofState during Jefferson's Presidency, 1801-1809; he succeeded his formerleader and held office for two terms, during which the war of 1812-14with England was waged; his public life closed with his term of office, 1817 (1751-1836). 

MADMAN OF THE NORTH, Charles XII. Of Sweden, so called from histemerity and impetuosity. 

MADOC, a Welshman who, according to Welsh tradition, discoveredAmerica 300 years before Columbus, after staying in which for a time hereturned, gave an account of what he had seen and experienced, and wentback, but was never heard of more; his story has been amplified bySouthey in an epic. 

MADONNA is the name given to pictures of the Virgin with the infantChrist, and more generally to all sacred pictures in which the Virgin isa prominent figure; the Virgin has been a favourite subject of art fromthe earliest times, the first representation of her being, according tolegend, by St. Luke; different countries and schools have depicted theirMadonnas, each in its own characteristic style; the greatest of all arethe Sistine and Della Sedia of Raphael. 

MADRAS (35, 630), one of the three Indian Presidencies, occupies theS. And E. Of the peninsula, and is one-half as large again as GreatBritain; the chief mountains are the Ghâts, from which flow SE. TheGodavari, Kistna, and Kavari Rivers, which, by means of extensiveirrigation works, fertilise the plains; climate is various; on the W. Coast very hot and with a rainfall from June to October of 120 inches, producing luxurious vegetation; on the E. The heat is also great, but therainfall, which comes chiefly between October and December, is only 40inches; in the hill country, e. G. Ootacamund, the government summerquarters, it is genial and temperate all the year, and but for themonsoons the finest in the world; rice is everywhere the chief crop;cotton is grown in the E. , tobacco in the Godavari region, tea, coffee, and cinchona on the hills, and sugar-cane in different districts; gold isfound in Mysore (native State), and diamonds in the Karnul; iron abounds, but without coal; the teak forests are of great value; cotton, gunny-bags, sugar, and tiles are the chief manufactures; Englishsettlements date from 1611; the population, chiefly Hindu, includes 2million Mohammedans and ¾ million Christians; the chief towns areRujumahendri (28), Vizugapatam (34), Trichinopoli (91), of cheroot fame, and Mangalore (41), on the W. Coast, and the capital MADRAS (453), on the E. , Coromandel, coast, a straggling city, hot but healthy, with anopen roadstead, pier, and harbour exposed to cyclones, a university, examining body only, colleges of science, medicine, art, and agriculture, and a large museum; the chief exports are coffee, tea, cotton, andindigo. 

MADRID (522), since 1561 the capital of Spain, on the Manzanares, amere mountain torrent, on an arid plateau in New Castile, the centre ofthe peninsula; is an insanitary city, and liable to great extremes oftemperature; it is regularly built, sometimes picturesque, with greatopen spaces, such as the Prado, 3 m. Long; fine buildings and handsomestreets. It contains the royal palace, parliament and law-court houses, auniversity, magnificent picture-gallery, many charitable institutions, and a bull-ring. The book-publishing, tapestry weaving, and tobaccoindustries are the most important. It is a growing and prosperous city. 

MADRIGAL, a short lyric containing some pleasant thought or sweetsentiment daintily expressed; applied also to vocal music of a similarcharacter. 

MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI, Danish scholar and politician, born atSvaneke, Bornholm; studied at Copenhagen, where he became professor ofLatin in 1829; his studies of the Latin prose authors brought himworld-wide fame, and his Latin Grammar (1841) and Greek Syntax (1846)were invaluable contributions to scholarship; he entered parliament, wasrepeatedly its president, and was Liberal Minister of Education andReligion 1848 to 1851; he died blind (1804-1886). 

MÆANDER, a river in Phrygia, flowing through the Plain of Troy, andnoted for its numerous windings. 

MÆCENAS, a wealthy Roman statesman, celebrated for his patronage ofletters; was the friend and adviser of Augustus Cæsar, and the patron ofVirgil and Horace; claimed descent from the ancient Etruscan kings; leftthe most of his property to Augustus; _d_. 8 B. C. 

MAELSTRÖM. See MALSTRÖM. 

MÆNADES, the priestesses of Bacchus, who at the celebration of hisfestivals gave way to expressions of frenzied enthusiasm, as if they wereunder the spell of some demonic power. 

MÆONIDES, a name given to Homer, either as the son of Mæon, or asborn, according to one tradition, in Mæonia. 

MAESTRICHT (33), capital of Dutch Limburg, on the Maes, 57 m. E. OfBrussels; has manufactures of glass, earthenware, and carpets; near itare the vast subterranean quarries of the Pietersberg, opened by theRomans. 

MAETERLINCK, MAURICE, Belgian dramatist, born at Ghent; earned hisfame by "La Princesse Maleine, " produced in Paris 1890, and followed by"L'Intruse, " "Les Aveugles, " and several other plays; his essays showreligious sympathies; _b_. 1864. 

MAFEKING, a station in NE. Of British Bechuanaland, on the Transvaalfrontier, on the railway from Cape Town. 

MAFFIA, a Sicilian secret society which aims at boycotting thelaw-courts, superseding the law, and ruling the island; its chief weaponis the boycott; violence is only resorted to for vengeance; funds areraised by blackmail; popular support enables it to control elections, avoid legal proceedings, and influence industrial questions. The Italiangovernment try in vain to put it down. 

MAGDALA, an Abyssinian hill fortress on a lofty plateau 300 m. S. OfMassowah; captured by Lord Napier, who had been sent in 1868 to rescuecertain British subjects held prisoners there, and which he succeeded indoing. 

MAGDALENE, MARY, a Galilæan, belonging to Magdala, on the Sea ofGalilee, who followed Christ, stood by the cross, prepared spices for Hissepulchre, to whom He first appeared after His resurrection, and who issupposed by some recent critics to be the sole voucher for His risingagain. 

MAGDEBURG (202), on the Elbe, 75 m. SW. Of Berlin, is the capital ofPrussian Saxony, one of the most important fortresses, the chief sugarmarket of Germany, and the seat of large iron manufactures; it has alsodistilleries and cotton mills, and is a busy railway centre; it is aplace of ancient date and historical interest. 

MAGELLAN, FERDINAND, Portuguese navigator; served his country firstin the East Indies and Morocco, but dissatisfied with King Manuel'streatment of him, offered himself to Spain; under Charles V. 's patronagehe and Ruy Falero set out to reach the Moluccas by the west in 1519; hereached the Philippines, and died in battle in Matan; on this voyage hediscovered the MAGELLAN STRAIT, 375 m. Long and 15 m. Wide, betweenthe South American mainland and Tierra del Fuego; he gave name to thePacific from the calm he exceptionally, it appears, experienced onentering it (1470-1521). 

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, two masses of stars and nebulæ seen in thesouthern hemisphere, not far from the South Pole. 

MAGENDIE, FRANÇOIS, a celebrated French physiologist, born atBordeaux; was the author of several works on physiology, made importantdiscoveries in connection with the animal system, and was an unscrupulousvivisectionist (1783-1855). 

MAGENTA (6), Italian town, 15 m. W. Of Milan, where Macmahondefeated a superior Austrian force in 1859. 

MAGGIORE, LAGO (i. E. The Greater Lake), a large lake in the N. OfItaly, partly in Switzerland, 37 m. In length, and 8 m. In greatestbreadth, the river Ticino flowing through it. THE BORROMEANISLANDS (q. V. ) occupy a western arm of the lake. 

MAGI, a priestly caste in the East, constituting the "learned"class, as the Druids in the West: the custodiers of religion and therites connected therewith, and who gave themselves up to the study ofsciences of a recondite character, but with a human interest, such asastrology and magic, and who were held in great reverence by, andexercised a great influence over, the people. 

MAGI, THE THREE, the "wise men from the East" mentioned in Matt. Ii. --Melchior, an old man, who brought gold, the emblem of royalty;Gaspar, a youth, who brought frankincense, the emblem of divinity;Balthazar, a Moor, who brought myrrh, the emblem of humanity--and whowere eventually regarded as the patron saints of travellers. 

MAGIC, the pretended art to which extraordinary and marvellouseffects are ascribed, of evoking and subjecting to the human willsupernatural powers, and of producing by means of them apparitions, incantations, cures, &c. , and the practice of which we find prevailing inall superstitious ages of the world and among superstitious people. SeeSUPERSTITION. 

MAGINN, WILLIAM, a witty, generous-hearted Irishman, born in Cork; aman of versatile ability, who contributed largely to _Blackwood_, andbecame editor of _Fraser's Magazine_, in the conduct of which latter hegathered round him as contributors a number of the most eminent literarymen; the stories and verses he wrote gave signs of something like genius(1793-1842). 

MAGLIABECCHI, an inordinate bookworm, born in Florence; becamelibrarian of the Grand-Duke; his book-knowledge was as unbounded as hisavidity for knowledge; his memory was extraordinary; he carried in hishead the page of a passage in a book as well as the passage itself in the_ipsissima verba_, (1633-1714). 

MAGNA CHARTA, "the great charter, " extorted from King John by thebarons of England at Runnymede on June 5, 1215, that guaranteed certainrights and privileges to the subjects of the realm, which were pronouncedinviolable, and that established the supremacy of the law over the willof the monarch. 

MAGNA GRÆCA, the ancient name of the southern part of Italy, socalled in early times as it was extensively colonised by Greeks. 

MAGNET, the name given to loadstone as first discovered in Magnesia, a town in Asia Minor; also to a piece of iron, nickel, or cobalt havingsimilar properties, notably the power of setting itself in a definitedirection; also a coil of wire carrying an electric current, because sucha coil really possesses the properties characteristic of an iron magnet. 

MAGNETIC INDUCTION, power in a magnet of imparting its qualities tocertain other substances. 

MAGNETISM, the branch of science devoted to the study of theproperties of magnets, and of electric currents in their magneticrelations; sometimes also used to denote the subtle influence supposed tolie at the root of all magnetic phenomena, of the true nature of whichnothing is known. See ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 

MAGNIFICAT, THE, a musical composition embracing the song of theVirgin Mary in Luke I. 46-55, so called from the first word of the songin the Vulgate; it belongs to, and forms part of, the evening service. 

MAGNUSSEN, FINN, a Scandinavian scholar and archæologist, born inIceland; became professor of Literature at Copenhagen in 1815;distinguished for his translation and exposition of the "Elder Edda"(1781-1847). 

MAGYARS, a people of Mongolian origin from the highlands of CentralAsia that migrated westward and settled in Hungary and Transylvania, where they now form the dominant race. 

MAHÂBHÂRATA, one of the two great epic poems of ancient India, awork of slow growth, extending through ages, and of an essentiallyencyclopædic character; one of the main sources of our knowledge of theancient Indian religions and their mythologies; it is said to consist ofupwards of 100, 000 verses. 

MAHÂDÊVA, the great god of the Hindus; an appellation of SIVA(q. V. ), as Mahâdêvi is of Durgâ, his wife. 

MAHÁNADÉ, a great Indian river which, after flowing eastward forover 500 m. , the last 300 of which are navigable, falls into the Bay ofBengal near Cape Palmyras; its volume in flood is enormous, and rendersit invaluable for irrigation. 

MAHATMA, one who, according to the Theosophists, has passed throughthe complete cycle of incarnation, has thereby attained perfection ofbeing, and acquired the rank of high priesthood and miraculous powers inthe spirit world, one, it would seem, of "the spirits of just men madeperfect. "

MAHDI (i. E. Religious leader), a name given to any Mohammedanfanatic who arises in the interest of the Mohammedan faith, summons theMoslems to war, and leads them to repel the infidel; a kind of MohammedMessiah armed with the sword for the conquest of the world to the faith. 

MAHDI, MOHAMMED AHMED, a Mohammedan fanatic, born in Dongola, andwho, at the head of an army of dervishes, raised his standard for therevival of Islam in the Soudan; he was unsuccessfully opposed by theEgyptians, and Khartoum, occupied by them, fell into his hands, to thesacrifice of General Gordon, just as the British relief army under LordWolseley approached its walls in 1885, a few months after which he diedat Omdurman. 

MAHDISM, a hope cherished by devout Moslems of a Mahdi to come whowill lead them on to victory against the infidel and to the conquest ofthe world. 

MAHMUD II. , Sultan of Turkey; crushed a rebellion on his accessionby putting his brother to death, on whose behalf the janissaries hadrisen, as they afterwards did to their annihilation at his hands bywholesale massacre; by the victory of Navarino in 1827 he lost his holdof Greece, which declared its independence, and was near losing hissuzerainty in Egypt when he died; his reign was an eventful one(1785-1839). 

MAHOMET. See MOHAMMED. 

MAHON, LORD, EARL STANHOPE, statesman and historian; wrote "Historyof the War of the Succession in Spain, " "History of the Reign of QueenAnne, " and "History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace ofVersailles" (1805-1875). 

MAHONY, FRANCIS, an Irish priest, born in Cork, who took tojournalism, and is known by his _nom de plume_ of Father Prout;contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_, and was foreign correspondent to the_Daily News_ and the _Globe_; was famous for his elegant translations(1804-1866). 

MAHOUN, a contemptuous name for Mahomet, transferred in Scotland tothe devil, who was called Old Mahoun. 

MAHRATTAS, a warlike Hindu race in Central India, occupying aterritory watered by the Nerbudda, Godavari, and Kistna, who at one timekept up a struggle for the supremacy of India with the British, but werefinally subdued in 1843. 

MAÏ, ANGELO, cardinal, distinguished scholar and editor; becamelibrarian of the Vatican; was distinguished for decipheringPALIMPSESTS (q. V. ), and thus disclosing lost classical works orfragments of them; he edited a number of unedited MSS. Which he found inthe Vatican, and in particular the Vatican codex of the Bible(1782-1854). 

MAIA, the daughter of Atlas, the eldest of the seven PLEIADES(q. V. ), and the mother by Zeus of Hermes or Mercury. 

MAID MARIAN, a man dressed as a woman who grimaced and performedantics in the morris dances. 

MAID OF NORWAY, daughter of Eric II. , king of Norway, and throughher mother heiress to the Scottish crown; died on her passage to Scotlandin 1240. 

MAID OF ORLEANS, Joan of Arc, so called from her defence of Orleansagainst the English. See JOAN. 

MAIDEN, THE, a sort of guillotine that appears to have been in usein Scotland during the 15th and 16th centuries, of which there is one inthe Antiquarian Museum, Edinburgh. 

MAIDMENT, JAMES, antiquary and collector, born in London; passedthrough Edinburgh University to the Scotch bar, and was chief authorityon genealogical cases; his hobby was the collection of literary rarities, and he published editions of ancient literary remains; he died atEdinburgh (1794-1879). 

MAIDSTONE (32), county town of Kent, on the Medway, 30 m. SE. OfLondon; has several fine old churches and historical buildings, a grammarschool and a school of art and music, numerous paper-mills, andbreweries, and does a large trade in hops; Woollett the engraver andHazlitt the essayist were born here. 

MAIMON, SOLOMON, philosopher, born, of Jewish parents, in a villageof Minsk; came to Berlin, where he studied, lived an eccentric, vagabondlife, dependent mostly on his friends; made the acquaintance of Kant andGoethe, and attempted and published an eclectic system of philosophy in1790, being Kant's system supplemented from Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Locke, and even Hume; his last patron was Count Kalkreuth, at whose house inSiegersdorf he died (1754-1800). 

MAIMONIDES, MOSES, a Jewish rabbi, born at Cordova, whom the Jewsregarded as their Plato, and called the "Lamp of Israel" and the "Eagleof the doctors"; was a man of immense learning, and was physician to theSultan of Egypt; in his relation to the Jews he ranks next to Moses, andtaught them to interpret their religion in the light of reason; he wrotea "Commentary on the Mishna and the Second Law, " but his chief work isthe "Moreh Nebochim, " or "Guide to the Perplexed" (1135-1204). 

MAINE (662), the most north-easterly State in the American Union, lies between Quebec and New Hampshire on the W. And New Brunswick and theAtlantic on the E. , and is a little larger than Ireland, a picturesqueState with high mountains in the W. , Katahdin (5000 ft), many large lakeslike Moosehead, numerous rivers, and a much indented rocky coast; theclimate is severe but healthy, the soil only in some places fertile, therainfall is abundant; dense forests cover the north; hay, potatoes, apples, and sweet corn are chief crops; cotton, woollen, leathermanufactures, lumber working, and fruit canning are principal industries;the fisheries are valuable; timber, building stone, cattle, wool, and inwinter ice are exported; early Dutch, English, and French settlementswere unsuccessful till 1630; from 1651 Maine was part of Massachusetts, till made a separate State in 1820; the population is English-Puritan andFrench-Canadian in origin; education is advancing; the State's Liquor Lawof 1851 was among the first of the kind: the capital is Augusta (11);Portland (36) is the largest city and chief seaport; Lewiston (22) hascotton manufactures. 

MAINE, SIR HENRY, English jurist, legal member of the Council inIndia, and professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford; wrote on "Ancient Law, "and important works on ancient institutions generally; regarded thesocial system as a development of the patriarchal system (1822-1888). 

MAINTENANCE, CAP OF, an ermine-lined, crimson velvet cap, thewearing of which was a distinction granted first to dukes butsubsequently to various other families. 

MAINTENON, FRANÇOISE D'AUBIGNÉ, MARQUISE DE, born in the prison ofNiort, where her father was incarcerated as a Protestant; though wellinoculated with Protestant principles she turned a Catholic, married thepoet Scarron in 1652, became a widow in 1660; was entrusted with theeducation of the children of Louis XIV. And Madame de Montespan;supplanted the latter in the king's affections, and was secretly marriedto him in 1684; she exercised a great influence over him, not always forgood, and on his death in 1715 retired into the Convent of St. Cyr, whichshe had herself founded for young ladies of noble birth but in humblecircumstances (1635-1719). 

MAINZ or MAYENCE (72), in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the Main, is an important German fortress and oneof the oldest cities in Germany; it has a magnificent cathedral, restoredin 1878, and is a stronghold of Catholicism; a large transit trade isdone, and the making of furniture, leather goods, and machinery areimportant industries; Gutenberg was a native. 

MAISTRE, COUNT, JOSEPH DE, a keen and extreme Ultramontanist, bornat Chambéry, of a noble French family; accompanied the king of Sardiniain his retreat while the French occupied Savoy in 1792; was ambassador atSt. Petersburg from 1803 to 1817, when he was recalled to the homegovernment at Turin; wrote numerous works, the chief "Du Pape" and"Soirées de St. Petersbourg" (1753-1821). 

MAITLAND, WILLIAM, Scottish politician and reformer, the SecretaryLethington of Queen Mary's reign; played a prominent part in the variousmovements of his time, but gained the confidence of no party; he adheredto the party of Moray as against the extreme measures of Knox, and proveda highly astute ambassador at the English Court; he connived at Rizzio'smurder, but regained Mary's favour, and when she fled to England he, though joining with the new government, acted in her interest and formeda party to restore her to power; he and Kirkcaldy of Grange were forcedto surrender, however, at Edinburgh in 1573, and Maitland afterwards diedin Leith prison (1525-1573). 

MAJOLICA, a kind of enamelled pottery imported into Italy fromMajorca, known also as faience from its manufacture at Faenza, andapplied also to vessels made of coloured clay in imitation. 

MAJORCA (234), the largest of the Balearic Isles, is 130 m. NE. OfCape San Antonio, in Spain; mountains in the N. Rise to 5000 ft. , theirslopes covered with olives, oranges, and vines; the plains are extremelyfertile, and the climate mild and equable; manufactures of cotton, silk, and shoes are the industries; the capital, PALMA (61), is on the S. Coast, at the head of a large bay of the same name. 

MAJUSCULE, a capital letter found in old Latin MSS. In and beforethe 6th century. 

MAKRIZI, TAKI-ED-DIN AHMED EL-, greatest Arabic historian of Egypt, born at Cairo; studied philosophy and theology, and in 1385 won the greenturban; occupied several political and ecclesiastical offices; went toDamascus in 1408, but returning to Cairo devoted himself to history, andpublished among other works an important "History of Egypt and Cairo"(1364-1442). 

MALABAR (2, 653), a district in the W. Of Madras, sloping from theGhâts down to the Indian Ocean, very rainy, covered with vast forests ofteak; produces rice, coffee, and pepper. 

MALACCA is a name given to the whole Malay Peninsula, thatremarkable tongue of land 44 to 210 m. Wide, stretching 800 m. SE. FromBurma between the Strait of Malacca and the Gulf of Siam; mountain ranges7000 ft. High from the backbone; along the coast are deep mangroveswamps; the plains between yield rice, sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco;there are forests of teak, camphor, ebony, and sandal-wood, and therichest tin mines in the world; the climate is unhealthy; the northernportion is Siamese, the southern constitutes the British StraitsSettlements, of which one, on the W. Coast, is specifically calledMALACCA (92); it exports tin and tapioca; the capital, MALACCA(20), 120 m. NW. Of Singapore, was the scene of Francis Xavier's labours. 

MALACHI, a prophetic book of the Old Testament, the author of whichis otherwise unknown, as the name, which means the "Messenger ofJehovah, " occurs nowhere else in the Bible, and it is a question whetherthe name is that of a person or a mere appellative; the prophecy itcontains appears to have been uttered 420 B. C. , and refers to abuseswhich came to a head between the first and second visits of Nehemiah toJerusalem; it lacks the old prophetic fire, and gives the impression thatthe prophetic office is ended. 

MALACHY, ST. , archbishop of Armagh in the 12th century; was a friendof St. Bernard's, who wrote his Life and in whose arms he died atClairvaux; was renowned for his sanctity as well as learning; a book ofprophecies ascribed to him bearing on the Roman pontiffs is a forgery. 

MALADETTA, MOUNT (i. E. The accursed), the name of the highestsummit of the Pyrenees, 11, 168 ft. High, in NE. Of Zaragoza. 

MALAGA (132), Spanish seaport, 65 m. NE. Of Gibraltar, an ancientPhoenician town, is now an important but declining centre of commerce; itexports olive-oil, wine, raisins, lead, &c. , and manufactures cotton, linen, machinery, fine-art pottery, &c. ; its magnificent climate makes itan excellent health resort. 

MALAGROWTHER, an old courtier in the "Fortunes of Nigel" soured bymisfortune, and who would have every one be as discontented as himself. 

MALAISE, an uneasy feeling which often precedes a serious attack ofsome disease. 

MALAPROP, MRS. , a character in Sheridan's "Rivals, " noted for herblunders in the use of fine or learned words, as in the use of "allegory"for "alligator. "

MÄLAR LAKE, large and beautiful Swedish lake, stretching 80 m. Westward from Stockholm; its shores are deeply indented with bays, andthe surrounding hills as well as the thousand islands it contains arewell wooded. 

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO or INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO is that group of manyhundred islands stretching from the Malay Peninsula SE. To Australiabetween the North Pacific and the Indian Ocean, of which Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Celebes are the largest. 

MALAYS, a branch of the human family now classed among the Mongols, and which inhabit the Malay Peninsula, the islands of the IndianArchipelago, as well as Madagascar, and many of the islands in thePacific; they are of a dark-brown or tawny complexion, short of stature, have flat faces, black coarse hair, and high cheek-bones; there are threeclasses of them, distinguished from each other in character and habits oflife; the more civilised of them are Mohammedans. 

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, Indian soldier and statesman, born inDumfriesshire; went as cadet to the Madras army in 1785, and for over 30years was an important figure in Eastern affairs; he was ambassador toPersia 1800, governor of Mysore 1803, again in Persia as plenipotentiaryin 1807 and 1810, political agent in the Deccan 1817, and governor ofBombay 1827-30; he distinguished himself also in several wars; wrote "AHistory of Persia" and other historical works, and returning to Englandentered Parliament in 1831, opposed to the Reform Bill; two years laterhe died in London (1769-1833). 

MALCOLM CANMORE, son of Duncan, whom Macbeth slew, succeeded hisfather in 1040 as king of Cumbria and Lothian, and in 1057, on Macbeth'sdeath, became king of all Scotland; till 1066 his reign was peaceful, butthereafter it was one long conflict with the Normans in England; raidsand counter-raids succeeded each other till, in 1091, Malcolm was forcedto do homage to William Rufus; next year he lost his possessions S. Ofthe Solway, and in 1093 he was slain in battle at Alnwick; the influenceof his second wife, the saintly Margaret, did much to promote thecivilisation of Scotland and to bring the Scottish Church into harmonywith the rest of Christendom. 

MALDIVE ISLANDS (20), a chain of several hundred tiny coral islandsin the Indian Ocean stretching 550 m. Southward from a point 300 m. SW. Of Cape Comorin, 200 of which are inhabited; Malé is the residence of thesultan, who is a tributary of the governor of Ceylon; the natives areakin to the Singhalese, and occupy themselves gathering cowries, cocoa-nuts, and tortoise-shell for exportation. 

MALEBOLGE, the name given to the eighth circle in Dante's "Inferno, "as consisting of "evil pits, " which the name means, 10 in number, forthose guilty of frauds: contains (1) seducers, (2) flatterers, (3)simonists, (4) soothsayers, (5) bribers and receivers of bribes, (6)hypocrites, (7) robbers, (8) evil advisers, (9) slanderers, (10) forgers. 

MALEBRANCHE, NICHOLAS, a French metaphysician, born in Paris;determined to embrace a monastic life, entered the congregation of theOratory at the age of 22, and devoted himself to theological study, tillthe treatise of Descartes on "Man" falling into his hands, he gavehimself up to philosophy; his famous work "De la Recherche de la Vérité"was published in 1673, the main object of which was to bridge over thegulf which separates mind from matter by the establishment of the thesisthat the mind immediately perceives God, and sees all things in God, whoin Himself includes the presumed irreconcilable antithesis (1638-1715). 

MALESHERBES, LAMOIGNON DE, French statesman, born in Paris; a goodand upright man; was twice over called to be one of Louis XVI. 'sadvisers, but his advice was not taken and he retired; defended Louis athis trial; pled for him "with eloquent want of eloquence, in brokensentences, in embarrassment and sobs, " and was guillotined for it; he hadbeen censor of the press, and to his liberal-minded censorship the worldowes the publication of the "Encyclopédie" (1721-1794). 

MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE, a French lyric poet and miscellaneous writerof great industry, born at Caen, is, from his correct though affectedstyle, regarded as one of the reformers of the French language(1555-1628). 

MALIGNANTS, the advisers of Charles I. , chief among whom wereStrafford and Laud; were so called by the Parliamentarians, who blamedthem for the evils of the country; the name was afterwards applied to thewhole Royalist party. 

MALINES or MECHLIN (52), a Belgian city on the Dyle, 14 m. S. Of Antwerp; has lost its old commercial activity, and is now the quietecclesiastical capital; masterpieces of Van Dyck and Rubens adorn itschurches. 

MALINGERING, a name given in the army to the crime of feigningillness to evade duty or obtain a discharge. 

MALLET, DAVID, originally MALLOCH, Scottish littérateur, bornin Crieff; wrote several plays, and is remembered for his ballad entitled"William and Margaret"; he was a friend of Thomson, and divided with himthe honour of the authorship of "Rule Britannia, " the merit of which, however, is more in the music than in the poetry, about which theycontested (1702-1765). 

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL, author, born in Devonshire, educated atOxford; published "The New Republic, " 1876, a masterly satire onprominent contemporaries, which none of his subsequent work has excelled;_b_. 1849. 

MALMAISON, a historical château 10 m. W. Of Paris; belongedoriginally to Richelieu; saw the last days of Joséphine, whose favouriteresidence it was, and was the scene of the repulse of Ducrot's sortie inOctober 1870. 

MALMESBURY, WILLIAM OF, an English chronicler of the 12th century;his chief work "Gesta Regum Anglorum" and "Gesta Pontificum Anglorum, "followed by his "Historia Novella. "

MALMÖ (50), important seaport and third town of Sweden, oppositeCopenhagen; ships farm produce, cement, and timber; imports machinery, textile fabrics, and coffee; has cigar and sugar factories, and someshipbuilding. 

MALONE, EDMUND, a Shakespearian critic and editor, born in Dublin, was a stickler for literary accuracy and honesty (1741-1812). 

MALORY, SIR THOMAS, flourished in the 15th century; was the authorof "Morte d'Arthur, " being a translation in prose of a labyrinthineselection of Arthurian legends, which was finished in the ninth year ofEdward IV. , and printed fifteen years after by Caxton "with all care. "

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO, Italian anatomist and professor of Medicine;noted for his discovery of the corpuscles of the kidney and the spleen, named after him (1628-1694). 

MALSTRÖM, or MAELSTRÖM, a dangerous whirlpool off the coast ofNorway, caused by the rushing of the currents of the ocean in a channelbetween two of the Loffoden Islands, and intensified at times by contrarywinds, to the destruction often of particularly small craft caught in theeddies of it, and sometimes of whales attempting to pass through it. 

MALTA (with Gozo) (177), a small British island in the Mediterranean, 80 m. S. Of Sicily; is a strongly fortified and a most important navalstation, head-quarters of the British Mediterranean fleet, andcoaling-station for naval and mercantile marine; with a history of greatinterest, Malta was annexed to Britain in 1814. The island is treeless, and with few streams, but fertile, and has many wells. Wheat, potatoes, and fruit are largely cultivated, and filigree work and cottonmanufactured. The people are industrious and thrifty; population is thedensest in Europe. The Roman Catholic Church is very powerful. There is auniversity at Valetta, and since 1887 Malta has been self-governing. 

MALTEBRUN, CONRAD, geographer, born in Denmark; studied inCopenhagen, but banished for his revolutionary sympathies; settled inParis; was the author of several geographical works, his "GeographicUniverselle" the chief (1775-1826). 

MALTHUS, THOMAS R. , an English economist, born near Dorking, inSurrey; is famous as the author of an "Essay on the Principle ofPopulation, " of which the first edition appeared in 1798, and the final, greatly enlarged, in 1803; the publication provoked much hostilecriticism, as it propounded a doctrine which was disastrous to theaccepted theory of perfectibility, and which aimed at showing how theprogress of the race was held in check by the limited supply of the meansof subsistence, a doctrine that admittedly anticipated that struggle forlife on a larger scale which the Darwinian hypothesis requires for its"survival of the fittest" (1766-1834). 

MALVERN, GREAT (6), a watering-place in Worcestershire, on the sideof the Malvern Hills, with a clear and bracing air, a plentiful supply ofwater, and much frequented by invalids. 

MAMBRINO, a Moorish king, celebrated in the romances of chivalry, who possessed a helmet of pure gold which rendered the wearer of itinvulnerable, the possession of which was the ambition of all thepaladins of Charlemagne, and which was carried off by Rinaldo, who slewthe original owner; Cervantes makes his hero persuade himself that he hasfound it in a barber's brass basin. 

MAMELUKES, originally slaves from the regions of the Caucasus, captured in war or bought in the market-place, who became the bodyguardof the Sultan in Egypt, and by-and-by his master to the extent of rulingthe country and supplying a long line of Sultans of their own electionfrom themselves, many of them enlightened rulers, governing the countrywell, but their supremacy was crushed by the Sultan of Turkey in 1517;after this, however, they retained much of their power, and they offereda brilliant resistance to Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids in1798, who defeated them; but recovering their power after his withdrawaland proving troublesome, they were by two treacherous massacresannihilated in 1811 by Mehemet Ali, who became Viceroy of Egypt under thePorte. 

MAMMON, the Syrian god of riches, which has given name to the modernpassion for material wealth, specially conceived of as an abnegation ofChristianity, the profession of which is in flat antagonism to it. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant of enormous size foundfossilised in Northern Europe and Asia in deposits alongside of humanremains, and yielding a supply of fossil ivory. 

MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Kentucky, U. S. , about 10 m. , the largest inthe world, and rising at one point to 300 ft. In height, with numerousside branches leading into grottoes traversed by rivers, which here andthere collect into lakes; name also of another of smaller dimensions inCalifornia. 

MAN, ISLE OF (56), a small island in the Irish Sea, 35 m. W. OfCumberland and about the same distance E. Of Co. Down; from its equableclimate and picturesque scenery is a favourite holiday resort; it hasimportant lead mines at Laxey and Foxdale; fishing and cattle-grazing areprofitable industries; the people are Keltic, with a language andgovernment of their own; the island is a bishopric, with the title Sodorand Man. 

MAN OF DESTINY, name given to Napoleon Bonaparte as reflecting hisown belief, for he was a fatalist. 

MAN OF FEELING, the title of a novel by Henry Mackenzie, frequentlyapplied to himself as well as his hero. 

MAN OF ROSS, John Kyrle, a public-spirited gentleman, immortalisedby Pope from the name of his parish in Hereford. See KYRLE. 

MAN OF SIN, name given in 2 Thess. Ii. 3 to the incarnation at theheight of its pride of the spirit of Antichrist, synchronous with the dayof its fall. 

MANASSEH-BEN-ISRAEL, a Jewish rabbi, born at Lisbon; settled atAmsterdam; wrote several works in the interest of Judaism (1604-1659). 

MANBY, CAPTAIN, a militia officer, born in Norfolk; was inventor ofthe apparatus for saving shipwrecked persons, and by means of which hesaved the lives of nearly a thousand persons himself (1765-1854). 

MANCHA, LA, an ancient province of Spain, afterwards included in NewCastile, the greater part of which is occupied by Ciudad-Real; it ismemorable as the scene of Don Quixote's adventures. 

MANCHE, LA, the French name for the English Channel, so called fromits resemblance to a sleeve, which the word in French means. 

MANCHESTER (505), on the Irwell, in the SE. Of Lancashire, 30 m. E. Of Liverpool, the centre of the English cotton manufacturing district, with many other textile and related industries, is an ancient, rich, andprosperous city; it has many fine buildings, including a Gothic Town Halland Assize Court-House by Waterhouse; there is a picture-gallery, philosophic and other institutions, and technical school; Owens Collegeis the nucleus of Victoria University; the substitution of steam for handpower began here about 1750; the industrial struggles in the beginning ofthe 19th century were severe, and included the famous "Peterloomassacre"; the Anti-Corn-Law League originated in Manchester, andManchester has given its name to a school of Liberal politiciansidentified with the advocacy of peace abroad, free trade, no governmentinterference with industry, and _laissez-faire_ principles at home; theBridgewater Canal 1762, the railway 1830, and the Ship Canal to the mouthof the Mersey 1894, mark steps in the city's progress; since 1888Manchester with Salford (198), on the opposite bank of the Irwell, haveformed a county. 

MANCHESTER, EDWARD MONTAGU, EARL OF, English statesman and general, eldest son of the first earl; sided with the Parliament in the Civil War, and commanded in the army, but was censured by Cromwell for his slacknessat Newbury, which he afterwards resented by opposing the policy of theProtector; he contributed to the restoration of Charles II. , and was inconsequence made Lord Chamberlain (1602-1671). 

MANCHURIA (21, 000), a Chinese province lying between Mongolia andCorea, with the Amur River on the N. And the Yellow Sea on the S. , isfive times the size of England and Wales; the northern, central, andeastern parts are mountainous; the Sungari is the largest river; the soilis fertile, producing large crops of millet, maize, hemp, &c. , but theclimate in winter is severe; pine forests abound; the country is rich ingold, silver, coal, and iron, but they are little wrought; beans, silk, skins and furs are exported; the imports include textiles, metals, paper, and opium; the Manchus are the aristocracy of the province; Chinesesettlers are industrious and prosperous; the chief towns are Moukden(250) in the S. , Kirin (75) on the Sungari, and New-Chwang (60) on theLiao River, a treaty-port since 1858; Russian influence predominates inthe province since 1890. 

MANDÆANS, a community found working as skilled artisans in thePersian province of Khuzistan, and in Basra on the Euphrates; are areligious sect; called also Sabians, and holding tenets gathered fromChristian, Jewish, and heathen sources, resembling those of the ancientGnostics; their priesthood admits women; their chief rite is baptism, andhence their old name, Christians of St. John the Baptist. 

MANDALAY (189), capital of Upper Burma, on the Irawadi, in thecentre of the country, 360 m. N. Of Rangoon; was seized by the British in1885. The Aracan Pagoda, with a brazen image of the Buddha, attracts manypilgrims, and Buddhist monasteries cluster outside the town. There aresilk-weaving, gold, silver, ivory, and wood work, gong-casting andsword-making industries. Great fires raged in it in 1886 and 1892. 

MANDARIN, the name given by foreigners, derived from the Portuguese, signifying to "command, " to Chinese official functionaries, of whichthere are some nine orders, distinguished by the buttons on their caps, and they are appointed chiefly for their possession of the requisitequalifications for the office they aspire to. 

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE, a cynical writer, born at Dordrecht, Holland; bred to medicine; came to London to practise; wrote in racyEnglish the "Fable of the Bees, " intended to show, as Stopford Brookesays, how the "vices of society are the foundation of civilisation, " oras Professor Saintsbury says, how "vice makes some bees happy, and virtuemakes them miserable"; the latter calls him "The Diogenes of EnglishPhilosophy"; he affirmed that "private vices are public benefits, " andreduced virtue into a form of selfishness; his satire is directed againstthe ethics of SHAFTESBURY (q. V. ) (1670-1733). 

MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN, English adventurer, named of St. Albans, whofrom his own account travelled over thirty years in the East, and wrote anarrative of the marvels he experienced in a book of voyages and travelspublished in 1356; the authorship of this book has been questioned, buton this point there is no doubt that, as Professor Saintsbury says, "itis the first book of belles-lottres in English prose. "

MANDINGOES, a negro race in Senegambia, and farther inland aroundthe Quorra; are numerous and powerful, and arranged in separatenationalities so to speak. 

MANES, the general name given by the Romans to the departed spiritsof good men, who are conceived of as dwelling in the nether world, and asnow and again ascending to the upper. 

MANES, MANI, or MANICHÆANS, the founder of theMANICHÆANS (q. V. ), a native of Persia, and who died A. D. 274. 

MANETHO, an Egyptian priest and historian, of the 3rd century B. C. ;wrote a history of Egypt in Greek, derived from study of sacredmonumental inscriptions, which is extant only in fragments. 

MANFRED, king of the Two Sicilies, son of the Emperor Frederick II. , who had to struggle for his birthright with three Popes, Innocent IV. , Alexander IV. , and Urban IV. , the last of whom having excommunicated him, as his predecessors had done, and bestowed his dominions on Charles ofAnjou, in conflict with whom at Benevento he fell, and who denied himChristian burial, though his nobles pled with him to grant it(1231-1266). 

MANFRED, COUNT, hero of a poem of Byron's; sold himself to thePrince of Darkness; lived in solitude on the Alps, estranged from allsympathy with others, and was carried off in the end by the master whomhe had served. 

MANHATTAN, a long island at the mouth of the Hudson, on which agreat part of New York stands. 

MANICHÆISM, the creed which ascribes the created universe to twoantagonistic principles, the one essentially good--God, spirit, light;the other essentially evil--the devil, matter, darkness; and this name isapplied to every system founded on the like dualism. Mani, the founder ofit, appears to have borrowed his system in great part from Zoroaster. 

MANILA (270), capital of the Philippine Islands; at the head of agreat bay on the W. Coast of Luzon; is hot, but not unhealthy; suffersseverely from storms and earthquakes, and is largely built of wood. Ithas a cathedral, university, and observatory. Its only industry iscigar-making, but the exports include also manila hemp, sugar, andcoffee. The population, chiefly Tagals, includes 25, 000 Chinese, manySpaniards and Europeans. In the Spanish-American War of 1898 AdmiralDewey captured the city. 

MANIN, DANIEL, an illustrious Italian patriot, born at Venice, ofJewish birth; bred for the bar, and practised at it; became President ofthe Venetian Republic in 1848, and was one of the most distinguishedopponents of the domination of Austria; died at Paris, a teacher ofItalian (1804-1857). 

MANITO`BA (193), a partially developed inland province of Canada, somewhat larger than England and Wales; is square in shape, with theUnited States on its S. Border, Assiniboia on the W. , Saskatchewan andKeewatin on the N. , and Ontario on the E. ; a level prairie and arablecountry, scantily wooded but well watered, having three large lakes, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, and Manitoba, and three large rivers, Assiniboine, Souris, and Red River. The climate is dry and healthy, though subject to great extremes of temperature; comparatively littlesnow falls; the soil is very fertile; mixed farming, dairy, cattle, andsheep farming are carried on successfully. Land is cheap, and thegovernment still makes free grants of 160-acre lots. There is no mineralwealth; coal is found in the S. ; fishing is pursued on the lakes andrivers. Constituted a province in 1870, Manitoba was the scene of theRiel rebellion, quelled that same year. The government is vested in alieutenant-governor, an executive council, and a single chamber of 40members. In the Dominion Government the province is represented by fourmembers of Senate and five members of the Commons. The capital isWinnipeg (26), the seat of a university and of extensive flour-mills. Theother chief towns are Brandon (4), a market town, and Portage-la-Prairie(4), with a brewery, flour, and paper mills. 

MANITOU, among the North American Indians an animal revealed to thehead of a tribe as the guardian spirit of it, and an object of sacredregard. See TOTEMISM. 

MANLIUS, CAPITOLINUS, a Roman hero who, in 390 B. C. , saved Romefrom an attack of the Gauls, and who was afterwards for treason throwndown the Tarpeian Rock. 

MANN, HORACE, American educationist, born in Massachusetts; wasdevoted to the cause of education as well as that of anti-slavery(1790-1859). 

MANNA, the food with which the Israelites were miraculously fed inthe wilderness, a term which means "What is this?" being the expressionof surprise of the Israelites on first seeing it. 

MANNHEIM (79), on the right bank of the Rhine, 55 m. Above Mainz;the chief commercial centre of Baden; has manufactures of tobacco, india-rubber, and iron goods, and a growing river trade. An oldhistorical city, it was formerly capital of the Rhenish Palatinate, and aresort of Protestant refugees. 

MANNING, HENRY EDWARD, cardinal, born in Hertfordshire; Fellow ofMerton, Oxford, and a leader in the Tractarian Movement there; becamerector in Sussex; married, and became Archdeacon of Chichester; his wifebeing dead, and dissatisfied with the state of matters in the Church ofEngland, in 1851 joined the Church of Rome, became Archbishop ofWestminster in 1865, and Cardinal in 1875; took interest in socialmatters as well as the Catholic propaganda; a too candid "Life" has beenwritten of him since his decease, which has created much controversy(1808-1892). 

MANS, LE (53), capital of French department of Sarthe, on the riverSarthe, 170 m. SW. Of Paris; has a magnificent cathedral; is an importantrailway centre, and has textile and hosiery factories. It was the sceneof a great French defeat in January 1871. 

MANSARD, the name of two French architects, born inParis--FRANÇOIS, who constructed the Bank of France (1598-1666), andJULES HARDOUN, his grand-nephew, architect of the dome of theInvalides and of the palace and chapel of Versailles (1645-1708). 

MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE, dean of St. Paul's, born inNorthamptonshire; wrote admirably on philosophical and religioussubjects, and was a doughty adversary in controversy both with Mill andMaurice; he was a follower in philosophy of SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON(q. V. ) (1820-1871). 

MANSFIELD (16), market-town of Notts, 14 m. N. Of Nottingham, in thecentre of a mining district, with iron and lace-thread manufactures. 

MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY, EARL OF, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born in Perth, called to the bar in 1730; distinguished himself as alawyer, entered Parliament in 1743, and became Solicitor-General, accepted the chief-justiceship in 1756; was impartial as a judge, butunpopular; raised to the peerage in 1776, and resigned his judgeship in1789 (1704-1793). 

MANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, a theological college established therefor the education of students intended for the Nonconformist ministry, though open to other classes; the buildings were opened in 1889. 

MANSION HOUSE, the official residence of the Lord Mayor of London, erected in 1739 at a cost of £42, 638, with a banqueting-room capable ofaccommodating 400 guests. 

MANTEGNA, ANDREA, an Italian painter and engraver, born at Padua;his works were numerous, did atlas pieces and frescoes, his greatest "TheTriumph of Cæsar"; he was a man of versatile genius, was sculptor andpoet as well as painter, and his influence on Italian art was great(1430-1504). 

MANTELL, GIDEON, an eminent English geologist and palæontologist, born at Lewes, in Sussex; wrote "The Wonders of Geology, " "Thoughts on aPebble, " &c. ; he was a voluminous author, and distinguished for his studyof fossils (1790-1852). 

MANTEUFFEL, BARON VON, field-marshal of Germany, born in Dresden;entered the Prussian army in 1827, rose rapidly, and took part in all thewars from 1866 to 1872, and was appointed viceroy at the close of thelast in Alsace-Lorraine, a rather unhappy appointment, as it proved(1809-1885). 

MANTRA, the name given to hymns from the Veda, the repetition ofwhich are supposed to have the effect of a charm. 

MANTUA (28), the strongest fortress in Italy, in SE. Lombardy, ontwo islands in the river Mincio, 83 m. E. Of Milan, is a somewhat gloomyand unhealthy town, with many heavy mediæval buildings; there aresaltpetre refineries, weaving and tanning industries. Virgil was bornhere in 70 B. C. The town was Austrian in the 18th century, but ceded toItaly 1866. 

MANTUAN SWAN, a name given to the Roman poet Virgil, from his havingbeen a native of Mantua, in N. Italy. 

MANU, CODE OF, one of the sacred books of the Hindus, in which isexpounded the doctrine of Brahminism, inculcating "sound, solid, andpractical morality, " and containing evidence of the progress ofcivilisation among the Aryans from their first establishment in thevalley of the Ganges. Manu, the alleged author, appears to have been aprimitive mythological personage, conceived of as the ancestor andlegislator of the human race, and as having manifested himself throughlong ages in a series of incarnations. 

MANZONI, ALESSANDRO, Italian poet and novelist, born at Milan; begana sceptic, but became a devout Catholic; wrote a volume of hymns, entitled "Inni Sacri, " and a tragedy, "Adelchi, " his masterpiece, andadmired by Goethe, as also a prose fiction, "I Promessi Sposi, " whichspread his name over Europe; in 1860 was made a senator of the kingdom ofItaly, and was visited by Garibaldi in 1862; he was no less distinguishedas a man than as an author (1780-1875). 

MAORIS, the natives of New Zealand, a Polynesian race numbering40, 000, who probably displaced an aboriginal; are distinguished for theirbravery; are governed by chiefs, and speak a rich sonorous language; theyare the most vigorous and energetic of all the South Sea islanders. 

MAR, a district in S. Aberdeenshire, between the Don and the Dee, has given a title to many earls; one was regent of Scotland in 1572, another, nicknamed "Bobbing Joan, " led the Jacobite rising of 1715; onthe death without issue of the earl in 1866 the question of successionwas at issue; the Committee of Privileges granted it to his cousin, theEarl of Kellie, thereafter Mar and Kellie, and a Bill in Parliamentawarding it to his nephew, who is thus Earl of Mar. 

MARABOUTS, a sect of religious devotees of a priestly order muchvenerated in North Africa, believed to possess supernatural power, particularly in curing diseases, and exercising at times considerablepolitical influence; their supernatural power appears to come to them byinheritance. 

MARACAYBO (34), a Venezuelan town and fortress on the W. Shore ofthe outlet of Lake Maracaybo; has handsome streets and buildings, andexports coffee and valuable woods; the lake of Maracaybo is a largefresh-water lake in the W. Of Venezuela, connected with the Gulf ofMaracaybo by a wide strait, across which stretches an effective bar. 

MARANATHA (lit. The Lord cometh to judge), a form of anathema inuse among the Jews. 

MARAÑON, one of the head-waters of the Amazon, rising in LakeLauricocha, Peru, and flowing N. And E. Till it joins the Ucayali andforms the Amazon; the name is sometimes given to the whole river. 

MARAT, JEAN PAUL, a fanatical democrat, born in Neuchâtel, hisfather an Italian, his mother a Genevese; studied and practised medicine, came to Paris as horse-leech to Count d'Artois; became infected with therevolutionary fever, and had one fixed idea: "Give me, " he said, "twohundred Naples bravoes, armed each with a good dirk, and a muff on hisleft arm by way of shield, and with them I will traverse France andaccomplish the Revolution, " that is, by wholesale massacre of thearistocrats; he had more than once to flee for his life, and one timefound shelter in the sewers of Paris, contracting thereby a loathsomeskin disease; he was assassinated one evening as he sat in his bath byCHARLOTTE CORDAY (q. V. ), but his body was buried with honoursin the Pantheon by a patriot people, "that of Mirabeau flung out to makeroom for him, " to be some few months after himself cast out withexecration (1743-1793). 

MARATHON, a village, 22 m. NE. Of Athens, on the sea border of aplain where the Greeks under Miltiades on a world-famous occasiondefeated the Persians under Darius in 480 B. C. ; the plain on which thebattle was fought extends between mountains on the W. And the sea on theE. 

MARBURG (13), quaint university town of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, 40 m. NE. Of Limburg; has many old buildings; its Gothic church containsSt. Elizabeth's tomb; Luther and Zwingli held a conference in the castle, 1529; William Tyndale and Patrick Hamilton were students at itsuniversity, which has now 97 teachers, 1000 students, and a fine library. 

MARCEAU, French general, born at Chartres; distinguished himself inthe Republican army in La Vendée and Fleurus, and was killed atAltenkirchen when covering a retreat of the French army (1760-1796). 

MARCELLO, BENEDETTO, an Italian musical composer; composed music foran Italian version of the Psalms (1686-1739). 

MARCELLUS, CLAUDIUS, Roman general; in a war with the Gauls killedtheir chief Viridomarus with his own hands, whose spoils he dedicated as_SPOLIA OPIMA_ (q. V. ) to Jupiter; took Syracuse, which longbaffled him through the skill of Archimedes, and fell fighting againstHannibal 208 B. C. ; he was five times consul though but of plebeianbirth. 

MARCELLUS, MARCUS, son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus, who hadnamed him his heir; his decease at 20 was mourned as a public calamity, and inspired Virgil to pen his well-known lament over his death in thesixth book of the "Æneid. "

MARCET, MRS. JANE, authoress, born at Geneva; married a Swiss doctorsettled in London; wrote elementary text-books on chemistry (from whichFaraday gained his first knowledge), political economy, naturalphilosophy, &c. , under the title "Conversations, " and her best work, "Stories for very Little Children" (1769-1858). 

MARCH, the third month of our year; was before 1752 reckoned firstmonth as in the Roman calendar, the legal year beginning on the 25th; itis proverbially dusty and stormy, and is the season of the springequinox; it was dedicated to the Roman god Mars, whence the name. 

MARCHAND, MAJOR, a French emissary in Africa; was sent in 1890 toexplore the sources of the Niger and other districts, and was afterwardsappointed to push on to the Nile, where he arrived in 1898, hoisting theFrench flag by the way, and finally at Fashoda, from which he wasrecalled; with extreme disgust he was obliged to retire and find his wayback to France; _b_. 1863. 

MARCION, a heretic of the 2nd century, born at Sinope, in Pontus, who, convinced that the traditional records of Christianity had beentampered with, sought to restore Christianity to its original purity, taking his stand on the words of Christ and the interpretation of St. Paul as the only true apostle; he held that an ascetic life was of theessence of Christianity, and he had a following called Marcionites. 

MARCUS AURELIUS. See ANTONINUS. 

MAREMMA, a malarial coast district of Italy, N. Of the Campagna, stretching from Orbitello to Guardistallo, with few villages or roads. Part of it was improved by draining and planting (1824-44), and theinhabitants come down from the neighbouring Apennine slopes in summer tocultivate it; healthier in winter, it affords good pasturage. 

MARENGO, a village of N. Italy, SE. Of Alessandria, where Napoleondefeated the Austrians on 14th June 1800. 

MAREOTIS, LAKE, a lagune in the N. Of Egypt, 40 m. Long by 18 m. Broad, separated from the Mediterranean by a tongue of land on which partof Alexandria is situated. 

MARGARET, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was the daughter ofWaldemar IV. Of Denmark, whose crown, on his death in 1375, she receivedin trust for her son Olaf; her husband, Hacon VIII. Of Norway, died in1380, and left her queen; Olaf died 1387, when she named hergrand-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, her heir; the Swedes deposed their kingnext year, and offered Margaret the throne; she accepted it, put down allresistance, and ultimately brought about the Union of Calmar (1397), which provided for the perpetual union of the three crowns; her energyand force of character won for her the title of "Semiramis of the North"(1353-1412). 

MARGARET, a simple, innocent girl in Goethe's "Faust, " who is thevictim of a tragic fatality; Faust meets her as she comes from church, falls in love with her, and seduces her; she slays the infant born, isconvicted and condemned to death, and loses her reason; Faust would fainsave her, but he is hurried away by Mephistopheles, and she is left toher fate. 

MARGARET, ST. , the type of female innocence, represented as abeautiful young maiden bearing the palm and crown of a martyr andattended by a dragon; is patron saint against the pains of childbirth. Festival, July 20. 

MARGARET, ST. , queen of Scotland, wife of Malcolm Canmore, andsister of Edgar Atheling, born in Hungary; brought up at the court ofEdward the Confessor; after the conquest sought refuge in Scotland, andwinning the heart of the Scotch king, was married to him at Dunfermline;was a woman of beautiful character and great piety, and did much tocivilise the country by her devotion and example; she died in EdinburghCastle, and was in 1250 canonised by Innocent IV. ; Lanfranc had been herspiritual instructor (1047-1093). 

MARGARET OF ANGOULÊME, queen of Navarre, Sister of Francis I. , married in 1527 Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre, by whom she became themother of JEANNE D'ALBRET (q. V. ); protected the Protestants, and encouraged learning and the arts; she left a collection of novels, under the name of "Heptameron, " and a number of interesting letters, aswell as some poems (1492-1549). 

MARGARET OF ANJOU, queen of Henry VI. Of England, and daughter ofthe good King René of Anjou; was distinguished for the courage shedisplayed during the Wars of the Roses, though, after a struggle ofnearly twenty years, she was defeated at Tewkesbury and committed to theTower, from which, after four years of incarceration, she was afterwardsreleased by ransom (1429-1482). 

MARGARET OF VALOIS, third daughter of Henry II. Of France andCatherine de' Medicis; married Henry IV. , by whom she was divorced forher immoral conduct (1552-1615). 

MARGATE (18), seaport and watering-place, 3 m. W. Of the NorthForeland, Kent, is with its firm sands, bathing facilities, and variousattractions a favourite resort of London holiday-makers. Itschurch-tower, 135 ft. , is a prominent landmark. There are largealmshouses and orphanages, and other charitable institutions; J. M. W. Turner was at school here. 

MARHEINECKE, a German theologian, born at Hildesheim; professorsuccessively at Erlangen, Heidelberg, and Berlin; was a Hegelian inphilosophy; his chief works, a "System of Catholicism" and a "History ofthe German Reformation" (1780-1846). 

MARIA LOUISA, empress of France, daughter of Francis I. , Emperor ofAustria; was married to Napoleon in 1810 after the divorce of Joséphine, and bore him a son, who was called King of Rome; after Napoleon's deathshe became the wife of Count von Neipperg (1791-1847). 

MARIA THERESA, empress of Austria, daughter of the Emperor CharlesVI. , a queenly woman; was in 1736 married to Francis of Lorraine;ascended the throne in 1740 on the death of her father, associating herhusband with her in the government under the title of Francis I. ; nosooner had she done so than, despite the PRAGMATIC SANCTION (q. V. ), which assured her of her dominions in their integrity, she wasassailed by claimants one for this and one for another portion of them, in particular by Frederick the Great, who by force of arms wrenchedSilesia from her and kept it fast; the war thus occasioned is known asthe war of the Austrian Succession, which lasted seven years, and wasconcluded by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748; this peace, however, was soon broken, and Maria, backed by France and counselled by Kaunitz, renewed hostilities in the hope of compelling Frederick to restore whathe had taken; all in vain, for the end of this war, known as the SevenYears' War, was to leave Frederick still in possession of the territorywhich he had sliced from her empire as in the former; in the interim ofthese wars Maria devoted her attention to the welfare of her subjects, who were conspicuously loyal to her, and before the end of her reign shesaw what she had lost made up to her in a measure by the partition ofPoland, in which she took part (1717-1780). 

MARIAMNE, the wife of Herod the Great, whom he put to death onsuspicion of her unfaithfulness. 

MARIANA, JUAN, Spanish historian and political philosopher, born atTalavera; joined the Jesuits in 1554, and taught in their colleges inRome, Sicily, and Paris; returning to Toledo he gave himself toliterature; his "History of Spain" appeared in 1592 and 1605, theologicalwritings incurred persecution, and his greatest work, "De Rege et RegisInstitutione, " in which he defended the right of the people to cast out atyrant, was condemned by the general of his order (1536-1624). 

MARIE ANTOINETTE, queen of France, fourth daughter of Maria Theresa;was married in 1770 to the dauphin of France, who in 1774 succeeded tothe throne as Louis XVI. ; was a beautiful woman, but indiscreet in herbehaviour; had made herself unpopular and impotent for good when theRevolution broke out; when matters became serious the queenliness of hernature revealed itself, but it was in haughty defiance of themillion-headed monster that was bellowing at her feet; the heroism sheshowed at this crisis the general mass of the people could notappreciate, though it won the homage of such men as Mirabeau and Barnave;all she wanted was a wise adviser, for she had courage to follow anycourse which she could be persuaded to see was right; in Mirabeau she hadone who could have guided her, but by his death in 1791 she was left toherself, and the course she took was fatal to all the interests she hadat heart; fatality followed fatality: first she saw her husband hurriedoff to the guillotine, and then she followed herself; hers, if any, wasthe most tragic of fates, and any one who has read that heart-movingapostrophe to her by Carlyle on the way to her doom must know and feelthat it was her fate; she and her husband suffered as the representativesof the misgovernment of France for centuries before they were born, andwere left a burden on their shoulders which they could not bear and underwhich they were crushed to death (1756-1793). 

MARIE DE FRANCE, a poetess and fabulist of Henry III. 's time; herfables are translations into French from an English version of old Greektales; a greater work was her "Laïs, " consisting of 12 or 14 beautifulnarratives in French verse. 

MARIE DE' MEDICI, daughter of the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, born atFlorence; was married to Henry IV. Of France in 1600, with whom she livedunhappily till his murder in 1610; she was then regent for seven years;in 1617 her son assumed power as Louis XIII. ; she was for two yearsbanished from the court, and on her return so intrigued as to bring abouther imprisonment in 1631; though a lover of art she was neither good wifenor good queen, and escaping from confinement she died in destitution atCologne (1573-1642). 

MARIENBAD, a high-lying Bohemian watering-place, 18 m. S. OfCarlsbad; it is much frequented for its saline springs. 

MARIETTE PASHA, FRANÇOIS AUGUSTE FERDINAND, Egyptologist, born atBoulogne; became professor in the college there in 1841, entered theEgyptian department of the Louvre in 1849, and next year set out forEgypt; eight years later he was made keeper of the monuments to theEgyptian government, and in 1879 was made a pasha; he died at Cairo; hemade many valuable discoveries and excavations, among which were theburial-place of the Apis bulls, the Sphinx monument, and many temples(1821-1881). 

MARIO, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated tenor, born in Cagliari; acquired alarge fortune as a professional singer, but lost it through unsuccessfulspeculations; in the circumstances a concert was given in London for hisbenefit which realised £1000; he was a handsome man and of charmingmanners (1808-1883). 

MARIOTTE, EDME, a French physicist, born at Dijon; discoverer of thelaw named after him, that the volume of a gas is inversely as thepressure; called also Boyle's; it bears the name of Mariotte's law on theContinent, and Boyle's in England (1620-1684). 

MARIUS, CAIUS, a celebrated Roman general, born near Arpinum, uncleby marriage to Julius Cæsar and head of the popular party, and the rivalof Sulla; conquered the Teutons and the Cimbri in Gaul, and made atriumphal entry into Rome; having obtained command of the war againstMithridates, Sulla marched upon the city and drove his rival beyond thewalls; having fled the city, he was discovered hiding in a marsh, castinto prison, and condemned to die; to the slave sent to execute thesentence he drew himself haughtily up and exclaimed, "Caitiff, dare youslay Caius Marius?" and the executioner fled in terror of his life andleft his sword behind him; Marius was allowed to escape; finding his wayto Africa, he took up his quarters at Carthage, but the Roman prætorordered him off; "Go tell the prætor, " he said to the messenger sent, "you saw Caius Marius sitting a fugitive on the ruins of Carthage"; uponthis he took courage and returned to Rome, and along with Cinna made thestreets of the city run with the blood of the partisans of Sulla; diedsuddenly (156-88 B. C. ). 

MARIVAUX, a French dramatist and novelist, born in Paris; was a manof subtle wit, and his writings reveal it as well as an affectation ofstyle named _Marivaudage_ after him; his fame rests on his novels ratherthan his dramas (1688-1763). 

MARK, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO, is mainly a narrative of the doings ofChrist and of the events of His life in their historical sequence; moveson at an even pace, abounds in graphic touches, and adds minute traits asif by an eye-witness; it represents Christ as the Son of man, butmanifesting Himself by such signs and wonders as to show that He was alsothe Son of God; it is written for Gentile Christians and not for Jewish, and hence little stress is laid on Old Testament fulfilments or referencemade to those antagonisms to Christianity which had a merely Jewish root. 

MARK, JOHN, the author of the second Gospel, the son of Mary, Barnabas' sister, who ministered to Christ, and whose house in Jerusalemwas a place of resort for the disciples of Christ after the resurrection;accompanied Paul and his uncle on their first missionary journey, afterwards accompanied Peter, who calls him "my son, " and to him it isthought he is indebted for his Gospel narrative; he is regarded as thefounder of the Coptic Church, and his body is said to have been buried inVenice, of which he is the patron saint, and the cathedral of which isnamed St. Mark's after him; he is represented in Christian art as a manin the prime of life accompanied by a winged lion, with his Gospel in hisleft hand and a pen in his right. 

MARK ANTONY. See ANTONIUS, MARCUS. 

MARK TWAIN. See CLEMENS. 

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS ROBERT, traveller and author, born near York, sonof a clergyman; served in the navy from 1844 to 1851, taking part in theFranklin search expedition; 1852-1854 he spent exploring Peru; heintroduced the cinchona plant to India 1860, became secretary to theRoyal Geographical Society 1863, served as geographer to the AbyssinianExpedition of 1867-68, and was then put at the head of the Geographicaldepartment of the India Office; among many books of travels may be named"The Threshold of the Unknown Region" 1874, and among biographies"Columbus, " 1892; _b_. 1830. 

MARLBOROUGH (9), on the Kennet, 38 m. E. Of Bristol, a Wiltshiremarket-town, with sack and rope making, brewing, and tanning industries;has an old Norman church, the remains of an old royal residence, and acollege, chiefly for sons of clergymen, founded in 1845. 

MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF, soldier and statesman, born inDevonshire; joined the Guards as ensign, and served in Tangiers in 1667;sent in command of a company to help Louis XIV. In his Dutch wars, hiscourage and ability won him a colonelcy; he married Sarah Jennings in1678, and seven years later became Baron Churchill on James II. 'ssuccession; as general he was employed in putting down Monmouth'srebellion; he seceded to William of Orange in 1688, and received from himthe earldom of Marlborough; he was in disfavour from 1694 till theoutbreak of the Spanish Succession War, in which he gained his greatrenown; beginning by driving the Spaniards from the Netherlands in 1702, he won a series of important victories--Blenheim 1704, Ramillies 1706, Oudenard 1708, and Malplaquet 1709, contributed to enhance the militaryglory of England; Queen Anne loaded him with honours; large sums ofmoney, Woodstock estate, Blenheim Palace, and a dukedom were bestowed onhim; his wife was the Queen's closest friend, and the duke and duchessvirtually governed the country, till in 1711 the Queen threw off theirinfluence, and charges of misappropriation of funds forced him intoretirement; he was restored to many of his offices by George I. In 1714, but for the last six years of his life he sank into imbecility; one ofEngland's greatest generals, he was also one of her meanest men(1650-1722). 

MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER, English dramatist and poet, precursor ofShakespeare; son of a shoemaker at Canterbury; besides a love poementitled "Hero and Leander, " he was the author of seven plays, "Tamburlaine, " in two parts, "Doctor Faustus, " "The Jew of Malta, ""Edward the Second, " "The Massacre of Paris, " and "Dido, " the first fourbeing romantic plays, the fifth a chronicle play, and the last twooffering no particular talent; he dealt solely in tragedy, and was toodevoid of humour to attempt comedy; "In Marlowe, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "two things never fail him long--a strange, not by any means impotent, reach after the infinite, and the command of magnificent verse"; his lifewas a short one (1564-1593). 

MARMONT, Duke of Ragusa and marshal of France, served underNapoleon, and distinguished himself on many a battlefield; received thetitle of duke for his successful defence of Ragusa against the Russians;was present at Wagram, Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden, but came to termswith the allies after the taking of Paris, which led to Napoleon'sabdication in 1814; obliged to flee on Napoleon's return, he came back toFrance and gave his support to the Bourbons; left Memoirs (1774-1852). 

MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French writer, born at Bort; author of"Les Incas, " "Bélesaire, " and "Contes Moraux;" "was, " says Ruskin, "apeasant's son, who made his way into Parisian society by gentleness, wit, and a dainty and candid literary power; he became one of the humblest yethonestest, placed scholars at the court of Louis XV. , and wrote pretty, yet wise, sentimental stories in finished French, the sayings andthoughts in them, in their fine tremulous way, perfect like theblossoming heads of grass in May" (1723-1799). 

MARMORA, SEA OF, 175 m. Long and 50 broad, lies between Europe andAsia Minor, opening into the Ægean through the Dardanelles and into theBaltic through the Bosphorus; the Gulf of Ismid indents the easterncoasts; Marmora, the largest island, has marble and alabaster quarries. 

MARNE (435) and HAUTE-MARNE (244), contiguous departments inthe N. E. Of France, in the upper basin of the Marne River; in bothcereals, potatoes, and wine are the chief products, the best champagnecoming from the N. In the former, capital Châlons-sur-Marne, buildingstone is quarried; there are metal works and tanneries; in the latter, capital Chaumont, are valuable iron mines and manufactures of cutlery andgloves. 

MAROCHETTI, BARON, Italian sculptor, born in Turin; after working inParis, came to this country in 1848, and executed several public statues, one of the Queen among others (1805-1867). 

MARONITES, a sect of Syrian Christians, numbering 200, 000, dwellingon the eastern slopes of Lebanon, where they settled in the 7th century, and who joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1445, while they retain muchof their primitive character; they maintained a long sanguinary rivalrywith their neighbours the DRUSES (q. V. ). 

MAROONS, the name given to wild negro bands in Jamaica and Guiana;those in Jamaica left behind by the Spaniards on the conquest of theisland by the English, 1655, escaped to the hills, and continuedunsubdued till 1795; in Guiana they still maintain independentcommunities. To MAROON a seaman is to leave him alone on anuninhabited island, or adrift in a boat. 

MAROT, CLEMENT, French poet, born at Cahors; was valet-de-chambre ofMargaret of Valois; was a man of ready wit and a satirical writer, theexercise of which often brought him into trouble; his poems, whichconsist of elegies, epistles, rondeaux, madrigals, and ballads, have lefttheir impress on both the language and the literature of France(1495-1544). 

MARPRELATE TRACTS, a series of clever but scurrilous tractspublished under the name of Martin Marprelate, but which are the work ofdifferent writers in the time of Elizabeth against prelacy, and whichgave rise to great excitement and some inquisition as to theirauthorship. 

MARQUE. See LETTER OF MARQUE. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (5), a group of 13 small volcanic mountainousislands in the S. Pacific, 3600 m. W. Of Peru, under French protectionsince 1842, are peopled by a handsome but savage race, which is rapidlydying out; Chinese immigrants grow cotton; the more southerly werediscovered by Mendaña in 1595, the more northerly by Ingraham, anAmerican, in 1791. 

MARROW CONTROVERSY, a theological controversy which arose inScotland in the 18th century over the teaching of a book entitled "TheMarrow of Modern Divinity, " and which led to a secession from theEstablished Church on the part of the "Marrow men, " as the supporters ofthe doctrine of the book were called. It contained an assertion of theevangelical doctrine of free grace, which was condemned by the Assembly, and for maintaining which the "Marrow men, " headed by the Erskines, weredeposed in 1733, to the formation of the Secession Church. 

MARRYAT, FREDERICK, novelist, born at Westminster; after service inthe royal navy, which he entered in 1806, and in which he attained therank of commandant, he retired in 1830, and commenced a series of novels;"Frank Mildmay, " the first, proving a success, he resolved to devote therest of his life to literature; his novels were numerous, all of interestfor their character sketches and adventures, and "Peter Simple" and"Midshipman Easy" are reckoned the best; it was by recourse to Marryat'sstories of sea life that Carlyle solaced himself after the burning of theMS. Volume of his "French Revolution, " and that he put himself in tune torepair the loss (1792-1848). 

MARS, the exterior planet of the Solar system, nearest the earth, ofone-half its diameter, with a mean distance from the sun of 141, 000, 000m. , round which it takes 686 days to revolve, in a somewhat centricorbit, and 24½ hours to revolve on its own axis, which inclines to itsequator at an angle of 29°; examination of it shows that there is fourtimes as much land as water in it; it is accompanied by two moons, anouter making a revolution round it in 30 hours 18 minutes, and an innerin 7 hours and 38 minutes; they are the smallest heavenly bodies known toscience. 

MARS, the Roman god of war, the reputed father of Romulus, and therecognised protector of the Roman State, identified at length with theGreek Ares. 

MARSEILLAISE, THE, the hymn or march of the French republicans, composed, both words and music, at Strasburg by Rouget de Lisle one nightin April 1792, and singing which the 600 volunteers from Marseillesentered Paris on the 30th July thereafter. "Luckiest musicialcomposition, " says Carlyle, "ever promulgated. The sound of which willmake the blood tingle in men's veins, and whole armies and assemblageswill sing it, with eyes weeping and burning, with hearts defiant ofdeath, despot, and devil. "

MARSEILLES (321), third city and first seaport of France, on theshore of the Gulf of Lyons, 27 m. E. Of the mouth of the Rhône; hasextensive dock accommodation; does great trade in wheat, oil, wine, sugar, textiles, and coal, and manufactures soap, soda, macaroni, andiron; there is a cathedral, picture-gallery, museum, and library, schoolsof science and art; founded by colonists from Asia Minor in 600 B. C. , itwas a Greek city till 300 B. C. ; after the days of Rome it had manyvicissitudes, falling finally to France in 1575, and losing its privilegeas a free port in 1660; always a Radical city, it proclaimed the Communein 1871; a cholera plague devastated it in 1885; six years later greatsanitary improvements were begun; Thiers and Puget were born here. 

MARSHAL FORWARDS, a name given to BLÜCHER (q. V. ) for thecelerity of his movements and the dash of his attack. 

MARSHALL, JOHN, an American judge; served in the army during thefirst years of the American War; afterwards entered the legal professionand became Chief-Justice of the United States; was an authority onconstitutional law (1755-1835). 

MARSTON, JOHN, English dramatist, so called, was more of a poet thana dramatist, and his dramas are remembered chiefly for the poeticpassages they contain; his masterpiece is a comedy entitled "What YouWill" (1575-1634). 

MARSTON, JOHN WESTLAND, dramatist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire;wrote several dramas, "Strathmore" and "Marie de Méranie" among thenumber (1819-1890). 

MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE, poet, son of preceding; wrote three volumesof verse, admired by Rossetti and Swinburne; was blind from boyhood(1850-1887). 

MARSTON MOOR, 7 m. W. Of York; here Cromwell and Fairfax defeatedthe Royalists under Prince Rupert, July 2, 1644, and so won the north ofEngland for the Parliament. 

MARSYAS, a Phrygian peasant, who, having found a flute which Athenahad thrown away because playing on it disfigured her face, and which, asstill inspired by the breath of the goddess, yielded sweet tones when heput his lips to it, one day challenged Apollo to a contest, the conditionbeing that the vanquished should pay whatever penalty the victor mightimpose on him; Apollo played on the lyre and the boor on the flute, whenthe Muses, who were umpires, assigned the palm to the former; upon thisApollo caught his rival up, bound him to a tree, and flayed him alive forhis temerity. 

MARTELLO TOWERS, round towers of strong build, erected as a defenceat one time off the low shores of Sussex and Kent; they are of Italianorigin; there is one off the harbour of Leith. 

MARTENS, FREDERICK DE, German diplomatist and publicist, born atHamburg; author of a "Précis du Droit des Gens" (1756-1821). 

MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN, bishop of Copenhagen, a distinguishedtheologian; author of "Meister Eckhart, " a study of mediæval mysticism, "Christliche Dogmatic" and "Christliche Ethic"; was a Hegelian of aconservative type (1808-1884). 

MARTHA, ST. , the sister of Mary and Lazarus, the patron saint ofgood housewives, is represented, in homely costume, with a bunch of keysat her girdle, and a pot in her hand. Festival, July 20. 

MARTIAL, a Latin poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain; went to Rome, stayed there, favoured of the emperors Titus and Domitian, for 35 years, and then returned to his native city, where he wrote his Epigrammata, acollection of short poems over 1500 in number, divided into 14 books, books xiii. And xiv. Being entitled respectively Xenia and Apophoreta;these epigrams are distinguished for their wit, diction, and indecency, but are valuable for the light they shed on the manners of Rome at theperiod (43-104). 

MARTIAL LAW, law administered by military force, to which civiliansare amenable during an insurrection or riot. 

MARTIN, the name of five popes: M. I. , ST. , Pope from 649 to655; M. II. , pope from 882 to 884; M. III. , Pope from 942 to946; M. IV. , pope from 1281 to 1285; M. V. , Pope from 1417 to1431, distinguished for having condemned Huss to be burned. 

MARTIN, AIMÉ, a French writer, born at Lyons, repaired to Paris, became the pupil and friend of Bernardin de St. Pierre; collected hisworks and married his widow; his letters to Sophia on "Natural History, "&c. , highly popular (1781-1844). 

MARTIN, HENRI, celebrated French historian, born at Saint-Quentin;devoted his life to the study of the history of France; wrote an accountof it, entitled "Histoire de France, " a magnificent work in 19 volumes;brought the history down to 1789, and received from the Institute 20, 000francs as a prize (1810-1885). 

MARTIN, JOHN, English painter, born near Hexham; was an artist of anardent temperament and extraordinary imaginative power; his paintings, the first "Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion, " characterised as"sublime" and "gorgeous, " were 16 in number, and made a great impressionwhen produced; engravings of some of them are familiar, such as the "Fallof Babylon" and "Belshazzar's Feast" (1789-1854). 

MARTIN, LADY. See FAUCIT, HELEN. 

MARTIN, ST. , bishop of Tours, was in early life a soldier, andmeeting with a naked beggar one cold day in winter divided his militarycloak in two, and gave him the half of it; was conspicuous both as a monkand bishop for his compassion on the poor; seated at a banquet on oneoccasion between the king and queen, hobnobbed with a poor beggar lookingon, and extended his goblet of wine to him; he is the patron saint oftopers; _d_. 397. Festival, November 11. 

MARTIN, SARAH, a philanthropist, born at Great Yarmouth; lived bydressmaking, and devoted much of her time among criminals in the jails(1791-1843). 

MARTIN, SIR THEODORE, man of letters, born in Edinburgh; acquiredhis first fame under the pseudonym of Bon Gaultier; is author of the"Life of the late Prince Consort"; wrote along with Aytouna "Book ofBallads, " and translated the Odes of Horace, Dante's "Vita Nuova" andGoethe's "Faust"; _b_. 1816. 

MARTINEAU, HARRIET, English authoress, born at Norwich; a lady withlittle or no genius but with considerable intellectual ability, and notwithout an honest zeal for the "progress of the species"; she was what iscalled an "advanced" thinker, and was a disciple of Auguste Comte; wrotea number of stories bearing on social questions, and had that courage ofher opinions which commanded respect; it was she who persuaded Carlyle totry lecturing when his finances were low, and she had a real pride at thesuccess of the scheme (1802-1876). 

MARTINEAU, JAMES, rationalistic theologian, born in Norwich, brotherof the preceding; began life as an engineer, took to theology, andbecame a Unitarian minister; was at first a follower of Bentham and thena disciple of Kant; at one time a materialist he became a theist, and amost zealous advocate of theistic beliefs from the Unitarian standpoint;he is a thinker of great power, and has done much both to elevate andliberate the philosophy of religion; his views are liberal as well asprofound, and he is extensively known as the author of the "Endeavoursafter the Christian Life" and "Hours of Thought on Sacred Things"; _b_. 1805. 

MARTINIQUE (176, of which a few are white), a West Indian Frenchpossession, one of the Lesser Antilles; has a much-indented precipitouscoast; a mountain range in the centre is densely wooded; the plains arefertile, and produce sugar, coffee, and cotton, which with fruit are theexports; the climate is hot and not salubrious; the island has beenFrench, with three short intervals, since 1635. 

MARTYN, HENRY, a Christian missionary, born at Truro, in Cornwall;was a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge; went to India as achaplain, settled in various stations and in Persia; translated the NewTestament into Hindi and Persian, as well as the Prayer-book; fell intobroken health; did more than he was able for, caught fever and died(1781-1812). 

MARVELL, ANDREW, poet and politician, born at Worcester; was first alyric poet, and in politics much of a Royalist, at last a violentpolitician on the Puritan side, having become connected with Milton andCromwell; he wrote a tract "On the Growth of Popery and ArbitraryGovernment in England" after the Restoration, which brought him intotrouble; being a favourite with the king, the king sought to bribe him, but he could not be caught; he died suddenly, and an unfounded rumour wascirculated that he had been poisoned (1621-1678). 

MARX, KARL, a German Socialist, born at Trèves, of Jewish descent;was at first a student of philosophy and a disciple of Hegel, but soonabandoned philosophy for social economy on a democratic basis and in amaterialistic interest, early adopted socialistic opinions, for his zealin which he was driven from Germany, France, and finally Belgium, tosettle in London, where he spent the last 30 years of his life; foundedthe "INTERNATIONAL" (q. V. ), and wrote a work "Das Kapital, "which has become the text-book of Socialism, a remarkable book, and onethat has materially promoted the cause it advocates (1818-1866). 

MARY, THE VIRGIN. Of her we know nothing for certain except what iscontained in the Gospel history, and that almost exclusively in herrelation to her Son, in connection with whom, and as His mother, she hasbecome an object of worship in the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches. 

MARY I. , queen of England, was born at Greenwich, daughter of HenryVIII. And Catharine of Aragon; at first the king's favourite, on hermother's divorce she was treated with aversion; during her brother EdwardVI. 's reign she lived in retirement, clinging to her Catholic faith; onher accession in 1553 a Protestant plot to put Lady Jane Grey on thethrone failed; she began cautiously to restore Catholicism, imprisoningReformers and reinstating the old bishops; on her choosing Philip ofSpain for her husband a revolt broke out under Sir Thomas Wyatt, andthough easily put down was the occasion for the execution of Lady JaneGrey and the imprisonment of Elizabeth; after her marriage in 1554 thereligious reaction gained strength, submission was made to Rome, and apersecution began in which 300 persons, including Latimer, Ridley, andCranmer, perished in three years; ill-health, Philip's cruelty, and herchildlessness drove her to melancholy; a war with France led to the lossof Calais in 1558, and she died broken-hearted, a virtuous and pious, butbigoted and relentless woman (1516-1558). 

MARY II. , queen of England, daughter of the Duke of York (afterwardsJames II. ) and Anne Hyde; was married to her cousin William of Orange in1677, ascended the English throne along with him on her father'sabdication in 1688, and till her death was his much loved, good, andgentle queen; Greenwich Hospital for disabled sailors, which she built, is her memorial (1662-1694). 

MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, daughter of James V. And Mary of Lorraine, born at Linlithgow, became by her father's death queen ere she was a weekold; her early childhood was spent on an island in the Lake of Menteith;she was sent to France in 1548, brought up at court with the royalprinces, and married to the dauphin in 1558, who for a year, 1559-60, wasKing Francis II. ; on his death she had to leave France; she returned toassume the government in Scotland, now in the throes of the Reformation;refraining from interference with the Protestant movement she retainedher own Catholic faith, but chose Protestant advisers; out of manyproposed alliances she elected, against all advice, to be married to hercousin Darnley 1565, and easily quelled the insurrection that broke outunder Moray; Darnley, granted the title king, tried to force her tosettle the succession in the event of her dying childless on him and hisheirs; deeming her favourite Rizzio to stand in the way, he plotted withthe Protestant Lords to have him murdered, and Mary was reduced to agreeto his demands; the murder was done; the queen was for a time a prisonerin Holyrood, but she succeeded in detaching Darnley, and the scheme fellthrough; her only son, afterwards James VI. , was born three months laterin 1566; the murder of Darnley took place in February 1567, beingaccomplished by Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, almost certainly with Mary'sconnivance; her marriage with Bothwell in May alienated the nobles; theyrose, took the queen prisoner at Carberry, carried her to Edinburgh, thento Loch Leven, where they forced her to abdicate in July; next year, escaping, she fled to England, and was there for many years a prisoner;Catholic plots were formed to liberate her and put her in place ofElizabeth on the English throne (she was next in order of succession, being great-granddaughter of Henry VII. ); at last she was accused ofcomplicity in Babbington's conspiracy, tried, found guilty, and executedin Fotheringhay Castle, February 8, 1587; faithful to her religion to theend; she was a woman of great beauty and charm, courage and ability, warmaffection and generous temper (1542-1587). 

MARYLAND (1, 042), a State of the American Union, occupying the basinof the Potomac and of Chesapeake Bay, with Pennsylvania on the N. , Delaware on the E. , and the Virginias on the W. And S. ; has a muchindented coast-line affording great facilities for navigation; the soilis throughout fertile; on the level coast plains tobacco and fruit, chiefly peaches, are grown; in the undulating central land wheat; themountains in the W. Are well wooded with pine; there are coal-mines inthe W. , copper and chrome in the midland, and extensive marble quarries;the shad and herring fisheries are valuable; the manufactures of clothingstuffs, flour, tobacco, and beer are extensive; the climate of Marylandis temperate and genial; education is free, and advanced; the JohnHopkins University is in Baltimore; there is a State college in everycounty, and schools for blind, deaf, and feeble-minded children;colonisation began in 1634, and a policy of religious toleration andpeace with the Indians led to prosperity; the State was active in the Warof Independence, and remained with the North in the Civil War; thecapital is Annapolis (8), but the largest city is Baltimore (434), agreat wheat-shipping port and centre of industry; Cumberland (13) hasbrick and cement works, and Hagerstown (10) has machine, farm implement, and furniture factories. 

MASACCIO, an Italian painter, born in Florence; went when very youngto Rome, where he painted in the church of St. Clement a series offrescoes, his greatest work being the frescoes in the Brancacci chapel ofthe Carmine church; he was a great master of perspective and colour(1402-1443). 

MASAI, a warlike tribe in Africa, between the coast of Zanzibar andVictoria Nyanza, of the race of the Gallas, men of powerful physique, though far from prepossessing in appearance; when their warlike spiritand prowess are spent they settle down to cattle-breeding. 

MASANIELLO, a fisherman of Amalfi, who headed a revolt against theSpanish viceroy in Naples, which proved successful, but turned his headand led to his assassination (1623-1647). 

MASHONALAND, a plateau 4000 ft. High crossed by the UmvukweMountains, lying to the NE. Of Matabeleland and S. Of the Zambesi River, of which its streams are tributaries; is a fertile country, and beingtraversed continually by cold SE. Winds is healthy and bracing; thenatives, of Bantu stock, are peaceful and industrious, growing rice, maize, tobacco, and cotton, which they also weave, and working with skillin iron; they live in dread of the fierce Matabele tribes; the country isvery rich in iron, copper, and gold, and has traces of ancient scientificgold-mining; it has been under British protection since 1888. 

MASK, IRON. See IRON MASK. 

MASKELYNE, NEVIL, astronomer-royal, born in London; determined themethod of finding longitude at sea, and the density of the earth byexperiments at Schiehallion, and commenced the "National Almanack, " andproduced the first volume of "Astronomical Observations at Greenwich"(1732-1811). 

MASON, SIR JOSIAH, Birmingham manufacturer and philanthropist, bornat Kidderminster; made his fortune by split rings, steel pens, electro-plating; founded an orphanage at Erdington at the cost of nearly£300, 000, and the college at Birmingham which bears his name (1795-1881). 

MASON, WILLIAM, a minor poet, a friend of poet Gray; the author oftwo tragedies, "Elfrida" and "Caractacus" (1724-1797). 

MASON AND DIXON'S LINE, so called after English engineers whosurveyed it 1764-67; is the boundary separating Maryland fromPennsylvania and Delaware; during the Civil War it was inaccuratelyregarded as dividing the slave-holding from the free States, Maryland andDelaware both recognising slavery. 

MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES, French Egyptologist, born at Paris;made extensive explorations and important discoveries in Egypt; haswritten, among works bearing on Egypt, "Histoire Ancienne des Peuplesd'Orient"; _b_. 1846. 

MASSACHUSETTS (2, 239), a New England State of the American Union, lies on the Atlantic seaboard between New Hampshire and Vermont on the N. And Rhode Island and Connecticut on the S. , with New York on its westernborder; has a long irregular coast-line and an uneven surface, rising tothe Green Mountains in the W. ; the scenery is of great beauty, but thesoil is in many places poor, the farms raising chiefly hay and dairyproduce; the winters are severe; Massachusetts is the third manufacturingState of the Union; its industries include cotton, woollen, worsted, clothing, leather and leather goods, iron and iron goods; schooleducation throughout the State is free and of a high standard; there areseveral universities and colleges, including Harvard, Boston, Williams, and Amherst; founded in 1620 by the Pilgrim Fathers, Massachusetts hadmany hardships in early days, and was long the scene of religiousintolerance and persecution; the War of Independence began at Bunker'sHill and Lexington in 1776; the capital and chief seaport is Boston(448); Worcester (85) has machinery factories, Springfield (44) paper, and Lowell (78) cotton mills; Concord was for long a literary centre. 

MASSAGE, in medicine a process of kneading, stroking, and rubbing, with the fingers and palms of the hands, applied to the body as a wholeor to locally affected parts, to allay pain, promote circulation, andrestore nervous and vital energy; it was practised in very early times inChina and India; was known to the Greeks and Romans, and was revived byDr. Mezger of Amsterdam in 1853. 

MASSAGETÆ, a Scythian people on the NE. Of the Caspian Sea, who usedto kill and eat the aged among them, in an expedition against whom, it issaid, Cyrus the Great lost his life. 

MASSENA, Duc de Rivoli, Prince of Essling, one of the mostillustrious marshals of France, born at Nice; he distinguished himself atRivoli in 1796, at Zurich in 1799, at the siege of Genoa in 1800, atEckmühl and at Wagram in 1809, and was named by Napoleon _L'enfant chéride la Victoire_, i. E. The favoured child of victory; he was recalledfrom the Peninsula by Napoleon for failing to expel Wellington, and itappears he never forgot the affront (1758-1817). 

MASSEY, GERALD, English democratic poet, born in Hertfordshire;wrote "Poems and Charms, " "Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of Love"; haswritten for the reviews, and taken a great interest in spiritualism; _b_. 1828. 

MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE, celebrated French pulpit orator, born atHières, in Provence; entered the congregation of the Oratory, and becameso celebrated for his eloquence that he was called to Paris, where hegathered round him hearers in crowds; Bourdaloue, when he heard him, said, "He must increase, but I must decrease, " and Louis XIV. Said tohim, "When I hear others preach I go away much pleased with them, butwhen I hear you I feel displeased with myself"; he was made bishop ofClermont, and next year preached before Louis XV. , now king, his famous"Petit Carême, " a series of ten sermons for Lent; he was a devotedbishop, and the idol of his flock; his style was perfect, and hiseloquence was winning, and went home to the heart (1663-1742). 

MASSINGER, PHILIP, English dramatist; little is known of hispersonal history except that he studied at Oxford without taking adegree, that he lived in London, and was buried as "a stranger" in St. Saviour's, Southwark; of his 37 plays only 18 remain, and of these themost famous is the comedy entitled "New Way to Pay Old Debts, " the chiefcharacter in which is Sir Giles Overreach, and the representation ofwhich still holds its place on the stage (1583-1640). 

MASSON, DAVID, man of letters, born in Aberdeen; elected literature ashis profession in preference to theology, with the study of which hecommenced; joined the staff of the Messrs. Chambers; settled in London, and became professor of English Literature in University College, fromthe chair of which he removed to the corresponding one in Edinburgh in1865; edited _Macmillan's Magazine_ from 1859 to 1868; his great work, the "Life of Milton, " in 6 vols. , a thorough book, and of greathistorical value; has written on "British Novelists and theirStyles, " "Life of Drummond of Hawthornden, " &c. ; became in 1893Historiographer-Royal of Scotland; _b_. 1822. 

MASSO`RAH, a body of Biblical references, chiefly handed down bytradition, and calculated to be of great service in verifying theoriginal text of the Hebrew Scriptures. 

MASSORETIC POINTS, the vowel points and accents in Hebrew; inventedby the Massorites, or authors of the Massorah. 

MASTER HUMPHREY, a character in Dickens's "Old Curiosity Shop. "

MASTER OF SENTENCES, PETER LOMBARD (q. V. ). 

MASTODON, one of an extinct species of mammals akin to the elephant. 

MASULIPATAM (38), chief seaport in the district of Kistna, MadrasPresidency, India, 215 m. N. Of Madras, with a large coasting trade. 

MATABELELAND, a country stretching northward from the Transvaal, 180m. By 150 m. , towards the Zambesi River; formerly occupied by peacefulMashona and Makalaka tribes, but conquered by the Matabele in 1840, andsince held by them. They are warlike, and have no industries. The womengrow mealies, the men make continual forays on their neighbours. Goldexists in various parts, and the country was declared British territoryin 1890. It is developed by the British South African Company, whosechief stations are Buluwayo in the SW. And Fort Salisbury in the NE. 

MATANZA (50), a fortified town in Cuba, 32 m. E. Of Havana. 

MATERIALISM, the theory which, denying the independent existence ofspirit, resolves everything within the sphere of being into matter, orinto the operation and the effect of the operation of forces latent init, or into the negative and positive interaction of mere materialforces, to the exclusion of intelligent purpose and design. 

MATHER, COTTON, an American divine, born in Boston; notorious forhis belief in witchcraft, and for the persecution he provoked againstthose charged with it by his zeal in spreading the delusion (1663-1728). 

MATHEW, THEOBALD, or FATHER MATHEW, apostle of temperance, bornin Tipperary; studied for the Catholic priesthood, but joined theCapuchin Minorites; was in 1814 ordained a priest, and located in Cork, where at sight of the cruel effects of drunkenness on the mass of thepeople his heart was moved, and he resolved on a crusade against it tostamp it out; he started on this enterprise in 1827, but it took a yearand a half before his mission bore any fruit, and then it was accompaniedwith marvellous success wherever he went, even as far as the New Worlditself (1790-1856). 

MATHEWS, CHARLES, comedian, born in London; abandoned his father'strade of bookseller for the stage in 1794; appeared in Dublin and York, and from 1803 till 1818 played in Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and theLyceum; the rest of his life he spent as a single-handed entertainer, charming countless audiences in Britain and America with his good singingand incomparable mimicry; he died at Plymouth (1776-1835). 

MATHEWS, CHARLES JAMES, light comedian, son of the preceding;married Madame Vestris; was a charming actor, acted with a great graceand delicacy of feeling (1803-1878). 

MATLOCK, a watering-place in Derbyshire, on a slope overlooking theDerwent, 15 m. NW. Of Derby. 

MATILDA, the "Great Countess" of Tuscany, celebrated for her zeal onbehalf of the Popes against the Emperor Henry IV. , and for the donationof her possessions to the Church, which gave rise to a contest after herdeath (1046-1115). 

MATILDA or MAUD, daughter of Henry I. Of England and wife ofthe Emperor Henry V. , on whose decease she was married to GeoffreyPlantagenet of Anjou and became mother of Henry II. ; on the death of herfather succeeded to the English throne, but was supplanted by Stephen, whom she defeated and who finally defeated her (1103-1167). 

MATADORE, the athlete who kills the bull in a bull-fight. 

MATSYS, QUENTIN, a Flemish painter, originally a blacksmith, didaltar-pieces and _genre_ paintings (1466-1530). 

MATTATHIAS, a Jewish priest, the father of the Maccabees, who in 170B. C. , when asked by a Syrian embassy to offer sacrifice to the Syriangods, not only refused to do so, but slew with his own hand the Jew thatstepped forward to do it for him, and then fell upon the embassy thatrequired the act; upon which he rushed with his five sons into thewilderness of Judea and called upon all to follow him who had any regardfor the Lord; this was the first step in the war of the Maccabees, theimmediate issue of which was to the Jew the achievement of anindependence which he had not enjoyed for 400 years. 

MATTERHORN, a sharp Alpine peak 14, 700 ft. , on the Swiss-Italianborder, difficult of ascent; first scaled by Whymper 1865. 

MATTHEW, a publican, by the Sea of Tiberias, who being called becamea disciple and eventually an apostle of Christ; generally represented inChristian art as an old man with a large flowing beard, often occupied inwriting his gospel, with an angel standing by. 

MATTHEW, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO, written not later than 62 A. D. , isthe earliest record we possess of the ministry and teaching of Christ, and is believed to have been originally a mere collection of His sayingsand parables; was written in Aramaic, the spoken language of the Jews atthe period, of which the version we have in Greek is a translation, assome think by Matthew himself; its aim is to show that Jesus of Nazarethis the Messiah promised in the Old Testament, in a form, however, whichled to His rejection by the Jews, and their consequent rejection by Him, to the proclamation of His gospel among the Gentiles (chap. Xxviii. 19, 20). 

MATTHIAS CORVINUS, conqueror and patron of learning, born atKlausenburg; was elected King of Hungary 1458; though arbitrary in hismeasures, he promoted commerce, dispensed justice, fostered culture, andobserved sound finance; he founded the University of Buda-Pesth, anobservatory, and great library, but his reign was full of wars; for nineyears he fought the Turks and took from them Bosnia, Moldavia, andWallachia; from 1470 till 1478 the struggle was with Bohemia, from whichhe wrested Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia; then followed war withFrederick III. , the capture of Vienna 1485, and a large part of Austria1487; he made Vienna his capital, and died there (1443-1490). 

MATURIN, CHARLES ROBERT, novelist, a poor curate in Dublin, wherehe died; wrote "The Fatal Revenge" and other extravagant tales, andproduced one successful tragedy, "Bertram, " 1816 (1782-1824). 

MAUDSLEY, HENRY, specialist in mental diseases, born nearGiggleswick; was educated at University College, London, and graduatedM. D. 1857; after being physician in Manchester Asylum, he returned toLondon 1862, and was professor of Medical Jurisprudence at his owncollege 1869-79; he is the author of several works on mental pathology;_b_. 1835. 

MAUNDAY-THURSDAY, the Thursday before Good Friday, on which day itwas customary for high people to wash the feet of a number of poorpeople, and on which Royal alms are bestowed by the Royal Almoner to thepoor. 

MAUPASSANT, GUY DE, a clever French romancer, born at Fécamp; servedin the Franco-German War, and afterwards gave himself to letters, producing novels, stories, lyrics, and plays; died insane (1850-1893). 

MAUPEOU, chancellor of France, whose ministry was signalised by thebanishment of the Parlement of Paris, and the institution of _Conseils duroi_; the Parlement Maupeou became a laughing-stock under Louis XV. , andLouis XVI. Recalled the old Parlement on his accession (1714-1792). 

MAUPERTUIS, PIERRE LOUIS MOREAU DE, French mathematician andastronomer, born at St. Malo; went to Lapland to measure a degree oflongitude, to ascertain the figure of the earth; wrote a book "On theFigure of the Earth"; was invited to Berlin by Frederick the Great, andmade President of the Academy of Science there; was satirised by Voltairemuch to the annoyance of the king, who patronised him and prided himselfin the institution of which he was the head (1698-1759). 

MAUR, ST. , a disciple of St. Benedict in the 6th century; thecongregation of Saint-Maur, founded in 1613, was a perfect nursery ofscholarly men, known as Maurists. 

MAUREPAS, French statesman, born at Versailles; was minister ofFrance under Louis XV. And again under Louis XVI. , an easy-going, careless minister, "adjusted his cloak well to the wind, if so be hemight have pleased all parties" (1701-1784). 

MAURICE, FREDERICK DENISON, a liberal theologian and socialreformer, born at Normanstone, near Lowestoft, the son of a Unitarianminister; started as a literary man, and for a time edited the_Athenæum_, and took orders in the English Church in 1834; was chaplainto Guy's Hospital and afterwards to Lincoln's Inn, and incumbent of VereStreet Chapel; held professorships in Literature, in Theology, and MoralPhilosophy; was a disciple of Coleridge and a Broad Churchman, who"promoted the charities of his faith, and parried its discussion"; one ofthe originators of Christian Socialism along with Kingsley, and thefounder of the Working-Man's College; his writings were numerous thoughsomewhat vague in their teachings, and had many admirers (1805-1872). 

MAURICE OF NASSAU, Prince of Orange; one of the most famous generalsof modern times, son of William the Silent, on whose assassination he waselected Stadtholder, and became by his prowess the liberator of theUnited Provinces from the yoke of Spain; his name is stained by histreatment of Barneveldt, who saw and opposed his selfish designs(1567-1625). 

MAURISTS, a congregation of reformed Benedictines, withhead-quarters in Paris, disbanded in 1792; were through the 17th and 18thcenturies noted for their services to learning; they published manyhistorical and ecclesiastical works, including a "History of theLiterature of France, " and boasted in their number Montfauçon, Mabillon, and other scholars. See MAUR, ST. 

MAURITANIA, was the old name of the African country W. Of the MuluyaRiver and N. Of the Atlas Mountains, from which supplies of corn andtimber were obtained. 

MAURITIUS, or ISLE OF FRANCE (372), a volcanic island in theIndian Ocean, 550 m. E. Of Madagascar, as large as Caithness, withmountains 3000 feet high, a tableland in the centre, and many shortstreams; the climate is cool in winter, hot in the rainy season, andsubject to cyclones; formerly well wooded, the forests have been cut downto make room for sugar, coffee, maize, and rice plantations; sugar is themain export; the population is very mixed; African and Eastern racespredominate; descendants of French settlers and Europeans number 110, 000;discovered by the Portuguese in 1510, they abandoned it 90 years later;the Dutch held it for 112 years, and abandoned it in turn; occupied bythe French in 1721, it was captured by Britain in 1810, and is now, withsome other islands, a crown colony, under a governor and council. PORTLOUIS (62), on the NW. , is the capital, and a British naval coalingstation. 

MAURY, ABBÉ, born in Vaucluse, son of a shoemaker; came to Paris, and became celebrated as a preacher; "skilfulest vamper of old rottenleather to make it look like new, " was made member of the ConstituentAssembly, "fought Jesuistico-rhetorically, with toughest lungs and heart, for throne, specially for altar and tithes"; his efforts, thoughfruitless for throne, gained in the end the "red cardinal plush, " andCount d'Artois and he embraced each other "with a kiss" (1740-1817). 

MAURY, MATTHEW FONTAINE, American hydrographer, born in Virginia;entered the United States navy in 1825, became lieutenant in 1837, studied the Gulf Stream, oceanic currents, and great circle sailing, andin 1856 published his "Physical Geography of the Sea"; took the side ofthe Confederates in the Civil War, and was afterwards appointed professorin the Military College at Lexington, in Virginia (1806-1873). 

MAUSOLE`UM, a building more or less elaborate, used as a tomb. SeeMAUSOLUS. 

MAUSOLUS, a king of Caria, husband of Artemisia, who in 353 raised amonument to his memory, called the Mausoleum, and reckoned one of theSeven Wonders of the world. 

MAX MÜLLER, FRIEDRICH, philologist, born at Dessau, son of a Germanpoet, Wilhelm Müller; educated at Leipzig; studied at Paris, and came toEngland in 1846; was appointed Taylorian Professor at Oxford in 1854, andin 1868 professor of Comparative Philology there, a science to which hehas made large contributions; besides editing the "Rig-Veda, " he haspublished "Lectures on the Science of Language" and "Chips from a GermanWorkshop, " dealing therein not merely with the origin of languages, butthat of the early religious and social systems of the East; _b_. 1823. 

MAXIM, HIRAM S. , American inventor, born at Tangerville, Maine, U. S. ; showed early a decided mechanical talent, and is best known inconnection with the invention of the gun named after him, but among hisother inventions are the smokeless powder, the incandescent lamp carbons, and search-lights; B. 1840. 

MAXIM GUN, an automatic machine-gun invented by Hiram S. Maxim, anAmerican, in 1884, capable of discharging 620 rifle cartridges perminute; the first shot is fired by hand, and the recoil is utilised toreload and fire the next, and so on. A cylinder of water keeps the barrelfrom heating. 

MAXIMILIAN, FERDINAND JOSEPH, archduke of Austria, younger brotherof Francis Joseph, born at Schönbrunn; became emperor of Mexico; issuedan edict threatening death to any Mexican who took up arms against theempire, roused the Liberal party against him, and was at the head of 8000men defeated at Querétaro, taken prisoner, tried by court-martial, andshot (1832-1867). 

MAXIMILIAN I. , emperor of Germany, son of Frederick III. , acquiredBurgundy and Flanders by marriage, which involved him in a war withFrance; became emperor on the death of his father in 1493; became bymarriage Duke of Milan, and brought Spain under the power of his dynastyby the marriage of his son Philip to the daughter of Ferdinand andIsabella; it was he who assembled the Diet of Augsburg at which Luthermade appeal to the Pope (1459-1519). 

MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK, eminent physicist, born in Edinburgh, son ofJohn Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie; attained the rank of senior wrangler atCambridge; became professor in Aberdeen in 1856, in London in 1860, andof Experimental Physics in Cambridge in 1871; in this year appeared thefirst of his works, "The Theory of Heat, " which was followed by"Electricity and Magnetism" and "Matter and Motion, " the second being hisgreatest; he was as sincere a Christian as he was a zealous scientist(1831-1879). 

MAXWELL, SIR WILLIAM STIRLING, of Keir, Perthshire, a man of refinedscholarship; travelled in Italy and Spain; wrote on subjects connectedwith the history and the artists of Spain (1818-1878). 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, so called from a Sanskrit wordsignifying to grow, as being the shooting or growing month. 

MAY, ISLE OF, island at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 5½ m. SE. Of Crail on the Fife coast; has a lighthouse with an electric light, flashing out at intervals to a distance of 22 nautical miles. 

MAY, SIR THOMAS ERSKINE, English barrister; became Clerk of theHouse of Commons in 1871; wrote a parliamentary text-book, "Democracy inEurope, " and a "Constitutional History of England since the Accession ofGeorge III. , " in continuation of the works of Hallam and Stubbs(1815-1886). 

MAYER, JULIUS ROBERT VON, German physicist, born in Heilbronn; madea special study of the phenomena of heat, established the numericalrelation between heat and work, and propounded the theory of theproduction and maintenance of the sun's temperature; he had a controversyas to the priority of his discoveries with Joule, who claimed to haveanticipated them (1814-1878). 

MAYHEW, HENRY, littérateur and first editor of _Punch_, born inLondon, and articled to his father, a solicitor; chose journalism as aprofession, and in conjunction with Gilbert à Beckett started _The Thief_in 1832, the first of the "Bits" type of papers; he joined the first_Punch_ staff in 1841, in which year his farce "The Wandering Minstrel"was produced; collaborating with his brother Augustus, he wrote "Whom toMarry" and many other novels between 1847 and 1855, thereafter works onvarious subjects; his principal book, "London Labour and the LondonPoor, " appeared in 1851 (1812-1887). 

MAYNOOTH, village in co. Kildare, 15 m. W. Of Dublin; is the seat ofa Roman Catholic seminary founded by the Irish Parliament in 1795 on theabolition of the French colleges during the Revolution; an annual grantof £9000 was made, increased to £26, 000 in 1846, but commuted in 1869 fora sum of £1, 100, 000, when State connection ceased; the college trains 500students for the priesthood. 

MAYO (245), maritime county in Counaught, west of Ireland, betweenSligo and Galway; has many indentations, the largest Broadhaven, Blacksod, and Clew Bays, and islands Achil and Clare, with a remarkablepeninsula The Mullet; mountainous in the W. , the E. Is more level, andhas Lough Conn and the Moy River; much of the county is barren and bog, but crops of cereals and potatoes are raised; cattle are reared onpasture lands; there are valuable slate quarries and manganese mines;Castlebar (4), in the centre, is the county town; Westport (4), on ClewBay, has some shipping. 

MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWARK BOURKE, EARL OF, statesman, born andeducated in Dublin; entered Parliament 1847, and was Chief Secretary forIreland in Conservative Governments 1852, 1858, and 1866, opposingGladstone's Irish Church resolutions; in 1868 he succeeded Lord Lawrenceas Viceroy of India, in which office he proved himself a prudentstatesman, a sound financier, and a just and wise administrator; he wasmurdered by a fanatic in the Andaman Islands, and universally mourned(1822-1872). 

MAZARIN, JULES, cardinal, born at Piscina, Abruzzi; having been sentby the Pope one of an embassy to France, he gained the favour ofRichelieu, who recommended him to Louis XIII. As his successor, and whosesuccessor, being naturalised as a Frenchman, he became in 1642, an officewhich he retained under the queen-regent on Louis' death; he brought theThirty Years' War to an end by the peace of Westphalia, crushed therevolt of the FRONDE (q. V. ), and imposed on Spain the treaty ofthe Pyrenees; at first a popular minister, he began to lose favour whencabals were formed against him, and he was dismissed, but he contrived toallay the storm, regained his power, and held it till his death; he diedimmensely rich, and bequeathed his library, which was a large one, to theCollege Mazarin (1602-1661). 

MAZARIN BIBLE, the first book printed by movable metal types, a copyof which is in the Mazarin library, and bears the date 1456. 

MAZEPPA, IVAN, hetman of the Cossacks, born in Podolia; became pageto John Casimir, king of Poland; was taken by a Polish nobleman, whosurprised him with his wife, and tied by him to the back of a wild horse, which galloped off with him to the Ukraine, where it had been bred, andwhere some peasants released him half-dead; life among those peoplesuited his taste, he stayed among them, became secretary to their hetman, and finally hetman himself; he won the confidence of Peter the Great, whomade him a prince under his suzerainty, but in an evil hour he alliedhimself with Charles XII. Of Sweden, and lost it; fled to Bender on thedefeat of the Swedish king at Pultowa in 1709 (1644-1709). 

MAZURKA, a lively Polish dance, danced by four or eight couples, andmuch practised in the N. Of Germany as well as in Poland. 

MAZZINI, JOSEPH, Italian patriot, born at Genoa; consecrated hislife to political revolution and the regeneration of his country on ademocratic basis by political agitation; was arrested by the Sardiniangovernment in 1831 and expelled from Italy; organised at Marseilles thesecret society of Young Italy, whose motto was "God and the People";driven from Marseilles to Switzerland and from Switzerland to London, henever ceased to agitate and conspire for this object; on the outbreak ofthe Revolution in 1848 at Paris he hastened thither to join themovement, which had spread into Italy, and where in 1849 he was installedone of a triumvirate in Rome and conducted the defence of the cityagainst the arms of France, but refusing to join in the capitulation hereturned to London, where he still continued to agitate till, his healthfailing, he retired to Geneva and died (1805-1872). 

MEAD, a brisk liquor made by fermenting honey, and used in civilisedand barbarous Europe from very early times. 

MEADE, GEORGE GORDON, American general, born at Cadiz, son of anAmerican merchant; he passed through West Point and joined the engineers;he served in the Mexican War, became captain and major, and was employedsurveying and lighthouse building till the Civil War; in it, first incommand of volunteers and afterwards as general in the regular army, hedistinguished himself chiefly by frustrating Lee in 1863; after the warhe continued in the service till his death at Philadelphia (1815-1872). 

MEANDER. See MÆANDER. 

MEATH (77), a county in Leinster, Ireland, touching the Irish Seabetween Louth and Dublin, is watered by the Boyne River and its tributarythe Blackwater; the surface is undulating, the soil fertile; some oatsand potatoes are grown, but most of the county is under pasture; there isa little linen and coarse woollen industry; the chief towns are Navan(4), Kells (2), and the county town Trim (1). 

MEAUX (13), on the Marne, 28 m. NE. Of Paris, a well-built town, with Gothic cathedral; has a large corn and provision trade, and somecopper and cotton industries; Bossuet was bishop here, and it containshis grave. 

MECCA, the birthplace of Mahomet, the Holy City and Keblah of theMoslems, the capital of Hedjaz and the true capital of Arabia; in themidst of sandy valleys, and 60 m. Distant from Jeddah, its port; a cityto which every true Mussulman must make a pilgrimage once in his life;has a population which varies from 30, 000 to 60, 000. See CAABA. 

MECHANICAL POWERS, the lever, inclined plane, wheel and axle, screw, pulley, and wedge, the elementary contrivances of which all machines arecomposed. 

MECHANICS' INSTITUTES, associations of working-men which aim atproviding a general education for artisans, and particularly instructionin the fundamental principles of their own trades; are managed bycommittees of their own election, usually have a reading-room andlibrary, and provide classes and lectures; Dr. Birkbeck started ajourneymen's class in Glasgow 1800, and in 1824 in London organised thefirst Mechanics' Institute. 

MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN (578), a German grand-duchy, on the shores ofthe Baltic, between Schleswig-Holstein and Pomerania; is mostly a level, fertile plain, with numerous small rivers and many lakes; agriculture isthe chief industry; merino sheep are renowned; there are iron-founding, sugar-refining, and tanning works, and amber is found on the coasts;social institutions are very backward; still largely feudal; serfdom wasabolished in 1824 only. SCHWERIN (34), on Lake Schwerin, is thecapital. ROSTOCK (44), has a university; is a busy Baltic port, fromwhich grain, wool, and cattle are shipped; has important wool and cattlefairs, shipbuilding, and other industries. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ(98), adjacent to the foregoing on the SE. , presents similarcharacteristics, and is united to it in government; the capital isNeustrelitz (9). 

MEDEA, a famous sorceress of Greek legend, daughter of Æëtes, kingof Colchis, by whose aid JASON (q. V. ) accomplished the objectof his expedition, and acquired the Golden Fleece, and who accompaniedhim back to Greece as his wife; by her art she restored the youth ofEson, the father of her husband, but the latter having abandoned her sheavenged herself on him by putting the children she had by him to death;the art she possessed was that of making old people young again by firstchopping them in pieces and then boiling them in a caldron. 

MEDIA, a country on the SW. Of the Caspian Sea, originally aprovince of the Assyrian empire, from which it revolted; was after 150years of independence annexed to Persia by Cyrus, of which it had formedthe NW. Portion. 

MEDIÆVALISM, a tendency in literature and art to conform in spiritor otherwise to mediæval models. 

MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE OR FORENSIC MEDICINE, is the branch of medicalstudy which bears on legal questions, the detection of crime or thedetermination of civil rights. 

MEDICI, an illustrious family who attained sovereign power inFlorence in the 15th century, the most celebrated members of which were:COSMO DE, surnamed the "Father of his Country, " was exiled for tenyears but recalled, and had afterwards a peaceful and prosperous reign;was a student of philosophy, and much interested in literature(1389-1464). LORENZO DE, the Magnificent, did much to demoraliseFlorence, but patronised literature and the arts (1448-1492). Othercelebrated members of the family were POPES LEO X. , CLEMENTVII. , and CATHERINE AND MARY DE MEDICI (q. V. ). 

MEDICINE-MAN, one among the American Indians who professes to curediseases or exorcise evil spirits by magic. 

MEDINA (lit. The city) (76), called also Medina-en-Nabi, 210 m. N. Of Mecca, the City of the Prophet, as the place in which he found refugeafter his "flight" from Mecca in 632; it was here he from that datelived, where he died, and where his tomb is, in a beautiful and richmosque called El Haram (i. E. The inviolate), erected on the site ofthe prophet's house. See HEGIRA. 

MEDITERRANEAN SEA, so called by the ancients as lying in thepresumed middle of the earth surrounded by Europe, Asia, and Africa; thelargest enclosed sea in the world; its communication with the Atlantic isGibraltar Strait, 9 m. Wide; it communicates with the Black Sea throughthe Dardanelles, and in 1869 a canal through the isthmus of Suezconnected it with the Red Sea, 2200 m. Long by 100 to 600 m. Broad; itsS. Shores are regular; the N. Has many gulfs, and two great inlets, theÆgean and Adriatic Seas; the Balearic Isles, Corsica, and Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, and Crete, the Ionian Isles, and the Archipelagoare the chief islands; the Rhône, Po, and Nile the chief rivers thatdischarge into it; a ridge between Sicily and Cape Bon divides it intotwo great basins; it is practically tideless, and salter than theAtlantic; its waters too are warm; northerly winds prevail in the E. Withcertain regular variations; the surrounding territories are the richestin the world, and the greatest movements in civilisation and art havetaken place around it in Africa, Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, and Rome. 

MEDIUM, in modern spiritualism a person susceptible to communicationwith the spirit-world. 

MEDJIDIE, an Ottoman order of knighthood instituted in 1852 by theSultan Abd-ul-Medjid, as a reward of merit in civil or military service. 

MÉDOC, a district in the dep. Of the Gironde, on the left of theestuary, in the S. Of France, famous for its wines. 

MEDUSA, one of the THREE GORGONS (q. V. ), is fabled to havebeen originally a woman of rare beauty, with a magnificent head of hair, but having offended Athena, that goddess changed her hair into hideousserpents, and gave to her eyes the power of turning any one into stonewho looked into them; PERSEUS (q. V. ) cut off her head by thehelp of Athena, who afterwards wore it on the middle of her breastplateor shield. 

MEDWAY, a river in Kent, which rises in Surrey and Sussex, and whichafter a NE. Course of 58 m. Falls into an estuary at Sheerness. 

MEEANEE, a village in Sind, 6 m. N. Of Hyderabad, where Sir CharlesNapier defeated an army of the Ameer of Sind in 1843. 

MEERSCHAUM (lit. Sea-foam), a fine white clay, a hydrate-silicateof magnesia, supposed, as found on the sea-shore in some places, to havebeen sea-foam petrified. 

MEERUT (119), an Indian town in the North-West Provinces, on theNuddi, 40 m. NE. Of Delhi; is capital of a district of the same name, andan Important military station; it is noted as the scene of the outbreakof the Mutiny in 1857. 

MEGARIS, a small but populous State of ancient Greece, S. Of Attica, whose inhabitants were adventurous seafarers, credited with deceitfulpropensities. The capital, Megara, famous for white marble and fine clay, was the birthplace of Euclid. 

MEGATHERIUM, an extinct genus of mammalia allied to the sloth, some18 or 20 ft. In length and 8 ft. In height, with an elephantine skeleton. 

MEHEMET ALI, pasha of Egypt, born in Albania; entered the Turkisharmy, and rose into favour, so that he was able to seize the pashalic, the Sultan compromising matters by exaction of an annual tribute inacknowledgment of his suzerainty; the Mamelukes, however, proved unruly, and he could not otherwise get rid of them but by luring them into hiscoils, and slaughtering them wholesale in 1811; he maintained two warswith the Sultan for the possession of Syria, and had Ibrahim Pasha, hisson, for lieutenant; compelled to give up the struggle, he instituted aseries of reforms in Egypt, and prosecuted them with such vigour that theSultan decreed the pashalic to remain hereditary in his family(1769-1849). 

MEISSEN (15), a town of Saxony, on the Upper Elbe, 15 m. NW. OfDresden; has a very fine Gothic cathedral and an old castle. Gellert andLessing were educated here. There is a large porcelain factory, whereDresden china is made, besides manufactures of iron. 

MEISSONIER, JEAN LOUIS ERNEST, French painter, born at Lyons; beganas a book illustrator of "Paul and Virginia" amongst other works, practising the while and perfecting his art as a figure painter, in whichhe achieved signal success, from his "Chess-player" series to his designsfor the decoration of the Pantheon, "The Apotheosis of France, " in 1889(1811-1891). 

MEISTER, WILHELM, a great work of Goethe's, fraught withworld-wisdom, the hero of which of the name represents a man who is led, in these very days, by a higher hand than he is aware of to his appointeddestiny. 

MEISTERSÄNGERS or SINGERS, a guild founded in Germany in the15th century or earlier for the cultivation of poetry, of which HANSSACHS (q. V. ) was the most famous member. 

MEKHONG, is the great river of Siam. Its source In the mountains ofChiamdo is unexplored. Its course, 3000 m. , is southerly to the ChinaSea; the last 500 m. Are navigable. It carries great quantities of siltwhich goes to form and augment the delta through which it issues. 

MELANCHTHON, PHILIP, Protestant Reformer, born in the Palatinate ofthe Rhine; was the scholar of the German Reformation, and a wise friendof Luther's, having come into contact with him at Wittenberg, where hehappened to be professor of Greek; he wrote the first Protestant work indogmatic theology, entitled "Loci Communes, " and drew up the "AugsburgConfession"; the sweetness of temper for which he was distinguished, together with his soberness as a thinker, had a moderating influence onthe vehemence of Luther, and contributed much to the progress of theReformation; he was the Erasmus of that movement, and combined thehumanist with the Reformer, as George Buchanan did in Scotland(1497-1560). 

MELANESIA, eleven archipelagoes of crystalline, coralline, andvolcanic islands in the W. Of Polynesia, all S. Of the equator, andinhabited by the Melanesian or dark oceanic race; includes the Fiji, Solomon, Bismarck, and New Hebrides islands. 

MELBA, NELLIE, a celebrated operatic singer, born in Australia; madeher first appearance when she was only six; has often appeared in operain London; her private name is Mrs. Armstrong, and she resides in Paris;_b_. 1865. 

MELBOURNE (491), the capital of Victoria, at the head of PortPhillip Bay; is the largest and most important city in Australia; builtin broad regular streets, with much architectural beauty, and containing, besides the Government buildings, a Roman and an Anglican cathedral, amint and a university, numerous colleges, hospitals, and otherinstitutions. Its shipping interests are very large; a ship canal enablesthe largest ships to reach the quays; exports of gold and wool areextensive. Melbourne is the railway centre of the continent. It hasmanufactures of boots and clothing, foundries and flour-mills. It has ahot climate. Its water supply is abundant, but defective drainage impairsits healthfulness. First settled in 1835, it was incorporated in 1842, and nine years later was made capital of the newly constituted colony. Itwas the scene of an exhibition in 1888, of a great industrial struggle in1890, and of a very severe financial crisis in 1893. 

MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB, VISCOUNT, English statesman, born inLondon; educated at Cambridge and Glasgow Universities; enteredParliament as a Whig in 1805, but was Chief Secretary for Ireland in theGovernments of Canning, Goderich, and Wellington; succeeding to the titlein 1828, he reverted to his old party; was Home Secretary under Earl Greyin 1830, and was himself Prime Minister for four months in 1834, and thenfrom 1835 till 1841, when he retired from public life; he was a man ofsound sense, and showed admirable tact in introducing the young queen toher various duties in 1837 (1779-1848). 

MELCHIZEDEK (i. E. King of righteousness or justice), apriest-king of Canaan, to whom, though of no lineage as a priest, but asa minister of God's justice, Abraham did homage and paid tithes; a truetype of priest as ordained of God, and one in that capacity "withoutfather and without mother. "

MELEAGER, a Greek mythic hero, distinguished for throwing thejavelin, and by his skill in it slaying a wild boar which devastated hiscountry, and whose life depended on the burning down of a brand that wasblazing on the hearth at the time of his birth, but which his mother atonce snatched from the flames. But a quarrel having arisen between himand his uncles over the head of the boar, in which they met their death, the mother to be avenged on him for slaying her brothers threw back intothe fire the brand on the preservation of which his life depended, and onthe instant he breathed his last. 

MELIORISM, the theory that there is in nature a tendency to betterand better development. 

MELODRAMA, a play consisting of sensational incidents, and arrangedto produce striking effects. 

MELPOMENË, the one of the nine muses which presides over tragedy. 

MELROSE, a small town in Roxburghshire, at the foot of the Eildons, on the S. Bank of the Tweed, famed for its abbey, founded by David I. In1136; it is celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his "Lay of the LastMinstrel. "

MELTON-MOWBRAY (6), a town 15 m. NE. Of Leicester, the centre of thegreat hunting district; celebrated for its pork pies. 

MELUSINA, a fairy of French legend, who married Raymond, a knight, on condition that on a particular day of the week he would not visit her, a stipulation which he was tempted to break, so that on a day of herseclusion he broke into her chamber, and found the lower part of her bodyfrom the waist downwards transformed into that of a serpent, upon whichshe straightway flew out at the window, to hover henceforth round thecastle of her lord and only appear again on the occasion of the death ofany of the inmates. 

MELVILLE, ANDREW, Scottish Presbyterian ecclesiastic, born nearMontrose; of good and even wide repute as a scholar; became Principalfirst of Glasgow College and then of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews; waszealous for the headship of Christ over the Church, in opposition to theclaim of the king, James, and spoke his mind freely both to the king andthe bishops, for which he was sent to the Tower; on his release, afterfour years, he retired to a professorship at Sedan, in France, havingbeen forbidden to return to Scotland (1545-1622). 

MELVILLE, WHYTE-, novelist; his novels were chiefly of the huntingfield, such as "Katerfelto" and "Black, but Comely, " though he wrotehistorical ones also, such as "The Queen's Maries" (1821-1878). 

MEMEL (19), Baltic seaport at the mouth of the Kurisches Haff, inthe extreme NE. Of Prussia; ships great quantities of Russian andLithuanian timber, and has some chemical works and shipbuilding yards. 

MEMNON, a son of Tithonus and Aurora, who was sent by his father, king of Egypt and Ethiopia, to the assistance of Troy on the death ofHector, and who slew Antilochus, the son of Nestor, and was himself slainby Achilles, whereupon Aurora, all tears, besought Zeus to immortalisehis memory, which, however, did not calm her sorrow, for ever since theearth bears witness to her weeping in the dews of the morning; a statue, presumed to be to his memory, was erected near Thebes, in Egypt, whichwas fabled to emit a musical sound every time the first ray fell on itfrom the rosy fingers of Aurora. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt, of which it was the capital; itwas founded by Menes at the apex of the delta of the Nile, and contained700, 000 inhabitants. 

MEMPHIS (102), a Tennessee port on the Mississippi, 826 m. Above NewOrleans, accessible to the largest vessels, is also a great railwaycentre, and therefore a place of great commercial importance; has manyindustries, and a great cotton market. 

MENADO (549), a Dutch colony in the N. Of Celebes. 

MENAI STRAIT, a picturesque channel separating Anglesey fromCarnarvonshire, 14 m. Long and at its narrowest 200 yards wide; iscrossed by a suspension bridge (1825) and the Britannia Tubular Bridgefor railway (1850). 

MENANDER, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; was the pupil ofTheophrastus and a friend of Epicurus; of his works, which were numerous, we have only some fragments, but we can judge of them from his imitatorTERENCE (q. V. ) (342-291 B. C. ). 

MENCIUS or MENG-TZE, a celebrated Chinese sage, a disciple, some say a grandson, of Confucius (q. V. ); went up and down with hisdisciples from court to court in the country to persuade, particularlythe ruling classes, to give heed to the words of wisdom, though in vain;after which, on his death, his followers collected his teachings in abook entitled the "Book of Meng-tze, " which is full of practicalinstruction (372-289 B. C. ). 

MENDICANT ORDER, a religious fraternity, the members of which denudethemselves of all private property and live on alms. 

MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, FELIX, celebrated German composer, grandsonof the succeeding, born in Hamburg; he began to compose early in life, and his compositions consisted of symphonies, operas, oratorios, andchurch music; his oratorios of "St. Paul" and "Elijah" are well known, and are enduring monuments of his genius; he was a man universally lovedand esteemed, and had the good fortune to live amidst the happiestsurroundings (1809-1847). 

MENDELSSOHN, MOSES, a German philosopher, born at Dessau, of Jewishdescent, a zealous monotheist, and wrote against Spinoza; was author ofthe "Phædon, a Discourse on the Immortality of the Soul, " and did a greatdeal in his day to do away with the prejudices of the Jews and theprejudices against them; he was the friend of Lessing, and is theprototype of his "Nathan" (1720-1786). 

MENDOZA (137), province in the extreme W. Of Argentina; has theAndes in the W. , Aconcagua (23, 500 ft. ), the highest peak in the NewWorld, otherwise is chiefly worthless pampa, fertile only where irrigatedfrom the small Mendoza River; there vines flourish; copper is plentiful, coal and oil are found. MENDOZA (20), the capital, 640 m. W. OfBuenos Ayres by rail, is on the Trans-Andine route to Chili, with whichit trades largely; suffers frequently from earthquakes. 

MENELAUS, king of Sparta, the brother of Agamemnon and the husbandof Helen, the carrying away of whom by Paris led to the Trojan War. 

MENHIR, a kind of rude obelisk understood to be a sepulchralmonument. 

MENINGES, the name of three membranes that invest the brain andspinal cord, and the inflammation of which is called meningitis. 

MENNONITES, a Protestant sect founded at Zurich with a creed thatcombines the tenets of the Baptists with those of the Quakers; have anepiscopal form of government, and maintain a rigorous church discipline. 

MENSCHIKOFF, ALEXANDER DANILOVITCH, Russian soldier and statesman, born in humble life at Moscow; became servant to Lefort, on whose deathhe succeeded him as favourite of Peter the Great, whom he accompanied toHolland and England; in the Swedish War (1702-1713) he won renown, andwas created field-marshal on the field of Pultowa; he introduced to theCzar Catharine, afterwards czarina, whom he captured at Marienburg, andwhen Peter died secured the throne for her; during her reign and hersuccessor's he governed Russia, but his ambition led the nobles to banishhim to Siberia 1727 (1672-1729). 

MENSCHIKOFF, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVITCH, general, great-grandson of theformer, served in the wars of 1812-15, in the Turkish campaign of 1828, was ambassador to the Porte in 1853, and largely responsible for theCrimean War, in which he commanded at Alma, Inkermann, and Sebastopol(1789-1869). 

MENTEITH, LAKE OF, a small beautiful loch in Perthshire, 13 m. W. OfStirling, with three islets, on one of which stood a priory where, as achild, Mary Stuart spent 1547-48; on another stood the stronghold of theearls. 

MENTHOL, a crystalline substance obtained from the oil ofpeppermint, used in nervous affections, such as neuralgia, as acounter-irritant. 

MENTONE (8), town and seaport in France, on the Mediterranean, 1½ m. From the Italian border; was under the princes of Monaco till 1848, whenit subjected itself to Sardinia, which afterwards handed it over toFrance; protected by the Alps, the climate is delightful, and renders ita favourite health resort in winter and spring; it exports olive-oil andfruit. 

MENTOR, a friend of Ulysses, and the tutor of his son Telemachus, whose form and voice Athena assumed in order to persuade his pupil toretain and maintain the courage and astuteness of his father. 

MENZEL, ADOLF, German painter, born at Breslau, professor at Berlin;best known for his historical pictures and drawings; _b_. 1815. 

MENZEL, WOLFGANG, German author and critic, born in Silesia; wroteon German history, literature, and poetry, as well as general history, and maintained a vigorous polemic against all who by their writings ortheir politics sought to subvert the Christian religion or the orthodoxpolicy of the German monarchies (1789-1873). 

MEPHISTOPHELES, the impersonation in Goethe's "Faust" of the moderndevil, the incarnation of the spirit of universal scepticism andscoffing, who can see not only no beauty in goodness but no deforming ininiquity, alike without reverence for God and fear of his adversary, blind as a mole to all worth and all unworth throughout the universe, yetknowing and boastful of knowledge, by means of which he sees only "theridiculous, the unsuitable, the bad, but for the solemn, the noble, theworthy is blind as his ancient mother. "

MERCATOR, a celebrated Dutch geographer who has given name to aprojection of the earth's surface on a plane (1512-1592). 

MERCENARIES, originally hired soldiers as distinguished from feudallevies, now bodies of foreign troops in the service of the State; theScots Guards in France from the 15th to 18th centuries were famous, andSwiss auxiliaries once belonged to most European armies; William III. HadDutch mercenaries in England; under the Georges, German were hired andwere used in the American War, the Irish rebellion, and the Napoleonicstruggle; in the Crimean War German, Swiss, and Italian were enrolled. 

MERCIA, one of the three chief kingdoms of early England; founded byAnglian settlers in the Upper Trent Valley (now South Staffordshire) Inthe 6th century; it rose to greatness under Penda 626-655, subsequentlysucceeded Northumberland in the supremacy, but after the death of Cenwulf819, waned in turn before Wessex and the Danes. 

MERCURY, the Roman name for the Greek Hermes, the son of Jupiter andMaia, the messenger of the gods, the patron of merchants and travellers, and the conductor of the souls of the dead to the nether world. 

MERCURY, an interior planet of the Solar system, whose orbit isnearest the sun, the greatest distance being nearly 43, 000, 000 m. And theleast over 28, 000, 000, is one-seventeenth the size of the earth, but isof greater density, and accomplishes its revolution in about 84 days; itis visible just before the sun rises and after it sets, but that veryseldom owing to the sun's neighbourhood. 

MER-DE-GLACE, the great glacier of the Alps near Chamouni, was thesubject of the experiments of Professor J. D. Forbes of Edinburgh about1843, and on which the movement of the glaciers was first observed. 

MEREDITH, GEORGE, poet and novelist, born in Hampshire; began hisliterary career 1851 as a poet, in which capacity he has sincedistinguished himself and given expression to his deepest personalconvictions, but it is chiefly as a novelist he is most widely known andis generally judged of; as a novel-writer he occupies a supreme place, and is reckoned superior in that department to all his contemporaries inthe same line by the unanimous consent of one and all of them; hisnovels, however, appeal only to a select few, but by them they areregarded with unbounded admiration, some giving preference to this andothers to that of the series; "The Ordeal of Richard Feveril, " publishedin 1859, is by many considered his best, though it is over "The Egoist"that Louis Stevenson breaks out into raptures; Meredith has mostsympathetic insights into nature and life, has a marvellous power inanalysing and construing character, and shows himself alive to all thegreat immediate interests of humanity; _b_. 1828. 

MEREDITH, OWEN, the _nom de plume_ assumed by Edward Robert BulwerLytton, from his descent from a Welsh noble of the name. 

MERGUI, a small seaport near the mouth of the Tenasserim, BritishBurma, which exports birds' nests to China. 

MERIDIAN, an imaginary great circle passing through the poles atright angles to the equator. 

MÈRIMÈE, PROSPER, a great French writer, born in Paris; abandonedlaw, to which he was bred, for literature; became under Louis Philippeinspector-general of historical documents, and travelled in that capacityin the S. And W. Of France, publishing from time to time the fruits ofhis researches; he wrote in exquisite style stories, historicaldissertations, and travels, among other works "Guzla, " "Chronicles ofCharles IX. , " the "History of Don Pedro, King of Castile, " "Letters to anUnknown"; he was a man of singularly enigmatic character (1802-1870). 

MERIO`NETH (49), a mountainous county of North Wales, abutting onCardigan Bay, between Carnarvon and Cardigan; lofty peaks, Aran Mowddy, Cader Idris, and Aran Benllyn; rivers, Dee and Dovey, and Lake Balaafford picturesque scenery; the soil is fit only for sheep-grazing; butthere are slate and limestone quarries, manganese and gold mines; thecounty town, Dolgelly (2), on the Wnion, has woollen and tweedmanufactures. 

MERIVALE, CHARLES, dean of Ely, born at Exeter; held a succession ofappointments as lecturer; wrote a history of Rome from its foundation in753 to the fall of Augustus in 476, but his chief work is the "History ofthe Romans under the Empire, " indispensable as an Introduction to Gibbon(1808-1893). 

MERLE D'AUBIGNÉ, JEAN-HENRI. See D'AUBIGNÉ, MERLE. 

MERLIN, a legendary Welsh prophet and magician, child of a wizardand a princess, who lived in the 5th century, and was subsequently aprominent personage at King Arthur's' court; prophecies attributed to himexisted as far back as the 14th century; Tennyson represents him asbewitched by Vivian; legend also tells of a Clydesdale Merlin of the 6thcentury; his prophecies, published in 1615, include the former; bothlegends are based on Armorican materials. 

MERMAIDS and MERMEN (i. E. Sea-maids and sea-men), a class ofbeings fabled to inhabit the sea, with a human body as far as the waist, ending in the tail of a fish; the females of them represented above thesurface of the sea combing their long hair with one hand and holding amirror with the other; they are supposed to be endowed with the gift ofprophecy, and are of an amorous temper. 

MEROVINGIANS, a name given to the first dynasty that ruled overFrance, and which derives its name from Merovig, the founder of thefamily. 

MERRILEES, MEG, a half-crazy Border gipsy; one of the characters inScott's "Guy Mannering. "

MERRY MONARCH, a title by which Charles II. Of England was at onetime familiarly known. 

MERSEY, river rising in NW. Derbyshire, flows westward 70 m. BetweenLancashire and Cheshire to the Irish Sea; is of great commercialimportance, having Liverpool on its estuary; its chief tributary is theIrwell, on which stands Manchester. 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL (58), industrial town in Glamorganshire, on the Taff, 15 m. NW. Of Cardiff; is the centre of great coal-fields and of enormousiron and steel works, which constitute the only industry. 

MERV (500), an oasis in Turkestan, belonging to Russia, beingconquered in 1883, 60 m. Long by 40 broad, producing cereals, cotton, silk, &c. ; breeds horses, camels, sheep, with a capital of the same name, on the Transcaspian railway. 

MERYON, CHARLES, etcher of street scenes, born at Paris; son ofEnglish doctor; died insane (18211868). 

MESMER, FRIEDRICH ANTON, a German physician, born near Constance;bred for the Church, but took to medicine; was the founder of animalmagnetism, called mesmerism after him, his experiments in connection withwhich created a great sensation, particularly in Paris, until thequackery of it was discovered by scientific investigation, upon which heretired into obscurity, "to walk silent on the shore of the Bodensee, meditating on much" (1733-1815). 

MESMERISM, animal magnetism so called, or the alleged power which, by operating on the nervous system, one person obtains control over thethoughts and actions of another. 

MESOPOTAMIA, the name given after Alexander the Great's time to theterritory "between the rivers" Euphrates and Tigris, stretching fromBabylonia NW. To the Armenian mountains; under irrigation it was veryfertile, but is now little cultivated; once the scene of highcivilisation when Nineveh ruled it; it passed from Assyrian handssuccessively to Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab; now, aftermany vicissitudes, it is in the deathly grasp of Turkish rule. 

MESSENIA, a province of Greece, mainly the fertile peninsula betweenthe Gulfs of Arcadia and Coron; in ancient times the Messenians wereprosperous, excited Spartan envy, and after two long wars were conqueredin 668 B. C. And fled to Sicily. 

MESSIAH (i. E. The Anointed one), one consecrated of God, who theJewish prophets predicted would one day appear to emancipate the Jewishpeople from bondage and exalt them in the eyes of all the other nationsof the earth as His elect nation, and for the glory of His name. 

MESSINA (78), on a bay at the NE. Corner of Sicily; is a veryancient city, but rebuilt after the earthquake of 1783; has a12th-century cathedral, two old castles, and a university, founded 1549;it manufactures light textiles, coral ornaments, and fruit essences; itsexcellent harbour encourages a good trade. 

MESSINA, STRAIT OF, 24 m. Long, and at its narrowest 2½ broad;separates Sicily from the Italian mainland; here were the Scylla andCharybdis of the ancients. 

MESSUAGE, a dwelling-house with buildings and land attached for theuse of the household. 

METABOLISM, name given to a chemical change in the cells or tissuesof living matter. 

METAMORPHOSIS is a classical name for the changing of a human beinginto a beast, an inanimate object, or an element, stories of which arecommon in all folk-lore. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of being as being in contradistinction froma science of a particular species of being, the science of sciences, orthe science of the ultimate grounds of all these, and presupposed bythem, called by Plato dialectics, or the logic of being. 

METASTASIO, an Italian poet, born at Rome, the son of a commonsoldier named Trapassi; his power of improvising verse attracted theattention of one Gravina, a lawyer, who educated him and left him hisfortune; he wrote opera librettoes, which were set to music by the mosteminent composers, was court poet at Vienna, and died there 40 yearsafter his active powers were spent (1698-1782). 

METEORS or SHOOTING STARS are small bodies consisting of iron, stone, and certain other familiar elements which are scattered in immensenumbers through planetary space; they revolve round the sun in clouds orin long strings, and when the earth gets close to them numbers are drawndown to its surface, friction with the atmosphere rendering them luminousand grinding them usually to fine dust; larger meteors are known asfireballs and aërolites, many of which have reached the earth; comets aremasses of meteors. 

METHODISTS, a body of Christians founded by John Wesley in theinterests of personal religion, ecclesiastically governed by a Conferencewith subordinate district synods, and holding and professing evangelicalprinciples, which they teach agreeably to the theology of Arminius; thename is also given to the followers of Whitefield, who are Calvinists incertain respects. 

METHYLATED SPIRIT, is alcohol adulterated with 10 per cent. Ofwood-spirit. 

METIS (i. E. Wise counsel), in the Greek mythology the daughter ofOceanos and Tethys, and the first wife of Zeus; afraid lest she shouldgive birth to a child wiser and more powerful than himself, he devouredher on the first month of her pregnancy, and some time afterwards beingseized with pains, he gave birth to ATHENA (q. V. ) from hishead. 

MÈTRE, the name given to the unit of length in the metric or decimalsystem, and equal to 39. 37 English inches, the tenths, the hundreds, andthe thousands of which are called from the Latin respectively decimetres, centimetres, and millimetres, and ten times, a hundred times, and athousand times, which are called from the Greek respectively decamètres, hectomètres, and kilomètres. 

METTERNICH, CLEMENT, PRINCE VON, Austrian diplomatist, born atCoblenz; served as ambassador successively at the courts of Dresden, Berlin, and Paris, and became first Minister of State in 1809, exercisingfor 40 years from that date the supreme control of affairs in Austria;one of his first acts as such was to effectuate a marriage betweenNapoleon and the Archduchess Maria Theresa, himself escorting her toParis; he presided at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and from that datedominated in foreign affairs in the interest of the rights of kings andthe repression of popular insurrection; he had to flee from Vienna in1848, but returned in 1851, after which, though not called back tooffice, he continued to influence affairs by his advice (1773-1859). 

METZ (60), strongest fortress in Lorraine, on the Moselle, 105 m. SW. Of Coblenz, captured in 1870 from the French, who had held it since1552; has a cathedral, library, museum, and school of music; industriesare unimportant; the trade is in liquor, leather, and preserved fruits. 

MEUNG, JEAN DE, mediæval French satirist; continued the unfinished"Roman de la Rose, " in which he embodied a vivid satiric portraiture ofcontemporary life (1250-1305 ?). 

MEUSE, river, 500 m. Long, rises in Haute-Marne, France, andbecoming navigable flows N. Through Belgium, turns E. At Namur, where theSambre enters from the left, N. Again at Liège, where it receives theOurthe from the right; enters Holland at Maastricht, is for a time theboundary, finally trends westward, and joins the Rhine at the delta. 

MEXICO (12, 050), a federal republic of 27 States, a district, andtwo territories, lying S. Of the United States, between the Gulf ofMexico and the Pacific, and including the peninsulas of Lower Californiain the W. And Yucatan in the E. ; is nearly half as large as Europewithout Russia; it consists of an immense plateau 3000 to 8000 ft. High, from which rises the Sierra Nevada, 10, 000 ft. , running N. And S. , andother parallel ranges, as also single peaks. Toluca (19, 340 ft. ), Orizaba(18, 000), and Popocatapetl (17, 000); the largest lake is Chapala, in thecentre; the rivers are mostly rapid and unnavigable; the chief seaportsare Vera Cruz (29) and Tampico (5) on the E. And Acapulco on the W. , butthe coast-line is little indented and affords no good harbours; along theeastern seaboard runs a strip of low-lying unhealthy country, 60 m. Broad; on the Pacific side the coast land is sometimes broader; thesecoast-lines are well watered, with tropical vegetation, tropical andsub-tropical fruits; the higher ground has a varied climate; in the N. Are great cattle ranches; all over the country the mineral wealth isenormous, gold, silver, copper, iron, sulphur, zinc, quicksilver, andplatinum are wrought; coal also exists; the bulk of Mexican exports is ofprecious metals and ores; there are cotton, paper, glass, and potterymanufactures; trade is chiefly with the United States and Britain;imports being textile fabrics, hardware, machinery, and coal; one-fifthof the population is white, the rest Indian and half-caste; education isbackward, though there are free schools in every town; the religion isRoman Catholic, the language Spanish; conquered by Cortez in 1519, thecountry was ruled by Spain and spoiled for 300 years; a rebellionestablished its independence in 1821, but the first 50 years sawperpetual civil strife, and wars with the United States in 1848 andFrance in 1862; since 1867, however, when the constitution was modelledon that of the United States, there has been peace and progress, PonfirioDiaz, President since 1876, having proved a masterly ruler. MEXICO(327), the capital of the republic, 7000 ft. Above the level of the sea, in the centre of the country, is a handsome though unhealthy city, withmany fine buildings, a cathedral, a picture-gallery, schools of law, mining, and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of art;there are few manufactures; the trade is chiefly transit. 

MEXICO, GULF OF, a large basin between United States and Mexicanterritory; is shut in by the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, 500 m. Apart, and the western extremity of Cuba, which lies between them; itreceives the Mississippi, Rio Grande, and many other rivers; the coastsare low, with many lagoons; ports like New Orleans, Havana, and Vera Cruzmake it a highway for ships; north-easterly hurricanes blow in March andOctober. 

MEYER, CONRAD FERDINAND, Swiss poet and novelist, native of Zurich;has written "Der Heilige" and many other novels; _b_. 1825. 

MEYERBEER, illustrious musical composer, born at Berlin, of Jewishbirth; composer of operatic music, and for over 30 years supreme inFrench opera; produced "Robert le Diable" in 1831, the "Huguenots" in1833, "Le Prophète" in 1844, "L'Étoile du Nord" in 1854, the "Dinorah" in1859 (1791-1864). 

MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE, cardinal and linguist, born at Bologna;celebrated for the number of languages he knew, some 58 in all; livedchiefly in Rome, and was keeper of the Vatican library; Byron called him"a walking polyglot" (1771-1848). 

MEZZOTINT, a mode of engraving on steel or copper in imitation ofIndian ink drawings, the lights and shades of the picture being producedby scraping on a black ground. 

MIALL, EDWARD, journalist, English apostle of disestablishment, founder of the Liberation Society; sat for Rochdale and Bradford; waspresented on his retirement with a sum of ten thousand guineas for hisservices (1809-1881). 

MICAH, one of the minor prophets of the Old Testament, acontemporary of Isaiah, Hosea, and Amos; his prophecies are in the samestrain as those of Isaiah, and numerous are the coincidences traceablebetween them; though a great sternness of temper and severity of toneappears in his prophecies, a deep tenderness of heart from time to timereveals itself, and a winning persuasiveness (chap. Vi. 8); chap. Vii. 8-20 has been quoted as one of the sweetest passages of propheticwriting; his prophecies predict the destruction both of Samaria andJerusalem, the captivity and the return, with the re-establishment of thetheocracy, and the advent of the Messiah. 

MICAWBER, a character in "David Copperfield, " a schemer whoseschemes regularly came to grief, yet who always wakes up after hisdepression, and hopes something will turn up to his advantage. 

MICHAEL, an archangel, the leader of the heavenly host, atnever-ending war with the devil and his angels in their arrogance ofclaim; is represented in art as clad in armour, with a sword in one handand a pair of scales in the other to weigh the souls of men at thejudgment. Festival, September 20. 

MICHAEL, the name of a succession of eight emperors who, atdifferent periods, occupied the throne of the East from 811 to 1282, thelast being Michael VIII. , the founder of the Palæologic dynasty. 

MICHAEL ANGELO BUONAROTTI, painter, sculptor, architect, and poet, born at Caprese, in Tuscany, one of the greatest artists that ever lived;studied art as apprentice for three years under Domenico Ghirlandajo, andat seventeen his talents attracted the notice of Lorenzo de' Medici, whoreceived him into his palace at Florence, and employed as well asencouraged him; on the death of his patron he left for Bologna, andafterwards, in 1496, went to Rome, whither his renown as a sculptor hadgone before him, and there he executed his antiques "Bacchus" and"Cupid, " followed by his "Pieta, " or Virgin weeping over the dead Christ;from 1503 to 1513 he was engaged on the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel; in1530 we find him at Florence dividing his time between work as anengineer in the defence of the city and his art as a sculptor; threeyears after this he was back in Rome, and by-and-by _busy painting_ hisgreat fresco in the Sistine Chapel, the "Last Judgment, " which occupiedhim eight years; in 1542 he was appointed architect of St. Peter's, andhe planned and built the dome; sculpture was his great forte, but hisgenius was equal to any task imposed on him, and he has left poems toshow what he might have done in the domain of letters as he has done inthose of arts, with which his fame is more intimately associated(1474-1564). 

MICHAELIS, JOHANN DAVID, an Orientalist and Biblical scholar, bornat Halle; was a man of vast learning; professor of Philosophy as well asof Oriental Languages at Göttingen; wrote an "Introduction to the NewTestament, " and "Commentaries on the Legislation of Moses"; was one ofthe first to correlate the history of the Jews with that of the otherOriental nations of antiquity (1717-1791). 

MICHAELMAS is the festival in honour of St. Michael and the angels, held on the 20th September, the day being one of the quarter days onwhich rents are levied. 

MICHEL, FRANCESQUE, French antiquary, born at Lyons; wascommissioned by the French Government in 1835 to visit the libraries ofEngland in the interest of the history and literature of France; was amost erudite man, and edited a great many works belonging to the MiddleAges; wrote even on the Scottish language and Scottish civilisation(1809-1887). 

MICHELET, JULES, French historian, born in Paris; was the authoramong other works of a "History of France" in 18 vols. , and a "History ofthe Revolution" in 7 vols. ; he cherished a great animosity against thepriests, and especially the Jesuits, whom he assailed with remorselessinvective; he was from 1838, for 13 years, professor of History in theCollege of France, but he lost the appointment because he refused to takethe oath of allegiance to Louis Napoleon; from this date he abandoned allinterest in public affairs, and gave himself to the quiet study of natureand animal life; wrote on birds and insects, on the sea, on women, onlove, on witchcraft, and the Bible and humanity; as a writer of historyhe gave his imagination free scope, and he painted it less as it was thanas he regarded it from his own personal likes and dislikes (1798-1874). 

MICHIGAN (2, 094), a State of the American Union, larger than Englandand Wales, is broken in two by Lake Michigan; the western portion hasWisconsin on its S. Border, the eastern portion has Indiana and Ohio onthe S. ; the rest of the State is surrounded by Lakes Superior, Huron, andErie. The western section is mountainous, with great forests of pine, little agriculture, rich mines of copper and iron, and some gold; theeastern section is much larger, very flat and low, has coal, gypsum, andmarble quarries, but is chiefly a wheat-growing area; in the SaginawValley are great salt wells; the climate is modified by the lakes. Atfirst a French colony, the country was handed over to England in 1760, and to the United States in 1776; it was organised as a territory in1805, and admitted a State in 1837; the chief commercial city isDETROIT (206), on Detroit River, in the E. , has manufactures ofmachinery and railway plant, leather, and beer, and a large shippingtrade. GRAND RAPIDS (60), on the Grand River, has furniture works, and makes stucco-plaster and white bricks. LANSING (13) is the Statecapital, and an important railway centre. 

MICHIGAN, LAKE, in the N. Of the United States, between Michigan andWisconsin, is the third largest of the fresh-water seas, its surfacebeing three-fourths that of Scotland; it is 335 m. Long and 50 to 80broad, bears much commerce, has low sandy shores and no islands; thechief ports are Chicago, Milwaukee, and Racine. 

MICKIEWICZ, ADAM, Polish poet, born in Lithuania, of a noble family;in 1822 published at Kovno a collection of poems instinct with patrioticfeeling; was exiled into the interior of Russia, in 1824, for secretintrigues in the interest of his nation; while there published threeepics, conceived in the same patriotic spirit; left Russia in 1829 forItaly by way of Germany; was warmly welcomed by Goethe in passing; in1834 published his great poem "Sir Thaddeus, " and in 1840 was appointedto a professorship of Polish Literature in Paris, where to the last helaboured for his country; died at Constantinople, whence his bones weretransferred to lie beside those of Kosciusko at Cracow (1798-1855). 

MICKLE, WILLIAM JULIUS, translator of the "Lusiad" (q. V. ), bornat Langholm, in Dumfriesshire, author of "There's nae Luck aboot theHoose" (1734-1788). 

MICROBE, a minute organism found in the blood of animals, especiallywhen suffering from disease. See BACTERIA. 

MICROCOSM, name given by the Middle Age philosophers to man asrepresenting the macrocosm or universe in miniature. 

MICROPHONE, an instrument invented in 1878 by Professor Hughes, andconsisting of charcoal tempered in mercury, which intensifies and rendersaudible the faintest possible sound. 

MICROZYME, a minute organism which acts as a ferment when it entersthe blood and produces zymotic diseases. 

MIDAS, a king of Phrygia who, in his lust of riches, begged ofBacchus and obtained the power of turning everything he touched intogold, a gift which he prayed him to revoke when he found it affected hisvery meat and drink, which the god consented to do, only he must bathe inthe waters of the Pactolus, the sands of which ever after were foundmixed with gold; appointed umpire at a musical contest between Pan andApollo, he preferred the pipes of the former to the lyre of the latter, who thereupon awarded him a pair of ass-ears, the which he concealed witha cap, but could not hide them from his barber, who could not retain thesecret, but whispered it into a hole in the ground, around which sprangup a forest of reeds, which as the wind passed through them told the taleinto the general ear, to the owner's discomfiture. 

MIDDLE AGES, is a term used in connection with European history todenote the period beginning with the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, andclosing with the invention of printing, the discovery of America, andthe revival of learning in the 15th century. 

MIDDLE ENGLISH, the English in use for two centuries and a half from1200 to 1460. 

MIDDLE PASSAGE, in the slave-trade the part of the Atlanticstretching between Africa and the West Indies. 

MIDDLESBROUGH (99), iron manufacturing and shipping town at themouth of the Tees, in the N. Of Yorkshire, 45 m. N. Of York; has alsoshipbuilding yards and chemical works, and exports coal. It owes itsgrowth to the discovery of one of the largest iron-fields in the countryin the Cleveland hills, near at hand, in 1850. 

MIDDLESEX (560), a small county on the N. Of the Thames, adjacent toand W. Of London; has no hills and no rivers, only undulating pastureland and small streams. In 1888 the populous part next the metropolis wasdetached for the new county of London, leaving no big town but manysuburban villages, Brentford, reckoned the county town, Harrow with itsschool, Highgate, and Hornsey. Hampton Court, Hampstead Heath, andEnfield Chase are in the county. There are many market gardens. 

MIDDLETON, CONYERS, a liberal theologian, Fellow of Cambridge; wasengaged a good deal in controversy, particularly with Bentley; wrote anable Life of Cicero; is distinguished among English authors for his"absolutely plain style" of writing (1683-1750). 

MIDDLETON, THOMAS, dramatist, born in London, where he wasafterwards City Chronicler, married Mary Morbeck, and died; was fond ofcollaboration, and received assistance in his best work from Drayton, Webster, Dekker, Rowley, and Jonson; his comedies are smart and buoyant, sometimes indecorous; his masques more than usually elaborate andcareful; in the comedy of "The Spanish Gypsy, " and the tragedies of "TheChangeling, " and "Women beware Women, " is found the best fruit of hisgenius (1570-1627). 

MIDGARD, a name given in the Norse mythology to the earth asintermediate between the ASGARD (q. V. ) of the gods andUTGARD OF THE JÖTUNS (q. V. ). 

MIDIANITES, a race of Arabs descended from Abraham by Keturah, whodwelt to the E. Of Akaba; though related, were troublesome to theHebrews, but were subdued by Gideon. 

MIDRASH, the earliest Hebrew exposition of the Old Testament;included the Halacha, or development of the legal system on Pentateuchallines, and the Hagada, a commentary on the whole Scripture, with ethical, social, and religious applications. The name Midrash came to referexclusively to the latter, in which much fanciful interpretation wasmixed with sound practical sense. 

MIGHTS AND RIGHTS, the Carlyle doctrine that Rights are nothing tillthey have realised and established themselves as Mights; they _are_rights first only then. 

MIGNE, THE ABBÉ, French Catholic theologian, born at St. Flour;edited a great many works on theology, such as "Patrologiæ CursusCompletus, " and "Orateurs Sacrés, " and founded _L'Univers_ journal(1800-1875). 

MIGNET, FRANÇOIS AUGUST, French historian, born at Aix, settled atParis; was a friend of Thiers; became keeper of the archives of theForeign Office, and had thus access to important historical documents;wrote a number of historical works, among others a "History of the FrenchRevolution, " and "History of Marie Stuart" (1796-1884). 

MIGNON, an impassioned Italian child, a creation of Goethe's in his"Wilhelm Meister, " of mysterious origin and history; represented as acompact of vague aspirations and longings under which, as neverfulfilled, she at length pines away and dies. 

MIGUEL, DON, king of Portugal, born at Lisbon; usurped the throne indefiance of the right of his brother, Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, who, however, conceded to him the title of regent on condition of his marryingDonna Maria, his daughter; on his arrival in Portugal he had himselfproclaimed king, but refused to marry Maria, who followed him, andprohibited her landing, which, together with his conduct of affairs, provoked a civil war, in which the party of Don Pedro prevailed, andwhich ended in the capitulation of the usurper and his withdrawal toItaly (1802-1866). 

MIKADO, the emperor of Japan, regarded as the head of both Churchand State in his dominions. 

MIKLOSICH, FRANZ VON, philologist, born at Luttenberg, studied atGrätz; in 1844 was appointed to an office in the Imperial Library, Vienna, where from 1850 to 1885 he was professor of Slavonic; his works, all philological, are the authority on the Slavonic languages; _b_. 1813. 

MILAN (296), the largest city in Italy except Naples, is inLombardy, 25 m. S. Of Lake Como; of old much vexed by war, it is nowprosperous, manufacturing silks and velvets, gold, silver, and porcelainware, and trading in raw silk, grain, and tobacco, with great printingworks, and is the chief banking centre of N. Italy; it is rich inarchitectural treasures, foremost of which is the magnificent Gothiccathedral of white marble; has a splendid picture-gallery, and many richfrescoes; in 1848 it revolted finally from Austrian oppression. 

MILAN DECREE, a decree of Napoleon dated Milan, 27th Dec. 1807, declaring the British dominions in a state of blockade, and under penaltyprohibiting all trade with them. 

MILETUS, the foremost Ionian city of ancient Asia Minor, at themouth of the Mæander, was the mother of many colonies, and the port fromwhich vessels traded to all the Mediterranean countries and to theAtlantic; its carpets and cloth were far-famed; its first greatnesspassed away when Darius stormed it in 494 B. C. , and it was finallyruined by the Turks; Thales the philosopher and Cadmus the historian wereamong its famous sons. 

MILITARY ORDERS were in crusading times associations of knightssworn to chastity and devoted to religious service; the Hospitallers, theearliest, tended sick pilgrims at Jerusalem; the Templars protectedpilgrims and guarded the Temple; the Knights of St. John were alsocelibate, but the orders of Alcantara and others in Spain, of St. Bennetin Portugal, and others elsewhere, with different objects, were permittedto marry. 

MILITIA, a body of troops in the British service for home defence, the members of which have as a rule never served in the regular army, norhave, except for a short period each year, any proper military training. 

MILKY WAY. See GALAXY. 

MILL, JAMES, economist, born in Logie Pert, near Montrose, the sonof a shoemaker, bred for the Church; was a disciple of Locke and JeremyBentham; wrote a "History of British India, " "Elements of PoliticalEconomy, " and an "Analysis of the Human Mind"; held an importantlucrative post in the East India Company's service (1773-1836). 

MILL, JOHN STUART, logician and economist, born in London, son ofthe preceding; was educated pedantically by his father; began to learnGreek at 3, could read it and Latin at 14, "never was a boy, " he says, and was debarred from all imaginative literature, so that in after yearsthe poetry of Wordsworth came to him as a revelation; entered the serviceof the East India Company in 1823, but devoted himself to philosophicdiscussion; contributed to the _Westminster Review_, of which he was forsome time editor; published his "System of Logic" in 1843, and in 1848his "Political Economy"; entered Parliament in 1865, but lost his seat in1868, on which he retired to Avignon, where he died; he wrote a book on"Liberty" in 1859, on "Utilitarianism" in 1863, on "Comte" in 1865, andon "Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy" the same year, and left an"Autobiography"; he was a calm thinker and an impartial critic; hebefriended Carlyle when he went to London, and Carlyle rather took tohim, but divergences soon appeared, which, as it could not fail, ended intotal estrangement; he had an Egeria in a Mrs. Taylor, whom he marriedwhen she became a widow; it was she, it would almost seem, who wasresponsible for the fate of Carlyle's MS. (1806-1873). 

MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT, painter, born of Jersey parentage, atSouthampton; studied at the Royal Academy, and at 17 exhibited a notablehistorical work; early associated with Rossetti and Holman Hunt, heremained for over 20 years under their influence; to this period belong"The Carpenter's Shop, " 1851, "Autumn Leaves, " 1856, and "The Minuet, "1866; "The Gambler's Wife" marks the transition from Pre-Raphaelitism;his chief subsequent work, in which technical interest predominates, wasportraiture, including Gladstone and Beaconsfield; he was a profuseillustrator, and wrought some etchings; he was made R. A. 1864, a baronetin 1885, and P. R. A. February 1896 (1829-1896). 

MILLBANK PRISON, Westminster, constructed 1812-21 on the plans ofHoward and Bentham, so that each of its 1100 cells were visible from thegovernor's room, was used for solitary confinement preparatory to penalservitude, and as a convict prison until 1886, and demolished 1890. 

MILLER, HUGH, journalist and geologist, self-taught, born inCromarty, of sailor ancestry; began life as a stone-mason; editor of the_Witness_ newspaper from 1839 till his death; wrote the "Old RedSandstone, " "Footprints of the Creator, " and the "Testimony of theRocks, " books which awakened an interest in geological subjects, besidesbeing the author of an account of his life, "My Schools andSchoolmasters"; died by his own hand at Portobello; he was a writer ofconsiderable literary ability, and "nothing, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "canbe more hopelessly unliterary than to undervalue Hugh Miller"(1802-1856). 

MILLER, WILLIAM, line-engraver, lived at Millerfield, Edinburgh;famed for his engravings of Turner; was a member of the Society ofFriends, and stood high in his art as an engraver (1797-1882). 

MILLET, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French painter of French peasant life, bornnear Greville, of a peasant family; sent to Paris, studied under PaulDelaroche, withdrew into rustic life, and took up his abode at thevillage of Barbizon, near the Forest of Fontainebleau, where he spent asa peasant the rest of his life, honoured though poor by all hisneighbours, and produced inimitable pictures of French country life, completing his famous "Sower, " and treating such subjects as the"Gleaners, " the "Sheep-Shearers, " "Shepherdess and Flock, " &c. , with anevident appreciation on his part of the life they depicted so faithfully(1814-1875). 

MILMAN, HENRY HART, dean of St. Paul's, ecclesiastical historian, born in London; edited Gibbon's "Decline and Fall, " wrote "History of theJews, " "History of Christianity to the Abolition of Paganism under theEmpire, " and "History of Latin Christianity, " all learned works, particularly the last in 9 vols. , described by Dean Stanley as "acomplete epic and philosophy of mediæval Christianity"; was professor ofPoetry at Oxford (1791-1865). 

MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRI, eminent naturalist, born at Bruges, of Englishparentage; wrote extensively and learnedly on natural history subjects, dissented from Darwin, and held to the theory of different centres ofcreation, and to this he stoutly adhered to the last (1800-1885). 

MILNER, VISCOUNT, High Commissioner of South Africa since 1897, andGovernor of the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies since 1901; a studentof Balliol (graduating with a first class in classics), and a Fellow ofNew College, Oxford; called to the bar in 1881; Private Secretary to Mr. Goschen (1887-1889); Under-Secretary for Finance in Egypt (1889-1892);Chairman of the Inland Revenue Board, from 1892 to 1897, when hesucceeded Lord Rosmead at the Cape; represented the Mother Country withgreat ability before and during the Boer War; visited England and raisedto the peerage in 1901; declined the Colonial Secretaryship in 1903;resigned in 1905; _b_. 1854. 

MILNER, JOSEPH, Church historian; master of the Grammar School, Hull; his "History of the Church" reaches down to the 16th century(1744-1797). 

MILO, a celebrated athlete, born at Crotona, of extraordinarystrength, said to have one day carried a live bullock 120 paces along theOlympic course, killed it with his fist, and eaten it up entire at onerepast; in old age he attempted to split a tree, but it closed upon hisarm, and the wolves devoured him. 

MILTIADES, an Athenian general, famous for his decisive defeat ofthe Persians at Marathon, 490 B. C. ; failing in a naval attack on Paros, and fined to indemnify the cost of the expedition, but unable to pay, wascast into prison, where he died of his wounds inflicted in the attempt. 

MILTON, JOHN, poet, born in London, son of a scrivener; graduated atCambridge, and settled to study and write poetry in his father's house atHorton, 1632; in 1638 he visited Italy, being already known at home asthe author of the "Hymn on the Nativity, " "Allegro, " "Penseroso, ""Comus, " a mask, and "Lycidas, " an elegy on his friend King, who wasdrowned in the Irish Sea in 1637, besides much excellent Latin verse; theoutbreak of the Civil War recalled him, and silenced his muse for manyyears; settling in London he took pupils, married in 1643 Mary Powell, and became active as a writer of pamphlets on public questions; his firsttopic was Church Government, then his wife's desertion of him for twoyears called forth his tracts on Divorce, a threatened prosecution forwhich elicited in turn the "Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty ofUnlicensed Printing"; his father died in 1647, his wife in 1652; underthe Common wealth he was "Secretary of Foreign Tongues, " and successfullydefended the execution of Charles I. In his Latin "Defence of the EnglishPeople, " and other bitter controversial works; he married in 1656 hissecond wife, who died two years later; the Restoration gave him back toleisure and poetry; his greatest work, "Paradise Lost, " was composedrapidly, dictated to his daughters, and completed in 1663, but notpublished till 1667; 1671 saw "Paradise Regained" and "SamsonAgonistes"; he had been blind since 1652; he married Elizabeth Minshullin 1663, who comforted him in his closing years; a man of fervent, impulsive temperament, and a lover of music, he was sincere incontroversy, magnanimous in character, and of deep religious faith; therichness, melody, and simplicity of his poetry, the sublimity of hisgreat theme, and the adequacy of its treatment, place him among thegreatest poets of the world; in later years he leaned to Arianism, andbroke away from the restraints of outward religious practice; his lastprose work, a Latin treatise on "Christian Doctrines, " was lost at thetime of his death, and only recovered 150 years later (1608-1674). 

MILWAÜKEE (285), chief city of Wisconsin, U. S. , on W. Shore of LakeMichigan, 80 miles N. By W. Of Chicago. Exports grain, iron ore, &c. ;manufactures flour, machinery, and pig-iron. 

MIMES, dramatic performances among the Greeks and Romans, in comicrepresentation of scenes in ordinary life, often in extempore dialogue. 

MIMIR, in the Norse mythology the god of wisdom, guardian of thesacred well which nourished the roots of the TREE IGGDRASIL (q. V. ), and a draught of whose waters imparted divine wisdom. 

MINARETS, a salient feature of Mohammedan architecture, are tallslim towers, in several storeys with balconies, from which the muezzincalls the people to prayer, and terminated by a spire or finial. 

MINERVA, the Roman virgin goddess of wisdom and the arts, identifiedwith the GREEK ATHENA (q. V. ); born full-armed from the brain ofJupiter, and representing his thinking, calculating, inventive power, andthird in rank to him. 

MINERVA PRESS, a printing establishment in Leadenhall Street, London, which about a century ago issued a set of trashy, extremelysentimental novels with complicated plots, in which hero and heroine wereinvolved before they could get married. 

MINGHETTI, MARCO, Italian patriot and statesman, born at Bologna; aman of liberal views; a friend and associate of Cavour; held office underhim as Minister of the Interior in 1862; was ambassador to the Court ofSt. James's in 1868, and Prime Minister at Rome from 1873 to 1876(1818-1886)

MINIMS, an order of monks founded by St. Francis of Paula in 1453, aname which signifies "the least" to express super-humility. 

MINNEAPOLIS (203), city of U. S. , Minnesota, on both sides of theMississippi, the greatest centre of the wheat and flour trade in U. S. 

MINNESINGERS (i. E. Love-singers), a name given to the lyric poetsof Germany during the latter part of the 12th and the first half of the13th centuries. 

MINNESOTA (1, 302), one of the United States of America; lies betweenthe Dakotas on the W. And Wisconsin on the E. , Canada on the N. , and Iowaon the S. , round the upper waters of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of the North; the State is largely prairie, withhundreds of lakes, the largest Red Lake, and is chiefly a wheat-producingarea; there are pine forests in the N. , iron mines, slate and granitequarries; the climate is dry, equable, and bracing; education is good;the State university is at Minneapolis; the capital is ST. PAUL(133), where the Mississippi is still navigable, a fine city, founded in1840, the centre of the grocery and dry-goods trade; the largest city isMinneapolis (203), which has great lumber and flour mills; Duluth (33)has a magnificent harbour and good shipping trade. 

MINORCA (34), the second of the Balearic Isles, hilly, withstalactite caves and rocky coast; is less fertile than Majorca, fromwhich it is 25 m. Distant NE. ; it produces oil, wine, and fruits, andmakes boots and shoes, but under Spanish misrule is not prosperous; thecapital Mahon (17), in the SE. , is strongly fortified, and has a goodharbour. 

MINOS, an ancient king of Crete, celebrated for his administrationof justice; was fabled to have been appointed, along with Æacus andRhadamanthus, one of the judges of the dead on their descent into thenether world. 

MINOTAUR, in the Greek mythology a monster, half-man half-bull witha bull's head, confined in the Labyrinth of Crete, fed by the annualtribute of seven youths and seven maidens of Athenian birth, till he wasslain by Theseus with the help of ARIADNE (q. V. ). 

MINSTRELS, a body of men who during the Middle Ages wandered fromplace to place, especially from court to court, singing their owncompositions to the harp for accompaniment. 

MINTO, EARL OF, Governor-General of India; was bred to the bar, served in Parliament and as ambassador, went out to India in 1806, consolidated the British power, captured Java, and opened diplomaticrelations with powers around (17501814). 

MIRABEAU, GABRIEL HONORÉ RIQUETTI, COMTE DE, son of the succeeding, born at the mansion-house of Bignon; was a man of massive intellect andstrong physical frame, who came to the front in the French Revolution;being expelled from his order by the noblesse of Provence, he ingratiatedhimself with the Third Estate, and was elected commons-deputy of Aix tothe States-General in 1789, where he became, as the incarnation of thewhole movement, the ruling spirit of the hour, and gave proof, if he hadlived, of being able to change the whole course of the Revolution, for hewas already in communication with the court and in hopes of gaining itover to accept the inevitable, when he sickened and died, to theconsternation of the entire people, whose affection and confidence he hadwon (1749-1791). See CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION" and his Essayin his "MISCELLANIES. "

MIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETTI, MARQUIS DE, "crabbed old friend of men, "born at Pertuis, in Provence, claimed to be of Florentine descent; "couldnever make the world go to his mind, " and set about reforming it bycoercing a family as self-willed as himself, to the driving of hiscelebrated son to desperate courses and reckless excesses; advocated thedoctrines of the French economists in a series of writings instinct witha certain theoretical philanthropy (1716-1783). 

MIRACLE PLAYS were strictly speaking dramas founded on legends ofthe saints, as distinct from mysteries founded on scriptural subjects, but the name came to cover all those religious representations for theinstruction of the people fostered by the Church of the Middle Ages, performed first in churches, afterwards in public places; they werecommon in England from the 12th century, but latterly became corruptthrough the introduction of grotesque indecorous comicalities; the riseof the drama led to their abandonment; on the Continent ecclesiasticalaction was taken against them, not by the Reformers, but by the Churchitself in the 18th century, and everywhere they have all but disappeared;the Passion Play acted every 10 years at Oberammergau, Bavaria, is theonly important survival. 

MIRANDA, the beautiful daughter of the magician Prospero inShakespeare's "Tempest. "

MIRANDA, FRANCESCO DE, a Portuguese poet; wrote sonnets and epistlesin verse; was predecessor of Camoëns (1495-1558). 

MISERERE, a carved bracket on the under side of the stall seats inmediæval churches, which, when the seat was turned up during the standingportion of the service, afforded support to the older clergy. Miserere, the Catholic name for the 51st Psalm. 

MISHNA, the oral law of the Jews, which is divided into six parts, and constitutes the text of the Talmud, of which the Gemara is thecommentary. 

MISPRISION, a high offence under, but close upon, the degree of acapital one; misprision of treason being a concealment of a felonywithout consenting to it. 

MISSAL, a book containing the service of the mass for the entireyear, such as is now in almost universal use throughout the Catholicworld. 

MISSISSIPPI (1, 290), an American State on the E. Bank of the LowerMississippi, abutting on the Gulf of Mexico, between Louisiana andAlabama; has a hilly surface, traversed by numerous rivers, the Yazoo, atributary of the Mississippi, forming a great fertile delta; the climateis free from extremes; the chief industry is agriculture; the best cropsare grown in the N. , and on the alluvial bottom lands; in the centre andNE. Are good grazing farms; cotton, corn, oats, and fruits are the chiefcrops; virgin forests of hardwood cover much of the delta; valuabledeposits of pipe and ochre clays and of lignite are found; cotton ismanufactured, and there is trade in lumber; more than half the populationis coloured, and the races are kept distinct in the State schools; theState university is at Oxford, and there are many other colleges; Jackson(6), the capital, is the chief railway centre, Meridian (10) has ironmanufactures, Vicksburg (13) and Natchez (10) are the chief riverports;Mississippi was colonised by the French in 1699, ceded to Britain 1763, admitted to the Union 1817, joined the South in 1861, but was readmittedto the Union in 1869. 

MISSISSIPPI RIVER rises in Lake Itaska, Minnesota, and flowing S. For 2800 m. , enters the Gulf of Mexico by a large delta; its earliercourse is through picturesque country, often in gorges, with rapids suchas the St. Anthony Falls, the Des Moines and Rock Island Rapids. Afterreceiving the Missouri, 3000 m. Long, from the Rocky Mountains, it flows2½ m. Per hour through great alluvial plains, which are protected fromits overflows by hundreds of miles of earth embankments, and is joined bythe Ohio from the E. , the Red and Arkansas Rivers from the W. , and manyother navigable streams. The Mississippi is navigable by large steamersfor 2000 m. ; St. Louis, Memphis, Vicksburg, Natchez, and New Orleans areamong the chief ports on its banks. 

MISSISSIPPI SCHEME was started in France 1717 by John Law and theGovernment, ostensibly to develop the Mississippi basin, but really toease the pressure on the exchequer; a company was formed and empowered tomonopolise almost all the foreign trade; 624, 000 shares were issued;depreciated paper currency was accepted in payment, and the national bankissued notes without stint; in 1719 the demand for shares was enormous;the nation was completely carried away; next year the crash came; theGovernment made every effort to save the position, but in vain; thedistress was extreme, and Law had to leave the country. 

MISSOLONGHI (6), Greek seaport and fishing town, on the Gulf ofPatras, chiefly noted for heroic defences in the War of Independence1821-1826, and as the place of Byron's death 1824. 

MISSOURI (2, 679), an American State on the right bank of theMississippi, between Iowa and Arkansas, is half the size of the BritishIsles, and is traversed by the Missouri River; N. Of that river thecountry is level, S. Of it there rise the Ozark tablelands; the soil isvery fertile, and the State principally agricultural; immense crops ofmaize, oats, potatoes, cotton, and tobacco are raised; there are largecattle ranches, and dressed beef and pork are largely exported; theclimate is subject to extremes; coal, iron, lead, zinc, and otherminerals abound, while marble, granite, and limestone are quarried; therivers afford excellent transport facilities; the educational system isvery complete; admitted to the Union in 1821, Missouri was divided in theCivil War, and suffered terribly, but since then has been veryprosperous; the capital, St. Louis (452), is one of the greatestcommercial and manufacturing towns in the Union, does a vast trade ingrain and cotton, and has hardware, leather goods, and tobacco factories;Kansas City (133), has great pork-packing establishments and railroadiron-works. 

MISTRAL, FREDERICK, poet of Southern France, born near Maillaune, was a peasant's son, and himself a peasant; his fame rose on thepublication of the epic, "Mirèio, " in Provençal dialect, 1859; in 1867 hepublished "Calendou, " and in 1876 a volume of songs, and in 1884 "Nerto, "a novel; _b_. 1830. 

MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL, authoress, born at Alresford, Hants, livedwith her father, an extravagant physician, at Lyme Regis and London; shepublished poems in 1810-11-12, but, forced to earn a living, took todramatic work; "Julian, " "The Foscari, " and "Rienzi" were successful ifephemeral tragedies; her best work was "Our Village, " sketches of homelyEnglish life written with much care, and after appearing in the _LondonMagazine_, published in 5 vols. , 1824-32 (1786-1855). 

MITFORD, WILLIAM, English author; wrote a "History of Greece" and onthe "English Metre, or the Harmony of Language" (1744-1827). 

MITHRAS (i. E. The Friend), the highest of the second order ofdeities in the ancient Persian religion, the friend of man in this lifeand his protector against evil in the world to come, sided with Ormuzdagainst Ahriman, incarnated in the sun, and represented as a youthkneeling on a bull and plunging a dagger into his neck, while he is atthe same time attacked by a dog, a serpent, and a scorpion. 

MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, surnamed Eupator, king of Pontus from 123 to63 B. C. ; an implacable enemy of the Romans, between whom and him thereraged from 90 to 63 a succession of wars, till he was defeated by Pompeynear the Euphrates, when, being superseded by his son, he put an end tohis life; he was a great man and conqueror, subdued many surroundingnations, and was a collector of works of art; he made a special study ofpoisons, and familiarised himself with all their antidotes, in view ofpossible attempts by means of them to take away his life. 

MITRAILLEUSE, a gun consisting of several, as many as 25, barrels, from which a number of shots may be fired simultaneously or in rapidsuccession, used by the French in the Franco-German War. 

MIVART, ST. GEORGE, naturalist, a Roman Catholic professor atLouvain, distinguished for his opposition to Darwinianism; _b_. 1827. 

MNEMOSYNË in the Greek mythology the daughter of Uranos, the goddessof memory, and the mother of the Muses by Zeus. 

MOA, the name of several species of New Zealand and Australianbirds, from 2 to 14 ft. High, and quite wingless; almost extinct sincethe 17th century; two living specimens were captured in 1876. 

MOAB, a pastoral region extending along the E. Of lower parts of theJordan and the Dead Sea, and inhabited by the descendants of Lot, nowextinct, or merged among the Arabs. 

MOABITE STONE, a stone 4 ft. High and 2 ft. Broad found by Dr. Kleinin 1868 among the ruins of Dhiban, a town in Moab, now in the Louvre atParis, describing a victory of the Moabites over the Israelites; it wasbroken by the Arabs, but the fragments have been collected and put intotheir proper places. 

MOBILE (31), a city and port of Alabama, U. S. , 30 m. N. Of the Gulfof Mexico; a thriving place; exports cotton, lumber, &c. 

MOBILIER CRÉDIT, a banking and financial company founded in Paris in1852; lends money on security of property other than real, and takesshares in public schemes, such as railways. 

MODENA (31), Italian town, 62 m. N. Of Florence; has a cathedral, with noted campanile, university, library, and art collections, andmanufactures silk and leather; capital of a duchy (303); incorporated inthe kingdom of Italy 1860. 

MODERN ATHENS, Edinburgh, from its resemblance to Athens and itsrepute for literary culture; applied also to Boston, in America. 

MODERN BABYLON, London, from its huge extent and the miscellaneouscharacter of its inhabitants. 

MODJESKA, HELENA, actress, born in Cracow; went on the stage afterher first marriage in 1861, and from 1868 to 1876 was the favourite ofWarsaw; retired to California on her second marriage, but returned to thestage, having learned English in seven months in California 1877, andtill her final retirement in 1895, was eminently successful in Americaand Britain in such parts as Rosalind, Beatrice, &c. 

MODRED, SIR, a treacherous knight, the rebellious nephew of KingArthur, whose wife he seduced; was slain in battle, and buried in Avalon. 

MOFFAT, ROBERT, African missionary, born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire; the scene of his nearly lifelong labours was among theBechuanas in South Africa, whom he raised from a savage to a civilisedstate; he was sent out in 1816 by the London Missionary Society. Hemarried (1819) Mary Smith, a daughter of his former employer atDunkinfield. 

MOHAMMED, great prophet of the Arabs, and founder of Islamism, bornat Mecca, the son of Abdallah, of the tribe of the Koreish; left anorphan, brought up by his uncle Abu Taleb; became steward to a richWIDOW KADIJAH (q. V. ) whom he married; was given to seriousmeditation, would retire into solitude and pray, and one day, by thefavour of Heaven, got answer which left him "in doubt and darkness nolonger, but saw it all, " saw into the vanity of all that was not God, that He alone was great, inconceivably great; that it was with Him alonewe had to do, we must all submit to Him; this revelation made to him heimparted to Kadijah, and after a time she assented, and his heart leapedfor joy; he spoke or his doctrine to this man and that, but made slowprogress in persuading others to believe it; made only 13 converts in 3years; his preaching gave offence to the chief people, and his relativestried hard to persuade him to hold his peace, but he would not; after 13years a conspiracy was formed to take his life, and he fled, throughperil after peril, to Medina, in his fifty-third year, and in 622 of ourera; his enemies had taken up the sword against him, and he now repliedwith the same weapon, and in 10 years he prevailed; it was a war againstidolatry in all its forms, and idolatry was driven to the wall, the mottoon his banner "God is Great, " a motto with a depth of meaning greaterthan the Mohammedan world, and perhaps the Christian, has yet realised;it is for one thing a protest on the part of Mohammed, in which theHebrew prophets forestalled him, against all attempts to understand theDeity and fathom "His ways, which are ever in the deep, and whosefootsteps are not known" (571-631). 

MOHAMMEDANISM, the religion of MOHAMMED, or ISLAM, (q. V. ), is essentially much the same as the religion of the Jews with someelements borrowed from the Christian religion, and is defined by Carlyleas a bastard Christianity; originating in Arabia it spread rapidly overthe W. Of Asia, the N. Of Africa, and threatened at one time to overrunEurope itself; it is the religion to-day of two hundred millions of thehuman race, and the profession of it extends over a wide area in westernand southern Asia as also in northern Africa, though its limits in Europedo not extend beyond the bounds of Turkey. 

MOHAWK, a tribe of American Indians, gave name to a band or club ofruffians who infested the streets of London in 1711-12. 

MOHIC`ANS, an American Indian tribe, took sides with the Englishsettlers against the French and with the former against England. 

MOHL, JULIUS, Orientalist, born in Stuttgart; edited the "ShahNameh" of Firdushi, a monumental work (1800-1876). 

MÖHLER, JOHANN ADAM, a Roman Catholic theologian, born atWürtemberg, author of "Symbolik, " a work which discusses the differencesbetween the doctrines of Catholics and Protestants, as evidenced in theirrespective symbolical books, a work which created no small stir in thetheological world (1796-1838). 

MOIR, DAVID MACBETH, the "Delta" of _Blackwood_, born inMusselburgh, where he practised as a physician; was author of "MansieWaugh" (1798-1851). 

MOIRA, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, EARL OF, son of the Earl of Moira;entered the army 1771, and served against the Americans in the War ofIndependence; created Baron Rawdon in 1783; succeeded to his father'stitle 1793; entered political life under Fox, and was Governor-General ofIndia 1813-23, in which period fell the Goorkha War, for the successfulnegotiations subsequent on which he was created Marquis of Hastings; hisadministration encouraged native education and freedom of the press; from1824 he was Governor of Malta till his death at Naples (1754-1826). 

MOKANNA, AL, "the veiled one, " a name given to Hakim ben Allah, whowore a veil to hide the loss of an eye; he professed to be an incarnationof the Deity and to work miracles; found followers; founded a sect atKhorassan; seized some fortresses, but was overthrown at Kash A. D. 780, whereupon he took poison. 

MOLDAU, largest river in Bohemia, rises on the N. Of the BöhmerwaldMountains, flows SE. Along their base, then turns northward throughBohemia, passes Budweis, becomes navigable, is 100 yards broad at Prague, and joins the Elbe at Melnik after flowing 278 m. 

MOLDAVIA, once independent, now the northern division of Roumania, lies between the Carpathians and the Pruth River, and is well watered bythe Sereth; its chief town is Jassy, in the NE. 

MOLÉ, LOUIS MATTHIEU, COMTE, French statesman, born in Paris;published in 1805 an essay on politics which, defending Napoleon, won forits author a series of minor offices, and in 1813 a peerage and a seat inthe Cabinet; retaining power under Louis XVIII. And Louis Philippe, hewas Minister of Marine 1817, Foreign Minister 1830, and Premier 1837, butretired from politics two years later (1781-1855). 

MOLECULE, the smallest particle of which an element or a compoundbody is composed, and that retains all the properties in a free state. 

MOLESWORTH, SIR WILLIAM, British statesman, born in London; was anadvanced Liberal; editor and proprietor of the _Westminster Review_;edited the works of Hobbes (1810-1855). 

MOLIÈRE, JEAN BAPTISTE POQUELIN, great French comic dramatist, bornin Paris; studied law and passed for the bar, but evinced from the firsta proclivity for the theatre, and soon associated with actors, and foundhis vocation as a writer of plays, which procured him the friendship ofLafontaine, Boileau, and other distinguished men, though he incurred theanimosity of many classes of society by the ridicule which he heaped ontheir weaknesses and their pretensions, the more that in his satires hischaracters are rather abstract types of men than concreteindividualities; his principal pieces are, "Les Précieuses Ridicules, ""L'École des Femmes, " "Le Tartuffe, " "Le Misanthrope, " "George Dandin, ""L'Avare, " "Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, " "Les Fourberies de Scapin, " "LeMalade malgré Lui, " "Les Femmes Savantes, " and "Le Malade Imaginaire";though seriously ill, he took part in the performance of this last, butthe effort was too much for him, and he died that night; from the grudgewhich the priests bore him for his satires on them he was buried withouta religious service (1622-1673). 

MOLINA, LUIS, a Spanish Jesuit and theologian, author of a theorycalled Molinism, which resolves the doctrine of predestination into amere foreknowledge of those who would accept and those who would rejectthe grace of God in salvation. 

MOLINOS, MIGUEL DE, a Spanish theologian, born at Saragossa;published a book called the "Spiritual Guide, " which, as containing thegerm of Quietism, was condemned by the Inquisition, and its authorsentenced to imprisonment for life (1627-1696). 

MOLLAH, a judge of the highest rank among the Turks on matters oflaw, both civil and sacred. 

MOLLWITZ, a village in Silesia, 20 m. SE. Of Breslau, whereFrederick the Great defeated the Austrians 1741. 

MOLOCH or MOLECH, the chief god of the Ammonites, the worshipof whom, which prevailed among all the Canaanites, was accompanied withcruelties, human sacrifices among others, revolting to the humane spiritof the Jewish religion; originally it appears to have been the worship offire, through which the innocent as well as the guilty have often to passfor the achievement of the noblest enterprises, which degenerated atlength into selfish sacrifices of others for interests of one's own, intothe substitution of the innocent for the guilty by way of atonement tothe Deity!

MOLTKE, COUNT VON, surnamed the Silent, great German field marshal, born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, of an old family; was pre-eminent as amilitary strategist, planned and conducted the Prussian campaign againstAustria in 1866, and the German campaign against France in 1870-72; wasin the service of Denmark before he entered the Prussian (1800-1891). 

MOLUCCAS or SPICE ISLANDS (400), an archipelago of mountainousislands, mostly volcanic, between Celebes and New Guinea, is in two maingroups; in the N. The largest island is Jilolo, but the most importantTidor and Ternate, which export spices, tortoise-shell, and bees-wax; inthe S. Buru and Ceram are largest, most important, Amboyna, from whichcome cloves; the people are civilised Malays; the islands are equatorial, but tempered by sea-breezes, and healthy; discovered by the Portuguese in1521, they have been in Dutch possession since 1607, except when held byBritain 1810-1814. 

MOMBASA (Africans and Arabs 20), capital of British East Africa, ona rocky islet, close inshore, 50 m. N. Of Pemba; was ceded with a tractof country six times the size of the British Isles, and rich in gold, copper, plumbago, and india-rubber, to the British East African Companyby the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1888, since when it has been rebuilt, andthe harbour, one of the best and healthiest on the coast, made a navalcoaling-station and head-quarters. 

MOMMSEN, THEODOR, historian, born in Schleswig, a man of immensehistorical knowledge; his greatest work the "History of Rome"; wasprofessor of Ancient History at Berlin; his _forte_ was his learning morethan his critical capacity; _b_. 1817. 

MOMUS, the god of raillery, the son of Night, a kind of ancientMEPHISTOPHELES (q. V. ). 

MONACHISM, or MONASTICISM, is an institution in whichindividuals devote themselves, apart from others, to the cultivation ofspiritual contemplation and religious duties, and which has constituted amarked feature in Pre-Christian Jewish asceticism, and in Buddhism aswell as in Christianity; in the Church it developed from the practice ofliving in solitude in the 2nd century, and received its distinctive notewhen the vow of obedience to a superior was added to the hermit'spersonal vows of poverty and chastity; the movement of St. Benedict inthe 6th century stamped its permanent form on Western Monasticism, andthat of St. Francis in the 12th gave it a more comprehensive range, entrusting the care of the poor, the sick, the ignorant, &c. , to thehitherto self-centred monks and nuns; during the Middle Ages themonasteries were centres of learning, and their work in copying andpreserving both sacred and secular literature has been invaluable;English Monachism was swept away at the Reformation; in France at theRevolution; and later in Spain, Portugal, and Italy it has beensuppressed; brotherhoods and sisterhoods have sprung up in the Protestantchurches of Germany and England, but in all of them the vows taken arerevocable. 

MONACO (13), a small principality 9 m. E. Of Nice, on theMediterranean shore, surrounded by French territory and under Frenchprotection; has a mild salubrious climate, and is a favourite winterresort. The capital, MONACO, is built on a picturesque promontory, and 1 m. NE. Stands Monte Carlo. 

MONAD, the name given by Leibnitz to one of the active simpleelementary substances, the plurality of which in their combinations orcombined activities constitutes in his regard the universe both spiritualand physical; it denotes in biology an elementary organism. 

MONAGHAN (82), an inland Ulster county, Ireland, surrounded byLouth, Armagh, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Cavan, and Meath; is undulating, withmany small lakes and streams; grows flax and manufactures linen, and haslimestone and slate quarries. The chief towns are CLONES (2), andthe county-town MONAGHAN (3), which has a produce market. 

MONBODDO, JAMES BURNETT, LORD, a Scottish judge, born inKincardineshire, an eccentric writer, author of a "Dissertation on theOrigin of Language" and of "Ancient Metaphysics"; had original fancies onthe origin, particularly of the human race from the monkey, conceived notso foolish to-day as they were then (1714-1799). 

MONCREIFF, SIR HENRY WELLWOOD, Scottish clergyman, born atBlackford; from 1775 to 1827 minister of St. Cuthbert's, Edinburgh, andleader of the evangelical party of the Scottish Church. 

MONCREIFF, JAMES W. , LORD, second son of preceding, eminent Scottishjudge; was the author of the Veto Act which led to the Disruption of 1843(1776-1851). 

MONCREIFF, SIR HENRY W. , son of preceding, became a Free Churchminister, and was Principal Clerk of the General Assembly of the FreeChurch; an authority on Church law (1809-1885). 

MONCREIFF, JAMES, brother of preceding, bred for the Scottish bar;was Lord Advocate of Scotland under four administrations; was appointedLord Justice-Clerk in 1860; was raised to the peerage in 1874(1811-1895). 

MOND, LUDWIG, distinguished technical chemist and inventor, born atCassel, in Germany; was a pupil of Kolbe and Bunsen, and has madeimportant additions to chemical-industrial processes and products; _b_. 1839. 

MONEY, defined by Ruskin to be "a documentary claim to wealth, andcorrespondent in its nature to the title-deed of an estate. "

MONGE, GASPARD, celebrated French mathematician, born at Beaune; oneof the founders of the Polytechnic School in Paris (1746-1818). 

MONGOLS, a great Asiatic people having their original home on theplains E. Of Lake Baikal, Siberia, who first rose into prominence undertheir ruler Genghis Khan in the 12th century; he, uniting the threebranches of Mongols, commenced a career of conquest which made him masterof all Central Asia; his sons divided his empire, and pursued hisconquests; a Mongol emperor seized the throne of China in 1234, and fromthis branch sprang the great Kublai Khan, whose house ruled an immenseterritory 1294-1368. Another section pushed westwards as far as Moraviaand Hungary, taking Pesth in 1241, and founded the immense empire overwhich Tamerlane held sway. A third but later movement, springing from theruins of these earlier empires, was that of Baber, who conquered India, and founded the Great Mogul line, 1519. Now Mongols are constituentelements in the populations of China, Russian, and Turkish Asia. 

MONICA, ST. , the mother of St. Augustine, who became to him thesymbol of "the highest he knew on earth, bowing before a Higher inheaven. "

MONISM, the name given to the principle of any system of philosophywhich resolves the manifold of the universe into the evolution of someunity in opposition to DUALISM (q. V. ). 

MONK, GEORGE, DUKE OF ALBEMARLE, general and admiral, was aDevonshire man, who spent his youth in the Dutch wars, and returned toEngland just in time to side with Charles I. Against the Parliament;after leading a regiment in Ireland, he was captured at Nantwich in 1644, and spent two years in the Tower; obtaining his release by changingsides, he won commendation from Cromwell at Dunbar in 1650, and wasentrusted with the command of operations in Scotland afterwards; in 1653he beat Van Tromp at sea, twice; from 1654 till 1660 he was Governor ofScotland; on the death of Cromwell he saw the confusion, marched with6000 troops to London, and after cautious negotiations, brought CharlesII. To England and set him on the throne, receiving a peerage and manyhonours for reward; he behaved well as Governor of London in the plagueyear, and was again admiral in the Dutch wars of 1666 (1608-1670). 

MONMOUTH, GEOFFREY, a Welsh priest of the 12th century, compiler ofwhat he called a "History of the Early Kings of Britain, " from that ofBrut, through the story of King Arthur and others, such as King Lear, down to that of Cadwallo, a Welsh king, who died in 689. 

MONMOUTH, JAMES, DUKE OF, illegitimate son of Charles II. , born atRotterdam; was admitted to Court after the Restoration, and received histitle in 1663; his manners and his Protestantism brought him popularfavour in spite of his morals, and by-and-by plots were formed to securethe succession for him; forced to fly to Holland in 1683, he waited tillhis father's death, then planned a rebellion with Argyll; Argyll failedin Scotland; Monmouth, landing in Dorsetshire 1685, was soon overthrownat Sedgemoor, taken prisoner, and executed (1649-1685). 

MONMOUTHSHIRE (252), a west of England county lying N. Of the Severnestuary, between Glamorgan and Gloucestershire; is low and flat in theS. , but otherwise hilly, and is traversed by the Usk River; more thanhalf the surface is under permanent pasture; the wealth of Monmouthshireconsists of coal and iron-stone; Monmouth (5), the county town, is thecentre of beautiful scenery, and has some fine buildings. 

MONOPHYSITES, a body of heretics who arose in the 5th century andmaintained that the divine and human natures in Christ were united in onedivine-human nature, so that He was neither wholly divine nor whollyhuman, but in part both. 

MONOTHEISM, belief in the existence of one God, or the divine unity, or that the Divine Being, whether twofold, as in dualism, threefold, asin Trinitarianism, is in essence and in manifestation one. 

MONOTHELISM, a heresy which arose in the 7th century, in which itwas maintained that, though in Christ there were two natures, there wasbut One Will, viz. , the Divine. 

MONRO, ALEXANDER, founder of Edinburgh Medical School, born ofScotch parentage in London; studied there, and at Paris and Leyden, andwas appointed lecturer on Anatomy by the Surgeons' Company at Edinburghin 1719; two years later he became professor, and in 1725 was admitted tothe University; he was a principal promoter and early clinical lecturerin the Royal Infirmary, and continued his clinical work after resigninghis chair to his son Alexander; he wrote several medical works, and was aFellow of the Royal Society; he was called _primus_, to distinguish himfrom his son and grandson, who were called respectively _secundus_ and_tertius_, and were professors of Anatomy in Edinburgh like himself(1697-1767). 

MONROE, JAMES, American President, born in Virginia, of Scottishdescent; left college to join Washington's army; was wounded in the war, and studying law, entered Congress in 1783; he assisted in framing theConstitution, and sat in the Senate 1790-1794; his diplomatic career inFrance was marked by the purchase of Louisiana from that country in1803; he was governor of Virginia thrice over, and Secretary of Statetill 1817; then followed two terms of the Presidency, during whichFlorida was acquired from Spain 1819, the delimitation of the slave limitby the Missouri compromise, the recognition of the South AmericanRepublics, and the statement of the "MONROE DOCTRINE" (q. V. );in his later years his generosity led him into debt, and he spent hisclosing days with relations in New York (1758-1831). 

MONROE DOCTRINE, the doctrine of James Monroe, twice over Presidentof the United States, that the United States should hold aloof from allinterference with the affairs of the Old World, and should not suffer thePowers of the Old World to interfere with theirs. 

MONSON, SIR EDWARD, English diplomatist; entered the diplomaticservice in 1856, and after service at various courts, became ambassadorat Paris in 1896; _b_. 1834. 

MONSOON originally denoted a periodical wind in the Indian Ocean, which blows from SW. From April to October, and from NE. From October toApril; now denotes any wind connected with a continent regularlyrecurring with the seasons. 

MONSTRANCE, a transparent pyx on which the Host is exhibited on thealtar to the people, or conveyed in public procession. 

MONT BLANC, in the Graian Alps, on the French-Italian frontier, thehighest mountain in Europe, 15, 782 ft. , the upper half under perpetualsnow; has 56 magnificent glaciers, including the Mer-de-Glace; it wasfirst climbed by Balmat and Paccard in 1786, and since then has been manytimes ascended, now by 50 parties every year. 

MONT CENIS, an Alpine peak (12, 000 ft. ) on the Savoy-Piedmontfrontier and the adjacent pass, over which a road was constructed1802-1810, and near which a railway tunnel was pierced (1857-70) at acost of £3, 000, 000. 

MONT DE PIÉTÉ, an institution to lend money to the poor at little orno interest, first established in the 15th century, a time when lendingto the poor was as much a work of mercy as giving to them; a publicpawnbroking establishment, so called in France. 

MONTAGNARDS. See MOUNTAIN, THE. 

MONTAGU, LADY MARY WORTLEY, an English lady, born inNottinghamshire, celebrated for her wit and beauty, and for her "Letterson the Manners of the East" (1690-1762). 

MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE, a sceptico-speculative thinker and moralist, born in the Château of Montaigne, Périgord; an easy-going mortal, but akeen observer of the ways and manners of other people, which someexperience in travel gave him opportunities to do, as well as the studyof the old classic Latin authors; his fame rests on his "Essays, " inwhich he records his observations of mankind, but in which, from adecided descendental twist he had, he betrays a rather low idea of themorale of the race; the book, however, is a favourite with all observantpeople of education, and a translation of it by Florio is the one book weknow for certain to have been in the library of Shakespeare; bred as hewas by his father's arrangement among the common people, he alwaysretained a friendly feeling towards his neighbours, and they cherishedtowards him feelings of very high regard; he was a quiet, tolerant man, and his writings reveal a character which commands the respect of men whoaffect a much higher level of thinking than that occupied by himself(1533-1592). 

MONTALEMBERT, COMTE DE, a French politician, born in London, son ofa French emigrant; was associated with Lamennais and Lacordaire in theconduct of the _Avenir_, an Ultramontane Liberal organ, and spent hislife in advocating the cause of a free unfettered system of nationaleducation; wrote the "Monks of the West, " his chief work (1810-1870). 

MONTANA (132), a State of the American Union, in the NW. , lies alongthe Canadian border between Idaho and the Dakotas, with Wyoming on theS. ; has a mild climate, and a soil which, with irrigation, produces finecrops of grain and vegetables. Cattle-raising is profitable, but thechief industry is mining, in the Rocky Mountains, which occupy a fifth ofthe State. There gold, silver, copper, and lead abound. The Missouri andthe Columbia Rivers rise in Montana, and the Yellowstone traverses thewhole State. The State was admitted to the Union in 1889, with Helena (9)as capital. 

MONTANISM, a heresy which arose in the 2nd century; derived its namefrom an enthusiast in Phrygia named Montanus, who insisted on thepermanency of the spiritual gifts vouchsafed to the primitive Church, anda return to the severe discipline of life and character prevailing in it. 

MONTCALM DE SAINT VÉRAN, LOUIS JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE, born near Nîmes;entered the army early, and at forty-four was field-marshal and commanderof the forces in Quebec against the English; the capture of Forts Oswegoand William Henry and the defence of Ticonderoga were followed by theloss of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne and the retreat on Quebec, where, surprised by Wolfe in 1759, he was totally defeated, and Canada lost toFrance; both generals fell (1712-1759). 

MONTE CARLO (4), a great gambling centre in Monaco, 1 m. NE. Of thecapital; visited by 400, 000 persons annually. The Casino is held by acompany, and stands on ground leased from the prince. 

MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES, a philanthropic Jewish banker, born inLeghorn; a friend to the emancipation not only of the oppressed among hisown race, but of the slave in all lands; lived to a great age(1784-1885). 

MONTÉGUT, ÉMILE, French critic, born at Limoges; is noted for booksof travel, studies in French and English literature, and for translationsof Shakespeare, Macaulay's "History, " and Emerson's "Essays. "

MONTENEGRO (236), a Balkan State, less than half the size of Wales, lying in a wild mountainous region between Herzegovina and Albania, andtouching the Adriatic Sea with its SW. Corner only. The climate is severein winter, mild in summer. The soil is sterile, but is industriouslytilled, and patches of arable land on the mountain sides and in thevalleys yield maize, oats, potatoes, and tobacco. Cattle and sheep arereared in large numbers; vines and mulberries are cultivated round thelake, whose waters abound in fish. Cattle, hides, and cheese are theexports. The Montenegrins are a primitive people; the men hunt and fight, the women work. They are mostly of the Greek Church, and noted for theirmorality. The government is patriarchal, with a prince at the head. Education and road-making have recently advanced. The towns are merevillages. Cetinje (1) is the capital; Antivari and Dulcigno, the Adriaticports. 

MONTESPAN, MARQUISE DE, mistress of Louis XIV. ; a woman noted forher wit and beauty; bore the king eight children; was supplanted byMADAME DE MAINTENON (q. V. ); passed her last days in religiousretirement (1641-1707). 

MONTESQUIEU, BARON DE, illustrious French publicist, born in theChâteau La Brède, near Bordeaux; his greatest work, and an able, "Espritdes Lois, " though rated in "Sartor" as at best the work of "a cleverinfant spelling letters from a hieroglyphic prophetic book, the lexiconof which lies in eternity, in heaven"; was author of an able work "On theCauses of the Grandeur of the Romans and their Declension" (1689-1755). 

MONTEVIDEO (215), on the N. Shore of the Rio de la Plata, 130 m. E. Of Buenos Ayres; is the capital of Uruguay; a well-built town, with acathedral, university, school of arts, and museum. The chief industriesare beef-salting and shipping, though there is practically no harbour. Nearly half the population are foreigners. 

MONTEZ, LOLA, an adventuress of Spanish descent, born at Limerick;contracted no end of marriages, which were broken off one after another;took to the stage; took to lecturing, and ended in trying to reclaimfallen women (1818-1861). 

MONTEZUMA II. , the last of the Mexican emperors; submitted to Cortezwhen he landed; died in 1520 of a wound he received as he pled with hissubjects to submit to the conqueror, aggravated by grief over the failureof his efforts in bringing about a reconciliation. 

MONTFORT, SIMON DE, son of a French count; came to England in 1230, where he inherited from his grandmother the earldom of Leicester;attached to Henry III. , and married to the king's sister, he was sent togovern Gascony in 1248; returned in 1253, and passed over to the side ofthe barons, whom he ultimately led in the struggle against the king;after repeated unsuccessful attempts to make Henry observe the Provisionsof Oxford, Simon took arms against him in 1263; the war was indecisive, and appeal being made to the arbitration of Louis the Good, Simon, dissatisfied with his award, renewed hostilities, defeated the king atLewes, and taking him and his son prisoner, governed England for a year(1264-65); he sketched a constitution for the country, and summoned themost representative parliament that had yet met, but as he aimed at thewelfare of not the barons only, but the common people as well, the baronsbegan to distrust him, when Prince Edward, having escaped from captivity, joined them, and overthrew Simon at Evesham, where he was slain(1206?-1265). 

MONTGOLFIER BROTHERS, inventors of the balloon, who made their firstascent in Paris in 1783 in "their paper dome, filled with smoke of burntwood, amid the shouts of congregated men"; JOSEPH (1740-1810), andÉTIENNE (1745-1799). 

MONTGOMERIE, ALEXANDER, Scottish poet, born, it is alleged, inAyrshire, from a branch of the Eglinton family; wrote sonnets and someshort poems, but his best-known piece is an allegorical poem, "The Cherryand the Slae" (1556-1610). 

MONTGOMERY, COMTE DE, a French knight of Scottish descent, captainof the Scottish Guard under Henry II. Of France; having in 1559 mortallywounded the king in a tourney, he fled to England, but returned to fightin the ranks of the Huguenots, and having had to surrender, he was takento Paris and beheaded, in violation of the terms of surrender, whichassured him of his life (1530-1574). 

MONTGOMERY, JAMES, poet and hymn-writer, born at Irvine, son of aMoravian minister; studied for the same profession, but was not licensed;after some years of various occupation he started journalism, andeventually produced a journal of his own, _Sheffield Iris_, 1794-1825; hewas twice fined and imprisoned for seditious publications, but became aConservative in 1832, a pensioner 1835, and died at Sheffield; of hispoetry most is forgotten, but "For ever with the Lord, " and some dozenother hymns are still remembered (1771-1854). 

MONTGOMERY, ROBERT, author of "The Omnipresence of Deity" and"Satan, " born at Bath, son of a clown; passed undistinguished throughOxford, and was minister of Percy Street Chapel, London; all his manyworks are forgotten save the above, which lives in Macaulay's famousreview (1807-1855). 

MONTGOMERYSHIRE (58), a North Wales inland county, surrounded byMerioneth, Cardigan, Radnor, Salop, and Denbigh; is chiefly a stretch ofmountain pasture land, which rises to 2500 ft. At Plinlimmon, and inwhich the Severn rises; but in the E. Are well wooded and fertilevalleys. There are lead and zinc mines, and slate and limestone quarries. There is some flannel manufacture at Newtown. The county town isMontgomery (1). 

MONTHOLON, COMTE DE, French general, born in Paris, served underNapoleon, accompanied him to St. Helena, and left "Memoirs" (1782-1853). 

MONTMORENCY, ANNE, DUC DE, marshal and constable of France, born ofan old illustrious family; served in arms under Francis I. ; wasassociated with Condé against the Huguenots, and was mortally wounded atSt. Denis fighting against them (1492-1567). 

MONTMORENCY, HENRI, SECOND DUC OF, born at Chantilly; distinguishedhimself in arms under Louis XIII. , but provoked along with Gaston, Dukeof Orleans, into rebellion, he was taken prisoner and beheaded, notwithstanding intercessions from high quarters on his behalf for thezeal he had shown in defence of the Catholic faith (1596-1632). 

MONTPELIER (4), capital of Vermont, 250 m. N. Of New York and 120 m. NW. Of Portland, Maine, is on the Onion River, and has some mills andtanneries. 

MONTPELLIER (66), capital of Hérault, France, on the Lez, 6 m. Fromthe Gulf of Lyons, 30 m. SW. Of Nîmes, is a picturesque town, containinga cathedral, a university, picture-gallery, libraries, and otherinstitutions, and has been a centre of culture and learning since the16th century; it also manufactures chemicals, corks, and textiles, anddoes a large trade in brandy and wine. 

MONTREAL (217), the greatest commercial city of Canada, on an islandin the St. Lawrence, at the confluence of the Ottawa River, 150 m. AboveQuebec, is the centre of railway communication with the whole Dominionand the States, connected by water with all the shipping ports on thegreat lakes, and does an enormous import and export trade; its principalshipment is grain; it is the chief banking centre, has the greatestuniversities (M'Gill and a branch of Laval), hospitals, and religiousinstitutions, and pursues boot and shoe, clothing, and tobaccomanufactures; more than half the population is French and Roman Catholic, and the education of Protestant and Roman Catholic children is keptdistinct; founded in 1642 by the French, Montreal passed to Britain in1760; in 1776 it was occupied by the revolting colonies, but recoverednext year, and since then has had a steady career of prosperity andadvancement. 

MONTROSE (13), an ancient burgh and seaport of Forfarshire, 35 m. S. Of Aberdeen, stands on a tongue of land between the sea and a basin whichis almost dry at low water; carries on timber-trade with Baltic andCanadian ports, and spins flax, makes ropes and canvas. 

MONTROSE, JAMES GRAHAM, MARQUIS OF, born at Old Montrose, andeducated at St. Andrews; travelled in Italy, France, and the Netherlands;returning in 1637 he joined the Covenanters, and we find him at Aberdeen, Stonehaven, and across the English border supporting the Covenant byforce of arms; suspected of treachery to the cause he was imprisoned fora year, 1641-42, in Edinburgh Castle, whereupon he joined the side of theking; in 1644-45 he did splendid service for Charles in Scotland, defeating the Covenanters near Aberdeen, at Inverlochy and Kilsyth; butrouted by Leslie at Philiphaugh he lost the royal confidence, and nextyear withdrew to Norway; an unsuccessful invasion in the Stuart cause in1650 ended in his defeat at Invercarron, capture, and execution; "TheGreat Marquis, " as he is called, was a soldier of genius, and a man oftaste, learning, clemency, and courage (1612-1650). 

MONTYON PRIZES, four prizes in the gift of the French Academy, sonamed from their founder, Baron de Montyon (1733-1820), and awardedannually for (1) improvements in medicine and surgery; (2) improvementstending to health in some mechanical process; (3) acts of disinterestedgoodness; (4) literary works conducive to morality; the last two areusually divided among several recipients. 

MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN, evangelist, born in Massachusetts; settled inChicago, where he began his career as an evangelist, associated with Mr. Sankey; visited great Britain in 1873 and 1883, and produced awide-spread impression, especially on the first visit; _b_. 1837. 

MOON, the satellite of the earth, from which it is distant 238, 800m. , and which revolves round it in 27-1/3 days, taking the same time torotate on its own axis, so that it presents always the same side to us;is a dark body, and shines by reflection of the sun's light, its diameter2165 m. ; it has a rugged surface of mountains and valleys withoutverdure; has no water, no atmosphere, and consequently no life. 

MOON, MOUNTAINS OF THE, a range of mountains supposed by Ptolemy andearly geographers to stretch across Africa from Abyssinia to Guinea, nowvariously identified as the Kenia, Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori, &c. 

MOONSHEE, in India a teacher of languages, especially Hindustani andPersian. 

MOORE, FRANK FRANKFORT, novelist and dramatist, born at Limerick, both his novels and his dramas are numerous; commenced his literarycareer as a journalist in connection with the _Belfast News Letter_ asliterary and art editor, a post he relinquished in 1893 to settle inLondon; _b_. 1855. 

MOORE, JOHN, M. D. , author and novelist, born at Stirling, studiedmedicine in Glasgow, and practised there, in Holland, Paris, and London;he published books on the countries of Europe which he visited, an essayon the French Revolution, and among several novels, one of some note, "Zeluco" (1789); he died at Richmond (1730-1802). 

MOORE, SIR JOHN, general, eldest son of above, born at Glasgow;served in Corsica, the West Indies, Ireland, Holland, Egypt, Sicily, andSweden; his famous and last expedition was to Spain in 1808, when with10, 000 men he was sent to co-operate in expelling the French; Spanishapathy and other causes weakened his hands, and in December he foundhimself with 25, 000 men at Astorga, a French force of 70, 000 advancingagainst him; retreat was necessary, but disastrous; he was overtaken bySoult at Coruña in the act of embarking; the victory lay with theEnglish, but Moore was killed (1761-1808). 

MOORE, THOMAS, the Bard of Erin, born in Dublin, the son of agrocer, studied at Trinity College; went to London with a translation of"Anacreon, " which gained him favour and a valuable appointment in theBermudas in 1803; fought a duel with Jeffrey in 1806, began his "IrishMelodies" in 1807, and published "The Twopenny Postbag" in 1812; in 1817appeared "Lalla Rookh, " a collection of Oriental tales, and in 1818 asatiric piece "The Fudge Family, " and published a Life of Byron in 1830;Moore's songs were written to Irish airs, and they contributed much toensure Catholic emancipation (1779-1852). 

MOORS, a general term for tribes in North Africa descended from Araband Berber stock; they were Christians for several centuries, but ontheir conquest by Arabs in 647 embraced Mohammedanism; the town Moors donot hold before European settlers, but the nomad tribes show morevitality; Moorish peoples seized and settled in Spain early in the 8thcentury, and, introducing a civilisation further advanced than that inEurope generally with respect to science, art, and industry alike, maintained a strong rule till the 11th century; then the Spaniardsgradually recovered the peninsula; Toledo was taken in 1085, Saragossa in1118, Valencia in 1238, Seville in 1248, Murcia in 1260, and Granada in1492; Turkish successes in the East came too late to save the Moors, andthe last were banished from the country in 1609. 

MORAINES, masses of rock which become detached from the hill-sideand find lodgment on a glacier are so called, and are further describedas lateral, medial, terminal, or ground moraines, according as they liealong its edges, its middle, are piled up in mounds at its end, orfalling down crevasses, are ground against the rock underneath. 

MORALITIES, didactic dramas, following in order of time the miracleplays and mysteries, in which the places of saints and biblicalpersonages in them were taken by characters representing differentvirtues and vices, and the story was of an allegorical nature; were theimmediate precursors of the secular drama. 

MORAVIA (2, 277), a crownland in the N. Of Austria, lying between theMoravian and the Carpathian Mountains, with Silesia on the N. , Hungary onthe E. , Lower Austria on the S. , and Bohemia on the W. ; is mountainous, with lofty plains in the S. , and is watered by the March, a tributary ofthe Danube; the valleys and plains are fertile; grain, beetroot, flax, hemp, and vines are grown; cattle and poultry rearing and bee-keepingoccupy the peasantry; sugar, textiles, and tobacco are the chiefmanufactures; there are coal and iron mines, graphite and meerschaum arefound; the capital is Brünn (94), which has woollen and leatherindustries; associated with Bohemia in 1029, Moravia passed with thatcountry to Austria in 1526, its association with Bohemia terminating in1849; the inhabitants are two-thirds Slavs and one-third German, and aremostly Roman Catholic. 

MORAVIANS, a sect of Protestant Christians who, followers of JohnHuss, formed themselves into a separate community in Bohemia in 1467 onthe model of the primitive Church, in which the members regarded eachother as brethren, and were hence called the United Brethren; like otherheretics they suffered much persecution at the hands of the orthodoxChurch; they are known also as Herrnhuters. 

MORAY, JAMES STUART, EARL OF, illegitimate son of James V. OfScotland, and so half-brother of Mary, Queen of Scots; was from 1556 theleader of the Reformation party, and on Mary's arrival in her kingdom in1561 became her chief adviser; on her marriage with Darnley he made anunsuccessful attempt to raise a Protestant rebellion, and had to escapeto England 1565, and after a visit to Edinburgh, when he connived atRizzio's murder, to France in 1567; he was almost immediately recalled bythe nobles, who had imprisoned Mary in Lochleven, and appointed regent;next year he defeated at Langside the forces which, on her escape, hadrallied round her, and in the subsequent management of the kingdomsecured both civil and ecclesiastical peace, and earned the title of "theGood Regent"; he was shot by a partisan of the queen's, James Hamilton ofBothwellhaugh, when riding through Linlithgow (1531-1570). 

MORE, HANNAH, English authoress, born near Bristol; wrote dramas, anovel entitled "Coelebs in Search of a Wife, " and a tract "The Shepherdof Salisbury Plain" (1745-1833). 

MORE, HENRY, a Platonist, born at Grantham, a Fellow of ChristCollege, Cambridge, and author of a poem "Song of the Soul"; he was amystic who exercised a great influence among the young men of Cambridge(1614-1687). 

MORE, SIR THOMAS, Chancellor of England, born in London; was thelifelong friend of Erasmus, and the author of "Utopia, " an imaginarycommonwealth; succeeded Wolsey as Chancellor, but resigned the seals ofoffice because he could not sanction the king's action in the matter ofthe divorce, and was committed to the Tower for refusing to take the oathof supremacy, whence after 12 months he was brought to trial andsentenced to be beheaded; he ascended the scaffold, and laid his head onthe block in the spirit of a philosopher; was one of the wisest and bestof men (1478-1535). 

MOREA is the modern name of the ancient Peloponnesus, thatremarkable peninsula, larger than Wales, which constitutes the southernhalf of Greece, and is joined to the mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth, less than 4 m. Broad. 

MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR, French general, born at Morlaix; served withdistinction under the Republic and the Empire; was suspected of plottingagainst the latter with George Cadoudal, and banished on conviction; wentto America, but returning to Europe, joined the ranks of the Russiansagainst his country, and was mortally wounded by a cannon ball at Dresden(1763-1813). 

MORGANATIC MARRIAGE, is a union permitted to German princes who, forbidden to marry except with one of equal rank, may ally themselveswith a woman of inferior status, their children being legitimate but noteligible for the succession; the marriages of British princes contractedbefore the age of 25 without consent of the sovereign, or after that agewithout consent of Parliament, are of a morganatic nature. 

MORGARTEN, a mountain slope in the canton of Zug, Switzerland, where1400 Swiss, on Nov. 15, 1315, in assertion of their independence, defeated an Austrian army of 15, 000. 

MORGHEN, RAPHAEL SANZIO CAVALIERE, engraver, born in Naples, ofGerman parentage; studied in Rome, and by genius and industry became oneof the foremost engravers; his works include engravings of Raphael's"Transfiguration, " the result of 16 years' labour, and Leonardo daVinci's "Last Supper, " his masterpiece (1758-1833). 

MORGUE, a house in which bodies found dead are placed foridentification. 

MORISONIANISM, the principles of the Evangelical Union, a Scottishdenomination founded by the Rev. James Morison of Kilmarnock on hisexpulsion from the United Secession Church in 1843, and united with theScottish Congregational Union in 1897; differed from the olderPresbyterianism in affirming the freedom of the human will to accept orreject salvation, and the universal scope of the offer of salvation asmade by God to all men; in polity the Morisonians observed a modifiedindependency. 

MORLEY, JOHN, politician and man of letters, born in Blackburn; isan advanced Liberal in both capacities; besides essays and journalisticwork, has written biographies, particularly on men associated withpolitics and social movements, such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot, as well as Burke, and is editor of "English Men of Letters"; in politicshe was a staunch supporter of Mr. Gladstone, though he could have littlesympathy with him as a High Churchman; _b_. 1838. 

MORMON, BOOK OF, a book which in 1827 fell into the hands of JosephSmith, the son of a farmer, alleged by him to have been written by aHebrew prophet who emigrated to America 600 years before Christ, and tohave been recorded by him as a direct revelation to himself from heaven, by means of which the interrupted communication between heaven and earthwas to be restored. 

MORMONISM, the creed of the Mormons, or Latter-day Saints as theyare called, who have settlements of their own in the valley of the SaltLake, generally called Utah, U. S. ; they conceive, according to HepworthDixon, of God as a flesh and blood man, of man as of the divinesubstance, as existing from, and to exist to, all eternity, and withoutinherited sin, of the earth as only one of many inhabited worlds, of thespirit world as consisting of beings awaiting incarnation, of polygamy asof divine ordination and the relationship eternal, and of their socialsystem as the kingdom of God on earth. 

MORNY, DUC DE, French politician, born in Paris; played aconspicuous part in the _coup d'état_ of December 1851, and was Presidentof the Corps Législatif; was believed to have been the son of QueenHortense, and consequently Louis Napoleon's half-brother (1811-1865). 

MOROCCO (4, 000), an empire in the NW. Corner of Africa, three timesthe size of Great Britain, its coast-line stretching from Algeria to CapeNun, and its inland confines being vaguely determined by the Frenchhinterlands. Two-thirds of the country is desert; much of the remainderis poor pasture land; the Atlas Mountains stretch from SW. To NE. , butthere are some expanses of level fertile country; on the seaboard theclimate is delightful, with abundance of rain in the season; among themountains extremes prevail; south of the Atlas it is hot and almostrainless; the mineral wealth is probably great; gold, silver, copper, andiron are known to be plentiful, but bad government hinders development;the exports are maize, pulse, oil, wool, fruit, and cattle; cloth, tea, coffee, and hardware are imported; the chief industries are the making ofleather, "Fez" caps, carpets, and the breeding of horses; government isextremely despotic and corrupt, and the Sultan's authority over many ofthe tribes is merely nominal; there is no education; the religion isMohammedanism, and slavery prevails; there are no roads, and the countryis imperfectly known; telegraph, telephone, and postal service are inEuropean hands; the country was taken from the Romans by the Arabs in the7th century, and has ever since been in their hands, but Berbers, Spaniards, Moors, Jews, and negroes also go to make up the population. The chief towns are Fez (25), in the N. , a sacred Moslem city, squalidand dirty, but with good European trade, and a depôt for the caravansfrom the interior; and Morocco (60), in the S. , near the Tensift River, 240 m. SW. Of Fez, well situated for local and transit trade, but adilapidated city. 

MOROCCO, a fine-grained leather of the skin of a goat or sheep, first prepared in Morocco. 

MORPHEUS (i. E. The Moulder), the god of dreams, the son of Nightand Sleep. 

MORRIS-DANCE, a rustic merrymaking common in England after 1350, andstill extant; is of disputed origin; the chief characters, Maid Marian, Robin Hood, the hobby-horse, and the fool, execute fantastic movementsand Jingle bells fastened to their feet and dress. 

MORRIS, SIR LEWIS, a poet, born in Carmarthen, Wales; the author of"Songs of Two Worlds, " "The Epic of Hades, " "A Vision of Saints, " &c. ;often confounded with the succeeding, with whom he has next to nothing incommon; _b_. 1833. 

MORRIS, WILLIAM, poet, art-worker, and Socialist, born inWalthamstow, near London, son and heir of a wealthy merchant; studied atOxford, where he became the lifelong bosom friend of Burne-Jones; of anartistic temperament, he devoted his working hours to decorative art, inparticular designing wall-papers; produced in 1858 "The Defence ofGuenevere and other Poems, " in 1867 "The Life and Death of Jason, " andfrom 1868 to 1870 his masterpiece, "THE EARTHLY PARADISE" (q. V. );among other works he translated the "Æneid" and the "Odyssey, " andgave a splendid rendering of some of the Norse legends (1834-1896). 

MORRISON, ROBERT, first missionary to China, and Chinese scholar, born of Scottish parentage at Morpeth; entered the Independent ministry, and was sent to Macao and Canton by the London Missionary Society in1807; in 1814 he published a Chinese version of the New Testament, and in1819 of the Old Testament; in 1823 his great Chinese Dictionary waspublished at the expense of the East India Company; returning to Englandin 1824, he went out again 10 years later as interpreter to Lord Napier, and died at Canton (1782-1834). 

MORSE, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE, inventor, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, graduated at Yale in 1810 and adopted art as a profession;he gained some distinction as a sculptor, and in 1835 was appointedprofessor of Design in New York; electrical studies were his hobby;between 1832 and 1837 he worked out the idea of an electrictelegraph--simultaneously conceived by Wheatstone in England--and in 1843Congress granted funds for an experimental line between Washington andBaltimore; honour and fortune crowded on him, his invention was adoptedall over the world, and he received an international grant of £16, 000; hedied in New York (1791-1872). 

MORTGAGE, a deed conveying property to a creditor as security forthe payment of a debt, the person to whom it is given being called theMortgagee. 

MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, EARL OF, regent of Scotland; joined theReforming party, was made Chancellor, took part in the murder of Rizzio, and was privy to the plot against Darnley, joined the confederacy of thenobles against Mary, fought against her at Langside, and became regent in1572; became unpopular, was charged with being accessory to Darnley'smurder, and beheaded in 1581. 

MOSAYLIMA, a rival of Mohammed, posed as equally a prophet, andentitled to share with Mohammed the sovereignty of the world; two battlesfollowed, in the second of which Mosaylima was killed, to the dispersionof his followers. 

MOSCHUS, a Greek pastoral poet, author of lyrics which have beentranslated by Andrew Lang; lived 150 B. C. 

MOSCOW (799), on the Moskwa River, in the centre of European Russia, 370 m. SE. Of St. Petersburg; was before 1713 the capital, and is still agreat industrial and commercial centre; its manufactures includetextiles, leather, chemicals, and machinery; it does a great trade ingrain, timber, metals from the Urals, and furs, hides, &c. , from Asia;besides the great cathedral there are many churches, palaces, andmuseums, a university, library, picture-gallery, and observatory; theenclosure called the Kremlin or citadel is the most sacred spot inRussia; thrice in the 18th century the city was devastated by fire, andagain in 1812 to compel Napoleon to retire. 

MOSELLE, river, rising W. Of the Vosges Mountains, flows NW. ThroughFrench and German Lorraine, then NE. Through Rhenish Prussia to join theRhine at Coblenz, 315 m. Long, two-thirds of it navigable; it passes inits tortuous course Metz, Thionville, and Trèves. 

MOSES, the great Hebrew law-giver, under whose leadership the Jewsachieved their emancipation from the bondage of Egypt, and began toassert themselves as an independent people among the nations of theearth; in requiring of the people the fear of God and the observance ofHis commandments, he laid the national life on a sure basis, and he wassucceeded by a race of prophets who from age to age reminded the peoplethat in regard or disregard for what he required of them depended theirprosperity or their ruin as a nation, of which from their extremeobduracy they had again and again to be admonished. 

MOSHEIM, a Protestant Church historian, born at Lübeck, wasprofessor at Göttingen; his principal work a History of the Church, written in Latin, and translated into English and other languages(1694-1755). 

MOSS-TROOPERS, maurauders who formerly raided the moss-grownborderland of England and Scotland. 

MOTHERWELL, WILLIAM, Scottish poet, born in Glasgow, educated inEdinburgh; entered a lawyer's office in Paisley in 1811 and becameSheriff-Clerk Depute of Renfrewshire 1818; he was editor of the PaisleyAdvertiser in 1828, and of the Glasgow Courier in 1830; he wrotebiographical notices of local poets, and edited "Minstrelsy, Ancient andModern, " in 1827; but his own fame was established by "Poems, Narrativeand Lyrical, " 1832, the gem of the collection being "Jeanie Morison"; hedied in Glasgow (1797-1835). 

MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP, historian and diplomatist, born inMassachusetts; commenced his literary career as a novelist, but soonturned all his thoughts to the study of history; spent years in the studyof Dutch history; wrote the "History of the Dutch Republic, " which waspublished in 1856, the "History of the United Netherlands, " publishingthe first part in 1860 and the second in 1868, and the "Life and Death ofJohn Barnevelde" in 1874; was appointed the United States minister atVienna in 1861, and at St. James's in 1869; he ranks high as ahistorian, being both faithful and graphic (1814-1877). 

MOTOR CAR, a vehicle propelled by petroleum, electricity, &c. 

MOUNTAIN, THE, the name given to the Jacobins, or the extremedemocratic party, at the French Revolution, from their occupying thehighest benches in the hall of the National Convention, and included suchmen as Marat, Danton, Robespierre, and the men of the Reign of Terror. 

MOVABLE FEASTS, festivals of the Church, the date of which varieswith the date of Easter. 

MOZAMBIQUE (1, 000), the general name for Portuguese East Africa, lies between Cape Delgado and Delagoa Bay on the mainland, oppositeMadagascar; the Rovuma River separates it from German territory in theN. ; in the S. It touches British Maputaland, while inland it borders onBritish Central and South Africa and the Transvaal; the Zambesi dividesit into two; the coast is low and wet, inland are richly wooded plateaux;the soil is fertile, and minerals abound, but the government is bad, andindustry does not develop; 52 miles of railway connect Lorenzo Marqueswith the Transvaal; other chief towns are Quilimane (6), and the capitalMOZAMBIQUE (7), on an island. 

MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS CHRYSOSTOM, eminent musical composer, bornat Salzburg; was distinguished for his musical genius as a boy, andproduced over 600 musical compositions, but his principal works were hisoperas, the "Marriage of Figaro, " "Don Giovanni, " and the "Magic Flute";his fate was an unhappy one; he suffered much from poverty and neglect;the last piece he wrote was a Requiem Mass, which he felt, he said, as ifhe were writing for himself, and he died at Prague on the evening of itsrehearsal (1756-1791). 

MUCKLEBACKIT, SAUNDERS, an old fisherman in Scott's "Antiquary. "

MUCKLEWRATH, a fanatic preacher in Scott's "Old Mortality. "

MUCOUS MEMBRANE, a delicate membrane which lines the cavities andthe canals of the human body. 

MUEZZIN, an official, usually blind, attached to a Mohammedanmosque, summons the faithful to prayers with a chant from a minaret. 

MUFTI, a doctor and interpreter of Mohammedan law. 

MUFTI, THE GRAND, is head of the Ulema, or interpreters of theKorân; holds his appointment from the Sultan, and exercises greatinfluence at the Porte; legal advisers to local and general councils inthe Turkish empire are also styled Mufti. 

MUGGLETON, founder of the Muggletonians, a tailor who, along withone Reeve, at the time of the Commonwealth, pretended to be the twowitnesses of the Revelation and the last of God's prophets, invested withpower to save and to damn; individuals of the sect founded by him existedso recently as the beginning of this century. 

MUIR, JOHN, a Sanskrit scholar, born in Glasgow; was of the IndianCivil Service; was a man of liberal views, particularly in religion, anda patron of learning; endowed the Chair of Sanskrit in EdinburghUniversity (1810-1882). 

MUIR, SIR WILLIAM, an Arabic scholar, brother of the preceding;Principal of Edinburgh University; was in the Indian Civil Service; wrotea "Life of Mahomet, " on the rise of Mohammedanism, and on the Korân; _b_. 1819. 

MUKDEN (250), in Chinese Shing-king, the capital of Manchuria, on atributary of the Liao, in the S. Of the province; is a city ofconsiderable commercial importance, and has good coal-mines in theneighbourhood; there are a great palace, and numerous temples; Irish andScotch Presbyterian and Roman Catholic missions have a centre here; theJapanese invasion of 1894-98 was directed towards it. 

MULL (5), large island in the NW. Of Argyllshire, third of theHebrides; is mountainous and picturesque, with greatly indentedcoast-line; the highest peak is Ben More, 3185 ft. , the largest inletLoch-na-Keal; the soil is best adapted for grazing. TOBERMORY (1), in the N. , is the only town. 

MÜLLER, GEORGE, founder of the Orphan Homes near Bristol; born inPrussia; founded the Orphan Home, in 1836, on voluntary subscriptions, inanswer to prayer, to the support one year of more than 2000 orphans(1805-1898). 

MÜLLER, JOHANNES, eminent German physiologist, born at Coblenz;professor at Berlin; ranks as the founder of modern physiology, and famedas author of a text-book on the science, entitled "Handbuch derPhysiologie des Menschen" (1801-1858). 

MÜLLER, JOHANNES VON, celebrated historian, born at Schaffhausen, the "History of Switzerland" his principal work (1752-1809). 

MÜLLER, JULIUS, a German theologian, born at Brieg; professor atHalle; his great work, the "Christian Doctrine of Sin"; he collaboratedon theological subjects with Neander and Nitzsch (1801-1878). 

MÜLLER, KARL OTFRIED, archæologist and philologist, born at Brieg, brother of the preceding; was professor at Göttingen, and distinguishedfor his researches in Grecian antiquities and his endeavour to construeall that concerns the history and life of ancient Greece, includingmythology, literature, and art (1797-1840). 

MULOCK, DINAH MARIA (Mrs. Craik), English novelist, born inStock-upon-Trent, authoress of "John Halifax, Gentleman, " and othernovels (1820-1887). 

MULREADY, WILLIAM, _genre_ painter, born at Ennis, Ireland, illustrated the "Vicar of Wakefield" and other works (1786-1863). 

MULTAN (75), a Punjab city near the Chenab River, 200 m. SW. OfLahore; has many mosques and temples; manufactures of silks, carpets, pottery, and enamel ware, and considerable trade. 

MÜNCHHAUSEN, BARON VON, a cavalry officer in the service of Hanoverfamed for the extravagant stories he used to relate of his adventures andexploits which, with exaggerations, were collected by one Raspe, andpublished in 1785 under Münchhausen's name (1720-1797). 

MÜNICH (351), capital of Bavaria, on the Isar, 440 m. By rail SW. OfBerlin; is a city of magnificent buildings and rare art treasures;palaces, public buildings, cathedral, churches, &c. , are all on anelaborate scale, and adorned with works of art; there are galleries ofsculpture, and ancient and modern painting, a university, colleges, andlibraries; the industries include stained glass, lithographing, bell-founding, and scientific instrument-making; and there are enormousbreweries. Münich has been the centre of artistic life and culture in the19th century, and associated with it are Cornelius, Kaulbach, and manyfamous names. 

MÜNSTER (49), capital of Westphalia, a mediæval-looking town, 100 m. By rail N. Of Cologne; has textile, paper, and printing industries; thereis an old cathedral of 12th century, a town-hall, castle, and16th-century wine-cellar; the place of the Catholic university has beentaken by an academy with Catholic theological and philosophicalfaculties; here took place the Anabaptist movement of 1535; the bishopsretained their secular jurisdiction till 1803. 

MÜNZER, THOMAS, Anabaptist leader, born at Stolberg, and began topreach at Zwickau 1520; he came into collision both with the civilauthorities and the Reformed Church; for several years he travelledthrough Bohemia and South Germany, and in 1525 settled at Mühlhausen;here his communistic doctrines obtained popularity and kindled aninsurrection; the rebels were routed at Frankenhansen, and Münzer wascaptured and executed (1489-1525). 

MURAT, JOACHIM, king of Naples, born near Cahors, the son of aninnkeeper; entered the army, attracted the notice of Bonaparte, andbecame his aide-de-camp; distinguished himself in many engagements, received Bonaparte's sister to wife, and was loaded with honours on theestablishment of the Empire, and for his services under it as a dashingcavalry officer was rewarded with the crown of Naples in 1808, but to thelast allied in arms with his brother-in-law; he had to fight in the endon his own behalf in defence of his crown, and was defeated, takenprisoner, and shot (1771-1815). 

MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO, Italian antiquary and historian, horn inVignola, Modena; became librarian in Milan 1695, and of the D'Estelibrary, Modena, in 1700, in which city he died; he edited the Italianchronicles of the 5th-16th centuries, with many essays and dissertations, and many other historical and antiquarian works; but his name is chieflyassociated with the "Muratorian Fragment, " which dates from the 2ndcentury, and contains a list of the then canonical scriptures, and whichhe published 1840 (1672-1750). 

MURAVIEFF, COUNT, Russian statesman, born of a distinguished family;entered the diplomatic service in connection with the Russian embassiesat Berlin, Stockholm, The Hague, and Paris, and became Minister toDenmark in 1893; in 1897 he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs insuccession to Lobanoff; _b_. 1845. 

MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY, geologist, born in Ross-shire;entered the army and served in the Peninsular War, but retiring in 1816gave himself to science; he explored many parts of Europe, predicted thediscovery of gold in Australia, was President of the British Association, and knighted in 1846, and subsequently received many other scientificappointments and honours; he founded the Chair of Geology in EdinburghUniversity in 1870; but his fame rests on his discovery and establishmentof the Silurian system; his book on "The Silurian System" is the chief ofseveral works (1792-1871). 

MURDOCH, WILLIAM, engineer, born at Auchinleck, Ayrshire; was amanager of the Soho Works under Boulton and Watt, where he distinguishedhimself by his inventive ingenuity, and where on his suggestion coal-gaswas first employed for lighting purposes (1754-1830). 

MURE, COLONEL, Greek scholar, born at Caldwell, Ayrshire; wrote ascholarly work, "A Critical Account of the Language and Literature ofAncient Greece" (1799-1860). 

MÜRGER, HENRI, French novelist and poet, born at Paris; is chieflydistinguished as the author of "Scènes de la Vie de Bohême, " from his ownexperiences, and instinct with pathos and humour, sadness his predominanttone; wrote lyrics as well as novels and stories, the chief "La Chansonde Musette, " "a tear, " says Gautier, "which has become a pearl of poetry"(1822-1861). 

MURILLO, a celebrated Spanish painter, born at Seville; his subjectswere drawn partly from low life and partly from religious or scripturethemes, such as the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of theVirgin, as well as "Moses Smiting the Rock, " the "Miracle of the Loavesand Fishes, " &c. ; died from a fall from a scaffold while painting analtar-piece at Cadiz (1618-1682). 

MURRAY, JOHN, London publisher, a successful business man; was onintimate terms with the celebrated men, such as Byron and Scott, whoseworks he published (1778-1843). 

MURRAY, LINDLEY, grammarian, born in Pennsylvania, of Quakerparents; having realised a competency in business came to England andsettled near York, where he produced his "Grammar of the EnglishLanguage" in 1795 (1745-1826). 

MURRAY, WILLIAM, Scottish actor, lessee of Edinburgh theatre for 42years; enjoyed the friendship of the Edinburgh literary celebrities ofthe time, and was an excellent actor, did Falstaff to perfection(1791-1852). 

MURRAY RIVER, the chief river of Australia, 1120 m. Long, rises atthe foot of Mount Kosciusko, in New South Wales, flows NW. Between NewSouth Wales and Victoria; receives the Lachlan and Darling on the right, and entering South Australia turns southward and reaches the sea atEncounter Bay. 

MUSÆUS, JOHN AUGUST, German author, born at Jena, famous as theauthor of German _Volksmärchen_, three of which, "Dumb Love, " "Libussa, "and "Melechsala, " were translated in the volumes of "German Romance" byThomas Carlyle; he parodied Richardson's "Sir Charles Grandison" andsatirised Lavater's "Physiognomical Travels" (1735-1787). 

MUSCAT (20), capital of Oman, in Eastern Arabia, on the Gulf ofOman; is an ill-built, unhealthy city, but does an important transittrade between Arabia, Persia, India, and East Africa; it was inPortuguese possession from 1508 to 1658, but has been independent since. 

MUSES, THE, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosynë, presided over theliberal arts particularly, were nine in number, and dwelt along withApollo near Parnassus, Pieria, and Helicon; Clio presided over history, Euterpë over music, Thalia over comedy, Melpomenë over tragedy, Terpsichorë over choral dance and song, Erato over erotic poetry andelegy, Polyhymnia over lyric poetry, Urania over astronomy, and Calliopëover eloquence and epic poetry. 

MUSPELHEIM. See NIFLHEIM. 

MUSSELBURGH (9), an old-fashioned Midlothian fishing town on thecoast, 6 m. E. Of Edinburgh, with golf links, paper, nets, and tanningindustries, and Loretto school. 

MUSSET, ALFRED DE, the premier poet of modern French literature, born in Paris of good parentage; wayward and impulsive in youth, he wouldsettle to no occupation, till his already awakened taste for poetryreceiving a powerful stimulus through contact with Victor Hugo, led himto embrace the profession of letters; two volumes of poetry werepublished before he achieved, in 1833, his first signal success with thedramas "André del Sarto" and "Les Caprices de Marianne"; in the same yearbegan his famous _liaison_ with GEORGE SAND (q. V. ), involvinghim in the ill-fated expedition to Venice, whence he returned in thespring of 1834 shattered in health and disillusioned; from one unhappylove intrigue he passed to another, seeking in vain a solace for hisrestless spirit, but reaping an experience which enriched his writings;"Confessions d'un Enfant du Siècle" appeared in 1836, and is asignificant confession of his life at this time; two years later he wasappointed librarian at the Home Office, and in 1847 his charming comedy, "Un Caprice, " was received with enthusiasm; in 1852 he was elected to theAcademy, but his work was done, and already an ill-controlled indulgencein alcohol had fatally undermined his never robust strength; hiswritings, besides possessing the charm of an exquisite style, heightenedby an undertone of true tenderness, are chiefly remarkable for theintense sincerity of feeling, albeit of a limited range, which animatesthem, and which finds its highest expression in his four great lyricalpieces, "Les Nuits"; his fine instinct for dramatic situation and gift ofwitty dialogue are manifest in the dramas already mentioned, as also inmany others; of his prose works, "Le Fils du Titien, " "Mademoiselle MimiPinson, " and the "Confessions" are his best; he was a handsome man, withfascinating manners (1810-1857). 

MUTSU HITO, the Mikado of Japan, ascended the throne in 1867, married in 1869; has one son, Prince Yoshihito, and three daughters; hisreign has been marked by great reforms, and especially the abolition ofthe feudal system which till then prevailed, to the great and increasingprosperity of the country, and the opening of it to the ideas and arts ofWestern civilisation; _b_. 1852. 

MUZAFFER-ED-DIN, Shah of Persia, second son of Nasr-ed-Din, whonominated him to succeed him; succeeded his father on his death byassassination in 1896, on the 1st of May; _b_. 1853. 

MYCENÆ, capital of Agamemnon's kingdom, in the NE. Of thePeloponnesus, was in very ancient days a great city, but never recoveredthe invasion of the people of Argos in 468 B. C. ; excavations point toits civilisation being more akin to Phoenician than Greek. 

MYRMIDONS, "ant-men, " so-called because Zeus was said to havepeopled Thessaly, from which originally they came, by transforming antsinto men; they were the people of Ægina, whose warriors followed Achillesto the siege of Troy. 

MYSORE (4, 900), a native State, half the size of England, embeddedin the Madras Presidency, occupies a lofty, broken, but fertiletableland; the upper waters of the Kistna and Kaveri are used forirrigation purposes; betel-nut, coffee, cotton, rice, and silk areexported; cloth, wheat, and precious metals are imported; the climate ishealthy and pleasant; under British government from 1831, it was restoredto its prince in 1881, under British protection; the capital isMYSORE (74), a prosperous, well-built town. 

MYSTAGOGUE, in Greece, was the priest who instructed candidates andprepared them for initiation into the various religious mysteries; in theChristian Church it denoted the catechist who prepared catechumensprevious to their admission to the sacraments. 

MYSTERIES, sacred rites and ceremonies of stated observance amongthe Greeks and Romans in connection with the worship of particulardivinities, to which only the initiated were admitted, and in which, byassociating together, they quickened and confirmed each other in theirfaith and hope, and in which it would seem they made solemn avowal ofthese; the name is also applied to the MIRACLE PLAYS (q. V. ) ofthe Middle Ages. 

MYSTICISM, a state of mind and feeling induced by direct communionwith the unseen, and by indulging in which the subject of it estrangeshimself more and more from those who live wholly in the outside world, sothat he cannot communicate with them and they cannot understand him. 

N

NABOB. See NAWAB. 

NABOTH, a Jew, who was stoned by order of Ahab, king of Israel, because he refused to sell him his vineyard, an outrage for which Ahabwas visited by Divine judgment; is symbol, in the regard of the Jews, ofthe punishment sure to overtake all rich oppressors of the poor. 

NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV, German traveller and explorer; visited(1869-1874), the first European to do so, at the instance of Prussia, byway of Tripoli, the heart of Africa, and returned by way of Cairo, andwrote an account of his journey, "Sahara and Sudan"; in 1884 annexed toGermany territory in West Africa; died on his return journey, and wasburied at Cape Palmas (1834-1885). 

NADIR, name given to the part of the heavens directly under ourfeet, as zenith to that directly over our head. 

NADIR SHAH, king of Persia, born in Khorassan of low origin; beganhis career as a brigand; set himself at the head of 3000 brigands todeliver Persia from the yoke of the Afghans, and expelled them, rising bydegrees to the sovereignty of Persia himself; made war on the Afghans, invaded Hindustan, and took and plundered Delhi, restoring its formerdominion to the Persian monarchy; became subject to suspicion of plotsagainst him, had recourse to violence, and was assassinated (1688-1747). 

NÆVIUS, CNEIUS, one of the earliest Roman poets, born in Campania;wrote dramas, and an epic poem on the first Punic War, in which he hadserved; satirised the aristocracy, and was obliged to leave Rome, wherehe had spent thirty years of his life; died at Utica (265-204 B. C. ). 

NAGARI, the name given to the characters In Sanskrit and Hindialphabets. 

NÂGAS, in the Hindu mythology "deified serpents, " sons of Kadru, apersonification of darkness, are represented as more or less investedwith a human form, and endowed with knowledge, strength, and beauty; livein the depths of the ocean, and their capital city exposes to the visiona display of the most dazzling riches. They are not always represented asharmful; though armed with poison they possess the elixir of strength andimmortality, and form the supports of the universe. They are a reflectionof the belief that the deadly powers as well as the regenerative centrein one and the same deity, in his wisdom killing that he may make alive. Also the name of a race of aborigines in North-East India. 

NAGASAKI (61), one of the six treaty ports of Japan, on the NW. Ofthe island Kiushiu; has a beautiful and extensive harbour, within whichlies the island of Deshima; manufactures "egg-shell" china, exports coal, tea, &c. , and possesses an excellent dockyard; American and Englishmissions are carried on. 

NAGPUR or NAGPORE (117), capital of the Central Provinces ofBritish India, and of a district and division of the same name; animportant railway terminus, 450 m. NE. Of Bombay; is noted for themanufacture of fine cloth, and carries on a brisk trade in wheat, salt, spices, &c. 

NAHUM, one of the minor prophets of the Old Testament; appears tohave been a contemporary of Isaiah, and to have prophesied after thedestruction of Samaria and the defeat of Sennacherib before Jerusalem inthe reign of Hezekiah. His mission as a prophet was to console the peoplein the presence of the formidable power of Assyria, and to predict itsdownfall, and especially that of its capital city Nineveh, an event whichhappened under Cyaxares the Mede 603 B. C. His thought is forcible, hisexpression clear, and his diction pure, all three worthy of the classicalage of Hebrew literature. 

NAIADS, nymphs of the fresh-water fountains and streams, and as suchendowed with prophetic power, and associated with other deities in thesphere of nature gifted with the same power; are represented as lovelymaidens in a nude or semi-nude state. 

NAIRN (4), chief town of its county, prettily situated at theentrance of the Nairn into the Moray Firth, 16 m. NE. Of Inverness; isfrequented by summer visitors, and has a harbour and golf links. 

NAIRNE, BARONESS, Scottish poetess, born at Gask, Perthshire, thirddaughter of Laurence Oliphant of that Ilk, of Jacobite proclivities;known for her beauty as the Flower of Strathearn; was married to thesixth Lord Nairne, whom she survived; wrote 78 songs, the most famousamong them being "The Land o' the Leal, " "The Laird o' Cockpen, " "BonnieCharlie's noo awa, " "Caller Herrin', " and "The Auld Hoose"; died at Gask(1766-1845). 

NAIRNSHIRE (9), a northern county of Scotland, fronts the MorayFirth, wedged in between Elgin on the N. And Inverness on the W. And S. ;the surface rugged and mountainous in the S. And E. , slopes towards theFirth, and is traversed by the rivers Nairn and Findhorn; Loch Loy is thelargest of several small lochs; scarcely one-fifth of the soil is devotedto the raising of cereals, but more attention is given to stock-raising;Cawdor and Auldearn are places in it of historic and antiquarianinterest. 

NAIRS, Hindus of high caste, claiming to rank next the Brahmans, wholived on the Malabar coast of India; among them polyandry prevailed, andthe royal power descended through the female line. 

NAMAQUAS, a pastoral people of South Africa; one of the principalbranches of the Hottentot race, and inhabiting Great Namaqualand. 

NAMUR (31), capital of a province of the same name in Belgium, issituated at the junction of the Meuse and the Sambre, 35 m. SE. OfBrussels. The town is strongly fortified, but only a few of its fine oldbuildings have escaped the ravages of war. The citadel still stands, thecathedral, and the Jesuit church of St. Loup. Cutlery, firearms, &c. , aremanufactured. THE PROVINCE (339) skirts the NE. Border of Francebetween Hainault and Luxembourg. 

NANA SAHIB, a Hindu traitor, his real name Dundhu Panth, of Brahmandescent, adopted son of the ex-Peshwa of the Mahrattas, whose pensionfrom the British Government was not continued to Nana on his death, andwhich rendered the latter the deadly foe to British rule in India, andthe instigator, on the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, of the massacre ofCawnpore; he had on the outbreak of the Mutiny in question offered hisservices to a British general, and placed himself at the head of themutineers; the miscreant escaped, and his fate was never known; _b_. 1820. See CAWNPORE. 

NANCY (87), capital of the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, North-East France, is prettily situated amid woodland scenery on theriver Meurthe, 220 m. E. Of Paris; the new town is spaciously laid out, while the old town, narrowed in its streets, has many interesting oldbuildings, e. G. The cathedral, the 16th-century palace; there is auniversity, and an active trade in embroidered cambric and muslin, besides cotton and woollen goods, &c. 

NANKING (150), an ancient city, and up to the 15th century thecapital of China, is situated on the Yangtse River, 130 m. From itsmouth; between 1853 and 1864 its finest buildings were destroyed by theTaiping rebels; its manufactures of nankeen and satin and of its oncefamous pottery and artificial flowers have fallen off, but it stillcontinues the chief seat of letters and learning in China. 

NANNA, in the Norse mythology the wife of Balder, the sun-god;distinguished for her conjugal fidelity, threw herself on the funeralpyre of her husband, and descended to the shades along with him; when thepair were entreated to return, he sent his ring to Odin and she herthimble to Frigga. 

NANSEN, FRIDTJOF, Arctic explorer, born at Froen, near Christiania, son of a Norwegian advocate; explored the seas in a scientific interestround Spitzbergen in 1882, and crossed Greenland in 1888, conceived theidea of reaching the Polar regions by following the Polar ocean currents;sailed in the _Fram_, a ship specially constructed for a Polar voyage, in1893, and on his return wrote an account of his expedition in "FarthestNorth" in 1897; _b_. 1861. 

NANTES (116), capital of the department of Loire-Inférieure, North-West France, on the Loire, 35 m. From the sea; its fine streets, handsome buildings, and historical associations make it one of the mostinteresting cities in France; the cathedral and the ducal castle datefrom the 15th century; shipbuilding, sugar-refining, and hardware are thestaple industries, while an active shipping trade is kept up with thecolonies. 

NANTES, EDICT OF, edict granted by Henry IV. 1598, allowing toProtestants religious liberty and political enfranchisement, andconfirmed by Louis XIII. In 1614, but revoked, after frequentinfringements, in the shape of dragonnades and otherwise, by Louis XIV. , Oct. 23, 1685, at the instance of Madame Maintenon and Père la Chaise. 

NAPHTHA, a liquid hydro-carbon of an inflammable nature that exudesfrom the earth or is distilled from coal-tar, &c. 

NAPIER, SIR CHARLES, the conqueror of Sinde, born at Westminster, descendant of Napier of Merchiston; entered the army, was present atCoruña, served in the Peninsular War, was in 1841 made commander-in-chiefof the Bombay army, defeated the Sikhs at Meeanee in 1848 in a brilliantengagement; became governor of Sinde, returned to England, and waswelcomed with enthusiasm; went to India again on the outbreak of a secondSikh War, to find it suppressed; quarrelled with the Governor-General andcame home; was a brave, upright, and humane man, and a great favouritewith the army (1782-1853). 

NAPIER, SIR CHARLES, admiral, cousin of preceding, born nearFalkirk; entered the navy as a volunteer in 1799, assisted in two navalengagements, and for a time served as a volunteer in the Peninsular army;joined the Portuguese navy, defeated the fleet of Dom Miguel, tried toreform the navy of Portugal but failed, assisted by land and sea indriving Mehemet Ali out of Syria, and held the command of the Balticfleet during the Crimean War, but disappointed expectations and wasdeprived of command (1786-1860). 

NAPIER, JOHN, laird of Merchiston, mathematician, born in MerchistonCastle, near Edinburgh; famed over the world as the inventor oflogarithms; wrote a book on the Apocalypse, which contains someplain-spoken counsel to King James; believed in astrology, and wasaddicted to divination as well as mechanical invention (1550-1617). 

NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM, brother of the conqueror of Sinde; entered thearmy at the age of 15, served all through the Peninsular War, and wrote, besides the "Conquest of Sinde, " the "History of the Peninsular War, " acelebrated work, written from intimate knowledge of the events and withmatchless graphic power (1785-1860). 

NAPIER OF MAGDALA, Lord, military engineer officer, born in Ceylon;distinguished himself at the sieges of Multan, Delhi, and Lucknow;commanded an expedition in Abyssinia, stormed and took Magdala in 1868, for which he was rewarded with high honours (1810-1890). 

NAPLES (536), the largest and richest city of Italy; has a lovelysituation within the bend of Naples Bay, spreading from the foreshoreback upon wooded hills and rising terraces, behind which lie thesnow-clad Apennines; to the E. Lies the old town with its historic Via diRoma and narrow crowded thoroughfares; the newer portion on the W. Ismore spaciously laid out, and much has been done in recent years over thewhole city to improve the sanitation and water supply; the nationalmuseum, rich in Pompeii relics, the university (4150 students), thenational library (275, 000 vols. ), the archiepiscopal cathedral, and thefour mediæval gateways are the chief architectural features; largequantities of wine, olive-oil, chemicals, perfumery, &c. , are exported, while woollen, silk, linen, glove, and other factories carry on a goodhome trade; Naples became incorporated in the kingdom of Italy in 1861after the Bourbon dynasty had been swept away by Garibaldi. 

NAPOLEON I. , emperor of the French, born at Ajaccio, Corsica, thesecond son of Charles Bonaparte and Lætitia Ramolino; trained at themilitary schools of Brienne and Paris; distinguished first as a captainof artillery at the siege of Toulon in 1793; elected general of brigadein the Italian campaign of 1794; he fell under suspicion, but was soonafter invested with the supreme command of the army there and the conductof the war, which was rendered memorable by the victories of Montenotte, Lodi, Rivoli, Arcole, &c. ; on his return to Paris he was received with anenthusiasm which excited in him the ambition to render himselfindispensable to the country; to utilise his services in their owninterest the Directory determined to strike a blow at England, and Egyptbeing the point of attack selected, he sailed in command of an expeditionfor that destination in 1797, and conducted it with successes andreverses till, in 1799, the unpopularity and threatened fall of theDirectory called him back; it was the occasion for a _coup d'état_ whichhe had meditated, and which he accomplished on the henceforwardcelebrated 18th Brumaire (9th Nov. 1799), when a consulship of three wasestablished, himself First Consul, and eventually in 1802 Consul forlife; his administration in this capacity, while disgraced by severaldespotic acts, was in the main of a nature for the public benefit, anddistinguished by its regard for the interest of law and good order, buthis personal ambition the while was not asleep, for, by a Concordat withthe Pope he so attached the Catholic Church to the state as to secure theclerical support to his ambitious projects, and was able on the 18th May1804, to get himself invested with the imperial dignity, only Carnot inthe Tribunate and Grégoire in the Senate protesting against the step as aviolation of liberty; Napoleon owed it to his victories in the field thathe attained this elevation, and the sword must maintain what the swordhad won; from this date accordingly began that long array of wars againstthe rest of Europe, distinguished by the victories of Austerlitz, andJena, and Eylau, and Friedland, and Eckmühl, and Wagram, and whichcontributed to inspire all the nations around with a sense of the terrorof his name; but with the unfortunate expedition into Russia, in 1812, Napoleon's glory began to wane and the tide to turn; after the battles ofLützen and Bautzen, he might perhaps have signed an honourable peace, buthe declined the terms offered, and was defeated at Lützen by the Allies, who invaded France, and entered Paris in 1814 in spite of all his effortsto keep them at bay, upon which he was compelled to abdicate atFontainebleau and retire to Elba, 20th April 1814; it was in vain for himto return from his retreat and re-enter Paris on the 20th Marchfollowing, for the Powers, with England and Prussia at their head, leagued against him and crushed him at Waterloo; by this defeat he hadforfeited the throne, and was compelled to abdicate, but unable to escapefrom France, delivered himself up to Captain Maitland of the_Bellerophon_, and was shipped off to St. Helena, where, after some sixyears of misery, he died 5th May 1821, whence his body was disinterredand buried with great pomp under the dome of the church of St. Louis, 15th December 1840; "he believed, " says Carlyle, "too much in the_dupeability_ of men, saw no fact deeper in man than hunger and thirst;he was mistaken; like a man that should build upon clouds, his house andhe fell down a confused wreck, and departed out of the world"; the onearticle of his _faith_ being "the tools to him that can handle them"(1769-1821). 

NAPOLEON, LOUIS. See LOUIS NAPOLEON, also BONAPARTE. 

NAPOLEON, VICTOR, son of Prince Napoleon; claimed to be head of thehouse of Bonaparte in 1891, though his younger brother, Prince Louis, acolonel in the Russian Imperial Guard, is preferred to him by manyBonapartists; _b_. 1862. 

NAPOLEON D'OR, a French gold coin worth 20 francs, named after theEmperor Napoleon I. 

NARAKA, among the Hindus and the Buddhists the place of penalsuffering after death. 

NARCISSUS, a self-satisfied youth who disdained the addresses ofEcho, in consequence of which she pined away and died, and who, by way ofpenalty, was doomed to fall in love with his own image, which he keptbeholding in the mirror of a fountain till he too pined away and died, his corpse being metamorphosed into the flower that bears his name. 

NARROWS, THE, name given to the section of the St. Lawrence Riverwhich extends between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. 

NARSES, a statesman and general of the old Roman empire, rose frombeing a slave to be keeper of the imperial privy-purse; was successfulagainst the Goths, whom he drove out of Rome; _d_. 573. 

NARTHEX, a space in early churches railed off from the rest forcatechumens and penitents. 

NASEBY, a village in Northampton, where the Royalists under CharlesI. And Prince Rupert were defeated, "shivered utterly to ruin, " by theParliamentary forces under Fairfax and Cromwell in June 1645, the"Ironsides" bearing the brunt of the battle and winning the honours ofthe day. 

NASH, JOHN, English architect, born in London; besides designingplans for some of the chief streets in the city and the buildings inthem, was the architect of Buckingham Palace and the Pavilion at Brighton(1752-1835). 

NASH, RICHARD, known as "Beau Nash, " born at Swansea; installedhimself as master of the ceremonies at Bath, and ruler of the assembliesof fashion in that resort; was a charitable man as well as gay; died inpoverty, but was honoured with a public funeral (1674-1761). 

NASH, THOMAS, English satirist, born at Lowestoft, a CambridgeUniversity wit; wrote plays, as well as pamphlets, bearing on theMARPRELATE CONTROVERSY (q. V. ) (1567-1601). 

NASHVILLE (81), capital of Tennessee, U. S. , on the CumberlandRiver, 185 m. SW. Of Louisville; a suspension bridge and railwaydrawbridge joins it with Edgefield suburb; it is an important railway andeducational centre, the seat of the Fisk, Vanderbilt, and Nashvilleuniversities, and is actively engaged in the manufacture of cotton, tobacco, flour, paper, oil, &c. 

NASMITH, ALEXANDER, Scottish landscape painter, born in Edinburgh;did portraits also, and one of Burns in particular, deemed the bestlikeness we have of the poet (1757-1843). 

NASMITH, JAMES, mechanician, son of the preceding, born inEdinburgh; invented the steam-hammer and a steam pile-driver (1808-1890). 

NASSAU, till 1866 a duchy of Germany, now included in the Prussianprovince of HESSE-NASSAU (q. V. ). 

NATAL (544, of which 47 are whites), British colony in SE. Africa, somewhat larger than Denmark, fronts the Indian Ocean on the E. , having aforeshore of 180 m. , between Zululand on the N. And Kaffraria on the S. ;the Dragensberg Mountains form its western boundary; enjoys a finesalubrious climate, and possesses abundance of fertile land, watered bysome 140 inches of rainfall; along the coast the sugar-cane is largelycultivated, as also some tea, coffee, tobacco, &c. , while all kinds offruits flourish in its sub-tropical climate; the rising ground inlandproduces good cereals, and large numbers of sheep and cattle findexcellent pasturage on the plains and mountain slopes on the W. ;excellent coal is mined in large quantities, and iron and copper promisewell; wool, sugar, hides, feathers, and ivory are the chief exports, andare shipped mainly at Durban, the chief port; the colony now enjoys theadvantages of good railways, schools, representative government, and alegal code based on old Dutch law; PIETERMARITZBURG (q. V. ) isthe capital; Natal was discovered in 1497 by Vasco da Gama, and afterbeing annexed to Cape Colony in 1844, was declared, 11 years later, aseparate colony. 

NATHAN, a Jewish prophet who had the courage to charge King David tohis face with a heinous crime he had committed and convict him of hisguilt, to his humiliation in the dust. 

NATION OF SHOPKEEPERS, Napoleon Bonaparte's contemptuous name forthe English. 

NATIONAL ANTHEM, its authorship has been long matter of controversy, and it is uncertain to this day; it has been ascribed to H. Carey and toDr. John Bull. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION, the revolutionary assembly of France, consisting of 749 members chosen by universal suffrage, which on 22ndSeptember 1792 supplanted the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed theRepublic, and condemned Louis XVI. To the guillotine; in spite of itsperplexities and internal discords, it was successful in suppressing theRoyalists in La Vendée and the south, and repelling the rest of Europeleagued against it, not only in arms, but in the field of diplomacy; itlaid the foundation of several of the academic institutions of thecountry, which have since contributed to its glory as well as welfare, and collected them together in the world-famous Institute; its work done, "weary of its own existence, and all men sensibly weary of it, " itwillingly deceased in an act of self-dissolution in favour of a Directoryof Five on 20th October 1795. 

NATIONAL COVENANT. See COVENANT. 

NATIONAL GUARD, THE, a militia of citizens organised in themunicipality of Paris in 1790, with Lafayette as commandant, butsuppressed in 1827, and again suppressed in 1872, after two revivals, inconsequence of their taking part with the Commune of the latter date. 

NATURAL SELECTION, name given by Darwin to the survival of certainplants and animals that are fitted, and the decease contemporaneously ofcertain others that are not fitted, to a new environment. 

NATURAL SUPERNATURALISM, Carlyle's name in "Sartor" for thesupernatural found latent in the natural, and manifesting itself in it, or of the miraculous in the common and everyday course of things; name ofa chapter which, says Dr. Stirling, "contains the very first word of ahigher philosophy as yet spoken in Great Britain, the very first Englishword towards the restoration and rehabilitation of the dethroned UpperPowers"; recognition at bottom, as the Hegelian philosophy teaches, andthe life of Christ certifies, of the finiting of the infinite in thetransitory forms of space and time. 

NATURALISM, a philosophical term used to denote the resolution ofthe supernatural into the natural, and its obliteration; the reference ofeverything to merely natural laws, and the denial of all supernaturalinterference with them. 

NATURE WORSHIP, the worship of the forces of nature conceived of aspersonal deities. 

NAUSICAA, the daughter of Alcinous, king of the Phæacians, who gavewelcome to Ulysses when shipwrecked on the shore, and whom Homerrepresents as, along with her maidens, washing the clothes of the heroand his companions. 

NAUVOO, a village in Illinois, on the Mississippi, where the Mormonsfirst settled in 1840, and from which they were expelled in 1846. 

NAVARINO, a bay on the SW. Coast of the Morea, the scene of thenaval victory of the Athenians over the Spartans 425 B. C. , and of theannihilation of the Turkish and Egyptian navies by the combined fleets ofEngland, France, and Russia, under Codrington, 20th October 1827. 

NAVARRE (304), one of the 49 provinces of Spain, comprising by farthe greater portion of the old kingdom of Navarre, which lasted up to1512, the other part of which now forms French Basses-Pyrénées; theSpanish province lies on the SW. Border of France, is very varied insurface and climate; in the N. The people are chiefly Basques, and aremuch more energetic than the southern Spaniards; maize, wheat, and redwine are the chief products. 

NAWAB, a viceroy of a province in the Mogul empire, applied also toa Mohammedan chief in India, and, spelt Nabob, to a man who has made hiswealth in India. 

NAXOS (14), an island of the Cyclades, in the Ægean Sea, famed forits marble, and exports salt and emery powder. 

NAYLER, JAMES, a fanatical Quaker in the time of the Commonwealth, with a following as fanatical as himself, who escorted him throughBristol on his release from prison after the manner of Christ's entryinto Jerusalem; was very cruelly punished for blasphemy in fancying orseeming to fancy himself a new incarnation of Christ. 

NAZARETH (7), a town in a hollow of the hills on the N. Of the Plainof Esdraëlon, 67 m. N. Of Jerusalem and 11 m. W. Of the Sea of Galilee, celebrated over Christendom as the home of the Holy Family. 

NAZARITES, among the Jews people consecrated by a vow to somespecial religious service, generally for a definite period, but sometimesfor life; during its continuance they were bound to abstain not merelyfrom strong drink, but from all fruit of the vine, to wear their hairuncut, and forbidden to approach a dead body, long hair being the symbolof their consecration; the vow was sometimes made by their parents forthem before their birth; the said vow is the symbolic assertion of theright of any and every man to consecrate himself, in disregard of everyother claim, to any service which God may require of him. 

NEAGH, LOUGH, the largest lake in the British Isles, lies in the NE. Of Ireland, touching the borders of five counties, is 16 m. Long, and hasan average breadth of 10 m. And a greatest depth of 102 ft. 

NEAL, DANIEL, Nonconformist divine, born in London, and ministerthere; wrote a "History of the Puritans" and a "History of New England"(1678-1743). 

NEAL, JOHN MASON, hynmologist, born in London; was a zealous andadvanced High Churchman, wrote a "History of the Holy Eastern Church"; isbest known for his hymns, translated and original (1818-1866). 

NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM, eminent Church historian, born atGöttingen, of Jewish parents, his father's name Mendel, which he changedinto Neander (new man) on his baptism at the age of 17; studied theologyunder Schleiermacher at Halle, commenced his work as a teacher oftheology in Heidelberg in 1811, but was two years after called to thechair of Church History in Berlin, a post he occupied with signaldistinction till his death, his fame all along attracting to him studentsfrom every quarter of Christendom; he was a devout believer in historicalChristianity, and had the profoundest insight into the Christian faith, both in the root of it and the development of it in the life of theChurch; besides several monographs, he wrote the history of the Churchfrom its first starting through its after expansion, and a "Life ofChrist" in answer to Strauss, which for its apprehension of the spirit ofChrist and His teaching has never been surpassed, while in Christiancharacter he was, if ever man was, "without spot and blameless"(1789-1850). 

NEATH (11), a borough and river port of Glamorganshire, on thenavigable Neath, 6 m. NE. Of Swansea; is an old town, and has interestingruins of an abbey and of a castle (burned 1231); has prosperous copper, tin, iron, and chemical works. 

NEBIIM, the prophets of Israel as an organised class, who firstfigure as guardians of the spiritual interests of the nation to the timeof Samuel, when it was threatened with extinction piecemeal at the handsof the Philistines, and whose mission it was to recall the divided tribesto a sense of their unity as the chosen of Jehovah, and to see that theywere welded into one under a single king; they lived together incommunities, appeared in companies, wore a distinctive dress, and werecalled the sons of the prophets; while they were performing anddischarging their offices they were true to their calling, but when orderwas established they, as is usual in such cases, became more and morelax, until first Elijah, and then another and another who were for mostpart not of the order, had, if they would be true to their own souls, toremind the nation of what its authorised teachers, in theirunfaithfulness, were failing to do, and in consequence suffering God'scause to go to wreck. 

NEBRASKA (1, 058), one of the west central States of the AmericanUnion, has Dakota on its N. And Kansas and Colorado on the S. , is 1½times the size of England; in the E. Stretches of fertile land yieldabundant crops of grain (maize chiefly), hemp, flax, sugar-beet, andtobacco, while in the W. Rich prairie pastures favour a prosperousstock-raising; the Platte, Niobrarah, and Republican Rivers follow theeastward slope of the land; Omaha and Lincoln (capital) are the chiefcentres of the manufacturing industries; climate is dry and bracing;wolves, foxes, skunks, &c. , abound, chiefly in the "Bad Lands" of the N. ;Nebraska was incorporated in the American Union in 1867. 

NEBULÆ, name given to masses larger or smaller of misty light in theheavens caused by a group of stars too remote to be severally visible tothe naked eye. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, the theory that the sun and planets with theirsatellites in the solar system were originally one mass of nebulousmatter which, gradually cooling and contracting, under violent revolutionresolved itself into separate revolving orbs. 

NECKER, JACQUES, celebrated financier, born at Geneva, banker inParis; married the accomplished Susanne Curchod, the rejected of Gibbon, and became by her the father of Mme. De Staël; was a man of high reputefor probity and business capacity; became in 1777 Director-General ofFinance in France, tried hard and honestly, by borrowing andretrenchment, to restore the fallen public credit, but was after fiveyears dismissed; was recalled in 1788, but though the funds rose, and hecontributed to their relief two million livres of his own money, wasagain dismissed, to be once more recalled, only to expose his inabilityto cope with the crisis and to be forced to retire (1732-1804). 

NECTAR, in the regard of the Greeks the drink of the gods, which, along with ambrosia, their food, nourished the ichor, their blood, andkept them ever in the bloom of immortal youth; it was not permitted tomortals to drink of it. 

NEEDLE-GUN, a breech-loading gun, the cartridge of which is explodedby a needle. 

NEGATIVE, in photography a picture of an object in which the lightsand shadows are reversed, so that the shady part appears white and thelight in it appears dark. 

NEGATIVITY, the name given in philosophy to the negative elementdeterminative or definitive of things and all ideas of things, whereby athing is this because it is not that, and is seen to be this because itis seen not to be that, an antagonism essential to all forms of being, spiritual as well as material, and to all definite and distinct thought. 

NEGRITOES, Spanish name for certain distinctive tribes of adiminutive race resembling negroes, occupying the central portions ofsome of the Philippine Islands, also known as Aëtas or Itas; sometimesloosely used to designate Papuans and all the Melanesian peoples ofPolynesia. 

NEGROES, the dark race of tropical Africa, distinguished by theirdark woolly hair, their black eyes, their flat noses, and their thicklips; they occupy rather a low level in the scale of humanity, and arelacking in those mental and moral qualities which have impressed thestamp of greatness on the other races that have distinguished themselvesin the history of the world. 

NEHEMIAH, a Jew of the captivity, of royal degree and in highfavour, being king's cup-bearer at the court of Artaxerxes, the Persianking; received a commission from the king to repair to Jerusalem andrestore the Jewish worship, and ruled over it for 12 years, till he sawthe walls of the city amid much opposition restored; returned afterwardsto superintend the reform of the worship, of which the book of the OldTestament named after him relates the story. 

NEHUSHTAN (a piece of brass), the name given in contempt to what wasalleged to be the "Serpent in the Wilderness, " which had become an objectof worship among the Jews, and was destroyed by King Hezekiah among otheridolatrous relics (2 Kings xviii. 4). 

NEILGHERRY HILLS, a bracing mountain district in South India, forming a triangular-shaped and somewhat isolated mass of elevatedcountry, peaks of which attain an altitude of close upon 9000 ft. ; grassyslopes alternate with thick masses of forest, amid which several smallnative wild tribes still dwell; Ootacamund is the chief station of themany Europeans who frequent the district as a health resort. 

NELSON, 1, a Prosperous manufacturing borough of Lancashire (23), 3½m. NE. Of Burnley. 2, Capital of a district in the N. End of SouthIsland, New Zealand (11); has a busy harbour in Blind Bay, andmanufactures cloth, leather, soap, &c. 

NELSON, HORATIO, LORD, great English admiral, born at BurnhamThorpe, Norfolk; entered the navy as a midshipman in 1770, and aftervoyages to the West Indies, the Arctic regions, and the East Indies, waspromoted to a lieutenancy in 1777; three years later he headed theexpedition against San Juan, was invalided home, and in 1781 acted underLord Hood in American waters; in command of the _Boreas_ on the LeewardIslands station, here he involved himself in trouble through his severeand arbitrary enforcement of the Navigation Act against American traders, and there also he met and married in 1787 the widow of Dr. Nesbit;returning home he lived for five years in retirement, but on the eve ofthe French Revolutionary war he was again summoned to active service, andin command of the _Agamemnon_, advanced his reputation by gallant conductin the Mediterranean operations of Lord Hood, losing his right eye duringthe storming of Calvi, in Corsica; conspicuous bravery at the engagementwith the Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent (1797) brought him promotion tothe rank of rear-admiral; in the same year he lost his right arm at SantaCruz, and in the following year, with an inferior force, annihilated theFrench fleet in the Bay of Aboukir, for which he was raised to thepeerage as Baron Nelson, and created Duke of Bronte by the King ofNaples; at this time began his lifelong _liaison_ with LADYHAMILTON (q. V. ); involving himself in Neapolitan affairs, he wentbeyond his commission in suppressing the rebel Jacobins, and especiallyin executing their leader Caracciolo; in 1800 he returned home, his neverrobust strength considerably impaired; as vice-admiral nominally underSir Hugh Parker, he in 1801 sailed for the Baltic and inflicted a signaldefeat on the Danish fleet off Copenhagen; for this he was made Viscountand commander-in-chief; during the scare of a Napoleonic invasion he kepta vigilant watch in the Channel, and on the resumption of war he onOctober 21, 1805, crowned his great career by a memorable victory offTrafalgar over the French fleet commanded by Villeneuve, but was himselfmortally wounded at the very height of the battle (1758-1805). 

NEMEAN GAMES, one of the four great national festivals of Greece, and celebrated every other year. 

NEMEAN LION, a monstrous lion in Nemea, a valley of Argolis, whichHercules slew by throttling it with his hands, clothing himself everafter with its skin. 

NEMESIS, in the Greek imagination, the executioner of divinevengeance on evil-doers, conceived of as incarnated in the fear whichprecedes and the remorse which accompanies a guilty action. 

NENNIUS, the reputed author of a chronicle of early British history, who appears to have lived not later perhaps than the 9th century. 

NEOLOGY, the name given to the rationalist theology of Germany orthe rationalisation of the Christian religion. 

NEO-PLATONISM, a system of philosophy that originated in Alexandriaat the beginning of the 3rd century, which resolved the absolute, or God, into the incarnation thereof in the Logos, or reason of man, and whichaimed at "demonstrating the graduated transition from the absolute objectto the personality of man"; it was a concretion of European thought andOriental. 

NEPAL (about 2, 500), an independent native State in North India, occupying a narrow mountainous territory along and including the southernslopes of the Himalayas, which separate it from Thibet; consists mainlyof valleys and intervening mountain ridges, among which dwell varioushill tribes, the dominant race being the hardy GOORKHAS (q. V. ). 

NEPENTHE, an imaginary goddess, the allayer of pain and the sootherof sorrows, or the impersonation of stern retributive justice. 

NEPOS, CORNELIUS, Roman historian, born at Pavia; was a contemporaryand friend of Cicero; was the author of several historical works, nolonger extant, and the one still extant ascribed to him, entitled "DeViris Illustribus, " is believed to be an abridgment of an earlier work byhim. 

NEPTUNE, the chief marine deity of the Romans, and identified withthe Poseidon of the Greeks, is represented with a trident in his hand ashis sceptre. 

NEPTUNE, the remotest planet of the solar system at present known;it is twice as far distant from the sun as URANUS (q. V. ) is, deemed before its discovery the remotest; its diameter is four timesgreater than that of the earth, and it takes 60, 126 days to revolve roundthe sun, accompanied by a solitary satellite; it was discovered in 1846by ADAMS (q. V. ) and LEVERRIER (q. V. ), who were guidedto the spot where they found it from the effect of its neighbourhood onthe movements of Uranus. 

NERBUDDA, or NARBADA, a sacred river of India; has its sourcein the Amarkantak plateau of the Deccan, and flows westward, a rapid bodyof greenish-blue water, through the great valley between the Vindhya andSatpura Mountains, reaching the Gulf of Cambay after a course of 800 m. , the last 30 of which are navigable. 

NEREIDES, nymphs of the Mediterranean Sea, daughters of Nereus, 60in number, and attendant on Poseidon. 

NEREUS, the god of the Mediterranean Sea, the son of Pontus andGaia, the husband of Doris, and father of the Nereides, represented as asage, venerable old man. 

NERI, ST. PHILIPPO DI, Italian priest, born at Florence, of noblefamily; founder of the Congregation of the Oratory; was known from hisboyhood as the Good Pippo, and he spent his life in acts of devotion andcharity (1515-1592). Festival, May 26. 

NERO, Roman emperor from A. D. 54 to 68, born at Antium, son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and of Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus; after themurder of Claudius, instigated by Agrippina, who 4 years previously hadbecome the emperor's wife, Nero seized the throne, excluding Britannicus, the rightful heir; during the first 5 years of his reign his old tutors, Seneca and Burrus, were his advisers in a wise and temperate policy, butgradually his innate tendency to vice broke through all restraint, andhurried him into a course of profligacy and crime; Britannicus was put todeath, his mother and wife, Octavia, were subsequent victims, and in 64numbers of Christians suffered death, with every refinement of torture, on a trumped-up charge of having caused the great burning of Rome, suspicion of which rested on Nero himself; a year later Seneca and thepoet Lucan were executed as conspirators, and, having kicked to death hiswife Poppæa, then far advanced in pregnancy, he offered his hand toOctavia, daughter of Claudius, and because she declined his suit orderedher death; these and many other similar crimes brought on inevitablerebellion; Spain and Gaul declared in favour of Galba; the PrætorianGuards followed suit; Nero fled from Rome, and sought refuge in suicide(37-68). 

NERVA, Roman emperor from 96 to 98, elected by the Senate; ruledwith moderation and justice; resigned in favour of Trajan, as from ageunable to cope with the turbulence of the Prætorian Guards. 

NESS, LOCH, the second largest loch in Scotland, stretches along thevalley of Glenmore, in Inverness-shire, is 22½ m. Long, and has anaverage breadth of 1 m. And an extreme depth of 280 ft. : its main feedersare the Morriston, Oich, and Foyers; the Ness is its chief outlet. 

NESSELRODE, COUNT VON, celebrated Russian diplomatist, born atLisbon, where his father was Russian ambassador; represented Russia at asuccession of congresses, played a prominent part at them, and directedthe foreign policy of the empire under Alexander I. And Nicholas I. , from1816 to 1856, though he strove to avoid the war which broke out in 1853(1780-1862). 

NESSUS, a Centaur who, for attempting to carry off Dejanira, Hercules' wife, was shot by Hercules with an arrow dipped in the blood ofthe HYDRA (q. V. ), and who in dying handed to Dejanira hismantle, dipped in his poisoned blood, as a charm to regain her husband'saffections should he at any time prove unfaithful. See HERCULES. 

NESSUS' SHIRT, the poisoned robe which Nessus gave Dejanira, andwhich in a moment of distrust she gave to Hercules. See NESSUS. 

NESTOR, king of Pylos, a protégé and worshipper of Poseidon, theoldest, most experienced, and wisest of the Greek heroes at the siege ofTroy; belonged to the generation of the grandfathers of the rest of them. 

NESTORIUS, a celebrated heresiarch, born in Syria; was madepatriarch of Constantinople in 428, deposed for heresy by the Council ofEphesus 431, and banished to the Lybian Desert, where he died; the heresyhe taught, called after him Nestorianism, was that the two natures, thedivine and the human, coexist in Christ, but are not united, and he wouldnot allow to the Virgin Mary the title that had been given to her as the"Mother of God"; the orthodoxy of the Church as against the doctrine waschampioned by Cyril of Alexandria. 

NETHERLANDS, a term formerly applied to the whole NW. Corner ofEurope, occupied by BELGIUM (q. V. ) and Holland, but now anofficial designation only of HOLLAND (q. V. ). 

NETLEY, the site of the handsome Royal Victoria Hospital, on theshore of Southampton Water, 3 m. SE. Of Southampton, and connected by adirect line with Portsmouth; founded in 1856 as an asylum for invalidedsoldiers, also the head-quarters of the female nurses of the army; in thevicinity also are interesting remains of a Cistercian abbey. 

NETTLERASH or URTICARIA, an irritating eruption in the skincausing a sensation like the stinging of nettles. It may be acute orchronic, frequently caused by errors of diet. 

NEUCHÂTEL (109), a western canton of Switzerland, lying between LakeNeuchâtel and France; the surface is diversified by the Jura Mountains, and plentifully supplied with small streams; the greater part of theinhabitants are French Protestants; coal and iron are found, stock-raising and agriculture are engaged in, but the great specialty ofthe canton is watchmaking, which is chiefly carried on at LaChaux-de-Fonds and Le Locle; Neuchâtel was incorporated in the SwissConfederation in 1815. NEUCHÂTEL (17), capital of the canton, has afine situation on the NW. Shore of the lake, 86 m. NE. Of Geneva; hasmany educational, art, and charitable institutions, and is chieflyengaged in the manufacture of watches, jewellery, &c. LAKE OFNEUCHÂTEL is a beautiful sheet of water, 25 m. In length, and from 3to 6 in breadth. 

NEUSTRIA, western portion of the kingdom of the Franks in the timeof the Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties, and in constant rivalrywith AUSTRASIA (q. V. ), the kingdom of the East; it extendedfrom the Scheldt to the Loire and Soissons; Paris, Orleans, and Tourswere the chief towns. 

NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE DE, French painter of battle-scenes, born at St. Omer; he was an illustrator of books, among others Guizot's "Histoire deFrance" (1836-1885). 

NEVA, a river of Russia issuing from the SW. Corner of Lake Ladoga, flows westward in a broad rapid current past St. Petersburg, anddischarges its great volume of water into the Bay of Cronstadt, in theGulf of Finland, after a winding course of 40 miles. 

NEVADA (46), one of the western States of the American Union, occupying a wide stretch of territory on the Great Plateau or Basin, between the Rocky Mountains on the E. And the Cascades and the SierraNevada on the W. , has Oregon and Idaho on the N. , and California on theS. And W. ; elevated, cold, dry, and barren, it offers little inducementto settlers, and is in consequence the least in population of theAmerican States; the great silver discoveries of 1859 brought it firstinto notice, and mining still remains the chief industry; Virginia Cityand Carson (capital) are the chief towns; was admitted to the Union in1864. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS, BATTLE OF, battle fought near Durham between theScots and English in 1346, in which the former were defeated and KingDavid taken prisoner. 

NEVIS, BEN. See BEN NEVIS. 

NEW BRITAIN or NEU-POMMERN, a large island in the GermanBismarck Archipelago, West Pacific, lying off the NE. Coast of NewGuinea, from which it is separated by Dampier Strait; is 300 m. Long, with an average breadth of 40 m. ; is mountainous and volcanic in theinterior, and thickly clad with forest trees; fruits of various kinds arethe chief product; is inhabited by Melanesian savages. 

NEW BRUNSWICK (321), a SE. Province of Canada, presents a longforeshore to the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the NE. And to the Bay of Fundyon the SE. , while directly E. Lies Nova Scotia, to which it is joined bythe isthmus of Chignecto; the surface is diversified by numerous lakes, magnificent forests of pine and other woods, and the fertile valleys ofthe Rivers St. John, Restigouche, and Miramichi; timber is the chiefexport, but only less valuable are its fisheries, while shipbuilding isalso an important and growing industry; coal is mined in good quantities, and the chief towns, St. John, Portland, and Fredericton (capital) arebusy centres of iron, textile, and other factories; the climate issubject to extremes of heat and cold, but is healthy; many of theinhabitants are of French origin, for New Brunswick formed part of theold French colony of Acadia. 

NEW CALEDONIA (63), an island of the South Pacific belonging toFrance, the most southerly of the Melanesian group, lying about 800 m. E. Of Australia and nearly 1000 m. N. Of New Zealand; is mountainous, produces the usual tropical fruits, and exports some nickel, cobalt, coffee, &c. ; is used by the French as a convict station; discovered byCaptain Cook in 1774 and annexed by France in 1853; Noumea (5), on theSW. , is the capital. 

NEW ENGLAND, a name given in 1704 by Captain John Smith to theeastern and most densely populated portion of the United States, whichnow comprises Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; was first colonised under the name of North Virginia bythe Plymouth Company in 1606; the inhabitants, known distinctively asYankees, are mostly of Puritan and Scotch descent, and are noted fortheir shrewdness and industry. 

NEW FOREST, a district in the SW. Of Hampshire, 14 m. From N. To S. And 16 m. Wide, and consisting of 92, 000 acres, of which 62, 000 belong tothe crown demesnes; one-fourth of the area consists of enclosedplantations, chiefly of oak and beech, the rest being open woodland, bog, and heath; Lyndhurst is the principal town. 

NEW GUINEA, the largest island in the world (excluding the islandcontinents of Australia and Greenland), lies N. Of Australia, from whichit is divided by Torres Strait (90 m. Wide); is an irregular, mountainous, well-rivered territory, 10 times the size of Scotland, andis held by three European powers--the Dutch (200) in the western andleast developed half; the German (100); in the NE. , Kaiser Wilhelm'sLand, administered by the German New Guinea Company, who export tobacco, areca, bamboo, ebony, &c. ; and the British (135), in the SE. , administered by the Commonwealth of Australia. Successful encouragementhas been given to colonisation, and good exports of gold pearl-shells, copra, &c. , are made. Much of the interior is still to explore, and isinhabited by Papuans, Negritoes, and other Melanesian tribes, many ofwhich are still in the cannibal stage, although others are peaceful andindustrious. A hot moist climate gives rise to much endemic fever, butencourages a wonderful profusion of tropical growth, giving place in thehighlands to the hardier oak and pine, and still higher to a purelyalpine flora; as in Australia, the animals are chiefly marsupials; themountain ranges, which stretch in a more or less continuous linethroughout the island, have peaks that touch an altitude of 20, 000 ft. And send down many navigable streams. Port Moresby is the capital of theBritish portion. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE (377), the second most northerly of the NEW ENGLANDSTATES (q. V. ), and from the beauty of its lake and mountainscenery called the "Switzerland of America, " lies N. And S. BetweenQuebec province and Massachusetts, while the Atlantic washes part of itseastern borders; is more engaged in manufactures than in agriculture, andobtains valuable water-power and waterway from its rivers, thePiscataqua, Merrimac, and Connecticut; Manchester, on the Merrimac, isthe largest city. 

NEW HAVEN (108), capital of New Haven county, Connecticut, and chiefcity and seaport of the State, at the head of New Haven Bay, 4 m. FromLong Island Sound, and 73 m. NE. Of New York; is a finely built city, and, since 1718, has been the seat of Yale College; is an importantmanufacturing centre, producing rifles, iron-ware of all kinds, carriages, clocks, &c. , was up till 1873 joint capital of the State withHarford. 

NEW HEBRIDES (70), a group of some 30 volcanic Islands (20inhabited) in the Western Pacific, lying W. Of the Fiji Islands and NE. Of New Caledonia; is nominally a possession of Britain, and inhabited bycannibals of the Melanesian race. Missionary enterprise has had someeffect in the southern islands; Espiritu Santo (70 m. By 40) is thelargest. 

NEW HOLLAND. See AUSTRALIA. 

NEW JERSEY (1, 444), one of the 13 original States of the AmericanUnion, faces the Atlantic between New York State on the N. And DelawareBay on the S. , with Pennsylvania on its western border; the well-wateredand fertile central plains favour a prosperous fruit and agriculturalindustry, tracts of pine and cedar wood cover the sandy S. , while the N. , traversed by ranges of the Appalachians, abounds in valuable forests ofoak, hickory, chestnut, sassafras, &c. ; minerals are plentiful, especially iron ores. New Jersey is thickly populated, well provided withrailway and water transit, and busily engaged in manufactures--e. G. Glass, machinery, silk, sugar. Newark (capital) and Jersey City are byfar the largest cities; was sold to Penn in 1682, and settled chiefly byimmigrant Quakers. 

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, a church consisting of the disciples ofEmanuel Swedenborg, formed into a separate organisation for worship about1788. See SWEDENBORGIANISM. 

NEW MEXICO (154), an extensive territory embracing the SW. End ofNorth America and the larger part of the great isthmus which unites thetwo Americas; was in 1848 detached from MEXICO (q. V. ), andconstituted a part of the American Union; consists mainly of elevatedplateau, sloping to the S. , and traversed by ranges of the RockyMountains; the precious metals are widely distributed, especially silver;good deposits of coal and copper are also found. In the broad rivervalleys excellent crops are raised, and stock-raising is an importantindustry. The territory is divided into 14 counties; Santa Fé is thecapital; a State university exists at Albuquerque. 

NEW ORLEANS (287), the capital and largest city of Louisiana, isbeautifully situated on both sides of the Mississippi, 107 m. From itsmouth, with a curved river-frontage of 10 m. ; is the second cotton portof the world, and the greatest sugar-market in the United States; is thechief trade emporium of the surrounding States, and the main outlet forthe produce of the Mississippi Valley, which includes cotton, sugar, tobacco, wheat, and salt. 

NEW SOUTH WALES (1, 132), the "mother colony" of Australia, frontsthe Pacific for 700 m. On the E. Between Queensland (N. ) and Victoria(S. ), is 2½ times the size of Great Britain and Ireland; mountain ranges(including the Australian Alps) running parallel with, and from 20 to 100m. Distant from, the coast, divide the narrow littoral plains from thegreat plains of the W. And the interior, and are the source of many largerivers (e. G. The Darling) flowing E. And W. ; the climate is warm andeverywhere healthy; rain falls plentifully on the coast lands andmountains, but is scarce in the W. The mineral wealth of the colony isvery great--gold and silver are found in large quantities, as alsocopper, tin, iron, &c. , but coal is the most abundant and valuablemineral product. Cereals, fruits, sugar, tobacco, &c. , are cultivated, but in small quantities compared with the immense output of wool, thechief product of the country. SYDNEY (q. V. ) is the capital andchief port of the colony. Government is vested in a Crown appointedGovernor and two Houses of Parliament (triennial and paid). Education isfree and compulsory. Established in 1788, the colony was, up to 1840, used as a settlement for transported criminals. In 1851 the great golddiscoveries started the colony on its prosperous career. 

NEW YORK (5, 997), the foremost State in the American Union inpopulation, wealth, commerce, and manufactures, the twenty-fifth in area, and is about the size of England; is triangular in shape, with anorth-western base on Lakes Erie and Ontario, and an eastern apexreaching the Atlantic between Connecticut (N. ) and New Jersey (S. ). Manhattan, Staten, and Long Island are the most important of many islandsbelonging to the State. The land slopes from the mountainous E. To theshores of the great western lakes, and is pleasantly diversified withmountain, valley and plain, forest and river. The Hudson, Oswego, Genesee, and Niagara (with its famous waterfall) are the principalrivers, while the St. Lawrence forms part of the northern boundary. One-half of the area is under cultivation; the vine flourishes, hops andtobacco are grown, and market-gardening prospers near the large cities;but manufacturing is the chief industry, and the transit of goods isgreatly facilitated by the many waterways and network of railways. Wasfinally occupied by the English in 1664, after the expulsion of theDutch. 

NEW YORK CITY (3, 437), but including Brooklyn, Jersey City, andother suburban places, nearly three millions, the premier city of theAmerican continent, and third wealthiest in the world; occupies ManhattanIsland (13½ m. Long) and several smaller islands at the terminalconfluence of the Hudson with East River, which opens into Long IslandSound; 18 m. S. Of the city is Sandy Hook, where two ship channels crossthe bar, and lead into the outer or lower bay, which in turn is joined bya strait to the magnificent harbour or inner bay; all approaches arestrongly fortified; a suspension bridge spans East River, uniting thecity with Brooklyn; the rivers and the many wharves are crowded withshipping. The old town is a busy hive of industry, with its great centresof banking and mercantile enterprise--Wall, New, and Broad Streets. Themodern part of the city is a model of regularity, is traversed by greatavenues 8 m. In length and 100 ft. Wide, the finest being Fifth Avenue. The City Hall and the Court House are of white marble; the hotels are thelargest in the world; Astor library (250, 000 vols. ), academy of design, university, museums, art-galleries, and many other handsome buildingsadorn the streets; carries on industries of almost every description. 

NEW ZEALAND (669, of which 42 are Maories), a British island colonyin the South Pacific, lying wholly within the temperate zone, 1200 m. E. Of Australia; comprises North Island (45, 000 sq. M. ), South or MiddleIsland (58, 000 sq. M. ), Stewart Island (much smaller), and a number ofislets; total area considerably more than that of Great Britain. The twomain islands, separated by Cook Strait, are in no part broader than 150m. , and are traversed from end to end by a great and partly volcanicmountain chain, the range in South Island being known as the SouthernAlps (highest peak Mount Cook, 12, 350 ft), and that in North Island asthe Ruahine Range and the Tararua Mountains; everywhere rivers abound, Waikato (North Island) and Clutha (South Island) being the largest;numerous lakes (Lake Taupo, six times the size of Loch Lomond), fertilevalleys, and well-grassed plains, together with the mountains, make up abeautiful and diversified surface, which much resembles that of Scotland, while the climate, temperate and healthy, is warmer and more equable thanin Great Britain; almost all the animals have been imported, as well asthe grains and fruits; great forests of indigenous kauri pines, however, exist; sheep-farming, agriculture, and mining (gold and coal) are thechief industries, wool being the chief export; Auckland, the largest, andWellington, the capital, in North Island, and Dunedin and Christchurch inSouth Island, are the chief towns; Government is vested in aCrown-appointed Governor, an Executive Ministry, and a Parliament of twoChambers; education is free, secular, and compulsory, but no State aid isgiven to any form of religion; discovered in 1642 by Tasman, the islandswere first surveyed by Cook in 1769; their formal cession to the Britishcrown took place in 1840. 

NEWARK (246), city of U. S. , New Jersey, 7 miles W. By New JerseyCity. It has extensive tanneries, and manufactories of hats, thread, andcelluloid. 

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME (18), a borough and old market-town ofStaffordshire, 40 m. S. Of Manchester; is a well-built town, activelyengaged in brewing, malting, and paper-making. 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE (186), a city and county of itself, and chieftown of Northumberland; situated on the N. Bank, and 10 m. From themouth, of the Tyne, 275 m. N. Of London. The old town extends some twomiles along the river bank, and with its crowded quays, narrow windingstreets, and dingy warehouses, presents a striking contrast to thehandsome modern portion, which stretches back on gently rising ground. The cathedral is an imposing and interesting architectural structure, while the public buildings are more than usually ornate. The Colleges ofMedicine and of Science are affiliated to Durham University. There areseveral fine libraries, theatres, hospitals, and charitable institutions, and the city is especially well off in the matter of public parks andpleasure grounds. Three bridges (including Robert Stephenson's famousHigh Level Bridge) span the river and connect Newcastle with Gateshead. It is the chief centre of the English coal trade, and is a busy hive ofall kinds of metallic, chemical, machinery, and kindred works, which giverise to an immense and ever-increasing shipping trade. As a centre ofshipbuilding the Tyne is second only to the Clyde. 

NEWCOMEN, THOMAS, blacksmith, born at Dartmouth; invented asteam-engine in which the piston was raised by steam and driven down bythe atmosphere after the injection into the cylinder of a squirt of coldwater, which cooled it, so that the steam when injected did not raise thepiston at once up. By James Watt's invention of a separate condenser itwas superseded, and employed afterwards principally for pumping water. The interruption in the movement between the descent and ascent of thepiston made it worthless for such purposes as Watt's invention is appliedto; _d_. 1729. 

NEWDIGATE, SIR ROGER, born in Warwickshire; represented Oxford inParliament, and founded the Newdigate Prize for the best English poem byan undergraduate; the winners of it have since distinguished themselves, chiefly in letters (1719-1806). 

NEWFOUNDLAND (198), the oldest island colony of Britain, situated atthe mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, North America; is about one-eighthlarger than Ireland, and triangular in shape, the northern apex runningclose in to the coast of Labrador; inland the country is bleak, sparselypopulated, and ill cultivated; lakes and rivers abound; the deeplyindented coast provides excellent harbourage for the large fishing fleetsthat frequent it; minerals are found, including coal, iron, lead, andcopper; agriculture and timber-felling are on the increase, but thefisheries--cod, salmon, herring, and seal--form the staple industry; theclimate is more temperate than in Canada, although, subject to fogs;ST. JOHNS (q. V. ) is the capital; discovered in 1497 by JohnCabot, seized by the English in 1583, and finally ceded to Britain by theFrench (who retained certain fishing rights) in 1713; Newfoundlandpossesses a responsible government, consisting of a popularly electedAssembly and a Crown-appointed Governor, and exercises political rightsover the adjoining coast territory of Labrador. 

NEWGATE, a dark, gloomy prison in London, the original of whichdates as far back as 1218; was two centuries afterwards rebuilt, anddestroyed in the great fire of 1666; rebuilt in 1780; is now used onlyfor prisoners awaiting trial during Sessions, and as a place ofexecution. 

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY, cardinal, born in London, son of a banker;educated at Ealing, studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and obtained aFellowship in Oriel College in 1823; trained in evangelical beliefs, hegradually drifted into High-Church notions, and becoming vicar of St. Mary's, the university church of Oxford, in 1826, started the TractarianMovement in 1833, and, busy with his pen, wrote no fewer than 24 of thecelebrated "Tracts for the Times" in advocacy of High-Church teaching, till Tract XC. , which he composed, overshot the mark, and he resigned hisconnection with the Church of England, and was received into the CatholicChurch on the 28th October 1845; shortly after this he visited Rome, wasordained a priest, and after some stay there on his return became head ofthe Birmingham Oratory in 1849, where he spent over 40 of the years thatremained of his life; the influence on Church matters which he exercisedas university preacher at Oxford was very great, and made itself feltthrough the voluminous writings over the length and breadth of theChurch; on his secession he continued to employ his pen in defence of hisposition, particularly in one work, now widely known, entitled "Apologiapro Vita Sua"; what he wrote was for the time he lived in, and none ofit, except certain of his hymns, is likely to endure; the religion hefought for and vindicated was an externally authenticated one, whereasall true religion derives itself and its evidences solely and wholly fromwithin, and is powerless and virtually nothing except in so far as itroots itself there (1801-1890). 

NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM, born in London, brother of the preceding, with whom he was wholly out of sympathy, and at the opposite pole; he wasa theist in his religious opinions, and wrote in defence of them hisprincipal works, "The Soul: Her Sorrows and Aspirations, " and "Phases ofFaith" (1805-1897). 

NEWPORT, 1, capital of the Isle of Wight (10), and near its centre;in its vicinity is Carisbrooke Castle, where Charles I. Was imprisoned. 2, The largest town in Monmouth (54), at the mouth of the Usk, engaged inmanufacture of various kinds, but chiefly as a port for the export ofminerals, which is very large. 3, A town in Rhode Island, U. S. , (19), afashionable watering-place, as well as a manufacturing; was for a timethe residence of Bishop Berkeley. 

NEWSTEAD ABBEY, an abbey near Nottingham, founded by Henry II. Byway of atonement for the murder of Thomas à Becket, which was given atthe dissolution of the monasteries to an ancestor of Lord Byron, wholived in it and sold it, since which it has been restored. 

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, illustrious natural philosopher, born inWoolsthorpe, near Grantham, in Lincolnshire; entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661, where he applied himself specially to the study ofmathematics, invented the method of FLUXIONS (q. V. ), and beganto theorise on gravitation, graduating in 1667, and becoming professor ofMathematics in 1669; failing at first, from a mistaken measurement givenof the earth's diameter, in his attempts to establish the theory referredto, he set himself to the construction of telescopes, and discovered thecomposition of light; shortly after this, hearing of a correction of themeasurement required, he renewed his study of gravitation, and made histheory good in a series of papers communicated to the Royal Society, though it was not till 1687, encouraged by Halley, he gave the completedemonstration in his "Principia" to the world; in 1695 he was made Wardenof the Mint, and afterwards Master, a post he held till his death; hisworks were numerous, and he wrote on prophecy as well as treatises onscience (1642-1727). 

NEWTON, JOHN, English clergyman, born in London; after a wild youthwas converted, entered the Church, and became curate of Olney, where hebecame acquainted with Cowper, and had, owing to his severe Calvinism, aninfluence over him not altogether for good, and was associated with theproduction of the "Olney Hymns"; wrote "Cardiphonia" (1725-1807). 

NEWTON, THOMAS, English divine; edited Milton's "Paradise Lost" and"Paradise Regained, " and notes, and wrote "Dissertations on theProphecies" (1704-1782). 

NEY, MICHEL, peer and marshal of France, born at Sarrelouis, son ofa cooper; entered the army as a private hussar in 1797; distinguishedhimself by his bravery in the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, andearned for himself from the army under Napoleon, and from Napoleonhimself, the title of the "Brave of the braves"; on Napoleon's abdicationin 1814 he attached himself to Louis XVIII. , but on his return from Elbahe joined Ins old master, and stood by him during the hundred days; onthe second Restoration he was arrested, tried by his peers, and shot(1769-1815). 

NGAMI, LAKE, a shallow sheet of water 50 m. Long in S. Africa, onthe borders of the Kalahari Desert, which is always changing its margin, is at one time, from the rains, sweet and drinkable, and at another time, from drought, saline; it is infested with crocodiles, and swarms withfish. 

NIAGARA, a section of the St. Lawrence River, in N. America, extending between Lakes Erie and Ontario, having a descent throughout itscourse of 36 m. Of 326 ft. , the Falls, preceded and succeeded by rapids, being the largest in the world, the Canadian or Horse Shoe Fall being2640 ft. Wide, with a descent of 158 ft. , and the American Fall beingone-third of the width of the Canadian, and with a descent of over 162ft. 

NIAM-NIAM, a people of the E. Soudan, SE. Of Darfur, occupyingterritory between the basins of the Nile and the Congo. 

NIBELUNG, king of the Nibelungen, a mythical Burgundian tribe, thefabulous possessor of a hoard of wealth so inexhaustible that "twelvewaggons in twelve days, at the rate of three journeys a day, could notcarry it off, " and which he bequeathed to his two sons on his deathbed, by the vanquishing of whom the hoard fell into the hands of theredoubtable hero Siegfried. 

NIBELUNGEN LIED (i. E. Lay of the Nibelungen), an old German epic, of date, it is presumed, earlier than the 12th century; it consists oftwo parts, the first ending with the murder of Siegfried by Hagen, hiswresting of the hoard (see _SUPRA_) from his widow, Kriemhild, andburying it at the bottom of the Rhine, and the second relating thevengeance of Kriemhild and the annihilation of the whole Burgundian race, Kriemhild included, to whom the treasure had originally belonged; to thelatter part the name of the Nibelungen Not (or Distress) has been given. 

NICARAGUA (313, mostly mulattoes and negroes), the largest andrichest of five republics occupying Central America, stretches across theisthmus from the Pacific to the Caribbean Sea, between Honduras (N. ) andCosta Rica (S. ); the Cordilleras traverse the heart of the country, andthe immense valleys of the W. Are remarkable for the two great southernlakes, Nicaragua and Managua, which are studded with volcanic islands;rich in gold, silver, copper, and coal, with vast forests of mahogany, rosewood, &c. , splendid pastures and a fertile soil; the country hasthrough misgovernment and a bad climate remained in a backward state; inrecent times more has been done; hides, bananas, coffee, and india-rubberare the chief exports, and a considerable deal of mining goes on; thegreat ship-canal from the Pacific to the Caribbean, begun in 1889 by aU. S. Company, is not yet completed; Managua (18) is the capital; assertedits independence from Spain in 1821, and has since been rent by countlessrevolutions; a president and a congress of 48 administer its affairs. 

NICE or NICÆA, an ancient city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, celebrated as the seat of two oecumenical councils of the Church, thefirst, presided over by Constantine in 325, which condemned Arianism, andthe second, under the Empress Irene in 787, which deliberated onimage-worship. 

NICE (74), capital of the department Alpes-Maritimes, France, charmingly situated on the Mediterranean coast near the Italian border, terraced hills shelter it on the N. , and its genial and equable climatemake it a favourite winter resort for invalids; the Paglione, a smallstream, divides the old and modern portion; Castle Hill, with ruins andpleasure gardens, the cathedral, art-gallery, &c. , are features ofinterest; olive-oil is the chief export, and artistic pottery, perfumery, &c. , are manufactured. 

NICENE CREED, a creed established as orthodox at NICE (q. V. ), which affirmed as against Arianism that Christ as Son of God wasnot merely of _like_ substance, but of the _same_ substance with theFather. 

NICHOLAS, the name of five popes: N. I. , ST. , surnamed theGreat, Pope from 858 to 867, asserted the supremacy of the papal see, Festival, Nov. 13; N. II. , pope from 1058 to 1061; N. III. , Pope from 1277 to 1280; N. IV. , pope from 1288 to 1292; N. V. , Pope from 1447 to 1456, after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, took the exiled Greek scholars under his protection, fostered thelearning of the East, and laid the foundation of the Vatican Library bythe collection of over 5000 Greek and Latin MSS. 

NICHOLAS, ST. , the patron saint of boys, of sailors, of Russia andAberdeen, as well as other towns; was bishop of Myra, persecuted underDiocletian; is generally represented in bishop's robes, and has eitherthree purses or three children as his attributes; the three children andthe three purses refer to one and the same story: St. Nicholas, onlearning that a father who had three daughters was tempted by extremepoverty to expose them to a life of dishonour, went by night and threwinto the window of the house three bags of money which served as amarriage portion for each, and thus rescued them from a life of shame. 

NICHOLAS I. , czar of Russia, born at St. Petersburg, third son ofPaul I. , ascended the throne in 1825 in succession to Alexander I. , hiseldest brother; suppressed with rigour and not a little severity aformidable conspiracy which took form on his accession; took up armsagainst Persia and wrested Erivan from its sway, struggled against boththe Poles and the Turks till his overbearing policy against the latterprovoked a coalition of France, England, and Sardinia to their defence inthe Crimean War, which was still going on when he died; in 1848 he aidedAustria in the suppression of the Hungarian insurrection (1796-1855). 

NICHOLAS II. , czar of Russia, born in St. Petersburg, son ofAlexander III. , and his successor in Nov. 1894; was married on the monthof his accession to Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt and granddaughterof Queen Victoria through the Princess Alice, while his mother is asister of the Princess of Wales; his education under his father wasconducted expressly with a view to what might be required of him on hisaccession to the throne; his ministers are in sympathy with himself, andhe has already (1899) distinguished himself by putting his finger on thesore which is festering at the heart and is sucking up as a vampire thelife's blood of Europe; _b_. May 18, 1868. 

NICHOLSON, JOHN, an Indian officer, born in Dublin, son of aphysician; served in the Sikh Wars, and at the outbreak of the Mutiny in1857 in the Punjab crushed it in the bud; led the attack at the siege ofDelhi, Sept. 14, but fell mortally wounded as the storming party wereentering the Cabul Gate (1821-1857). 

NICOBAR ISLANDS (7), a group of picturesque islands in the IndianOcean, S. Of the Andaman Islands and midway between Ceylon and the MalayPeninsula; 14 of the 20 islands are inhabited, chiefly by indigenousIndians and Malays; after being in the hands of Denmark for upwards of100 years, they were annexed by Britain in 1869; trade is carried on withIndia in cocoa-nuts, ambergris, tortoise-shell, &c. 

NICOLAITANS, a sect of heretics that arose in the Apostolic Church, presumed to have been a party of professing Christians of Gentiledescent, who, after their profession, continued to take part in theheathen festivals, and to have contributed to break down the distinctionbetween the Church and the world, so essential to the very existence ofthe faith they professed, founded, as it is, no less absolutely on No tothe world than on Yea to God. See EVERLASTING NO andEVERLASTING YEA. 

NICOLE, PIERRE, French divine and moralist, born at Chartres, aPORT-ROYALIST (q. V. ), friend of Arnauld and Pascal; was alongwith the former author of the famous "Port Royal Logic" (1625-1695). 

NICOTINE, a poisonous alkaloid extracted from the leaves of thetobacco plant, is a colourless, oily liquid, readily soluble in water, and has a pungent odour. 

NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG, distinguished historian, born atCopenhagen, son of the succeeding; studied at Kiel, and for a time atLondon and Edinburgh; after various civil appointments in Denmark, entered the civil service of Prussia in 1806; on the establishment of theuniversity of Berlin in 1810 gave in connection with it a course oflectures on Roman history, by which he established his reputation as ahistorian, several of the conclusions of which he afterwards confirmedduring his residence as ambassador at the Papal Court at Rome from 1816to 1823; the revolution of the three days of July 1830 in Paristhreatening, as he thought, a recurrence of the horrors of the first, gave him such a shock that he sickened of it and died; by his treatmentof the history of Rome he introduced a new era in the treatment ofhistory generally, which consisted in expiscating all the fabulous fromthe story and working on the residuum of authenticated fact, without, however, as would appear, taking due account of the influence of thefaith of the people on the fable, and the effect of the latter on thelife and destiny of the nation whose history it was his purpose to relate(1776-1830). 

NIEBUHR, KARSTEN, a celebrated traveller, born in Hanover; joined aDanish expedition in exploration of Arabia, and alone of the members ofit returned home, which he did by way of Persia, Palestine, and Cyprus, and wrote an account of the results of his researches (1733-1815). 

NIEL, ADOLPHE, French marshal, born at Muret; entered the Engineers1825, served in the Algerine War in 1835, before Rome in 1849, atBomarsund in 1854, at Sebastopol in 1856, as well as at Magenta andSolferino, and finally became Minister of War (1802-1869). 

NIEPEE, JOSEPH NICÉPHORE, French chemist, born at Châlons-sur-Saône;inventor of photography, the method of effecting which he achieved afterlong brooding in 1824, and afterwards communicated to Daguerre, with whomhe entered into partnership, and who made it known after his death(1765-1833). 

NIFLHEIM or MISTHOME, in the Norse mythology the primevalnorthern region of cold and darkness, in contrast with Muspelheim, orBrighthome, the primeval southern region of warmth and light, the twopoles, as it were, of the Norse world. 

NIGER, a great river of Western Africa, whose head-waters rise amidthe Kong Mountains behind Sierra Leone; flowing NE. As far as Timbuctoo(2 m. From the river), it there bends gradually southward, receives fromthe E. Its great affluent the Benuë, and about 100 m. From the coastbegins to form a wide forest and jungle-covered delta (larger than thatof the Nile), and finally flows into the Gulf of Guinea by 22 mouthsafter a course of some 2600 m. Forms, with the Benuë, an invaluablehighway into the heart of the country; its upper and middle parts, underthe names Joliba, &c. , are within the French sphere, and the lowerportion below Say is under English authority. 

NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE, a famous philanthropic nurse, born atFlorence, of wealthy English parentage; at the age of 22 entered theinstitution of Protestant Deaconesses at Kaiserswerth to be trained as anurse, and afterwards studied the methods of nursing and hospitalmanagement with the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, Paris; afterthoroughly reorganising Harley Street Hospital, London, she in 1854volunteered to organise a staff of nurses to tend the wounded soldiers inthe Crimea; arriving at Scutari on the eve of Inkermann she, during theterrible winter of 1854-55, ministered with unwearied devotion to thesuffering soldiers; on her return in 1856 she, with public support, established a training college for nurses at St. Thomas's and at King'sCollege Hospital; she is author of "Notes on Nursing, " "Notes onHospitals, " &c. ; _b_. In 1820. 

NIHILISM, the principles of a movement on the part of the educatedclasses in Russia which repudiates the existing creed and organisation ofsociety, and insists on a root and branch wholesale abolition of them anda reconstruction of them on communistic principles, and for the purelysecular and everyday ends of common life, subordinating everything in thefirst place to the feeding, clothing, and lodging of human beings in amanner worthy of their rank in the scale of being. The term Nihilism isalso applied to those philosophical systems which sweep the course clearof all incredibilities and irrationalities, but leave us bare of all ourinherited spiritual possessions. 

NIJNI-NOVGOROD (73), capital of a Russian government of the samename, situated at the confluence of the Oka with the Volga, 274 m. E. OfMoscow, is the seat of Peter-Paul's Fair, the greatest in the world, which lasts from July to September, attracting merchants from Asia andEurope, and during which the population of the town swells to six orseven times its normal dimensions; as much as £20, 000, 000 worth of goodsare said to be sold during the fair. 

NILE, the longest river of Africa, and one of the most noted in theworld's history; the Shimiyu, Isanga, and other streams which flow intoVictoria Nyanza from the S. Are regarded as its ultimate head-waters;from Victoria Nyanza, the Victoria Nile or Somerset River holds anorth-westerly course to Albert Nyanza, whence it issues under the nameof the Bahr-el-Jebel, swelled by the waters of the Semliki from AlbertEdward Nyanza; about 650 m. N. It is joined by the Bahr-el-Ghazal fromthe W. , and bending to the E. , now under the name White Nile, receives onthat side the Sobat, and as a sluggish navigable stream flows pastFashoda on to Khartoum, where it is met by the Bahr-al-Azrak or BlueNile; 200 m. Lower it receives the Atbara or Black Nile. Through Egyptthe river's course is confined to a valley some 10 m. Broad, which owesits great fertility to the alluvial deposits left by the river during itannual overflow (July to October, caused by seasonal rains in Abyssinia, &c. ). From Khartoum to Assouan occur the cataracts; below this the streamis navigable. A few miles N. Of Cairo begins the delta which lies withinthe Rosetta and Damietta--two main branches of the divided river--and issome 150 m. Broad at its base. From Victoria Nyanza to the coast theriver measures about 3400 m. 

NILSSON, CHRISTINE, an operatic singer, born in Sweden, daughter ofa peasant, and one of the foremost sopranos of her day; distinguished forher dramatic talent no less than by her powers as a vocalist (1843-1882). 

NIMEGUEN (34), an interesting old Dutch town in Guelderland, on theWaal, 73 m. E. Of Rotterdam; has a fine 13th-century Gothic church andother notable buildings; its prosperous manufactures include tobacco, perfume, beer, &c. ; here, in 1678-79, France effected famous peacetreaties with Holland, Spain, and Austria. 

NÎMES or NISMES (68), capital of the department of Gard, S. OfFrance, lies surrounded by the Cévennes in the fertile valley of theVistre, 31 m. E. Of Montpellier; has unique Roman remains, including animposing amphitheatre, now used as a bull-arena, the noble Corinthian"Maison Carrée, " a mausoleum, baths, &c. ; textiles (silk, cotton, &c. ), wines, and brandy are the chief articles of manufacture; it declared forthe Reformation in 1559, and suffered cruelly on the Revocation of theEdict of Nantes. 

NIMROD, an early king of Assyria or Babylonia, characterised inScripture (Gen. X. 9) as "a mighty hunter before the Lord"; a name nowapplied to a distinguished hunter. 

NINEVEH, an exceeding great city, capital of ancient Assyria, whichstood on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite the modern town of Mosul, said to have been included within a wall 60 m. Long, 100 ft. High, thebreadth of three chariots in width, and defended by 1500 towers each 200ft. In height. 

NINIAN ST. , early apostle of Christianity to the southern Picts ofScotland, born on the shores of the Solway, of noble descent; went toRome, was consecrated by the Pope, visited St. Martin at Tours on his wayback; had founded a church at Whithorn, Wigtownshire, which he dedicatedto the latter on his return, where he died, "perfect in life and full ofyears, " in 432. 

NINUS, a legendary king of Assyria, a celebrated conqueror, to whomtradition assigns the founding of Nineveh. 

NIOBE, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Tantalus, and wife ofAmphion, king of Thebes, to whom she bore six sons and six daughters, inher pride of whom she rated herself above Leto, who had given birth toonly two children, Apollo and Artemis, whereupon they, indignant at thisinsult to their mother, gave themselves for nine days to the slaughter ofNiobe's offspring, and on the tenth the gods buried them; Niobe, in hergrief, retired to Mount Sipylos, in Lydia, where her body became cold andrigid as stone, but not her tears, which, ever as the summer monthsreturned, burst forth anew. 

NIRVÂNA, the name given to the consummation of bliss in the Hindu, but especially the Buddhist, religions, synonymous with extinction, whichin the Hindu creed means the extinction of individuality by absorption inthe Divine Being, and in Buddhism, not, as some presume, the extinctionof existence, but the extinction of agitation of mind through thecrucifixion of all passion and desire, the attainment of self-centred, self-sufficient quiescence of being, or rest and peace of soul. 

NISUS, a Trojan youth who accompanied Æneas into Italy, and whosefriendship for Euryulus is so pathetically immortalised by Virgil in theninth book of the "Æneid. "

NITHSDALE, WILLIAM MAXWELL, EARL OF, a noted Catholic, who took partin the Jacobite rising of 1715, was captured at Preston, found guilty oftreason, and sentenced to death; the night before the day appointed forhis execution (24th February 1786) he effected an escape from the Towerby exchanging clothes with his daring and devoted countess, who had beenadmitted to his room; he fled to Rome, where he lived in happiness withhis wife until her death (1676-1744). 

NITROGEN, a gaseous element which constitutes one-fourth in volumeof the atmosphere, is the basis of nitric acid, and is an essentialconstituent of proteids, alkaloids, and albuminoids. 

NITZSCH, KARL LUDWIG, German theologian, born at Borna; becameprofessor at Bonn, Saxony, in 1822, whence in 1847 he was removed tosucceed Marheineke at Berlin; was of the Schleiermacher school oftheologians, and author, among other works, of a "System der ChristlichenLehre" and "Practische Theologie, " the former an able work, but mostvilely translated into English, and the latter in evidence of theimportance the author attached to the ethical element in the Christianreligion (1787-1860). 

NIXIE, in German folk-lore a water-sprite of a mischievousdisposition, believed to have been suggested to the imagination by thereflection of the stars in the water. 

NIZAM, the name given to a viceroy or administrator of justice inthe Mogul Empire of India. 

NIZAM'S DOMINIONS, THE, or HYDERABAD (11, 537), in the heart ofthe Deccan, situated between the Central Provinces and the Presidency ofMadras; it is highly fertile, and the largest of the native States inIndia. See HYDERABAD. 

NOAH, the patriarch of Scripture antiquity who, by the command ofGod, constructed an ark for the preservation of the human race and thedry-land animals during the prevalence of the deluge that would otherwisehave swept all these forms of life away. 

NOAILLES, the name of an old French family, several members of whichdistinguished themselves in the service of both Church and State: ANNEJULES N. , marshal of France, celebrated for his cruelties against theHuguenots (1650-1708); LOUIS ANTOINE DE, his brother, archbishop ofParis, who was made cardinal (1651-1729); LOUIS MARIE, VICOMTE DE, deputy to the States-General, who took part for a time in the Revolution(1756-1804). 

NOAKES, JOHN O', a fictitious name for a litigious person, used bylawyers in actions of ejectment. 

NOBLE, a gold coin first minted by Edward III. , formerly current inthe country; worth 6s. 8d. , and ultimately 10s. , when the value of thegold increased. 

NOCTURNE, picture of a night scene; also a musical piece appropriateto the night. 

NODES, name given to the two points in the orbit of a planet whereit crosses or intersects the ecliptic, called ascending when it goes N. , and descending when it goes S. 

NODIER, CHARLES, able French littérateur, born at Besançon; a man ofgreat literary activity and some considerable literary influence; authorof charming stories and fairy tales; "did everything well, " saysProfessor Saintsbury, "but perhaps nothing supremely well" (1780-1844). 

NOLLEKENS, JOSEPH, sculptor, born in London, son of an Antwerppainter; studied in Rome; his _forte_ lay in busts, of which he modelleda great many, including busts of Garrick, Sterne, Dr. Johnson, Pitt, andFox, and realised thereby a large fortune; he was a man of no education;his principal work is "Venus with the Sandal" (1737-1813). 

NOMINALISM, the name given to the theory of those among theScholastics who maintained that general notions, which we denote bygeneral terms, are only names, empty conceptions without reality, thatthere was no such thing as pure thought, only conception and sensuousperception, whereas realists, after Plato, held by the objective realityof universals. And, indeed, it is not as modern philosophy affirms, inthe particular or the individual, in which alone, according to theNominalists, reality resides, but in the universal, in regard to whichthe particular is nothing if it does not refer. 

NONCONFORMISTS, a name originally applied to the clergy of theEstablished Church of England, some two thousand, who in 1662 resignedtheir livings rather than submit to the terms of the Act of Uniformitypassed on the 24th of August that year, and now applied to the wholeDissenting body in England. 

NONES, in the Roman calendar the ninth day before the IDES(q. V. ), being the 7th of March, May, July, and October, and the 5th ofthe rest. 

NONJURORS, a name given to that section of the Episcopal party inEngland who, having sworn fealty to James II. , refused to take the oathof allegiance to William III. , six of whom among the bishops for theirobstinacy were deprived of their sees. 

NO-POPERY RIOTS, name given principally to riots in London in June1780, due to the zeal of LORD GEORGE GORDON (q. V. ), ending inthe death of near 300 persons. 

NORDENSKIÖLD, ERIK, a Swedish naturalist, born in Helsingfors; afterseveral successive voyages and explorations in the Arctic Sea, in whichhe paid frequent visits to Spitzbergen, where he measured an arc of themeridian, in 1878-79 discovered the North-East Passage by traversing, along the N. Shores of Europe and Asia, the whole Arctic Sea from theAtlantic to the Pacific; has written accounts of his expeditions; _b_. 1832. 

NORDKYN (i. E. North chin), the most northerly point in Norway, and of the continent of Europe generally. 

NORE, MUTINY AT THE, a mutiny in the fleet stationed at the Nore, ananchorage off Sheerness, in the Thames, which broke out on May 20, 1797, and was not suppressed till June 15, for which the ringleaders were triedand hanged. 

NORFOLK (455), an eastern maritime county of England, lies N. OfSuffolk, and presents a long eastern and northern foreshore (90 m. ) tothe German Ocean; the Wash lies on the NW. Border; light fertile soils, and an undulating, well-watered surface favour an extensive and highlydeveloped agriculture, of which fruit-growing and market-gardening arespecial features; rabbits and game abound in the great woods andsand-dunes; the chief rivers are the Ouse, Bure, and Yare, and these andother streams form in their courses a remarkable series of inland lakesknown as the BROADS (q. V. ); its antiquities of Roman and Saxontimes are many and peculiarly interesting. 

NORFOLK ISLAND, a small precipitous island in the Western Pacific, midway between New Caledonia and New Zealand, 400 m. NW. Of the latter;its inhabitants, many of whom came from Pitcairn Island, and now lessthan 1000, govern themselves under the superintendence of New SouthWales. 

NORMAN, HENRY, journalist and traveller, born at Leicester;travelled extensively in the East; has written on "The Peoples andPolitics of the Far East, " and "Round the Near East"; has since 1892 beenon the staff of the _Daily Chronicle_. 

NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, a massive architecture introduced into England, particularly in the construction of churches, abbeys, &c. , by the Normanseven before the Conquest, which was in vogue in the country till the endof Henry II. 's reign, and which is characterised by the prevalence of therounded arch. 

NORMANDY, an ancient province of France, fronting the EnglishChannel, NE. Of Brittany; received its name from the Northmen who, underRollo, established themselves there in the 10th century; was for a longtime an appanage of the English crown after the Norman Conquest; afterbeing taken and retaken, was finally lost to England in 1450; it becamepractically a part of France when it was taken by Philip Augustus in1204; it is now represented by the five departments Seine-Inférieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. 

NORNAS, in the Norse mythology the three Fates--the Past, thePresent, and the Future; maidens or dames who water the roots ofIGGDRASIL (q. V. ), the ash-tree of existence, and determine thedestinies of both gods and men. 

NORRKÖPING (36) (north market), a town in Sweden, called the"Scandinavian Manchester, " 113 m. SW. Of Stockholm, with cotton andwoollen factories worked by the water-power of the river Motala, that infalls and rapids rushes through the town. 

NORROY KING OF ARMS, a name given to the third king-of-arms, whoseprovince is on the N. Side of the Trent, the one on the S. Side beingcalled Clarencieux. 

NORTH, CHRISTOPHER, a pseudonym of Prof. John Wilson in the "NoctesAmbrosianæ" in _Blackwood's Magazine_. 

NORTH, FREDERICK, LORD, English statesman; entered Parliament in1754, became Tory leader in the House of Commons in 1767, and PrimeMinister in 1770; was entirely subservient to the will of the king, George III. , and was responsible in that relation for the loss of theAmerican colonies; a coalition was effected in 1783 between him and Fox, to the disgrace of the latter, but it terminated in a few months; hedied, Earl of Guildford, blind (1732-1792). 

NORTH BERWICK. See BERWICK, NORTH. 

NORTH CAPE, the most northerly point in Europe, in the island ofMagerö, in 71° N. Latitude. 

NORTH CAROLINA. See CAROLINA, NORTH. 

NORTH SEA or GERMAN OCEAN, between the E. Coast of Britain andthe Continent, spreads out into the Arctic Ocean, is shallow, is crossedby many sandbanks, and is subject to frequent violent storms; the DoggerBank, between England and Denmark, 8 to 16 fathoms deep, is rich in fish, especially cod. 

NORTH-EAST and NORTH-WEST PASSAGES, the name given to thesea-routes through the Arctic Ocean, the former by the N. Of Europe andAsia and the latter by the N. Of North America, which the northernnations were ambitious to open up into the Pacific, the access to whichby the Capes in the S. Was in possession of the fleets of Spain andPortugal; the attempts to achieve it cost much money and much life, andrealised no permanent material advantage. 

NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. See NORTH-EAST. 

NORTH-WEST PROVINCES (46, 905), a province andlieutenant-governorship of British India, embraces the upper portion ofthe Ganges Valley and Doab, and reaches from Bengal to the Punjab, enclosing Oudh on all sides but the N. ; area twice that of England, isthe chief wheat province, and also raises opium, cotton, tea, and sugar;was separated from Bengal in 1835, and with it in 1877 was conjoinedOudh; Allahabad is the capital. 

NORTHALLERTON (4), a market-town and capital of the North Riding ofYorkshire, 30 m. NW. Of York; in the vicinity was fought the famousBattle of the Standard, in which David I. Of Scotland was routed by theEnglish, August 22, 1138. 

NORTHAMPTON (70), capital of Northamptonshire, on the Nen, 66 m. NW. Of London; has two fine old Norman churches, is the centre of the bootand shoe manufacture, and is actively engaged in brewing, lace-making, &c. ; in the outskirts is a popular racecourse; was the scene of HenryVI. 's defeat by the Yorkists on July 10, 1460. 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE or NORTHANTS (302), a midland county ofEngland, bordering upon nine others; has an undulating fertile surface, and is distinguished from the surrounding counties by extensive woods andplantations; is chiefly engaged in agriculture and stock-raising; the Nenand the Welland are the principal rivers; among its antiquities areFotheringay Castle, where Mary Stuart was beheaded, and Burleigh House;the battles of Edgecote (1469) and Naseby (1645) were fought within itsborders. 

NORTHCOTE, JAMES, English portrait-painter; studied under Sir JoshuaReynolds, whose Life he wrote as well as Titian's; wrote also "Fables"and "Conversations. "

NORTHCOTE, SIR STAFFORD HENRY. See IDDESLEIGH, LORD. 

NORTHMEN or NORSEMEN, the name given in the Middle Ages to thesea-roving, adventure-loving inhabitants of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark;in their sea-rovings they were little better than pirates, but they hadthis excuse, their home was narrow and their lands barren, and it was anecessity for them to sally forth and see what they could plunder andcarry away in richer lands; they were men of great daring, their earlyreligion definable as the consecration of valour, and they were theterror of the quieter nations whose lands they invaded; at first theirinvasions were mere raids for plunder, but at length they were satisfiedwith no less than conquest and the permanent occupancy of the lands theysubdued, settling some of them on the shores of England and France, andeven in the S. Of Italy; these invasions were common and frequent duringthe whole of the 9th and the early part of the 10th centuries. 

NORTHUMBERLAND (506), the most northerly county of England, lies onthe border of Scotland, from which it is separated by the Cheviots andthe Tweed; its eastern shore, off which lie the Farne Islands, Lindisfarne, and Coquet Isle, N. Of Durham, fronts the North Sea; isfifth in size of the English counties; in the N. The Cheviot slopes formexcellent pasturage, but the Pennine Range towards the W. Presents drearyand less valuable moorland; on the W. Are arable lowlands; Tweed, Tyne, Till, Alne, Wansbeck, are the chief rivers. Its great coal-field in theS. E. Is the most celebrated in the world, and is the county's greatestsource of wealth, and includes upwards of 100 collieries; Newcastle, Alnwick (county town), Hexham, and North Shields are the principal towns. Within its borders were fought the battles of Otterburn, Homildon Hill, and Flodden. 

NORTHUMBRIA, one of the ancient English kingdoms; comprised theeastern half of the island from the Humber to the Firth of Forth, and wasdivided into the Northern Bernicia and the southern Deira; was founded in547 by Ida the Angle. 

NORTHWICH (14), a town in Cheshire, with springs in and around ofbrine, from which salt has been procured for centuries. 

NORTON, CHARLES EDWARD, American littérateur, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts; has travelled a good deal in Europe; edited, with Lowell, the _North American Review_ and the early Letters of Carlyle, as well asthe "Reminiscences, " which had been too carelessly edited by Froude; _b_. 1827. 

NORTON, MRS. , English novelist and poet, _née_ Sheridan, granddaughter of Sheridan, authoress of "Stuart of Dunleath, " "Lost andSaved, " &c. , described by Lockhart as "the Byron of poetesses, " figuresin Meredith's "Diana of the Crossways" (1808-1877). 

NORWAY (2, 000), a kingdom of North Europe, comprising the westernside of the Scandinavian peninsula, and separated from Sweden on the E. By the Kjölen Mountains; the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans beat upon itslong and serrated western seaboard, forcing a way up the many narrow andsinuous fiords; Sogne Fiord, the longest, runs into the heart of thecountry 100 m. ; off the northern coast lie the Loffodens, while theSkerries skirt the E. The country forms a strip of irregular andmountainous coast-land 1160 m. Long, which narrows down at its leastbreadth to 25 m. ; 70 per cent, of the surface is uncultivable, and 24 percent, is forest; the lakes number 30, 000, of which Lake Wenner (2136 sq. M. ) is the largest; immense glaciers are found in the great mountainbarrier, and innumerable rivers run short and rapid courses to theAtlantic and to the Skager-Rak in the S. ; the Glommen, flowing intoChristiania Fiord, is the largest (400 m. ). The climate of the W. Coastdistricts is tempered by the Gulf Stream; inland there is a greatdecrease in the rainfall, but much intenser cold is experienced. Thewealth of the country lies in its forests and fisheries, mines andshipping; only 2 per cent, of the land-surface is under cultivation, and2. 8 per cent is utilised for grazing; the copper, iron, and silver minesare declining. Christiania (the capital) is the centre of the industrialarea; the shipping almost equals that of the United States, and ranksthird in the world. The Norwegians are intensely democratic (titles andnobility were abolished in 1821), and although under a king, who alsoincludes Sweden in his dominions, they enjoy democratic home rule, nomembers of the Storthing (Parliament) being paid. Education is free andcompulsory, and the bulk of the people are Lutherans. The monetary unitis the _Krone_ (= 1/1½). Norway, originally inhabited by Lapps and Gothictribes, was first unified by Harold Haarfager (A. D. 863-930), andsubsequently welded into a Christian kingdom by his descendant St. Olaf(1015). From 1536 it was held as a conquered province by Denmark up to1814; in that year it was ceded to Sweden, and received national rightsand a free constitution. 

NORWICH, 1, an ancient cathedral city and capital of Norfolk (101), situated on the Wensum, immediately above its junction with the Yare, 114m. NE. Of London; its beautiful woodland surroundings have won it thename of "the city in an orchard"; chief of its many fine buildings is thecathedral, a handsome Norman structure, founded in 1096; of the oldNorman castle only the keep now stands, crowning a central hill; itscelebrated triennial musical festivals began in 1824; textile fabrics arestill an important manufacture, but have been superseded in importance bymustard, starch, and iron-ware factories; has been a bishopric since1094. 2, Capital of New London County (16), Connecticut, on the ThamesRiver, 36 m. SE. Of Hartford. 

NORWOOD (24), a healthy southern suburban district of London, at onetime the locality of a gypsy encampment. 

NOSTRADAMUS, a celebrated astrologer, the assumed name of Michel deNotredame, born at St. Remi, Provence; was a medical man by profession, but gave himself to divination, uttered in rhymes in a series ofpublished predictions called "Centuries" (1503-1566). 

NOTABLES, THE, name given to certain actual or virtual rulers of thedifferent districts of France, consisting of men of different ranks, summoned together in a time of civic perplexity and trouble to advise theking, and especially the convocation of them summoned at the instance ofController Colonne, and that assembled at the Château of Versailles on22nd February 1787 to the number of a "round gross, " including sevenprinces of the blood, and who were "organed out" nine weeks after, theirdebates proving ineffectual, to be recalled on the 6th November the yearfollowing, to "vanish ineffectual again on 12th December, and return nomore. "

NOTARY PUBLIC, a professional person appointed to certify to aformality required by law as observed in his presence. 

NOTRE DAME, celebrated metropolitan church of Paris, situated on the"Ile de la Cité"; it was begun to be erected in 1163 on the site of aprior Merovingian cathedral, which itself had superseded a pagan templeon the spot, and completed, at least the general ensemble of it, in 1230. 

NOTTINGHAM (214), capital of Nottinghamshire, on the Trent, 126 m. NW. Of London; is a spacious and well-built town, with an arboretum, castle (now an art gallery), two theatres, university college, freelibrary, old grammar-school, racecourse, &c. ; is the centre oflace-making and hosiery in England, and manufactures cottons, silks, bicycles, cigars, needles, beer, &c. ; a fine granite and iron bridgespans the river. 

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE (446), a north-midland county of England, lieswedged in between Lincoln (E. ) and Derby (N. ), and touches York on theN. ; embraces the broad, level, and fruitful valley of the Trent, SherwoodForest, and Wolds in the S. ; excepting the Vale of Belvoir in the E. , part of the Wolds and the Valley of the Trent, the land is not speciallyproductive; coal and iron ore are found. The principal towns, Nottingham, Newark, Mansfield, &c. , are busily engaged in the manufacture of allkinds of lace, hosiery, and various woollen goods; iron-founding andcotton mills are also numerous. 

NOUMENA, the philosophical name for realities as distinct fromphenomena, which are regarded as but the appearances of reality. 

NOVA SCOTIA (450), a province of Canada, lies E. Of New Brunswick, facing the Atlantic, which, with its extensions, Bay of Fundy and Gulf ofSt. Lawrence, all but surrounds it; consists of a peninsula (joined toNew Brunswick by Chignecto Isthmus) and the island of Cape Breton, separated by the Gut of Canso; area equals two-thirds of Scotland, shortrivers and lakes abound; all kinds of cereals (except wheat androot-crops) are grown in abundance, and much attention is given to thevaluable crops of apples, pears, plums, and other fruits; gold, coal, iron, &c. , are wrought extensively, manufactures are increasing; thefisheries (mackerel, cod, herring, salmon, &c. ), and timber forests arethe chief sources of wealth; the province is well opened up by railways, education is free, government is in the hands of a lieutenant-governor, an executive council (9), and a legislative assembly (38); HALIFAX(q. V. ) is the capital; climate varies in temperature from 20° belowzero to 98° in the shade, fogs prevail in the coast-land; was discoveredin 1497 by Cabot, formed a portion of French ACADIE, and finallybecame British in 1713. 

NOVA ZEMBLA, a long and narrow island (sometimes classified as twoislands) in the Arctic Ocean, between the Kara Sea and Barentz Sea, 600m. By 60 m. ; the Matochkin Shar, a narrow winding strait, cuts the islandinto two halves; belongs to Russia, but is not permanently inhabited; isvisited by seamen and hunters. 

NOVALIS, the _nom de plume_ of Friedrich von Hardenberg, a Germanauthor, born at Wiederstädt, near Mansfeld, one of the most prominentrepresentatives of the Romantic school of poets, author of two unfinishedromances entitled "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" and "Lehrlinge zu Sais, "together with "Geistliche Lieder" and "Hymnen an die Nacht"; was anardent student of JACOB BOEHME (q. V. ), and wrote in a mysticalvein, and was at heart a mystic of deep true feeling; pronounced byCarlyle "an anti-mechanist--a deep man, the most perfect of modern spiritseers"; regarded, he says, "religion as a social thing, and as impossiblewithout a church" (1772-1801). See Carlyle's "Miscellanies. "

NOVATIAN, a priest of the Church in Rome, a convert from paganism, who in the third century took a severe view of the conduct of those whohad lapsed under persecution, particularly the Decian, and insisted thatthe Church, having no power to absolve them, could not, even onpenitence, readmit them, in which protest he was joined by a considerableparty named after him Novatians, and who continued to trouble the Churchfor centuries after his death, assuming the name of Cathari or purists. 

NOVEMBER, the eleventh month of the year, so called by the Romans, in whose calendar it was the ninth. 

NOVGOROD (21), a noted Russian city, and capital of a government ofthe same name, is situated on the Volkhof, 110 m. SE. Of St. Petersburg;is divided into two parts by the bridged river, contains the cathedral ofSt. Sophia (11th century); with its foundation in 864 by Rurik, aScandinavian prince, Russian history begins; was by the 12th century afree State, but in 1471 was put down by the Muscovite Czar Ivan III. ; thegovernment of Novgorod (1, 290) lies E. Of St. Petersburg, embraces theValdai plateau and hills, is chiefly forest land, and includes some 3000lakes. 

NOX, the Latin for "night, " and the name of the "goddess of night. "See NYX. 

NOYADES, drownages superintended during the Reign of Terror atNantes by the attorney Carrier, and effected by cramming some 90 priestsin a flat-bottomed craft under hatches, and drowning them in mid-streamafter scuttling the boat at a signal given, followed by another in whichsome 138 persons suffered like "sentence of deportation"; of thesedrownages there are said to have been no fewer first and last than 25. 

NUBIA, a large and ill-defined region of North-East Africa, liesbetween Egypt (N. ) and Abyssinia (S. ), and stretches from the Red Sea(E. ) to the desert (W. ); is divided into Lower and Upper Nubia, Dongolabeing the dividing point; Nubia has in recent times rather fallen underthe wider designation of Egyptian Soudan; except by the banks of the Nilethe country is bare and arid desert; climate is hot and dry, but quitehealthy. 

NUMA POMPILIUS, the second king of Rome and the successor ofRomulus, its founder, born at Cures, in the Sabine country, and devotedhimself to the establishment of religion and laws among his subjects andthe training of them in the arts of peace, in which, according to thelegend, he was assisted by a nymph EGERIA (q. V. ), who livedclose by in a grotto, and to whom he had ever and anon recourse forconsultation; he was long revered in the Roman memory as the organiser ofthe State and its civil and sacred institutions, and his reign was longand peaceful. 

NUMANTIA, an ancient Spanish town on a steep height on the Douro, celebrated for the heroic defence maintained by its inhabitants againstthe Romans, till from the thinning of its defenders by starvation and thesword it was taken and destroyed by Scipio Africanus in 134 B. C. 

NUMBERS, BOOK OF, the fourth book of the Pentateuch, and so calledfrom the two numberings of the people, one at the beginning and the otherat the close of the period it embraces; it embraces a period of 38 years, and continues the narrative from the departure of the camp of Israel outof the wilderness of Sinai to its arrival on the borders of Canaan, andrelates an account of the preparations for the march, of the marchitself, and of the preparations for the conquest. 

NUMIDIA (i. E. Land of Nomads), ancient country in North Africa, nearly co-extensive with Algiers, the inhabitants of which were of theBerber race, were brave but treacherous, and excelled in horsemanship;sided at first with the Carthaginians in the PUNIC WARS (q. V. ), and finally with Rome, till the country itself was reduced by Cæsar to aRoman province. 

NUMISMATICS, the name given to the study and science of coins andmedals. 

NUMITOR, a legendary king of Alba Longa, in Italy, and thegrandfather of Romulus and Remus. 

NUNEATON (12), a thriving market-town of Warwickshire, on the riverAnker and the Coventry Canal, 22 m. E. Of Birmingham; has a Gothicchurch; cotton, woollen, and worsted spinning is the chief industry; wasthe scene of George Eliot's education. 

NUR ED-DIN, MAHMOUD, sultan of Syria, born at Damascus; theextension of his empire over Syria led to the Second Crusade, preached bySt. Bernard; compelled the Crusaders to raise the siege of Damascus, which he made his capital; called to interfere in the affairs of Egypt, he conquered it, and made it his own, a sovereignty which SALADIN(q. V. ) disputed, and which Nur ed-Din was preparing to reassert whenhe died (1117-1178). 

NÜREMBERG (143), an interesting old Bavarian town on the Pegnitz, 95m. N. Of Münich, is full of quaint and picturesque mediæval architecturein fine preservation; has valuable art collections, a fine library, and amuseum; is noted for the production of watches, toys, wood, metal, bonecarvings, beer, and chemicals, and exports large quantities of hops; wasmade a free imperial city in 1219, and retained independence up to 1806. 

NUTATION, name given to a slight oscillatory movement noticeable inthe celestial pole of the earth, due to the latter not being a perfectsphere. 

NYANZA, ALBERT. See ALBERT NYANZA. 

NYANZA, VICTORIA, a large lake of Central Africa, in the Nile basin, at the sources of the river, and S. Of the preceding, equal in extent tothe area of Scotland, at an elevation of 3890 ft. ; discovered by CaptainSpeke in 1858, and sailed round by Stanley in 1875. 

NYASSA, LAKE, lake in East Africa, feeds the Zambesi; is 350 m. Longby 40 broad, at an elevation of 1570 ft. , and was discovered byLivingstone in 1859; the waters are sweet, and abound with fish; theregions bordering it on the S. And W. Are called Nyassaland. 

NYASSALAND, a region in Central Africa under British protection, lying round the shores of Lake Nyassa, the chief town of which isBlantyre; it is known also as the British Central Africa Protectorate, the administration being in the hands of a commissioner acting under theForeign Office; the Europeans number some 300, and the natives 850, 000, while the forces defending it consist of 200 Sikhs and 300 negroes; thereare plantations of sugar, coffee, tobacco, &c. , and almost the entiretrade is with Britain. 

NYÂYA, the name of one of the six principal systems of Hinduphilosophy, and devoted to the dialectics or metaphysics of philosophy. 

NYMPHS, in the Greek mythology maiden divinities of inferior rank, inhabiting mountains, groves, seas, fountains, rivers, valleys, grottoes, &c. , under the several names of OCEANIDES (q. V. ), NEREIDS (q. V. ), NAIADS (q. V. ), OREADS (q. V. ), DRYADS (q. V. ), &c. ; they aredistinguished by their grace and fascinating charms. 

NYNEE TAL, a place of resort in the summer season and a sanatoriumin the North-West Provinces of India, 22 m. S. Of Almora, 6521 ft. Abovesea-level. 

NYX (i. E. Night), in the Greek mythology the goddess of night, the daughter of CHAOS (q. V. ), and the sister of EREBOS(q. V. ), one of the very first of created beings, the terror of gods, and by Erebos became the mother of Æther, pure light, and Hemera, daylight, as well as other entities of note. 

O

OAKHAM (4), county town of Rutland, 17 m. E. Of Leicester, in thecentre of a fine wheat country; has an old church, a grammar-schoolfounded in 1581, and a castle mostly in ruins; manufactures of boots andhosiery, and carries on malting. 

OAKLAND (67), on the E. Coast of the Bay of San Francisco, 4½ m. Across from San Francisco city, is the capital of Alameda County, California, a beautiful city with tree-lined streets, surrounded byvineyards and orchards; it has a home of the adult blind of the State, manufactures of textile and iron goods, and fruit-canning industries, andis the terminus of the Southern Pacific Railroad. 

OAKS, THE, one of the three great classic races in England, run atEpsom; established by the 12th Earl of Derby in 1779 for fillies of 3years old. 

OAKUM, name given to fibres of old tarry ropes sundered by teasing, and employed in caulking the seams between planks in ships; the teasingof oakum is an occupation for prisoners in jails. 

OASES, fertile spots in a desert due to the presence of springs orwater near at hand underground; met with in the deserts of North Africa, Arabia, and Gobi. 

OATES, TITUS, fabricator of a Popish plot for the overthrow of theProtestant faith in England, the allegation of which brought to the blockseveral innocent men; rewarded at first with a pension and safe lodgmentin Westminster Hall, was afterwards convicted of perjury, flogged, andimprisoned for Life, but at the revolution was set at liberty andgranted a pension of £300 (1650-1705). 

OBADIAH, a Hebrew prophet who appears to have lived about 588 B. C. , shortly after the destruction of Jerusalem, at which the Edomites hadassisted, and whose prophecy was written to assure the exiles in Babylonthat the judgment of God had gone forth against Edom, and that with theexecution of it Israel would be restored. 

OBAN (5), a modern town situated in the W. Of Argyllshire, on aland-locked bay opening off the Firth of Lorne, is the capital, sometimescalled the "Queen, " of the Western Highlands, and a fashionable touristresort; it has excellent railway and steamboat communications, 30 hotels, and has near it two ruined castles, an ancient cave dwelling, and muchbeautiful scenery; Dunstaffnage Castle is 4 m. To the N. Of it, where theearly Scottish kings used to be crowned. 

OBEID (35), in the Eastern Soudan, 220 m. SW. Of Khartoum, is thecapital of Kordofan; was the scene in November 1883 of the annihilationby the forces of the Mahdi, after three days' fighting, of an Egyptianarmy under Hicks Pasha and other English officers; its trade consists ofivory, gold, feathers, and gum. 

OBELISK, a tall four-sided pillar, generally monolithic, tapering toa pyramidal pointed top, erected in connection with temples in Egypt, andinscribed all over with hieroglyphs, and in memorial, as is likely, ofsome historical personage or event; they are of ancient date. 

OBER-AMMERGAU, a small village in Bavaria, 45 m. SW. Of Münich;famed for the Passion Play performed there by the peasants, some 500 innumber, every ten years, which attracts a great many spectators to thespot; the play was instituted in 1634 in token of gratitude for theabatement of a plague. 

OBERLIN, JEAN FRIEDRICH, a benevolent Protestant pastor, born atStrasburg; laboured all his life at Ban de la Roche, a wild mountaindistrict of Alsace, and devoted himself with untiring zeal to thespiritual and material welfare of the people, which they rewarded withtheir pious gratitude and warmest affection. 

OBERON, the king of the fairies, and the husband of Titania. 

OBI, a river and, with its tributaries, great water highway of WestSiberia, which rises in the Altai Mountains, and after a course of 2120m. Falls into the Arctic Ocean. 

OBJECTIVE, a philosophical term used to denote that which is trueuniversally apart from all merely private sense or judgment, and findsresponse in the universal reason, the reason that is common to allrational beings; it is opposed to subjective, or agreeable to one's merefeelings or fancy. 

OBLATES, the name given to an organisation of secular priests livingin community, founded by St. Charles Borromeo at the end of the 16thcentury, and who are ready to render any services the bishop may requireof them. 

OBOE, a treble-sounding musical instrument of the reed class, towhich the bassoon is reckoned the bass. 

OBELUS, a small coin worth about a penny, according to a customamong the Greeks placed in the mouth of a corpse at burial to pay toCharon to ferry the ghost of it over the Styx. 

O'BRIEN, WILLIAM, journalist, and a Nationalist ex-M. P. For Cork;was twice over imprisoned for political offences; had to retire in 1895;_b_. 1852. 

O'BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH, Irish patriot; entered Parliament in 1826;sat for Limerick from 1835 to 1843, when he joined the Repeal Associationunder O'Connell, but separated from it; joined the physical force YoungIreland party, and became the head; attempted an insurrection, whichfailed, and involved him in prosecution for treason and banishment forlife; a free pardon was afterwards granted on promise of abstaining fromall further disloyalty; he died at Bangor, in North Wales (1803-1864). 

OBSCURANTIST, name given to an opponent to modern enlightenment asprofessed by the devotees of modern science and philosophy. 

OBSIDIAN, a hard, dark-coloured rock of a glassy structure found inlava, which breaks with conchoidal fracture. 

OCCAM or OAKHAM, WILLIAM OF, an English Scholastic philosopher, born at Oakham, Surrey, surnamed _Doctor Invincibilis_; was a monk of theorder of St. Francis; studied under DUNS SCOTUS (q. V. ), andbecame his rival, and a reviver of NOMINALISM (q. V. ) inopposition to him, by his insistence on which he undermined the wholestructure of Scholastic dogmatism, that is, its objective validity, andplunged it in hopeless ruin, but cleared the way for modern speculation, and its grounding of the OBJECTIVE (q. V. ) on a surer basis(1280-1347). 

OCCASIONALISM, the doctrine that the action of the spiritualorganisation on the material, and of the material on the spiritual, or ofthe inner on the outer, and the outer on the inner, is due to the divineinterposition taking occasion of the effort of mind, or of the inner, onthe one hand, and the effort of matter, or the outer, on the other, towork the effect or result; or that the link connecting cause and effectin both cases, that is, the acion of the outer world on the inner, and_vice versa_, is God. 

OCEANIA, an imaginary commonwealth described by James Harrington(1611-1697) in which the project of a doctrinaire republic is worked out;also a book of Froude's on the English colonies. 

OCEANIA, the name given to the clusters of islands, consisting ofAustralasia in the S. , Malaysia in the E. Indian Archipelago, andPolynesia in the N. And E. Of the Pacific. 

OCEANIDES, the nymphs of the Ocean, all daughters of Oceanus, some3000 in number. 

OCEANUS or OKEANOS, in the Greek mythology the greatworld-stream which surrounds the whole earth, and is the parent source ofall seas and streams, presided over by a Titan, the husband of Tethys, and the father of all river-gods and water-nymphs. He is the all-fatherof the world, as his wife is the all-mother, and the pair occupy a palaceapart on the extreme verge of the world. 

OCHILS (i. E. The heights), a range of hills lying NE. And SW. Between the valleys of the Forth and Tay; reach their highest point inBen Cleugh (2363 ft. ), near Stirling; the range is 24 m. Long by 12broad, and affords pasture for black-faced sheep; of the peaks of therange Dunmyat is the most striking, as Ben Cleuch is the highest. 

OCHILTREE, EDIE, a talkative, kind-hearted gaberlunzie who figures agood deal in Scott's "Antiquary. "

OCHINO, BERNARDINO, an Italian monk, born in Sienna; after 40 years'zeal in the service of the Church embraced the Reformed doctrine; fledfrom the power of the Inquisition to Geneva; took refuge in England;ministered here and there to Italian refugees, but was hunted from placeto place; died at last of the plague in Moravia (1487-1564). 

OCHTERLONY, SIR DAVID, British general, born at Boston, U. S. , ofScottish descent; entered the Indian army; distinguished himself in thewar against the Goorkhas; was made a baronet, and received a pension of£1000 for his services; a monument to his memory stands in the MaidanPark, Calcutta (1758-1825). 

OCKLEY, SIMON, Orientalist, became professor of Arabic; wrote a"History of the Saracens, " part of it in a debtors' prison; died inindigence (1678-1720). 

O'CONNELL, DANIEL, Irish patriot, known as the "Liberator, " bornnear Cahirciveen, co. Kerry; educated at St. Omer, Douay, and Lincoln'sInn; was called to the Irish bar in 1798, and was for twenty-two years afamous and prosperous practitioner on the Munster circuit; turning topolitics he became leader of the Catholics in 1811, his object being theremoval of the Catholic disabilities; the Catholic Association of 1823was organised by him, which he induced the priesthood to join, andawakened irresistible enthusiasm throughout the country; the electors nowbegan to vote independently, and O'Connell was returned for Clare in1828; the House refused to admit him; but so strong, and at the same timeso orderly, was the agitation in Ireland, that in 1829 the Catholicdisabilities were removed, and O'Connell, returned again for Clare, tookhis seat in the House of Commons; next year he represented Waterford inthe new Parliament, and subsequently Kerry, Dublin, Kilkenny, and Cork;he now formed a society for promoting the repeal of the Union, whichsurvived several suppressions, and reappeared under different names; butin spite of his exertions in the House and in the country the causelanguished, till, in 1843, as Lord Mayor of Dublin, he carried aresolution in its favour in the City Council; but now under the pressureof less experienced agitators, his monster meetings and other proceedingsbegan to overstep legal limits, and in 1844 he, with six of hissupporters, was indicted for raising sedition; he was sentenced to ayear's imprisonment and a fine of £2000, but the sentence was set asidein 14 weeks; by this time the Young Ireland party had broken away fromhim, the potato famine came, he was conscious of failure, and his healthwas broken; he died on his way to Rome, at Genoa; a man of great physicalstrength and energy, and a master of oratory, he gave himself unselfishlyto serve his country, sacrificing a legal practice worth £7000 a year, honestly administering the immense sums contributed, and spending hisprivate means for his cause; with an undeniable taint of coarseness, violence, and scurrility in his nature, he was yet a man of independentand liberal mind, an opponent of rebellion, loyal to his sovereign, agreat and sincere patriot (1775-1847). 

OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, a woman distinguished for herbeauty and her virtue; was married first to Marcellus, and on his deathto Mark Antony, who forsook her for Cleopatra, but to whom she remainedtrue, even, on his miserable end, nursing his children by Cleopatra alongwith her own; one other grief she had to endure in the death of her sonMARCELLUS (q. V. ) by her former husband, and the destinedsuccessor of Augustus on the throne. 

OCTOBER, the tenth month of the year so called (i. E. The eighth)by the Romans, whose year began on March. 

OD, name given to a physical force recently surmised and believed topervade all nature, and as manifesting itself chiefly in connection withmesmeric phenomena. 

ODDFELLOWS, the name of several friendly societies. The IndependentOrder of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity, is the largest and most importantof the number, its membership is over 665, 000, and its funds amount to£8, 000, 000. It has been the pioneer in many important movements of thekind, several of the provisions now compulsory on all societies itobserved of its own accord, prior to their enactment; the actuarialtables compiled from its statistics in 1845 by its secretary, HenryRadcliffe, are still a standard work. The Grand United Order ofOddfellows has a membership of 241, 000, and funds amounting to £882, 000;the National Independent Order of Oddfellows embraces 58, 000 members, andhas £242, 000. 

ODER, an important German river, rises in Moravia, and crossing thefrontier flows NW. Through Silesia, and N. Through Brandenburg andPomerania 550 m. Into the Stettiner Haff and so to the Baltic. On itsbanks stand Ratibor, where navigation ends, Breslau, Frankfort, andStettin; it receives its chief tributary, the navigable Warthe, on theright, and has canal communication with the Spree and the Elbe. 

ODESSA (298), on the Black Sea, 25 m. NE. Of the mouth of theDniester, is the fourth largest city of Russia, and the chief southernport and emporium of commerce. It exports large shipments of wheat, sugar, and wool; imports cotton, groceries, iron, and coal, andmanufactures flour, tobacco, machinery, and leather. It is wellfortified, and though many of the poor live in subterraneous caverns, isa fine city, with a university, a cathedral, and a public library. It wasa free port from 1817 till 1857. The population includes many Greeks andJews. 

ODIN or WODIN, the chief god of the ancient Scandinavians, combined in one the powers of Zeus and Ares among the Greeks, and wasattended by two black ravens--Hugin, mind, and Munin, memory, the bearersof tidings between him and the people of his subject-world. His councilchamber is in ASGARD (q. V. ), and he holds court with hiswarriors in VALHALLA (q. V. ). He is the source of all wisdom aswell as all power, and is supposed by Carlyle to have been thedeification of some one who incarnated in himself all the characteristicwisdom and valour of the Scandinavian race; Frigga was his wife, andBalder and Thor his sons. See CARLYLE'S "HEROES. "

ODO, bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Conqueror, fought byhis side at Hastings; after blessing the troops, was made Earl of Kent, and appointed governor of kingdom during William's absence in Normandy;had great influence in State affairs all along, and set out for the HolyLand, but died at Palermo (1032-1096). 

ODOACER, a Hun, son of one of Attila's officers, who entered theImperial Guards, dethroned Augustulus, and became emperor himself; Zeno, the emperor of the East, enlisted Theodoric of the Ostrogoths againsthim, who made a treaty with him to be joint ruler of the kingdom ofItaly, and assassinated him in 493. 

O'DONNELL, LEOPOLD, Spanish soldier and politician, born, of Irishdescent, at Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe; entered the army, and attachedhimself to the cause of Queen Isabella, on whose emergence from herminority in 1843 he was made Governor of Cuba; there he enriched himselfby trading in slaves, and returning to Spain threw himself into politics;he joined Espartero's cabinet in 1854, and two years later supplanted himas chief minister; he commanded in the Moorish war of 1858, and wascreated Duke of Tetuan after the capture of that city; he was againPrime Minister till 1866, and died in exile at Bayonne (1809-1867). 

ODYSSEY, an epic poem by Homer relating the ten years' wanderings ofUlysses (Odysseus) after the fall of Troy, and his return at the end ofthem to his native kingdom of Ithaca. See ULYSSES. 

OECOLAMPADIUS, JOANNES, one of the leaders of the Reformation, bornat Weinsberg, in Würtemberg; became preacher at Basel, assisted Erasmusin his edition of the New Testament, entered a convent at Augsburg, cameunder Luther's influence and adopted the reformed doctrine, of which hebecame a preacher and professor, embraced in particular the views ofZwingli (1482-1531). 

OEDIPUS, a mythological king of Thebes, son of Laius and Jocasta, and fated to kill his father and marry his mother; unwittingly slew hisfather in a quarrel; for answering the riddle of the SPHINX (q. V. )was made king in his stead, and wedded his widow, by whom he becamethe father of four children; on discovery of the incest Jocasta hangedherself, and Oedipus went mad and put out his eyes. 

OEHLENSCHLÄGER, ADAM GOTTLOB, great Danish poet, born at Copenhagen;his poems first brought him into notice and secured him a travellingpension, which he made use of to form acquaintanceship with such men asGoethe and his literary confrères in Germany, during which time hecommenced that series of tragedies on northern subjects on which his famechiefly rests, which include "Hakon Jarl, " "Correggio, " "Palnatoke, " &c. ;his fame, which is greatest in the North, has spread, for he ranks amongthe Danes as Goethe among the Germans, and his death was felt by thewhole nation (1779-1850). 

OEHLER, GUSTAV, learned German theologian, professor at Tübingen, eminent for his studies and writings on the Old Testament (1812-1872). 

OEIL-DE-BOEUF, a large reception-room in the palace of Versailles, lighted by a window so called (ox-eye it means), and is the name given inFrench history to the French Court, particularly during the Revolutionperiod. 

OELAND (37), an island off the SE. Coast of Sweden, 55 m. Long andabout 10 m. Broad; has good pasture ground, and yields alum; thefisheries good. 

OENONË, a nymph of Mount Ida, near Troy, beloved by and married toParis, but whom he forsook for Helen; is the subject of one of Tennyson'spoems. 

OERSTED, HANS CHRISTIAN, a Danish physicist; was professor ofPhysics in Copenhagen, the discoverer of electro-magnetism, of thecompressibility of water, and the metal aluminium; did much to popularisescience in a volume entitled "The Soul in Nature" (1777-1851). 

OESEL (51), a marshy, well-wooded island at the mouth of the Gulf ofRiga, in the Baltic, 45 m. Long and 25 m. Of average breadth; has somelow hills and precipitous coasts; Arensburg (4), on the SE. Shore, is theonly town; Danish from 1559, the island passed to Sweden in 1645 and toRussia in 1721; the wealthier classes are of German descent. 

OFFA'S DYKE, an entrenchment and rampart between England and Wales, 100 m. Long, extending from Flintshire as far as the mouth of the Wye;said to have been thrown up by Offa, king of Mercia, about the year 780, to confine the marauding Welsh within their own territory. 

OFFENBACH, JACQUES, a musical composer, born at Cologne, of Jewishparents, creator of the _opera bouffe_; was the author of "La BelleHélène, " "Orphée aux Enfers, " "La Grande Duchesse, " "Madame Favart, " &c. (1810-1880)

OFFERTORY, in the Roman Catholic Church a portion of the liturgychanted at the commencement of the eucharistic service, also in theEnglish the part of the service read during the collection of the alms atcommunion. 

OFTERDINGEN, HEINRICH VON, a famous MINNESINGER (q. V. ) ofthe 15th century. 

OGHAM or OGAM, an alphabet of 20 letters in use among theancient Irish and Celts, found carved on monumental stones in Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and the North of Scotland. 

OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD, English general, born in London; served inthe Marlborough wars, sat in Parliament for several years, conceived thefounding of a colony for debtors in prison, and founded Georgia;returning to England, fought against the Pretender, and died in Essex(1696-1785). 

OGOWE`, a West African river, 500 m. Long, rises in the Akukujaplateau, and following a semicircular course northward and westwardenters the Atlantic by a delta at Cape Lopez, its course lying whollywithin French Congo territory; in the dry season its volume is muchdiminished, and its many sandbanks prevent its navigation except by smallboats. 

O'GROAT'S HOUSE, JOHN. See JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE. 

OGYGES, a Boeotian autochthon, the legendary first king of Thebes, which is called at times Ogygia, in whose reign a flood, called theOgygian after him, inundated the land, though some accounts make it occurin Attica. 

OGYGIA, a mythological island of Homeric legend, situated far off inthe sea, and the home of the sorceress CALYPSO (q. V. ). 

OHIO (3, 672), a State of the American Union, a third larger thanScotland, stretches northward from the Ohio River to Lake Erie, betweenPennsylvania and Indiana. It consists of level and undulating plains, onwhich are raised enormous crops of wheat and maize. Sheep-grazing andcattle-rearing are very extensive; its wool-clip is the largest inAmerica. There are valuable deposits of limestone and freestone, and inoutput of coal Ohio ranks third of the States. The manufactures are veryimportant; it ranks first in farm implements, and produces also wagons, textile fabrics, and liquors. In the N. Excellent fruit is grown. Thecapital is Columbus (88), the largest city is Cincinnati (297). Admittedto the Union in 1803, it boasts among its sons four Presidents--Grant, Hayes, Garfield, and Benjamin Harrison. 

OHIO RIVER, formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and theMonongahela, pursues a westward course of 1000 m. , separating Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois from West Virginia and Kentucky, and afterreceiving sundry tributaries joins the Mississippi, being the largestand, next to the Missouri, the longest of its affluents; it is navigablefor the whole of its course; on its banks stand Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, and Madison. 

OHM, GEORG SIMON, a German physicist, born at Erlangen; discoveredthe mathematical theory of the electric current, known as Ohm's Law, alaw based on experiment, that the strength of the electric current isequal to the electro-motive force divided by the resistance of the wire(1787-1854). 

OHNET, GEORGES, French novelist, born in Paris; author of a seriesof novels in a social interest, entitled "Les Batailles de la Vie;" _b_. 1848. 

OIL CITY (11), on the Alleghany River, Pennsylvania, by rail 130 m. N. Of Pittsburg, is the centre of a great oil-trade and oil-refiningindustry; there are also engineer and boiler works; it suffered severelyfrom floods in 1892. 

OKA, a river of Central Russia, which rises in Orel and flows N. , then E. , then N. Again, joining the Volga at Nijni-Novgorod after acourse of over 700 m. , navigable nearly all the way; on its banks areOrel, Kaluga, and Riazan, while Moscow stands on an affluent. 

OKEN, LORENZ, German naturalist; was professor first at Jena, thenat Münich, and finally at Zurich, his settlement in the latter being dueto the disfavour with which his political opinions, published in ajournal of his called the _Iris_, were received in Germany; much of hisscientific doctrine was deduced from a transcendental standpoint or by _apriori_ reasonings; is mentioned in "Sartor" as one with whomTeufelsdröck in his early speculations had some affinity (1779-1851). 

OKHOTSK, SEA OF, an immense sheet of water in Eastern Siberia, lyingbetween the peninsula of Kamchatka and the mainland, with the KurileIslands stretched across its mouth; is scarcely navigable, being infestedby fogs. 

OKLAHOMA (62), a United States territory, stretching southward fromKansas to the Red River, with Texas on the W. And Indian Territory on theE. , is a third larger than Scotland, and presents a prairie surfacecrossed by the Arkansas, Cimarron, and Canadian Rivers, and rising to theWichita Mountains in the S. There are many brackish streams; the rainfallis light, hence the soil can be cultivated only in parts. Ceded to theUnited States under restrictions by the tribes of the Indian Territory in1866, there were various attempts by immigrants from neighbouring Statesto effect settlements in Oklahoma, which the Government frustrated bymilitary interference, maintaining the treaty with the Indians till 1889, when it finally purchased from them their claim. At noon on April 22, 1889, the area was opened for settlement, and by twilight 50, 000 hadentered and taken possession of claims. The territory was organised in1890; embedded in it lies the Cherokee Outlet, still held by the Indians, but on the extinction of their interests to revert to Oklahoma. The chieftown is Oklahoma (5). 

OKUMA, COUNT, a Japanese, rose into office from the part he took inthe Japanese Revolution of 1868, held in succession but resigned theoffices of Minister of Finance and of Foreign Affairs, organised theProgressive Party in 1881, and entered office again in 1896; organised in1898 the first government for a time in Japan on a party basis agreeablyto his idea. 

OLAF, ST. , a Norwegian king; wrested the throne from Eric, and sethimself to propagate Christianity by fire and sword, excited disaffectionamong his people, who rebelled and overpowered him with the assistance ofCnut of Denmark, so that he fled to his brother-in-law, Jaroslav ofRussia; by his help he tried to recover the throne, put was defeated andslain, his body being buried in Trondhjem; he was canonised in 1164, andis patron saint of Norway. 

OLAÜS, the name of three early kings of Sweden and of five ofNorway, who figured more or less in the history of their respectivecountries. 

OLBERS, HEINRICH, German astronomer, born near Bremen; discoveredfive of the comets and the two planetoids Pallas and Vesta (1758-1840). 

OLD BAILEY, a Court or Sessions house adjoining NEWGATE (q. V. ), in London, for the trial of offences committed within a certainradius round the city, and practically presided over by the Recorder andthe Common Serjeant of London, though theoretically by the Lord Mayor, Lord Chancellor, and others. 

OLD CATHOLICS, a section of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany andSwitzerland that first announced itself in Münich on the declaration in1870 of the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope, the prime movers inthe formation of the protestation against which were Dr. Döllinger andProfessor Friedrich, backed by 44 professors of the university; themovement thus begun has not extended itself to any considerable extent. 

OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN, a name given to Hassan ben Sabbah, thefounder in the 11th century and his successors of a formidable Mohammedandynasty in Syria, whose residence was in the mountain fastnesses of thecountry, and whose following was known by the name of ASSASSINS(q. V. ). 

OLD MAN OF THE SEA, a monster Sindbad the Sailor encountered on hisfifth voyage, who fastened on his back and so clung to him that he couldnot shake him off till he made him drunk. 

OLD MORTALITY, a character in Scott's novel of the name, theoriginal of which was one Robert Paterson, who, as related of him, wentabout the country visiting the churchyards, and renewing the moss-coveredtombs of the COVENANTERS (q. V. ). 

OLD NOLL, an epithet applied by his Royalist contemporaries toOliver Cromwell. 

OLDBUCK, JONATHAN, the antiquary in Scott's novel of the name, devoted to the study and collection of old coins, a man with an irritabletemper, due to disappointment in a love affair. 

OLDBURY (20), a busy manufacturing town in Worcestershire, 3 m. E. Of Dudley, has chemical, iron, and steel works, and factories of variouskinds. 

OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN, Lord Cobham, distinguished himself in armsunder Henry IV. In 1411, embraced Lollardism, which he could not beprevailed on to renounce, though remonstrated with by Henry V. ; was triedfor heresies and committed to the Tower, but escaped to Wales; chargedwith abetting insurrection on religious grounds, and convicted, his bodywas hung in chains as a traitor, and in this attitude, as a heretic, burned to death in 1417; he was a zealous disciple of Wiclif, and didmuch to disseminate his principles. 

OLDENBURG (355), a German grand-duchy, embracing these threeterritories: 1, Oldenburg proper, the largest, is let into Hanover withits northern limit on the North Sea; it is a tract of moorland, sand-down, and fen, watered by the Weser, Hunte and tributaries of theEms; here is the capital, Oldenburg (22), on the Hunte, 30 m. NW. OfBremen, in the midst of meadows, where a famous breed of horses israised. 2, Lübeck, lying in Holstein, N. Of but not including the city ofLübeck. 3, Birkenfeldt, lying among the Hundsrück Mountains, in the S. OfRhenish Prussia; independent since 1180, Danish 1667-1773, Oldenburgacquired Lübeck in 1803, and Birkenfeldt in 1815, when it was raised tothe rank of grand-duchy. 

OLDHAM (184), on the Medlock, 7 m. NE. Of Manchester, is the largestof the cotton manufacturing towns round that centre; it has 300 cottonmills, and manufactures besides silks, velvets, hats, and machinery;there is a lyceum, and a school of science and art. 

OLDYS, WILLIAM, bibliographer, was a man of dissolute life, theillegitimate son of a chancellor of Lincoln; he was librarian to the Earlof Oxford for 10 years, and afterwards received the appointment ofNorroy king-of-arms; besides many bibliographical and literary articles, he wrote a "Life of Raleigh" and "The Harleian Miscellany" (1696-1761). 

OLÉRON (17), an island of France, in the Bay of Biscay, at the mouthof the Charente, 11½ m. Long and from 3 to 7 broad, is separated from themainland by a shallow, narrow channel. 

OLGA, ST. , a Scandinavian pagan prince, converted to Christianityand baptized as Helena; laboured for the propagation of the Christianfaith among his subjects, was canonised after in 905, and is one of thesaints of the Russian Church. Festival, July 21. 

OLIFAUNT, NIGEL, the hero in Scott's "Fortunes of Nigel. "

OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, religious enthusiast and mystic, born inPerthshire; spent his boyhood in Ceylon, where his father waschief-justice; early conceived a fondness for adventure, accompanied LordElgin to Washington as his secretary, and afterwards to China and Japan;became M. P. For the Stirling Burghs, mingled much in London society, contributed to _Blackwood_, and wrote "Piccadilly, " pronounced by Mrs. Oliphant "one of the most brilliant satires on society ever published";parliamentary people and parliamentary life being nowise to his liking hesoon threw both up for life in a community with Harris at Lake Erie, U. S. , whence, after two years' probation, he returned to resume life in thewide world; while in France during the Franco-German War, he married oneAlice l'Estrange, an alliance which grew into one of the most intimatecharacter; with her he went to Palestine, pitched his tent under theshadow of Mount Carmel, and wrote two mystical books under herinspiration, which abode with him after she was dead; after her deceasehe married a Miss Owen, that she might help him in his work, but all shehad opportunity to do was to minister to him on his deathbed (1829-1888). 

OLIPHANT, MRS. MARGARET (_née_ Wilson), authoress, born atWallyford, near Musselburgh, a lady of varied abilities andaccomplishments, and distinguished in various departments of literature, began her literary career as a novelist and a contributor to _Blackwood_, with which she kept up a lifelong connection; her first work whichattracted attention was "Passages in the Life of Mrs. Margaret Maitland, "and her first success as a novelist was the "Chronicles of Carlingford";she wrote on history, biography, and criticism, the "Makers of Florence, of Venice, of Modern Rome, " "Lives of Dante, Cervantes, and EdwardIrving, " among other works, and was engaged on a narrative of thepublishing-house of Blackwood when she died; she might have distinguishedherself more had she kept within a more limited range; her last days weredays of sorrow under heavy bereavement (1828-1897). 

OLIVAREZ, COUNT D', a Spanish statesman, born at Rome, where hisfather was ambassador; was the confidant and minister of Philip IV. , andthe political adversary of Richelieu; was one of the ablest statesmenSpain ever had, but was unfortunate in his conduct of foreign affairs(1587-1645). 

OLIVER, a favourite paladin of Charlemagne's, who, along withRoland, rode by his side, and whose name, along with Roland's, has passedinto the phrase, a "Roland for an Oliver, " meaning one good masterstrokefor another, such as both these knights never failed to deliver. 

OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET, a ridge with three summits, stretching N. And S. , E. Of Jerusalem, in height 150 ft. Above the city, 400 ft. Above the intervening valley of Kedron, and 2682 ft. Above thesea-level; so called as at one time studded with olive-trees; iscelebrated as the scene of some of the most sacred events in the life ofChrist. 

OLLIVIER, ÉMILE, French statesman, born at Marseilles; bred for thebar, and eminent at it; became Prime Minister under Louis Napoleon in1870; precipitated "with a light heart" the country into a war withGermany, to his own overthrow; retired thereafter to Italy, but returnedin 1872, and devoted himself to literature; died at Geneva (1825-1876). 

OLMÜTZ (20), a strongly fortified city in Moravia, and an importantcentre of trade, and the former capital of the country; suffered severelyin the Thirty and the Seven Years' Wars. 

OLYMPIA, a plain in a valley in Elis, on the Peloponnesus, traversedby the river Alpheus, and in which the Olympic Games were celebratedevery fifth year in honour of Zeus, and adorned with temples (one to Zeusand another to Hera), statues, and public buildings. 

OLYMPIAD, a name given to the period of four years between onecelebration of the Olympic Games and another, the first recorded datingfrom July 776 B. C. 

OLYMPIAS, the wife of Philip II. Of Macedonia, and mother ofAlexander the Great; divorced by Philip, who married another, she fled toEpirus, and instigated the assassination of Philip and the execution ofher rival; returned to Macedonia on the accession of her son, who alwaystreated her with respect, but allowed her no part in public affairs; onhis death she dethroned his successor, but driven to bay in her defenceafterwards, she was compelled to surrender the power she had assumed, andwas put to death 316 B. C. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, were originally open only to competitors of pureHellenic descent, and the reward of the victors was but a wreath of wildolive, though to this their fellow-citizens added more substantialhonours; they consisted of foot and chariot races, and feats of strengthas well as dexterity. See OLYMPIA. 

OLYMPUS, a mountain range in Greece, between Thessaly and Macedonia, the highest peak of which is 9750 ft. ; the summit of it was the fabledabode of the Greek gods; it is clothed with forests of pine and othertrees. 

OLNEY, a little town in Buckinghamshire, associated with the life ofCowper, and where he wrote, along with John Newton, the "Olney Hymns. "

OM, a mystic word among the Hindus and Buddhists; presumed to belatent with some magic virtue, and used on solemn occasions as a sort ofspiritual charm efficacious with the upper powers, and potent to drawdown divine assistance in an hour of need. 

OMAGH (4), on the Strule, 34 m. S. Of Londonderry; is the countytown of Tyrone; though a very ancient town it has been rebuilt since1743, when it was destroyed by fire; it is the head-quarters of the NW. Military district. 

OMAHA (102), chief city of Nebraska, on the W. Bank of the Missouri, 20 m. Above the confluence of the Platte; is connected by a bridge withCouncil Bluffs on the opposite shore; it has many fine buildings, including colleges and schools; its silver-smelting works are the largestin the world; it ranks third in the pork-packing industry, and hasbesides manufactures of linseed oil, boilers, and safes; an importantrailway centre, it lies midway between the termini of the Union PacificRailroad; near it are the military head-quarters of the Plattedepartment. 

OMAN, a territory of Arabia, lying along the shores of the PersianGulf and the Arabian Sea, round the south-eastern nob of the peninsula;has some stretches of very fertile country where there happens to bewater for irrigation, but the coast is very hot and not healthy. Theregion is subject to the Sultan of Muscat, who is in turn a pensioner ofthe Anglo-Indian Government. 

OMAR, the successor of Abu-Bekr, and the second Caliph from 634 to644; was at first a persecutor of the Faithful, but underwent in 615 asudden conversion like Said, with a like result; was vizier of Abu-Bekrbefore he succeeded him; swept and subdued Syria, Persia, and Egypt withthe sword in the name of Allah, but is accused of having burned the richlibrary of Alexandria on the plea that it contained books hostile to thefaith of Islam; he was an austere man, and was assassinated by a Persianslave whose wrongs he refused to redress. 

OMAR KHAYYÁM, astronomer-poet of Persia, born at Naishapur, inKhorassan; lived in the later half of the 11th century, and died in thefirst quarter of the 12th; wrote a collection of poems which breathe anEpicurean spirit, and while they occupy themselves with serious problemsof life, do so with careless sportiveness, intent he on the enjoyment ofthe sensuous pleasures of life, like an easy-going Epicurean. The greatproblems of destiny don't trouble the author, they are no concern of his, and the burden of his songs assuredly is, as his translator says, "If not'let us eat, let us drink, for to-morrow we die. '"

OMAR PASHA, general in the Turkish army, was born an Austrian, hisproper name Michael Lattas, and educated at the military school of Thurn;guilty of a breach of discipline, he ran away to Bosnia, turnedMohammedan, and henceforth threw in his lot with the Turks; he becamewriting-master to the Ottoman heir, Abdul-Medjid, and on the successionof the latter in 1839 was made a colonel; he was military governor ofLebanon in 1842, won distinction in suppressing rebellions in Albania, Bosnia, and Kurdistan, but his chief services were rendered in theRussian War; he successfully defended Kalafat in 1853, entered Bucharestin 1854, and defeated 40, 000 Russians next year at Eupatoria in theCrimea; his capture of Cetinje, Montenegro, in 1862 was a difficult feat(1806-1871). 

O'MEARA, BARRY EDWARD, a surgeon, born in Ireland, who accompaniedNapoleon to St. Helena, and became his physician, having been surgeon onboard the _Bellerophon_ when the emperor surrendered himself; isremembered as the author of "A Voice from St. Helena; or, Napoleon inExile, " a book which from its charges against Sir Hudson Lowe created nosmall sensation on its appearance (1786-1836). 

OMMIADES, an Arab dynasty of 14 caliphs which reigned at Damascusfrom 661 to 720; dethroned by the Abassides, they were under Abder-RahmanI. Welcomed in Spain, and they established themselves in Cordova, wherethey ruled from 756 to 1031. 

OMNIPRESENCE, an attribute of the Divine Being as all-present inevery section of space and moment of time throughout the universe. 

OMPHALË, a queen of Lydia, to whom Hercules was sold for three yearsfor murdering Iphitus, and who so won his affection that he married her, and was content to spin her wool for her and wear the garments of a womanwhile she donned and wore his lion's skin. 

OMSK (32), capital of Western Siberia, on the Om, at its confluencewith the Irtish, 1800 m. E. Of Moscow; is within the area of Russiancolonisation, and has a military academy, Greek and Roman Catholiccathedrals, and large cattle trade; a number of its inhabitants arepolitical exiles from Europe. 

ONEGA, LAKE, in the NW. Of Russia, next to Ladoga the largest inEurope, nearly three times the size of Norfolkshire, being 140 m. Longand 59 broad; has an irregular shore, deeply indented in the W. , manyinflowing rivers, but is drained only by the Swir; ice-bound for fourmonths, there is busy traffic the rest of the year; navigation ispromoted by canals, but hindered by many reefs; fish abound in thewaters. 

ONOMATOPOEIA, formations of words resembling in sound that of thethings denoted by them. 

ONTARIO (2, 114), third largest, most populous, richest, and mostimportant province of Canada, lies N. Of the great lakes between Quebecand Manitoba, and is thrice the size of Great Britain; the surface ismostly undulating; there are many small lakes, the chief rivers floweastward to join the Ottawa; agriculture is the chief industry, enormouscrops of wheat, maize, and other cereals are raised; stock-rearing anddairy-farming are important; the climate is subject to less extremes thanthat of Quebec, but the winter is still severe; there are rich mineraldeposits, especially of iron, copper, lead, and silver, petroleum andsalt; manufactures of agricultural implements, hardware, textiles, andleather are carried on; Toronto (181) is the largest town, Ottawa (44) isthe capital of the Dominion, Hamilton (49) an important railway centre;the prosperity of the province is largely promoted by the magnificentwaterways, lakes, rivers, and canals with which it is furnished. Foundedby loyalists from the United States after the Declaration ofIndependence, the province was constituted in 1791 as Upper Canada, united to Quebec or Lower Canada in 1840, it received its present name onthe federation of Canada in 1867; education in it is free and wellconducted; there are many colleges and universities; municipal andprovincial government is enlightened and well organised; the prevalentreligious faith is Protestant. 

ONTARIO, LAKE, in area almost equal to Wales, is the smallest andeasternmost of the five great lakes of the St. Lawrence Basin, NorthAmerica; it lies between the province of Ontario, Canada, and New YorkState; receives the Niagara River in the SW. , several streams on bothsides, and issues in the St. Lawrence in the NE. ; on its shores standHamilton, Toronto, and Kingston on the N. , and Oswego on the S. ; canalsconnect it with Lake Erie and the Hudson River, and it is a busy andalways open highway of commerce. 

ONTOLOGY, another name for METAPHYSICS (q. V. ) or thescience of pure being, being at its living source in spirit or God, orNature viewed as divine, especially as the ground of the spiritual in manand giving substantive being to him. 

ONYX, a variety of agate or chalcedony, in which occur even layersof white and black or white and brown, sharply defined in good specimens;they come from India, and are highly valued for cameo-cutting. 

OOSTERZEE, JAN JAKOB VAN, a theologian of the Dutch Church, born atRotterdam; became professor at Utrecht, wrote several theological andexegetical works on evangelical lines (1817-1882). 

OPAL, a variety of quartz, of which the finest kind, precious opal, is translucent, with blue or yellow tint, and when polished with a convexsurface shows an admirable play of colours; it is found chiefly atCerwenitza, Austria. 

OPEN SECRET, THE, the secret that lies open to all, but is seen intoand understood by only few, applied especially to the mystery of thelife, the spiritual life, which is the possession of all. 

OPEN, SESAMË, the magic formula the pronunciation of which openedthe robbers' stronghold in the "Arabian Nights. "

OPERA, a drama set to music and acted and sung to the accompanimentof a full orchestra, of which there are several kinds according as theyare grave, comic, or romantic. 

OPERA BOUFFE, an opera in an extravagant burlesque style, withcharacters, music, and other accompaniments to match; is the creation ofOFFENBACH (q. V. ), his more distinguished successors in theproduction of which have been Lecocq, Hervé, and Strauss. 

OPHELIA, the daughter of Polonius in "Hamlet" and in love with thelord, but whose heart, from the succession of shocks it receives, isshattered and broken. 

OPHICLEIDE, a keyed brass wind instrument of recent invention, ofgreat compass and power, and of which there are two kinds in use. 

OPHIR, a region in the East of uncertain situation, frequentlyreferred to in Scripture as a region from which gold and precious stoneswere imported. 

OPHITES, a sect of Gnostics who regarded the serpent as a benefactorof the race in having persuaded Eve to eat of the tree of the _knowledge_of good and evil in disregard, or rather in defiance, of the warning ofthe God of the Jews. 

OPIE, JOHN, English artist, born near Truro, Cornwall; began tolearn his father's trade of carpenter, but turning to art went with Dr. Wolcott to London in 1780; for a year he had phenomenal success as aportrait-painter; on the wane of his popularity he turned to scripturaland historical painting and to illustration; after being Associate for ayear he was elected Academician in 1787; besides some lectures on art, hewrote a Life of Reynolds and other works (1761-1807). 

OPINICUS, a fabulous winged creature with the head of a griffin, thebody of a lion, and the tail of a camel; a heraldic symbol. 

OPITZ, MARTIN VON, a German poet, born in Silesia; was muchpatronised by the princes of Germany; was crowned with laurel, andennobled by Ferdinand II. ; his poetry was agreeable to classic models, but at the expense of soul, though, to his credit it must be said, theGerman language and German poetry owe him a deep debt (1597-1639). 

OPORTO (140), at the mouth of the Douro, 200 m. N. Of Lisbon, thechief manufacturing city of Portugal, and second in commercialimportance; is the head-quarters of the trade in port wine; theindustries include cloth, silk, hat, and porcelain manufacture, tobacco, metal-casting, and tanning; besides wine it exports cattle, fruit, cork, and copper. There are many old churches, schools, a library, and twopicture-galleries. 

OPPORTUNIST, name given to a politician whose policy it is to takeadvantage of, or be guided by, circumstances. 

OPTIMISM, the doctrine or belief that in the system of things allthat happens, the undesirable no less than the desirable, is for thebest. 

OPUS OPERATUM (i. E. The work wrought), a Latin phrase used todenote the spiritual effect in the performance of a religious rite whichaccrues from the virtue inherent in it, or by grace imparted to it, irrespectively of the administrator. 

ORAN (74), the busiest port in Algeria, is 260 m. W. Of Algiers; ithas a Roman Catholic cathedral, a mosque, a school, a college, and twocastles, and exports esparto grass, iron ore, and cereals. 

ORANGE RIVER or GARIEP, chief river of South Africa, rises inthe eastern highlands of Basutoland, and flows 100 m. Westward to theAtlantic, receiving the Vaal and the Caledon as tributaries, and havingCape Colony on the S. Bank and the Orange Free State, Griqualand West, Bechuanaland, and German Namaqualand on the N. ; a bar at the mouth andthe aridity of its lower course make it unfit for navigation. 

ORANGE RIVER COLONY, formerly Orange Free State (380), lying betweenthe Vaal and the Orange Rivers, Griqualand West, and the DrakenbergMountains; has an area nearly the size of England, with a healthy, temperate climate; undulating plains slope northward and southward, fromwhich rise isolated hills called kopjes. The chief industries are therearing of sheep, cattle, horses, and ostriches; coal-mining in the N. And diamond-seeking in the SW. ; the exports comprise wool, hides, anddiamonds. Founded by Dutch Boers from Natal, it was annexed by Britain in1848, but granted independence in 1854. The capital, Bloemfontein (3), isconnected by a railway with Johannesberg and with the Cape. Having madecommon cause with the South African Republic in the Boer War, it wasannexed by Great Britain in 1900. At present (1905) it is under thesupreme authority of the Governor of Orange River and the TransvaalColonies, assisted by a Lieutenant-Governor and an Executive Council. 

ORANGEMEN, a name given to an association of Protestants in Irelandinstituted to uphold the Protestant succession to the crown, and theProtestant religion as settled at the Revolution of 1688, and whichderives this name from William, the Prince of Orange, on whose accessionto the throne Protestantism was established; it became dormant for a timeafter its institution, but it has shown very decided signs of life atpolitical crises when Protestantism seemed in danger, such as often tocall for some firm handling. 

ORATORIO, a musical composition on a sacred theme, dramatic in formand associated with orchestral accompaniments, but without scenicaccessories; it derives its name from the oratory of St. Philip Neri atRome, in which a composition of the kind was first performed, and was amusical development of the MIRACLE PLAYS (q. V. ). 

ORATORY, CONGREGATION OF THE, community of secular priests formed bySt. Philip of Neri (q. V. ), and bound by no religious vow, each one ofwhich is independent of the others; it consists of novices, triennialfathers, decennial fathers, and a superior, their functions being topreach and hear confession. 

ORCAGNA, a Florentine painter, sculptor, and architect, did severalfrescoes; was architect of the cathedral of Orviëto; his masterpiece anabsolutely unique marble tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, Florence (1329-1389). 

ORCHARDSON, WILLIAM QUILLER, English genre-painter, born inEdinburgh; his pictures are numerous, and among the best and mostpopular, "The Challenge, " "The Queen of the Woods, " "On Board theBellerophon, " "The Mariage de Convenance"; _b_. 1835. 

ORCUS (i. E. Place of confinement), another name for Hades, or the"World of the Dead"; also of the god of the nether world. 

ORDEAL, a test by fire, water, poison, wager of battle, or the like, of the innocence or guilt of persons in appeal thereby to the judgment ofGod in default of other evidence, on the superstitious belief that bymeans of it God would interfere to acquit the innocent and condemn theguilty, a test very often had recourse to among savage or half-civilisednations. 

ORDERICUS VITALIS, a mediæval chronicler, born near Shrewsbury; wasa monk of the Abbey of St. Evreul, in Normandy; wrote an ecclesiasticalhistory of Normandy and England--a veracious document, though anincondite; _d_. 1143. 

ORDERS IN COUNCIL are issued by the British Sovereign, with theadvice of the Privy Council, and within limits defined by Parliament. Incases of emergency these limits have been disregarded, and Parliamentsubsequently asked to homologate the action by granting an indemnity tothose concerned. 

OREADES in the Greek mythology nymphs of the mountains, with specialnames appropriate to the district they severally inhabit. 

OREGON (314), one of the United States, on the Pacific seaboard, with Washington, Idaho, Nevada, and California on its inland borders, nearly twice the size of England, has the Coast Mountains along the W. , the Cascade range parallel 60 m. E. , and 70 farther E. The BlueMountains. The centre and E. Is hilly, and affords excellent grazing anddairy-farming ground; the western or Willamette Valley is arable, producing cereals, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Between the CoastMountains and the sea excessive rains fall. The State is rich in timber, coal, iron, gold, and silver; and the rivers (of which the Columbia onthe N. Border is the chief) abound in salmon. Owing to the mountainshelter and the Japanese ocean currents the climate is mild. The capitalis Salem (4), the largest city Portland (46), both on the WillametteRiver. The State offers excellent educational facilities; it has 17libraries, many schools and colleges, and the Blue Mountain University. The State (constituted in 1859) forms part of the territory long indispute between Great Britain and the United States. It was occupiedjointly from 1818 to 1846, when a compromise fixed the present boundaryof British Columbia. 

ORELLI, CONRAD VON, theologian, born at Zurich; professor at Basel;has written commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the minorprophets; _b_. 1846. 

ORELLI, JOHANN KASPAR VON, a Swiss scholar, born at Zurich, where hewas professor of Classical Philology; edited editions of the classics, particularly Horace, Tacitus, and Cicero, highly esteemed for thescholarship they show and the critical judgment (1787-1849). 

ORESTES, the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and brother ofElectra and Iphigenia, who killed his mother to avenge the murder by herof his father and went mad afterwards, but was acquitted by the Areopagusand became king of Argos and Lacedæmon; his friendship for Pylades, whomarried his sister Electra, has passed into a proverb; the tragic storyis a favourite theme of the Greek tragedians. 

ORFILA, M. J. BONAVENTURE, French chemist and physician, born inMinorca; mainly distinguished for his works on toxicology (1787-1853). 

ORGANISM, a structure instinct with life, and possessed of organsthat discharge functions subordinate and ministrative to the life of thewhole. 

ORGANON, a term adopted by Bacon to denote a system of rules for theregulation of scientific inquiry. 

ORGIES, festivals among the Greeks and Orientals generally connectedwith the worship of nature divinities, in particular DEMETER (q. V. ), DIONYSOS (q. V. ), and the Cabiri, celebrated with mysticrites and much licentious behaviour. 

ORIFLAMME (i. E. Flame of gold), the ancient banner of the kingsof France, borne before them as they marched to war; it was a red flagmounted on a gilded staff, was originally the banner of the abbey of St. Denis, and first assumed as the royal standard by Louis VI. As he marchedat the head of his army against the Emperor Henry V. In 1124, but onehears no more of it after the battle of Agincourt in 1415, much as it wasat one time regarded as the banner of the very Lord of Hosts. 

ORIGEN, one of the most eminent of the Fathers of the Church, bornat Alexandria it is presumed, the son of a Christian who sufferedmartyrdom under Severus, whom he honoured and ever reverenced for hisfaith in Christ; studied the Greek philosophers that he might familiarisehimself with their standpoint in contrast with that of the Christian;taught in Alexandria and elsewhere the religion he had inherited from hisfather, but was not sufficiently regardful of episcopal authority, andafter being ordained by another bishop than that of his own diocese wasdeposed and banished; after this he settled in Cæsarea, set up acelebrated school, and had Gregory Thaumaturgus for a pupil, whence hemade journeys to other parts but under much persecution, and died atTyre; he wrote numerous works, apologetical and exegetical as well asdoctrinal, besides a "Hexapla, " a great source of textual criticism, being a work in which the Hebrew Scriptures and five Greek versions ofthem are arranged side by side; in his exegesis he had a fancy forallegorical interpretation, in which he frequently indulged, but in doingso he was entitled to some license, seeing he was a man who constantlylived in close communion with the Unseen Author of all truth (185-253). 

ORIGINAL SIN, the name given by the theologians to the inherenttendency to sin on the part of all mankind, due, as alleged, to theirdescent from Adam and the imputation of Adam's guilt to them as sinningin him. 

ORINOCO RIVER, a great river in the NE. Of South America, rises inthe Parimé Mountains, and flowing westward bifurcates, the Cassiquiarechannel going southward and joining the Rio Negro, the Orinoco propercontinuing westward, north and east through Venezuela, and reaching theAtlantic after a course of 1500 m. By an enormous delta; it receivesthousands of tributaries, but cascades half-way up stop navigation. 

ORION, in the Greek mythology a handsome giant and hunter, wasstruck blind by Dionysos for attempting an outrage on Merope, butrecovered his eyesight on exposing his eyeballs to the arrowy rays ofAurora, and became afterwards the companion of Artemis on thehunting-field, but he fell a victim to the jealousy of Apollo, thebrother of Artemis, and was transformed by the latter into aconstellation in the sky, where he figures as a giant wearing a lion'sskin and a girdle or belt and wielding a club. 

ORISSA (4, 047), the name of an ancient Indian kingdom, independenttill 1568, and falling into British possession in 1803, is now restrictedto the most south-easterly province of Bengal. It is larger than Wales, and comprises a hilly inland tract and an alluvial plain formed by thedeltas of the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani Rivers, well irrigated, and producing great crops of rice, wheat, pulse, and cotton. It has norailways, and poor roads; transport is by canal and river. Chief townsCuttack, Balasor, and Puri. 

ORKNEY ISLANDS (30), an archipelago of 90 islands, Pomona thelargest, lying north of the Scottish mainland, from which they areseparated by the Pentland Firth, 7 m. Broad. The scenery is tame, theclimate is mild and moist; there are no trees, crops are poor; the chiefindustries are fishing and stock-raising; Kirkwall, with a cathedral, andStromness are the chief towns. Seized from the Picts by Norse vikings, they passed to James III. As security for the dowry of Margaret ofDenmark and were never redeemed. The natives show their Scandinavianancestry in their features, and the nomenclature is largely Scandinavian. 

ORLANDO, a hero who figures in the romantic tales connected with theadventures of Charlemagne and his paladins, a knight of pure and trueblood; had a magical horn called Olivant, with which he wrought wonders. 

ORLEANS (61), on the Loire, 75 m. By rail SW. Of Paris, is thecapital of the province of Loiret, a trading rather than an industrialtown, commerce being fostered by excellent railway, canal, and rivercommunications; the town is of ancient date, and its streets are full ofquaint wooden houses; there is an old cathedral and museum; many historicassociations include the raising of the siege in 1429 by Joan of Arc, whose house is still shown, and two captures by the Germans, 1870

ORLEANS, DUKES OF, the name of four distinct branches of the royal familyof France, the first commencing with PHILIPPE, fifth son of Philippe ofValois, in 1344; the second with LOUIS, brother of Charles VI. (1371-1407); the third with JEAN BAPTISTE GASCON, brother of Louis XIII. , who took part in the plots against Richelieu, and was appointedlieutenant-general on the death of his brother (1608-1660); the fourthwith PHILIPPE I. , brother of Louis XIV. (1640-1701); PHILIPPE II. , son ofthe preceding, governed France during the minority of Louis XV. ; involvedhis finances by his connection with Louis, and did injury to the publicmorals by the depravity of his life (1674-1723); LOUIS-PHILIPPE, hisgrandson, lieutenant-general and governor of Dauphiné (1725-1785);LOUIS-PHILIPPE JOSEPH, son of preceding, surnamed Philippe-Egalité, played a conspicuous part in the Revolution, and perished on the scaffold(1747-1793); and LOUIS-PHILIPPE, his son (q. V. ); PRINCE LOUIS ROBERT, eldest son of Comte de Paris, claimant to the throne, _b_. 1869. 

ORLOFF, the name of two brothers, Russians: GREGORY, thefavourite of Catherine II. (1734-1783), and ALEXIS, a man remarkablefor his stature and strength, who murdered Peter III. And was banished byPaul I. (1737-1809). 

ORME, ROBERT, historian, born in Travancore; entered the East IndiaCompany's service, in which he was appointed historiographer; wrote thehistory of its military transactions from 1745 to 1763 (1728-1801). 

ORMOLU, a name given to bronze or brass of a golden-yellow colour, and resembling gold. 

ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, DUKE OF, supporter of the cause of Charles I. In Ireland during the war between the king and the Parliament, on theruin of which he repaired to the Continent to promote the restoration ofthe dynasty; was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland after theRestoration, and escaped from a party of ruffians headed by ColonelBlood, who dragged him from his carriage with intent to hang him; he wasa brave man, and much esteemed by his friends (1610-1688). 

ORMUZ, an island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, once thehead-quarters of the Persian trade with India. 

ORMUZD, the good deity of the Zoroastrian religion, the embodimentof the principle of good as Ahriman is of the principle of evil, thecreator of light and order as the other of darkness and disorder. SeeDUALISM. 

ORONTES, the principal river of Syria, rises in the western slopesof Anti-Lebanon, and flows northward through Syria, turning at last SW. To the Mediterranean; its course of 150 m. Is through country in manyparts well cultivated, past the towns of Hems and Hamah, and latterlythrough a woody ravine of great beauty. 

OROSIUS, PAULUS, Spanish Christian apologist of the 5th century, born at Terragona, a disciple of Augustine; wrote at his suggestionagainst the pagans a history of the world used as a text-book in theMiddle Ages. 

ORPHEUS, in the Greek mythology son of Apollo and the Muse Calliopë, famed for his skill on the lyre, from which the strains were such as notonly calmed and swayed the rude soul of nature, but persuaded even theinexorable Pluto to relent; for one day when his wife Eurydice was takenaway from him, he descended with his lyre to the lower world andprevailed on the nether king by the spell he wielded to allow her toaccompany him back, but on the condition that he must not, as shefollowed him, turn round and look; this condition he failed to fulfil, and he lost her again, but this time for ever; whereupon, as the storygoes, he gave himself up to unappeasable lamentings, which attractedround him a crowd of upbraiding Mænades, who in their indignation took upstones to stone him and mangled him to death, only his lyre as it floateddown the river seaward kept sounding "Eurydice! Eurydice!" till it wascaught up by Zeus and placed in memorial of him among the stars of thesky. 

ORRERY is a mechanical toy which exhibits, by an arrangement ofrods, balls, and toothed wheels, the sun, the planets, and their moons, all performing their respective motions; so named after the Earl ofOrrery, for whom Charles Boyle made the first one in 1715. 

ORSINI, FELICE, Italian conspirator, born of a noble family, butbred in the atmosphere of revolution and secret plotting; with threeothers attempted the life of Louis Napoleon; was defended by Jules Favre, but condemned to death and guillotined (1819-1858). 

ORSOVA, two fortified towns on opposite banks of the Danube, at theIron Gates: Old Orsova (3), in Hungary, is a trading and shipping centre;New Orsova, in Servia, was repeatedly taken and retaken in the wars ofthe 18th century. 

ORVIËTO (7), an Italian city in Perugia, 78 m. By rail N. Of Rome, is noted for its wines; it dates from Roman times, and in the Middle Ageswas a frequent refuge of the Popes. 

OSCANS, a primitive people of Italy occupying Campania; weresubjugated in the 5th century B. C. By the Samnites, who amalgamated withthem and were subsequently incorporated with the Romans; the Oscantongue, a cruder form of Latin, may have had its own literature, and isstill extant on coins and in inscriptions. 

OSCAR I. , king of Sweden and Norway, son of Bernadotte, born atParis, reigned from 1844 to 1857 (1799-1858); OSCAR II. , king ofSweden and Norway, son of preceding, succeeded his brother Charles XV. In1872, has distinguished himself in literature by translating Goethe's"Faust" into Swedish, and by a volume of minor poems under his _nom deplume_ Oscar Frederick; _b_. 1829. 

OSCOTT, a village in Staffordshire, 4 m. N. Of Birmingham, the siteof the Roman Catholic College of St. Mary's, which claims to be thecentre of Catholicism in England; founded in 1752, it was housed inmagnificent buildings in 1835, and became exclusively a training-schoolfor the priesthood in 1889, though it originally had laymen among itsstudents. 

O'SHAUGHNESSY, ARTHUR, poet, born in London; held a post in thenatural history department of the British Museum; wrote, among otherworks, three notable volumes of poems, "The Epic of Women, " "Lays ofFrance, " and "Music and Moonlight" (1844-1881). 

OSIANDER, ANDREAS, a German Reformer, born near Nüremberg, andattaching himself to Luther, became preacher there, and eventuallyprofessor of Theology at Königsberg; involved himself in a bittercontroversy with Chemnitz on justification, ascribing it not toimputation, but the germination of divine grace in the heart, or themystical union of the soul with God, a controversy which was kept up byhis followers after his death (1498-1552). 

OSIRIS, one of the principal gods of Egypt, the husband of Isis, whowas his sister and the father of Horus, who avenged the wrongs hesuffered at the hands of the Earth, his mother, in whose womb he was bornand in whose womb he was buried; he was the god of all the earth-born, and subject to the like fate. 

OSMANLIS, name given to the Ottomans, from that of their founder, Osman or Othman. 

OSMOSE. If two liquids be separated from each other only by a skinor parchment, each will percolate through the membrane and diffuse intothe other; the process is known as osmose, and is constantly illustratedin the animal and vegetable world. 

OSNABRÜCK (35), a town in Hanover, 70 m. W. Of Hanover, with abishopric founded by Charlemagne, which was held by a brother of GeorgeI. , and was secularised in 1803. 

OSSA, a mountain in Thessaly, famous in Greek mythology. SeePELION. 

OSSIAN, the heroic poet of the Gaels, the son of Fingal and the kingof Morven, said to have lived in the 3rd century, the theme of whoseverse concerns the exploits of Fingal and his family, the translation ofwhich he brought home from fairyland, to which he had been transportedwhen he was a boy, and from which he returned when he was old and blind;James Macpherson, who was no Gaelic scholar, professed to have translatedthe legend, as published by him in 1760-62-63. 

OSTADE, ADRIAN and ISAAC, two Dutch painters, brothers, born atHaarlem; Adrian (1610-1685), and Isaac (1617-1654). 

OSTEND (26), a favourite watering-place on the SW. Coast of Belgium, 65 m. Due W. Of Antwerp; attracts 20, 000 visitors every summer; it is animportant seaport, having daily mail communication with Dover, and itmanufactures linen and sail-cloth; fishing is the chief industry; it isfamed for oysters, which are brought over from England and fattened forexport. 

OSTIA, the seaport of ancient Rome, at the mouth of the Tiber, nowin ruins. 

OSTRACISM, banishment (lit. By shell) for a term of years by popularvote from Athens of any individual whose political influence seemed tothreaten the liberty of the citizens; the vote was given by each citizenwriting the name of the individual on a shell and depositing it in someplace appointed, and it was only when supported by 6000 citizens that ittook effect. 

OSTROGOTHS, or the EASTERN GOTHS, a Teutonic people, who, having been induced to settle on the banks of the Danube, in the pay ofthe Roman emperor, invaded Italy, and founded in the end of the 5thcentury a kingdom under Theodoric, which fell before the arms ofJustinian in 532. 

OSWALD, ST. , king of Northumbria, where by the aid of AIDAN(q. V. ) he established the Christian religion, after his conversion toit himself in exile among the Scots; he died in battle fighting againstPenda, king of Mercia; _d_. 642. 

OSWEGO (22), principal port on the E. Of Lake Ontario, is at themouth of the Oswego River, in New York State; it has 4 miles of quays, and extensive accommodation for grain, and has a large trade, especiallywith Canada, in grain and lumber; the falls in the river are utilised forindustrial purposes, the manufacture of starch and cornflour being famed. 

OSWESTRY (8), a market-town of Shropshire, 20 m. NW. Of Shrewsbury;has an old church, castle, and school, railway workshops, and somewoollen mills. 

OTAGO (153), the southernmost province in the South Island, NewZealand, somewhat less in size than Scotland, is mountainous andinaccessible in the W. , but in the E. Consists of good arable plains, where British crops and fruits grow well; the climate is temperate;timber abounds; there are gold, coal, iron, and copper mines, manufactures of woollen goods, iron, and soap, and exports wool, gold, cereals, and hides; founded in 1848 by the Otago Association of the FreeChurch of Scotland, but immigration became general on the discovery ofgold in 1861; education is promoted by the Government in a university andmany colleges and secondary schools; the capital is Dunedin (23), thechief commercial city of New Zealand, the other principal towns beingInvercargill, Port Chalmers, Oamaru, Milton, and Lawrence. 

OTHMAN, the third caliph, who ruled from 614 to 636, wasassassinated by Mohammed, son of Abu-Bekr. 

OTHMAN or OSMAN I. , surnamed the Conqueror the founder of theempire of the Ottoman Turks, born in Bithynia (1259-1326). 

OTHO, Roman emperor, had been a companion of Nero; was createdemperor by the Pretorian Guards in succession to Galba, but beingdefeated by the German legionaries, stabbed himself to death after areign of three months (32-69). 

OTIS, JAMES, American lawyer, born in Massachusetts, distinguishedas a ringleader in the revolution in the colonies against themother-country that led to American independence, for which he had to paywith his life and the prior loss of his reason (1724-1783). 

OTRANTO (2), a decayed seaport and fishing town of SE. Italy, 52 m. S. Of Brindisi; founded by Greek colonists, it was in early times thechief port of trade with Greece; there is a cathedral and castle. 

OTTAWA (44), capital of the Dominion of Canada, is situated 90 m. Upthe Ottawa River and its confluence with the St. Lawrence, between theChaudière and Rideau Falls. Here are the Parliament buildings, theGovernor-General's residence, a Roman Catholic cathedral, numerouscolleges and schools, and a great library. There is some flour-millingand some iron-working, but the chief industry is lumber felling. Half thepeople are French Roman Catholics. It became the capital of the Dominionin 1856, and in ten years after the government was installed in its newbuildings. 

OTTAWA RIVER, the largest tributary of the St. Lawrence, and one ofthe largest Canadian rivers, is 700 m. Long; rising in the W. Of Quebec, it flows W. , then S. , then SE. , sometimes in a narrow channel, sometimesbroadening even into lakes, receiving many tributaries, and passing downrapids and falls, and joins the St. Lawrence at Montreal; down its watersare floated immense quantities of lumber. 

OTTERBURN, a Northumberland village, 16 m. S. Of the border, famousas the scene of a struggle on 19th August 1388 between the Douglases andthe Percies, at which the Earl of Douglas lost his life, and Hotspur wastaken prisoner. See CHEVY CHASE. 

OTTO or ATTAR OF ROSES, an essential oil obtained by distillingrose leaves of certain species in water, of very strong odour, pleasantwhen diluted; is used for perfumery; it is made in India, Persia, Syria, and at Kezanlik, in Roumelia. 

OTTOMANS, the name given to the Turks from OTHMAN (q. V. ). 

OTWAY, THOMAS, English dramatist, born in Sussex, intended for theChurch; took to the stage, failed as an actor, and became a playwright, his chief production in that line being "Alcibiades, " "Don Carlos, " "TheOrphan, " and "Venice Preserved, " the latter two especially; he led a lifeof dissipation, and died miserably, from choking, it is said, in greedilyswallowing a piece of bread when in a state of starvation (1651-1685). 

OUBLIETTE, an underground cell, perfectly dark, in which prisonerswere subjected to perpetual confinement, was so called as being a "placeof forgetfulness, " or where one is forgotten; they were often putsecretly to death. 

OUDENARDE, a town in Belgium, 15 m. S. Of Ghent, scene ofMarlborough's third victory over the French in 1708; it contains a16th-century hôtel de ville, with a fine tower, and some interestingchurches. 

OUDH (12, 551), a province in the Bengal Presidency, occupying thebasin of the Gumti, Gogra, and Rapti Rivers, and stretching from the N. Bank of the Ganges to the lower Himalayas; is a great alluvial plain, through which these rivers flow between natural embankments, affordingirrigation by their marshes and overflows. The sole industry isagriculture; the crops are wheat and rice, which are exported by rail andriver. The population is one of the densest in the world, the labouringclasses being very poor. The only large town is Lucknow (273), on theGumti. One of the earliest centres of Aryan civilisation, Oudh becamesubject to the empire of Delhi in the 12th century, but was anindependent State for a century prior to its annexation by the British in1856. 

OUDINOT, DUKE OF REGGIO, marshal of France, born at Bar-le-Duc;served with distinction under the Revolution and the Empire; led theretreat from Moscow, and was wounded; joined the Royalists after the fallof Napoleon, and died Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides (1767-1847). 

OUIDA, the pseudonym of Louise de la Ramée, English novelist, bornat Bury St. Edmunds; resides chiefly at Florence; has written over ascore of novels, "Under Two Flags" and "Moths" among the best; _b_. 1840. 

OUSE, the name of several English rivers, of which the chief are (1)the Yorkshire Ouse, flowing through the great Vale of York southwards tothe Humber, receiving the Swale, Ure, Nidd, Wharfe, and Aire from the W. And the Derwent from the E. , and having in its basin more great townsthan any other river in the country; (2) the Great Ouse, rising in the S. Of Northamptonshire, pursuing a winding course NE. Through the plains ofBuckingham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Norfolk to the Wash; and(3) the Sussex Ouse. 

OUTRAM, SIR JAMES, British general, surnamed by Napier the "Bayardof India, " born in Derbyshire, began his military career in Bombay, served in the Afghan War and the war with Persia, played an importantpart in the suppression of the Mutiny, marching to the relief of Lucknow, magnanimously waived his rank in favour of Havelock, and fought under him(1803-1863). 

OVERBECK, FRIEDRICH, celebrated German painter, born at Lübeck; washead of the new Romantic or Pre-Raphaelite school of German art; haddevoted himself to religious subjects, abjured Lutheranism, and joinedthe Roman Catholic Church; is famed for his frescoes "Christ's Entry intoJerusalem" and "St. Francis" in particular, still more than hisoil-paintings; spent most of his life in Rome (1789-1869). 

OVERBURY, SIR THOMAS, English gentleman, remembered chiefly from thecircumstances of his death, having been poisoned in the Tower at theinstance of Rochester and his wife for dissuading the former frommarrying the latter, for which crime the principals were pardoned and theinstruments suffered death; he was the author of certain works publishedafter his death, and "The Wife, " a poem, his "Characters, " and "Crumbsfrom King James's Table" (1581-1613). 

OVERLAND ROUTE, the route to Australia and the East across theEuropean continent instead of round the Cape of Good Hope, wasinaugurated by Lieutenant Waghorn in 1845, modified on the opening of theSuez Canal in 1869, and is now _viâ_ France, the Mont Cenis tunnel, Brindisi, the Levant, Suez Canal, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean. 

OVERREACH, SIR GILES, a character in Massinger's play, "A New Way toPay Old Debts. "

OVERSTONE, BARON, English financier, represented Hythe; was made apeer in 1850; wrote on finances; was opposed to limited liability and theintroduction of the decimal system; died immensely rich (1796-1883). 

OVID (Publius Ovidius Naso), Roman poet of the Augustan age, born atSalmo, of equestrian rank, bred for the bar, and serving the State in thedepartment of law for a time, threw it up for literature and a life ofpleasure; was the author, among other works, of the "Amores, " "Fasti, "and the "Metamorphoses, " the friend of Horace and Virgil, and thefavourite of Augustus, but for some unknown reason fell under thedispleasure of the latter, and was banished in his fiftieth year, to endhis days among the swamps of Scythia, near the Black Sea(B. C. 43-18 A. D. ). 

OVIEDO (44), capital of the Spanish province of Asturias, near theriver Nalon; is the seat of a university, library, and cathedral; it isthe centre of the chief coal-field of Spain; in the neighbourhood are agun-factory and many iron-works. 

OWEN, JOHN, Puritan divine, born in Oxfordshire, educated at Oxford;driven from the Church, became first a Presbyterian then an Independent;Cromwell made him chaplain for a sermon he preached the day after CharlesI. 's execution, and he was presented in 1651 with the deanery of ChristChurch, Oxford, and next year with the Vice-Chancellorship, but on theRestoration was deprived of both, after which, from 1657, he spent hislife in retirement; wrote an exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews, onthe Holy Spirit, and many other works in exposition of the Puritantheology, which at one time were held in greater favour than they are now(1616-1683). 

OWEN, SIR RICHARD, celebrated English naturalist and comparativeanatomist, born in Lancaster; wrote extensively, especially oncomparative anatomy and physiology, in which, as in everything thatoccupied him, he was an enthusiastic worker, being a disciple of Cuvier;did not oppose, but was careful not to commit himself to, Darwin'sevolutionary theories; Carlyle, who had two hours' talk with him once, found him "a man of real ability who could tell him innumerable things"(1804-1892). 

OWEN, ROBERT, a Socialist reformer, born in Montgomeryshire; becamemanager of a cotton mill at New Lanark, which he managed on Socialistprinciples, according to which all the profits in the business above fiveper cent, went to the workpeople; in furtherance of his principles hepublished his "New Views of Society, " the "New Moral World, " as well aspamphlets, lecturing upon them, moreover, both in England and America, but his schemes issued in practical failures, especially as proving tooexclusively secular, and he in his old age turned his mind tospiritualism (1771-1858). 

OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, a non-sectarian university, founded byJohn Owens, a liberal Churchman, in 1846, and supported as well asextended by subsequent bequests, the medical school of which is one ofthe finest in the kingdom; of the students attending it in 1897-98, 639were arts students, 99 women, and 418 medicals. 

OXENFORD, JOHN, English man of letters and critic; translatedGoethe's "Dichtung und Wahrheit, " and "Echermann's Conversations withGoethe"; was dramatic critic for the _Times_, and wrote plays, as well asan "Illustrated Book of French Songs" (1812-1877). 

OXENSTIERN, AXEL, COUNT, Swedish statesman, favourite minister ofGustavus Adolphus; supported him through the Thirty Years' War, though hedisapproved of his engaging in it, and managed the affairs of the Statewith great ability after his death (1583-1654). 

OXFORD (46), the county town of Oxfordshire, seat of one of thegreat English universities and of a bishopric; is on the left bank of theThames, 52 m. W. Of London; it is a city of great beauty, its manycollegiate buildings and chapels and other institutions making it therichest of English cities in architectural interest; naturally historicalassociations abound; here the Mad Parliament met and adopted theProvisions of Oxford in 1258; Latimer and Ridley in 1555, and Cranmer in1556, were burned in Broad Street; Charles I. Made it his head-quartersafter the first year of the Civil War; it was the refuge of Parliamentduring the plague of 1665. 

OXFORD SCHOOL, the name given to the leaders of the TractarianMovement, which originated at Oxford in 1833. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY, Oxford is spoken of as a seat of learning asearly as the 11th century. Cloistral schools existed before that. Schoolsof divinity, law, and topography were founded in the 12th century. In the13th Dominican and Franciscan scholars raised it to a level only secondto Paris, and by the end of the 14th century there were thousands ofstudents in attendance. Oxford responded quickly to the Renaissance, andby the time of the Reformation 13 colleges were founded. HerProtestantism stood firm through Mary's reaction, sank into passiveobedience under the Stuarts, but woke up to resist James II. 's Catholicpropaganda. Thereafter followed a serious lapse in efficiency, but thiscentury has seen a complete revival. Oxford has now 21 colleges, amongwhich are Balliol, Christ Church, Magdalen, Oriel, Trinity, andUniversity College; 64 professors and teachers, and 3000 students. It isrich in museums and libraries; the Bodleian Library is of great value, the Taylor Library is devoted to modern literature. The Oxford orTractarian Movement, one of the most remarkable religious impulses ofmodern times, had its centre in the University between 1834 and 1845. Among distinguished Oxford alumni were Hooker, Jeremy Taylor, Wesley, Newman; Hobbes, Locke, Adam Smith; Johnson, Gibbon, Freeman, Green;Chatham, Gladstone; Ruskin; Shelley, Keble, Arnold, and Clough. Of thecolleges of which the University consists, the University was founded in1249, Balliol in 1269, Merton in 1264, Exeter in 1314, Oriel in 1326, Queen's in 1340, New in 1379, Lincoln in 1427, All Souls' in 1437, Magdalen in 1468, Brasenose in 1509, Corpus in 1516, Christ Church in1546, Trinity in 1554, St. John's in 1555, Jesus in 1571, Wadham in 1612, Pembroke in 1624, Worcester in 1714, Keble in 1870, and Hertford in 1874. 

OXFORDSHIRE (186), a S. Midland county of England, stretching on theN. Bank of the Thames between Gloucester and Buckingham; is anagricultural district; bleak in the N. And W. , it is hilly, well woodedand picturesque in the S. , where are the Chiltern Hills; iron-stone ismined near Banbury, blankets made at Witney, and paper at Shiplake andHenley; natives of the county were Edward the Confessor, Leland, WarrenHastings, Maria Edgeworth, and J. R. Green. 

OXUS or AMU-DARIA, a great river of Central Asia, rises in thePamirs, and flows W. Between Turkestan and Afghanistan, then N. ThroughTurkestan to the Sea of Aral; it is believed at one time to have flowedinto the Caspian, and there is record of two changes of course; half itswaters are absorbed in irrigating the plains of Khiva. 

OXYGEN, a colourless, inodorous gas which constitutes one-fifth involume of the atmosphere, and which, in combination with hydrogen, formswater. It is the most widely diffused of all the elementary bodies, andan essential support to everything possessed of life. 

OYER AND TERMINER, an English Court Commission to hear and determinespecial causes. 

OZONE, is an allotropic form of oxygen, from which it can bedeveloped by electricity, and into which it can be resolved by heat, present in small quantities in the atmosphere, and possessing strongoxidising properties. 

P

PACHE, JEAN, Swiss adventurer, who became Mayor of Paris, and evenMinister of War during the French Revolution, "the sleek Tartuffe that hewas, " is credited with the authorship of the famous revolutionary motto, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, or Death (1746-1823). 

PACHOMIUS, ST. , an Egyptian hermit, the founder of conventualmonachism, who established the first institution of the kind at Tabenna, an island in the Nile; he also established the first nunnery under hissister (292-348). Festival, May 14. 

PACHYDERMATA, hoofed animals with thick skins and non-ruminant, suchas the elephant and the hog. 

PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest sheet of water on the globe, occupies athird of its whole surface, as much as all the land put together. It is awide oval in shape, lying between Australia and Asia on the W. , and Northand South America on the E. Except from Asia it receives no largerivers. On its American shores the Gulf of California is the onlyconsiderable indentation; the Okhotsk, Japanese, Yellow, and ChineseSeas, on the Asiatic coast, are rather wide bays shut in by islands thaninland seas. Its innumerable islands are the chief feature of the PacificOcean. The continental islands include the Aleutian, Kurile, Japan, andPhilippine Islands, and the archipelago between the Malay Peninsula andAustralia; the Oceanic Islands include countless groups, volcanic andcoral, chiefly in the southern hemisphere, between the Sandwich Islandsand New Zealand. Commerce on the Pacific Ocean is only beginning, butwill increase vastly with the extension of the United States westward, the colonisation of Australia, and the opening of Chinese and Japaneseports. San Francisco and Valparaiso on the E. , Hong-Kong and Sydney onthe W. , are just now the chief centres of trade. 

PACKHARD, distinguished American entymologist and naturalist, bornin Maine; his classification of insects is accepted; _b_. 1839. 

PACTOLUS, a small river of Lydia, famous for the gold contained inits sand, due, it was alleged, to Midas washing the gold off him in itswaters, and the alleged source of the wealth of Croesus; its modern nameis Sarabat. See MIDAS. 

PACUVIUS, an old Latin dramatist, nephew of ENNIUS (q. V. );wrote dramas after the Greek models (220-130 B. C. ). 

PADANG (15), a town and free port on the W. Coast of Sumatra, thelargest town on the island, and the Dutch official capital. 

PADEREWSKI, IGNACE JAN, a celebrated pianist, born at Podolia, inRussian Poland; master of his art by incessant practice from earlychildhood, made his _début_ in 1887 with instant success; his firstappearance created quite a _furore_ in Paris and London; has twicevisited the United States; is a brilliant composer as well as performer, and has composed numerous pieces both for the voice and the piano; _b_. 1860. 

PADILLA, JUAN LOPEZ DE, a celebrated Castilian noble, who headed arebellion against Charles V. , which he heroically maintained till hisdefeat at Villalos in 1521, and which his wife, Donna Maria, no lessheroically maintained against a strong besieging force after his captureand execution. 

PADISHAH, from two Persian words meaning "protector prince, " is atitle given to the Shah of Persia and the Sultan of Turkey, and at onetime applied, among others, to the Emperors of Austria and Russia. 

PADUA (79), a walled city of Venetia, 23 m. By rail W. Of Venice, has some manufactures of leather and musical-instrument strings, but ischiefly interesting for its artistic treasures; these include themunicipal buildings, cathedral, and nearly fifty churches, innumerablepictures and frescoes, and Donatello's famous equestrian statue ofGattamelata; there is also a renowned university, library, museum, andthe oldest botanical garden in Europe; after very varied fortunes it washeld by Venice 1405-1797, then by Austria till its incorporation in Italy1866. Livy was a native, as also Andrea Mantegna. 

PÆSTUM, an ancient Greek city of Lucania, in South Italy, withremains of Greek architecture second only to those of Athens. 

PAGAN, ISABEL, Scotch poetess, authoress of the plaintive song "Ca'the Yowes to the Knowes" (1740-1821). 

PAGANINI, NICOLO, a celebrated Italian violinist, born at Genoa ofhumble origin; widely famous for his astonishing feats on asingle-stringed instrument; was a composer of musical pieces for bothviolin and guitar; died rich (1784-1840). 

PAGANISM, HEATHENISM (q. V. ), so called as lingering amongthe "pagani" or country people, after Christianity had taken root in thelarge towns. 

PAGODA, an Indian or Chinese temple, associated chiefly withBuddhism, of a more or less pyramidal form and of several storeys, themost imposing being the Greek Pagoda of Tanjore; the name is applied alsoto a gold coin worth 7s. 6d. Stamped with a pagoda. 

PAHLEVI, name given to a translation of the ZENDAVESTA (q. V. ) in theZend dialect for the use of the priesthood. 

PAINE, THOMAS, a notorious free-thinker and democrat, born inThetford; emigrated to America, contributed, as he boasted, by hispamphlet "Common Sense, " to "free America, " by rousing it to emancipateitself from the mother-country; wrote the "Rights of Man" against Burke's"Reflections"; had to emigrate to France; took part in the Revolution toaid in its emancipation also, offended Robespierre, and was put inprison, where he wrote the first part of his "Age of Reason, " a bookwhich offended the Christian world and procured him ignominy and evenexecration in many quarters; died in New York, but his bones wereconveyed to England by Cobbett in 1819 (1737-1809). 

PAINTER, WILLIAM, author of "Palace of Pleasure, " a collection oftales chiefly from Italian sources, which proved suggestive in furnishingthe dramatists with interesting subjects for representation (1540-1594). 

PAISIELLO, GIOVANNI, an Italian composer, born at Taranto; his greatwork, the opera "Il Barbiere di Seviglia"; composed besides other operas, cantatas, requiems, &c. 

PAISLEY (66), a Renfrewshire town, 7 m. W. Of Glasgow, on the WhiteCart. It is the chief centre of manufacture of cotton thread in theworld, and its other industries include dyeing, bleaching, woollen goods, and engineering. There are several fine buildings, a Baptist Church issaid to be the finest modern ecclesiastical building in Scotland. Theornithologist Wilson, Professor Wilson ( Christopher North), andTannahill were born here. 

PALACKY, FRANCIS, distinguished Bohemian historian and politician, born in Moravia, author of a "History of Bohemia, " in 5 vols. , his chiefwork and a notable (1798-1876). 

PALADIN, the name given to the peers of Charlemagne, such as Roland, and also to knights-errant generally. 

PALÆOGRAPHY, the name given to the study and the deciphering ofancient manuscripts. 

PALÆOLOGUS, the name of a Byzantine family, several members of whichattained imperial dignity, the last of the dynasty dying in 1453; theycame into prominence in the 11th century. 

PALÆONTOLOGY, the name given to the study of fossil remains, abranch of geology. 

PALAFOX, DON JOSEPH, a Spanish soldier, born of a noble Aragonesefamily, who immortalised himself by his heroic defence of Saragossaagainst the French in 1808-9; on the fall of the place was taken toFrance and imprisoned till 1813; on his release was created Duke ofSaragossa and promoted to other high honours at home (1780-1847). 

PALAIS ROYAL, a pile of buildings in Paris, of which the nucleus wasa palace built in 1629 by Lemercier for Richelieu, and known afterwardsas the Palais Cardinal, and which at length by gift of Louis XIV. Becamethe town residence of the Orleans family; these buildings suffered muchdamage in 1848 and in 1871, but have been restored since 1873. 

PALAMEDES, one of the chiefs of the Greeks at the siege of Troy, aman of inventive genius; discovered the assumed madness of Ulysses, butincurred his resentment in consequence, which procured his death. 

PALANQUIN, in India and China a covered conveyance for one personborne on the shoulders of men. 

PALATINATE, the name of two States, originally one, of the oldGerman empire, one called the Lower Palatinate or the Palatinate of theRhine, partitioned in 1815 among the States of Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Hesse-Darmstadt, and the other called the Upper Palatinate, nownearly all included in Bavaria; the former has for principal towns Spiresand Landau, and the latter Ratisbon. 

PALATINE, one of the seven hills of ancient Rome, and, according totradition, the first to be occupied, and forming the nucleus of the city;it became one of the most aristocratic quarters of the city, and waschosen by the first emperors for their imperial residence. 

PALATINE COUNT, a judicial functionary of high rank under the earlyFrankish kings over what was called a palatinate. 

PALATINE COUNTIES, certain frontier counties in England, such asChester, Durham, and Lancaster, which possess royal privileges andrights. 

PALE, THE, that part of Ireland in which after the invasion of 1172the supremacy of English rule and law was acknowledged, the limits ofwhich differed at different times, but which generally included all theeastern counties extending 40 or 50 m. Inland. 

PALENQUE, a town in the State of Chiapas, Mexico, discovered in1760, buried under a dense forest with extensive structures in ruins. 

PALERMO (273), capital of Sicily, picturesquely situated in themidst of a beautiful and fertile valley called the Golden Shell; is ahandsome town, with many public buildings and nearly 300 churches inMoorish and Byzantine architecture, a university, art school, museum, andlibraries; industries are unimportant, but a busy trade is done withBritain, France, and the United States, exporting fruits, wine, sulphur, &c. , and importing textiles, coals, machinery, and grain. 

PALES, in Roman mythology the tutelary deity of shepherds and theirflocks, the worship of whom was attended with numerous observances, as inthe case of the nature divinities generally. 

PALESTINE, or the HOLY LAND, a small territory on the SE. Corner of the Mediterranean, about the size of Wales, being 140 m. FromN. To S. , and an average of 70 m. From E. To W. , is bounded on the N. ByLebanon, on the E. By the Jordan Valley, on the S. By the SinaiticDesert, and on the W. By the sea; there is great diversity of climatethroughout its extent owing to the great diversity of level, and itsflora and fauna are of corresponding range; it suffered much during thewars between the Eastern monarchies and Egypt, and in the wars betweenthe Crescent and the Cross, and is now by a strange fate in the hands ofthe Turk; it has in recent times been the theatre of extensive exploringoperations in the interest of its early history. 

PALESTRINA, an Italian town, 22 m. SE. Of Rome, on a slope of theApennines, 2546 ft. Above sea-level, on the site of the ancient Præneste, with the remains of Cyclopean walls, with a palace of theBARBERINI (q. V. ). 

PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DE, celebrated composer of sacredmusic, surnamed the Prince of Music, born at Palestrina; resided chieflyat Rome, where he wrought a revolution in church music, produced a numberof masses which at once raised him to the foremost rank among composers;was the author of a well-known _Stabat Mater_ (1524-1594). 

PALEY, FREDERICK ALTHORP, classical scholar, grandson of thesucceeding, born near York; became a Roman Catholic, contributed toclassical literature by his editions of the classics of both Greece andRome, remarkable alike for their scholarship and the critical acumen theyshow (1816-1886). 

PALEY, WILLIAM, "one of the most masculine and truly English ofthinkers and writers, " born at Peterborough; studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he was Senior Wrangler, and obtained a Fellowship, heldafterwards various Church preferments, and died archdeacon of Carlisle;was a clear writer and cogent reasoner on common-sense lines, and waslong famous, if less so now, as the author of "Horæ Paulinæ, " "Evidencesof Christianity, " and "Natural Theology, " as well as "Moral and PoliticalPhilosophy"; they are genuine products of the time they were written in, but are out of date now (1743-1806). 

PALGRAVE, SIR FRANCIS, historian, born in London, of Jewish parentsof the name of Cohen; was called to the bar in 1827, and becameDeputy-Keeper of Her Majesty's Records in 1838; was the author of ahistory of the "Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth" and of a"History of England, " tracing it back chiefly to the Anglo-Norman period, among other works (1788-1861). 

PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER, poet, son of preceding, born in London, professor of Poetry at Oxford, editor of "Golden Treasury of Songs andLyrics, " as well as author of lyrics, rhymes, &c. ; _b_. 1824. 

PALGRAVE, WILLIAM GIFFORD, Arabic scholar, born at Westminster, brother of preceding; after a brief term of service in the army joinedthe Society of Jesus, and served as a member of the order in India, Rome, and in Syria, where he acquired an intimate knowledge of Arabic, by meansof which he contributed to our knowledge of both the Arabic language andthe Arab race; wrote a narrative of a year's journey through Arabia(1826-1888). 

PÂLI, the sacred language of the Buddhists, once a living language, but, like Sanskrit, no longer spoken. 

PALIMPSEST, the name given to a parchment manuscript written on thetop of another that has been erased, yet often not so thoroughly that itcannot be in a measure restored. 

PALINGENESIA, name equivalent to "new birth, " and applied both toregeneration and restoration, of which baptism in the former case is thesymbol; in the Stoic philosophy it is preceded by dissolution, as in therejuvenescence process of MEDEA (q. V. ). 

PALINURUS, the pilot of one of the ships of Æneas, who, sleeping athis post, fell into the sea, and was drowned. 

PALISSY, BERNARD, the great French potter and inventor of a newprocess in the potter's art, born in Périgord, of humble parentage;celebrated for his fine earthenware vases ornamented with figuresartistically modelled, but above all for his untiring zeal and patiencein the study of his art and mastery in it, making fuel of his veryfurniture and the beams of his house in the conduct of his experiments;he was a Huguenot, but was specially exempted, by order of Catherine de'Medici, from the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1672, although he was in1585, as a Huguenot, imprisoned in the Bastille, where he died(1510-1590). 

PALK'S STRAIT, the channel which separates Ceylon from the mainlandof India, 100 m. Long and 40 m. Wide, generally shallow. See ADAM'SBRIDGE. 

PALLADIO, ANDREA, an Italian architect, born at Vicenza, of poorparents; was precursor of the modern Italian style of architecture, andauthor of a treatise on architecture that has borne fruit; his works, which are masterpieces of the Renaissance, consist principally of palacesand churches, and the finest specimens are to be met with in Venice andin his native place (1518-1580). 

PALLADIUM, a statue of Pallas in Troy, on the preservation of whichdepended the safety of the city, and from the date of the abstraction ofwhich by Ulysses and Diomedes the fate of it was doomed; it was fabled tohave fallen from heaven upon the plain of Troy, and to have after itsabstraction been transferred to Athens and Argos; it is now applied toany safeguard of the liberty of a State. 

PALLADIUS, ST. , is called the "chief apostle of the Scottishnation, " but his connection with Scotland during his lifetime isdoubtful; he was sent to Ireland by Pope Celestine in A. D. 430, whence, after his death, his remains were brought by St. Ternan to Fordoun, Kincardineshire. 

PALLAS, one of the names of ATHENA (q. V. ) considered asthe goddess of war; a name of uncertain derivation. 

PALLAS, PETER SIMON, a German traveller and naturalist, born inBerlin, professor of Natural History in St. Petersburg; explored Siberia, and contributed to the geographical knowledge of the Russian empire(1741-1811). 

PALLAVICINO, FERRANTE, Italian patriot, who gave offence by hispasquinades to the Papal Court and the Barberini; was betrayed andbeheaded (1618-1644). 

PALLAVICINO, SFORZA, cardinal and historian, born at Rome; was ofthe Jesuit order, and wrote a "History of the Council of Trent, " incorrection of the work of Paul Sarpi (1607-1667). 

PALLICE, LA, port of La Rochelle, from which it is 3 m. Distant, with harbourage for ocean-going steamers. 

PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP, a Nürnberg bookseller, tried by court-martialat the instance of Napoleon, and shot, for the publication of a pamphletreflecting on Napoleon and his troops, an act, from the injustice of it, that aroused the indignation of the whole German people against him;"better, " thinks Carlyle, "had he lost his best park of artillery, or hisbest regiment drowned in the sea, than shot that poor German bookseller"(1768-1806). 

PALM SUNDAY, the Sunday before Easter, is so called from its beingcommemorative of Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem; it is observedby the Greek and Roman Churches; in the latter palm branches are blessedby the priest before mass, carried in procession, distributed to thecongregation, carried home by them, and kept throughout the year. 

PALMA, 1, capital of the Balearic Islands (61), on the Bay of Palma, SW. Coast of Majorca; has a Gothic cathedral, a Moorish palace, and acollection of pictures in the old Town Hall; manufactures silks, woollens, and jewellery, and does a busy trade. 2, One of the CanaryIslands (39), 67 m. NW. Of Teneriffe; grows sugar, and exports honey, wax, and silk manufactures. 

PALMA, JACOPO, or The Old, a celebrated painter of the Venetianschool, was a pupil of Titian; painted sacred subjects and portraits, allmuch esteemed (1480-1548). 

PALMA, JACOPO, The Young, nephew of the preceding, also a painter, but of inferior merit, though he aimed to be the rival of Tintoretto andPaul Veronese (1544-1628). 

PALMER, the name given to a pilgrim to the Holy Land who hadperformed his vow, in sign of which he usually bore a palm branch in hishand, which he offered on the altar on his return home. 

PALMER, EDWARD HENRY, Oriental scholar, born at Cambridge; had anaptitude for languages, and was especially proficient in those of theEast; by his knowledge of Arabic contributed to the success of exploringexpeditions to S. Palestine and Sinai; was appointed professor of Arabicat Cambridge in 1871; produced a Persian-English Dictionary, an ArabicGrammar, and a translation of the Korân, and in 1882 undertook twomissions to Egypt, in the latter of which he and his party were betrayedand murdered; he was a man of varied gifts and accomplishments, and theloss in scholarship to his country by his fate is incalculable(1840-1882). 

PALMER, SAMUEL, English landscape-painter, chiefly in water-colours(1805-1881). 

PALMERSTON, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, VISCOUNT, English statesman, born, ofan Irish family, at Broadlands, Hants; was educated at the universitiesof Edinburgh and Cambridge; succeeded to his father's title, an Irishpeerage, in 1802, and entered Parliament in 1807 as member for Newport, Isle of Wight; during his long career he subsequently representedCambridge University (1811-1831), Bletchingly, South Hampshire, andTiverton; from 1809 to 1828 under five Premiers he was Junior Lord of theAdmiralty and Secretary at War; and separating himself finally from theTory party, he joined Earl Grey's Cabinet as Foreign Secretary in 1830;contrary to all expectation he kept the country out of war, and duringthe next 11 years he associated England's influence with that of Francein Continental affairs; returning to office in 1846, he remained at hisold post till 1851, steering England skilfully through the Spanishtroubles and the revolutionary reaction of 1848; a vote of censure on hispolicy was carried in the Lords in 1850, but, after a five hours' speechfrom him, the Commons recorded their approval; he resigned owing todifferences with the Premier, Lord John Russell; in 1852 joined LordAberdeen's coalition ministry, and on its fall became himself PrimeMinister in 1855; he prosecuted the Crimean War and the Chinese War of1857, and suppressed the Great Mutiny in India; defeated in 1858, hereturned to office next year with a cabinet of Whigs and Peelites; hissecond administration furthered the cause of free trade, but made themistake of allowing the _Alabama_ to leave Birkenhead; he was PrimeMinister when he died; a brusque, high-spirited, cheery man, sensible andpractical, unpretending as an orator, but a skilful debater, he was agreat favourite with the country, whose prosperity and prestige it washis chief desire to promote (1784-1865). 

PALMISTRY, the art of reading character from the lines and marks onthe palm of the hand, according to which some pretend to read fortunes aswell. 

PALMY`RA, a ruined city of Asia Minor, 150 m. NE. Of Damascus, oncesituated in an oasis near the Arabian desert; a place of importance, andsaid to have been founded by Solomon for commercial purposes; of imposingmagnificence as it ruins testify, as notably under Zenobia; it was takenby the Romans in 272, and destroyed by Aurelian, after which it graduallyfell into utter decay; its ruins were discovered in 1678; it containsthe ruins of a temple to Baal, 60 of the 300 columns of which were stillstanding. 

PALO ALTO, 33 m. SE. Of San Francisco; is the seat of a remarkableuniversity founded by Senator Stanford, and opened in 1891, to provideinstruction, from the Kindergarten stage to the most advanced and varied, to students and pupils boarded on the premises; of these there were 1000in 1897. 

PALUDAN-MÜLLER, FREDERICK, distinguished Danish poet, born in Fünen;his greatest poem, "Adam Homo, " a didactico-humorous composition; was anearnest man and a finished literary artist (1809-1876). 

PAMELA, a novel of Richardson's, from the name of the heroine, agirl of low degree, who resists temptation and reclaims her would-beseducer. 

PAMIRS, THE, or the "Roof of the World, " a plateau traversed bymountain ridges and valleys, of the average height of 13, 000 ft. , NW. Ofthe plateau of Thibet, connecting the mountain system of the Himalayas, Tian-Shan, and the Hindu Kush, and inhabited chiefly by nomad Kirghizbands; territorial apportionments have for some time past been in thehands of Russian and British diplomatists. 

PAMPAS, vast grassy, treeless, nearly level plains in South America, in the Argentine State; they stretch from the lower Paraná to the S. OfBuenos Ayres; afford rich pasture for large herds of wild horses andcattle, and are now in certain parts being brought under tillage. 

PAMPELUNA or PAMPLONA (31), a fortified city of Northern Spain, is 80 m. Due SE. Of Bilbao. It has a Gothic cathedral and a surgicalcollege, with manufactures of pottery and leather, and a trade in wine. Formerly capital of Navarre, it has suffered much in war; has thiscentury several times resisted the Carlists. 

PAN, in the Greek mythology a goat-man, a personification of rudenature, and the protector of flocks and herds; originally an Arcadiandeity, is represented as playing on a flute of reeds joined together ofdifferent lengths, called Pan's pipes; and dancing on his cloven hoofsover glades and mountains escorted by a bevy of nymphs side by side, andplaying on his pipes. There is a remarkable tradition, that on the nightof the Nativity at Bethlehem an astonished voyager heard a voiceexclaiming as he passed the promontory of Tarentum, "The great Pan isdead. " The modern devil is invested with some of his attributes, such ascloven hoofs, &c. 

PANAMA (15), a free port in the State of Colombia, on the Pacificcoast of the isthmus of the same name, and an oppressively hot and humidplace, is the terminus of the Panama railroad and the seat of a greattransit trade. It has a Spanish cathedral. The population, of Indian andnegro descent chiefly, is only half what it was when the canal works werein full operation. 

PANAMA CANAL Geographers were familiar with the idea of connectingthe two oceans by a canal through Central America as early as thebeginning of the 16th century, and Dutch plans are said to exist datingfrom the 17th century. The first practical steps were taken by Ferdinandde Lesseps in 1879; two years later work was begun; the cost wasestimated at £24, 000, 000, but on January 1, 1889, the company was forcedinto liquidation after spending over £70, 000, 000, and accomplishing but afifth of the work. Extravagance and incapacity were alleged among thecauses of failure; but the apparently insurmountable difficulties weremarshes, quicksands, and the overflow of the Chagres River, theprevalence of earthquakes, the length of the rainy season, the cost oflabour and living, and the extreme unhealthiness of the climate. 

PANATHENÆA, a festival, or rather two festivals, the Lesser and theGreater, anciently celebrated at Athens in honour of Athena, thepatron-goddess of the city. 

PANCHATANTRA, an old collection of fables and stories originally inSanskrit, and versions of which have passed into all the languages ofIndia, have appeared in different forms, and been associated withdifferent names. 

PANCRAS, ST. , a boy martyr of 16, who suffered under the Diocletianpersecution about 304, and is variously represented in mediæval legend asbearing a stone and sword, or a palm branch, and trampling a Saracenunder foot, in allusion to his hatred of heathenism. 

PANDECTS, the digest of civil law executed at the instance of theEmperor Justinian between the years 530 and 533. 

PANDORA (i. E. The All-Gifted) in the Greek mythology a woman ofsurpassing beauty, fashioned by Hephæstos, and endowed with every giftand all graces by Athena, sent by Zeus to EPIMETHEUS (q. V. ) toavenge the wrong done to the gods by his brother Prometheus, bearing withher a box full of all forms of evil, which Epimetheus, though cautionedby his brother, pried into when she left, to the escape of the contentsall over the earth in winged flight, Hope alone remaining behind in thecasket. 

PANDOURS, a name given to a body of light-infantry at one time inthe Austrian service, levied among the Slavs on the Turkish frontier, andnow incorporated as a division of the regular army. 

PANDULF, CARDINAL, was the Pope's legate to King John of England, and to whom, on his submission, John paid homage at Dover; _d_. 1226. 

PANGE LINGUA, a hymn in the Roman Breviary, service of CorpusChristi, part of which is incorporated in every Eucharistic service; waswritten in rhymed Latin by Thomas Aquinas. 

PÁNINI, a celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, whose work is of standardauthority among Hindu scholars, and who lived some time between 600 and300 B. C. 

PANIPAT (29), a town in the Punjab, 53 m. N. Of Delhi; was the sceneof two decisive battles, one in 1526 to the establishment of the Moguldynasty at Delhi, and another in 1701 to the extinction of the Mahrattasupremacy in North-West India. 

PANIZZI, ANTONIO, principal librarian of the British Museum from1850 to 1866, born at Modena; took refuge in England in 1821 asimplicated in a Piedmontese revolutionary movement that year; procuredthe favour of Lord Brougham and a post in the Museum, in which he rose tobe one of the chiefs (1797-1879). 

PANNONIA, a province of the Roman empire, conquered between 35 B. C. And A. D. 8; occupied a square with the Danube on the N. And E. And theSave almost on the S. Border; it passed to the Eastern Empire in the 5thcentury, fell under Charlemagne's sway, and was conquered by the modernHungarians shortly before A. D. 1000. 

PANOPTICON, a prison so arranged that the warder can see everyprisoner in charge without being seen by them. 

PANSLAVISM, the name given to a movement for union of all theSlavonic races in one nationality, a project which lags heavily owing tothe jealousy on the part of one section or another. 

PANTAGRUEL, the principal character of one of the two great works ofRabelais, and named after him; he and his father Gargantua figured astwo enormous giants, being personifications of royalty with itsinsatiable lust of territory and power. 

PANTHEISM, the doctrine or creed which affirms the immanency of Godin nature, or that God is within nature, but ignores or denies Histranscendency, or that He is above nature; distinguished from deism, which denies the former but affirms the latter, from theism, whichaffirms both, and from atheism, which denies both. 

PANTHEON, a temple in Rome, first erected by Agrippa, son-in-law ofAugustus, circular in form, 150 ft. In height, with niches all round forstatues of the gods, to whom in general it was dedicated; it is now achurch, and affords sepulture to illustrious men. Also a building inParis, originally intended to be a church in honour of the patron saintof Paris, but at the time of the Revolution converted into a receptaclefor the ashes of the illustrious dead, Mirabeau being its first occupant, and bearing this inscription, _Aux grands hommes la patriereconnaissant_; it was subsequently appropriated to other uses, but underthe third republic it became again a resting-place for the ashes ofeminent men. 

PANTOGRAPH, the name given to a contrivance for copying a drawing ora design on an enlarged or a reduced scale. 

PANURGE, one of the principal characters in the "Pantagruel" ofRabelais, an exceedingly crafty knave, a libertine, and a coward. 

PANZA, SANCHO, Don Quixote's squire, a squat, paunchy peasantendowed with rude common-sense, but incapable of imagination. 

PAOLI, PASQUALE DE, a Corsican patriot; sought to achieve theindependence of his country, but was defeated by the Genoese, aided byFrance, in 1769; took refuge in England, where he was well received andgranted a pension; returned to Corsica and became lieutenant-generalunder the French republic, raised a fresh insurrection, had George III. Proclaimed king, but failed to receive the viceroyalty, and returned toEngland, where he died a disappointed man (1726-1807). 

PAPAL STATES, a territory in the N. Of Italy extending irregularlyfrom Naples to the Po, at one time subject to the temporal sovereignty ofthe Pope, originating in a gift to his Holiness of Pepin the Short, andtaking shape as such about the 11th century, till in the 16th and 17thcenturies the papal power began to assert itself in the general politicsof Europe, and after being suppressed for a time by Napoleon it wasformally abolished by annexation of the territory to the crown ofSardinia in 1870. 

PAPHOS, the name of two ancient cities in the SW. Of Cyprus; theolder (now Kyklia) was a Phoenician settlement, in which afterwards stooda temple of Venus, who was fabled to have sprung from the sea-foam closeby; the other, 8 m. Westward, was the scene of Paul's interview withSergius Paulus and encounter with Elymas. 

PAPIAS, bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, who flourished in themiddle of the 2nd century, and wrote a book entitled "Exposition of theLord's Sayings, " fragments of which have been preserved by Eusebius andothers; he was, it is said, the companion of Polycarp. 

PAPIER-MÂCHE is a light, durable substance made from paper pulp orsheets of paper pasted together and variously treated with chemicals, heat, and pressure, largely used for ornamental trays, boxes, lightfurniture, &c. , in which it is varnished and decorated to resemblelacquer-work, and for architectural decoration, in which it is made toimitate plaster moulding; the manufacture was learned from the Easternnations. Persia, India, and Japan having been long familiar with it;America has adapted it to use for railroad wheels, &c. 

PAPIN, DENIS, French physicist, born at Blois, practised medicine atAngers; came to England and assisted Boyle in his experiments, made aspecial study of the expansive power of steam and its motive power, invented a steam-digester with a safety-valve, since called after him, for cooking purposes at a high temperature; became professor ofMathematics at Marburg (1647-1712). 

PAPINIANUS, ÆMILIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist; was put to death byCaracalla for refusing, it is said, when requested, to vindicate hisconduct in murdering his brother (142-212). 

PAPIRIUS, a Roman pontiff to whom is ascribed a collection of lawsconstituting the Roman code under the kings. 

PAPPENHEIM, COUNT VON, imperial general, born in Bavaria; played aprominent part in the Thirty Years' War; was distinguished for his zealas well as his successes on the Catholic side; was mortally wounded atLützen, expressed his gratitude to God when he learned that GustavasAdolphus, who fell in the same battle, had died before him (1594-1632). 

PAPPUS OF ALEXANDRIA, a Greek geometer of the third or fourthcentury, author of "Mathematical Collections, " in eight books, of whichthe first and second have been lost. 

PAPUANS, the name of the members of the negro race inhabitingcertain islands of Oceania, including New Guinea, New Hebrides, NewCaledonia, Fiji Islands, &c. 

PAPY`RUS, the Greek name of the Egyptian _papu_, is a kind of sedgegrowing 10 ft. High, with a soft triangular stem, the pith of which iseasily split into ribbons, found still in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, &c. ;the pith ribbons were the paper of the ancient Egyptians, of the Greeksafter Alexander, and of the later Romans; they were used by the Arabs ofthe 8th century, and in Europe till the 12th; at first long strips wererolled up, but later rectangular pages were cut and bound together bookfashion; though age has rendered the soft white pages brown and brittle, much ancient literature is still preserved on papyrus; the use of papyruswas superseded by that of parchment and rag-made paper. 

PARÁ (40), a Brazilian port at the mouth of the Guama, on the E. Shore of the Pará estuary, is a compact, regularly-built, thriving town, with whitewashed buildings, blue and white tiled roofs, tree-shadedstreets, tram-cars, telephones, theatre, and cathedral; it is theemporium of the Amazon trade, exporting india-rubber and cacao, andsending foreign goods into the interior; though hot, it is healthy. 

PARABLE, a short allegorical narrative intended to illustrate andconvey some spiritual instruction. 

PARABOLA, a conic section formed by the intersection of a cone by aplane parallel to one of its sides. 

PARACELSUS, a Swiss physician, alchemist, and mystic, whose realname was Theophrastus Bombastus, born at Einsiedeln, in Schwyz; was aviolent revolutionary in the medical art, and provoked much hostility, sothat he was driven to lead a wandering and unsettled life;notwithstanding, he contributed not a little, by his knowledge andpractice, to inaugurate a more scientific study of nature than till histime prevailed (1493-1541). 

PARAFFIN, name given by Baron Reichenbach to a transparentcrystalline substance obtained by distillation from wood, bituminouscoal, shale, &c. , and so called because it resists the action of thestrongest acids and alkalies. 

PARAGUAY (400), except Uruguay the smallest State in South America, is an inland Republic whose territories lie in the fork between thePilcomayo and Paraguay and the Paraná Rivers, with Argentina on the W. And S. , Bolivia on the N. , and Brazil on the N. And E. ; it is less thanhalf the size of Spain, consists of rich undulating plains, and, in theS. , of some of the most fertile land on the continent; the climate istemperate for the latitude; the population, Spanish, Indian, andhalf-caste, is Roman Catholic; education is free and compulsory; thecountry is rich in natural products, but without minerals; timber, dye-woods, rubber, Paraguay tea (a kind of holly), gums, fruits, wax, honey, cochineal, and many medicinal herbs are gathered for export;maize, rice, cotton, and tobacco are cultivated; the industries includesome tanning, brick-works, and lace-making; founded by Spain in 1535, Paraguay was the scene of an interesting experiment in the 17th century, when the country was governed wholly by the Jesuits, who, excluding allEuropean settlers, built up a fabric of Christian civilisation; they wereexpelled in 1768; in 1810 the country joined the revolt against Spain, and was the first to establish its independence; for 26 years it wasunder the government of Dr. Francia; from 1865 to 1870 it maintained aheroic but disastrous war against the Argentine, Brazil, and Uruguay, asa consequence of which the population fell from a million and a half to aquarter of a million; it is again prosperous and progressing. The capitalis Asunçion (18), at the confluence of the Pilcomayo and Paraguay. 

PARAGUAY RIVER, a South American river 1800 m. Long, the chieftributary of the Paraná, rises in some lakes near Matto Grosso, Brazil, and flows southward through marshy country till it forms the boundarybetween Brazil and Bolivia, then traversing Paraguay, it becomes theboundary between that State and the Argentine Republic, and finallyenters the Paraná above Corrientes; it receives many affluents, and isnavigable by ocean steamers almost to its source. 

PARAKLETE, the Holy Spirit which Christ promised to His discipleswould take His place as their teacher and guide after He left them. Alsothe name of the monastery founded by Abelard near Nogent-sur-Seine, andof which HELOÏSE (q. V. ) was abbess. 

PARALLAX, an astronomical term to denote an apparent change in theposition of a heavenly body due to a change in the position or assumedposition of the observer. 

PARAMAR`IBO (24), the capital of Dutch Guiana, on the Surinam, 10 m. From the sea, and the centre of the trade of the colony. 

PARAMO, the name given to an elevated track of desert on the Andes. 

PARANÁ RIVER, a great river of South America, formed by theconfluence of the Rio Grande and the Paranahyba, in SE. Brazil, flows SW. Through Brazil and round the SE. Border of Paraguay, then receiving theParaguay River, turns S. Through the Argentine, then E. Till the junctionof the Uruguay forms the estuary of the Plate. The river is broad andrapid, 2000 m. Long, more than half of it navigable from the sea; at theconfluence of the Yguassu it enters a narrow gorge, and for 100 m. Formsone of the most remarkable rapids in the world; the chief towns on itsbanks are in the Argentine, viz. Corrientes, Santa Fé, and Rosario. 

PARCÆ, the Roman name of the THREE FATES (q. V. ), derivedfrom "pars, " a part, as apportioning to every individual his destiny. 

PARCHMENT consists of skins specially prepared for writing on, andis so called from a king of Pergamos, who introduced it when the exportof papyrus from Egypt was stopped; the skins used are of sheep, for fineparchment or vellum, of calves, goats, and lambs; parchment for drumheadsis made from calves' and asses' skins. 

PARCS-AUX-CERFS, the French name for clearings to provide huntingfields for the French aristocracy prior to the Revolution. 

PARÉ, AMBROISE, great French surgeon, born at Laval; was from theimproved methods he introduced in the treatment of surgical casesentitled to be called, as he has been, the father of modern surgery, forhis success as an operator, in particular the tying of divided arteriesand the treatment of gunshot wounds; he was in the habit of saying of anypatient he had successfully operated upon, "I cared for him; God healedhim"; his writings exercised a beneficent influence on the treatment ofsurgical cases in all lands (1517-1590). 

PARIAH, a Hindu of the lowest class, and of no caste; of the classthey are of various grades, but all are outcast, and treated as such. 

PARIS (2, 448), the capital of France, in the centre of the northernhalf of the country, on both banks of the Seine, and on two islands (LaCité and St. Louis) in the middle, 110 m. From the sea; is the largestcity on the Continent, and one of the most beautiful in the world. Nocity has finer or gayer streets, or so many noble buildings. The Hôtel deCluny and the Hôtel de Sens are rare specimens of 15th-century civicarchitecture. The Palace of the Tuileries, on the right bank of theSeine, dates from the 16th century, and was the royal residence till theRevolution. Connected with it is the Louvre, a series of galleries ofpainting, sculpture, and antiquities, whose contents form one of therichest collections existing, and include the peerless "Venus de Milo. "The Palais Royal encloses a large public garden, and consists of shops, restaurants, the Théâtre Français, and the Royal Palace of the Orleansfamily. South of the river is the Luxembourg, where the Senate meets, andon the Ile de la Cité stands the Palais de Justice and the Conciergerie, one of the oldest Paris prisons. St. -Germain-des-Prés is the most ancientchurch, but the most important is the cathedral of Notre Dame, 12thcentury, which might tell the whole history of France could it speak. Saint-Chapelle is said to be the finest Gothic masterpiece extant. ThePantheon, originally meant for a church, is the burial-place of the greatmen of the country, where lie the remains of Voltaire, Rousseau, andCarnot. The oldest hospitals are the Hôtel Dieu, La Charité, and LaPitié. The University Schools in the Quartier Latin attract the youth ofall France; the chief are the Schools of Medicine and Law, the ScotchCollege, the College of France, and the Sorbonne, the seat of thefaculties of letters, science, and Protestant theology. Triumphal archesare prominent in the city. There are many museums and charitableinstitutions; the Bibliothèque Nationale, in the Rue Richelieu, rivalsthe British Museum in numbers of books and manuscripts. The Palace ofIndustry and the Eiffel Tower commemorate the exhibitions of 1854 and1889 respectively. Great market-places stand in various parts of thecity. The Rue de Rivoli, Rue de la Paix, Rue du Faubourg St. -Honoré, andthe Rue Royale are among the chief streets; beautiful squares arenumerous, the most noted being the Place de la Concorde, between theChamps Elysées and the Gardens of the Tuileries, in the centre of whichthe Obelisk of Luxor stands on the site of the guillotine at which LouisXVI. And Marie Antoinette, Philippe Egalité, Danton, and Robespierredied. Boulevards lined with trees run to the outskirts of the city. Themany roads, railways, canals, and rivers which converge on Paris havemade it the most important trading centre in France, and the concourse ofwealthy men of all nations has given it a high place in the financialworld. It is a manufacturing city, producing jewellery, ornamentalfurniture, and all sorts of artistic "articles de Paris. " The centre ofFrench, and indeed European, fashion, it is noted for its pleasure andgaiety. The concentration of Government makes it the abode of countlessofficials. It is strongly fortified, being surrounded by a ring of forts, and a wall 22 m. Long, at the 56 gates of which the octroi dues arelevied. The Préfect of the Seine, appointed by the Government, andadvised by a large council, is the head of the municipality, of thepolice and fire brigades, cleansing, draining, and water-supplydepartments. The history of Paris is the history of France, for thenational life has been, and is, in an extraordinary degree centred in thecapital. It was the scene of the great tragic drama of the Revolution, and of the minor struggles of 1830 and 1849. In recent times its greathumiliation was its siege and capture by the Germans in 1870-71. 

PARIS, the second son of Priam and Hecuba; was exposed on Mount Idaat his birth; brought up by a shepherd; distinguished himself by hisprowess, by which his parentage was revealed; married OENONË (q. V. );appealed to to decide to whom the "apple of discord" belonged, gaveit to Aphrodité in preference to her two rivals Hera and Athena; waspromised in return that he should receive the most beautiful woman in theworld to wife, Helen of Sparta, whom he carried off to Greece, and whichled to the TROJAN WAR (q. V. ); slew Achilles, and was mortallywounded by the poisoned arrows of Hercules. 

PARIS, MATTHEW, English chronicler; a Benedictine monk of St. Albans; author of "Chronica Majora, " which contains a history written inLatin of England from the Conquest to the year in which he died(1195-1259). 

PARK, MUNGO, African traveller, born at Foulshiels, near Selkirk;was apprenticed to a surgeon, and studied medicine at Edinburgh; 1791-93he spent in a voyage to Sumatra, and in 1795 went for the first time toAfrica under the auspices of the African Association of London; startingfrom the Gambia he penetrated eastward to the Niger, then westward toKamalia, where illness seized him; conveyed to his starting-point by aslave-trader, he returned to England and published "Travels in theInterior of Africa, " 1799; he married and settled to practice at Peebles, but he was not happy till in 1805 he set out for Africa again atGovernment expense; starting from Pisania he reached the Niger, andsending back his journals attempted to descend the river in a canoe, but, attacked by natives, the canoe overturned; and he and his companions weredrowned (1771-1805). 

PARKER, JOHN HENRY, archæologist and writer on architecture;originally a London publisher, his chief work the "Archæology of Rome, "in nine vols. , a subject to which he devoted much study (1800-1884). 

PARKER, JOSEPH, an eminent Nonconformist divine, born in Hexham;minister of the City Temple; a vigorous and popular preacher, and theauthor of numerous works bearing upon biblical theology and the defenceof it; his _magnum opus_ is the "People's Bible, " of which 25 vols. Arealready complete; _b_. 1830. 

PARKER, MATTHEW, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Norwich; was aFellow of Cambridge; embraced the Protestant doctrines; became Master ofCorpus Christi College, Oxford; was chaplain to Anne Boleyn, and madeDean of Ely by Edward VI. ; was deprived of his offices under Mary, butmade Primate under Elizabeth, and the Bishop's Bible was translated andissued under his auspices (1504-1575). 

PARKER, THEODORE, an American preacher and lecturer; adopted andprofessed the Unitarian creed, but discarded it, like Emerson, for astill more liberal; distinguished himself in the propagation of it by hislectures as well as his writings; was a vigorous anti-slavery agitator, and in general a champion of freedom; died at Florence while on a tourfor his health (1810-1860). 

PARKMAN, FRANCIS, American historian, born in Boston; his writingsvaluable, particularly in their bearing on the dominion of the French inAmerica, its rise, decline, and fall (1823-1893). 

PARLEMENT, the name given to the local courts of justice in Franceprior to the Revolution, in which the edicts of the king required to beregistered before they became laws; given by pre-eminence to the one inParis, composed of lawyers, or gentlemen of the long robe, as they werecalled, whose action the rest uniformly endorsed, and which played animportant part on the eve of the Revolution, and contributed to furtherthe outbreak of it, to its own dissolution in the end. 

PARLIAMENT is the name of the great legislative council of Britainrepresenting the three estates of the realm--Clergy, Lords, and Commons. The Clergy are represented in the Upper House by the archbishops andbishops of sees founded prior to 1846, in number 26; the rest of theUpper House comprises the dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and baronsof the peerage of Great Britain who sit in virtue of their titles, andrepresentatives of the Scotch and Irish peerages elected for life; thetotal membership is over 550; the House of Lords may initiate any billnot a money bill, it does not deal with financial measures at all exceptto give its formal assent; it also revises bills passed by the Commons, and may reject these. Of late years this veto has come to be exercisedonly in cases where it seems likely that the Commons do not retain theconfidence of the people, having thus the effect of referring thequestion for the decision of the constituencies. The Lords constitute thefinal court of appeal in all legal questions, but in exercising thisfunction only those who hold or have held high judicial office take part. The House of Commons comprises 670 representatives of the people; itsmembers represent counties, divisions of counties, burghs, wards ofburghs, and universities, and are elected by owners of land and byoccupiers of land or buildings of £10 annual rental who are commoners, males, of age, and not disqualified by unsoundness of mind, convictionfor crime, or receipt of parochial relief. The Commons initiates most ofthe legislation, deals with bills already initiated and passed by theLords, inquires into all matters of public concern, discusses anddetermines imperial questions, and exercises the sole right to votesupplies of money. To become law bills must pass the successive stages offirst and second reading, committee, and third reading in both Houses, and receive the assent of the sovereign, which has not been refused fornearly two centuries. 

PARLIAMENT, THE LONG, the name given to the last English Parliamentconvoked by Charles I. In 1640, dissolved by Cromwell in 1653, andrecalled twice after the death of the Protector before it finally gave upthe ghost. 

PARLIAMENT OF DUNCES, name given to a parliament held at Coventry byHenry IV. In 1494, because no lawyer was allowed to sit in it. 

PARLIAMENTARIAN, one who, in the English Civil War, supported thecause of the Parliament against the king. 

PARMA (44), a cathedral and university town in N. Italy, on theParma, a tributary of the Po, 70 m. NE. Of Genoa; is rich in arttreasures, has a school of music, picture-gallery, and museum ofantiquities; it manufactures pianofortes, silks, and woollens, and has acattle and grain market; Parma was formerly the capital of the duchy ofthat name; it was the residence of Correggio as well as the birthplace ofParmigiano. 

PARMENION, an able and much-esteemed Macedonian general, distinguished as second in command at Granicus, Issus, and Arbela, butwhom Alexander in some fit of jealousy and under unfounded suspicioncaused to be assassinated in Media. 

PARMENIDES, a distinguished Greek philosopher of the Eleatic school, who flourished in the 5th century B. C. ; his system was developed by himin the form of an epic poem, in which he demonstrates the existence of anAbsolute which is unthinkable, because it is without limits, and which heidentifies with thought, as the one in the many. 

PARMIGIANO, a Lombard painter whose proper name was GirolamoMazzola, born at Parma; went to Rome when 19 and obtained the patronageof Clement VII. ; after the storming of the city in 1527, during which hesat at work in his studio, he went to Bologna, and four years laterreturned to his native city; failing to implement a contract to paintfrescoes he was imprisoned, and on his release retired to Casalmaggiore, where he died; in style he followed Correggio, and is best known by his"Cupid shaping a Bow" (1504-1540). 

PARNASSUS, a mountain in Phocis, 10 m. N. Of the Gulf of Corinth, 8000 ft. High, one of the chief seats of Apollo and the Muses, and aninspiring source of poetry and song, with the oracle of Delphi and theCastalian spring on its slopes; it was conceived of by the Greeks as inthe centre of the earth. 

PARNELL, CHARLES STUART, Irish Home-Ruler, born at Avondale, inWicklow; was practically the dictator of his party for a time and carriedmatters with a high hand, but at the height of his popularity he suffereda fall, and his death, which was sudden, happened soon after (1846-1891). 

PARNELL, THOMAS, English minor poet of the Queen Anne period, bornin Dublin, of a Cheshire family; studied at Trinity College, took orders, and became archdeacon of Clogher; is best known as the author of "TheHermit, " though his odes "The Night-Piece on Death" and the "Hymn toContentment" are of more poetic worth; he was the friend of Swift andPope, and a member of the Scriblerus Club (1679-1718). 

PAROS (7), one of the Cyclades, lying between Naxos and Siphanto, exports wine, figs, and wool; in a quarry near the summit of Mount St. Elias the famous Parian marble is still cut; the capital is Paroekia (2). 

PARR, CATHERINE, sixth wife of Henry VIII. , daughter of Sir ThomasParr of Kendal, was a woman of learning and great discretion, acquiredgreat power over the king, persuaded him to consent to the succession ofhis daughters, and surviving him, married her former suitor Sir ThomasSeymour, and died from the effects of childbirth the year after(1512-1548). 

PARR, SAMUEL, a famous classical scholar, born at Harrow; becamehead-master of first Colchester and then Norwich Grammar-School and aprebend of St. Paul's; he had an extraordinary memory and was a greattalker; he was a good Latinist, but nothing he has left justifies thehigh repute in which he was held by his contemporaries (1747-1825). 

PARR, THOMAS, called OLD PARR, a man notable for his long life, being said to have lived 152 years and 9 months, from 1483 to 1635. 

PARRAMATTA (12), next to Sydney, from which it is 14 m. W. , theoldest town in New South Wales; manufactures colonial tweeds andParramatta cloths, and is in the centre of orange groves and fruitgardens. 

PARRHASIUS, a gifted painter of ancient Greece, born at Ephesus;came to Athens and became the rival of Zeuxis; he was the contemporary ofSocrates and a man of an arrogant temper; his works were characterised bythe pains bestowed on them. 

PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD, celebrated Arctic explorer, born at Bath;visited the Arctic Seas under Ross in 1818, conducted a second expeditionhimself in 1819-20, a third in 1821-23, a fourth in 1824-26 with unequalsuccess, and a fifth in 1827 in quest of the North Pole _viâ_Spitzbergen, in which he was baffled by an adverse current; receivedsundry honours for his achievements; died governor of Greenwich Hospital, and left several accounts of his voyages (1790-1855). 

PARSEES (i. E. Inhabitants of Pars or Persia), a name given to thedisciples of Zoroaster or their descendants in Persia and India, andsometimes called Guebres; in India they number some 90, 000, are to befound chiefly in the Bombay Presidency, form a wealthy community, and areengaged mostly in commerce; in religion they incline to deism, and payhomage to the sun as the symbol of the deity; they neither bury theirdead nor burn them, but expose them apart in the open air, where they areleft till the flesh is eaten away and only the bones remain, to beremoved afterwards for consignment to a subterranean cavern. 

PARSIFAL, the hero of the legend of the HOLY GRAIL (q. V. ), and identified with GALAHAD (q. V. ) in the Arthurian legend. 

PARSON ADAMS, a simple-minded 18th-century clergyman in Fielding's"Joseph Andrews. "

PARSONS, ROBERT, English Jesuit, born in Somersetshire, educated atOxford and a Fellow of Balliol College; he became a convert to RomanCatholicism and entered the Society of Jesus in 1575; conceived the ideaof reclaiming England from her Protestant apostasy, and embarked on theenterprise in 1580, but found it too hot for him, and had to escape tothe Continent; after this he busied himself partly in intrigues to forceEngland into submission and partly in organising seminaries abroad forEnglish Roman Catholics, and became head of one at Rome, where he died;he appears to have been a Jesuit to the backbone, and to have served thecause of Jesuitry with his whole soul (1546-1610). 

PARTHENOGENESIS, name given to asexual reproduction, that is, toreproduction of plants or animals by means of unimpregnated germs or ova. 

PARTHENON, a celebrated temple of the Doric order at Athens, dedicated to Athena, and constructed under Phidias of the marble ofPentelicus, and regarded as the finest specimen of Greek architecturethat exists; it is 228 ft. In length and 64 ft. In height. Parthenonmeans the chamber of the maiden goddess, that is, Athena. 

PARTHENOPE, in the Greek mythology one of the three SIRENS(q. V. ), threw herself into the sea because her love for Ulysses wasnot returned, and was drowned; her body was washed ashore at Naples, which was called Parthenope after her name. 

PARTHIA, an ancient country corresponding to Northern Persia; wasinhabited by a people of Scythian origin, who adopted the Aryan speechand manners, and subsequently yielded much to Greek influence; afterbeing tributary successively to Assyria, Media, Persia, Alexander theGreat, and Syria, they set up an independent kingdom in 250 B. C. In twogreat contests with Rome they made the empire respect their prowess;between 53 and 36 B. C. They defeated Crassus in Mesopotamia, conqueredSyria and Palestine, and inflicted disaster on Mark Antony in Armenia;the renewal of hostilities by Trajan in A. D. 115 brought more variedfortunes, but they extorted a tribute of 50, 000, 000 denarii from theEmperor Macrinus in 218. Ctesiphon was their capital; the Euphrates laybetween them and Rome; they were over thrown by Ardashir of Persia in224. The Parthians were famous horse-archers, and in retreat shot theirarrows backwards often with deadly effect on a pursuing enemy. 

PARTICK (36), a western suburb of Glasgow, has numerous villas, andits working population is very largely engaged in shipbuilding. 

PARTINGTON, MRS. , an imaginary lady, the creation of the Americanhumorist Shillaber, distinguished for her misuse of learned words; alsoanother celebrity who attempted to sweep back the Atlantic with her mop, the type of those who think to stave back the inevitable. 

PASCAL, BLAISE, illustrious French thinker and writer, born atClermont, in Auvergne; was distinguished at once as a mathematician, aphysicist, and a philosopher; at 16 wrote a treatise on conic sections, which astonished Descartes; at 18 invented a calculating machine; heafterwards made experiments in pneumatics and hydrostatics, by which hisname became associated with those of Torricelli and Boyle; an accidentwhich befell him turned his thoughts to religious subjects, and in 1654he retired to the convent of PORT ROYAL (q. V. ), where he spentas an ascetic the rest of his days, and wrote his celebrated "ProvincialLetters" in defence of the Jansenists against the Jesuits, and his noless famous "Pensées, " which were published after his death; "his greatweapon in polemics, " says Prof. Saintsbury, "is polite irony, which hefirst brought to perfection, and in the use of which he has hardly beenequalled, and has certainly not been surpassed since" (1623-1662). 

PAS-DE-CALAIS, the French name for the Strait of Dover; also thename of the adjacent department of France. 

PASHA, a Turkish title, originally bestowed on princes of the blood, but now extended to governors of provinces and prominent officers in thearmy and navy. 

PASIPHAË, the wife of MINOS (q. V. ) and mother of theMINOTAUR (q. V. ). 

PASKIEVITCH, a Russian general, born at Poltava; took part inrepelling the French in 1812, defeated the Persians in 1826-27 and theTurks in 1828-29; suppressed a Polish insurrection in 1831 and a Magyarrevolution in 1849; was wounded at Silistria in 1854 and resigned(1782-1856). 

PASQUINO, a cobbler or tailor who lived in Rome at the end of the15th century, notable for his witty and sarcastic sayings, near whoseshop after his death a fragment of a statue was dug up and named afterhim, on which, as representing him, the Roman populace claim to this day, it would seem, the privilege of placarding jibes against particularly theecclesiastical authorities of the place, hence Pasquinade. 

PASSAU (17), a Bavarian fortified town, situated at the confluenceof the Inn and the Danube, 105 m. E. Of Münich by rail; is a picturesqueplace, strategically important, with manufactures of leather, porcelain, and parquet, and trade in salt and corn. 

PASSING-BELL, a bell tolled at the moment of the death of a personto invite his neighbours to pray for the safe passing of his soul. 

PASSION PLAY, a dramatic representation of the several stages in thepassion of Christ. 

PASSION SUNDAY, the fifth Sunday in Lent, which is succeeded by whatis called the Passion Week. 

PASSION WEEK is properly the week preceding Holy Week, but in commonEnglish usage the name is given to Holy Week itself, i. E. To the weekimmediately preceding Easter, commemorating Christ's passion. 

PASSIONISTS, an order of priests, called of the Holy Cross, foundedin 1694 by Paul Francisco, of the Cross in Sardinia, whose mission it isto preach the Passion of Christ and bear witness to its spirit andimport, and who have recently established themselves in England andAmerica; they are noted for their austerity. 

PASSOVER, the chief festival of the Jews in commemoration of thepassing of the destroying angel over the houses of the Israelites on thenight when he slew the first-born of the Egyptians; it was celebrated inApril, lasted eight days, only unleavened bread was used in itsobservance, and a lamb roasted whole was eaten with bitter herbs, thepartakers standing and road-ready as on their departure from the land ofbondage. 

PASSOW, FRANZ, German philologist, born in Mecklenburg, professor atBreslau; his chief work "Hand-Wörterbuch der Griechischen Sprache"; anauthority in subsequent Greek lexicography (1786-1833). 

PASTA, JUDITH, a famous Italian operatic singer, born near Milan, ofJewish birth; her celebrity lasted from 1822 to 1835, after which sheretired into private life; she had a voice of great compass (1798-1865). 

PASTEUR, LOUIS, an eminent French chemist, born at Dôle, in dep. OfJura, celebrated for his studies and discoveries in fermentation, andalso for his researches in hydrophobia and his suggestion of inoculationas a cure; the Pasteur Institute in Paris was the scene of his researchesfrom 1886 (1822-1895). 

PASTON LETTERS, a series of letters and papers, over a thousand innumber, belonging to a Norfolk family of the name, and published by SirJohn Fenn over a century ago, dating from the reign of Henry V. To theclose of the reign of Henry VII. ; of importance in connection with thepolitical and social history of the period. 

PASTORAL STAFF, a bishop's staff with a crooked head, symbolical ofhis authority and function as a shepherd in spiritual matters of thesouls in his diocese. 

PATAGONIA is the territory at the extreme S. Of South America, lyingbetween the Rio Colorado and the Strait of Magellan. Chilian Patagonia isa narrow strip W. Of the Andes, with a broken coast-line, many rockyislands and peninsulas. Its climate is temperate but very rainy, and muchof it is covered with dense forests which yield valuable timber; coal isfound at Punta Arenas on the Strait. The population (3) consists chieflyof migratory Araucanian Indians and the Chilian settlers at Punta Arenas. Eastern or Argentine Patagonia is an extensive stretch of undulatingplateaux intersected by ravines, swept by cold W. Winds, and rainless foreight months of the year. The base of the Andes is fertile andforest-clad, the river valleys can be cultivated, but most of the plainsare covered with coarse grass or sparse scrub, and there are some utterlydesolate regions. Lagoons abound, and there are many rivers runningeastward from the Andes. Herds of horses and cattle are bred on thepampas. The Indians of this region (7) are among the tallest races of theworld. There are 2000 settlers at Patagones on the Rio Negro, and a Welshcolony on the Chubut. 

PATANJALI is the name of two ancient Indian authors, of whom one isthe author of the "Yoga, " a theistic system of philosophy, and the otherof a criticism on the Sanskrit grammarian Pánini. 

PATCHOULI, a perfume with a strong odour, derived from the driedroots of an Indian plant introduced into the country in 1844. 

PATER, WALTER HORATIO, an English prose-writer, specially studiousof word, phrase, and style, born in London; studied at Oxford, and becamea Fellow of Brasenose College; lived chiefly in London; wrote studies inthe "History of the Renaissance, " "Marcus the Epicurean, " "ImaginaryPortraits, " "Appreciations, " along with an essay on "Style"; literarycriticism was his forte (1839-1894). 

PATERCULUS, MARCUS VELLEIUS, a Latin historian of the 1st century, author of an epitome, especially of Roman history, rather disfigured byundue flattery of Tiberius his patron, as well as of Cæsar and Augustus. 

PATERSON, ROBERT, the original of Scott's "Old Mortality, " astone-mason, born near Hawick; devoted 40 years of his life to restoringand erecting monumental stones to the memory of the Scotch Covenanters(1712-1801). 

PATERSON, WILLIAM, a famous financier, born in Tinwald parish, Dumfriesshire; originated the Bank of England, projected the ill-fatedDarien scheme, and lost all in the venture, though he recoveredcompensation afterwards, an indemnity for his losses of £18, 000; he was along-headed Scot, skilful in finance and in matters of trade (1658-1719). 

PATHOS, the name given to an expression of deep feeling, andcalculated to excite similar feelings in others. 

PATLOCK, ROBERT, English novelist, author of "Peter Wilkins, " anexquisite production; the heroine, the flying girl Youwarkee (1697-1767). 

PATMORE, COVENTRY, English poet, born in Essex, best known as theauthor of "The Angel in the House, " a poem in praise of domestic bliss, succeeded by others, superior in some respects, of which "The UnknownEros" is by many much admired; he was a Roman Catholic by religiousprofession (1823-1896). 

PATMOS, a barren rocky island in the Ægean Sea, S. Of Samos, 28 m. In circuit, where St. John suffered exile, and where it is said he wrotethe Apocalypse. 

PATNA (165), the seventh city of India, in Bengal, at the junctionof the Son, the Gandak, and the Ganges; is admirably situated forcommerce; has excellent railway communication, and trades largely incotton, oil-seeds, and salt. It is a poor city with narrow streets, andexcept the Government buildings, Patna College, a Roman Catholiccathedral, and a mosque, has scarcely any good buildings. At Dinapur, itsmilitary station, 6 m. To the W. , mutiny broke out in 1857. It is famousfor its rice, but this is largely a re-export. 

PATOIS, a name the French give to a corrupt dialect of a languagespoken in a remote province of a country. 

PATON, JOHN GIBSON, missionary to the New Hebrides, son of astocking-weaver of Kirkmahoe, Dumfriesshire; after some work in GlasgowCity Mission was ordained by the Reformed Presbyterian Church, andlaboured in Tanna and Aniwa for twenty-five years; his account of hiswork was published in 1890; _b_. 1824. 

PATON SIR JOSEPH NOEL, poet and painter, born at Dunfermline; becamea pattern designer, but afterwards studied in Edinburgh and London, anddevoted himself to art; his early subjects were mythical and legendary, later they have been chiefly religious; he was appointed Queen's Limnerfor Scotland in 1865, knighted in 1867, and in 1876 received his LL. D. From Edinburgh University; his "Quarrel" and "Reconciliation of Oberonand Titania" are in the National Gallery, Edinburgh; the illustrations ofthe "Dowie Dens o' Yarrow, " and the series of religious allegories, "Pursuit of Pleasure, " "Lux in Tenebris, " "Faith and Reason, " &c. , arefamiliar through the engravings; "Poems by a Painter" appeared in 1861;_b_. 1821. 

PATRAS (37), on the NW. Corner of the Morean Peninsula, on theshores of the Gulf of Patras; has a fine harbour; is the chief westernport of Greece, shipping currants, olive-oil, and wine, and importingtextiles, machinery, and coal; it is a handsome city, in the presentcentury rebuilt and fortified. 

PATRIARCH, in Church history is the name given originally to thebishops of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, and later to those also ofConstantinople and Jerusalem, who held a higher rank than other bishops, and exercised a certain authority over the bishops in their districts. The title is in vogue in the Greek, Syrian, Armenian, and other Churches. It was originally given to the chief of a race or clan, the members ofwhich were called after him. 

PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS, the two classes into which, from theearliest times, the population of the Roman State was divided, the formerof which possessed rights and privileges not conceded to the latter, andstood to them as patrons to clients, like the baron of the Middle Ages tothe vassals. This inequality gave rise to repeated and often protractedstruggles in the commonalty, during which the latter gradually encroachedon the rights of the former till the barrier in civic status, and even insocial to some extent, was as good as abolished, and members of theplebeian class were eligible to the highest offices and dignities of theState. 

PATRICK, ORDER OF ST. , an Irish order of knighthood, founded in 1783by George III. , comprising the sovereign, the Lord-Lieutenant, andtwenty-two knights, and indicated by the initial letters K. P. 

PATRICK, ST. , the apostle and patron saint of Ireland; hisbirthplace uncertain; flourished in the 5th century; his mission, whichextended over great part of Ireland, and over thirty or forty years oftime, was eminently successful, and at the end of it he was buried inDownpatrick, henceforth a spot regarded as a sacred one. Various miraclesare ascribed to him, and among the number the extirpation from the soilof all venomous reptiles. 

PATRICK, SIMON, English prelate; distinguished himself, when he wasrector of St. Paul's, by his self-denying devotion during the Plague ofLondon; became bishop in succession of Chichester and Ely, and was theauthor of a number of expository works (1652-1707). 

PATRISTIC LITERATURE, the name given to the writings of the earlyFathers of the Christian Church. 

PATROCLUS, a friend of Achilles, who accompanied him to the TrojanWar, and whose death by the hand of Hector roused Achilles out of hissullenness, and provoked him to avenge the deed in the death of Hector. 

PATTESON, JOHN COLERIDGE, bishop of Melanesia, grand-nephew ofColeridge; a devoted bishop, in material things no less than spiritual, among the Melanesian islanders; was murdered, presumably through mistake, by the natives of one of the Santa Cruz groups (1827-1871). 

PATTI, ADELINA, prima donna, born in Madrid, of Italian extraction;made her first appearance at New York in 1859, and in London at CoventGarden, as Amina in "La Somnambula, " in 1861, and has since made theround once and again of the Continent and America, North and South; hasbeen married three times, being divorced by her first husband, and livesat Craig-y-nos Castle, near Swansea, Wales; _b_. 1843. 

PATTISON, MARK, a distinguished English scholar, born at Hornby, Yorkshire; studied at Oxford, and was for a time carried away with theTractarian Movement, but when his interest in it died out he gave himselfto literature and philosophy; wrote in the famous "Essays and Reviews" apaper on "The Tendency of Religious Thought in England"; became rector ofLincoln College, Oxford; wrote his chief literary work, a "Life of IsaacCasaubon, " a mere fragment of what it lay in him to do, and left anautobiography, which revealed a wounded spirit which no vulnerary knownto him provided by the pharmacopoeia of earth or heaven could heal(1813-1889). 

PATTISON'S PROCESS, the name of a process for desilverising lead, dependent on the fact that lead which has least silver in it solidifiesfirst on liquefaction. 

PAU (31), chief town of the French province of Basses-Pyrénées, onthe Gave de Pau, 60 m. E. Of Bayonne; is situated amid magnificentmountain scenery, and is a favourite winter resort for the English; linenand chocolate are manufactured; it was the capital of Navarre, and has amagnificent castle; it stands on the edge of a high plateau, and commandsa majestic view of the Pyrenees on the S. 

PAUILLAC, a port for Bordeaux, on the left bank of the Gironde. 

PAUL, the name of five popes: PAUL I. , Pope from 757 to 797;PAUL II. , pope from 1464 to 1471; PAUL III. , Pope from 1534 to1549, was zealous against the Protestant cause, excommunicated HenryVIII. In 1536, sanctioned the Jesuit order in 1540, convened and convokedthe Council of Trent in 1545; PAUL IV. , Pope from 1555 to 1559, originally an ascetic, was zealous for the best interests of the Churchand public morality, established the Inquisition at Rome, and issued thefirst _Index Expurgatorius_; PAUL V. , Pope from 1605 to 1621, hispontificate distinguished by protracted strife with the Venetianrepublic, arising out of the claim of the clergy for immunity from thecivil tribunals, and which was brought to an end through the interventionof Henry IV. Of France in 1607; it need not be added that he was zealousfor orthodoxy, like his predecessors. 

PAUL, ST. , originally called Saul, the great Apostle of theGentiles, born at Tarsus, in Cilicia, by birth a Jew and a Roman citizen;trained to severity by Gamaliel at Jerusalem in the Jewish faith, and fora time the bitter persecutor of the Christians, till, on his way toDamascus, in the prosecution of his hostile purposes, the overpoweringconviction flashed upon him that he was fighting against the cause that, as a Jew, he should have embraced, and which he was at once smitten withzeal to further, as the one cause on which hinged the salvation, not ofthe Jews only, but of the whole world. He did more for the extension, ifnot the exposition, of the Christian faith at its first promulgation thanany of the Apostles, and perhaps all of them together, and it isquestionable if but for him it would have become, as it has become, theprofessed religion of the most civilised section of the world. 

PAUL I. , Czar of Russia, son of the Empress Catharine II. , and hersuccessor in 1796; was a despotic and arbitrary ruler; fought with theallies against France, but entered into an alliance with Napoleon in1799; was murdered by certain of his nobles as he was being forced toabdicate (1734-1801). 

PAUL AND VIRGINIA, a celebrated novel by Saint-Pierre, written onthe eve of the French Revolution, in which "there rises melodiously, asit were, the wail of a moribund world: everywhere wholesome Nature inunequal conflict with diseased, perfidious art; cannot escape from it inthe lowest hut, in the remotest island of the sea"; it records the fateof a child of nature corrupted by the false, artificial sentimentalitythat prevailed at the time among the upper classes of France. 

PAUL SAMOSATA, so called as born at Samosata, on the Euphrates, aheresiarch who denied the doctrine of three persons in one God, wasbishop of Antioch, under the sway of Zenobia, but deposed on her defeatby Aurelian in 272. 

PAULDING, American writer, born in New York State; author of"History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan, " and the novels "TheDutchman's Fireside" and "Westward Ho" (1779-1860). 

PAULI, REINHOLD, German historian of England, born in Berlin;studied much in England, and became professor of History at Göttingen;wrote "Life of King Alfred, " "History of England from the Accession ofHenry II. To the Death of Henry VII. , " "Pictures of Old England, " and"Simon de Montfort" (1823-1882). 

PAULICIANS, a heretical sect founded by Constantine of Mananalisabout A. D. 660 in Armenia, and persisting in spite of severepersecution, were transferred to Thrace in 970, where remnants were foundas late as the 13th century; they held that an evil spirit was thecreator and god of this world, and that God was the ruler of the next;they refused to ascribe divinity to Christ, to worship Mary, to reverencethe cross, or observe the sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist; their namewas derived from the special regard in which they held the writings ofSt. Paul, from which they professed to derive their tenets; they werecharged with Manichæism, but they indignantly repudiated the imputation. 

PAULINE, Browning's first poem, written at 19 and published at 21, "breathless, intense, melodramatic, " says Professor Saintsbury, "eschewing incident, but delighting in analysis, which was to be one ofthe poet's points throughout, and ultimately to prevail over the others. "

PAULINUS, the first archbishop of York, sent in company withAugustin from Rome by Gregory to Britain in 601: laboured partly in Kentand partly in Northumbria, and persuaded Edwin of Northumbria to embraceChristianity in 629; _d_. 644. 

PAULUS, HEINRICH, one of the founders of German rationalism, bornnear Stuttgart; held in succession sundry professorships; denied themiraculous in the Scripture history, and invented ingenious rationalexplanations, now out of date (1761-1851). 

PAUSANIAS, a famous Spartan general, the grandson of Leonidas, who, as commander-in-chief of the Greeks, overthrew the Persian army underMardonius at Platæa in 479, but who, elated by this and other successes, aimed at the sovereignty of Greece by alliance with Xerxes, and beingdiscovered, took refuge in a temple at Athens, where he was blockaded andstarved to death in 477 B. C. , his mother throwing the first stone of thepile that was cast up to bar his exit. 

PAUSANIAS, a Greek traveller and topographer, lived during thereigns of Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius; wrote an "Itinerary of Greece"in 10 books, the fruit of his own peregrinations, full of descriptions ofgreat value both to the historian and the antiquary. 

PAVIA (30), on the Ticino, in Lombardy, is an imposing "city of ahundred towers, " with little industry or commerce; in its unfinishedcathedral St. Augustine was buried; San Michele, where the early kings ofItaly were crowned, dates from the 7th century; the University wasfounded by Charlemagne, and has now attached to it colleges for poorstudents, a library, museum, botanic garden, and school of art; stormedby Napoleon in 1796, Pavia was in Austrian possession from 1814 till itsinclusion in the kingdom of Italy 1859. 

PAXTON, SIR JOSEPH, architect of the Crystal Palace, born inBedfordshire, was originally a gardener in the service of the Duke ofDevonshire, and promoted to the charge of the duke's gardens atChatsworth, where he displayed the architectural ability in theconstruction of large glass conservatories which developed itself in theconstruction of the Great Exhibition of 1851, for which he received thehonour of knighthood (1803-1865). 

PAYN, JAMES, English novelist, born at Cheltenham; edited_Chambers's Journal_ and _Cornhill Magazine_; his novels were numerousand of average quality, "Lost Sir Massingberd" and "By Proxy" among themost successful (1830-1899). 

PAYNE, JOHN, actor and playwright, born in New York; resided inLondon from 1813 to 1832; most of his days a stranger in a strange land, immortalised himself as the author of "Home, Sweet Home"; only hisremains buried at home 30 years after his death at Tunis (1792-1852). 

PEABODY, GEORGE, philanthropist, born at Danvers, now Peabody, inMassachusetts, U. S. ; made a large fortune as a dry-goods merchant inBaltimore and as a stockbroker as well in London; gave away forbenevolent purposes in his lifetime a million and a half of money, andleft to his relatives one million more; died in London; his body was laidbeside his mother's at South Danvers, U. S. (1795-1869). 

PEACE SOCIETY, a society founded in 1816 for the promotion ofpermanent and universal peace; advocates a gradual, proportionate, andsimultaneous disarmament of all nations and the principle of arbitration. 

PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE, English novelist, born at Weymouth; was prettymuch a self-taught scholar, and no mean one, as his literary activityover half a century abundantly showed; held a post in the India House, his predecessor being James Mill and his successor John Stuart Mill; wasan intimate friend of Shelley and the father-in-law of George Meredith;he made his first literary appearance as a poet in two small volumes ofpoems, and his first novel was "Headlong Hall" as his latest was "GryllGrange, " all of them written in a vein of conventional satire, and moreconspicuous for wit than humour; Thackeray owed not a little to him, little as the generality did, he being "too learned for a shallow age"(1785-1866). 

PEARSON, JOHN, English prelate, born in Norfolk; held a successionof preferments in the Church, and in the end the bishopric of Chester, author of a very learned work "Exposition of the Creed, " of which Bentleysaid, "its very dross is gold" (1612-1686). 

PEASANT WAR or BAUERNKRIEG, revolt of the peasantry in the S. And W. Of Germany against the oppression and cruelty of the nobles andclergy which broke out at different times from 1500 to 1525, and which, resulting in their defeat, rendered their lot harder than before. Thecause of the Reformation, held answerable for the movement, suffereddamage as well, but indeed the excesses of the insurgents were calculatedto provoke the retribution that was meted out to them. 

PECHILI, GULF OF, a great land-locked bay opening in the NW. Of theYellow Sea, receives the waters of the Hoang-ho, and on opposite tonguesof land at the mouth of it stand Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei. 

PECKSNIFF, a pronounced hypocrite in Dickens's "Martin Chuzzlewit, "and who lies and cants whether he is drunk or sober. 

PECOCK, REGINALD, bishop in succession of St. Asaph and Chichester, born in Wales; the author, among other works, of the "Repressor of OverMuch Blaming of the Clergy" and the "Book of Faith"; he wrote on behalfof the Church against Lollards, but he offended Churchmen as well as thelatter--Churchmen because he agreed with the Lollards in regard to theBible as the rule of faith, and the Lollards because he appealed toreason as the interpreter of the Bible; he displeased the clergy also byhis adoption in theological debate of the mother-tongue, but figuressince in literature as the first English theologian; he was accused oftreating authority with disrespect as well as setting up reason aboverevelation, obliged to recant in a most humiliating manner, deprived ofhis bishopric, and condemned to solitary confinement, away from hisbooks, all to a few, and denied the use of writing materials (1390-1460). 

PEDRO I. , emperor of Brazil, second son of John VI. Of Portugal;reigned from 1822 to 1831, when he abdicated in favour of his son(1798-1834). 

PEDRO II. , emperor of Brazil, son of preceding, ascended the thronein 1831; reigned peacefully till 1889, when a sudden revolution obligedhim to resign, and retire to Europe and take up his abode in France, where he indulged his taste for science and learning (1825-1891). 

PEEBLES, PETER, a character in Scott's "Redgauntlet. "

PEEBLESSHIRE (19), a lowland Scottish county bordered by Lanark, Midlothian, Selkirk, and Dumfries; comprises hilly pastoral land wateredby the upper Tweed; Windlestraw, Hartfell, and Broadlaw are the highestof its grassy hills; among the lesser rivers are the Leithen and Quair;some crops are grown, but most of the land is devoted to sheep grazing; alittle coal is found in the N. ; the only towns are Innerleithen (3) andPEEBLES (5), the county town, engaged in Tweed manufacture. Thecounty is known also by the name of Tweeddale; its representation inParliament is united with that of Selkirk. 

PEEL (4), a fishing town and holiday resort on the W. Coast of theIsle of Man, 12 m. NW. Of Douglas; it is noted for its castle. 

PEEL, SIR ROBERT, English statesman, born near Bury, Lancashire, theson of a wealthy cotton-spinner, to whose large fortune and baronetcy hesucceeded; graduated at Oxford in 1808, and next year entered Parliamentas Tory member for Cashel; he afterwards sat for his own university, andafter 1832 for Tamworth; he was appointed Under-Secretary for theColonies in 1811. And from 1812 till 1818 was Secretary for Ireland; in1822 he became Home Secretary, but seceded from the Government whenCanning became Premier in 1827; the question at issue was CatholicEmancipation, and it was characteristic of Peel that in the Governmentwhich succeeded Canning's he had the courage, having changed hisopinions, to introduce the measure which removed the disabilities;opposed to Reform he became leader of the Conservative opposition in theParliament of 1833; called to the Premiership in 1834 he could notmaintain his administration, and it was not till 1841 that the victory ofprotection over the free-trade agitation gave him a stable majority inthe Commons; his first measure was a modification of the corn laws onprotectionist principles, 1842; then followed the 7d. Income-tax andgeneral tariff revision; in 1845 the agitation for free-trade in corn wasbrought to a crisis by the Irish potato famine; Peel yielded, and nextyear carried the final repeal of the corn laws; his "conversion" splitthe Tory party and he retired from office, becoming a supporter of theWhig ministry in its economical and ecclesiastical policy; he was amaster of finance, an easy speaker, slow to form but conscientious to actupon his convictions, a man of the highest character; his death was theresult of a fall from horseback (1788-1850). 

PEEL TOWERS, the name given to fortresses of the moss-troopers onthe Scottish border. 

PEELE, GEORGE, dramatist, of the Elizabethan period, born in London;author of "Arraignment of Paris" and "David and Bathsabe, " full ofpassages of poetic beauty; has been charged with having led the life of adebauchee and to have died of a disease brought on by his profligacy, butit is now believed he has been maligned (1548-1597). 

PEEPING TOM OF COVENTRY. See GODIVA. 

PEERS, THE TWELVE, the famous warriors or paladins at the court ofCharlemagne, so called from their equality in prowess and honour. 

PEGASUS, the winged horse, begotten of Poseidon, who sprung from thebody of Medusa when Perseus swooped off her head, and who with a strokeof his hoof broke open the spring of Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, andmounted on whom Bellerophon slew the Chimera, and by means of which hehoped, if he had not been thrown, to ascend to heaven, as Pegasus didalone, becoming thereafter a constellation in the sky; this is the wingedhorse upon whose back poets, to the like disappointment, hope to scalethe empyrean, who have not, like Bellerophon, first distinguishedthemselves by slaying Chimeras. 

PEGU (6), a town of Lower Burma, in the province and on the river ofthe same name, 46 m. NE. Of Rangoon, is a very ancient city; the province(1, 162) is a rice-growing country, with great teak forests on themountain slopes. 

PEI-HO, a river of North China, 350 miles long; formed by thejunction of four other rivers, on the chief of which stands Pekin; has ashort navigable course south-eastward to the Gulf of Pechili, where it isdefended by the forts of Taku. 

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN, American mathematician and astronomer, born inMassachusetts, U. S. ; wrote on the discovery of Neptune and Saturn'srings, as well as a number of mathematical text-books (1809-1880). 

PEISHWAH, the name of the overlord or chief minister of Mahrattachiefs in their wars with the Mohammedans, who had his head-quarters atPoonah, the last to hold office putting himself under British protection, and surrendering his territory; nominated as his successor Nana Sahib, who became the chief instigator of the Mutiny of 1857, on account, it isbelieved, of the refusal of the British Government to continue to him thepension of his predecessor who had adopted him. 

PEKIN (1, 000), the capital of China, on a sandy plain in the basinof the Pei-ho, is divided into two portions, each separately walled, thenorthern or Manchu city and the southern or Chinese. The former containsthe Purple Forbidden city, in which are the Imperial palaces; surroundingit is the August city, in which are a colossal copper Buddha and theTemple of Great Happiness. Outside this are the government offices, foreign legations, the temple of Confucius, a great Buddhist monastery, aRoman Catholic cathedral, and Christian mission stations. The Chinesecity has many temples, mission stations, schools, and hospitals; but itis sparsely populated, houses are poor, and streets unpaved. Pekin hasrailway communication with Hankow, and is connected with other cities andwith Russia by telegraph. Its trade and industry are inconsiderable. Itis one of the oldest cities in the world. It was Kubla Khan's capital, and has been the metropolis of the empire since 1421. 

PELAGIUS, a celebrated heresiarch of the 5th century, born inBritain or Brittany; denied original sin and the orthodox doctrine ofdivine grace as the originating and sustaining power in redemption, aheresy for which he suffered banishment from Rome in 418 at the hands ofthe Church. A modification of this theory went under the name ofSemi-Pelagianism, which ascribes only the first step in conversion tofree-will, and the subsequent sanctification of the soul to God's grace. 

PELASGI, a people who in prehistoric times occupied Greece, theArchipelago, the shores of Asia Minor, and great part of Italy, and whowere subdued, and more or less reduced to servitude, by the Hellenes, andsupplanted by them. They appear to have been, so far as we find them, anagricultural people, settled and not roving about, and to have hadstrongholds enclosed in cyclopean walls, that is, walls consisting ofhuge boulders unconnected with cement. 

PELEUS, the son of Æacus, the husband of Thetis, the father ofAchilles, and one of the Argonauts, after whom Achilles is named Pelides, i. E. Peleus' boy. 

PELEW ISLANDS (10), twenty-six in number, of coral formation, andsurrounded by reefs; are in the extreme W. Of the Caroline Archipelago inthe North Pacific, and SE. Of the Philippines. They belong to Spain; aresmall but fertile, and have a healthy climate. The natives are Malays, and though gentle lead a savage life. 

PELHAM, a fashionable novel by Bulwer Lytton, severely satirised byCarlyle in "Sartor" in the chapter on "Dandies" as the elect of books ofthis class. 

PELIAS, king of Iolchus, and son of Poseidon, was cut to pieces byhis own daughters, which were thrown by them into a boiling caldron inthe faith of the promise of Medea, that he might thereby be restored tothem young again. It was he who, to get rid of Jason, sent him in questof the golden fleece in the hope that he might perish in the attempt. 

PELICAN, a bird, the effigy of which was used in the Middle Ages tosymbolise charity; generally represented as wounding its breast to feedits young with its own blood, and which became the image of the Christwho shed His blood for His people. 

PELIDES, a patronymic of Achilles, as the son of Peleus. 

PELION, a range, or the highest of a range, of mountains in the E. Of Thessaly, upon which, according to Greek fables, the Titans hoisted upMount Ossa in order to scale heaven and dethrone Zeus, a strenuousenterprise which did not succeed, and the symbol of all such. 

PELISSIER, a French marshal, born near Rouen; was made Duc deMalakoff for storming the Malakoff tower, which led to the fall ofSebastopol in 1855; rose from the ranks to be Governor-General ofAlgeria, the office he held when he died (1794-1864). 

PELLA, the capital of Macedonia, and the birthplace of Alexander theGreat, stood on a hill amid the marches NW. Of Thessalonica. 

PELLEGRINI, CARLO, a caricaturist, born in Capua; came to London;was distinguished for the inimitable drollery of his cartoons(1838-1889). 

PELLICO, SILVIO, Italian poet and patriot, born in Piedmont;suffered a fifteen years' imprisonment in the Spielberg at Brünn for hispatriotism, from which he was liberated in 1830; he wrote an account ofhis life in prison, which commanded attention all over Europe, both forthe subject-matter of it and the fascination of the style (1789-1854). 

PELLISSON, PAUL, a man of letters and a wit of the age of LouisXIV. ; spent some five years in the Bastille, but after his release wasappointed historiographer-royal; in his captivity he made a companion ofa spider, who was accustomed to eat out of his hand (1624-1693). 

PELOPIDAS, a Theban general, and leader of the "sacred band"; thefriend of Epaminondas; contributed to the expulsion (379 B. C. ) of theSpartans from the citadel of Thebes, of which they had taken possessionin 380, after which he was elected to the chief magistracy; gained avictory over Alexander of Pheræ the tyrant of Thessaly, but lost his lifein 362 while too eagerly pursuing the foe. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, a war of thirty years' duration (431-404 B. C. )between Athens and Sparta, which ended in the supremacy of the latter, till the latter was overthrown at Leuctra by the Thebans underEpaminondas in 371 B. C. This war is the subject of the history ofThucydides. 

PELOPONNESUS (lit. The Isle of Pelops), the ancient name of theMorea of Greece, the chief cities of which were Corinth, Argos, andSparta; it was connected with the rest of Greece by the Isthmus ofCorinth. 

PELOPS, in the Greek mythology the grandson of Zeus and son ofTantalus, who was slain by his father and served up by him at a banquethe gave the gods to test their omniscience, but of the shoulder of whichonly Demeter in a fit of abstraction partook, whereupon the gods orderedthe body to be thrown into a boiling caldron, from which Pelops was drawnout alive, with the shoulder replaced by one of ivory. 

PEMBROKESHIRE (89), a maritime county, the farthest W. In Wales; iswashed by St. George's Channel except on the E. , where it borders onCardigan and Carmarthen. It is a county of low hills, with much indentedcoast-line. Milford Haven, in the S. , is one of the best harbours in theworld. The climate is humid; two-thirds of the soil is under pasture;coal, iron, lead, and slate are found. ST. DAVID'S is a cathedralcity; the county town is PEMBROKE (18) on Milford Haven, and near itis the fortified dockyard and arsenal PEMBROKE DOCK (10). 

PEMMICAN, a food for long voyages, particularly in Arcticexpeditions, consisting of lean meat or beef without fat dried, pounded, and pressed into cakes. The use of it is now suppressed. 

PENANCE, in the Roman Catholic Church an expression of penitence aswell as the sacrament of absolution; also the suffering to which apenitent voluntarily subjects himself, according to the schoolmen, as anexpression of his penitence, and in punishment of his sin; the threesteps of penitence were contrition, confession, and satisfaction. 

PENANG or PRINCE OF WALES ISLANDS (91), a small fertile islandnear the northern opening of the Straits of Malacca, off the Malay coast, and 360 m. NW. Of Singapore; is one of the British Straits Settlements, of value strategically; it is hilly, and covered with vegetation; thepopulation are half Chinese, a fourth of them Malays; figs, spices, andtobacco are exported. The capital is GEORGETOWN (25), on the island. PROVINCE WELLESLEY (97), on the mainland, belongs to the samesettlement; it exports tapioca and sugar. The DINDINGS (2), 80 m. S. , are another dependency. 

PENATES, the name given by the Romans to their household deities, individually and unitedly, in honour of whom a fire, in charge of thevestal virgins, was kept permanently burning. 

PENDA, a Mercian king of the 7th century, who headed a reactionarymovement of heathenism against the domination of Christianity in England, and for a time seemed to carry all before him, but Christianity, underthe preaching of the monks, had gained too deep a hold, particularly inNorthumbria, and he was overpowered in 665 in one final struggle andslain. 

PENDENNIS, the name of a novel by Thackeray, from the name of thehero, and published in 1849-50 in succession to "Vanity Fair. "

PENDLETON, a NW. Suburb of Manchester, in the direction of Bolton, with extensive manufactures and collieries. 

PENDRAGON, a title bestowed on kings by the ancient Britons, andespecially on the chiefs among them chosen by election, so called fromtheir wearing a dragon on their shields or as a crest in sign ofsovereignty. 

PENELOPE, the wife of Ulysses, celebrated for her conjugal fidelityduring his twenty years' absence, in the later half of which an army ofsuitors pled for her hand, pleading that her husband would never return;but she put them all off by a promise of marriage as soon as she finisheda web (called after Penelope's web) she was weaving, which she wove byday and undid at night, till their importunities took a violent form, when her husband arrived and delivered her. 

PENINSULAR STATE, the State of Florida, from its shape. 

PENINSULAR WAR, a war carried on in Spain and Portugal during theyears 1808 and 1814, between the French on the one hand and the Spanish, Portuguese, and British, chiefly under Wellington, on the other, andwhich was ended by the victory of the latter over the former at Toulousejust after Napoleon's abdication. 

PENITENTIAL PSALMS or PSALMS OF CONFESSION, is a name givenfrom very early times to Psalms vi. , xxxii. , xxxviii. , li. , cii. , cxxx. , which are specially expressive of sorrow for sin. The name belongedoriginally to the fifty-first Psalm, which was recited at the close ofdaily morning service in the primitive Church. 

PENITENTS, ORDER OF, a religious order established in 1272 for thereception to the Church of reformed courtesans. 

PENN, WILLIAM, founder of Pennsylvania, the son of an admiral, bornin London; was converted to Quakerism while a student at Oxford, and fora fanatical attack on certain fellow-students expelled the University;his father sent him to travel in France, and afterwards placed him incharge of his Irish estates; his religious views occasioned severaldisputes with his father, and ultimately brought him into conflict withthe Government; he spent several periods of imprisonment writing books indefence of religious liberty, among them "The Great Cause of Liberty ofConscience" (1671); then travelled in Holland and Germany propagating hisviews; his father's death brought him a fortune and a claim upon thecrown which he commuted for a grant of land in North America, where hefounded (1682) the colony of Pennsylvania--the prefix Penn, by command ofCharles II. In honour of the admiral; here he established a refuge forall persecuted religionists, and laying out Philadelphia as the capital, governed his colony wisely and generously for two years; he returned toEngland, where his friendship with James II. Brought many advantages tothe Quakers, but laid him under harassing and undeserved prosecutions fortreason in the succeeding reign; a second visit to his colony (1699-1701)gave it much useful legislation; on his return his agent practicallyruined him, and he was a prisoner in the Fleet in 1708; the closing yearsof his life were clouded by mental decay (1644-1718). 

PENNANT, THOMAS, traveller and naturalist, born near Holywell, Flintshire; studied at Oxford, but took no degree; in 1746 he made a tourof Cornwall; among his subsequent journeys, of which he publishedaccounts, were tours in Ireland (1754), the Continent (1764), Scotland(1769 and 1772), and Wales; he wrote several works on zoologicalsubjects, and published an amusing "Literary Life of the late ThomasPennant, Esq. , by Himself, " 1793 (1726-1798). 

PENNSYLVANIA (5, 258), most populous but one of the American States, lies N. Of Mason and Dixon's Line, separated by New Jersey, on the E. Bythe Delaware River, with Ohio on the W. , New York on the N. , and LakeErie at the NW. Corner. The country is hilly, being traversed by the BlueMountains and the Alleghany ranges, with many fertile valleys between thechains, extensive forests, and much picturesque scenery. The CumberlandValley in the W. Is one of the best farming lands in New England. TheAlleghany River in the W. And the two branches of the Susquehanna in thecentre water the State. Pennsylvania is the greatest mining State in theUnion; its iron-mines and petroleum-wells supply half the iron and mostof the oil used in the country; its bituminous coal-beds in the W. Areextremely rich, and the anthracite deposits of the E. Are unrivalled; inmanufactures, too, it ranks second among the States; these are veryvaried, the most valuable being iron, steel, and shipbuilding. Founded bySwedes, it passed to English settlers in 1664; the first charter wasgranted to William Penn in 1681. In the Revolution it took a prominentpart, and was among the first States of the Union. Education is welladvanced; there are 20 State colleges. The mining population includesmany Irish, Hungarian, and Italian immigrants, among whom riots arefrequent. Of the agriculturists many are of Dutch descent, and about twomillions still speak a Low German _patois_ known as Pennsylvanian Dutch. HARRISBURG (39) is the capital; the metropolis is PHILADELPHIA(1, 047), the second largest city in the country; while PITTSBURG(239), ALLEGHANY (105), SCRANTON (75), and READING (59)are among the many large towns. 

PENNY, originally a silver coin, weighed in the 7th century 1/240-thof a Saxon pound, but decreased in weight till in Elizabeth's time it was1/63 of an ounce troy. It was at first indented with a cross so as to bebroken for halfpennies and farthings, but silver coins of thesedenominations were coined by Edward I. Edward VI. Stopped the farthings, and the halfpence were stopped in the Commonwealth. Copper coinage wasestablished in 1672. The present coins were issued first in 1860. Theyare half the size of their predecessors, and intrinsically worthone-seventh of their nominal value. 

PENNY WEDDING, a wedding at which the guests pay part of the chargesof the festival. 

PENRITH (9), a market town of Cumberland, and tourist centre for theEnglish lakes; contains a very old church and school, and ruins of apicturesque castle. Brewing, iron-founding, and timber-sawing are itsindustries. 

PENRYN (3), a Cornish market town at the head of Falmouth harbour;has manufactures of paper, woollen cloth, and gunpowder. It hasconsiderable fishing industry, and ships the Penryn granite quarriednear. 

PENSEROSO, II, a famous Italian poem by Milton, written in 1633. 

PENSIONARY, THE GRAND, a State functionary of Holland, whose office, abolished in 1795, it was to superintend State interests, registerdecrees, negotiate with other countries, and take charge of the revenues, &c. 

PENTACLE. See PENTAGRAM. 

PENTAGRAM, a symbol presumed to possess a magical influence, particularly to charm away evil spirits, formed by placing the figure ofan equilateral triangle athwart another. 

PENTAMERONE, a collection of tales in the Neapolitan dialect, supposed to be told during five days by ten old women to apseudo-princess, and published at Naples 1637; is of great value tostudents of folk-lore. 

PENTATEUCH, the name given by Origen to the first five books of theBible, which the Jews call the Law or Five-fifths of the Law, thecomposition of which has of late years been subjected to keen criticalinvestigation, and the whole ascribed to documents of different dates anddiverse authorship, to the rejection of the old traditional hypothesisthat it was the work of Moses, first called in question by Spinoza, andshown to be untenable by JEAN ASTRUC (q. V. ). 

PENTECOST (i. E. Fiftieth), a great feast of the Jews, so calledas held on the fiftieth day after the second of the Passover. It iscalled also the Feast of Harvest, or Weeks of First-Fruits, the Passoverfeast being connected with the commencement and this with the conclusionof harvest. It is regarded by the Jews as commemorative of the giving ofthe law on Mount Sinai, and will never cease to be associated in theChristian memory with the great awakening from which dates the firstbirth of the Christian consciousness in the Christian Church, the momentwhen the disciples of Christ first realised in common that their Masterwas not dead but alive, and nearer to them than He had been when presentin the flesh. 

PENTELICUS, a range of mountains in Attica between Athens andMarathon, famous for its quarries of fine white marble. 

PENTHESILEA, the daughter of Ares and the queen of the Amazons; onthe death of Hector she came to the assistance of the Trojans, but wasslain by Achilles, who mourned over her when dying on account of herbeauty, her youth, and her courage. 

PENTHEUS, a king of Thebes, opposed to the introduction of theBacchus worship into his kingdom, was driven mad by the god, and torn inpieces by his mother and sisters, who, under the Bacchic frenzy, mistookhim for a wild beast. 

PENTHIÈVRE, DUC DE, the father-in-law of Philippe Egalité, and theprotector of Florian (1725-1793). 

PENTLAND FIRTH is the strait between the Orkneys and the Scottishmainland connecting the North Sea with the Atlantic, 12 m. Long by 6broad, and swept by a rapid current very dangerous to navigation; 5000vessels traverse it annually. 

PENTONVILLE, a populous district of London, in the parishes of StJames's, Clerkenwell, and Islington, where is the Pentonville ModelPrison, built in 1840-42 on the radiating principle to accommodate 520prisoners. 

PENUMBRA, the name given to the partial shadow on the rim of thetotal shadow of an eclipse, also to the margin of the light and shade ofa picture. 

PENZANCE (14), the largest town in Cornwall, most westerly boroughin England, and terminus of the Great Western Railway, is beautifullysituated on the rocky W. Shore of Mount's Bay; its public buildingschiefly of granite. It has a fine harbour and docks, and is the centre ofthe mackerel and pilchard fishing industries. Its mild climate makes it afavourite watering-place. 

PEOPLE'S PALACE, Mile End Road, London, is an institution for therecreation and instruction of the East-end population, opened by theQueen in May 1887, and owing its origin to the impulse given by Sir W. Besant's "All Sorts and Conditions of Men. " In it are a library, artgalleries, concert and reading rooms, baths, gymnasium, &c. , andtechnical classes and handicraft schools are held; these are attended by5000 pupils, and the institution is visited by a million and a quarterpeople annually. 

PEPIN THE SHORT, king of the Franks, was the son of Charles Martel, and at first shared with his brother Carloman the viceroyalty of thekingdom under Hilderik III. ; in 747 Carloman retired to a monastery, andfive years later Pepin deposed Hilderik and ascended the throne; hiskingdom embraced the valleys of the Rhine, the Rhône, and the Seine; heunited his interests with those of the Church, and in 756 entered Italyto rescue the Pope from the threatened domination of the Lombards;reduced Aistulf of Lombardy to vassalage, assumed the title of Patricianof Rome, and by bestowing on Pope Stephen III. The "Exarchate" of theRoman empire, laid the foundation of papal temporal sovereignty, fivecities being placed under his jurisdiction; his subsequent exploitsincluded the conquest of the Loire Valley and the expulsion of the Moorsfrom France; his fame was overshadowed by that of his son Charlemagne;_d_. 678. 

PEPSIN, an essential constituent of the gastric juice extracted fromthe stomach of the calf, sheep, and pig, and used in medicine to supplyany defect of it in the stomach of a patient. 

PEPYS, SAMUEL, author of a famous Diary, a scholarly man andrespected as connected with different grades of society; held a clerkshipin the Admiralty, and finally the secretaryship; kept a diary of eventsfrom 1660 to 1669, which remained in MS. Till 1826, when it was publishedin part by Lord Braybrooke, and is of interest for the insight it givesinto the manners of the time and the character of the author; the latestand completest edition of this Diary is that of H. B. Wheatley, publishedin 1893-96, in eight vols. (1633-1703). 

PERA, a suburb of Constantinople, on the N. Side of the Golden Horn, and the foreign diplomatic quarter. 

PERÆA, "the country beyond, " designated that part of Palestinebeyond or E. Of the Jordan. 

PERCEVAL, a hero of the legends of chivalry, famed for hisadventures in quest of the Holy Graal. 

PERCEVAL, SPENCER, English statesman, born in London, son of theEarl of Egmont; bred to the bar; entered Parliament as a supporter ofPitt, and held a succession of posts under different administrations, attaining the Premiership, which he held from 1800 to 1812, on the 11thof May, of which year he was shot dead by a madman of the name ofBellingham in the lobby of the House; he was devoted to the throne, and aman of upright character but narrow sympathies (1762-1812). 

PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES, American poet and geologist, born atKensington, Connecticut; took his degree at Yale in 1815, and qualifiedas a medical practitioner; he was for a few months professor of Chemistryat West Point, but retired and gave himself to literature and geology;his scientific works are valuable; "Prometheus and Clio" appeared in1822, "Dream of a Day" in 1843; he died at Hazel Green, Wisconsin(1795-1856). 

PERCY, a noble English family of Norman origin, the founder of whichaccompanied the Conqueror, and was rewarded with grants of land for hisservices; a successor of whom in the female line, Henry, the father ofthe famous Hotspur, was created Duke of Northumberland in 1377. 

PERCY, THOMAS, English prelate and antiquary, born at Bridgenorth, Shropshire, the son of a grocer; devoted himself to the collection of oldballads, and published in 1765 "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry"; hepublished also ballads of his own, among them "The Hermit of Warkworth, "and was the author of "O Nannie, wilt thou gang wi' me?" he associatedwith Johnson, Burke, and other notables of the period, and was a memberof Dr. Johnson's Literary Club; became bishop of Dromore in 1782, wherehe was held in affectionate regard; was blind for some years before hedied (1729-1811). 

PERDICCAS, a favourite general of Alexander the Great, who, when onhis deathbed, took his signet ring off his finger and gave it to him; hebecame an object of distrust after Alexander's death, and wasassassinated in Egypt. 

PEREIRA, JONATHAN, pharmacologist, born in London; author of the"Elements of Materia Medica, " a standard work; was examiner on thesubject in London University (1804-1853). 

PEREKOP, ISTHMUS OF, connects the Crimea with the S. Of Russia; ispierced by a ship-canal. 

PEREZ, ANTONIO, Spanish statesman, and minister of Philippe II. , born in Aragon; was the tool of the king in the murder of Escoveda, theconfidant of John of Austria; was convicted of betraying State secretsand imprisoned, but escaped; being in possession of royal secrets, whichhe published, Philippe tried every means to arrest him, but Perez evadedcapture, and found refuge in France, where he died in poverty(1539-1611). 

PERFECTIONISM, the doctrine that moral perfection is by divine graceattainable in the present life. 

PERFECTIONISTS, an American sect or society founded by John HumphreyNoyes in 1848 at Oneida, New York State, on Communistic principles, butowning no law save that of the Spirit, and subject to no criticism butthe judgment they freely passed on one another, a system which they wereobliged to modify in 1880 so far as to recognise the rights of matrimonyand the family, and to adopt the principle of a joint-stock limitedliability company, on which lines the community is proving a prosperousone. 

PERGAMOS, the citadel of Troy, a name frequently given by the poetsto the city itself. 

PERGAMOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor; founded by acolony of Greek emigrants in 3rd century B. C. , and eventually the centreof a province of the name, which was subject for a time to Macedonia, butthrew off the yoke and became independent, till it became a Romanprovince by bequest on the part of Attalus III. In 133 B. C. The citypossessed a library second only to that of Alexandria, contained one ofthe seven churches mentioned in the Revelation, and gave its name toparchment, alleged to have been invented there. 

PERI, in the Eastern mythology a fairy being of surpassing beauty, begotten of fallen spirits, and excluded from Paradise, but representedas leading a life of pleasure and endowed with immortality; there weremale Peris as well as female, and they were intermediate between angelsand demons. 

PERIANDER, the tyrant of Corinth from 625 to 585 B. C. , was one ofthe seven sages of Greece, and a patron of literature and the arts; Arionand Anacharsis lived at his Court. 

PERICLES, the great Athenian statesman, born in Athens, of nobleparentage; was a devoted disciple of Anaxagoras; entered public life 467B. C. As a democrat, and soon became head of the democratic party, to theincrease of the power of the citizens and annihilation of the dominationof the oligarchy centred in the Areopagus; hostile to territorialaggrandisement, he sought, as his chief ambition, the unification ofGreece in one grand confederacy, but was defeated in this noble aim bythe jealousy of Sparta; he put down all rivalry, however, in Athensitself, and established himself as absolute ruler with the consent of thecitizens, reforming the laws, adorning the city, and encouragingliterature and the arts, masters, many wise in the one and skilful in theother, he had at his disposal, such as few or none of the cities of theworld had ever before or have had since; the resulting prosperity did butenhance the envy of the other States, Sparta in particular, and two yearsbefore he died the spirit of hostility took shape in the outbreak of thePELOPONNESIAN WAR (q. V. ); he had surrounded the city withwalls, and his policy was to defend it from within them rather than facethe enemy in the field, but it proved fatal, for it tended to damp ratherthan quicken the ardour of the citizens, and to add to this a plaguebroke out among them in 430 B. C. , which cut down the most valiant oftheir number, and he himself lay down to die the year after; he was ahigh-souled, nobly-bred man, great in all he thought and did, and hegathered around him nearly all the noble-minded and noble-hearted men ofhis time to adorn his reign and make Athens the envy of the world; _d_. 429 B. C. 

PÉRIER, CASIMIR, a French banker and politician, born at Grenoble;took part in the Revolution of 1830, became Minister of the Interior in1831; suppressed the insurrections at Paris and Lyons; died of cholera(1777-1832). 

PERIGEE, the point in the orbit of the moon or a planet nearest theearth. 

PÉRIGORD, an ancient territory of France, S. Of Guienne, famous forits truffles, of which PÉRIGUEUX (q. V. ) was the capital; unitedto the Crown of France by Henry IV. In 1589, it is now part of thedepartment of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. 

PÉRIGUEUX (31), chief town of the department of Dordogne, France, onthe Isle, 95 m. By rail NE. Of Bordeaux, is a narrow irregular town witha cathedral after St. Mark's in Venice, museum of antiquities, andlibrary; iron and woollens are the industries; truffles and truffle piesare exported. 

PERIHELION, the point on the orbit of a planet or comet nearest thesun. 

PERIM, a small barren, crescent-shaped island at the mouth of theRed Sea, belonging to Britain, and used as a coaling-station. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, the name given to the philosophy ofAristotle, from his habit of walking about with his disciples as hephilosophised in the shady walks of the Lyceum. 

PERNAMBUCO (130), a seaport in N. Brazil, consists of three portionsconnected by bridges: Recife, on a peninsula, the business quarter; SanAntonio, the modern quarter, on an intermediate island; and Bon Vista, onthe mainland; manufactures cotton and tobacco, and has shipbuildingyards; the trade chiefly with England, the United States, and France; itis the capital of a province (1, 100) of the name, producing sugar andcotton. 

PERONELLA, in fairy legend a pretty country lass who exchangesplaces with an old wizened queen, and receives the homage due to royalty, but gladly takes back her rags and beauty. 

PEROWNE, STEWART, Bishop of Worcester, born at Burdwân, of Huguenotextraction, educated at Cambridge; became a Fellow of Corpus Christi;held several academic and ecclesiastical appointments; an eminent Hebrewscholar and exegete; his chief work a commentary on the Psalms; _b_. 1823. 

PERPIGNAN (28), a town on the Têt, 7 m. From the sea; a fortress inthe French department of Pyrénées-Orientales; has a cathedral of the 14thcentury and a bourse in Moorish-Gothic, and manufactures wine and brandy;belonged originally to Aragon; was taken by France in 1475, and retaken, after restoration to Spain, in 1642, since which time it has belonged toFrance. 

PERRAULT, CHARLES, French man of letters, born in Paris; bred to thebar; distinguished as the author of inimitable fairy tales, which haveimmortalised his name, as "Puss in Boots, " "Cinderella, " "Bluebeard, "&c. , as also "Parallel des Anciens et des Modernes, " in which his aim wasto show--an ill-informed attempt--that the ancients were inferior ineverything to the moderns (1628-1703). 

PERSECUTIONS OF THE CHURCH, by which are meant those at the hands ofImperial Rome, are usually reckoned 10 in number, viz. , those under Neroin 64, Domitian 95, Trajan 107, Hadrian 125, Marcus Aurelius 165, Severus202, Maximinus 235, Decius 249, Valerianus 257, and Diocletian 303;besides these there were others quite as deadly within the Church itselfon the part of orthodox against heterodox, or Catholic againstProtestant, and Established against Nonconformist. 

PERSEPHONE, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, the Proserpine of the Romans. See PROSERPINE. 

PERSEPOLIS, the ancient capital of Persia, represented now by itsruins, which stand 25 m. From the NW. Shores of Lake Niris, on the banksof the Murghab River, though in its palmy days it was described as "theGlory of the East. "

PERSEUS, in the Greek mythology the son of Zeus and Danaë, and thegrandson of Acrisius, king of Argos, of whom it was predicted before hisbirth that he would kill his grandfather, who at his birth enclosed bothhis mother and him in a chest and cast it into the sea, which bore themto an island where they became slaves of the king, Polydectes, who soughtto marry Danaë; failing in his suit, and to compel her to submission, heordered Perseus off to fetch him the head of the Medusa; who, aided byHermes and Athena, was successful in his mission, cut off the head of theMedusa with the help of a mirror and sickle, brought it away with him ina pouch, and after delivering and marrying Andromeda in his returnjourney, exposed the head before Polydectes and court at a banquet, whichturned them all into stone, whereupon he gave the Gorgon's head to Athenato place on her shield, and set out for Argos; Acrisius hearing of hisapproach fled, but was afterwards killed accidentally by his grandson, who in throwing a discus had crushed his foot. 

PERSIA (7, 000), occupies the tableland 5000 ft. High between thePersian Gulf and Arabian Sea on the S. , the Caspian Sea and Turkestan onthe N. , Armenia on the W. , and Afghanistan and Beluchistan on the E. , andis a country three times as large as France; lofty mountain rangestraverse it from NW. To SE. And gird its northern boundary; the highestpeak is Mount Demavend, 18, 500 ft. , in the Elburz, overlooking theCaspian. Most of the rivers evaporate inland; only one is navigable, theKarun, in the SW. ; Lake Urumiyah, in the NW. , is the largest, a very saltand shallow sheet of water. The eastern half of the country is largelydesert, where the sand is swept about in clouds by the winds. With littlerain, the climate is intensely hot in summer and cold in winter. Forestsclothe the outer slopes of the mountains, and scanty brushwood the innerplains. Wheat and barley are grown on higher levels, and cotton, sugar, and fruits on the lower, all with the help of Irrigation. Agriculture isthe chief industry; there are manufactures of carpets, shawls, andporcelain. The internal trade is carried on by caravans; foreign trade isnot extensive, and is chiefly in Russian hands; the exports includeopium, carpets, pearls, and turquoises. The capital is Teheran (210), anarrow, crooked, filthy town, at the southern foot of the Elburz. Tabriz(180), in the NW. , is the emporium of trade. Ispahân (60), Meshed (60), Barfurush (60), and Shiraz (30) are the other important towns. TheGovernment is despotic; the emperor is called the Shah. The people arecourteous and refined in manner, witty, and fluent in speech; they are ofAryan stock and Mohammedan faith. The original empire of Persia wasestablished by Cyrus 537 B. C. A century later decay set in. Revivalunder Parthian and Sassanian dynasties lasted from 138 B. C. Till A. D. 639. Persia became then a province of the Arabs. From the 14th century itfell under Mongol sway, and again in the 16th century under Turkish. Thepresent dynasty was founded in 1795. The future of the country is inRussian and British hands. 

PERSIAN GULF, a great inland sea lying between Arabia and Persia, and entered from the Indian Ocean through the Gulf of Oman; is 650 m. Long and from 50 to 250 m. Broad. The Arabian coast is low and sandy, thePersian high. The chief islands are in the W. , where also is the GreatPearl Bank. The only river of importance received is the Shat-el-Arab, which brings down the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. 

PERSIAN WARS, wars conducted by Persia in the three expeditionsagainst Greece, first in 490 B. C. Under Darius, and defeated by theAthenians under Miltiades at Marathon; the second, 480 B. C. , underXerxes, opposed by Leonidas and his 300 Spartans at Thermopylæ anddefeated by the Athenians under Themistocles at Salamis by sea; and thethird, in 479 B. C. , under Xerxes, by the Greeks under the SpartanPausanius at Platæa. 

PERSIANS, a name given to sculptured draped male figures used ascolumns. 

PERSIANS, THE, belonged to the Aryan race, hence Iran, the originalname of their country; they were related rather to the Western than theEastern world, and it is from them that continuous history takes itsstart; they first recognised an ethereal essence, which they calledLight, as the principle of all good, and man as related to it in such away that, by the worship of it, he became assimilated to it himself. Among them first the individual subject stood face to face with auniversal object, and claimed a kinship with it as the light of life. Theepoch thus created was the emancipation of the human being from dependentchildhood to self-dependent manhood, and it constituted the first epochin the self-conscious history, which is the history proper, of the humanrace. The idea the Persians formed of the principle of good came farshort of the reality indeed, but they first saw that it was of purelyilluminating quality and universal, and that the destiny of man was torelate himself to it, to know, worship, and obey it. With the etherealprinciple of good they associated an equally ethereal principle of evil, and, as they identified the one with light, they identified the otherwith darkness. Man they regarded as related to both, and his destiny toadore the one and disown the other as master. As the light had no portionin the darkness, and the darkness no portion in the light, the religionarose which pervades that of the Bible, which requires the children ofthe former to separate from those of the latter. 

PERSIFLAGE, a French term for a light, quizzing mockery, orscoffing, specially on serious subjects, out of a cool, callous contemptfor them. 

PERSIGNY, FIALIN, DUC DE, a French statesman, a supporter all alongof Louis Napoleon, abetting him in all his efforts to attain the throneof France, from the affair of Strasburg in 1836 to the _coup d'état_ ofDecember 1851, and becoming in the end Minister of the Interior underhim; had to leave France at his fall (1806-1872). 

PERSIUS, the last king of Macedonia; was conquered by PaulusÆmilius, and died captive at Rome 167 B. C. 

PERSIUS, Roman satirist, born in Etruria, was a pupil and friend ofCornutus the Stoic; a man much esteemed, who died young, only 28; wrotesix short satires in the purity of a white-souled manhood, of much nativevigour, though not equal to those of Horace and Juvenal, and that havecommanded the regard of all scholars down to the present time; they haveoften been translated (34-62). 

PERTH (30), the county-town of Perthshire, on the Tay, 22 m. W. OfDundee: is a beautifully situated town, with fine buildings, the onlyold one being the restored St. John's Church. Its industries are dyeingand ink-making. At Scone, 2 m. Distant, the kings of Scotland werecrowned; and the murder of James I. , the Gowrie conspiracy, and thebattle of Tippermuir are but a few of its many historical associations. "The Five Articles of Perth, " adopted by a General Assembly held there in1618, did much to precipitate the conflict between the Royal power andthe Scottish Church; they enjoined kneeling at the Lord's Supper, observance of Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, and Pentecost, confirmation, and the private administration of the sacraments. 

PERTH (8), the capital of West Australia, on the Swan River. 

PERTHSHIRE (122), the most beautiful and varied county in Scotland, occupies the whole of the Tay Valley and part of the Forth, and isbounded by nine other counties. The N. And W. Are mountainous, with manyrivers and lakes, and much of the finest scenery in Scotland; theTrossachs and Loch Katrine are world famed. In the E. Is extensivewoodland and the Carse of Gowrie, one of the most fertile of Scottishplains. Ben Lawers is the highest mountain, Loch Tay the largest lake. Much of the soil is good only for sheep farms, deer forests, and grousemoors; the county is visited annually by thousands of tourists andsportsmen. 

PERTINAX, HELVIUS, Roman emperor in succession to Commodus; rosefrom the ranks by his military services to the imperial dignity, which hewas pressed to accept against his will, and was assassinated by thePrætorian Guards less than three months after, in consequence of thereforms he projected in order to restore the ancient discipline of thearmy (126-193). 

PERTURBATIONS, name given to irregularities or slight deviations inthe movement of a heavenly body, due chiefly to the neighbourhood ofanother point in its orbit. 

PERU (3, 000), a country in the W. Of South America, twice the sizeof Austro-Hungary, lies between Brazil and Bolivia and the Pacific, withEcuador on the N. And Chile on the S. ; it consists of a seaboard plain, hot and rainless, but intersected by rich river courses, in which sugar, cotton, and coffee are grown; the Andes chains, snow-tipped andpresenting every kind of climate and variety of vegetation on theirslopes and in their valleys, rich in minerals and yielding chiefly greatquantities of silver; and the Montana, the eastward slopes of the Andes, clad with valuable forests where the cinchona is cultivated, and theupland basins of the Ucayalé River and the Upper Amazon, very fertile, with great coffee and cacao plantations and abundant rain; the chiefarticles of export are silver, nitre, guano, sugar, and wool. Lima (200), the capital, is 8 m. Inland from its port Callao (35); has an oldcathedral, and is the chief centre of commerce; its principal merchantsare Germans. The government is republican; the ruling classes are ofSpanish descent, but half of the population are Inca Indians and aquarter are half-castes. From the 12th to the 16th centuries the Incasenjoyed a high state of civilisation and an extensive empire administeredon socialistic principles; they attained great skill in the industriesand arts. The Spanish conqueror Pizarro, landing in 1532, overthrew theempire and established the colony; after three centuries of oppressionPeru threw off the Spanish yoke in 1824. The history of the republic hasbeen one of continual restlessness, and a war with Chile 1879-84 ended incomplete disaster; recovery is slowly progressing. 

PERUGIA (17), Italian walled city on the right bank of the Tiber, 127 m. By rail N. Of Rome, with a cathedral of the 15th century, somenoteworthy churches, a Gothic municipal palace, picture gallery, university, and library; is rich in art treasures and antiquarianremains; it has silk and woollen industries; it was anciently calledPerusia, and one of the cities of ancient Etruria, and in its day hasexperienced very varied fortunes; it was the centre of the Umbrian schoolof painting. 

PERUGINO, his proper name VANNUCCI, Italian painter, born nearPerugia, whence his name; studied with Leonardo da Vinci at Florence, where he chiefly resided; was one of the teachers of Raphael, paintedreligious subjects, did frescoes for churches that have nearly allperished, a "Christ giving the Keys to Peter" being the best extant;Ruskin contrasts his work with Turner's; "in Turner's distinctive work, "he says, "colour is scarcely acknowledged unless under influence ofsunshine . .. Wherever the sun is not, there is melancholy and evil, " but"in Perugino's distinctive work"--to whom he therefore gives "thecaptain's place over all"--"there is simply _no_ darkness, _no_ wrong. Every colour is lovely and every space is light; the world, the universe, is divine; all sadness is a part of harmony, and all gloom a part oflight" (1446-1524). 

PESCHIERA, one of the fortresses of the QUADRILATERAL (q. V. ), on an island in the Mincio, 14 m. W. Of Verona. 

PESHAWAR or PESHAWUR (84), a town on the Indian frontier, andcentre of trade with Afghanistan, is 10 m. From the entrance of theKhyber Pass, on the Kabul River, and though ill-fortified is a bulwark ofthe empire, being provided with a large garrison of infantry andartillery. 

PESHITO (i. E. Simple), a version of the Bible in Syriac, executednot later than the middle of the 2nd century for Judaic Christians in theSyrian Church, the version of the Old Testament being executed directfrom the Hebrew and that of the New being the first translation of theGreek of it into a foreign tongue, and both of value in questionsaffecting exegesis and the original text; the New Testament versioncontains all the books now included except the Apocalypse, Jude, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John. 

PESSIMISM, a name given now to a habit of feeling, now to a systemof opinion; as the former it denotes a tendency to dwell on the dark orgloomy side of things, culminating in a sense of their vanity andnothingness, while in the latter it is applied to all systems of opinionwhich lay the finger on some black spot in the structure of the life ofthe world or of the universe, which so long as it remains is thought torender it unworthy of existence. 

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH, a celebrated educationist, born atZurich; founder of a natural system of education, beginning withchildhood, and who, however unsuccessful in the working of it himselffrom his want of administrative faculty, persuaded others by his writingsto adopt it, especially in Germany, and to adopt it both enthusiasticallyand successfully; his method, which he derived from Rousseau, was basedon the study of human nature as we find it born in the child, and itaimed at the harmonious development of all its innate capabilities, beginning with the most rudimentary (1745-1827). 

PESTH or BUDAPEST (492), on the left bank of the Danube, forming one municipality with Buda on the right, is the capital ofHungary, and 173 m. By rail E. Of Vienna; Pesth is built on a plain, joined to Buda by three bridges, the last on the Danube, and is athriving modern city, with picture galleries, parliament house, library, university, science schools, many baths, and public gardens; it makesmachinery, agricultural implements, cutlery, flour, &c. , and does a greattrade in corn, wool, hides, wines, and bacon. 

PETALISM, banishment in Sparta similar to ostracism in Athens, procured by writing the name on an olive leaf. 

PETARD, a cone-shaped explosive machine for bursting open gates, barriers, &c. , made of iron and filled with powder and ball. 

PETASUS, the winged-cap of the god Mercury. 

PETCHORA, the largest river in Northern Russia, rises in the UralMountains and flows N. Through Vologda and Archangel, then westward andN. Again, entering the Arctic Ocean by a large, island-studded estuary, after a course of 1000 m. Through sombre forests and wild, sombrescenery. 

PETER, THE APOSTLE, originally called Simon, was a fisherman on theSea of Galilee; one of the first called by Christ to become a disciple;the first to recognise, as the foundation-stone of the Church, thedivinity in the humanity of His Master, and the first thereafter torecognise and proclaim that divinity as glorified in the cross, to whomin recognising which, especially the former, was committed the keys ofthe kingdom of heaven, and who accordingly was the first to open the doorof it to the Gentile world. He was the principal figure in the history ofthe early Christian Church, but was soon eclipsed by the overpoweringpresence and zeal of Paul. Tradition, indeed, has something to tell ofhim, but from it little of trustworthy can be gathered except that hefinished his career by martyrdom in the city of Rome. This Apostle isrepresented in Christian art as an old man, bald-headed, with a flowingbeard, dressed in a white mantle, and holding a scroll in his hand, hisattributes being the keys, and a sword in symbol of his martyrdom. 

PETER, THE FIRST EPISTLE OF, addressed especially to JewishChristians in certain churches of Asia Minor, the members of which weresuffering persecution at the hands of their adversaries as evil-doers;was written to exhort them to rebut the charge by a life of simplewell-doing, and to comfort them under it with the promise of the returnof the Lord. 

PETER, THE SECOND EPISTLE OF, addressed to all who anywhere bore theChristian name; appears to have been written not long before his death tocounteract certain fatal forms of error, at once doctrinal and practical, that had already begun to creep into the Church, and against which wemeet with the same warnings in the Epistle of Jude, the doctrinal errorbeing the denial of Christ as Lord, and the practical the denial of Himas the way, the truth, and the life, to the peril of the forfeiture ofeternal life. 

PETER, THE WILD BOY, a savage creature of 13 years of age, found in1725 in a forest of Hanover, who was accustomed to walk on all fours, andclimb trees like a squirrel, living on wild plants, grass, and moss, andwho could not be weaned from these habits, or taught to speak more than asyllable or two; he wore a brass collar with his name on it; at lengthrefused all food, and died in 1786. 

PETER MARTYR, 1, a Dominican notorious for his severity as a memberof the Inquisition, murdered by a mob at Como in 1252, became the patronsaint of the Inquisition. 2, A Protestant reformer, born at Florence, became a monk and abbot at Lucca, from which, on embracing the doctrinesof the Reformation, he was forced to flee, first to Switzerland and thento England in the reign of Edward VI. , but had to retreat from thencealso on the accession of Mary to Strasburg, and at length to Zurich, where he died (1500-1562). 3, A historian, born at Arona, rose to becomebishop of Jamaica, wrote on the discovery of America, _d_. 1525. 

PETER THE GREAT, emperor of Russia, son of the Czar Alexei, born atMoscow; succeeded his half-brother Feodor in 1682, but was forced for atime to share the throne with his half-sister Sophia, acting as regentfor her brother Ivan; conscious of his imperfect education, he chose aGenoese named Lefort as his preceptor, and after some years' carefultraining he deposed Sophia, and entered Moscow as sole ruler in 1689;with the help of Lefort and Patrick Gordon, a Scotsman, he proceeded toraise and discipline an army on the European model, and determined alsoto construct a navy; to reach the sea he made war on the Turks, andpossessed himself of the port of Azov, at the mouth of the Don; hither heinvited skilled artificers from Austria, Venice, Prussia, and Holland, and a navy was built; from 1697 to 1698 he visited the countries on theBaltic and England, acquiring vast stores of information, working as ashipwright in the Dutch yards, and finally taking back with him an armyof mechanics; on his return he vigorously reformed the Russian press, schools, and church, introduced European manners and literature, andencouraged foreign trade; desirous now of an opening on the Baltic, hebegan in 1700 a long contest with Sweden, marked first by many defeats, notably that of Narva, then the seizure of Ingria, and founding of thenew capital St. Petersburg 1703, the victory of Pultowa 1712, seizure ofthe Baltic provinces and part of Finland 1713, and finally by the Peaceof 1721, which ceded the conquered territories to Russia; in 1711 theTurks had recovered Azov; in 1722 war with Persia secured him threeCaspian provinces; Peter pursued a vigorous and enlightened policy forthe good of Russia, but his disposition was often cruel; his son Alexeiwas put to death for opposing his reforms, and on his own death he wassucceeded by the Empress Catherine I. , the daughter of a peasant, who hadbeen his mistress, and whom he had married in 1712 (1672-1725). 

PETER THE HERMIT, a monk, born in Amiens, of good family, who iscredited with having by his preaching kindled the enthusiasm in Europewhich led to the first Crusade; he joined it himself as the leader of anuntrained rabble, but made a poor figure at the siege of Antioch, wherehe was with difficulty prevented from deserting the camp; he afterwardsfounded a monastery near Liège, where he died (1050-1115). 

PETERBOROUGH (25), an English cathedral city, on the Nen, partly inHuntingdonshire and partly in Northamptonshire, on the edge of the Fencountry, 76 m. N. Of London; has an old town-hall, manufactures of farmimplements, trade in malt and coal, and is a great railway centre; thecathedral is one of the finest in Britain, of very varied architecture, was restored and reopened afterwards in 1890. 

PETERBOROUGH, CHARLES MORDAUNT, EARL OF, saw some active service asa volunteer in Charles II. 's navy, and on the accession of James II. Threw himself into politics as an opponent of the king; William III. Showed him great favour; he was of the Queen's Council of Regency whenWilliam was in Ireland, but imprudent intriguing brought him a shortconfinement in the Tower in 1697; the war of the Spanish Succession wasthe opportunity which brought him fame; appointed to the command of theBritish and Dutch forces, which fought for Charles of Austria, he reducedBarcelona 1705, and Valencia 1706; retook Barcelona from the French, andbut for Charles's hindrance would have entered Madrid; differences withother generals led to his recall in 1707; the rest of his life was spentin retirement; he was the friend of Pope, and held by him in genuineesteem; he died in Lisbon (1658-1735). 

PETERHEAD (12), a seaport on the E. Coast of Aberdeenshire, 30 m. NE. Of Aberdeen; built irregularly of reddish granite; has a free libraryand museum, and is the seat of a convict prison; the chief industry isherring-fishing; there are two harbours, and a third, a great harbour ofrefuge, is in course of construction. 

PETERHOF (14), a town on the Gulf of Finland, 18 m. W. Of St. Petersburg, with a palace of the Czar built in 1711 by Peter the Great. 

PETERLOO, a name, suggested by Waterloo, given to an insurrectionarygathering in 1819 of workers in St. Peter's Field, Manchester, to demandParliamentary reform, and which was dispersed by the military to thesacrifice of 13 lives and the wounding of 600, a proceeding which excitedwide-spread indignation, and contributed to promote the cause which itwas intended to defeat. 

PETER'S, ST. , church at Rome, is built, it is alleged, over the tombof St. Peter, and on the site of the basilica erected by Constantine andHelena in 306. The original structure after falling into decay was begunto be rebuilt in 1450, and finally consecrated by Urban XIII. In 1626. Itis the largest and grandest church in Christendom, covers an area of over26, 000 square yards, the interior of it in length being 206 yards, thetransept 150 yards, the nave 150, and the dome 465. It contains thirtyaltars, and is adorned with numerous statues and monuments. 

PETER'S PENCE, an annual tribute of a silver penny per household inEngland to support the chair of St. Peter at Rome, and which continuedmore or less to be levied from the end of the 8th century till the daysof Elizabeth, when it ceased. The payment has been revived since 1848 inBritain, France, and Belgium in compensation to the Pope for loss of histerritorial possessions. 

PETERWARDEIN (4), a strong Austrian fortress on the right bank ofthe Danube, near the Servian frontier, 40 m. NW. Of Belgrade; standsamong unhealthy marshes. 

PÉTION DE VILLENEUVE, JÉRÔME, born at Chartres; figured in theFrench Revolution as a zealous republican, member of the Tiers État, oneof the commission to reconduct the royal family from Varennes; was mayorof Paris in the year of the September massacres, 1792; was firstPresident of the Convention, and, though his influence was declining, member of the first Committee of Defence, 1793; his attack on Robespierreproving unsuccessful he committed suicide; his body was afterwards foundon the Landes of Bordeaux half devoured by wolves; was surnamed the"Virtuous, " as Robespierre the "Incorruptible"; was of the Girondistparty; had "unalterable beliefs, not hindmost of them, " says Carlyle, "belief in himself" (1783-1793). 

PETITE NATURE, a French term applied to pictures containing figuresless than life-size, but with the effect of life-size. 

PETITION OF RIGHT, a petition presented to Charles I. By the Commonsin 1628, and that became law by the king's acceptance of it. It soughtfor and obtained the abolition of certain grievances which the countryunconstitutionally suffered from, such as taxation or levying of moneywithout consent of Parliament, imprisonment without cause shown, billeting of troops, and recourse to martial law in a time of peace. Thispetition Charles I. Would at first fain have evaded, but the Commonswould be satisfied with nothing less than its acceptance entire. 

PETÖFI, SANDOR, celebrated Magyar poet and patriot, born in thecounty of Pesth, of poor parents; first announced himself as a poet in1844; wrote a number of war-songs; fought in the cause of the revolutionof 1848, and fell in the battle of Schässburg; his poetry inaugurated anew era in the literature of his country (1823-1849). 

PETRA, a ruined city, and once the rock capital of Edom, andafterwards of Arabia Petræa; was a place of some importance at one timeas a commercial centre; the name Petra signifies rock. 

PETRARCH, FRANCESCO, the famous Italian lyric poet, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, whither his father had gone when exiled with Dante fromFlorence; spent his youth in Avignon; intended for the profession of law, devoted his time to the study of Cicero and Virgil; met Laura in thechurch of St. Clare there in 1327, a lady of surpassing beauty; conceiveda passion for her which she could not return, and wrote sonnets in praiseof her, which immortalised both himself and her; after travel in Franceand Germany he retired in 1337 to the valley of Vaucluse, where hecomposed the most of his poems, and his reputation reached its height in1341, when he was crowned laureate in the Capitol of Rome; he was inItaly when tidings reached him of the death of Laura in 1348, on theanniversary of the day when he first met her, upon which he gaveexpression to his feelings over the event in a touching note of it in hisVirgil; we find him again at Rome in 1350, and after moving from place toplace settled in Arqua in 1370, where he died; his Latin works arenumerous, and include an epic on the Second Punic war, Eclogues, Epistlesin verse, and Letters of value giving the details of his life; his famerests on his lyrics; by those alone he still lives, and that more fromthe finished art in which they are written than from any glow of feelingthey kindle in the reader's heart (1304-1374). 

PETRI, LAURENTIUS, a Swedish Reformer; was a disciple of Luther;became professor of Theology and first Protestant archbishop of Upsala, and superintended the translation of the Bible into Swedish (1499-1573). 

PETRIE, FLINDERS, Egyptologist, son of an Australian explorer; afterexplorations at Stonehenge, surveyed the pyramids and temples of Ghizehin 1881-82; excavated for the Egyptian Exploration Fund Nankratis, Am, and Defenneh; has achieved many other important works of the kind, andissued a popular work, "Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt"; _b_. 1853. 

PETRIE, GEORGE, Irish archæologist, born in Dublin, of Scottishparentage; bred to art; executed Irish landscapes, but is best known forhis "Essay on the Round Towers of Ireland, " a work of no small interest(1790-1866). 

PETROLEUM, is the common name of a series of rock oils found inlarge quantities in the United States and Canada, near Rangoon, and inthe neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea. The oil issues from the rocks, oris drawn from subterranean reservoirs, where its presence is supposed toresult from natural distillation of vegetable and animal substances, andafter refining, put in the market as benzoline, paraffin, and lubricatingoil. It is extensively used in the industries, and has been applied asfuel to steamships. 

PÉTROLEUSE, was a name given to certain Parisian women of theCommune of 1871, who poured petroleum on the Hôtel de Ville and otherbuildings to burn them. 

PETRONIUS, a Roman satirist and accomplished voluptuary at the courtof Nero, and the director-in-chief of the imperial pleasures; accused oftreason, and dreading death at the hands of the emperor his master, heopened his veins, and by bandaging them bled slowly to death, showing thewhile the same frivolity as throughout his life; he left behind him awork, extant now only in fragments, but enough to expose the abyss ofprofligacy in which the Roman world was then sunk at that crisis of itsfate; _d_. 63. 

PETTIE, JOHN, painter, born at Edinburgh; his works, chieflyhistorical, were numerous, and of a high character (1839-1893). 

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM, political economist, born in Hampshire; was aman of versatile genius, varied attainments, and untiring energy; wasskilled in medicine, in music, in mechanics, and in engineering, as wellas economics, to which especially he contributed by his pen (1623-1687). 

PETTY JURY, a jury of 12 elected to try a criminal case after a truebill against the accused has been found by a Grand Jury. 

PETTY OFFICERS, officers in the navy, consisting of four grades, andcorresponding in function and responsibility to non-commissioned officersin the army. 

PETTY SESSIONS, name given to sessions of justices of the peace totry small cases without a jury. 

PEUTINGER, CONRAD, an Augsburg antiquary, left at his death a13th-century copy of a 3rd-century map of the Roman military roads, nowin the Imperial Library at Vienna, known as the "Tabula Peutingeriana"(1465-1547). 

PFÄFERS, hot springs near a village of the same name in the Swisscanton of St. Gall; have been in use for 800 years. 

PFAHLBAUTEN, lake dwellings of prehistoric date in Switzerland. 

PFALZ, the German name for the Palatinate. 

PFEIFFER, IDA, a celebrated traveller, born in Vienna; beingseparated from her husband, and having completed the education of her twosons and settled them in life, commenced her career of travel in 1842, inwhich year she visited Palestine, in 1845 visited Scandinavia, in 1846essayed a voyage round the world by Cape Horn, in 1851 a second by theCape of Good Hope, and in 1856 an expedition to Madagascar, returning atthe end of each to Vienna and publishing accounts of them (1797-1858). 

PFFLEIDERER, OTTO, a philosophical theologian, born in Würtemberg, professor at Jena, and afterwards at Berlin; has written on religion, thephilosophy of it and sundry developments of it, in an able manner, aswell as lectured on it in Edinburgh in connection with the Gifford trust, on which occasion he was bold enough to overstep the limits respected byprevious lecturers between natural and revealed religion, to theinclusion of the latter within his range; _b_. 1830. 

PFORZHEIM (29), manufacturing town in Baden, in the N. Of the BlackForest; manufactures gold and silver ornaments, and has chemical andother factories. 

PHÆDRUS, a Latin fabulist, of the age of Augustus, born inMacedonia, and settled in Rome; originally a slave, was manumitted byAugustus; his fables, 97 in number, were written in verse, and are mostlytranslations from Æsop, the best of them such as keep closely to theoriginal. 

PHAËTHON (i. E. The shining one, and so called from his father), the son of HELIOS (q. V. ); persuaded his father to allow him forone day to drive the chariot of the sun across the heavens, but was tooweak to check the horses, so that they rushed off their wonted track andnearly set the world on fire, whereupon Zeus transfixed him with athunderbolt, metamorphosed his sisters who had yoked the horses for himinto poplars and their tears into amber. 

PHALANSTERY, a body of people living together on the Communisticprinciple of Fourier; also the building they occupy. 

PHALANX, among the Greeks a body of heavy infantry armed with longspears and short swords, standing in line close behind one another, generally 8 men deep, the Macedonian being as much as 16; its movementswere too heavy, and it was dashed in pieces before the legions of Rome toits extinction; it was superseded by the Roman legion. 

PHALARIS, a tyrant of Agrigentum, in Sicily, in the 6th century, whois said, among other cruelties, to have roasted the victims of histyranny in a brazen bull which bears his name; the "Letters of Phalaris, "at one time ascribed to him, have been proved to be spurious. 

PHALLUS, a symbol of the generative power of nature, being arepresentation of the male organ of generation, and associated with ritesand ceremonies of nature-worship in the early stages of civilised life, and the worship of which was supposed to have a magic influence ininducing fertility among the flocks and herds, as well as in the soil ofthe earth. 

PHARAMOND, a Knight of the Round Table, and the reputed first kingof the Franks. 

PHARAOH, a name, now proper, now common, given in the Old Testamentto the kings of Egypt, identified with that of the sun-god Phra, andapplied to the king as his representative on earth; some 10 of the nameoccur in the Bible, and it is matter of difficulty often to distinguishone from another. 

PHARISEES (i. E. Separatists), a sect of the Jews who adopted orreceived this name because of the attitude of isolation from the rest ofthe nation which they were compelled to assume at the time of theirorigin. This was some time between the years 165 and 105 B. C. , on theirdiscovery that the later Maccabæan chiefs were aiming at more thanreligious liberty, and in their own interests contemplating the erectionof a worldly kingdom that would be the death of the theocratic, which itwas the purpose of Providence they should establish; this was theseparate ground which they at first assumed alone, but they in the endcarried the great body of the nation along with them. They werescrupulously exact in their interpretation and observance of the Jewishlaw as the rule to regulate the life of the Jewish community in everydepartment, and were the representatives of that legal tendency whichgave character to the development of Judaism proper during the periodwhich elapsed between the date of the Captivity and the advent ofChristianity. The law they observed, however, was not the written law asit stood, but that law as expounded by the oral law of the Scribes, asthe sole key to its interpretation, so that their attitude to the Law ofMoses was pretty much the same as that of the Roman Catholics and theHigh Churchmen in relation to the Scriptures generally, and they werethus at length the representatives of clericalism as well as legalism inthe Jewish Church, and in doing so they took their ground upon aprinciple which is the distinctive article of orthodox Judaism in thematter to the present day. In the days of Christ they stood in markedopposition to the SADDUCEES (q. V. ) both in their dogmatic viewsand their political principles. As against them, on the dogmatic side, they believed in a spiritual world and in an established moral order, andon the political their rule was to abstain from politics, except in sofar as they might injuriously affect the life and interests of thenation; but at that time they had degenerated into mere formalists, whosereligion was a conspicuous hypocrisy, and it was on this account andtheir pretensions to superior sanctity that they incurred the indignationand exposed themselves to the condemnation of Christ. 

PHAROS, an island of ancient Egypt, near Alexandria, on which thefirst lighthouse was erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus in 48 B. C. 

PHARSALIA, a district in the N. Of Greece, the southern portion ofthe modern province of Larissa; was the scene of Cæsar's victory overPompey, 48 B. C. 

PHELPS, ELIZABETH STUART, American authoress, born at Andover; wrote"Gates Ajar" and other popular stories, is a great advocate, by lecturingand otherwise, for social reform and the emancipation of women; _b_. 1844. 

PHELPS, SAMUEL, an English actor, born in Devonport; made his_début_ as Shylock in London at the Haymarket in 1837, achieved hisgreatest successes in Sadler's Wells by his representation ofShakespeare's plays and the works of eminent dramatists of the 18thcentury; was distinguished in comedy as well as tragedy, in which last heprimarily appeared and established his fame (1804-1878). 

PHERECYDES, an ancient Greek philosopher, born in Syros in 6thcentury B. C. ; distinguished as having had Pythagoras among his pupils, and believed to have been the author of many of the doctrines promulgatedby his disciple and named Pythagorean. 

PHIDIAS, the greatest sculptor and statuary of ancient Greece, bornat Athens; flourished in the time of Pericles, and was appointed by himto direct the works of art projected to the beautifying of the city, andexpressly commissioned to execute certain of these works himself; thechief work that he superintended was the erection of the Parthenon, muchof which he himself adorned; and of the statues he executed the mostfamous were one of Athena of ivory and gold for the Parthenon, and acolossal one of Zeus, his masterpiece, also of ivory and gold, forOlympia; accused of having appropriated some of the gold intended for thestatue of Athena he was acquitted, but was afterwards charged withimpiety for carving his own likeness and that of Pericles on the shieldof the goddess, and was thrown into prison, where he died, 432 B. C. 

PHILADELPHIA (1, 293), largest city in Pennsylvania, on the Delaware, 100 m. From the sea and 90 m. By rail SW. Of New York; is the third cityin the Union in population, manufactures, and commerce, regularly builtwith plain substantial dwelling-houses; recently more splendid publicbuildings have been erected, the town-hall, of white marble, is thesecond highest structure in the world; a masonic temple and Governmentoffices of granite and the Mint are also fine buildings; there is auniversity and colleges of science, medicine, art, and music, manychurches, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and many hospitals and charitableinstitutions; the industries include locomotive building, saw-making, woollen and cotton goods, sugar and oil refining, and chemical works; ittrades largely in coal. Founded by William Penn in 1682, it was thecentral point of the War of Independence; the first Congress met here, and the Declaration of Independence was signed (1776) in a building stillstanding; here too the Federal Union was signed (1778) and theconstitution drawn up (1787), and from 1790 to 1800 it was the capital ofthe United States. 

PHILADOR, FRANÇOIS ANDRÉ, a celebrated composer and chess-player, born at Dreux; wrote a number of operas; in regard to chess his greatmaxim was "Pawns are the soul of chess"; fled at the time of theRevolution to London, where he died (1726-1795). 

PHILÆ, an island of syenite stone in the Nile, near Assouan, inNubia, 1200 ft. Long and 50 ft. Broad; is almost covered with ancientbuildings of great beauty, among which is a temple of Isis, with a greatgateway dating from 361 B. C. , which was converted into a church in 577. 

PHILATORY, a transparent reliquary to contain and exhibit the bonesand relics of saints. 

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, a short letter by Paul to a member of theChurch at Colossæ on behalf of a slave, Onesimus, who had deserted hisservice, gone off with some of his property, and taken refuge in Rome, but had been converted to Christ, and whom he begs not to manumit, butsimply to receive back as a brother for his sake. 

PHILEMON AND BAUCIS, in the Greek mythology a pair of poor peoplewho, in fond attachment to each other, lived in a small cottage inPhrygia by themselves and gave hospitality to gods in disguise when everyother door was shut against them, and to whom, in the judgment thatdescended upon their inhospitable neighbours, the gods were propitious, and did honour by appointing them to priesthood, when they would ratherhave been servants, in a temple metamorphosed out of their cottage. Herethey continued to minister to old age, and had but one prayer forthemselves, that they might in the end die together; when as they sat atthe door of the temple one day, bent with years, they were changed, heinto an oak and she into a linden. This is Ovid's version of the story, to which he adds as the moral of it, "Those who piously honour the godsare themselves held in honour. "

PHILIP, an Indian chief whose father had been a staunch friend ofthe Pilgrim settlers, was himself friendly to the colonists, till in 1671their encroachments provoked him to retaliation; after six years'fighting, in which many colonists perished and great massacres of Indianstook place, he was defeated and slain, 1676. 

PHILIP OF MACEDON, the father of Alexander the Great, usurped thekingdom from the infant king Amyntas, his nephew and ward, in 360 B. C. ;having secured his throne, he entered on a series of aggressive wars, making expeditions into Thrace and Thessaly; the siege of Olynthusbrought him into conflict with Athens, the two cities being allies, andoccasioned some of the most brilliant orations of Demosthenes; thesuccessive appeals for his aid against their enemies by the Thebans andthe Argives led him into Greece and into the Peloponnesus; in 339 B. C. Acouncil of Greek cities appointed him commander-in-chief of their leaguedforces in a projected war against the Locrians, but the Athenians andThebans opposed his coming; the defeat of their armies at Chæronea, 338B. C. , placed all Greece at his feet; his next project was an expeditionagainst Persia, but while preparations were on foot he was assassinatedat Ægæ; a man of unbridled lust, he was an astute and unscrupulouspolitician, but of incomparable eloquence, energy, and military skill(382-336 B. C. ). 

PHILIP II. , Philip-Augustus, king of France, shared the throne withhis father, Louis VII. , from 1179, and succeeded him as sole ruler in1180; marrying Isabella of Hainault, he united the Capet and Carlovingianhouses; his grand aim was to secure to himself some of the Englishpossessions in France; his alliance with Richard of England in the thirdcrusade ended in a quarrel; returning to France he broke his oath toRichard by bargaining with John for portions of the coveted territory; anexhausting war lasted till 1119; on Richard's death Philip supportedArthur against John in his claim to Anjou, Maine, and Touraine; afterArthur's murder, the capture of Château Gaillard in 1204 gave himpossession of these three provinces with Normandy and part of Poitou; thevictory of Bouvines 1214 secured his throne, and the rest of his reignwas spent in internal reforms and the beautifying of Paris (1165-1223). 

PHILIP IV. , the Fair, king of France, succeeded his father PhilipIII. In 1285; by his marriage with Joanna of Navarre added Navarre, Champagne, and Brie to his realm; but the sturdy valour of the Flemishburghers at Courtrai on the "Day of Spurs" prevented the annexation ofFlanders; his fame rests on his struggle and victory over the papalpower; a tax on the clergy was condemned by Boniface VIII. In 1296;supported by his nobles and burghers Philip burnt the papal bull, imprisoned the legate, and his ambassador in Rome imprisoned the Popehimself; Boniface died soon after, and in 1305 Philip made Clement V. Pope; kept him at Avignon, and so commenced the seventy years'"captivity"; he forced Clement to decree the suppression of the Templars, and became his willing instrument in executing the decree; he died atFontainebleau, having proved himself an avaricious and pitiless despot(1268-1314). 

PHILIP VI. , of Valois, king of France, succeeded Charles IV. In1328; Edward III. Of England contested his claim, contending that theSalic law, though it excluded females, did not exclude their male heirs;Edward was son of a daughter, Philip son of a brother, of Philip IV. ;thus began the Hundred Years' War between France and England, 1337; theFrench fleet was defeated off Sluys in 1340, and the army at Crécy in1346; a truce was made, when the war was followed by the Black Death; theworthless king afterwards purchased Majorca (1293-1350). 

PHILIP II. , king of Spain, only son of the Emperor Charles V. ;married Mary Tudor in 1554, and spent over a year in England; in 1555 hesucceeded his father in the sovereignty of Spain, Sicily, Milan, theNetherlands, Franche-Comté, Mexico, and Peru; a league between Henry II. Of France and the Pope was overthrown, and on the death of Mary hemarried the French princess Isabella, and retired to live in Spain, 1559. Wedding himself now to the cause of the Church, he encouraged theInquisition in Spain, and introduced it to the Netherlands; the latterrevolted, and the Seven United Provinces achieved their independenceafter a long struggle in 1579; his great effort to overthrow ProtestantEngland ended in the disaster of the Armada, 1588; his last years wereembittered by the failure of his intrigues against Navarre, raids ofEnglish seamen on his American provinces, and by loathsome disease; hewas a bigot in religion, a hard, unloved, and unloving man, and a foolishking; he fatally injured Spain by crushing her chivalrous spirit, bypersecuting the industrious Moors, and by destroying her commerce byheavy taxation (1527-1598). 

PHILIP V. , grandson of Louis XIV. , first Bourbon king of Spain;inherited his throne by the testament of his uncle Charles II. In 1700;the rival claim of the Archduke Charles of Austria was supported byEngland, Austria, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, and Hanover; but the longWar of the Spanish Succession terminated in the peace of Utrecht, andleft Philip his kingdom; after an unsuccessful movement to recover Sicilyand Sardinia for Spain he joined England and France against the Emperor, and gained the former island for his son Charles III. ; he died animbecile at Madrid (1683-1746). 

PHILIP THE BOLD, Duke of Burgundy, was the fourth son of John theGood, king of France; taken captive at Poitiers 1356; on his return toFrance he received for his bravery the duchies of Touraine and Burgundy;on his brother's accession to the French throne as Charles V. Heexchanged the former duchy for the hand of Margaret of Flanders, on thedeath of whose father he assumed the government of his territories; hiswise administration encouraged arts, industries, and commerce, and wonthe respect and esteem of his subjects; he was afterwards Regent ofFrance when Charles V. Became imbecile (1342-1404). 

PHILIP THE GOOD, grandson of the above, raised the duchy to itszenith of prosperity, influence, and fame; he was alternately in alliancewith England, and at peace with his superior, France; ultimatelyassisting in driving England out of most of her Continental possessions(1396-1467). 

PHILIPHAUGH, a battlefield on the Yarrow, 3 m. W. Of Selkirk, wasthe scene of Leslie's victory over Montrose in 1645. 

PHILIPPI, a Macedonian city, was the scene of a victory gained in 42B. C. By Octavianus and Antony over Brutus and Cassius, and the seat of achurch, the first founded by St. Paul in Europe. 

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, an Epistle of Paul written at Romeduring his imprisonment there to a church at Philippi, in Macedonia, thathad been planted by himself, and the members of which were among thefirst-fruits of his ministry in Europe. The occasion of writing it wasthe receipt of a gift from them, and to express the joy it gave him as atoken of their affection. It is the least dogmatic of all his Epistles, and affords an example of the Apostle's statement of Christian truth tounbiased minds; one exhortation, however, shows he is not blind to therise of an evil which has been the bane of the Church of Christ since thebeginning, the spirit of rivalry, and this is evident from the prominencehe gives in chapter ii. 5-8 to the self-sacrificing lowliness of Christ, and by the counsel he gives them in chapter iv. 8. 

PHILIPPIC, the name originally applied to Demosthenes' three greatorations against Philip of Macedon, then to Cicero's speeches againstMark Antony; now denotes any violent invective written or spoken. 

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS (8, 500), a large and numerous group in the northof the Malay archipelago, between the China Sea and the Pacific, of whichthe largest, Luzon, and the next Mindanao, are both much greater thanIreland; are mountainous and volcanic, subject to eruptions andcontinuous earthquakes. In the N. Of the group cyclones too are common. The climate is moist and warm, but fairly healthy; the soil is veryfertile. Rice, maize, sugar, cotton, coffee, and tobacco are cultivated;the forests yield dye-woods, hard timber, and medicinal herbs, and themines coal and iron, copper, gold, and lead. The chief exports are sugar, hemp, and tobacco. The aboriginal Negritoes are now few; half-castes arenumerous; the population is chiefly Malayan, Roman Catholic at leastnominally in religion, and speaking the Tagal or the Visayan language. Discovered by Magellan in 1521, who was killed on the island of Mactan;they were annexed by Spain in 1569, and held till 1898, when they fell tothe Americans. The capital is Manilla (270), on the W. Coast of Luzon;Laoag (37), San Miguel (35), and Banang (33) among the largest towns. 

PHILIPS, AMBROSE, minor poet, born in Leicester, of good family;friend of Addison and Steele, and a Whig in politics; held severallucrative posts, chiefly in Ireland; wrote pastorals in vigorous andelegant verse, and also some short sentimental verses for children, whichearned for him from Henry Carey the nickname of "Namby-Pamby"(1678-1749). 

PHILIPS, JOHN, littérateur, born in Oxfordshire, author of "TheSplendid Shilling, " an admirable burlesque in imitation of Milton, and apoem, "Cider, " an imitation of Virgil (1676-1708). 

PHILIPS, KATHERINE, poetess, born in London; was the daughter of aLondon merchant and the wife of a Welsh squire, a highly sentimental butworthy woman; the Society of Friendship, in which the members bore fancynames--hers, which also served her for a _nom de plume_, was Orinda--hadsome fame in its day, and brought her, as the foundress, the honour of adedication from Jeremy Taylor; her work was admired by Cowley and Keats;she was a staunch royalist (1631-1664). 

PHILISTINE, the name given by the students in Germany to anon-university man of the middle-class, or a man without (university)culture, or of narrow views of things. 

PHILISTINES, a people, for long of uncertain origin, but nowgenerally believed to have been originally emigrants from Crete, whosettled in the plain, some 40 m. Long by 15 broad, extending along thecoast of Palestine from Joppa on the N. To the desert on the S. , andwhose chief cities were Ashdod, Askelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath; they werea trading and agricultural people, were again and again a thorn in theside of the Israelites, but gradually tamed into submission, so as to bevirtually extinct in the days of Christ; their chief god was DAGON(q. V. ). 

PHILLIP, JOHN, painter, born in Aberdeen; his early picturesillustrate Scottish subjects, his latest and best illustrate life inSpain, whither he had gone in 1851 for his health (1817-1867). 

PHILLIPS, WENDELL, slavery abolitionist and emancipationistgenerally, born at Boston, U. S. , and bred to the bar; was Garrison'saide-de-camp in the cause, and chief after his death (1811-1884). 

PHILO JUDÆUS (i. E. Philo the Jew), philosopher of the 1stcentury, born in Alexandria; studied the Greek philosophy, and found init, particularly the teaching of Plato, the rationalist explanation ofthe religion of Moses, which he regarded as the revelation to whichphilosophy was but the key; he was a man of great learning and greatinfluence among his people, and was in his old age one of an embassy sentby the Jews of Alexandria in A. D. 40 to Rome to protest against theimperial edict requiring the payment of divine honours to the emperor; heidentified the Logos of the Platonists with the Word in the NewTestament. 

PHILOCRETES, a famous archer, who had been the friend andarmour-bearer of Hercules who instructed him in the use of the bow, andalso bequeathed his bow with the poisoned arrows to him after his death;he accompanied the Greeks to the siege of Troy, but one of the arrowsfell on his foot, causing a wound the stench of which was intolerable, sothat he was left behind at Lemnos, where he remained in misery 10 years, till an oracle declared that Troy could not be taken without the arrowsof Hercules; he was accordingly sent for, and being healed of his woundby Æsculapius, assisted at the capture of the city. 

PHILOMELA, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, and sister ofProgne; she was the victim of an outrage committed by her brother-in-lawTereus, who cut out her tongue to prevent her exposing him, and kept herin close confinement; here she found means of communicating with hersister, when the two, to avenge the wrong, made away with Itys, Tereus'son, and served him up to his father at a banquet; the fury of Tereus onthe discovery knew no bounds, but they escaped his vengeance, Philomelaby being changed into a nightingale and Progne into a swallow. 

PHILOPOEMON, the head of the Achæcan League, born at Megalopolis, and the last of the Greek heroes; fought hard to achieve the independenceof Greece, but having to struggle against heavy odds, was overpowered;rose from a sick-bed to suppress a revolt, was taken prisoner, throwninto a dungeon, and forced to drink poison (252-183 B. C. ). 

PHILOSOPHE, name for a philosopher of the school of 18th centuryEnlightenment, represented by the ENCYCLOPEDISTS (q. V. ) of France; theclass have been characterised by the delight they took in outraging thereligious sentiment. See AUFKLÄRUNG and ILLUMINATION, THE. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE was, with the Elixir of Life, the object of thesearch of the mediæval alchemists. Their theory regarded gold as the mostperfect metal, all others being removed from it by various stages ofimperfection, and they sought an amalgam of pure sulphur and puremercury, which, being more perfect still than gold, would transmute thebaser metals into the nobler. 

PHILOSOPHISM, FRENCH, a philosophy such as the philosophers ofFrance gave instances of, founded on the notion and cultivated in thebelief that scientific knowledge is the sovereign remedy for the ills oflife, summed up in two articles--first, that "a lie cannot be believed";and second, that "in spiritual supersensual matters no belief ispossible, " her boast being that "she had destroyed religion byextinguishing the abomination" (_l'Infame_). 

PHILOSOPHY, the science of sciences or of things in general, properly an attempt to find the absolute in the contingent, the immutablein the mutable, the universal in the particular, the eternal in thetemporal, the real in the phenomenal, the ideal in the real, or in otherwords, to discover "the single principle that, " as Dr. Stirling says, "possesses within itself the capability of transition into all existentvariety and varieties, " which it presupposes can be done not by inductionfrom the transient, but by deduction from the permanent as thatspiritually reveals itself in the creating mind, so that a _Philosopher_is a man who has, as Carlyle says, quoting Goethe, "stationed himself inthe middle (between the outer and the inner, the upper and the lower), towhom the Highest has descended and the Lowest mounted up, who is theequal and kindly brother of all. " "Philosophy dwells aloft in the Templeof Science, the divinity of the inmost shrine; her dictates descend amongmen, but she herself descends not; whoso would behold her must climb withlong and laborious effort; may still linger in the forecourt tillmanifold trial have proved him worthy of admission into the interiorsolemnities. " Indeed philosophy is more than SCIENCE (q. V. ); itis a divine wisdom instilled into and inspiring a thinker's life. SeeTHINKER, THE. 

PHILOXENUS, a Greek poet who lived at the court of Dionysius theElder, tyrant of Syracuse; condemned to prison for refusing to praisesome verses of the tyrant, he was led forth to criticise others, butreturned them as worse, begging the officers who handed them to lead himback, which when the tyrant was told, he laughed and released him. 

PHILPOTTS, HENRY, bishop of Exeter, born in Bridgwater, a keen Toryand uncompromising High-Churchman, the chief actor in the celebratedGORHAM CASE (q. V. ), and noted for his obstinate opposition topolitical reform as the opening of the floodgates of democracy, which hedreaded would subvert everything that was dear to him (1778-1869). 

PHILTRE, the name given to certain concoctions of herbs, oftendeleterious and poisonous, supposed to secure for the personadministering it the love of the person to whom it was administered;these love potions were popular in the declining days of Greece and Rome, throughout mediæval Europe, and continue to be compounded to this day inthe superstitious East. 

PHIZ, the pseudonym of Hablot K. Browne, the illustrator of thefirst edition of the "Pickwick Papers" of Dickens. 

PHLEGETHON, in the Greek mythology a river in the lower world whichflowed in torrents of fire athwart it, and which scorched up everythingnear it. 

PHLOGISTON, a name given by the old chemists to an imaginaryprinciple of fire, latent in bodies, and which escaped during combustion. 

PHOCAS, a common soldier who raised himself by the aid of a factionto the throne of the East, and for twenty years defied attempts todethrone him, but, being deserted by his party, was taken, subjected totorture, and beheaded in 610. "His reign, " says Gibbon, "afflicted Europewith ignominious peace, and Asia with desolating war. "

PHOCION, a distinguished Athenian general and statesman, a discipleof Plato and Xenocrates; was wise in council as well as brave in war;opposed to the democracy of Athens, led on by Demosthenes in the franticambition of coping with Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander; and pledfor a pacific arrangement with them; but having opposed war withAntipater, the successor of the latter, he was accused of treason, andcondemned to drink hemlock; the Athenians afterwards repented of thecrime, raised a bronze statue to his memory, and condemned his accuser todeath. 

PHOCIS, a province of ancient Greece, W. Of Boeotia, and N. Of theGulf of Corinth; was traversed by the mountain range of Parnassus, andcontained the oracle of Apollo at Delphi; allied to Athens in thePeloponnesian War, the Phocians were crushed in the "Sacred War" afterten years' fighting by Philip of Macedon, 346 B. C. 

PHOEBUS (i. E. The radiant one), an epithet originally applied toApollo for his beauty, and eventually to him as the sun-god. 

PHOENICIA, a country on the E. Shore of the Levant, stretchinginland to Mount Lebanon, at first extending only 20 m. N. Of Palestine, but later embracing 200 m. Of coast, with the towns of Tyre, Zarephath, Sidon, Gebal, and Arvad. The country comprised well-wooded hills andfertile plains, was rich in natural resources, richer still in a peopleof remarkable industry and enterprise. Of Semitic stock, they emerge fromhistory with Sidon as ruling city about 1500 B. C. , and reach theirzenith under Tyre 1200-750, thereafter declining, and ultimately mergingin the Roman Empire. During their prosperity their manufactures, purpledye, glass ware, and metal implements were in demand everywhere; theywere the traders of the world, their nautical skill and geographicalposition making their markets the centres of exchange between East andWest; their ships sailed every sea, and carried the merchandise of everycountry, and their colonists settled all over the Mediterranean, Ægean, and Euxine, and even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, in Africa, inBritain, and the countries on the Baltic. Her greatest colony wasCarthage, the founding of which (823 B. C. ) sapped the strength of themother-country, and which afterwards usurped her place, and contendedwith Rome for the mastery of the world. But Phoenicia's greatest gift tocivilisation was the alphabet, which she herself may have developed fromEgyptian hieroglyphics, and which, with its great merit of simplicity, has, slightly altered, at length superseded among civilised nations everyother system. 

PHOENIX, a bird which was fabled at the end of certain cycles oftime to immolate itself in flames, and rise renewed in youth from theashes. It has become the appropriate symbol of the death-birth that everintroduces a new era in the history of the world, and is employed byCarlyle in "Sartor" as symbol of the crisis through which the presentgeneration is now passing, the conflagration going on appearing nowise asa mere conflagration, but the necessary preliminary of a new time, withthe germinating principles of which it is pregnant. 

PHOENIX PARK, a magnificent public park of 2000 acres in Dublin; ismuch used for military reviews; it was rendered notorious in 1882 throughthe murder by the "Invincibles" of Lord Frederick Cavendish, who had justbeen appointed Irish Secretary, and his subordinate, Thomas Burke. 

PHONOGRAPH, an instrument invented by EDISON (q. V. ) in1877 for recording and reproducing articulate sounds of the voice inspeech or song, and to which the name of phonogram is given. 

PHOTIUS, patriarch of Constantinople; was the great promoter of theschism on the question of the procession of the Holy Ghost, between theEastern and the Western divisions of the Church, denying as he did, anderasing from the creed the _FILIOQUE_ article (q. V. ); _d_. 891. 

PHOTOGRAVURE, a process of reproducing pictures from the negative ofa photograph on a gelatine surface with the assistance of certainchemical preparations. 

PHOTOSPHERE, name given to the luminous atmosphere enveloping thesun. 

PHOTOTYPE, a block with impressions produced by photography fromwhich engravings, &c. , can be printed. 

PHRENOLOGY claims to be a science in which the relation of thefunctions of mind to the material of the brain substance is observed. Itasserts that just as speech, taste, touch, &c. , have their centres incertain convolutions of the brain, so have benevolence, firmness, conscientiousness, &c. , and that by studying the configuration of thebrain, as indicated by that of the skull, a man's character may beapproximately discovered. As a science it is usually discredited, andheld to be unsupported by physiology, anatomy, and pathology. It is heldas strongly militating against its claims that it takes no account of theconvolutions of the brain that lie on the base of the skull. Itsoriginators were Gall, Spurzheim, and Andrew and George Combe. 

PHRYGIA, a country originally extending over the western shores ofAsia Minor, but afterwards confined to the western uplands, where are thesources of the Hermus, Mæander, and Sangarius; was made up of barrenhills where sheep famous for their wool grazed, and fertile valleys wherethe vine was cultivated; marble was quarried in the hills, and gold wasfound; several great trade roads from Ephesus crossed the country, amongwhose towns the names of Colosse and Laodicea are familiar; the Phrygianswere an Armenian people, with a mystic orgiastic religion, and weresuccessively conquered by Assyrians, Lydians, and Persians, falling underRome in 43 B. C. 

PHRYGIAN CAP, a cap worn by the Phrygians, and worn in modern timesas the symbol of freedom. 

PHRYNÉ, a Greek courtesan, celebrated for her beauty; was the modelto Praxiteles of his statue of Venus; accused of profaning the EleusinianMysteries, she was brought before the judges, to whom she exposed herperson, but who acquitted her of the charge, to preserve to the artiststhe image of divine beauty thus recognised in her. 

PHTAH, a god of ancient Egypt, worshipped at Memphis; identifiedwith Osiris and Socaris, and placed by the Egyptians at the head of thedynasty of the kings of Memphis. 

PHYLACTERIES, strips of vellum inscribed with certain texts ofScripture, enclosed in small cases of calf-skin, and attached to theforehead or the left arm; originally connected with acts of worship, theywere eventually turned to superstitious uses, and employed sometimes ascharms and sometimes by way of ostentatious display. 

PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL, a school of economists founded by Quesney, whoregarded the cultivation of the land as the chief sources of naturalwell-being, and argued for legislation in behalf of it. 

PIACENZA (35), an old Italian city on the Po, 43 m. By rail SE. OfMilan; has a cathedral, and among other churches the San Sisto, whichcontains the Sistine Madonna of Raphael, a theological seminary, andlarge library; it manufactures silks, cottons, and hats, and is afortress of great strategical importance. 

PIA-MATER, a membrane which invests the brain and the spinal cord;it is of a delicate vascular tissue. 

PIARISTS, a purely religious order devoted to the education of thepoor, founded in 1599 by a Spanish priest, and confirmed in 1617 by PaulV. , and again in 1621 by Gregory XV. 

PIAZZI, Italian astronomer; discovered in 1801 a planet between Marsand Jupiter, which he named Ceres, and the first of the planetoidsrecognised, as well as afterwards catalogued the stars (1746-1826). 

PIBROCH, the Highland bagpipe; also the wild, martial music itdiscourses. 

PICADOR, a man mounted on horseback armed with a spear to incite thebull in a bull-fight. 

PICARDY, a province in the N. Of France, the capital of which wasAmiens; it now forms the department of Somme, and part of Aisne andPas-de-Calais. 

PICCOLOMINI, the name of an illustrious family of science in Italy, of which Æneas Silvius (Pope Pius II. ) was a member; also Octavio I. , Duke of Amalfi, who distinguished himself, along with Wallenstein, in theThirty Years' War at Lützen in 1632, at Nordlinger in 1634, and atThionville in 1639; was one of the most celebrated soldiers that hadcommand of the imperial troops (1599-1656). 

PICHEGRU, CHARLES, French general, born at Arbois, in Jura; servedwith distinguished success in the army of the Republic on the Rhine andin the Netherlands, but sold himself to the Bourbons, and being convictedof treason, was deported to Cayenne, but escaped to England, where incourse of time he joined the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal against theFirst Consul, and being betrayed, was imprisoned in the Temple, where onemorning after he was found strangled (1761-1804). 

PICKWICK, SAMUEL, the hero of Dickens's "Pickwick Papers, " acharacter distinguished for his general goodness and his honestsimplicity. 

PICO, one of the Azores, consisting of a single volcanic mountain, still in action; produces excellent wine. 

PICO DELLA MIRAN`DOLO, a notable Italian champion of the scholasticdogma, who challenged all the learned of Europe to enter the lists withhim and controvert any one of 900 theses which he undertook to defend, achallenge which no one, under ban of the Pope, dared accept; he was thelast of the schoolmen as well as a humanist in the bud, and was in hislifetime, with an astonishing forecast of destiny, named thePHOENIX (q. V. ) (1463-1494). 

PICQUART, COLONEL, French military officer; was distinguished as astudent at the military schools; served in Algiers; became a captain in1880; was appointed to the War Office in 1885; served with distinction inTonquin; became professor at the Military School; rejoined the War Officein 1893, and was made head of the Intelligence Department in 1896; movedby certain discoveries affecting Esterhazy, began to inquire into theDreyfus case, which led to his removal out of the way to Tunis; returnedand exposed the proceedings against Dreyfus, with the result that arevision was demanded, and the charge confirmed; _b_. 1854. 

PICTON, SIR THOMAS, British general, born in Pembroke; served in theWest Indies, and became governor of Trinidad, also in the WalcherenExpedition, and became governor of Flushing, and in the Peninsula and atWaterloo, where he fell as he was leading his men to the charge(1758-1815). 

PICTS, a race of people now believed to be of Celtic origin, thatfrom 296 to 844 inhabited the NE. Of Caledonia from the Forth to thePentland Firth, and were divided into northern and southern by theGrampians, while the W. Of the country, or Argyll, was occupied by theDalriads or Scots from Ireland, who eventually gained the ascendency overthem, to their amalgamation into one nation. 

PICTS' HOUSES, the name popularly given to EARTH-HOUSES (q. V. )in several parts of Scotland. 

PIED PIPER OF HAMELIN, the hero of an old German legend, had come toa German town, offered to clear it of the rats which infested it for asum of money, but after executing his task was unrewarded, upon which heblew a blast on his magic pipe, the sound of which drew the children ofthe town into a cave, which he locked when they entered, and shut them upfor ever. 

PIEDMONT, a district of Italy, formerly a principality, ruled by thehouse of Savoy, surrounded by the Alps, the Apennines, and the riverTicino; occupies the W. End of the great fertile valley of the Po, ahilly region rich in vines and mulberries, and a mountainous tract withforests and grazing land intersected by lovely valleys, which sendstreams down into the Po; the people are industrious; textilemanufactures are extensive, and agriculture is skilful; Turin, thelargest town, was the capital of Italy 1859-1865; in the glens of theCottian Alps the Vaudois or Waldenses, after much persecution, stilldwell. 

PIERCE, FRANKLIN, the fourteenth President of the United States, born in New Hampshire, was the lifelong friend of Nathaniel Hawthorne;bred to the bar; served in the Mexican War, and was elected President in1852; his period of office was one of trouble, he supported the States'rights doctrine, and served with the South in the Civil War (1804-1869). 

PIERIA, a district in Macedonia E. Of Olympus, inhabited byThracians, and famous as the seat of the worship of the Muses and theirbirthplace, giving rise to the phrase Pierian Spring, as the source ofpoetic inspiration. 

PIERIDES, the name given to the Muses from their fountainPIERIA (q. V. ). 

PIERS PLOWMAN, VISION OF, a celebrated satirical poem of the 14thcentury ascribed to Robert Langland. 

PIETÀ (i. E. Piety), the name given to a picture, the subject ofwhich is the dead Christ in the embrace of his sorrowing mother, accompanied by sorrowing women and angels; that sculptured by MichaelAngelo, in St. Peter's at Rome, representing the Virgin at the foot ofthe cross, and the dead Christ in her lap. 

PIETERMARITZBURG (16), capital of Natal, 73 m. By rail N. Of Durban;well situated on the Umgeni River, with fine streets, an amplewater-supply, and a fine climate; has railroad connection withJohannesburg, Pretoria, and Charlestown. A third of the populationconsists of Kaffirs and coolies. 

PIETISTS, the name given to a religious party that arose in Germanyat the end of the 17th century, but without forming a separate sect; laidmore stress on religious feeling than dogmatic belief, and who at length, as all who ground religion on mere feeling are apt to do, distinguishedthemselves more by a weak sentimentality than by a sturdy living faith. 

PIETRA DURA, a name given to the purest kind of Florentine mosaicwork, consists of hard stones characterised by brilliancy of colour. 

PIGEON ENGLISH, a jargon used in commercial dealings with theChinese, being a mixture of English, Portuguese, and Chinese. 

PIG-PHILOSOPHY, the name given by Carlyle in his "Latter-DayPamphlets, " in the one on Jesuitism, to the wide-spread philosophy of thetime, which regarded the human being as a mere creature of appetiteinstead of a creature of God endowed with a soul, as having no nobleridea of well-being than the gratification of desire--that his onlyHeaven, and the reverse of it his Hell. 

PIGWIGGIN, an elf in love with Queen Mab, who fights the jealousOberon in furious combat. 

PILATE, PONTIUS, Roman procurator of Judea and Samaria in the daysof Christ, from A. D. 26 to 36; persuaded of the innocence of Christ whenarraigned before his tribunal, would fain have saved Him, but yielded tothe clamour of His enemies, who crucified Him; he protested before theyled Him away by washing his hands in their presence that he was guiltlessof His blood. 

PILATUS, MOUNT, an isolated mountain at the W. End of Lake Lucerne, opposite the Rigi; is ascended by a mountain railway, and has hotels ontwo peaks. A lake below the summit is said to be the last receptacle ofthe body of Pontius Pilate, hence the adoption of the name of "MonsPilatus. "

PILCOMAYO, a tributary of the Rio Paraguay, in South America, whichit joins after a course of 1700 miles from its source in the BolivianAndes. 

PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, a rising in the northern counties of England in1536 against the policy of Cromwell, Henry VIII. 's Chancellor, in regardto the temporalities of the Church, which, though concessions were madeto it that led to its dispersion, broke out afresh with renewed violence, and had to be ruthlessly suppressed. 

PILGRIM FATHERS, the name given to the Puritans, some 100 in all, who sailed from Plymouth in the _Mayflower_ in 1620 and settled inMassachusetts, carrying with them "the life-spark of the largest nationon our earth. "

PILLAR-SAINTS, a class of recluses, called Stylites, who, in earlyChristian times, retired from the world to the Syrian Desert, and, perched on pillars, used to spend days and nights in fasting and praying, in the frantic belief that by mortification of their bodies they wouldensure the salvation of their souls; their founder was Simon, surnamedStylites; the practice, which was never allowed in the West, continueddown to the 12th century. 

PILLARS OF HERCULES. See HERCULES, PILLARS OF. 

PILLORY, an obsolete instrument of punishment for centuries in useall over Europe, consisted of a platform, an upright pole, and at aconvenient height cross-boards with holes, in which the culprit's neckand wrists were placed and fastened; so fixed he was exposed in somepublic place to the insults and noxious missiles of the mob. Formerly inEngland the penalty of forgery, perjury, &c. , it became after theCommonwealth a favourite punishment for seditious libellers. It was lastinflicted in London in 1830, and was abolished by law in 1837. 

PILOTY, KARL VON, a modern German painter of the new Münich school, and professor of Painting at the Münich Academy; did portraits, but hismasterpieces are on historical subjects, such as "Nero on the ruins ofRome, " "Galileo in Prison, " "The Death of Cæsar, " &c. ; he was no lesseminent as a teacher of art than as an artist (1826-1886). 

PILSEN (50), a town in Bohemia, 67 m. SW. Of Prague; has numerousindustries, and rich coal and iron mines, and produces an excellent beer, which it exports in large quantities. It was an important place duringthe Thirty Years' War. 

PINDAR, the greatest lyric poet of Greece, and for virgin purity ofimagination ranked by Ruskin along with Homer, Virgil, Dante, and Scott;born near Thebes, in Boeotia, of a musical family, and began his musicaleducation by practice on the flute, while he was assisted in his art bythe example of his countrywoman Corinna, who competed with and defeatedhim more than once at the public festivals; he was a welcome visitor atthe courts of all the Greek princes of the period, and not the lesshonoured that he condescended to no flattery and attuned his lyre to nosentiment but what would find an echo in every noble heart; he excelledin every department of lyric poetry, hymns to the gods, the praises ofheroes, pæans of victory, choral songs, festal songs and dirges, but ofthese only a few remain, his Epinikia, a collection of triumphal odes incelebration of the successes achieved at the great national games ofGreece; he was not only esteemed the greatest of lyric poets by hiscountrymen, but is without a rival still; when Alexander destroyed Thebeshe spared the house of Pindar (522-442 B. C. ). 

PINDAR, PETER. See WOLCOTT, JOHN. 

PINDAREES or PINDARIS, a set of freebooters who at thebeginning of the present century ravaged Central India and were theterror of the districts, but who under the governor-generalship ofHastings were driven to bay and crushed in 1817. 

PINDUS, MOUNT, is the range of mountains rising between Thessaly andEpirus, which forms the watershed of the country. 

PINEAL GLAND, a small cone-shaped body of yellowish matter in thebrain, the size of a pea, and situated in the front of the cerebellum, notable as considered by Descartes to be the seat of the soul, but is nowsurmised to be a rudimentary remnant of some organ, of vision it wouldseem, now extinct. 

PINEL, PHILIPPE, a French physician, distinguished for thereformation he effected, against no small opposition, in the treatment ofthe insane, leading to the abandonment everywhere of the cruel, inhumanmethods till then in vogue (1745-1826). 

PINERO, ARTHUR WING, dramatic author, born in London; bred to law, took to the stage and the writing of plays, of which he has produced agoodly number; collaborated with Sir Arthur Sullivan and Mr. Comyns Carrin a romantic musical drama entitled "The Beauty Stone"; _b_. 1855. 

PINEROLO (12), a town 23 m. SW. Of Turin, now a fortress in animportant military position, and in which the "Man with the Iron Mask"was imprisoned. 

PINKERTON, JOHN, a Scottish antiquary and historian, born inEdinburgh; was an original in his way, went to London, attracted thenotice of Horace Walpole and Gibbon; died in Paris, poor and neglected(1758-1826). 

PINKIE, a Scottish battlefield, near Musselburgh, Midlothian, wherethe Protector Somerset, in his expedition to secure the hand of MaryStuart for Edward VI. , defeated and slaughtered a Scottish army 1547. 

PINTO, MENDEZ, a Portuguese traveller; wrote in his "Peregriniçam"an account of his marvellous adventures in Arabia, Persia, China, andJapan, extending over a period of 21 years (1527-1548), of which, amidmuch exaggeration, the general veracity is admitted (1510-1583). 

PINTURICCHIO, Italian painter, born at Perugia; was assistant toPerugino (q. V. ) when at work in the Sistine Chapel, Rome, did frescoesand panel paintings, one of the "Christ bearing the Cross" (1454-1513). 

PINZEN, the name of two brothers, companions of ChristopherColumbus, and one of whom, Vicente Yanez, discovered Brazil in 1500. 

PIOZZI, HESTER, a female friend of Johnson under the name of Mrs. Thrale, after her first husband, a brewer in Southwark, whose home forher sake was the rendezvous of all the literary celebrities of theperiod; married afterwards, to Johnson's disgust, an Italianmusic-master, lived with him at Florence, and returned at his death toClifton, where she died; left "Anecdotes of Johnson" and "Letters"; wasauthoress of "The Three Warnings" (1741-1821). 

PIPE OF PEACE, a pipe offered by an American Indian to one whom hewishes to be on good terms with. 

PIRÆUS (36), the port of Athens 5 m. SW. Of the city, planned byThemistocles, built in the time of Pericles, and afterwards connectedwith the city for safety by strong walls, which was destroyed by theSpartans at the end of the Peloponnesian War, but restored, to fallafterwards into neglect and ruins. 

PIRANO (9), a seaport of Austria, on the Adriatic, 12 m. SW. OfTrieste; has salt-works in the neighbourhood, and manufactures glass, soap, &c. 

PIRITHOUS, king of the Lapithæ and friend of Theseus, on theoccasion of whose marriage an intoxicated Centaur ran off with his brideHippodamia, which gave rise to the famous fight between the Centaurs andthe Lapithæ, in which Theseus assisted, and the former were defeated; onthe death of Hippodamia, Pirithous ran off with Persephone and Theseuswith Helen, for which both had to answer in the lower world before Pluto;Hercules delivered the latter, but Pluto would not release the former. 

PIRKE ABOTH (i. E. Sayings of the Fathers), the name given to acollection of aphorisms in the manner of Jesus the Son of Sirach by 60doctors learned in the Jewish law, representative of their teaching, andgiving the gist of it; they inculcate the importance of familiarity withthe words of the Law. 

PIRNA (11), a town in Saxony, on the Elbe, 11 m. SE. Of Dresden; hassandstone quarries in the neighbourhood which employ 8000 quarrymen. 

PISA (38), on the Arno, 49 m. By rail W. Of Florence, is one of theoldest cities in Italy; formerly a port, the river has built up the landat its mouth so that the sea is now 4 m. Off, and the ancient trade ofPisa has been transferred to Leghorn. There are a magnificent cathedral, rich in art treasures, a peculiar campanile of white marble whichdeviates 14 ft. From the perpendicular, known as the leaning tower ofPisa, several old and beautiful churches, a university, school of art, and library. Silks and ribbons are woven, and coral ornaments cut. In the11th century Pisa was at the zenith of its prosperity as a republic, witha great mercantile fleet, and commercial relations with all the world. Its Ghibelline sympathies involved it in terrible struggles, in which itgradually sank till its fortunes were merged in those of Tuscany about1550. The council of Pisa, 1409, held to determine the long-standingrival claims of Gregory XII. And Benedict XII. To the Papal chair, endedby adding a third claimant, Alexander V. Pisa was one of the twelvecities of ancient Etruria. 

PISANO, NICOLA, Italian sculptor and architect of Pisa; his mostfamous works are the pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa, and that for theDuomo at Siena, the last being the fountain in the piazza of Perugia(1206-1278). 

PISGAH, a mountain range E. Of the Lower Jordan, one of the summitsof which is Mount Nebo, from which Moses beheld the Promised Land, andwhere he died and was buried. 

PISHIN (60), a district of South Afghanistan, N. Of Quetta, occupiedby the British since 1878 as strategically of importance. 

PISIDIA, a division of ancient Asia Minor, N. Of Pamphilia, andtraversed by the Taurus chain. 

PISISTRATUS, tyrant of Athens, was the friend of Solon and arelative; an able but an ambitious man; being in favour with the citizenspresented himself one day in the Agora, and displaying some wounds he hadreceived in their defence, persuaded them to give him a bodyguard of 50men, which grew into a larger force, by means of which in 560 B. C. Hetook possession of the citadel and seized the sovereign power, from whichhe was shortly after driven forth; after six years he was brought back, but compelled to retire a second time; after 10 years he returned andmade good his ascendency, reigning thereafter peacefully for 14 years, and leaving his power in the hands of his sons Hippias and Hipparchus; hewas a good and wise ruler, and encouraged the liberal arts, and it is tohim we owe the first written collection or complete edition of the poemsof Homer (600-527 B. C. ). 

PISTOIA (20), a town of N. Italy, at the foot of the Apennines, 21m. NW. Of Florence, with palaces and churches rich in works of art;manufactures iron and steel wares. 

PISTOL, ANCIENT, a swaggering bully and follower of Falstaff in the"Merry Wives of Windsor. "

PISTOLE, an obsolete gold coin of Europe, originally of Spain, worthsome 16s. 2d. 

PIT`AKA` (lit. A basket), the name given to the sacred books ofthe Buddhists, and constituting collectively the Buddhistic code. SeeTRIPITAKA. 

PITAVAL, a French advocate, compiler of a famous collection of_causes célèbres_ (1673-1743). 

PITCAIRN ISLAND, a small volcanic island 2½ m. Long and 1 broad, solitary, in the Pacific, 5000 m. E. Of Brisbane, where, in 1790, ninemen of H. M. S. _Bounty_ who had mutinied landed with six Tahitians and adozen Tahitian women; from these have sprung an interesting community ofislanders, virtuous, upright, and contented, of Christian faith, who, having sent a colony to Norfolk Island, numbered in 1890 still 128. 

PITCAIRNE, ARCHIBALD, Scottish physician and satirist, born atEdinburgh; studied theology and law, and afterwards at Paris, medicine;he practised in Edinburgh, and became professor at Leyden; returning, heacquired great fame in his native city; in medicine he published atreatise on Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood; being anEpiscopalian and Jacobite, he wrote severe satires on all thingsPresbyterian, e. G. "Babel, or the Assembly, a Poem, " 1692 (1652-1713). 

PITHOM, a town of Rameses, one of the treasure-cities built by thechildren of Israel in Lower Egypt, now, as discovered by M. Naville, reduced to a small village between Ismailia and Tel-el-Kebir. 

PITMAN, SIR ISAAC, inventor of the shorthand system which bears hisname, born at Trowbridge, Wiltshire; his first publication was"Stenographic Sound-Hand" in 1837, and in 1842 he started the _PhoneticJournal_, and lectured extensively as well as published in connectionwith his system (1813-1897). 

PITRÈ, GIUSEPPE, eminent Italian folk-lorist, born at Palermo, afterserving as a volunteer in 1860 under Garibaldi, and graduating inmedicine in 1866, threw himself into the study of literature, and soonmade the folk-lore of Italy, the special study of his life, and to whichhe has devoted himself with unsparing assiduity, the fruits from time totime appearing principally in two series of his works, one in 19 vols. And another in 10 vols. ; _b_. 1841. 

PITRIS (i. E. Fathers), in the Hindu mythology an order of divinebeings, and equal to the greatest of the gods, who, by their sacrifice, delivered the world from chaos, gave birth to the sun and kindled thestars, and in whose company the dead, who have like them livedself-sacrificingly, enter when they lay aside mortality. See Rev. Vii. 14. 

PITACOTTIE, ROBERT LINDSAY OF, proprietor in the 16th century of theFifeshire estate name of which he bore, was the author of "The Chroniclesof Scotland, " to which Sir Walter Scott owed so much; his work is quaint, graphic, and, on the whole, trustworthy. 

PITT, WILLIAM. See CHATHAM, EARL OF. 

PITT, WILLIAM, English statesman, second son of Lord Chatham, bornnear Bromley, Kent, grew up a delicate child in a highly-chargedpolitical atmosphere, and studied with such diligence under the directionof his father and a tutor that he entered Cambridge at 14; called to thebar in 1780, he speedily threw himself into politics, and contestedCambridge University in the election of 1781; though defeated, he tookhis seat for the pocket burgh of Appleby, joined the Shelburne Tories inopposition to North's ministry, and was soon a leader in the House; hesupported, but refused to join, the Rockingham Ministry of 1782, contracted his long friendship with Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville, and became an advocate of parliamentary reform; his first office wasChancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Shelburne; his reputation steadilyrose, but on Shelburne's resignation he refused the Premiership, and wentinto opposition against the Portland, Fox, and North coalition; thatminority being defeated (1783) on their Indian policy by the direct andunconstitutional interference of the king, he courageously formed agovernment with a majority of 100 against him; refusing to yield toadverse votes, he gradually won over the House and the country, and thedissolution of 1784 gave a majority of 120 in his favour, and put him inoffice, one of England's strongest ministers; during his longadministration, broken only for one month in 20 years, he greatly raisedthe importance of the Commons, stamped out direct corruption in theHouse, and abolished many sinecures; he revised taxation, improved thecollection of revenue and the issue of loans, and set the finances in aflourishing condition; he reorganised the government of India, and aimedstrenuously to keep England at peace; but his abandonment ofparliamentary reform and the abolition of the slave-trade suggests thathe loved power rather than principles; his Poor-Law schemes and SinkingFund were unsound; he failed to appreciate the problems presented by thegrowth of the factory system, or to manage Ireland with any success; onthe outbreak of the French Revolution he failed to understand itssignificance, did not anticipate a long war, and made bad preparationsand bad schemes; his vacillation in Irish policy induced the rebellion of1798; by corrupt measures he carried the legislative union of 1801, butthe king refused to allow the Catholic emancipation he promised as acondition; Viscount Melville was driven from the Admiralty on a charge ofmalversation, his own health broke down, and the victory of Trafalgarscarcely served to brighten his closing days; given to deep drinking, andculpably careless of his private moneys, he yet lived a pure, simple, amiable life; with an overcharged dignity, he was yet an attractive manand a warm friend; England has had few statesmen equal to him in thehandling of financial and commercial problems, and few orators morefluent and persuasive than the great peace minister. 

PITT DIAMOND, a diamond brought from Golconda by the grandfather ofthe elder Pitt, who sold it to the king of France; it figured at lengthin the hilt of the State sword of Napoleon, and was carried off by thePrussians at Waterloo. 

PITTACUS, one of the seven sages of Greece, born at Mitylene, inLesbos, in the 7th century B. C. ; celebrated as a warrior, a statesman, aphilosopher, and a poet; expelled the tyrants from Mitylene, and held thesupreme power for 10 years after by popular vote, and resigned on theestablishment of social order; two proverbs are connected with his name:"It is difficult to be good, " "Know the fit time. "

PITTSBURG (321), second city of Pennsylvania, is 350 m. By rail W. Of Philadelphia, where the junction of the Alleghany and the MonongahelaRivers forms the Ohio; the city extends for 10 miles along the rivers'banks, and climbs up the surrounding hills; there are handsome publicbuildings and churches, efficient schools, a Roman Catholic college, anda Carnegie library; domestic lighting and heating and much manufacture isdone by natural gas, which issues at high pressure from shallow boringsin isolated districts 20 m. From the city; standing in the centre of anextraordinary coal-field--the edges of the horizontal seams protrude onthe hillsides--it is the largest coal-market in the States; manufacturesinclude all iron goods, steel and copper, glassware, and earthenware; itsposition at the eastern limit of the Mississippi basin, its facilities oftransport by river and rail--six trunk railroads meet here--give itenormous trade advantages; its transcontinental business is second involume only to Chicago; in early times the British colonists had manystruggles with the French for this vantage point; a fort built by theBritish Government in 1759, and called after the elder Pitt, was thenucleus of the city. 

PITYRIASIS, a skin eruption attended with branlike desquamation. 

PIUS, the name of nine Popes, of which only six call for particularmention: P. II. , Pope from 1458 to 1464, was of the family of thePiccolomini, and is known to history as Æneas Sylvius, and under whichname he did diplomatic work in Britain and Germany; as Pope he succeededCallistus III. ; he was a wily potentate, and is distinguished fororganising a crusade against the Turks as well as his scholarship; theworks which survive him are of a historical character, and his lettersare of great value. P. IV. , from 1559 to 1563, was of humble birth;during his popehood the deliberations of the Council of Trent werebrought to a close, and the Tridentine Creed was named after him. P. V. , Pope 1566 to 1572, also of humble birth, was severe in his civiland ecclesiastical capacity, both in his internal administration andforeign relationships, and thought to browbeat the world back into thebosom of Mother Church; issued a bull releasing Queen Elizabeth'ssubjects from their allegiance; but the great event of his reign, and towhich he contributed, was the naval victory over the Turks at Lepanto in1571. P. VI. , Pope from 1775 to 1799; the commencement of hispopehood was signalised by beneficent measures for the benefit of theRoman city, but he was soon in trouble in consequence of encroachments onChurch privileges in Austria and the confiscation of all Church propertyin France, which ended, on his resisting, to still further outrages, inhis capture by the French under Bonaparte and his expatriation from Rome. P. VII. , Pope from 1800 to 1823, concluded a concordat with France, crowned Napoleon emperor at Paris, who thereafter annexed the papalterritories to the French empire, which were in part restored to him onlyafter Napoleon's fall; he was a meek-spirited man, and was much tossedabout in his day. P. IX. , or Pio Nono, from 1846 to 1878, was a"reforming" Pope, and by his concessions awoke in 1848 a spirit ofrevolution, under the force of which he was compelled to flee from Rome, to return again under the protection of French bayonets against his ownsubjects, to devote himself to purely ecclesiastical affairs; in 1854 hepromulgated the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and in 1869 theInfallibility of the Pope; upon the outbreak of the Franco-German War in1871 the French troops were withdrawn and Victor Emmanuel's troopsentered the city; Pius retired into the Vatican, where he lived inseclusion till his death. 

PIX, the name of a little chest in which the consecrated host iskept in the Roman Catholic Church. See PYX. 

PIXIES, Devonshire Robin Goodfellows, said to be the spirits ofinfants who died unbaptized. 

PIZARRO, FRANCISCO, the conqueror of Peru, born at Truxillo, inSpain, the son of a soldier of distinction; received no education, butwas of an adventurous spirit, and entered the army; embarked with otheradventurers to America, and having distinguished himself in Panama, setout by way of the Pacific on a voyage of discovery along with anothersoldier named Almagra; landed on the island of Gallo, on the coast ofPeru, and afterwards returned with his companion to Spain for authorityto conquer the country; when in 1529 he obtained the royal sanction heset sail from Spain with three ships in 1531, and on his arrival at Perufound a civil war raging between the two sons of the emperor, who hadjust died; Pizarro saw his opportunity; approached Atahualpa, thevictorious one, now become the reigning Inca, with overtures of peace, was admitted into the interior of the country; invited him to a banquet, had him imprisoned, and commenced a wholesale butchery of his subjects, upon which he forced Atahualpa to disclose his treasures, and then puthim perfidiously to death; his power, by virtue of the mere terror heinspired, was now established, and he might have continued to maintainit, but a contest having arisen between him and his old comrade Almagro, whom after defeating he put to death, the sons and friends of the latterrose against him, seized him in his palace at Lima, and took away hislife (1476-1541). 

PLAGUE, THE, is a very malignant kind of highly contagious fever, marked by swellings of the lymphatic glands. From the development ofpurple patches due to subcutaneous hæmorrhages the European epidemic of1348-50 was called the Black Death. A quarter of the European populationperished on that occasion. Other visitations devastated London in 1665, Northern Europe 1707-14, Marseilles and Provence 1720-22, and South-EastRussia 1878-79. The home of the Plague was formerly Lower Egypt, Turkey, and the shores of the Levant. From these it has been absent since 1844. Its home since then has been in India, where it has assumed epidemic form1836-38 and 1896-99. 

PLAIN, THE, the name given to the Girondists or Moderate party inthe French National Convention, in contrast with THE MOUNTAIN(q. V. ) or JACOBIN PARTY. 

PLANCHÉ, JAMES ROBINSON, antiquary and dramatist, born in London, ofFrench descent; author of a number of burlesques; an authority onheraldry and costumes; he produced over 200 pieces for the stage, andheld office in the Heralds' Court (1796-1880). 

PLANETOIDS, the name given to a number of very small planetsrevolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, originally calledAsteroids, all of recent discovery, and the list, amounting to some 400, as yet made of them understood to be incomplete. They are very difficultof discovery, many of them from the smallness of their size and theirerratic movements. 

PLANETS, bodies resembling the earth and of different sizes, whichrevolve in elliptical orbits round the sun, and at different distances, the chief of them eight in number, two of them, viz. , Mercury and Venus, revolving in orbits _interior_ to that of the earth, and five of them, viz. , Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, _exterior_, the wholewith the PLANETOIDS (q. V. ) and comets constituting the solarsystem. 

PLANTAGENETS, the name attached to a dynasty of kings of England, who reigned from the extinction of the Norman line to the accession ofthe Tudor, that is, from the beginning of Henry II. 's reign in 1154 tothe end of Richard III. 's on Bosworth Field in 1458. The name was adoptedby Geoffrey of Anjou, the husband of Matilda, the daughter of Henry I. , whose badge was a sprig of broom (which the name denotes), and which hewore in his bonnet as descended from the Earl of Anjou, who was by way ofpenance scourged with twigs of it at Jerusalem. 

PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE, a printer of Antwerp, born near Tours, inFrance; celebrated for the beauty and accuracy of the work that issuedfrom his press, the most notable being the "Antwerp Polyglot"; he hadprinting establishments in Leyden and Paris, as well as Antwerp, allthese conducted by sons-in-law (1514-1589). 

PLASSEY, a great battlefield in Bengal, now swept away by changes inthe course of the river, scarcely 100 m. N. Of Calcutta; was the scene ofClive's victory in 1757 with 800 Europeans and 2200 unreliable nativetroops over Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the ruler of Bengal, which laid thatprovince at the feet of Britain, and led to the foundation of the BritishEmpire in India. 

PLASTER OF PARIS, a compound of lime, sand, and water used forcoating walls, taking casts, and forming moulds. 

PLATÆA, a city of ancient Greece, in western Boeotia, neighbour andally of Athens, suffered greatly in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. It was destroyed by the Persians 480 B. C. , by the Peloponnesian forces429 B. C. , and again by the Thebans 387 B. C. Philip of Macedon restoredthe exiles to their homes in 338 B. C. 

PLATO, the great philosopher, born in Athens, of noble birth, theyear Pericles died, and the second of the Peloponnesian War; at 20 becamea disciple of Socrates, and passed eight years in his society; at 30, after the death of Socrates, quitted Athens, and took up his abode atMegara; from Megara he travelled to Cyrene, Egypt, Magna Græcia, andSicily, prolonging his stay in Magna Græcia, and studying underPythagoras, whose philosophy was then at its prime, and which exercised aprofound influence over him; after ten years' wandering in this way he, at the age of 40, returned to Athens, and founded his Academy, agymnasium outside the city with a garden, which belonged to his father, and where he gathered around him a body of disciples, and had Aristotlefor one of his pupils, lecturing there with undiminished mental powertill he reached the advanced age of 81; of his philosophy one can give noaccount here, or indeed anywhere, it was so unsectarian; he was bypre-eminence the world-thinker, and though he was never married and leftno son, he has all the thinking men and schools of philosophy in theworld as his offspring; enough to say that his philosophy was philosophy, as it took up in its embrace both the ideal and the real, at once thesensible and the super-sensible world (429-347 B. C. ). 

PLATOFF, MATVEI IVANOVICH, COUNT, hetman of Cossacks, and Russiancommander in the Napoleonic wars; took part in the campaigns of 1805-7, and scourged the French during their retreat from Moscow in 1812, andagain after their defeat at Leipzig 1813; he commanded at the victory ofAltenburg 1813, and for his services obtained the title of count(1757-1818). 

PLATONIC LOVE, love between persons of different sexes, in which asbeing love of soul for soul no sexual passion intermingles; is so namedagreeably to the doctrine of Plato, that a man finds his highesthappiness when he falls in with another who is his soul's counterpart orcomplement. 

PLATONIC YEAR, a period of 26, 000 years, denoting the time of acomplete revolution of the equinox. 

PLATT-DEUTSCH or LOW GERMAN, a dialect spoken by the peasantryin North Germany from the Rhine to Pomerania, and derived from Old Saxon. 

PLATTE, the largest affluent of the Missouri, which joins it atPlattsmouth after an easterly course of 900 m. 

PLATTEN-SEE. See BALATON, LAKE. 

PLAUEN (46), a town in Saxony, on the Elster, 78 m. S. Of Leipzig, with extensive textile and other manufactures. 

PLAUTUS, a Latin comic poet, born in Umbria; came when young toRome, as is evident from his mastery of the Latin language and hisknowledge of Greek; began to write plays for the stage at 30, shortlybefore the outbreak of the second Punic War, and continued to do so for40 years; he wrote about 130 comedies, but only 20 have survived, theplots mostly borrowed from Greek models; they were much esteemed by hiscontemporaries; they have supplied material for dramatic treatment inmodern times (227-184 B. C. ). 

PLAYFAIR, JOHN, Scotch mathematician, born at Benvie; bred for theChurch, became professor first of Mathematics and then of NaturalPhilosophy at Edinburgh University; wrote on geometry and geology, in thelatter supported the Huttonian theory of the earth (1748-1819). 

PLEIADES, in the Greek mythology seven sisters, daughters of Atlas, transformed into stars, six of them visible and one invisible, andforming the group on the shoulders of Taurus in the zodiac; in the lastweek of May they rise and set with the sun till August, after which theyfollow the sun and are seen more or less at night till their conjunctionwith it again in May. 

PLEIADES, THE, the name given to the promoters of a movement in themiddle of the 16th century that aimed at the reform of the Frenchlanguage and literature on classical models, and led on by a group ofseven men, Ronsard, Du Bellay, Belleau, Baïf, Daurat, Jodelle, and Pontusde Tyard. The name "Pleiad" was originally applied to seven contemporarypoets in ancient Greece, and afterwards to seven learned men in the timeof Charlemagne. 

PLENIST, name given to one who holds the doctrine that all space isfilled with matter. 

PLESIOSAURUS, an extinct marine animal with a small head and a longneck. 

PLEURA, the serous membrane that lines the interior of the thoraxand invests the lungs. 

PLEURA-PNEUMONIA, an inflammation of the lungs and pleura, Pleurisybeing the inflammation of the pleura alone. 

PLEVNA (14), a fortified town in Bulgaria, in which Osman Pashaentrenched himself in 1877, and where he was compelled to capitulate andsurrender to the Russians with his force of 42, 000 men. 

PLEYDELL, MR. PAULUS, a shrewd lawyer in Scott's "Guy Mannering. "

PLIMSOLL, SAMUEL, "the sailor's friend, " born at Bristol; afterexperience in a Sheffield brewery entered business in London as acoal-dealer; interesting himself in the condition of the sailor's life inthe mercantile marine, he directed public attention to many scandalousabuses practised by unscrupulous owners, the overloading, under-manning, and insufficient equipment of ships and sending unseaworthy vessels outto founder for the sake of insurance money; entering Parliament for Derbyin 1868, he secured the passing of the Merchant Shipping Act in 1876levelled against these abuses; his name has been given to the circle withhorizontal line through the centre, now placed by the Board of Trade onthe side of every vessel to indicate to what depth she may be loaded insalt water (1824-1898). 

PLINLIMMON (i. E. Five rivers), a mountain 2469 ft. High, withthree summits, on the confines of Montgomery and Cardigan, so called assource of five different streams. 

PLINY, THE ELDER, naturalist, born at Como, educated at Rome, andserved in the army; was for a space procurator in Spain, spent much ofhis time afterwards studying at Borne; being near the Bay of Naplesduring an eruption of Vesuvius, he landed to witness the phenomenon, butwas suffocated by the fumes; his "Natural History" is a repertory of thestudies of the ancients in that department, being a record, more or lessfaithful, from extensive reading, of the observation of others ratherthan his own; _d_. A. D. 79. 

PLINY, THE YOUNGER, nephew of the preceding, the friend of Trajan;filled various offices in the State; his fame rests on his "Letters, " ofspecial interest to us for the account they give of the treatment of theearly Christians and their manner of worship, as also of the misjudgmenton the part of the Roman world at the time of their religion, as in theireyes, according to him, "a perverse and extravagant superstition"(62-115). 

PLOTINUS, an Alexandrian philosopher of the Neo-Platonic school, born at Lycopolis, in Egypt; he taught philosophy at Rome, a system inopposition to the reigning scepticism of the time, and which based itselfon the intuitions of the soul elevated into a state of mystical unionwith God, who in His single unity sums up all and whence all emanates, all being regarded as an emanation from Him (207-270). 

PLUGSTON OF UNDERSHOT, Carlyle's name in "Past and Present" for amember or "Master-Worker" of the English mammon-worshipping manufacturingclass in rivalry with the aristocracy for the ascendency in the land, whopays his workers his wages and thinks he has done his duty with them inso doing, and is secure in the fortune he has made by that cash-paymentgospel of his as all the law and the prophets, called of "Undershot, " hismill being driven by a wheel, the working power of which is hiddenunheeded by him, to break out some day to the damage of both his mill andhim. 

PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES, distinguished English divine and scholar, born in London; was Dean of Wells; as a divine he wrote commentaries onbooks of both the Old and New Testaments, and as a scholar executed abletranslations in verse of Sophocles, Æschylus, and the "Commedia" ofDante, the last perhaps his greatest and most enduring work (1821-1891). 

PLUNKET, LORD, Chancellor of Ireland, born in Ireland, bred to thebar; entered the Irish House of Commons; opposed the Union with GreatBritain; after the Union practised at the bar, and held legalappointments; was made a peer, and materially aided the Duke ofWellington in the House of Lords in carrying the Catholic EmancipationBill of 1829 (1764-1854). 

PLUTARCH, celebrated Greek biographer and moralist, born atChæronea, in Boeotia; studied at Athens; paid frequent visits to Rome, and formed friendships with some of its distinguished citizens; spent hislater years at his native place, and held a priesthood; his fame rests onhis "Parallel Lives" of 46 distinguished Greeks and Romans, a series ofportraitures true to the life, and a work one of the most valuable wepossess on the illustrious men of antiquity, and an enduring memorial ofthem (50-120). 

PLUTO, god of the nether world, son of Kronos and Rhea, brother ofZeus and Poseidon, and husband of Persephone; on the dethronement ofKronos the universe was divided among themselves by the three brothers, Zeus assuming the dominion of the upper world and Poseidon that of theocean, leaving the nether kingdom to him, a domain over which and forthof which he ruled with a greater and more undisputed authority than theother two over heaven, earth, and sea. 

PLUTONIC THEORY, the theory that unstratifled rocks were formed byfusion in fire. 

PLUTUS, the god of riches, son of Jason and Demeter. Zeus is said tohave put out his eyes that he might bestow his gifts without respect tomerit, that is, on the evil and the good impartially. 

PLYMOUTH (87), the largest town in Devonshire, stands on the N. Shore of Plymouth Sound, 250 m. W. Of London by rail; adjacent to it arethe towns of Stonehouse and Devonport. Among the chief buildings are aGothic town-hall, a 15th-century church, and a Roman Catholic cathedral. The chief industry is chemical manufactures. There is a large coastingand general trade, and important fisheries. Many sea-going steamshipcompanies make it a place of call. The Sound is an important navalstation, and historically famous as the sailing port of the fleet thatvanquished the Armada. 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, an anti-clerical body of Christians, one of theearliest communities of which was formed in Plymouth about 1830; theyaccept, along with Pre-Millenarian views, generally the Calvinistic viewof the Christian religion, and exclude all unconverted men from theircommunion, while all included in the body are of equal standing, andenjoy equal privileges as members of Christ. They appear to regardthemselves as the sole representatives in these latter days of the Churchof Christ, and as the salt of the earth, for whose sake it exists, and onwhose decease it and its works of darkness will be burnt up. They areknown also by the name of Darbyites, from the name of one of theirfounders, a barrister, John Nelson Darby, an able man, and with all hisexclusiveness a sincere disciple of Christ (1800-1882). 

PNEUMONIA, name given to acute inflammation of the lungs. 

PO, the largest river in Italy, rises 6000 ft. Above sea-level inthe Cottian Alps, and after 20 m. Of rocky defiles emerges on the greatLombardy plain, which it crosses from W. To E. , receiving the Ticino, Adda, Mincio, and Trebbia, tributaries, and enters the Adriatic by arapidly growing delta. Its total course is 360 m. ; the width and volumeof its stream make it difficult to cross and so a protection to allItaly. The chief towns on its banks are Turin, Piacenza, and Cremona. 

POCAHONTAS, the daughter of an Indian chief in Virginia, whofavoured the English settlers there, saving the life of Captain Smith thecoloniser, and afterwards married John Rolfe, one of the settlers; cameto England, and was presented at Court; several Virginian families tracetheir descent to her. 

POCKET BOROUGH, a borough in which the influence of some magnate ofthe place determines the voting at an election time, a thing pretty muchof the past. 

POCOCK, EDWARD, English Arabic and Hebrew scholar, born at Oxford, and occupied both the chairs of Arabic and Hebrew there, and left worksin evidence of his scholarship and learning in both languages, quiteremarkable for the time when he lived (1604-1691). 

POCOCKE, RICHARD, English prelate, born at Southampton; travelledextensively, particularly in the East; wrote a description of thecountries of the East and of others, among them "Tours In Scotland" and a"Tour in Ireland, " all deemed of value (1704-1765). 

PODESTA, the name given to the chief magistrate of an Italian town, with military as well as municipal authority; he was salaried, andannually elected to the office by the council, and had to give an accountof his administration at the end of his term. 

PODIEBRAD, GEORGE, king of Bohemia; rose, though a Hussite, and inspite of the Pope, from the ranks of the nobles to that elevation; forcedhis enemies to come to terms with him, and held his ground against themtill the day of his death (1420-1471). 

POE, EDGAR ALLAN, an American poet, born in Boston, Massachusetts; ayouth of wonderful genius, but of reckless habits, and who came to anunhappy and untimely end; left behind him tales and poems, which, thoughthey were not appreciated when he lived, have received the recognitionthey deserve since his death; his poetical masterpiece, "The Raven, " iswell known; died at Baltimore of inflammation of the brain, insensiblefrom which he was picked up in a street one evening (1809-1849). 

POERIO, CARLO, Italian patriot; was conspicuous in the revolutionarymovement of 1848; was arrested and banished, but escaped to England, where he was received with sympathy by Mr. Gladstone among others; herose into power on the establishment of the kingdom of Italy (1803-1867). 

POET LAUREATE, the English court poet, an office which dates fromthe reign of Edward IV. , the duty of the holder of it being originally towrite an ode on the birthday of the monarch. 

POETICAL JUSTICE, ideal justice as administered in their writings bythe poets. 

POETRY, the gift of penetrating into the inner soul or secret of athing, and bodying it forth rhythmically so as to captivate theimagination and the heart. 

POET'S CORNER, a corner in the SW. Transept of Westminster Abbey, socalled as containing the tombs of Chaucer, Spenser, and other eminentEnglish poets. 

POGGENDORF, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, a German physicist and chemist, bornat Hamburg; professor of Physics at Berlin; was the editor for more thanhalf a century of the famous _Annalen der Physik und Chimie_, and theauthor of numerous papers (1796-1877). 

POGGIO, BRACCIOLINI, an Italian scholar, born in Florence, was adistinguished humanist, and devoted to the revival of classical learning, collecting MSS. Of the classics wherever he could find them that mightotherwise have been lost, including Quintilian's "Institutions, " greatpart of Lucretius, and several orations of Cicero, &c. ; wrote a "Historyof Florence, " where he died; he was the author of a collection of storiesand of jests in Latin at the expense of the monks (1380-1459). 

POINT DE GALLE (33), a town on a promontory in the SW. Of Ceylon, with a good harbour, and the great port of call for the lines of steamersin the Eastern waters. 

POISSON, SIMEON-DENIS, a celebrated French mathematician, born atPithiviers; was for his eminence in mathematical ability and physicalresearch raised to the peerage; wrote no fewer than 300 memoirs(1781-1840). 

POITIERS (34), the capital of the dep. Of Vienne, 61 m. SW. OfTours; has a number of interesting buildings, a university and largelibrary; in its neighbourhood Clovis defeated Alaric II. In 507, CharlesMartel the Moors in 732, and the Black Prince the troops of King John in1356. 

POITOU, formerly a province in France, lying S. Of the Loire, between the Vienne River and the sea; passed to England when itscountess, Eleanor, married Henry I. , 1152; was taken by Philip Augustus1205, ceded to England again 1360, and retaken by Charles V. 1369. 

POLA (31), the chief naval station of Austria, 73 m. S. Of Trieste, in the Adriatic; the harbour is both spacious and deep; was originally aRoman colony, and a flourishing seat of commerce. 

POLAND, formerly a kingdom larger than modern Austro-Hungary, with apopulation of 24 millions, lying between the Baltic and the Carpathians, with Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Silesia on the W. , and the Russianprovinces of Smolensk, Tchernigoff, Poltava, and Kherson on the E. ; theDwina, the Memel, and the Vistula flowed through its northern plains; theDnieper traversed the E. , the Dniester and the Bug rose in its SE. Corner. The country is fertile; great crops of cereals are raised; thereare forests of pine and oak, and extensive pasture lands; vast salt-minesare wrought at Cracow; silver, iron, copper, and lead in other parts. Poland took rank among European powers in the 10th century underMieczyslaw, its first Christian king. During the 12th and 13th centuriesit sank to the rank of a duchy. In 1241 the Mongols devastated thecountry, and thereafter colonies of Germans and Jewish refugees settledamong the Slav population. The first Diet met in 1331, and Casimir theGreat, 1333-1370, raised the country to a high level of prosperity, fostering the commerce of Danzig and Cracow. The dynasty of the Jagellonsunited Lithuania to Poland, ended two centuries' contest with theTeutonic knights, and yielded to the nobles such privileges as turned thekingdom into an oligarchy and elective monarchy. At the time of theReformation Poland was the leading power in Eastern Europe. The newdoctrines gained ground there in spite of severe persecution. Warsawbecame the capital in 1569. The power and arrogance of the nobles grew;the necessity for unanimity in the votes of the Diet gave them a weaponto stop all progress and all correction of their own malpractices. Sigismund III. Made unsuccessful attempts to seize the crowns of Russiaand Sweden. In the middle of the 17th century a terrible struggle againstRussia, Sweden, Brandenburg and the Cossacks ended in the complete defeatof Poland, from which she never recovered. Wars with the Turks, dissensions among her own nobles, quarrels at the election of every king, the continuance of serfdom, and the persecution of the adherents of theGreek Church and the Protestants, rendered her condition more and moredeplorable. Austria, Russia, and Prussia began to interfere in heraffairs. She was unfortunate in her choice of kings, and in the secondhalf of the 18th century she was without natural boundaries, andFrederick the Great started the idea of partition. The first seizure ofterritory by the three interfering powers took place in 1772. A movementfor reform reorganised the Diet, improved the condition of the serfs, established religious toleration, and promulgated a new constitution in1781; but a party of unpatriotic nobles resented it, and laid the countryopen to a second seizure of territory by Prussia and Russia in 1793. ThePoles now made a desperate stand under Kosciusko, but their threepowerful neighbours were too strong, and the final partition of Polandbetween them took place in 1795. The Congress of Vienna rearranged thedivision in 1815, and reconstituted the Russian portion as a kingdom, with the Czar as king; but discontent broke into rebellion, and led tothe final repression of independence in 1832. 

POLDERS, low marshy lands in Holland and Belgium, drained andreclaimed from sea or river; they form an important part of the former, and are conspicuous from the verdure they display; they include nearly150 acres of good land, the largest being that of Haarlem Meer, which is70 square miles in extent, and was drained by steam. 

POLE, the name given to the extremities of the imaginary axis of theearth, round which it is conceived to revolve. 

POLE, REGINALD, cardinal, archbishop of Canterbury, born at StourtonCastle, Staffordshire, of royal blood; studied at Oxford; took holyorders, and was appointed to various benefices by Henry VIII. , who heldhim in high favour; but he opposed the project of divorcing Catherine, and was driven from the royal presence and deprived of his power; butelected to the cardinalate by the Pope, he tried to return after Henry'sdeath, but was not received back till Mary's accession, when he came asPapal legate, and was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury after the deathof Cranmer, whom he refused to supersede as long as he lived; he was notobsequious enough to the Pope, and his legation was cancelled; theQueen's illness accelerated his own end, and he died the day after her;he has been charged with abetting the Marian persecution, but it ishighly questionable how far he was answerable for it (1506-1558). 

POLE-STAR or POLARIS, a star in the northern hemisphere, inUrsa Minor, the nearest conspicuous one to the N. Pole of the heavens, from which it is at present 1½° distant; a straight line joining the two"pointers" in Ursa Major passes nearly through it. 

POLIGNAC, DUC DE and DUCHESS DE, husband and wife; werechargeable with the extravagances of the court of Louis XVI. , and werethe first to emigrate at the outbreak of the Revolution, the former dyingin 1817 and the latter in 1793. 

POLIGNAC, PRINCE DE, French statesman, born at Versailles, of an oldnoble family, prime minister of Charles X. , to whose fall he contributedby his arbitrary measures; in attempting flight at the Revolution wascaptured and sentenced to death, which was converted into banishment; hewas allowed to return at length (1780-1847). 

POLITIAN, ANGELO, eminent Italian scholar, born in Tuscany; waspatronised by Lorenzo de' Medici, was made professor of Greek and Latinat the university of Florence, his fame in which capacity drew to hisclass students from all parts of Europe; he did much to forward theRenaissance movement, and was distinguished as a poet no less than as ascholar; he became a priest towards the close of his life (1454-1494). 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the name given to the modern _soi-disant_ scienceconcerned with the production, distribution, and exchange of wealth, against the relevancy of which to the economics of the world Ruskin has, for most part in vain, during the last forty years emitted a scornfulprotest, affirming that this is "mercantile" and not "political economyat all, " which he insists is the "economy of a state or of citizens, "consisting "simply in the production and distribution at fittest time andplace of useful or pleasurable things . .. A science which teaches nationsto desire and labour for the things that lead to life, and to scorn anddestroy those that lead to destruction . .. Though, properly speaking, itis neither an art nor a science, but a system of conduct and legislature, founded on the sciences, directing the arts, and impossible, except undercertain conditions of moral culture, " with which last, however, themodern political economists maintain their science has nothing whateverto do. 

POLIZIANO. See POLITIAN. 

POLK, JAMES KNOX, eleventh President of the United States, of Irishdescent; admitted to the bar in 1820, entered Congress in 1825, becamePresident in 1844, his term of office having been signalised by theannexation of Texas and California (1795-1849). 

POLLIO, CAIUS ASINIUS, orator, historian, and poet, born at Rome;sided with Cæsar against Pompey, and after the death of the former withAntony; was a patron of letters and the friend of Virgil and Horace, bothof whom dedicated poems to him; he was the first to establish a publiclibrary in Rome (76 B. C. To A. D. 4). 

POLLOCK, SIR EDWARD, an eminent English judge, born in London, contemporary of Brougham, a Tory in politics, represented Huntingdon, wastwice over Attorney-General, became Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1844, and made a baronet on his retirement from the bench (1783-1870). 

POLLOCK, SIR GEORGE, field-marshal, born at Westminster, brother ofthe preceding; distinguished himself in Nepal and the Afghan War, in thelatter forced the Kyber Pass, defeated Akbar Khan, and relieved SirRobert Sale, who was shut up in Jelallabad (1786-1872). 

POLLOK, ROBERT, Scottish poet, born in Renfrewshire; bred for theSecession Church, wrote one poem, "The Course of Time, " in 10 books, onthe spiritual life and human destiny, which was published when he wasdying of consumption, a complaint accelerated, it is believed, by hisstudious habits (1799-1827). 

POLLUX, the twin brother of Castor (q. V. ). 

POLO, a game similar to hockey, played on horseback with mallets, and devised by British officers in India in place of football. 

POLO, MARCO, a celebrated traveller, born in Venice of a noblefamily in 1271; accompanied his father and uncle while a mere youth tothe court of the Great Khan, the Tartar emperor of China, by whom he wasreceived with favour and employed on several embassies; unwilling to partwith him the emperor allowed him along with his father and uncle toescort a young princess who was going to be married to a Persian princeon the promise that they would return, but the prince having died beforetheir arrival, and deeming themselves absolved from their promise by hisdeath, they moved straight home for Venice, where they arrived in 1295, laden with rich presents which had been given them; having fallen intothe hands of the Genoese in a hostile expedition, Marco was put inprison, where he wrote the story of his adventures, originally in Frenchit would seem, which proved to be the first account that opened up towondering Europe the magnificence of the Eastern world (1255-1323). 

POLYANDRY, the name given to a form of polygamy met with amongcertain rude races, under which a woman is united and lives in marriageto several husbands. 

POLYBIUS, a Greek historian, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia; sentto Rome as a hostage, he formed an intimate friendship with ScipioÆmilianus, who aided him in his historical researches, and whom heaccompanied to Africa on the expedition which issued in the destructionof Carthage, after which he returned to Greece and began his literarylabours, the fruit of which was a history of Greece and Rome from 220 to146 B. C. In 40 books, of which 5 have come down to us complete, a workcharacterised by accurate statement of facts and sound judgment of theirimport, written with a purpose to instruct in practical wisdom; he hasbeen called "the first pragmatical historian" (204-122 B. C. ). 

POLYCARP, bishop of Smyrna, one of the early Fathers of the Church, a disciple of the Apostles and in particular of St. John; was for nearly70 years bishop, and suffered martyrdom for refusing to renounce Christ, "after having served Him, " as he said, "for 86 years"; of his writingsthe only one extant is an "Epistle to the Philippians, " the genuinenessof which, at one time questioned, is now established, and is of valuechiefly in questions affecting the canon of Scripture and the origin ofthe Church. 

POLYCRATES, the tyrant of Samos, and friend of Anacreon and art andliterature generally; formed an alliance with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, struck with his prosperity, ascribed it to the envy of the gods, insinuating that they intended his ruin thereby, and advised him, inorder to avert his impending doom, to throw the most valuable of hispossessions into the sea, upon which he threw a signet ring of greatprice and beauty, to find it again in the mouth of a fish a fisherman hadsold him; still, though upon this Amasis broke alliance with him, hisprosperity clung to him, till one day he was allured by a Persian satrap, his enemy, away from Samos, and by him crucified to death, 521 B. C. 

POLYGNOTUS, an early Greek painter, born in Thasos, and settled inAthens 463 B. C. ; is considered the founder of historical painting, andis praised especially by Aristotle, who pays a high tribute to him; wasthe first to attempt portrait-painting and exhibit character by his art. 

POLYHYMNIA, one of the nine MUSES (q. V. ); she isrepresented as in a pensive mood, with her forefinger on her mouth; shewas the inventress of the lyre and the mother of Orpheus. 

POLYNESIA is the collective name of all the islands of the Pacificof coral or volcanic origin. These South Sea islands are scattered, isolated, or more usually in groups over a stretch of ocean 7000 m. FromN. To S. And 6000 from E. To W. ; with the exception of the two chiefmembers of the New Zealand archipelago they are mostly small, and exhibitwonderful uniformity of climate; the temperature is moderate, and wherethere are any hills to intercept the moisture-laden trade-winds therainfall is high; they are extremely rich in flora; characteristic oftheir vegetation are palms, bread fruit trees, and edible roots like yamsand sweet potatoes, forests of tree-ferns, myrtles, and ebony, withendless varieties of beautiful flowering plants; their fauna iswonderfully poor, varieties of rats and bats, a few snakes, frogs, spiders, and centipedes, with the crocodile, being the chief indigenousanimals; the three divisions of Polynesia are Micronesia, comprising fivesmall archipelagoes in the NW. , N. Of the equator, of which the chief arethe Mariana and Caroline groups; Melanesia, comprising elevenarchipelagoes in the W. , S. Of the equator, of which the largest are theSolomon, Bismarck, Fiji, New Caledonia, and New Hebrides groups; andEastern Polynesia, E. Of these on both sides of the equator, includingNew Zealand, Hawaii, and Samoa, ten other archipelagoes, and numeroussporadic islands; the first of these divisions is occupied by a mixedpopulation embracing many distinct elements, the second by the black, low-type Melanesians, the third by the light brown, tall Polynesians;traces of extinct civilisation are found in Easter Island and theCarolines; most of the islands are now in the possession of Europeanpowers, and are more or less Christianised; New Zealand is one of themost enterprising and flourishing colonies of Great Britain; everywherethe native races are dying out before the immigration of Europeans. 

POLYPHEMUS, in Homeric legend a son of Neptune, the most celebratedof the Cyclops, a huge monster with one eye, who dwelt in Sicily in acave near Ætna, and whose eye, after making him drunk, Ulysses burnt out, lest he should circumvent him and devour him, as he had done some of hiscompanions. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, an institution for teaching the practical artsand the related sciences, especially such as depend on mathematics. 

POLYTHEISM, a belief in a plurality of gods each with a sphere ofhis own, and each in general a personification of some elemental powerconcerned in the government of the world. 

POMBAL, MARQUIS DE, a great Portuguese statesman, born in Coimbra;was Prime Minister of Joseph I. ; partial to the philosophic opinions ofthe 18th century, he set himself to fortify the royal power, to checkthat of the aristocracy, and to enlighten the people; he was thepronounced enemy of the Jesuits, reformed the University of Coimbra, purified the administration, encouraged commerce and industry, whereby heearned for himself at the hands of the people the name of the GreatMarquis; on the accession of Maria, Joseph's daughter and successor, hewas, under Jesuit influence, dispossessed of power, to die in poverty(1699-1782). 

POMERANIA (1, 521), a Prussian province lying between the Baltic andBrandenburg, with West Prussia on the E. And Mecklenburg on the W. , is aflat and in some parts sandy country, with no hills, many lakes, and alarge lagoon, the Stettiner Haff, into which the chief river, the Oder, falls; the islands of Wallin, Usedom, and Rügen belong to the province;the main industry is agriculture, principal products rye and potatoes;poultry-rearing and fishing are extensively carried on; there areshipbuilding, machine-works, sugar and chemical factories; Stettin, thecapital, and Stralsund are important trading centres; a university is atGreifswald; the Slavic population embraced Christianity in the 12thcentury; shortly afterwards the duke joined the German Empire; after theThirty Years' War much of the province fell to Sweden, and the whole wasnot finally ceded to Prussia till 1815. 

POMONA, or MAINLAND, the largest island in the Orkneys, has alow treeless surface, many lakes, and extensive pasture-land; agriculturehas of late improved, and, with stock-raising and fishing, is the chiefindustry; the only towns are Kirkwall and Stromness. 

POMONA, in the Roman mythology is the goddess of fruits, whopresided over their ripening and in-gathering, and was generallyrepresented bearing fruits in her lap or in a basket. 

POMPADOUR, MARQUISE DE, a famous mistress of Louis XV. , born inParis; celebrated for her beauty and wit; throwing herself, though amarried woman, in the king's way, she took his fancy, and was installedat Versailles; for 20 years exercised an influence both over him and theaffairs of the kingdom, to the corruption and ruin of both, and theexasperation of the nation; she was preceded as mistress of Louis by LaChâteroux, and succeeded by Du Barri (1721-1764). 

POMPEII, an ancient Italian seaport on the Bay of Naples, fell intothe possession of Rome about 80 B. C. , and was converted into awatering-place and "the pleasure haunt of paganism"; the Romans erectedmany handsome public buildings, and their villas and theatres and bathswere models of classic architecture and the scenes of unbounded luxury;the streets were narrow, provided with side-walks, the walls oftendecorated with painting or scribbled over by idle gamins; the number ofshops witnesses to the fashion and gaiety of the town, the remains ofpainted notices to its municipal life; a terrible earthquake ruined itand drove out the inhabitants in A. D. 63; they returned and rebuilt it, however, in a tawdry and decadent style, and luxury and pleasure reignedas before till in A. D. 79 an eruption of Vesuvius buried everything inlava and ashes; the ruins were forgotten till accidentally discovered in1748; since 1860 the city has been disinterred under the auspices of theItalian Government, and is now a favourite resort of tourists andarchæologists. 

POMPEY, CNEIUS, surnamed the Great, Roman general and statesman;entered into public life after the death of Marius; associated himselfwith Sulla; distinguished himself in Africa and in the Mithridatic War;was raised to the consulate with Crassus in 71 B. C. ; cleared theMediterranean Sea of pirates in 67-66; formed against the Senate, alongwith Cæsar and Crassus, the first triumvirate, and in 54 entered intorivalry with Cæsar; after a desperate struggle he was defeated atPharsalia, and escaping to Egypt, was assassinated there by orders ofPtolemy XII. (106-48 B. C. ). 

POMPEY'S PILLAR, a block of red granite near Alexandria, forming apillar 98 ft. 3 in. High; erected in honour of the Emperor Diocletian, who conquered Alexandria in 296. The name is an invention of somemistaken early traveller. 

PONCE DE LEON, Spanish navigator; conquered Porto Rico in 1510, anddiscovered Florida in 1512. Also the name of a Spanish poet; was aprofessor of Theology at Salamanca; was translator of the Song ofSolomon, and wrote a commentary on it in Latin. 

PONCHO, a kind of cloak or shawl, of woollen or alpaca cloth, oblongin shape, with a slit in the centre, through which the wearer passes hishead, allowing the folds to cover his shoulders and arms to the elbows, and to fall down before and behind; worn by the native men in Chili andArgentina. Ponchos of waterproof are used by the United States cavalry. 

PONDICHERRY (173), a small French colony on the E. Coast of India, 53 m. S. Of Madras; was first occupied in 1674. It was captured by theDutch in 1693, and by the English successively in 1761, 1778, and 1793, but on each occasion restored. The capital, Pondicherry (41), is thecapital of the French possessions in India; has handsome tree-linedstreets, government buildings, college, lighthouse, cotton mills, anddye-works. The harbour is an open roadstead; trade is small, the chiefexport oil seeds. 

PONDOS, a branch of Zulu-Kaffirs, 200, 000 in number, occupyingterritory called Pondo Land, annexed to Cape Colony, in South Africa. 

PONIATOWSKI, PRINCE JOSEPH, Polish general, born in Warsaw;commanded the Polish contingent that accompanied Napoleon in hisexpedition into Russia in 1812; was created Marshal of France on thefield of Leipzig; covered the retreat of the French army, and was drownedcrossing the Elster; his chivalrous bravery earned him the honourableappellation of the Polish Bayard; he was buried at Cracow, and hisremains placed beside those of Sobieski and Kosciusko (1762-1813). 

PONS ASINORUM (i. E. Bridge of Asses), the fifth proposition inthe 1st book of Euclid, so called for the difficulty many a tyro has inmastering it. 

PONSONBY, SIR FREDERICK CAVENDISH, military officer; served in thePeninsular War; distinguished himself at Waterloo; lay wounded all nightafter the engagement; was conveyed next day in a cart to the village withseven wounds in his body; was a great favourite with the army(1783-1837). 

PONTEFRACT (16), an ancient market-town of Yorkshire, 13 m. SE. OfLeeds; has a castle in which Richard II. Died, and which suffered foursieges in the Civil War, a market hall, grammar school, and largemarket-gardens, where liquorice for the manufacture of Pomfret cakes isgrown. 

PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, the chief of the college of priests in ancientRome, the officiating priests being called Flamens. 

PONTIFICAL, a service-book of the Romish Church, containing prayersand rites for a performance of public worship by the Pope or bishop; alsoin the plural the name of the full dress of an officiating priest. 

PONTINE MARSHES, a district, 26 m. By 17, in the S. Of the Campagnaof Rome, one of the three malarial districts of Italy, and the mostunhealthy of the three, extending about 30 m. In length and 10 or 11 invarying breadth, is grazing ground for herds of cattle, horses, andbuffaloes. Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to drain thesemarshes. 

PONTUS, the classical name of a country on the SE. Shores of theBlack Sea, stretching from the river Halys to the borders of Armenia; isrepresented by the modern Turkish provinces of Trebizond and Sivas. Originally a Persian province, it became independent shortly after 400B. C. , and remained so till part was annexed to Bithynia in 65 B. C. , andthe rest constituted a Roman province in A. D. 63. 

POOLE (15), a seaport of Dorsetshire, 5 m. W. Of Bournemouth; has atrade in potters' and pipe-clay, with considerable shipping. 

POOLE, MATTHEW, English controversialist and commentator, born atYork, educated at Cambridge; became rector of St. Michael le Querne inLondon, but was expelled from his living by the Act of Uniformity 1662;retiring to Holland he died at Amsterdam; besides polemics against Romehe compiled a "Synopsis Criticorum Biblicorum, " containing the opinionsof 150 Biblical critics (1624-1679). 

POONA (160), 119 m. By rail SE. Of Bombay, is the chief militarystation in the Deccan, and in the hot season the centre of government inthe Bombay Presidency; with narrow streets and poor houses, it issurrounded by gardens; here are the Deccan College, College of Science, and other schools; the English quarters are in the cantonments; silk, cotton, and jewellery are manufactured; it was the capital of theMahrattas, and was annexed by Britain in 1818. 

POOR RICHARD, the name assumed by FRANKLIN (q. V. ) in hisalmanacs. 

POPE (i. E. Papa), a title originally given to all bishops of theChurch, and eventually appropriated by Leo the Great, the bishop of Rome, as the supreme pontiff in 449, a claim which in 1054 created the GreatSchism, and which asserted itself territorially as well as spiritually, till now at length the Pope has been compelled to resign all territorialpower. The present Pope, Pius X. , is the successor of 258 who occupiedbefore him the Chair of St. Peter. 

POPE, ALEXANDER, eminent English poet, born in London, of RomanCatholic parents; was a sickly child, and marred by deformity, andimperfectly educated; began to write verse at 12 in which he afterwardsbecame such a master; his "Pastorals" appeared in 1709, "Essay onCriticism" in 1711, and "Rape of the Lock" in 1712, in the production ofwhich he was brought into relationship with the leading literary men ofthe time, and in particular Swift, between whom and him a lifelongfriendship was formed; in 1715-20 appeared his translation of the"Iliad, " and in 1723-25 that of the "Odyssey, " for which two works, it isbelieved, he received some £9000; afterwards, in 1728, appeared the"Dunciad, " a scathing satire of all the small fry of poets and criticsthat had annoyed him, and in 1732 appeared the first part of the famous"Essay on Man"; he was a vain man, far from amiable, and sometimesvindictive to a degree, though he was capable of warm attachments, andmany of his faults were due to a not unnatural sensitiveness as adeformed man; but as a poet he is entitled to the homage which ProfessorSaintsbury pays when he characterises him as "one of the greatest mastersof poetic form that the world has ever seen" (1688-1744). 

POPISH PLOT, an imaginary plot devised by TITUS OATES (q. V. )on the part of the Roman Catholics in Charles II. 's reign; in thealleged connection a number of innocent people lost their lives. 

PORCH, THE, the name given to the school of ZENO (q. V. ), so called from the Arcade in Athens, in which he taught his philosophy, a"many-coloured portico, " as decorated with the paintings ofPOLYGNOTUS (q. V. ). 

PORCUPINE, PETER, a pseudonym assumed by WILLIAM COBBETT (q. V. ). 

PORPHYRY, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of Alexandria, born at Tyre;resorted to Rome and became a disciple of PLOTINUS (q. V. ), whose works he edited; he wrote a work against Christianity, known onlyfrom the replies (233-305). 

PORSENA, a king of Etruria, famous in the early history of Rome, whotook up arms to restore Tarquin, the last king, but was reconciled to theRoman people from the brave feats he saw, certain of them accomplished, as well as the formidable power of endurance they displayed. 

PORSON, RICHARD, eminent Greek scholar, born in Norfolk; was aprodigy of learning and critical acumen; edited the plays of Æschylus andfour of Euripides, but achieved little in certification to posterity ofhis ability and attainments; was a man of slovenly and intemperatehabits, and died of apoplexy (1759-1808). 

PORT ARTHUR, a naval station on the peninsula extending S. Into theGulf of Pechili; conceded to Russia on a lease of 99 years. 

PORT DARWIN, one of the finest harbours in Australia; is on the N. Coast opposite Bathurst Island; on its shores stands Palmerston, terminusof the overland telegraph, the cable to Java, and a railway to the goldmines 150 m. Inland. 

PORT ELIZABETH (25), the third largest town and chief trading centreof Cape Colony; stands on Algoa Bay, 85 m. SW. Of Grahamstown; it hasmagnificent public buildings, parks, and squares, a college, library, andmuseum. It is the chief port in the E. Of the colony and for Natal, theprincipal exports being wools, hides, and ostrich feathers. 

PORT GLASGOW (15), a Renfrewshire seaport on the S. Shore of theFirth of Clyde, 3 m. E. Of Greenock and 20 W. Of Glasgow; was founded bythe magistrates of Glasgow in 1668 as a port for that city before thedeepening of the river was projected. In the beginning of the 18thcentury it was the chief port on the Clyde, but has since been surpassedby Greenock and Glasgow itself. There are shipbuilding, iron and brassfounding industries, and extensive timber ponds. 

PORT LOUIS (62), capital of Mauritius, on the NW. Coast; is thechief port of the colony, with an excellent harbour, and contains theBritish government buildings, a Protestant and a Roman Catholiccathedral, barracks, and military store-houses. It is a navalcoaling-station. 

PORT ROYAL, a convent founded in 1204, 8 m. SW. Of Versailles, andwhich in the 17th century became the head-quarters of JANSENISM(q. V. ), and the abode of Antoine Lemaitre, Antoine Arnauld, andothers, known as the "Solitaires of the Port Royal. " They weredistinguished for their austerity, their piety, and their learning, inevidence of which last they established a school of instruction, inconnection with which they prepared a series of widely famous educationalworks. 

PORT-AU-PRINCE (20), on the W. Coast of Hayti, on Port-au-PrinceBay, is the capital; a squalid town; exports coffee, cocoa, logwood, hides, and mahogany. 

PORTCULLIS, a strong grating resembling a harrow hanging over thegateway of a fortress, let down in a groove of the wall in the case of asurprise. 

PORTE, SUBLIME, or simply the Porte, is a name given to the TurkishGovernment. 

PORTEOUS MOB, the name given a mob that collected in the city ofEdinburgh on the night of the 7th September 1736, broke open the Tolboothjail, and dragged to execution in the Grassmarket one Captain Porteous, captain of the City Guard, who on the occasion of a certain riot hadordered his men to fire on the crowd to the death of some and thewounding of others, and had been tried and sentenced to death, but, tothe indignation of the citizens, had been respited. The act was one forwhich the authorities in the city were held responsible by theGovernment, and the city had to pay to Porteous' widow £1500. 

PORTER, JANE, English novelist, born in Durham; her most famousnovels were "Thaddeus of Warsaw" (1803) and "The Scottish Chiefs" (1810), both highly popular in their day, the latter particularly; it inducedScott to go on with Waverley; died at Bristol (1776-1850). 

PORTER, NOAH, American philosophical writer, born at Farmington, Connecticut, educated at Yale; was a Congregationalist minister 1836-46, then professor of Moral Philosophy at Yale, and afterwards President ofthe college; Edinburgh University granted him the degree of D. D. In1886; among his works are "The Human Intellect" and "Books and Reading";_b_. 1811. 

PORTEUS, BEILBY, English churchman, born at York, of Americanparentage; graduated and became Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and took orders in 1757; from the rectory of Hunton, Kent, he waspreferred to that of Lambeth in 1767, thence to the bishopric of Chesterin 1776, and to that of London 1787; a poor scholar, he yet wrote somepopular books, especially a "Summary of Christian Evidences, " and"Lectures on St. Matthew's Gospel"; he posed as a Sabbatarian and anadvocate of the abolition of slavery (1731-1809). 

PORTIA, the rich heiress in the "Merchant of Venice, " whose destinyin marriage depended, as ordained by her father, on the discretion of thewooer to choose the one of the three caskets that contained herportrait. 

PORTLAND, 1, the largest city (50) and principal seaport of Maine, stands on a peninsula in Casco Bay, 108 in. NE. Of Boston by rail. It hasextensive wharfs, dry-docks, and grain-elevators, engineer shops, shoe-factories, and sugar-refineries. Settled as an English colony in1632, it was ravaged by fire in 1866. Longfellow was born here. 2, largest city (90) in Oregon, on the Willamette River, nearly 800 m. N. OfSan Francisco; is a handsome city, with numerous churches and schools;there are iron-foundries, mechanics' shops, canneries, and flour-mills;railway communication connects it with St. Paul and Council Bluffs, andthe river being navigable for deep-sea steamers, it is a thriving port ofentry. 

PORTLAND, ISLE OF, a rocky peninsula in the SW. Of Dorsetshire, connected by Chesil Bank and the Mainland; is famous as the source ofgreat quantities of fine building limestone; here is also aconvict-prison opened 1848, accommodating 1500 prisoners. 

PORTLAND VASE, an ancient cinerary urn of dark blue glass ornamentedwith Greek mythological figures carved in a layer of white enamel foundnear Rome about 1640, and which came into the possession of the Portlandfamily in 1787, and is now in the British Museum. It is ten inches highand seven inches round. 

PORTO RICO (814), a West Indian island, half the size of Wales, 75m. E. Of Hayti, is well watered and very fertile. Ranges of hills runfrom E. To W. , and are covered with valuable timber. Sugar, coffee, andrice are the principal crops; tobacco and tropical fruits are grown;cattle and horses are reared. Textile goods, hardware, and provisions areimported; the exports are sugar, coffee, tobacco, and cattle. The capitalis St. John's (24), Mayaguez (27), and Ponce (40), the other towns. Theisland was discovered by Columbus, who called it Hispaniola, in 1493. Colonised by Spain in 1510, it attempted unsuccessfully to gainindependence in 1820-23. The abolition of slavery in 1873, and the growthof population, marked the remainder of its history as a Spanish colony. It was seized by the United States in the war of 1898. 

PORTOBELLO (8), a Midlothian watering-place on the Firth of Forth, 3m. E. Of Edinburgh, with which it is now incorporated for municipalpurposes; has a fine esplanade and promenade pier, and manufactures ofpottery, bricks, and bottles. 

PORTSMOUTH, 1, largest city (10) of New Hampshire, and only seaportin the State, on the Piscataqua River, 3 m. From the ocean; is by rail 57m. NE. Of Boston, a handsome old town and favourite watering-place; nearit is a U. S. Navy-yard. 2, (12), On the Ohio River, in Ohio; is thecentre of an extensive iron industry. 3, (13), Seaport and naval stationon the Elizabeth River, Virginia. 

PORTSMOUTH (159), the most important British naval station, aseaport and market-town, is situated on Portsea Island, on the coast ofHants, 15 m. SE. Of Southampton. It is an unimposing town, but stronglyfortified. St. Thomas's and Garrison Chapel are old churches withhistorical associations. The naval dockyards contain 12 docks lined withmasonry, vast store-houses, wood-mills, anchor-forges, andbuilding-slips. Some of the docks are roofed over, as also is a largebuilding-slip on which four vessels may be constructed at once. Theharbour can receive the largest war-vessels, and in Spithead roadstead1000 ships can anchor at once. The trade of Portsmouth is dependent onthe dockyards. It owes its defences to Edward IV. Elizabeth, and WilliamIII. It was the scene of Buckingham's assassination and of the loss ofthe _Royal George_. Three novelists were born here--Dickens, Meredith, and Besant. 

PORTUGAL (5, 000), a country as large as Ireland, bounded on the S. And W. By the Atlantic, on the N. And E. By Spain, from which atdifferent places it is separated by the rivers Minho, Douro, Tagus, andGuadiana; consists of the Atlantic slopes of the great peninsulartableland, and has a moist, warm atmosphere, heavy rains, and frequentfogs. The above rivers and the Mondego traverse it; their valleys arefertile, the mountain slopes covered with forests. In the N. The oakabounds, in the centre the chestnut, in the S. Cork-trees and palms. Agriculture, carried on with primitive implements, is the chief industry. Indian corn, wheat, and in the S. Rice, are extensively grown; the vineyields the most valuable crops, but in the N. It is giving place totobacco. There are a few textile factories. The largest export is wine;the others, cork, copper ore, and onions, which are sent to GreatBritain, Brazil, and France. The principal imports, iron, textiles, andgrain. The capital is Lisbon, on the Tagus, one of the finest towns inthe world. Oporto, the chief manufacturing centre, and second city forcommerce, is at the mouth of the Douro. Braga was once the capital. Coimbra, on the Mondego, is the rainiest place in Europe. There are goodroads between the chief towns, 1200 m. Of railway and 3000 m. Oftelegraph. The people are a mixed race, showing traces of Arab, Berber, and Negro blood, with a predominance of northern strains. They arecourteous and gentle; the peasantry hard-working and thrifty. RomanCatholic is the national faith, but they are tolerant of other religions. The language is closely akin to Spanish. Education is backward. TheGovernment is a limited monarchy, there being two houses ofParliament--Peers and Deputies. The Azores and Madeira are part of thekingdom; there are colonies in Africa and Asia, in which slavery wasabolished only in 1878. The 14th and 15th centuries saw the zenith ofPortugal's fortunes. At that time, in strict alliance with England, sheraised herself by her enterprise to the foremost maritime and commercialpower of Europe; her navigators founded Brazil, and colonised India. Diazin 1487 discovered and Vasco da Gama in 1497 doubled the Cape of GoodHope. In 1520 Magellan sailed round the world; but in the 16th centurythe extensive emigration, the expulsion of the Jews, the introduction ofthe Inquisition, and the spread of Jesuit oppression, led to a speedydownfall. For a time she was annexed to Spain. Regaining herindependence, she threw herself under the protection of England, hertraditional friend, during the Napoleonic struggle. She is now aninconsiderable power, commercially thriving, politically restless, financially unsound. 

POSEIDON, in the Greek mythology the god of the sea, a son of Kronosand Rhea, and brother of Zeus, Pluto, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter; had hishome in the sea depths, on the surface of which he appeared with a longbeard, seated in a chariot drawn by brazen-hoofed horses with goldenmanes, and wielding a trident, which was the symbol of his power, exercised in production of earthquake and storms. See PLUTO. 

POSEN (1, 752), a province of Prussia on the Russian frontier, surrounded by West Prussia, Brandenburg, and Silesia; belongs to thegreat North German plain; has several lakes, and is traversed by thenavigable Warthe, Netze, and Vistula. The prevailing industry isagriculture; the crops are grain, potatoes, and hops; there are somemanufactures of machinery and cloth. Originally part of Poland, half thepopulation are Poles; except the Jews, most of the people are Catholics. The capital is POSEN (70), on the Warthe, by rail 185 m. E. OfBerlin. It is a pleasant town, with a cathedral, museum, and library, manufactures of manure and agricultural implements, breweries anddistilleries. It is now a fortress of the first rank. Gnesen and Brombergare the other chief towns. 

POSIDONIUS, an eminent Stoic philosopher, born in Syria; establishedhimself in Rhodes, where he rose to eminence; was visited by Cicero andPompey, both of whom became his pupils; maintained that pain was no evil;"in vain, O Pain, " he exclaimed one day under the pangs of it, "in vainthou subjectest me to torture; it is not in thee to extort from me thereproach that thou art an evil" (135-34 B. C. ). 

POSITIVISM, the philosophy so called of AUGUSTE COMTE (q. V. ), the aim of which is to propound a new arrangement of the sciencesand a new theory of the evolution of science; the sciences he classesunder the categories of abstract and concrete, and his law of evolutionis that every department of knowledge passes in the history of it throughthree successive stages, and only in the last of which it is entitled tothe name of science--the Theological stage, in which everything isreferred to the intervention of the gods; the Metaphysical, in whicheverything is referred to an abstract idea; and the Positive, which, discarding at once theology and philosophy, contents itself with thestudy of phenomena and their sequence, and regards that as scienceproper. Thus is positivism essentially definable, in Dr. Stirling'swords, as "a method which replaces all outlying agencies, whetherTheological deities or Metaphysical entities, by Positive laws; whichlaws, and in their phenomenal relativity, as alone what can be known, ought alone to constitute what is sought to be known. " See Dr. Stirling's"SCHWEGLER. "

POSSE COMITATUS, a Latin expression, signifies the whole coercivepower of a county called out in the case of a riot, and embraces allmales over 15 except peers, ecclesiastics, and infirm persons. These maybe summoned by the sheriff to assist in maintaining the public peace, enforcing a writ, or capturing a felon; but usually the constabulary issufficient for these duties. 

POST RESTANTE, department of a post-office where letters lie tillthey are called for. 

POTEMKIN, Russian officer, born at Smolensk, of Polish descent; ahandsome man with a powerful physique, who attracted the attention ofCatharine II. , became one of her chief favourites, and directed theforeign policy of Russia under her for 13 years; is understood to havebeen an able man, but unscrupulous (1736-1771). 

POTOMAC RIVER, rising in the Alleghany Mountaine, flows 400 m. Eastward between Maryland and the Virginias into Chesapeake Bay; theShenandoah is the chief tributary. The river is navigable as far up asCumberland, and is tidal up to Washington, which is on its banks. 

POTOSI (12), an important mining and commercial town of Bolivia, situated 13, 000 ft. Above sea-level on the slopes of the Cerro de Potosi;is one of the loftiest inhabited places on the globe, but a dilapidated, squalid place. There is a cathedral, next to Lima the finest in SouthAmerica, a mint, and extensive reservoirs; the streets are steep andwithout vehicles; the climate is cold, and the surrounding hillsidesbarren; the industry is silver mining, but the mines are becomingexhausted and flooded. 

POTSDAM (54), 18 m. SW. Of Berlin, stands on an island at theconfluence of the Nuthe and Havel, and is the capital of the Prussianprovince of Brandenburg; a handsome town, with broad streets, many parksand squares, numberless statues and fine public buildings; it is afavourite residence of Prussian royalty, and has several royal palaces;was the birthplace of Alexander von Humboldt; has sugar and chemicalworks, and a large violet-growing industry. 

POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH, eminent philologist, born in Hanover; wroteon the Indo-Germanic languages, a work which ranks next in importance toBopp's "Comparative Grammar"; he was the author of a number ofphilological papers which appeared in the learned journals of the day(1802-1887). 

POTTER, JOHN, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Yorkshire, son of adraper, a distinguished scholar; author of "Archæologia Græca, " a work onthe antiquities of Greece, and for long the authority on that subject(1674-1747). 

POTTER, PAUL, a great Dutch animal-painter, lived chiefly atAmsterdam and The Hague; his most celebrated picture, life-size, is the"Young Bull, " now at The Hague (1625-1654). 

POTTERIES, THE, a district in North Staffordshire, 9 m. Long by 3broad, the centre of the earthenware manufacture of England; it includesHanley, Burslem, Stoke-upon-Trent, &c. 

POT-WALLOPERS (i. E. Pot-boilers), a popular name given prior tothe Reform Bill of 1832 to a class of electors in a borough who claimedthe right to vote on the ground of boiling a pot within its limits forsix months. 

POURPARLER, a diplomatic conference towards the framing of a treaty. 

POUSSIN, NICOLAS, one of the most illustrious of French painters, born near Andelys, in Normandy; studied first in Paris and then at Rome, where he first attained celebrity, whence he was in 1640 invited to Parisby Louis XIII. , who appointed him painter-in-ordinary, with a studio inthe Tuileries, returning three years after to Rome, where he died; he isthe author of numerous great works, among which may be mentioned the"Shepherds of Arcadia, " "The Deluge, " "Moses drawn out of the Water, ""The Flight into Egypt, " &c. , all of which display simplicity of taste, nobility of character, and artistic talent of a high order (1594-1665). 

POWELL, BADEN, physicist, rationalist in theology, born in London;was Savilian professor of Geometry at Oxford, wrote a number of treatiseson physical subjects, and contributed to the famous "Essays and Reviews"an essay on the evidences of Christianity which gave no small offence toorthodox people (1796-1860). 

POWELL, MAJOR, American geologist and ethnologist, born in New YorkState; served in the Civil War, explored the cañon of Colorado, andbecame Director of the U. S. Geological Survey; has written on geologicaland ethnological subjects; _b_. 1834. 

POWERS, HIRAM, American sculptor, born in Vermont; began his careerby modelling busts at Washington, in 1837 emigrated to Italy, and residedthe rest of his life at Florence, where he produced his "Eve, " his "GreekSlave, " and other works (1807-1873). 

POYNINGS'S LAW, an Act of Parliament held at Drogheda in 1495 in thereign of Henry VII. , declaring that all statutes hitherto passed inEngland should be also in force in Ireland, so called from Sir EdwardPoynings, the lieutenant of Ireland at the time. 

POYNTER, EDWARD JOHN, painter, born in Paris; was educated inEngland, studied in Rome and Paris, and settled in London in 1860; heldappointments at University College and at Kensington, but resigned themin 1881 to prosecute his art, which he has since assiduously done, andwith distinction; was elected President of the Royal Academy in 1896; isthe author of "Lectures on Art"; _b_. 1836. 

POZZO DI BORGO, COUNT, the lifelong enemy of Napoleon, born inAjaccio, Corsica; was a partisan of Paoli; obliged to flee from Corsica, took refuge in London, in Vienna, and then in Russia, and plottedeverywhere to compass the ruin of his arch-enemy; seduced, out of simplehatred of him, Bernadotte from the service of Napoleon, and egged on theallies against France; represented Russia at the Congress of Vienna, anddied in Paris (1764-1842). 

POZZUOLI (12), an Italian city on the Bay of Naples, is noted forits classical remains; the cathedral was once the temple of Augustus;there are ruins of other temples, a forum, and the ancient harbour ofPuteoli, where St. Paul landed; the town has been submerged and partiallyraised again by volcanic action; Mount Solfatara, behind, suppliesmedicinal gases and springs; near it are the Italian works of Armstrongof Elswick. 

P. P. , CLERK OF THIS PARISH, the feigned author of a volume ofmemoirs written by Arbuthnot in ridicule of Burnet's "History of My OwnTimes. "

PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH, witty facile versifier and politician, born in London; practised in verse-making from a boy, notably at Eton;bred for the bar, entered Parliament as a Tory in 1830, and rose intooffice; wrote several verse-tales, some pieces of promise, such as"Arminius" and "My Pretty Josephine, " a grotesque production called "TheRed Fisherman, " and exquisite _vers de société_ (1802-1839). 

PRÆTOR, a Roman magistrate at first, virtually a third consul, withadministrative functions, chiefly judiciary, originally in the city, andultimately in the provinces as well, so that the number of them increasedat one time to as many as 16. 

PRÆTORIAN GUARD, a select body of soldiers distributed in cohorts, as many as ten of a thousand each, to guard the person and maintain thepower of the emperors, and who at length acquired such influence in theState as to elect and depose at will the emperors themselves, disposingat times of the imperial purple to the highest bidder, till they were inthe end outnumbered and dispersed by Constantine in 312. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION, a term applied to "an ordinance of a veryirrevocable nature which a sovereign makes in affairs belonging wholly tohimself, or what he reckons within his own right, " but applied moreparticularly to the decree promulgated by Charles VI. , emperor ofGermany, whereby he vested the right of succession to the throne ofAustria in his daughter, Maria Theresa, wife of Francis of Lorraine, asuccession which was guaranteed by France, the States-General, and themost of the European Powers. 

PRAGUE (310), capital of Bohemia, on the Moldau, 217 m. By rail NW. Of Vienna, is a picturesque city with over 70 towers, a great royalpalace, unfinished cathedral, an old town-hall, a picture-gallery, observatory, botanical garden, and museums; the University, partly Germanand partly Czech, has 300 teachers, 4000 students, and a magnificentlibrary; the centre of an important transit trade, Prague is the chiefcommercial city of Bohemia; has manufactures of machinery, chemicals, leather, and textile goods; four-fifths of the population are Czechs;founded in the 12th century, it has suffered in many wars; was capturedby the Hussites 1424, fell frequently during the Thirty Years' War, capitulated to Frederick the Great 1757, and in 1848 was bombarded fortwo days by the Austrian Government in quelling the democraticdemonstrations of the Slavonic Congress of that year. 

PRAIRIE, name given by the French to an extensive tract of flat orrolling land covered with tall, waving grass, mostly destitute of trees, and forming the great central plain of North America, which extends asfar N. As Canada. 

PRAKRIT, name given to a group of Hindu languages based on Sanskrit. 

PRATIQUE, license given to a ship to enter port on assurance fromthe captain to convince the authorities that she is free from contagiousdisease. 

PRAXITELES, great Greek sculptor, born at Athens; executed statuesin both bronze and marble, and was unrivalled in the exhibition of thesofter beauties of the human form, especially the female figure, his mostcelebrated being the marble one of Aphrodité at Cnidus; he executedstatues of Eros, Apollo, and Hermes as well, but they have all perished. 

PRAYING-WHEELS, cylinders with printed prayers on them, driven byhand, water, or wind-power, in use among the Buddhists of Thibet. 

PRE-ADAMITES, a race presumed to have existed on the earth prior toAdam; traditional first fathers of the Jews. 

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, name given to the gradual shifting ofthe equinoctial points along the ecliptic from east to west. SeeEQUINOXES. 

PRÉCIEUSES RIDICULES, a play of Molière's, published in 1653, directed against the affectations of certain literary coteries of theday. 

PREDESTINATION, the eternal decree which in particular foreordainscertain of the human family to life everlasting and others to deatheverlasting, or the theological dogma which teaches these. SeeELECTION, THE DOCTRINE OF. 

PREDICABLES, the five classes of terms which can be predicated of asubject, viz. --GENUS, containing species; SPECIES, contained ina genus; DIFFERENTIA, distinguishing one species from another;PROPERTY, quality possessed by every member of a species; andACCIDENT, attribute belonging to certain individuals of a speciesand not others. 

PREGEL, a navigable river in E. Prussia, 120 m. Long and 730 ft. Broad, which falls into the Frische Haff below Königsberg. 

PREJEVALSKI, NICHOLAS, Russian explorer, born in Smolensk; joinedthe army, served against the Poles in 1861, and was appointed to Siberiain 1867; his first explorations were in the country S. Of the Amur; in1871-73 he travelled through Southern Mongolia from Pekin to the upperYangtse-kiang region; thereafter his energies were devoted to Thibet; hemade repeated unsuccessful attempts to reach Lhassa, exploring by the waythe desert of Gobi and the upper Hoang-ho, and died finally at Karakol, in West Turkestan; he discovered the wild camel and wild horse, andbrought back valuable zoological and botanical collections, which are nowin St. Petersburg (1839-1888)

PRE-RAPHAELITISM, a movement headed by Rossetti, Holman Hunt, andMillais, of revolt against the style of art in vogue, traceable all theway back to Raphael, and of a bold return to the study of nature itself, agreeably to the advice of Ruskin, that "they should go to Nature in allsingleness of heart, and walk with her laboriously and trustingly, havingno other thought than how best to penetrate her meaning: rejectingnothing, selecting nothing, and scorning nothing"; the principle of themovement, as having regard not merely to what the outer eye sees in anobject, but to what the inner eye sees of objective truth and reality init. 

PRESBURG (52), the ancient capital of Hungary, close to the Austrianfrontier, on the Danube, by rail 40 m. E. Of Vienna; is a pleasant town, with a cathedral, a town-house, and a Franciscan church, all of the 13thcentury, the old Parliament House, and a ruined royal castle;manufactures beer, dynamite, and starch, and trades largely in live stockand corn. 

PRESBYOPIA, diminution of sight due to age, occurring usually aboutforty-five, when near objects are less distinctly seen than distant, anaffliction due to the flattening of the lens. 

PRESBYTERIANISM, that form of Church government which, discardingprelacy, regards all ministers in conclave as on the same level in rankand function, and which is the prevailing form of Church government inScotland; inherited from Geneva, as also prevailing extensively in theUnited States of America. The government is administered by a gradationof courts, called "Kirk-Sessions, " of office-bearers in connection with aparticular congregation; "Presbyteries, " in connection with a smalldistrict; "Synods, " in connection with a larger; and finally a GeneralAssembly or a Synod of the whole Church, which, besides managing theaffairs of the collective body, forms a court of final appeal in disputedmatters or cases. 

PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING, American historian, born at Salem, Massachusetts; son of a lawyer; graduated at Harvard in 1814, and appliedhimself to study law; by-and-by he travelled in Europe, married, andturned to literature as a profession; growing blind, the result of anaccident at college, he fortunately inherited means, employed assistants, and with great courage in 1826 began to study Spanish history. "Ferdinandand Isabella" appearing in 1838, established his reputation in bothworlds; "The Conquest of Mexico" was published in 1843, and "The Conquestof Peru" in 1847; he was elected corresponding member of the FrenchInstitute; his style is vivid, direct, and never dull; though notphilosophical, his histories are masterpieces of narrative and incident;he died of apoplexy at Boston before completing the "History of PhilipII. " (1796-1859). 

PRESENT TIME, defined impressively by Carlyle as "the youngest bornof Eternity, child and heir of all the past times, with their good andevil, and parent of all the future with new questions and significance, "on the right or wrong understanding of which depend the issues of life ordeath to us all, the sphinx riddle given to all of us to rede as we wouldlive and not die. 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, is popularly elected for four years, or rather by delegates so elected to each State, and sometimes re-electedfor other four; is commander-in-chief of the army and navy; sees to theadministration of the laws, signs bills before they pass into law, makestreaties, grants reprieves and pardons, and receives an annual salary of50, 000 dollars. 

PRESS-GANG, a party armed with powers to impress men into the navalservice in times of emergency, a practice which often gave rise toserious disturbances, and is not in any circumstances likely to be hadrecourse to again. See IMPRESSMENT. 

PRESSENSÉ, EDMOND DE, eminent French Protestant theologian, born atLuasanne, in Paris; studied under Vinet and Neander at Berlin; becameProtestant minister in Paris; was elected a deputy in the NationalAssembly in 1871, and a senator in 1883; wrote a "Life of Christ, " and onnumerous subjects of theological and ecclesiastical interest (1824-1891). 

PRESTER, JOHN. See JOHN, PRESTER. 

PRESTON (112), Lancashire manufacturing town on the Ribble, 31 m. NW. Of Manchester; is a well laid out brick town, with three parks, amagnificent town-hall, a market, public baths, free library, museum, andpicture-gallery; St. Walburge's Roman Catholic church has the highestpost-Reformation steeple in England, 306 ft. The deepening of the riverand construction of docks have added to the shipping trade. The chiefindustry is cotton, but there are also shipbuilding yards, engineershops, and foundries. One of Cromwell's victories was won here; it wasthe birthplace of Richard Arkwright, and the scene of the beginning ofthe English total abstinence movement in 1832. 

PRETENDERS, THE, the names given to the son and the grandson ofJames II. (Prince Charlie) as claiming a right to the throne of England, and called respectively the Elder and the Younger Pretender; the elder, who made one or two attempts to secure his claim, surrendered it to hisson, who in 1745 was defeated at Culloden. 

PRETORIA (whites, 10), capital of the Transvaal, stands on amountain-enclosed plain 1000 m. NE. Of Cape Town, and nearly 300 m. W. OfLorenzo Marquez, Delagoa Bay, with both of which and with Natal it isconnected by rail. It is a thriving town, growing rapidly withflourishing trade, the see of a bishop, and containing twenty Englishschools. Coal is found near, and wheat, tobacco, cotton, and indigogrown. It is the seat of the government of the Transvaal. 

PRÉVOST D'EXILES, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS, or ABBÉ PRÉVOST, a Frenchromancer, born in Heslin, Artois; was educated by the Jesuits, and becamea Benedictine monk, but proving refractory, fled to Holland and England;wrote several novels, but his fame rests on one entitled "Manon Lescaut, "a work of genius, charming at once in matter and style; a "story, " saysProfessor Saintsbury, "chiefly remarkable for the perfect simplicity andabsolute life-likeness of the character-drawing"; derives its name fromthe subject of it, a young girl named Manon (1697-1763). 

PRÉVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE, French littérateur and publicist, born in Paris; distinguished himself as journalist and essayist; was anenemy of the Empire, but accepted a post under Ollivier as envoy to theUnited States in 1870, and committed suicide at Washington almostimmediately after landing; it was on the eve of the Franco-German War, and he had been the subject of virulent attacks from the republican pressof the day (1829-1870). 

PRIAM, the old king of Troy during the Trojan War; was the son ofLaomedon, who with the help of Apollo and Poseidon built the city; had alarge family by his wife Hecuba, Hector, Paris, and Cassandra, the mostnoted of them; was too old to take part in the war; is said to havefallen by the hand of Pyrrhus on the capture of Troy by the Greeks. 

PRIAPUS, an ancient deity, the personification of the generating orfructifying power, and worshipped as the protector of flocks of sheep andgoats, of bees, of the vine and other garden products; a worship known asthe Priapus worship prevailed extensively all over the East. 

PRICE, RICHARD, English moralist, born in Glamorganshire; wrote onpolitics and economics as well as ethics, in which last he followedCUDWORTH (q. V. ), and insisted on the unimpeachable quality ofmoral distinctions, and the unimpeachable authority of the moralsentiments (1723-1791). 

PRICHARD, JAMES COWLES, founder of ethnology and a philologist, bornin Hereford; bred to medicine, and practised in Bristol; wrote"Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, " "The Eastern Origin ofthe Celtic Nations, " "Analysis of Egyptian Mythology, " and the "NaturalHistory of Man"; maintained the original unity of the race, and that theoriginal pair were negroes; philology was in his hands the handmaid ofethnology, and he made himself master of the primitive languages(1786-1848). 

PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY, English prelate and scholar; remembered chieflyas the author of a learned work entitled "The Connection of the Historyof the Old and New Testaments"; wrote a "Life of Mahomet, " popular in itsday and for long after (1648-1724). 

PRIDE'S PURGE, the name given to a violent exclusion, in 1649, atthe hands of a body of troops commanded by Colonel Pride of about ahundred members of the House of Commons disposed to deal leniently withthe king, after which some eighty, known as the Rump, were left to dealwith his Majesty and bring him to justice. 

PRIESSNITZ, founder of the water-cure, in connection with which hehad a large establishment at Gräfenberg, in Austrian Silesia; was a mereempiric, having been bred to farming (1799-1851). 

PRIEST, properly a man in touch with the religious life of thepeople, and for the most part consecrated to mediate between them and theDeity; the prophet, on the other hand, being one more in touch with theDeity, being at times so close to Him as to require a priest to mediatebetween him and the laity. 

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, a Socinian divine, born near Leeds; wrote indefence of Socinianism, and in defence of Christianity; gave himself tophysical research, particularly pneumatic chemistry; is claimed as thediscoverer of oxygen; sympathised with the French Revolution; was mobbed, and had to flee to America, where he died, believing in immortalitydespite his materialistic philosophy (1733-1804). 

PRIM, JUAN, a Spanish general; distinguished as a statesman; rose tobe Minister of War, but aspiring to dictatorship, was shot by anassassin; he was the leader of the movement that overthrew Isabella in1868 and installed Amadeo in her stead (1814-1870). 

PRIMROSE, the name of a family in Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield. "

PRIMROSE LEAGUE, a politico-Conservative organisation founded in1883 in memory of Lord Beaconsfield, and so called because the primrosewas popularly reported to be his favourite flower. It includes a largemembership, nearly a million, comprising women as well as men; is dividedinto district habitations; confers honours and badges in the style ofFreemasonry, and has extensive political influence under a grand-master. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (109), an island province of Canada, in the S. Of Gulf of St. Lawrence, occupies a great bay formed by New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton, and is somewhat larger than Northumberland. The coast-line is exceedingly broken, the surface low and undulating, andvery fertile. The chief industry is agriculture, oats and potatoes arethe best crops; decayed shells found in beds on the shore are anexcellent manure; sheep and horses are raised with great success. Theclimate is healthy, milder and clearer than on the mainland, but with atedious winter. Coal exists, but is not wrought. The fisheries are thebest on the Gulf, but are not developed. Manufactures are inconsiderable. Discovered by the Cabots, it was settled by the French in 1715, and cededto Great Britain in 1763. Constituted a province in 1768, the name waschanged from St. John to Prince Edward in 1799. Since 1875 the localgovernment have bought out most of the great proprietors, and resold theland to occupying owners. Education is free. There are normal schools andtwo colleges. Half the people are Roman Catholics. A railway traversesthe island, and there is daily steam communication with the mainland. Thecapital is Charlottetown (13); Summerside, Georgetown, and Sourio are theother towns. 

PRINCE OF PEACE, a title given by Charles IV. Of Spain to his PrimeMinister, DON MANUEL GODOY (q. V. ). 

PRINCETON (3), a town of New Jersey, 50 m. SW. Of New York; was thescene of a battle in the War of Independence, and the meeting-place ofthe Continental Congress of 1783; now noted as the seat of the College ofNew Jersey, founded at Newark 1746, and removed to Princeton ten yearslater, with now 50 teachers and 600 students; Jonathan Edwards and Dr. James M'Cosh as presidents, James Madison and others as alumni, havegiven it lustre. The Theological Seminary, the oldest and largestPresbyterian one in the States, was founded in 1812, and a School ofScience in 1871. The college is rich in museums, observatories, laboratories, libraries, and funds. 

PRINGLE, THOMAS, minor poet, born in Roxburghshire; edited the_Monthly Magazine_; emigrated to South Africa; held a small governmentappointment; was bullied out of it; returned home, and became Secretaryto the Anti-Slavery Society (1789-1834). 

PRINTED PAPER, Carlyle's satirical name for the literature of Franceprior to the Revolution. 

PRINZENRAUB (the stealing of the princes), name given to an attempt, to satisfy a private grudge of his, on the part of Kunz von Kaufingen tocarry off, on the night of the 7th July 1455, two Saxon princes from thecastle of Altenburg, in which he was defeated by apprehension at thehands of a collier named Schmidt, through whom he was handed over tojustice and beheaded. See CARLYLE'S ACCOUNT OF THIS IN HIS"MISCELLANIES. "

PRIOR, MATTHEW, English poet and diplomatist, born near Wimborne, East Dorset; studied at Cambridge; became Fellow of Trinity College; wasambassador to France; involved himself in an intrigue, was imprisoned, and on his release lived in retirement; he is remembered as a poet; wrotein 1687 a parody of Dryden's "Hind and Panther, " entitled "The Story ofthe Country Mouse and the City Mouse, " and afterwards, "Solomon on theVanity of the World, " "Alma; or, The Progress of the Mind, " after Butler, as well as tales, lyrics, and epigrams; Professor Saintsbury calls him"the king of 'verse of society'" (1664-1721). 

PRISCIAN, Latin grammarian of the 6th century, born in Cæsarea; wasauthor of "Grammatical Commentaries" in 18 books, a standard work duringthe Middle Ages, and in universal use at that time. 

PRISCILLIAN, a Spaniard of noble birth, who introduced a Gnostic andManichæan heresy into Spain, and founded a sect called after him, and wasput to death by the Emperor Maximius in 385; his followers were an idlyspeculative sect, who practised a rigidly ascetic style of life, andafter being much calumniated did not survive him over 60 years. 

PRISMATIC COLOURS, the seven colours a ray of pure white light isresolved into when refracted through a prism, applied figuratively byCarlyle to the pure light refracted through the soul of a man of genius. 

PRISONER OF CHILLON, the name given to FRANÇOIS DE BONIVARD(q. V. ), who was for six years kept prisoner in the castle of Chillon, on the Lake of Geneva, and is the subject of a well-known poem by Byron. 

PRIVATEER, a private vessel licensed by Government under a letter ofmarque to seize and plunder the ships of an enemy, otherwise an act ofthe kind is treated as piracy. 

PRIVY COUNCIL, is theoretically a council associated with thesovereign to advise him in matters of government. As at presentconstituted it includes the members of the royal family, the Cabinet, thetwo archbishops and the bishop of London, the principal English andScotch judges, some of the chief ambassadors and governors of colonies, the Commander-in-Chief, the First Lord of the Admiralty, &c. No membersattend except those summoned, usually the Cabinet, the officers of theHousehold, and the Primate. The functions of the Privy Council may begrouped as: (1) executive, in which its duties are discharged by theCabinet, which is technically a committee of the Privy Council; (2)administrative--the Board of Trade, the Local Government Board, and theBoard of Agriculture originated in committees; the Education Departmentis still a committee, and the Council retains such branches as thesupervision of medical, pharmaceutical, and veterinary practice, thegranting of municipal charters, &c. ; (3) judicial--the Judicial Committeeis a court of law, whose principal function is the hearing of appealsfrom ecclesiastical courts and from Indian and colonial courts. 

PRIVY SEAL, the seal of the sovereign appended to grants that do notrequire to pass the great seal. 

PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor from 276 to 282, born inPannonia; having distinguished himself in the field as a soldier, waselected by the army and the citizens to succeed Tacitus; defended theempire successfully against all encroachments, and afterwards devotedhimself to home administration, but requiring the service of the soldiersin public works, which they considered degrading, was seized by a body ofthem compelled so to drudge, and put to death. 

PROCLUS, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, born in Constantinople; appearsto have held a Trinitarian view of the universe, and to have regarded theAll abstractly viewed as contained in the Divine ever emerging from itand returning into it, a doctrine Implied in John i. 1, but far short ofthe corresponding trinity in the ripe philosophy of Hegel (412-485). 

PROCONSUL, name given to the governor of a Roman province who wasabsolute ruler of it, disposed of the army, dispensed justice, controlledadministration, and was represented by legates. 

PROCOP, the name of two Hussite leaders of the Taborites, who afterleading successful forays on all hands from their head-quarters inBohemia, fell in battle with their rivals the Calixtines at Lippau in1434. 

PROCOPIUS, a Greek historian, born at Cæsarea, the secretary ofBelisarius, and author of a History of the Wars of Justinian, which isstill the chief authority for the events of his reign; _d_. 565. 

PROCRUSTES, a brigand of ancient Attica, who when any one fell intohis hands placed him on a bed, stretching him out if he was too short forit and amputating him if he was too long till he died; he was one dayoverpowered by Theseus, who tortured him to death as he had done his ownvictims; his practice has given name to any attempt to enforce conformityby violent measures. 

PROCTER, BRYAN WALTER, English lyrist, known by his pseudonym asBarry Cornwall, born in London; was bred to the bar, and was for 30 yearsa Commissioner of Lunacy, and is chiefly memorable as the friend of allthe eminent literary men of two generations, such as Wordsworth, Lamb, and Scott on the one hand and Carlyle, Thackeray, and Tennyson on theother; he was no great poet (1787-1874). 

PROCTOR, RICHARD ANTONY, astronomer and lecturer on Astronomy;determined the rotation of the planet Mars, and propounded the theory ofthe solar corona (1837-1888). 

PROCURATOR-FISCAL, is a Scottish law officer appointed by thesheriff, and irremovable on efficient and good behaviour, whose dutiesare to initiate the prosecution of crimes and inquire into deaths undersuspicious circumstances. 

PROGNE, the sister of Philomela and wife of Tereus, changed into aswallow by the gods. See TEREUS. 

PROGRESS OF THE SPECIES MAGAZINES, Carlyle's name for the literatureof the day which does nothing to help the progress in question, but keepsidly boasting of the fact, taking all the credit to itself, like Æsop'sfly on the axle of the careering chariot soliloquising, "What a dust Iraise!"

PROHIBITIONIST, one who would prohibit the sale of all intoxicatingliquors. 

PROLETARIAT, the name given to the lowest and poorest class in theState, and which still retains the original Roman meaning, as denoting, from _proles_, offspring, one who enriches the State not by hisprosperity, but by his progeny. 

PROMETHEUS (i. E. Forethought), a Titan, the son of lapetus andKlymene, and the brother of EPIMETHEUS (q. V. ), who, when thegods, just installed on Olympus, met with men at Mekone to arrange withthem as to their dues in sacrifice, came boldly forth as therepresentative and protector of the human race and slew a bullock insacrifice, putting the flesh of it in one pile and the entrails with thebones in another, veiled temptingly with fat, and invited Zeus to makehis choice, whereupon, knowing well what he was about, Zeus chose thelatter, but in revenge took away with him the fire which had beenbestowed by the gods upon mortals. It was a strife of wit _versus_ wit, and Prometheus, as the defender of the rights of man, was not to beoutwitted even by the gods, so he reached up a hollow fennel stalk to thesun and brought the fire back again, whereupon the strife was transformedinto one of force _versus_ force, and Zeus caught the audacious Titan andchained him to a rock on Mount Caucasus, where an eagle gnawed all day athis liver which grew again by night, though, in inflicting thispunishment, Zeus was soon visited with a relenting heart, for it was byexpress commission from him that Hercules, as a son of his, scaled therock and slew the eagle. The myth is one of the deepest significance, reflecting an old belief, and one which has on it the seal of Christ, assanctioned of Heaven, that the world was made for man and not man forthe world, only there is included within it an expression of the jealousywith which Heaven watches the use mankind make of the gifts that, out ofher own special store, she bestows upon them. Prometheus is properly theincarnation of the divine fire latent from the beginning in the soul ofman. 

PROPAGANDA, a congregation, as it is called, at Rome, originated byGregory XIII. , and organised in 1622 by Gregory XV. , the object of whichis to propagate the faith of the Church among heathen nations and incountries where there is no established hierarchy, connected with whichthere is a college at Rome called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, where pupils are instructed for different fields of missionaryenterprise. 

PROPERTIUS, SEXTUS, a Latin elegaic poet, born in Umbria; went toRome and became a protégé of Mæcenas; devoted himself to the cultivationof the poetic art; came under the spell of a gifted lady, to whom, underthe name of Cynthia, he dedicated the first products of his muse, andwhom he has immortalised in his poems; in his elegies he follows Greekmodels; his poetry, and the poetic quality it displays, have been muchadmired by Goethe (51-14 B. C. ). 

PROPHECY, properly not a forecasting of particular events and thesuccession of them, but so far as it refers to the future at all is aninsight into the course of things in the time to come from insight intothe course of them in days gone by or now, and that is believed to be thecharacter of Hebrew prophecy, founded on faith in the immutability of thedivine order of things. 

PROPHETS. See PRIESTS, HEBREW PROPHECY. 

PROSELYTES, converts from heathenism to Judaism, of which there weretwo classes: Proselytes of the Temple, those who accepted the ceremoniallaw and were admitted into the inner court of The temple; and Proselytesof the Gate, who accepted only the moral law, and were admitted only intothe outer court. They were a numerous class after the Dispersion, andwere reckoned at hundreds of thousands. 

PROSERPINA, the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, who was carried offwhile gathering flowers by PLUTO (q. V. ), became Queen of Hades, and is represented as sitting on an ebony throne beside him wearing acrown. According to later tradition Pluto had to allow her to revisit theupper world for two-thirds of the year to compromise matters with hermother, her arrival being coincident with the beginning of spring and herreturn to Hades coincident with the beginning of winter. She became byPluto the mother of the Furies. 

PROSPERO, one of the chief characters in Shakespeare's "Tempest, " anexiled king of Milan, who, during his exile, practises magic, and breakshis wand when he has accomplished his purpose. 

PROTAGORAS, one of the earliest of the Greek Sophists, born atAbdera, and who flourished in 440 B. C. , and taught at Athens, from whichhe was banished as a blasphemer, as having called in question theexistence of the gods; he taught that man was the measure of all things, of those that exist, that they are; and of those things that do notexist, that they are not; and that there is nothing absolute, that all isan affair of subjective conception. 

PROTECTION, name given to the encouragement of certain home productsof a country by imposing duties on foreign products of the class, opposedto free-trade. 

PROTESTANTISM, the name given to a movement headed by Luther in the16th century, in protestation of the supremacy in spiritual thingsclaimed by the Church of Rome, and made on the ground of the authority ofconscience enlightened by the Word of God, conceived of as the ultimaterevelation of God to man. 

PROTESTANTS, a name given to the adherents of Luther, who, at thesecond Diet of Spires in 1529, protested against the revocation ofcertain privileges granted at the first Diet in 1526. 

PROTEUS, in the Greek mythology a divinity of the sea endowed withthe gift of prophecy, but from whom it was difficult to extort thesecrets of fate, as he immediately changed his shape when any oneattempted to force him, for it was only in his proper form he couldenunciate these secrets. 

PROTOGENES, a Greek painter of the time of Alexander the Great, bornin Caria; lived chiefly at Rhodes; was discovered by Apelles, who broughthim into note; his masterpiece is a picture of Ialysus, the tutelary heroof Rhodes, on which he spent seven years, and which he painted four timesover. 

PROTOPLASM, a name given to presumed living matter forming thephysical bases of all forms of animal and vegetable life; the term is nowsuperseded by the term bioplasm. See DR. STIRLING, "AS REGARDSPROTOPLASM. "

PROUDHON, PIERRE JOSEPH, French Socialist, born at Besançon, the sonof a cooper; worked in a printing establishment, spent his spare hours instudy, specially of the social problem, and in 1840 published a workentitled "What is Property?" and in which he boldly enunciated thestartling proposition, "Property is theft"; for the publication of thisthesis he was at first unmolested, and only with its application was hecalled to account, and for which at last, in 1849, he was committed toprison, where, however, he kept himself busy with his pen, and whence hefrom time to time emitted socialistic publications till his release in1852, after which he was in 1858 compelled to flee the country, to returnagain under an act of amnesty in 1860 and die; he was not only theassailant of property, but of government itself, and preached anarchy asthe goal of all social progress and not the starting-point, as so manyunfortunately fancy; but by anarchy, it would seem, he meant the right ofgovernment spiritually free, and, in the Christian sense of thatexpression, to exemption from all external control (see I Tim. I. 9)(1809-1865). 

PROUT, SAMUEL, eminent English water-colour artist, born atPlymouth; had from a child an irrepressible penchant for drawing, which, though discouraged at first by his father, was fostered by hisschoolmaster; was patronised by Britton the antiquary, and employed byhim to assist him in collecting materials for his "Beauties of Englandand Wales, " but it was not till his visit to Rouen in 1818 that he wasfirst fascinated with the subject that henceforth occupied him; from thistime excursions were continually made to the Continent, and every cornerof France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy ransacked for itsfragments of carved stone; the old architecture that then fascinated himhenceforth became a conspicuous feature in all his after-works; "theworks of Prout, " says Ruskin, "will one day become memorials of the mostprecious of things that have been . .. A time will come when that zealwill be understood, and his works will be cherished with a melancholygratitude, when the pillars of Venice shall be mouldering in the saltshallows of her sea, and the stones of the goodly towers of Rouen havebecome ballast for the barges of the Seine" (1789-1852). 

PROUT, FATHER. See MAHONY, FRANCIS. 

PROVENÇAL LANGUAGE, one of the Romance dialects of France, spoken inthe South of France, and different from that spoken in the N. As incloser connection with the original Latin than that of the N. , which wasmodified by Teutonic influence. 

PROVENCE, a maritime province in the South of France, originallycalled Provincia by the Romans, and which included the departments ofBouches-du-Rhône, Basses-Alpes, Var, and part of Vaucluse. 

PROVERBS, BOOK OF, a book of the Hebrew Scriptures, full of theteachings of wisdom bearing on the conduct of life, and though ascribedto Solomon, obviously not all of his composition, or even collection, andprobably ascribed to him because of his fondness for wisdom in that form, and from his having procured the first collection. The principlesinculcated are purely ethical, resting, however, on a religious basis, and concern the individual not as a member of any particular community, but as a member of the human race; the lessons of life and death are thesame as in the covenant with Moses, and the condition in both cases isthe observance or non-observance of God's commandments. There is nochange in the principle, but in the expansion of it, and that amounts tothe foundation of a kingdom of God which shall include all nations. Inthem the bonds of Jewish exclusiveness are burst, and a catholic religionvirtually established. 

PROVIDENCE (175), a seaport and semi-capital of Rhode Island, U. S. , on a river of the name, 44 m. SW. Of Boston; it is a centre of a largemanufacturing district, and has a large trade in woollens, jewellery, andhardware; has a number of public buildings, and institutions, churches, schools, libraries, and hospitals, as well as beautiful villas andgardens. 

PRUDENTIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS CLEMENS. Christian poet of the 4thcentury, born in Spain; after spending the greater part of his life insecular affairs, gave himself up to religious meditation, and wrotehymns, lyrics, and polemics in verse. 

PRUSSIA (24, 690), the leading State of the German Empire, occupiesabout two-thirds of the imperial territory, and contributes three-fifthsof the population; it stretches from Holland and Belgium in the W. ToRussia in the E. , has Jutland and the sea on the N. , and Lorraine, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxony, and Austria on the S. ; the SW. Portionis hilly and the soil often poor, but containing valuable mineraldeposits; the N. And E. Belongs to the great European plain, devoted toagriculture and grazing; Hesse-Cassel is extremely fertile, and Nassauproduces excellent wine; in the E. And in Hanover are extensive forests;Silesia, Westphalia, and Rhenish Prussia contain the chief coal-fields, and are consequently the chief industrial provinces; half the zinc of theworld is mined in Prussia; lead, iron, copper, antimony, &c. , are alsowrought; the Hartz Mountains are noted for their mines; Salt, amber, andprecious stones are found on the Baltic shores; textiles, metal wares, and beer are the main industries; Berlin and Elberfeld are the two chiefmanufacturing centres on the Continent; the great navigable rivers, Niemen, Vistula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, Rhine, and their tributaries andcanals, excellent railways, and her central European position all favourPrussia's commerce, while her coast-line, harbours, and growingmercantile fleet put her in communication with the markets of the world;seven-eighths of the people are Germans; Slavonic races are representedby Poles, Wends, Lithuanians, and Czechs, while the Danes appear inSchleswig-Holstein; the prevailing religion is Protestant; education iscompulsory and good; there are ten universities, and many great librariesand educational institutions; the Prussian is the largest contingent inthe German army; the king of Prussia is emperor of Germany. The basis ofthe Prussian people was laid by German colonists placed amid the paganSlavs whom they had conquered by the Teutonic knights of the 13thcentury; in 1511 their descendants chose a Hohenzollern prince; a centurylater the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg succeeded; despite the ThirtyYears' War Prussia became a European State, and was recognised as akingdom in 1703; Frederick the Great (1740-1786) enlarged its bounds anddeveloped its resources; the successive partitions of Poland added to herterritory; humiliated by the peace of Tilsit 1807, and ruined by theFrench occupation, she recovered after Waterloo; William I. And Bismarckstill further increased her territory and prestige; by the Austrian Warof 1866 and the French War of 1870-71 her position as premier State inthe German Confederation was assured. 

PRYNNE, WILLIAM, a Puritan _censor morum_, born near Bath, bred tothe bar; wrote a book or pamphlet called "Histrio-Mastix, or the Player'sScourge, " against the stage, for which and a reflection in it against thevirtue of the queen he was brought before the Star Chamber in 1634, sentenced to the pillory, and had his ears cropped off, and for anoffence against Laud, whether by order of the Star Chamber or not isuncertain, was in 1637 sentenced anew, and "lost his ears a second andfinal time, having had them 'sewed on again' before; this time a heroineon the scaffold, " adds Carlyle, "received them on her lap and kissedhim"; after this the zeal of Prynne appears to have waxed cold, for hewas as a recalcitrant imprisoned by Cromwell, after whose death heespoused the Royalist cause, and was appointed Keeper of the Records ofthe Tower (1600-1669). 

PRYTANE`UM, name given to the public hall in Greek cities, and thehead-quarters of the Executive. 

PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE, an impostor, born in the South of France, who, being brought to London, imposed on Compton, bishop of London, byfabricating a history of Formosa, of which he professed to be a native, but was convicted of the error of his ways by Law's "Serious Call, " andled afterwards what seemed a sober life, and one to commend the regard ofJohnson (1679-1763). 

PSALMS, THE BOOK OF, the name given in the Septuagint to acollection of sacred songs in the Hebrew Bible, which are all of alyrical character, and appear to have been at first collected forliturgical purposes. Their range is co-extensive with nearly all divinetruth, and there are tones in them in accord with the experience andfeelings of devout men in all ages. Nay, "the Psalter alone, " saysRuskin, "which practically was the service-book of the Church for manyages, contains, merely in the first half of it, the sum of personal andsocial wisdom, . .. While the 48th, 72nd, and 75th have in them the law andthe prophecy of all righteous government, and every real triumph ofnatural science is anticipated in the 104th. " The collection bears thename of David, but it is clear the great body of them are of later dateas well as of divers authorship, although it is often difficult todetermine by whom some of them were written, and when. The determinationof this, however, is of the less consequence, as the question is more aspeculative one than a spiritual one, and whatever may be the result ofinquiry in this matter now going on, the spiritual value of the Psalms, which is their real value, is nowise affected thereby. It matters nothingwho wrote them or when they were written; they are _there_, are conceivedfrom situations such as are obvious enough and common to the lot of allgood men, and they bear on spiritual interests, which are our primaryones, and these, still, as in every other time, the alone really pressingones. They express the real experiences of living men, who lay under aninner necessity to utter such a song, relieving themselves by the effortand ministering a means of relief to others in a like situation of soul. 

PSYCHE (i. E. The soul), in the later Greek mythology the youngestof three daughters of a king, and of such beauty as to eclipse theattractions and awake the jealousy of Venus, the goddess of beauty, whoin consequence sent Cupid, her son, to inspire her with love for ahideous monster, and so compass her ruin. Cupid, fascinated with herhimself, spirited her away to a palace furnished with every delight, butinstead of delivering her over to the monster, visited her himself atnight as her husband, and left her before daybreak in the morning, because she must on no account know who he was. Here her sisters came tosee her, and in their jealousy persuaded her to assure herself that itwas not a monster that she slept with, so that she lit a lamp the nextnight to discover, when a drop of oil from it fell on his shoulder as helay asleep beside her, upon which he at a bound started up and vanishedout of sight. She thereupon gave way to a long wail of lamentation andset off a-wandering over the wide world in search of her lost love, tillshe came to the palace of Venus, her arch-enemy, who seized on her personand made her her slave, subjecting her to a series of services, all ofwhich she accomplished to the letter, so that Venus was obliged to relentand consent that, in the presence of all the gods of Olympus, Cupid andshe should be united in immortal wedlock. It is the story of the trialsof the soul to achieve immortality. See "Stories from the GreekMythology, " by the Editor. 

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, SOCIETY FOR, a society founded in 1882 toinquire into the phenomena of spiritualism and kindred subjects of arecondite kind, the subject of Telepathy having engaged recently a gooddeal of attention. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, the highly complex system of astronomy ascribed toClaudius Ptolemy, which assumed that the earth was the centre of a spherewhich carried the heavenly bodies along in its daily revolution, accounted for the revolutions of the sun and moon by supposing they movedin eccentric circles round the earth, and regarded the planets as movingin epicycles round a point which itself revolved in an eccentric circleround the earth like the sun and moon. 

PTOLEMAÏS, the name of certain cities of antiquity, the mostcelebrated being Acre, in SYRIA (q. V. ). 

PTOLEMY, the name of the Macedonian kings of Egypt, of which therewere 14 in succession, of whom Ptolemy I. , SOTER, was a favouritegeneral of Alexander the Great, and who ruled Egypt from 328 to 285 B. C. ;Ptolemy II. , PHILADELPHUS, who ruled from 285 to 247, a patronof letters and an able administrator; Ptolemy III. , EUERGETES, whoruled from 247 to 222; Ptolemy IV. , PHILOPATOR, who ruled from 222to 205; Ptolemy V. , EPIPHANES, who ruled from 205 to 181; PtolemyVI. , PHILOMETOR, who ruled from 181 to 146; Ptolemy VII. , EUERGETESII. , who ruled from 146 to 117; Ptolemy VIII. , SOTER, who ruledfrom 117 to 107, was driven from Alexandria, returning to it in 88, andreigning till 81; Ptolemy X. , ALEXANDER I. , who ruled from 107 to88; Ptolemy X. ALEXANDER II. , who ruled from 81 to 80; Ptolemy XI. , AULETES, who ruled from 80 to 51; Ptolemy XII. , who ruled from 51to 47; Ptolemy XIII. , the INFANT KING, who ruled from 47 to 43;Ptolemy XIV. , CESARION, the son of Julius Cæsar and Cleopatra, whoruled from 43 to 30. 

PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMÆUS), ancient astronomer and geographer, born in Egypt; lived in Alexandria in the 2nd century; was the author ofthe system of astronomy called after him; left behind him two writingsbearing one on astronomy and one on geography, along with other works ofinferior importance. 

PUBLICANS or PUBLICANI, a name given by the Romans to personswho farmed the public revenues; specially a class of the Jewish people, often mentioned in the New Testament, and specially odious to the rest ofthe community as the farmers of the taxes imposed upon them, mostly atthe instance of their foreign oppressors the Romans, and in thecollection of which they had recourse to the most unjust exactions. Theywere in their regard not merely the tools of a foreign oppression, buttraitors to their country and apostates from the faith of their fathers, and were to be classed, as they were, with heathens, sinners, andharlots. 

PUCCINOTTI, FRANCESCO, eminent Italian pathologist, born in Urbino, and author of the "Storia delle Medicina" (History of Medicine), thefruit of the labour of twenty years (1794-1872). 

PUCELLE LA (i. E. The Maid), Joan of Arc, the maid _parexcellence_. 

PUCK, a tricky, mischievous fairy, identified with Robin Goodfellow, and sometimes confounded with a house spirit, propitiated by kind wordsand the liberty of the cream-bowl. 

PUEBLA (79), on an elevated plateau 7000 ft. Above the sea, 68 m. Due SE. Of Mexico, is the third city of the republic, and a beautifultown, with Doric cathedral, theological, medical, and other schools, amuseum, and two libraries; cotton goods, iron, paper, and glass aremanufactured; it is a commercial city, and carries on a brisk trade. Isthe name also of a Colorado town (24) on the Arkansas River; it is in arich mineral district, and is engaged in the manufacture of steel andiron wares. 

PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA (22), a seaport in Spain, on the Bay of Cadiz, 9 m. SW. Of Xeres, and the chief place of export of Xeres port or sherrywines. 

PUERTO PLATA (15), the chief port of the Dominican Republic, on theN. Of Hayti; exports tobacco, sugar, coffee, &c. 

PUERTO PRINCIPE (46), a town on the E. Of Cuba; manufactures cigars, and exports sugar, hides, and molasses; originally on the shore, butremoved inland. 

PUFFENDORF, SAMUEL, Baron von, eminent German jurist, born atChemnitz, Saxony; wrote several works on jurisprudence, one of which, under the ban of Austria, was burned there by the hangman, but his "DeJure Naturæ et Gentium" is the one on which his fame rests; wassuccessively in the service of Charles XI. Of Sweden and the Elector ofBrandenburg (1632-1694). 

PUGIN, AUGUSTUS WELBY, architect, born in London, of Frenchparentage; made a special study of Gothic architecture; assisted indecorating the new Houses of Parliament, but becoming a Roman Catholic hegave himself to designing a good number of Roman Catholic churches, including cathedrals; he wrote several works on architecture, and wasthe chief promoter of the "Mediæval Court" in the Crystal Palace; he wasafflicted in the prime of life with insanity, and died at Ramsgate(1812-1852). 

PULCI, LUINI, Italian poet, born at Florence; the personal friend ofLorenzo de' Medici, and the author of a burlesque poem of which Roland isthe hero, entitled in Tuscan "Il Morgante Maggiore" ("Morgante theGreat"); he wrote also several humorous sonnets; two brothers of his hadsimilar gifts (1432-1484). 

PULQUE, a favourite beverage of the Mexicans and in Central America, from the fermented juice of the agave. 

PULTENEY, WILLIAM, Earl of Bath, English statesman; in 1705 enteredParliament zealous in the Whig interest; was for years the friend andcolleague of Walpole, but afterwards, from a slight, became his bitterestenemy and most formidable opponent; he contributed a good deal to hisfall, but, unable to take his place, contented himself with a peerage, his popularity being gone (1682-1764). 

PULTOWA (43), a town in Southern Russia, 90 m. By rail SW. OfKharkoff, on an affluent of the Dnieper; manufactures leather andtobacco; here Peter the Great won his victory over Charles XII. Of Swedenin 1709. 

PULTUSK, a Polish town, 33 m. N. Of Warsaw; here Charles XII. Gaineda victory over the Saxons in 1703, and the French over the Russians in1806. 

PULU, a kind of silk obtained from the fibres of a fern-tree ofHawaii. 

PUNCH, the name of the chief character in a well-known puppet showof Italian origin, and appropriated as the title of the leading Englishcomic journal, which is accompanied with illustrations conceived in ahumorous vein and conducted in satire, from a liberal Englishman'sstandpoint, of the follies and weaknesses of the leaders of publicopinion and fashion in modern social life. It was started in 1841 underthe editorship of Henry Mayhew and Mark Lemon; and the wittiest literarymen of the time as well as the cleverest artists have contributed to itspages, enough to mention of the former Thackeray, Douglas Jerrold, andTom Hood, and of the latter Doyle, Leech, Tenniel, Du Maurier, andLindley Sambourne. 

PUNDIT, a Brahmin learned in Sanskrit and in the language, literature, and laws of the Hindus. 

PUNIC FAITH, a plighted promise that one can put no trust in, suchas the Romans alleged they systematically had experience of at the handsof the Poeni or Carthaginians. 

PUNIC WARS, the name given to the wars between Rome and Carthage forthe empire of the world, of date, the first from 264 to 241, the secondfrom 218 to 201, and the third from 149 to 146 B. C. , due all totransgressions on the one side or the other of boundaries fixed bytreaty, which it was impossible for either in their passion of empire torespect. It was a struggle which, though it ended in the overthrow ofCarthage, proved at one time the most critical in the history of Rome. 

PUNJAB (25, 130), "five rivers, " a province in the extreme NW. OfIndia, watered by the Indus and its four tributaries, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravee, and Sutlej; its frontiers touch Afghanistan and Cashmir. Mountainranges traverse the N. , W. , and S; little rain falls; the plains are dryand hot in summer. There is little timber, cow-dung is common fuel; thesoil is barren, but under irrigation there are fertile stretches; wheat, indigo, sugar, cotton, tobacco, opium, and tea are largely grown; cotton, silk, lace, iron, and leather are manufactured; indigo, grain, cotton, and manufactured products are exported in exchange for raw material, dyes, horses, and timber. The population is mixed, Sikhs, Jats, andRajputs predominate; more than a half are Mohammedan, and more than athird Hindu. Lahore is the capital, but Delhi and Amritsar are largertowns. Several railways run through the province. The natives remainedloyal throughout the Mutiny of 1857-58, Sikhs and Pathans joining theBritish troops before Delhi. 

PURÁNAS, a body of religious works which rank second to the Vedas, and form the basis of the popular belief of the Hindus. There are 18principal Puránas and 18 secondary Puránas, of various dates, butbelieved to be of remote antiquity, though modern critical researchproves that in their present form they are not of very ancient origin. 

PURBECK, ISLE OF, the peninsula in South Dorsetshire lying betweenthe river Frome, Poole Harbour, and the English Channel; formerly a royaldeer-forest; has a precipitous coast, and inland consists of chalk downs;nearly 100 quarries are wrought of "Purbeck marble. "

PURCELL, HENRY, eminent English musician, born at Westminster; wassuccessively organist at Westminster Abbey and to the Chapel Royal;excelled in all forms of musical composition; was the author of anthems, cantatas, glees, &c. , which attained great popularity; he set the songsof Shakespeare's "Tempest" to music (1658-1695). 

PURCHAS, SAMUEL, collector of works of travel and continuator of thework of Hakluyt, in two curious works entitled "Purchas his Pilgrimage, "and "Hakluyt's his Posthumous, or Purchas his Pilgrimmes, " and was rectorof St. Martin's, Ludgate, and chaplain to Archbishop Abbot (1577-1626). 

PURGATORIO, region in Dante's "Commedia" intermediate between theInferno, region of lost souls, and the Paradiso, region of saved souls, and full of all manner of obstructions which the penitent, who would passfrom the one to the other, must struggle with in soul-wrestle till heovercome, the most Christian section, thinks Carlyle, of Dante's poem. 

PURGATORY, in the creed of the Church of Rome a place in which thesouls of the dead, saved from hell by the death of Christ, are chastenedand purified from venial sins, a result which is, in great part, ascribedto the prayers of the faithful and the sacrifice of the Mass. The creedof the Church in this matter was first formulated by Gregory the Great, and was based by him, as it has been vindicated since, on passages ofScripture as well as the writings of the Fathers. The conception of it, as wrought out by Dante, Carlyle considers "a noble embodiment of a truenoble thought. " See his "Heroes. "

PURIM, THE FEAST OF, or LOTS, an annual festival of the Jews incommemoration of the preservation, as recorded in "Esther, " of their racefrom the threatened wholesale massacre of it in Persia at the instance ofHaman, and which was so called because it was by casting "lots" that theday was fixed for the execution of the purpose. It lasts two days, beingobserved on the 14th and 15th of the month Adar. 

PURITAN CITY, name given to Boston, U. S. , from its founders andinhabitants who were originally of Puritan stock. 

PURITANS, a name given to a body of clergymen of the Church ofEngland who refused to assent to the Act of Uniformity passed in thereign of Queen Elizabeth, because it required them to conform to Popishdoctrine and ritual; and afterwards applied to the whole body ofNonconformists in England in the 16th and 17th centuries, who insisted onrigid adherence to the simplicity prescribed in these matters by thesacred Scriptures. In the days of Cromwell they were, "with musket onshoulder, " the uncompromising foes of all forms, particularly in theworship of God, that affected to be alive after the soul had gone out ofthem. 

PURSUIVANT, one of the junior officers in the Heralds' College, fourin England, named respectively Rouge Croix, Blue Mantle, Rouge Dragon, and Portcullis; and three in Scotland, named respectively Bute, Carrick, and Unicorn. 

PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE, English theologian, born in Berkshire, ofFlemish descent; studied at Christ's Church, Oxford, and became a Fellowof Oriel, where he was brought into relationship with Newman, Keble, andWhately; spent some time in Germany studying Rationalism, and, after hisreturn, was in 1828 appointed Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford; in1833 he joined the Tractarian Movement, to which he contributed by hislearning, and which, from his standing in the University, as well as fromthe part he played in it, was at length called by his name; he was not soconspicuous as other members of the movement, but he gained somenotoriety by a sermon he preached on the Eucharist, which led to hissuspension for three years, and notwithstanding his life of seclusion, hetook an active part in all questions affecting the interests he held tobe at stake; he was the author of several learned works, among them the"Minor Prophets, a Commentary, " and "Daniel the Prophet" (1800-1882). 

PUSEYISM, defined by Carlyle to be "a noisy theoretic demonstrationand laudation of _the_ Church, instead of some unnoisy, unconscious, but_practical_, total, heart-and-soul demonstration of _a_ Church, . .. Amatter to strike one dumb, " and apropos to which he asks pertinently, "ifthere is no atmosphere, what will it serve a man to demonstrate theexcellence of lungs?"

PUSHKIN, a distinguished Russian poet, considered the greatest, bornat Moscow; his chief works are "Ruslan and Liudmila" (a heroic poem), "Eugene Onegin" (a romance), and "Boris Godunov" (a drama); was mortallywounded in a duel (1799-1837). 

PUSHTOO or PUSHTO, the language of the Afghans, said to bederived from the Zend, with admixtures from the neighbouring tribes. 

PUTEAUX (17), a suburb of Paris, on the left bank of the Seine, afavourite residence of the Parisians, who have villas here. 

PUTNEY (18), a London suburb on the Surrey side, 6 m. From Waterloo, has a bridge across the Thames 300 yards long; the parish church towerdates from the 15th century. The river here affords favourite rowingwater, the starting-place of the inter-universities boat-race; PutneyHeath was a favourite duelling resort; Gibbon was a native; Pitt andLeigh Hunt died here. 

PUY, LE (20), a picturesque town, 70 m. SW. Of Lyons, a bishop'sseat, with a 10th-century cathedral; is the centre of a great lacemanufacture. 

PUY-DU-DÔME (564), a department in Central France, in the uppervalley of the Allier, on the slopes of the Auvergne Mountains. The soilis poor, but agriculture and cattle-breeding are the chief industries; inthe mountains coal and lead are found, and there are many mineralsprings; there are paper and oil manufactures. The principal town isClermont-Ferrand (45), where Peter the Hermit preached the first crusade. 

PYGMALION, king of Cyprus, is said to have fallen in love with anivory statue of a maiden he had himself made, and to have prayedAphrodité to breathe life into it. The request being granted, he marriedthe maiden and became by her the father of Paphus. 

PYGMIES, a fabulous people, their height 13½ inches, mentioned byHomer as dwelling on the shores of the ocean and attacked by cranes inspring-time, the theme of numerous stories. 

PYM, JOHN, Puritan statesman, born in Somersetshire, educated atOxford; bred to law, entered Parliament in 1621, opposed the arbitrarymeasures of the king, took a prominent part in the impeachment ofBuckingham; at the opening of the Long Parliament procured theimpeachment of the Earl of Strafford, and conducted the proceedingsagainst him; he was one of the five members illegally arrested by CharlesI. , and was brought back again in triumph to Westminster; was appointedLieutenant of the Ordnance, and a month after died (1584-1643). 

PYRAMIDS, ancient structures of stone or sometimes brick, restinggenerally on square bases and tapering upwards with triangular sides, found in different parts of the world, but chiefly in Egypt, where theyexist to the number of 70 or 80, and of which the most celebrated arethose of Ghizeh, 10 m. W. Of Cairo, three in number, viz. , the GreatPyramid of Cheop, 449 ft. High, and the sides at base 746 ft. Long, thatnamed Chefren, nearly the same size, and that of Mykerinos, not half theheight of the other two, but excelling them in beauty of execution. Theoriginal object of these structures has been matter of debate, but thereseems to be now no doubt that they are sepulchral monuments of kings ofEgypt from the first to the twelfth dynasty of them. 

PYRAMUS AND THISBE, two lovers who lived in adjoining houses inBabylon, and who used to converse with each other through a hole in thewall, because their parents would not allow them open intimacy, but whoarranged to meet one evening at the tomb of Nisus. The maiden appearingat the spot and being confronted by a lioness who had just killed an ox, took to flight and left her garment behind her, which the lioness hadsoiled with blood. Pyramus arriving after this saw only the bloodygarment on the spot and immediately killed himself, concluding she hadbeen murdered, while she on return finding him lying in his blood, threwherself upon his dead body and was found a corpse at his side in themorning. 

PYRENE, a crystalline substance obtained from coal tar, fats, &c. 

PYRENEES, a broad chain of lofty mountains running from the Bay ofBiscay, 276 m. Eastwards, to the Mediterranean, form the boundary betweenFrance and Spain. They are highest in the centre, Mount Maladettareaching 11, 168 ft. The snow-line is about 8000 or 9000 ft. , and thereare glaciers on the French side. Valleys run up either side, ending inprecipitous "pot-holes, " with great regularity. The passes are verydangerous from wind and snow storms. The streams to the N. Feed the Adourand Garonne; those to the S. , the Ebro and Douro. Vegetation in the W. IsEuropean, in the E. Sub-tropical. Minerals are few, though both iron andcoal are worked. The basis of the system is granite with limestone stratasuperimposed. 

PYROXYLINE, an explosive substance obtained by steeping vegetablefibre in nitro-sulphuric acid and drying after it is washed. 

PYRRHA, in Greek mythology the wife of DEUCALION (q. V. ). 

PYRRHIC DANCE, the chief war-dance of the Greeks, of quick, lightmovement to the music of flutes; was of Cretan or Spartan origin. It wassubsequently danced for display by the Athenian youths and by women toentertain company, and in the Roman empire was a favourite item in thepublic games. 

PYRRHO, the father of the Greek sceptics, born in Elis, acontemporary of Aristotle; his doctrine was, that as we cannot knowthings as they are, only as they seem to be, we must be content tosuspend our judgment on such matters and maintain a perfectimperturbability of soul if we would live to any good. 

PYRRHONISM, philosophic scepticism. See PYRRHO. 

PYRRHUS, king of Epirus, and kinsman of Alexander the Great; essayedto emulate the Macedonian by conquering the western World, and in 280 B. C. Invaded Italy with a huge army, directed to assist the Italian Greeksagainst Rome; in the decisive battles of that year and the next, he won"Pyrrhic victories" over the Romans, losing so many men that he could notpursue his advantage; 278 to 276 he spent helping the Greek colonies inSicily against Carthage; his success was not uniform, and a Carthaginianfleet inflicted a serious defeat on his fleet returning to Italy; in 274he was thoroughly vanquished by the Romans, and retired to Epirus;subsequent wars against Sparta and Argos were marked by disaster; in thelatter he was killed by a tile thrown by a woman (318-272 B. C. ). 

PYRRHUS, called also NEOPTOLEMUS, son of Achilles; was one ofthe heroes concealed in the wooden horse by means of which Troy wasentered, slew Priam by the altar of Zeus, and sacrificed Polyxena to themanes of his father. Andromache, the widow of Hector, fell to him on thedivision of the captives after the fall of Troy, and became his wife. 

PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated Greek philosopher and founder of a schoolnamed after him Pythagoreans, born at Samos, and who seems to haveflourished between 540 and 500 B. C. ; after travels in many lands settledat Crotona in Magna Græcia, where he founded a fraternity, the members ofwhich bound themselves in closest ties of friendship to purity of lifeand to active co-operation in disseminating and encouraging a kindredspirit in the community around them, the final aim of it being theestablishment of a model social organisation. He left no writings behindhim, and we know of his philosophy chiefly from the philosophy of hisdisciples. 

PYTHAGOREANS, the school of philosophy founded by Pythagoras, "thefundamental thought of which, " according to SCHWEGLER, "was thatof proportion and harmony, and this idea is to them as well the principleof practical life, as the supreme law of the universe. " It was a kind of"arithmetical mysticism, and the leading thought was that law, order, andagreement obtain in the affairs of Nature, and that these relations arecapable of being expressed in number and in measure. " The whole tendencyof the Pythagoreans, in a practical aspect, was ascetic, and aimed onlyat a rigid castigation of the moral principle in order thereby to ensurethe emancipation of the soul from its mortal prison-house and itstransmigration into a nobler form. It is with the doctrine of thetransmigration of souls that the Pythagorean philosophy is speciallyassociated. 

PYTHEAS, a celebrated Greek navigator of Massilia, in Gaul, probablylived in the time of Alexander the Great; in his first voyage visitedBritain and Thule, and in his second coasted along the western shore ofEurope from Cadiz to the Elbe. 

PYTHIAN GAMES, celebrated from very early times till the 4th centuryA. D. Every four years, near Delphi, in honour of Apollo, who was said tohave instituted them to commemorate his victory over the Python;originally were contests in singing only, but after the middle of the 6thcentury B. C. They included instrumental music, contests in poetry andart, athletic exercises, and horse-racing. 

PYTHON, in the Greek mythology a serpent or dragon produced from themud left on the earth after the deluge of Deucalion, a brood of sheerchaos and the dark, who lived in a cave of Parnassus, and was slain byApollo, who founded the Pythian Games in commemoration of his victory, and was in consequence called Pythius. 

PYTHONESS, the priestess of APOLLO AT DELPHI (q. V. ), socalled from the PYTHON (q. V. ), the dragon slain by the god. 

PYX, the name of a cup-shaped, gold-lined vessel, with lid, used inthe Roman Catholic churches for containing the eucharistic elements aftertheir consecration either for adoration in the churches or for conveyingto sick-rooms. Pyx means "box. " Hence TRIAL OF THE PYX is the annualtest of the British coinage, for which purpose one coin in every 15 lbs. Of gold and one in every 60 lbs. Of silver coined is set aside in a pyxor box. 

Q

QUADRAGESIMA (i. E. Fortieth), a name given to Lent because itlasts forty days, and assigned also to the first Sunday in Lent, thethree Sundays which precede it being called respectively Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima. 

QUADRANT, an instrument for taking altitudes, consisting of thegraduated arc of a circle of ninety degrees. 

QUADRATIC EQUATION, an equation involving the square of the unknownquantity. 

QUADRIGA, a two-wheeled chariot drawn by four horses abreast, usedin the ancient chariot races. 

QUADRILATERAL, THE, the name given to a combination of fourfortresses, or the space enclosed by them, in North Italy, at Mantua, Legnago, Verona, and Peschiera. 

QUADROON, the name given to a person quarter-blooded, in particularthe offspring of a mulatto and a white person. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, an alliance formed in 1719 between England, France, Austria, and Holland to secure the thrones of France and Englandto the reigning families, and to defeat the schemes of Alberoni to theaggrandisement of Spain. 

QUÆSTORS, the name given in Roman history to the officers entrustedwith the care of the public treasury, originally two in number, one ofthem to see to the corn supply in Rome, but eventually, as the empireextended, increased, till in Cæsar's time they amounted to forty. Underthe kings they were the public prosecutors in cases of murder. 

QUAIGH, a name formerly given to a wooden drinking-cup in Scotland. 

QUAIN, JONES, anatomist, born at Mallow, Ireland; was professor ofAnatomy and Physiology in London University; was author of "Elements ofAnatomy, " of which the first edition was published in 1828, and the tenthin 1800 (1796-1865). 

QUAIN, RICHARD, anatomist, born at Fermoy, Ireland, brother ofpreceding, and professor in London University; author of a number ofmedical works; bequeathed a large legacy to the university for "educationin modern languages" (1800-1887). 

QUAIN, SIR RICHARD, physician, born at Mallow, cousin of preceding;edited "Dictionary of Medicine, " and was President of Medical Council in1891 (1816-1898). 

QUAIR, an old Scotch name for a book. 

QUAKERS, the SOCIETY OF FRIENDS (q. V. ), so called first byJustice Bennet of Derby, because Fox bade him quake before the Lord. 

QUARANTINE, the prescribed time, generally 40 days (hence the name), of non-intercourse with the shore for a ship suspected of infection, latterly enforced, and that very strictly, in the cases of infection withyellow fever or plague; since November 1896, the system of quarantine asregards the British Islands has ceased to exist. 

QUARLES, FRANCIS, religious poet, born in Essex, of good family; amember of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Lincoln's Inn; held diversoffices at the Court, in the city, and the Church; was a bigoted Royalistand Churchman, a voluminous author, both in prose and verse, but is nowremembered for his "Divine Emblems, " and perhaps his "Enchiridion"; hewrote in his quaint way not a few good things (1592-1644). 

QUARTER DAYS, in England and Ireland Lady Day, 25th March; MidsummerDay, 24th June; Michaelmas Day, 29th September; and Christmas Day, 25thDecember; while in Scotland the legal terms are Whitsunday, 15th May, andMartinmas, 11th November, though the Whitsunday term is now changed tothe 28th May. 

QUARTER-DECK, the part of a ship abaft the main-mast, or between themain and mizzen, where there is a poop. 

QUARTER-SESSIONS, a court held every quarter by justices of thepeace in the several divisions of a county to try offences against thepeace. 

QUARTER-STAFF, strong wooden staff 6½ ft. Long, shod with iron, grasped in the middle; formerly used in England for attack and defence. 

QUARTERLY REVIEW, a review started by John Murray, the celebratedLondon publisher, in February 1809, in rivalry with the _Edinburgh_, which had been seven years in possession of the field, and was exerting, as he judged, an evil influence on public opinion; in this enterprise hewas seconded by Southey and Scott, the more cordially that the_Edinburgh_ had given offence to the latter by its criticism of"Marmion. " It was founded in the Tory interest for the defence of Churchand State, and it had Gifford for its first editor, while thecontributors included, besides Southey and Scott, all the ablest literarycelebrities on the Tory side, of which the most zealous and frequent wasJohn Wilson Croker. 

QUARTERMASTER, in the army an officer whose duty it is to look afterthe quarters, clothing, rations, stores, ammunition, &c. , of theregiment, and in the navy a petty officer who has to see to the stowage, steerage, soundings, &c. , of the ship. 

QUARTETTE, a musical piece in four parts, or for four voices orinstruments. 

QUARTO, a book having the sheet folded into four leaves. 

QUASIMODO SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter. 

QUASS, a beer made in Russia from rye grain, employed as vinegarwhen sour. 

QUATRE-BRAS (i. E. Four arms), a village 10 m. SE. Of Waterloo, where the roads from Brussels to Charleroi and from Nivelles to Namurintersect: was the scene of an obstinate conflict between the Englishunder Wellington and the French under Ney, two days before the battle ofWaterloo. 

QUATREFAGES DE BRÉAU, French naturalist and anthropologist, born atBerthezenne (Gard); studied medicine at Strasburg; was professor at theNatural History Museum in Paris; devoted himself chiefly to anthropologyand the study of annelides (1810-1892). 

QUATREMÈRE, ÉTIENNE MARC, French Orientalist, born in Paris; wasprofessor at the College of France; was distinguished for his knowledgeof Arabic and Persian, as well as for his works on Egypt; was of vastlearning, but defective in critical ability (1782-1857). 

QUATREMÈRE DE QUINCY, a learned French archæologist and writer onart, born in Paris; was involved in the troubles of the Revolution;narrowly, as a constitutionalist, escaped the guillotine, and wasdeported to Cayenne in 1797, but after his return took no part inpolitical affairs; wrote a "Dictionary of Antiquities" (1755-1849). 

QUATRO CENTO (i. E. Four hundred), a term employed by the Italiansto signify one thousand four hundred, that is, the 15th century, andapplied by them to the literature and art of the period. 

QUEBEC (1, 359), formerly called Lower Canada, one of the Canadianprovinces occupying that part of the valley of the St. Lawrence, and anarrow stretch of fertile, well-cultivated land on the S. Of the river, which is bounded on the S. By the States of New York and Maine, and onthe E. By New Brunswick; it is twice the size of Great Britain, andconsists of extensive tracks of cultivated land and forests interspersedwith lakes and rivers, affluents of the St. Lawrence; the soil, which isfertile, yields good crops of cereals, hay, and fruit, and excellentpasturage, and there is abundance of mineral wealth; it was colonised bythe French in 1608, was taken by the English in 1759-60, and the greatmajority of the population is of French extraction. 

QUEBEC (63), the capital of the above province, and once of allCanada, a city of historical interest, is situated on the steeppromontory, 333 feet in height, of the NW. Bank of the St. Lawrence, atthe mouth of the St. Charles River, 300 m. From the sea, and 180 m. BelowMontreal; it is divided into Upper and Lower, the latter the businessquarter and the former the west-end, as it were; there are numerouspublic buildings, including the governor's residence, an Anglicancathedral, and a university; it is a commercial centre, has a large tradein timber, besides several manufacturing industries; the aspect of thetown is Norman-French, and there is much about it and the people toremind one of Normandy. 

QUEDLINBURG (19), an old town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Bode, at the foot of the Harz Mountains, 32 m. SW. Of Magdeburg, founded byHenry the Fowler, and where his remains lie; was long a favouriteresidence of the emperors of the Saxon line; it has large nurseries, anextensive trade in flower seeds, and sundry manufactures. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, a fund established in 1704 for the augmentationof the incomes of the poorer clergy, the amount of which for distributionin 1890 was £176, 896; it was the revenue from a tax on the Church priorto the Reformation, and which after that was appropriated by the Crown. 

QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, a small group of islands on the W. Coast ofNorth America, N. Of Vancouver's Island, 80 m. Off the coast of BritishColumbia, a half-submerged mountain range, densely wooded, with peaksthat rise sheer up 2000 ft. 

QUEENBOROUGH, a town on the Isle of Sheppey, 2 m. S. Of Sheerness, between which and Flushing, in Holland, a line of steamers plies daily. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGE, a college for women in Harley Street, London, founded in 1848, and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1853, of whichMaurice, Trench, and Kingsley were among the originators; attendance ofthree years entitles to the rank of "Associate, " and of six or more tothat of "Fellow"; it is self-supporting. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES, colleges established in Ireland in 1845 to afforda university education to members of all religious denominations, andopened at Belfast, Cork, and Galway in 1849, the first having 23professors, with 343 students; the second 23 professors, with 181students; and the third 37 professors, with 91 students. There is also aQueen's College in Melbourne. 

QUEEN'S COUNTY (6), one of the inland counties of Leinster, inIreland, N. Of King's County, mostly flat; agriculture and dairy-farmingare carried on, with a little woollen and cotton-weaving; populationmostly Roman Catholics. 

QUEEN'S METAL, an alloy of nine parts tin and one each of antimony, lead, and bismuth, is intermediate in hardness between pewter andbritannia metal. 

QUEENSLAND, a British colony occupying the NE. Of Australia, 1300 m. From N. To S. And 800 m. From E. To W. , two-thirds of it within thetropics, and occupying an area three times as large as that of France. Mountains stretch away N. Parallel to the coast, and much of the centreis tableland; one-half of it is covered with forests, and it is fairlywell watered, the rivers being numerous, and the chief the Fitzroy andthe Burdekin. The population is only half a million, and the chief townsare Brisbane, the capital, Gympie, Maryborough, Rockhampton, andTownsville. The pastoral industry is very large, and there isconsiderable mining for gold. The mineral resources are great, and acoal-field still to be worked exists in it as large as the whole ofScotland. Maize and sugar are the principal products of the soil, andwool, gold, and sugar are the principal exports; the colony is capable ofimmense developments. Until 1859 the territory was administered by NewSouth Wales, but in that year it became an independent colony, with agovernment of its own under a Governor appointed by the Crown; theParliament consists of two Houses, a Legislative Council of 41 members, nominated by the Governor, and the Legislative Assembly of 72 members, elected for three years by manhood suffrage. 

QUEENSTOWN, a seaport, formerly called the Cove of Cork, on the S. Shore of Great Island, and 14 m. SE. Of Cork; a port of call for theAtlantic line of steamers, specially important for the receipt andlanding of the mails. 

QUELPART (10), an island 52 m. S. Of the Corea, 40 m. Long by 17broad, surrounded with small islets in situation to the Corea as Sicilyto Italy. 

QUERCITRON, a yellow dye obtained from the bark of a North Americanoak. 

QUERÉTARO (36), a high-lying Mexican town in a province of the samename, 150 m. NW. Of Mexico; has large cotton-spinning mills; here theEmperor Maximilian was shot by order of court-martial in 1867. 

QUERN, a handmill of stone for grinding corn, of primitivecontrivance, and still used in remote parts of Ireland and Scotland. 

QUESNAY, FRANÇOIS, a great French economist, born at Mérez(Seine-et-Oise), bred to the medical profession, and eminent as a medicalpractitioner, was consulting physician to Louis XV. , but distinguishedfor his articles in the "Encyclopédie" on political economy, and as thefounder of the PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL (q. V. ), the school whichattaches special importance in State economy to agriculture (1694-1774). 

QUESNEL, PASQUIER, a French Jansenist theologian, born in Paris; wasthe author of a great many works, but the most celebrated is his"Reflexions Morales"; was educated at the Sorbonne, and became head ofthe congregation of the Oratory in Paris, but was obliged to seek refugein Holland with Arnauld on embracing Jansenism; his views exposed him tosevere persecution at the hands of the Jesuits, and his "Reflexions" werecondemned in 101 propositions by the celebrated bull _Unigenitus_; spenthis last years at Amsterdam, and died there (1634-1719). 

QUÉTELET, ADOLPHE, Belgian astronomer and statistician, born atGhent; wrote on meteorology and anthropology, in the light especially ofstatistics (1796-1874). 

QUETTA, a strongly fortified town in the N. Of Beluchistan, commanding the Bolan Pass, and occupied by a British garrison. It is alsoa health resort from the temperate climate it enjoys. 

QUEUES, BAKERS', "long strings of purchasers arranged _in tail_ atthe bakers' shop doors in Paris during the Revolution period, so thatfirst come be first served, were the shops once open, " and that came tobe a Parisian institution. 

QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, Francisco Gomez de, a Spanish poet, born atMadrid, of an old illustrious family; left an orphan at an early age, andeducated at Alcalá, the university of which he left with a great name forscholarship; served as diplomatist and administrator in Sicily under theDuke of Ossuna, the viceroy, and returned to the Court of Philip IV. InSpain at his death; struggled hard to purify the corrupt system ofappointments to office in the State then prevailing but was seized andthrown into confinement, from which, after four years, he was released, broken in health; he wrote much in verse, but only for his own solace andin communication with his friends, and still more in prose on a varietyof themes, he being a writer of the most versatile ability, of greatrange and attainment (1580-1645). 

QUIBÉRON, a small fishing village on a peninsula of the name, stretching southward from Morbihan, France, near which Hawke defeated aFrench fleet in 1759, and where a body of French emigrants attempted toland in 1795 in order to raise an insurrection, but were defeated byGeneral Hoche. 

QUICHUAS, a civilised people who flourished at one time in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and spoke a highly-cultivated language called Quichuaafter them. 

QUICK, ROBERT HEBERT, English educationist; wrote "Essays onEducational Reformers"; was in holy orders (1832-1891). 

QUICKSAND, sandbank so saturated with water that it gives way underpressure; found near the mouths of rivers. 

QUIETISM, the name given to a mystical religious turn of mind whichseeks to attain spiritual illumination and perfection by maintaining apurely passive and susceptive attitude to Divine communication andrevelation, shutting out all consciousness of self and all sense ofexternal things, and independently of the observance of the practicalvirtues. The high-priest of Quietism was the Spanish priestMOLINOS (q. V. ), and his chief disciple in France was Madame deGuyon, who infected the mind of the saintly Fénélon. The appearance of itin France, and especially Fénélon's partiality to it, awoke the hostilityof Bossuet, who roused the Church against it, as calculated to have aninjurious effect on the interests of practical morality; indeed thehostility became so pronounced that Fénélon was forced to retract, to thegradual dying out of the fanaticism. 

QUILIMANE (6), a seaport of East Africa, on the Mozambique Channel, in a district subject to Portugal; stands 15 m. From the mouth of a riverof the name. 

QUILON, a trading town on the W. Coast of Travancore, 85 m. N. OfComorin. 

QUIMPER (17), a French town 63 m. SE. Of Brest, with a much admiredcathedral; has sundry manufactures, and a fishing industry. 

QUIN, JAMES, a celebrated actor, born in London; was celebrated forhis representation of Falstaff, and was the first actor of the day tillthe appearance of Garrick in 1741 (1693-1766). 

QUINAULT, French poet; his first performances procured for him thecensure of Boileau, but his operas, for which Luini composed the music, earned for him a good standing among lyric poets (1635-1688). 

QUINCEY, DE. See DE QUINCEY. 

QUINCY (31), a city in Illinois, U. S. , on the Mississippi, 160 m. Above St. Louis; a handsome city, with a large trade and extensivefactories; is a great railway centre. 

QUINCY, JOSIAH, American statesman, born at Boston; was bred to thebar, and entered Congress in 1804, where he distinguished himself by hisoratory as leader of the Federal party, as the sworn foe ofslave-holding, and as an opponent of the admission of the Western Statesinto the Union; in 1812 he retired from Congress, gave himself for a timeto purely local affairs in Massachusetts, and at length to literarylabours, editing his speeches for one thing, without ceasing to interesthimself in the anti-slavery movement (1772-1864). 

QUINET, EDGAR, a French man of letters, born at Bourg, in thedepartment of Ain; was educated at Bourg and Lyons, went to Paris in1820, and in 1823 produced a satire called "Les Tablettes duJuif-Errant, " at which time he came under the influence of HERDER(q. V. ) and executed in French a translation of his "Philosophy ofHumanity, " prefaced with an introduction which procured him thefriendship of Michelet, a friendship which lasted with life; appointed toa post in Greece, he collected materials for a work on Modern Greece, andthis, the first fruit of his own view of things as a speculative Radical, he published in 1830; he now entered the service of the _Revue des DeuxMondes_, and in the pages of it his prose poem "Ahasuérus" appeared, which was afterwards published in a book form and soon found a place inthe "Index Expurgatorius" of the Church; this was followed by otherdemocratic poems, "Napoleon" in 1835 and "Prometheus" in 1838; from 1838to 1842 he occupied the chair of Foreign Literature in Lyons, and passedfrom it to that of the Literature of Southern Europe in the College ofFrance; here, along with Michelet, he commenced a vehement crusadeagainst the clerical party, which was brought to a head by his attack onthe Jesuits, and which led to his suspension from the duties of the chairin 1846; he distrusted Louis Napoleon, and was exiled in 1852, taking uphis abode at Brussels, to return to Paris again only after the Emperor'sfall; through all these troubles he was busy with his pen, in 1838published his "Examen de la Vie de Jésus, " his "Du Genie des Religions, ""La Révolution Religieuse au xix^{e} Siècle, " and other works; he was adisciple of Herder to the last; he believed in humanity, and religion asthe soul of it (1803-1875). 

QUININE, an alkaloid obtained from the bark of several species ofthe cinchona tree and others, and which is employed in medicine speciallyas a ferbrifuge and a tonic. 

QUINISEXT, an ecclesiastical council held at Constantinople in 692, composed chiefly of Eastern bishops, and not reckoned among the councilsof the Western Church. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY, the Sunday before the beginning of Lent. 

QUINSY, inflammation of the tonsils of the throat. 

QUINTANA, MANUEL JOSÉ, a Spanish lyric and dramatic poet, born inMadrid; was for a time the champion of liberal ideas in politics, whichhe ceased to advocate before he died; is celebrated as the author of aclassic work, being "Lives of Celebrated Spaniards" (1772-1857). 

QUINTETTE, a musical composition in obligato parts for five voicesor five instruments. 

QUINTILIAN, MARCUS FABIUS, celebrated Latin rhetorician, born inSpain; went to Rome in the train of Galba, and began to practise at thebar, but achieved his fame more as teacher in rhetoric than apractitioner at the bar, a function he discharged with brilliant successfor 20 years under the patronage and favour of the Emperor Vespasian inparticular, being invested by him in consequence with the insignia andtitle of consul; with posterity his fame rests on his "Institutes, " agreat work, being a complete system of rhetoric in 12 books; he commencedit in the reign of Domitian after his retirement from his duties as apublic instructor, and it occupied him two years; it is a wise book, ablywritten, and fraught with manifold instruction to all whose chosenprofession it is to persuade men (35-92). 

QUIPO, knotted cords of different colours used by the ancientMexicans and Peruvians for conveying orders or recording events. 

QUIRINAL, one of the seven hills on which Rome was built, N. Of thePalatine, and one of the oldest quarters of the city. 

QUIRITES, the name the citizens of Rome assumed in their civiccapacity. 

QUITO (80), the capital of Ecuador, situated at an elevation ofnearly 9000 ft. Above the sea-level, and cut up with ravines; stands in aregion of perpetual spring and amid picturesque surroundings, the airclear and the sky a dark deep blue. The chief buildings are of stone, butall the ordinary dwellings are of sun-dried brick and without chimneys. It is in the heart of a volcanic region, and is subject to frequentearthquakes, in one of which, in 1797, 40, 000 of the inhabitantsperished. The population consists chiefly of Indians, whose religiousinterests must be well cared for, for there are no fewer than 400 prieststo watch over their spiritual welfare. 

QUITO, CORDILLERA OF, a chain of mountains, the chief of themvolcanic, in Ecuador, containing the loftiest peaks of the Andes, andincluding among them Antisana, Cotopaxi, and Chimborazo. 

QUIT-RENT, a rent the payment of which frees the tenant of aholding from other services such as were obligatory under feudal tenure. 

QUORRA, the name given to the middle and lower course of the Niger. 

QUORUM, the number of the members of a governing body required bylaw to give legality to any transaction in the name of it. 

QURÂN. See KORÂN. 

R

RAAB (20), a town in Hungary, 67 m. NW. Of Buda Pesth, manufacturestobacco and cutlery. 

RAASAY, one of the Inner Hebrides, belonging to Inverness-shire, lies between Skye and Ross-shire; bare on the W. , picturesque on the E. ;has interesting ruins of Brochel Castle. 

RABANT DE ST. ÉTIENNE, a moderate French Revolutionary; member ofthe Constituent Assembly; one of the Girondists; opposed the extremeparty, and concealed himself between two walls he had built in hisbrother's house; was discovered, and doomed to the guillotine, as werealso those who protected him (1743-1793). 

RABAT (26), known also as NEW SALLEE, a declining port inMorocco, finely situated on elevated ground overlooking the mouth of theBu-Ragrag River, 115 m. SE. Of Fez; is surrounded by walls, and has acommanding citadel, a noted tower, interesting ruins, &c. ; manufacturescarpets, mats, &c. , and exports olive-oil, grain, wool, &c. 

RABBI (lit. My master), an appellation of honour applied to ateacher of the Law among the Jews, in frequent use among them in the daysof Christ, who was frequently saluted by this title. 

RABBISM, the name applied in modern times to the principles andmethods of the Jewish Rabbis, particularly in the interpretation of theJewish Scriptures. 

RABELAIS, FRANÇOIS, great French humorist, born at Chinon, the sonof a poor apothecary; was sent to a convent at nine; became a Franciscanmonk; read and studied a great deal, but, sick of convent life, ran awayat forty years of age; went to Montpellier, and studied medicine, and fora time practised it, particularly at Lyons; here he commenced the seriesof writings that have immortalised his name, his "Gargantua" and"Pantagruel, " which he finished as curé of Meudon, forming a successionof satires in a vein of riotous mirth on monks, priests, pedants, and allthe incarnate solecisms of the time, yet with all their licentiousnessrevealing a heart in love with mankind, and a passionate desire for theestablishment of truth and justice among men (1495-1553). 

RACES OF MANKIND. These have been divided into five, theCAUCASIAN (q. V. ) or Indo-European, the Mongolian or Yellow, theNegro or Black, the Malayan or Tawny, and the India or Copper-coloured. 

RACHEL, ELIZA, a great French tragédienne, born in Switzerland, ofJewish parents; made her _début_ in Paris in 1838, and soon became famousas the interpreter of the principal characters in the masterpieces ofRacine and Corneille, her crowning triumph being the representation, in1843, of Phèdre in the tragedy of Racine; she made a great impressionwherever she appeared, realised a large fortune, and died of decline(1821-1858). 

RACINE (21), a flourishing city of Wisconsin, U. S. A. , capital ofRacine County, at the entrance of Root River into Lake Michigan, 62 m. N. Of Chicago; has an Episcopal university: trades in lumber, flax, and theproducts of various factories. 

RACINE, JEAN, great French tragic poet, born at La Ferté Milon, inthe dep. Of Aisne; was educated at Beauvais and the Port Royal; in 1663settled in Paris, gained the favour of Louis XIV. And the friendship ofBoileau, La Fontaine, and Molière, though he quarrelled with the latter, and finally lost favour with the king, which he never recovered, andwhich hastened his death; he raised the French language to the highestpitch of perfection in his tragedies, of which the chief are "Andromaque"(1667), "Britannicus" (1669), "Mithridate" (1673), "Iphigénie" (1774), "Phèdre" (1677), "Esther" (1688), and "Athalie" (1691), as well as anexquisite comedy entitled "Les Plaideurs" (1669); when Voltaire was askedto write a commentary on Racine, his answer was, "One had only to writeat the foot of each page, _beau, pathétique, harmonieux, admirable, sublime_" (1639-1699). 

RACK, an instrument of torture; consisted of an oblong wooden frame, fitted with cords and levers, by means of which the victim's limbs wereracked to the point of dislocation; dates back to Roman times, and wasused against the early Christians; much resorted to by the SpanishInquisition, and also at times by the Tudor monarchs of England, thoughsubsequently prohibited by law in England. 

RADCLIFFE (20), a prosperous town of Lancashire, on the Irwell, 7 m. NW. Of Manchester; manufactures cotton, calico, and paper; has bleachingand dye works, and good coal-mines. 

RADCLIFFE, MRS. ANN, _née_ WARD, English novelist, born inLondon; wrote a series of popular works which abound in weird tales andscenes of old castles and gloomy forests, and of which the best known isthe "Mysteries of Udolpho" (1764-1823). 

RADCLIFFE, JOHN, physician, born at Wakefield, studied at Oxford;commenced practice in London; by his art and professional skill rose toeminence; attended King William and Queen Mary; summoned to attend QueenAnne but did not, pleading illness, and on the queen's death was obligedto disappear from London; left £40, 000 to found a public library in theUniversity of Oxford (1650-1714). 

RADETZKY, JOHANN, COUNT VON, Austrian field-marshal, born inBohemia; entered the Austrian army in 1784; distinguished himself in thewar with Turkey in 1788-89, and in all the wars of Austria with France;checked the Revolution in Lombardy in 1848; defeated and almostannihilated the Piedmontese army under Charles Albert in 1849, andcompelled Venice to capitulate in the same year, after which he wasappointed Governor of Lombardy (1766-1858). 

RADICALS, a class of English politicians who, at the end of the 18thcentury and the beginning of the 19th, aimed at the politicalemancipation of the mass of the people by giving them a share in theelection of parliamentary representatives. Their Radicalism went nofarther than that, and on principle could not go farther. 

RADNORSHIRE (22), the least populous of the Welsh counties; lies onthe English border between Montgomery (N. ) and Brecknock (S. ); has a wildand dreary surface, mountainous and woody. RADNOR FOREST covers anelevated heathy tract in the E. ; is watered by the Wye and the Teme. Thesoil does not favour agriculture, and stock-raising is the chiefindustry. Contains some excellent spas, that at Llandrindod the mostpopular. County town, Presteign. 

RADOWITZ, JOSEPH VON, Prussian statesman; entered the army as anartillery officer, rose to be chief of the artillery staff; by marriagebecame connected with the aristocracy; at length head of theAnti-Revolutionary party in the State, and the political adviser ofWilliam IV. , in which capacity he endeavoured to effect a reform of theGerman Diet, and to give a political constitution to Germany (1797-1853). 

RAE, JOHN, Arctic voyager, born in Orkney, studied medicine inEdinburgh; first visited the Arctic regions as a surgeon; was engaged inthree expeditions to these regions, of which he published reports; wasmade a LL. D. Of Edinburgh University on the occasion of Carlyle'sinstallation as Lord Rector (1813-1893). 

RAEBURN, SIR HENRY, portrait-painter, born at Stockbridge, Edinburgh; was educated at George Heriot's Hospital; apprenticed to agoldsmith in the city, and gave early promise of his abilities as anartist; went to Italy; was introduced to Reynolds by the way, and aftertwo years' absence settled in Edinburgh, and became famous as one of thegreatest painters of the day; the portraits he painted includedlikenesses of all the distinguished Scotsmen of the period, at the headof them Sir Walter Scott; was knighted by George IV. A short time beforehis death (1756-1823). 

RAFF, JOACHIM, musical composer of the Wagner School, born atLachen, in Switzerland; began life as a schoolmaster; was attracted tomusic; studied at Weimar; lived near Liszt, and became Director of theConservatorium at Frankfort-on-Main; his works include symphonies, overtures, with pieces for the violin and the piano (1822-1882). 

RAFFLES, SIR THOMAS STAMFORD, English administrator, born inJamaica; entered the East India Company's service, and rose in it; becameGovernor of Java, and wrote a history of it; held afterwards an importantpost in Sumatra, and formed a settlement at Singapore; returned toEngland with a rich collection of natural objects and documents, but lostmost of them by the ship taking fire (1781-1826). 

RAFN, KARL CHRISTIAN, Danish archæologist, born in Fünen; devotedhis life to the study of northern antiquities; edited numerous NorseMSS. ; executed translations of Norse literature; wrote original treatisesin the same interest, and by his researches established the fact of thediscovery of America by the Norsemen in the 10th century (1796-1864). 

RAGGED SCHOOLS, a name given to the charity schools which provideeducation and, in most cases, food, clothing, and lodging for destitutechildren; they receive no Government support. The movement had itsbeginning in the magnanimous efforts of John Pounds (_d_. 1839), ashoemaker of Portsmouth; but the zeal and eloquence of Dr. GUTHRIE(q. V. ) of Edinburgh greatly furthered the development and spread ofthese schools throughout the kingdom. 

RAGLAN, FITZROY SOMERSET, LORD, youngest son of the Duke ofBeaufort; entered the army at sixteen; served with distinction allthrough the Peninsular War; became aide-de-camp to the Duke ofWellington, and his military secretary; lost his right arm at Waterloo;did diplomatic service at Paris in 1815, and held afterwards a successionof important military posts; was appointed commander-in-chief of theBritish forces in the Crimea, and was present at all the engagements tillattacked by cholera, aggravated by a repulse and unjust reflections onhis conduct of the war, he sank exhausted and died (1788-1855). 

RAGMAN ROLL, the name given to a record of the acts of fealty andhomage done by the Scottish nobility and gentry in 1296 to Edward I. OfEngland, and of value for the list it supplies of the nobles, gentry, burgesses, and clergy of the country at that period. The original writtenrolls of parchment have perished, but an abridged form is extant, andpreserved in the Tower of London. 

RAGNARÖK, in the Norse mythology the twilight of the gods, when itwas predicted "the Divine powers and the chaotic brute ones, after longcontest and partial victory by the former, should meet at last inuniversal, world-embracing wrestle and duel, strength against strength, mutually extinctive, and ruin, 'twilight' sinking into darkness, shallswallow up the whole created universe, the old universe of the Norsegods"; in which catastrophe Vidar and another are to be spared to found anew heaven and a new earth, the sovereign of which shall be Justice. "Insight this, " says Carlyle, "of how, though all dies, and even godsdie, yet all death is but a Phoenix fire-death, and new birth into thegreater and the better as the fundamental law of being. "

RAGUSA, a decayed Austrian city on the Dalmatian coast, fronting theAdriatic; has interesting remains of its ancient greatness, and stillcontains several fine monastic and other buildings. 

RAHEL, wife of Varnhagen von Ense, born in Berlin, of Jewishparentage; was a woman of "rare gifts, worth, and true genius, and equalto the highest thoughts of her century, " and lived in intimate relationwith all the intellectual lights of Germany at the time; worshipped atthe shrine of Goethe, and was the foster-mother of German geniusgenerally in her day; she did nothing of a literary kind herself; allthat remains of her gifts in that line are her Letters, published by herhusband on her death, which letters, however, are intensively subjective, and reveal the state rather of her feelings than the thoughts of her mind(1771-1833). 

RAIKES, ROBERT, the founder of Sunday Schools, born in Gloucester;by profession a printer; lived to see his pet institution established farand wide over England; left a fortune for benevolent objects (1735-1811). 

RAILWAY KING, name given by Sydney Smith to GEORGE HUDSON(q. V. ), the great railway speculator, who is said to have one day inthe course of his speculations realised as much in scrip as £100, 000. 

RAINY, ROBERT, eminent Scottish ecclesiastic, born in Glasgow;professor of Church History and Principal in the Free Church College, Edinburgh; an able man, a sagacious and an earnest, a distinguishedleader of the Free Church; forced into that position more bycircumstances, it is believed, than by natural inclination, and in thatsituation some think more a loss than a gain to the Church catholic, towhich in heart and as a scholar he belongs; _b_. 1826. 

RAJAH, a title which originally belonged to princes of the Hindurace, who exercised sovereign rights over some tract of territory; nowapplied loosely to native princes or nobles with or without territoriallordship. 

RAJMAHAL (4), an interesting old Indian town, crowns an elevatedsite on the Ganges, 170 m. NW. Of Calcutta; has ruins of several palaces. 

RAJON, PAUL ADOLPHE, French etcher, born at Dijon; made his mark in1866 with his "Rembrandt at Work"; carried off medals at the Salon;visited England in 1872, and executed notable etchings of portraits ofJ. S. Mill, Darwin, Tennyson, &c. (1842-1888). 

RAJPUT, a name given to a Hindu of royal descent or of the highmilitary caste. See CASTE. 

RAJPUTANA (12, 016), an extensive tract of country in the NW. OfIndia, S. Of the Punjab, embracing some twenty native States and theBritish district, Ajmere-Merwara. The Aravalli Hills traverse the S. , while the Thar or Great Indian Desert occupies the N. And W. Jodhpur isthe largest of the native territories, and the Rajputs, a proud andwarlike people are the dominant race in many of the States. 

RAKOCZY MARCH, the national anthem of the Hungarians, composed aboutthe end of the 17th century by an unknown composer, and said to have beenthe favourite march of Francis Rakoczy II. Of Transylvania. 

RAKSHASAS, in the Hindu mythology a species of evil spirits, akin toogres. 

RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, courtier, soldier, and man of letters, bornnear Budleigh, in E. Devon, of ancient family; entered as student atOxford, but at 17 joined a small volunteer force in aid of theProtestants in France; in 1580 distinguished himself in suppressing arebellion in Ireland; was in 1582 introduced at court, fascinated theheart of the Queen by his handsome presence and his gallant bearing, andreceived no end of favours at her hand; joined his half-brother, SirHumphrey Gilbert, in an expedition to North America, founded a colony, which he called Virginia in honour of the queen, and brought home withhim the potato and the tobacco plants, till then unknown in this country;rendered distinguished services in the destruction of the Armada; visitedand explored Guiana, and brought back tidings of its wealth in gold andprecious things; fell into disfavour with the queen, but regained heresteem; under King James he became suspected of disloyalty, and wascommitted to the Tower, where he remained 12 years, and wrote his"History of the World"; on his release, but without a pardon, he set outto the Orinoco in quest of gold-mines there, but returned heart-brokenand to be sentenced to die; he met his fate with calm courage, and wasbeheaded in the Old Palace Yard; of the executioner's axe he smilinglyremarked, "A sharp medicine, but an infallible cure" (1552-1618). 

RALSTON, WILLIAM SHEDDEN, a noted Russian scholar and translator, born in London; studied at Cambridge, and in 1862 was called to the bar, but never practised; assistant in the British Museum library till 1875;visited Russia; his works embrace "Songs of the Russian People, " "RussianFolk-Tales, " &c. (1828-1889). 

RÂMA, in the Hindu mythology an avatar of Vishnu, being the seventh, in the character of a hero, a destroyer of monsters and a bringer of joy, as the name signifies, the narrative of whose exploits are given in the"RÂMÂYANA" (q. V. ). 

RAMADAN, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year, a kind of Lent, held sacred as a month of fasting by all Moslems, being the month in thelife of Mahomet when, as he spent it alone in meditation and prayer, hiseyes were opened to see, through the shows of things, into the oneeternal Reality, the greatness and absolute sovereignty of Allah. 

RÂMÂYANA, one of the two great epic poems, and the best, of theHindus, celebrating the life and exploits of Râma, "a work of art inwhich an elevated religious and moral spirit is allied with much poeticfiction, . .. Written in accents of an ardent charity, of a compassion, atenderness, and a humility at once sweet and plaintive, which ever andanon suggest Christian influences. "

RAMBLER, a periodical containing essays by Johnson in the_Spectator_ vein, issued in 1750-52, but written in that "stiff andcumbrous style which, " as Professor Saintsbury remarks, "has been ratherunjustly identified with Johnson's manner of writing generally. "

RAMBOUILLET, MARQUISE DE, a lady of wealth and a lover of literatureand art, born in Rome, who settled in Paris, and conceiving the idea offorming a society of her own, gathered together into her salon a selectcircle of intellectual people, which, degenerating into pedantry, becamean object of general ridicule, and was dissolved at her death(1588-1665). 

RAMEAU, JEAN PHILIPPE, French composer, born at Dijon; wrote onharmony, and, settling in Paris, composed operas, his first "Hippolyte etAricie, " and his best "Castor et Pollux" (1683-1764). 

RAMESES, the name of several ancient kings of Egypt, of which themost famous are R. II. , who erected a number of monuments in token of hisgreatness, and at whose court Moses was brought up; and R. III. , thefirst king of the twentieth dynasty, under whose successors the power ofEgypt fell into decay. 

RAMILLIES, Belgian village in Brabant, 14 m. N. Of Namur; scene ofMarlborough's victory over the French under Villeroy in 1706. 

RAMMOHUN ROY, a Brahman, founder of the Brahmo-Somaj, born atBurdwân, Lower Bengal; by study of the theology of the West was led toembrace deism, and tried to persuade his countrymen to accept the samefaith, by proofs which he advanced to show that it was the doctrine oftheir own sacred books, in particular the Upanishads; with this view hetranslated and published a number of texts from them in vindication ofhis contention, as well as expounded his own conviction in originaltreatises; in doing so he naturally became an object of attack, and wasput on his defence, which he conducted in a succession of writings thatremain models of controversial literature; died in Bristol (1772-1833). 

RAMSAY, ALLAN, Scottish poet, born in Crawford, Lanarkshire; bred awig-maker; took to bookselling, and published his own poems, "The GentleShepherd, " a pastoral, among the number, a piece which describes anddepicts manners very charmingly (1686-1758). 

RAMSAY, ALLAN, portrait-painter, son of preceding; studied threeyears in Italy, settled in London, and was named first painter to GeorgeIII. (1715-1764). 

RAMSAY, EDWARD BANNERMAN, dean of Edinburgh, born at Aberdeen, graduated at Cambridge; held several curacies; became incumbent of St. John's Episcopal Church, Edinburgh, in 1830, and dean of the diocese in1840; declined a bishopric twice over; is widely known as the author of"Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character"; was a most genial, lovable man, a great lover of his country, and much esteemed in his dayby all the citizens of Edinburgh (1793-1872). 

RAMSBOTTOM (17), a busy manufacturing town in Lancashire, on theIrwell, 4 m. N. Of Bury, engaged in cotton-weaving, calico-printing, rope-making, &c. 

RAMSDEN, JESSE, mathematical instrument-maker and inventor, born inYorkshire; invented the theodolite for the Ordnance Survey of GreatBritain (1735-1800). 

RAMSEY, a beautifully situated, healthy watering-place, 14 m. NE. OfDouglas, in the Isle of Man. 

RAMSGATE (25), a popular watering-place in the Isle of Thanet, Kent, fronting the Downs, 72 m. E. By S. Of London; has a famous harbour ofrefuge; to the W. Lies Pegwell Bay with Ebbsfleet. 

RAMUS, PETER, or PIERRE DE LA RAMÉE, a French philosopher andhumanist, son of poor parents; became a servant in the College ofNavarre; devoted his leisure to study, and became a great scholar;attacked scholasticism in a work against Aristotle as the main pillar ofthe system, and was interdicted from teaching philosophy, but thejudgment was reversed by Henry II. , and he was made a royal professor; heturned Protestant in the end, and was massacred on the eve of St. Bartholomew (1515-1572). 

RANAVALONA III. , queen of Madagascar; was crowned in 1883, but herkingdom and capital were taken from her by the French in 1893, and she isnow queen only in name; _b_. 1861. 

RANCHING, a term of Spanish derivation applied to the business ofrearing cattle, as carried on in the southern and western States ofAmerica; vast herds of cattle in a half-wild condition are raised on thewide stretches of prairie land, and are tended by "cowboys, " whose free, adventurous life attracts men of all sorts and conditions. 

RANDALL, JAMES RYDER, American journalist; author of "Maryland, myMaryland, " "Stonewall Jackson, " and other popular lyrics, which greatlyheartened the Southern cause in the Civil War; born in Baltimore; engagedin teaching till he took to journalism; _b_. 1839. 

RANDOLPH, JOHN, a noted eccentric American politician, born atCawsons, Virginia; entered Congress in 1799, and held a commandingposition there as leader of the Democratic party; was a witty, sarcasticspeaker; sat in the Senate from 1825 to 1827, and in 1830 was Minister toRussia; liberated and provided for his slaves (1773-1833). 

RANDOLPH, SIR THOMAS, English diplomatist, was sent on diplomaticmissions by Queen Elizabeth, and particularly mixed up in Scotchintrigues, and had to flee from Scotland for his life; left Memoirs(1523-1590). 

RANDOLPH, THOMAS, English poet, wrote odes and sundry dramas, ofwhich the "Muses' Looking-Glass" and "Amyntas" are the best, though notabsolutely good (1605-1634). 

RANEE, name given to a Hindu princess or queen; a rajah's wife. 

RANELAGH, a place of resort in grounds at Chelsea of people offashion during the last half of the 18th century, with a promenade wheremusic and dancing were the chief attractions. 

RANGOON (180), capital and chief port of British Burmah, situated 20m. Inland from the Gulf of Martaban, on the Hlaing or Rangoon River, theeastmost of the delta streams of the Irrawaddy; British since 1852; awell-appointed city of modern appearance, strongly fortified; containsthe famous Shway-Dagon pagoda erected in the 6th century B. C. ; hasextensive docks, and negotiates the vast bulk of Burmese exports andimports; the former include teak, gums, spices, and rice. 

RANJIT SINGH, the maharajah of the Sikhs, after taking possession ofLahore, became undisputed master of the Punjab, and imposed on hissubjects the monarchical form of government, which was shattered tofragments after his death; he was the possessor of the Koh-i-Nur diamond(1797-1839). 

RANJITSINHJI, Indian prince, born at Sarodar; studied at Cambridge;devoted himself to cricket, and became famous for his brilliant play;_b_. 1872. 

RANKE, LEOPOLD VON, distinguished German historian, born inThüringia just 16 days after Thomas Carlyle; began life similarly as ateacher and devoted his leisure hours to the study of history and thepublication of historical works; was in 1825 appointed professor ofHistory at Berlin; was commissioned by the Prussian government to explorethe historical archives of Vienna, Rome, and Venice, the fruit of whichwas seen in his subsequent historical labours, which bore not only uponthe critical periods of German history, but those of Italy, France, andeven England; of his numerous works, all founded on the impartial studyof facts, it is enough to mention here his "History of the Popes in theSixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries" and his "German History in the Timesof the Reformation" (1795-1886). 

RANKINE, W. J. MACQUORN, mathematician and physicist, born inEdinburgh; devoted himself to engineering, and held the chair ofEngineering in Glasgow University; wrote extensively on mathematical andphysical subjects, both theoretical and practical (1820-1872). 

RANNOCH, an elevated, dreary moorland in NW. Of Perthshire, crossedby the West Highland Railway; Lochs Rannoch and Tummel lie to the E. AndLoch Lydoch in the W. 

RANTERS, a name given to the Primitive Methodists who seceded fromthe Wesleyan body on account of a deficiency of zeal. 

RANZ DES VACHES, a simple melody, played on the horn by the SwissAlpine herdsmen as they drive their cattle to or from the pasture, andwhich, when played in foreign lands, produces on a Swiss an almostirrepressible yearning for home. 

RAPE OF THE LOCK, a dainty production of Pope's, pronounced byStopford Brooke to be "the most brilliant occasional poem in thelanguage. "

RAPHAEL, one of the seven archangels and the guardian of mankind, conducted Tobias to the country of the Medes and aided him in capturingthe miraculous fish, an effigies of which, as also a pilgrim's staff, isan attribute of the archangel. 

RAPHAEL, SANTI, celebrated painter, sculptor, and architect, born atUrbino, son of a painter; studied under Perugino for several years, visited Florence in 1504, and chiefly lived there till 1508, when he wascalled to Rome by Pope Julius II. , where he spent the rest of his shortlife and founded a school, several of the members of which became eminentin art; he was one of the greatest of artists, and his works werenumerous and varied, which included frescoes, cartoons, madonnas, portraits, easel pictures, drawings, &c. , besides sculpture andarchitectural designs, and all within the brief period of 37 years; hehad nearly finished "The Transfiguration" when he died of fever caught inthe excavations of Rome; he was what might be called a learned artist, and his works were the fruits of the study of the masters that precededhim, particularly Perugino and the Florentines, and only in the end mighthis work be called his own; it is for this reason that modernPre-Raphaelitism is so called, as presumed to be observant of the simpledictum of Ruskin, "Look at Nature with your own eyes, and paint only whatyourselves see" (1483-1520). See PRE-RAPHAELITISM. 

RAPIN DE THOYRAS, French historian, born at Castres; driven fromFrance by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Holland, cameover to England with and served under the Prince of Orange, withdrew toHolland and wrote a "History of England, " deservedly much in repute forlong, if not still (1661-1725). 

RAPP, GEORGE, German fanatic, born in Würtemberg, emigrated toAmerica, and founded a fraternity called Harmonites, who by tillage ofland on the Ohio and otherwise amassed great wealth, to be kept in storefor the service of Christ at His second coming (1770-1847). 

RAPP, JEAN, French general, born at Colmar; served under Napoleonwith distinction all through his wars, held Danzig for a whole yearagainst a powerful Russian army, was kept prisoner by the Russians aftersurrender, returned to France, and submitted to Louis XVIII. AfterWaterloo (1772-1821). 

RAPPAHANNOCK, a navigable river of Virginia State, rises in theAlleghanies, and after a course of 125 m. To the SE. Discharges intoChesapeake Bay. 

RASHI, a Jewish scholar and exegete, born at Troyes; was an expertin all departments of Jewish lore as contained in both the Scriptures andthe Talmud, and indulged much in the favourite Rabbinical allegoricalstyle of interpretation (1040-1105). 

RASK, RASMUS CHRISTIAN, Danish philologist, born near Odense;studied first the primitive languages of the North, chiefly Icelandic, and then those of the East, and published the results of his researchesboth by his writings and as professor of Oriental Languages and ofIcelandic in the university of Copenhagen (1787-1832). 

RASKOLINK (lit. A separatist), in Russia a sect, of which thereare many varieties, of dissenters from the Greek Church. 

RASPAIL, FRANÇOIS VINCENT, French chemist, physiologist, andsocialist; got into trouble both under Louis Philippe and Louis Napoleonfor his political opinions (1794-1878). 

RASSAM, HORMUZD, Assyriologist, born at Mosul; assisted Layard inhis explorations at Nineveh, and was subsequently, under support fromBritain, engaged in further explorations both there and elsewhere; beingsent on a mission to Abyssinia, was put in prison and only released afterthe defeat of Theodore; _b_. 1826. 

RASSELAS, a quasi-novel written in 1759 by Johnson to pay theexpenses of his mother's funeral, the subject of which is an imaginaryprince of Abyssinia, and its aim a satire in sombre vein on human life. 

RASTATT or RASTADT (12), a town in Baden, on the Murg, 15 m. SW. Of Carlsruhe; is fortified, and manufactures hardware, beer, andtobacco. 

RATAÑA, a brandy flavoured with kernels of fruits. 

RATHLIN (1), a picturesque, cliff-girt island (6½ by 1-1/3 m. ) offthe N. Coast of Antrim; fishing is the chief industry; has interestinghistorical associations. 

RATICH, WOLFGANG, German educationalist, born in Wilster (Holstein);a forerunner of Comenius; his theory of education, which in his handsproved a failure, was based on Baconian principles; proceeded from thingsto names, and from the mother tongue to foreign ones (1571-1635). 

RATIONAL HORIZON, a great circle parallel to the horizon, the centreof which is the centre of the earth. 

RATIONALISM, MODERN, a speculative point of view that resolves thesupernatural into the natural, inspiration into observation, andrevelation into what its adherents called reason, when they mean simplyunderstanding, and which ends in stripping us naked, and leaving us emptyof all the spiritual wealth accumulated by the wise in past ages, andbequeathed to us as an inheritance that had cost them their life's blood. 

RATISBON or REGENSBURG (38), one of the oldest and mostinteresting of German towns in Bavaria, on the Danube, 82 m. NE. OfMünich; has a quaint and mediæval appearance, with Gothic buildings andwinding streets; associated with many stirring historical events; till1806 the seat of the imperial diet; does an active trade in salt andcorn, and manufactures porcelain, brass, steel, and other wares. 

RATTAZZI, URBANO, Italian statesman, born at Alessandria; was leaderof the extreme party in the Sardinian Chamber in 1849, and was severaltimes minister, but was unstable in his politics (1808-1873). 

RAUCH, CHRISTIAN, eminent Prussian sculptor, born in Waldeck;patronised by royalty; studied at Rome under Thorwaldsen and Canova;resided chiefly in Berlin; executed statues of Blücher, Dürer, Goethe, Schiller, and others, as well as busts; his masterpiece is a colossalmonument in Berlin of Frederick the Great (1777-1857). 

RAUHES HAUS ("Rough House"), a remarkable institution for thereclamation and training of neglected children, founded (1831), and formany years managed by Johann Heinrich Wichern at Hoon, near Hamburg; itis affiliated to the German Home Mission. 

RAUMER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG GEORG VON, German historian; was professorof History at Berlin; wrote the "History of the Hohenstaufen and theirTimes, " and a "History of Europe from the End of the 15th Century"(1781-1873). 

RAVAILLAC, FRANÇOIS, the assassin of Henry IV. , born at Angoulême; aRoman Catholic fanatic, who regarded the king as the arch-enemy of theChurch, and stabbed him to the heart as he sat in his carriage; wasinstantly seized, subjected to torture, and had his body torn by horseslimb from limb (1578-1640). 

RAVANA, in the Hindu mythology the king of the demons, who carriedoff Sita, the wife of Râma, to Ceylon, which, with the help of themonkey-god Hanuman, and a host of quadrumana, Râma invaded and conquered, slaying his wife's ravisher, and bringing her off safe, a story whichforms the subject of the Hindu epic, "Râmâyana. "

RAVENNA (12), a venerable walled city of Italy; once a seaport, now5 m. Inland from the Adriatic, and 43 m. E. Of Bologna; was capital ofthe Western Empire for some 350 years; a republic in the Middle Ages, anda papal possession till 1860; especially rich in monuments and buildingsof early Christian art; has also picture gallery, museum, library, leaning tower, etc. ; manufactures silk, linen, paper, etc. 

RAVENNA, EXARCH OF, the viceroy of the Byzantine Empire in Italywhile the latter was a dependency of the former, and who resided atRavenna. 

RAVENSCROFT, THOMAS, musical composer, born in London; was achorister in St. Paul's Cathedral; composed many part-songs, etc. , but ischiefly remembered for his "Book of Psalmes, " which he edited and partlycomposed; some of the oldest and best known Psalms (e. G. Bangor, StDavid's) are by him (1592-1640). 

RAVENSWOOD, a Scottish Jacobite, the hero of Scott's "Bride ofLammermoor. "

RAVIGNAN, GUSTAVE DELACROIX DE, a noted Jesuit preacher, born atBayonne; won wide celebrity by his powerful preaching in Notre Dame, Paris; wrote books in defence of his order (1795-1858). 

RAWAL PINDI (74), a trading and military town in the Punjab, 160 m. NW. Of Lahore; has an arsenal, fort, etc. , and is an important centre forthe Afghanistan and Cashmere trades. 

RAWLINSON, GEORGE, Orientalist, brother of following, Canon ofCanterbury; has written extensively on Eastern and Biblical subjects:_b_. 1815. 

RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY, Assyriologist, born in Oxfordshire; enteredthe Indian Army in 1827; held several diplomatic posts, particularly inPersia; gave himself to the study of cuneiform inscriptions, and becamean authority in the rendering of them and matters relative (1810-1895). 

RAY, JOHN, English naturalist, born in Essex; studied at Cambridge;travelled extensively collecting specimens in the departments of bothbotany and zoology, and classifying them, and wrote works on both as wellas on theology (1628-1705). 

RAYLEIGH, LORD, physicist, was senior wrangler at Cambridge; isprofessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution; author of "TheTheory of Sound"; discovered, along with Professor Ramsay, "argon" in theatmosphere; _b_. 1842. 

RAYMOND, name of a succession of Counts of Toulouse, in France, seven in number, of which the fourth count, from 1088 to 1105, was aleader in the first crusade, and the sixth, who became Count in 1194, wasstripped of his estate by Simon de Montfort. 

RAYNAL, THE ABBÉ, French philosopher; wrote "Histoire des Indes" andedited "Philosophic History, " distinguished for its "lubricity, unveracity, loose, loud eleutheromaniac rant, " saw it burnt by the commonhangman, and his wish fulfilled as a "martyr" to liberty (1713-1796). 

RAYNOUARD, FRANÇOIS, French littérateur and philologist, born inProvence; was of the Girondist party at the time of the Revolution, andimprisoned; wrote poems and tragedies, but eventually gave himself up tothe study of the language and literature of Provence (1761-1836). 

RÉ, ISLE OF (16), small island, 18 m. By 3, off the French coast, opposite La Rochelle; salt manufacturing chief industry; also oysters andwine are exported. Chief town, St. Martin (2). 

READE, CHARLES, English novelist, born at Ipsden, in Oxfordshire;studied at Oxford; became a Fellow of Magdalen College, and was called tothe bar in 1842; began his literary life by play-writing; studied the artof fiction for 15 years, and first made his mark as novelist in 1852, when he was nearly 40, by the publication of "Peg Woffington, " which wasfollowed in 1856 by "It is Never too Late to Mend, " and in 1861 by "TheCloister and the Hearth, " the last his best and the most popular; severalof his later novels are written with a purpose, such as "Hard Cash" and"Foul Play"; his most popular plays are "Masks and Faces" and "Drink"(1814-1884). 

READING (61), capital of Berkshire, on the Kennet, 36 m. N. OfLondon; a town of considerable historic interest; was ravaged by theDanes; has imposing ruins of a 12th-century Benedictine abbey, &c. ; wasbesieged and taken by Essex in the Civil War (1643); birthplace ofArchbishop Laud; has an important agricultural produce-market, and itsmanufactures include iron-ware, paper, sauce, and biscuits. 

READING (79), capital of Berks Co. , Pennsylvania, on the SchuylkillRiver, 58 m. NW. Of Philadelphia; has flourishing iron and steel works;population includes a large German settlement. 

REAL, an old Spanish silver coin still in use in Spain, Mexico, andsome other of the old Spanish colonies, also is a money of account inPortugal; equals one-fourth of the _peseta_, and varies in value from 2½d. To 5d. With the rise and fall of exchange. 

REAL, a legal term in English law applied to property of a permanentor immovable kind, e. G. Land, to distinguish it from _personal_ ormovable property. 

REAL PRESENCE, the assumed presence, really and substantially, inthe bread and wine of the Eucharist of the body and blood, the soul anddivinity, of Christ, a doctrine of the Romish and certain other Churches. 

REALISM, as opposed to Nominalism, is the belief that general termsdenote real things and are not mere names or answerable to the mereconception of them, and as opposed to idealism, is in philosophy thebelief that we have an immediate cognition of things external to us, andthat they are as they seem. In art and literature it is the tendency toconceive and represent things as they are, however unsightly and immoralthey may be, without any respect to the beautiful, the true, or the good. In Ruskin's teaching mere realism is not art; according to him art isconcerned with the rendering and portrayal of ideals. 

REALM, ESTATES OF THE, the Sovereign, the House of Lords, and theHouse of Commons in Great Britain. 

REAL-SCHULE, a German school in which languages, sciences, and artsare taught to qualify for apprenticeship in some special business orcraft. 

REASON, in philosophy is more than mere understanding or reasoningpower; it is the constitutive and regulative soul of the universe assumedto live and breathe in the inner life or soul of man, as that developsitself in the creations of human genius working in accord with andrevealing the deep purpose of the Maker. 

REASON, in German _Vernunft_, defined by Dr. Stirling "the facultythat unites and brings together, as against the understanding, " in German_Verstand_, "the faculty that separates, and only in separation knows, "and that is synthetic of the whole, whereof the latter is merely analyticof the parts, sundered from the whole, and without idea of the whole, theformer being the faculty which construes the diversity of the universeinto a unity or the one, whereas the latter dissolves the unity intodiversity or the many. 

REASON, GODDESS OF, a Mrs. Momoro, wife of a bookseller in Paris, who, on the 10th November 1793, in the church of Notre Dame, representedwhat was called Reason, but was only scientific analysis, which therevolutionaries of France proposed, through her representing such, toinstall as an object of worship to the dethronement of the Church, _l'infâme_. 

RÉAUMUR, French scientist, born in La Rochelle; made valuableresearches and discoveries in the industrial arts as well as in naturalhistory; is best known as the inventor of the thermometer that bears hisname, which is graduated into 80 degrees from the temperature of meltingice to that of boiling water (1683-1757). 

REBECCA THE JEWESS, a high-souled Hebrew maiden, who is the heroinein Sir Walter Scott's "Ivanhoe. "

REBECCAITES, a band of Welsh rioters who in 1843, dressed asfemales, went about at nights and destroyed the toll-gates, which wereoutrageously numerous; they took their name from Gen. Xxiv. 60. 

REBELLION, name of two risings of Jacobites in Scotland to restorethe exiled Stuart dynasty to the throne, one in behalf of the Pretenderin 1715, headed by the Earl of Mar, and defeated at Sheriffmuir, and theother in behalf of the Young Chevalier, and defeated at Culloden in April1746. 

RÉCAMIR, MADAME, Frenchwoman, born at Lyons; became at 15 the wifeof a rich banker In Paris thrice her own age; was celebrated for her wither beauty, and her salon; was a friend of Madame de Staël andChâteaubriand, whom she soothed in his declining years, and a good woman(1777-1849). 

RECANATI (6), a pretty Italian town, 15 m. S. Of the Adriatic portAncona, the birthplace of Leopardi; has a Gothic cathedral. 

RECENSION, the name given to the critical revision of the text of anauthor, or the revised text itself. 

RECHABITES, a tribe of Arab origin and Bedouin habits who attachedthemselves to the Israelites in the wilderness and embraced the Jewishfaith, but retained their nomadic ways; they abstained from all strongdrink, according to a vow they had made to their chief, which they couldnot be tempted to break, an example which Jeremiah in vain pleaded withthe Jews to follow in connection with their vow to the Lord (See Jer. Xxxv. ). 

RECIDIVISTS, a name applied to the class of habitual delinquents orcriminals of France. 

RECIPROCITY, a term used in economics to describe commercialtreaties entered into by two countries, by which it is agreed that, whilea strictly protective tariff is maintained as regards other countries, certain articles shall be allowed to pass between the two contractingcountries free of or with only light duties; this is the cardinalprinciple of Fair Trade, and is so far opposed to Free Trade. 

RECLUS, ELISÉE, a celebrated French geographer; from his extremedemocratic opinions left France In 1851, lived much in exile, and spentmuch time in travel; wrote "Géographie Universelle, " in 14 vols. , hisgreatest work; _b_. 1830. 

RECORDE, ROBERT, mathematician, born in Pembroke; a physician byprofession, and physician to Edward VI. And Queen Mary; his works onarithmetic, algebra, &c. , were written in the form of question andanswer; died in the debtors' prison (1500-1558). 

RECORDER, an English law official, the chief Judicial officer of acity or borough; discharges the functions of judge at theQuarter-Sessions of his district; must be a barrister of at least fiveyears' standing; is appointed by the Crown, but paid by the localauthority; is debarred from sitting on the licensing bench, but is notwithheld from practising at the bar; the sheriff in Scotland is a similarofficial. 

RECTOR, a clergyman of the Church of England, who has a right to thegreat and small tithes of the living; where the tithes are impropriate heis called a vicar. 

RECUSANTS, a name given to persons who refused to attend theservices of the Established Church, on whom legal penalties were firstimposed in Elizabeth's reign, that bore heavily upon Catholics andDissenters; the Toleration Act of William III. Relieved the latter, butthe Catholics were not entirely emancipated till 1829. 

RED CROSS KNIGHT, St. George, the patron saint of England, and thetype and the symbol of justice and purity at feud with injustice andimpurity. 

RED CROSS SOCIETY, an internationally-recognised society ofvolunteers to attend to the sick and wounded in time of war, so calledfrom the members of it wearing the badge of St. George. 

RED REPUBLICANS, a party in France who, at the time of theRevolution of 1848, aimed at a reorganisation of the State on a generalpartition of Property. 

RED RIVER, an important western tributary of the Mississippi; flowsE. And SE. Through Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana; has a course of 1600m. Till it joins the Mississippi; is navigable for 350 m. 

RED RIVER OF THE NORTH, flows out of Elbow Lake, Minnesota; formsthe boundary between North Dakota and Minnesota, and flowing throughManitoba, falls into Lake Winnipeg after a course of 665 m. ; is anavigable river. 

RED SEA, an arm of the Arabian Sea, and stretching in a NW. Direction between the desolate sandy shores of Turkey in Asia and Africa;is connected with the Gulf of Aden in the SE. By the Strait ofBab-el-Mandeb, and in the NW. Divides into the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba, between which lies the Sinai Peninsula; the SUEZ CANAL (q. V. )joins it to the Mediterranean; is 1200 m. Long, and averages 180 inbreadth; has a mean depth of 375 fathoms (greatest 1200); receives norivers, and owing to the great evaporation its water is very saline; longcoral reefs skirt its shores, and of many islands Jebel Zugur, in theFarisan Archipelago, and Dahlak are the largest; the dangerous DædalusReef is marked by a lighthouse; as a seaway between Europe and the Eastits importance was greatly diminished by the discovery of the Cape route, but since the opening of the Suez Canal it has much more than regainedits old position; owes its name probably to the deep red tint of thewater often seen among the reefs, due to the presence of microscopicorganisms. 

REDAN, a rampart shaped like the letter V, with its apex toward theenemy. 

REDDITCH (11), a flourishing town of Worcester, on the Warwickborder, 13 m. SW. Of Birmingham, busy with the manufacture of needles, pins, fish-hooks, &c. 

REDEMPTIONISTS, better known as TRINITARIANS (q. V. ), aname bestowed on an order of monks consecrated to the work of redeemingChristian captives from slavery. 

REDESDALE, in Northumberland, the valley of the river Reed, whichrises in the Cheviots and flows SE. Through pastoral and in part drearymoorland till it joins the North Tyne; at the S. End is the field ofOTTERBURN (q. V. ). 

REDESWIRE, RAID OF THE, a famous Border fight took place in July1575 at the Cheviot pass which enters Redesdale; through the timelyarrival of the men of Jedburgh the Scots proved victorious; is thesubject of a Border ballad. 

REDGAUNTLET, an enthusiastic Jacobite character in Sir WalterScott's novel of the name, distinguished by a "horse-shoe vein on hisbrow, which would swell up black when he was in anger. "

REDGRAVE, RICHARD, painter, born at Pimlico, in London; studied atthe Royal Academy, won his first success in "Gulliver on the Farmer'sTable, " became noted for his _genre_ and landscape paintings, heldGovernment appointments, and published among other works "Reminiscences"and "A Century of English Painters" (1804-1888). 

REDING, ALOYS VON, a Swiss patriot, born in Schwyz; was the bolddefender of Swiss independence against the French, in which he was in theend defeated (1755-1818). 

REDOUBT KALI, a Russian fort on the E. Coast of the Black Sea, 10 m. N. Of Poti, the chief place for shipping Circassian girls to Turkey;captured by the British in 1854. 

REDRUTH (10), a town of Cornwall, on a hilly site nearly 10 m. SW. Of Truro, in the midst of a tin and copper mining district. 

RED-TAPE, name given to official formality, from the red-tapeemployed in tying official documents, whence "red-tapism. "

REES, ABRAHAM, compiler of "Rees' Cyclopedia" (45 vols. ), born inMontgomeryshire; became a tutor at Hoxton Academy, and subsequentlyministered in the Unitarian Chapel at Old Jewry for some 40 years(1743-1825). 

REEVE, name given to magistrates of various classes in early Englishtimes, the most important of whom was the SHIRE-REEVE or sheriff, who represented the king in his shire; others were BOROUGH-REEVES, PORT-REEVES, &c. 

REEVE, CLARA, an English novelist, born, the daughter of a rector, at Ipswich; the best known of her novels is "The Champion of Virtue, "afterwards called "The Old English Baron, " a work of the school of Mrs. Radcliffe and of Walpole (1725-1803). 

REEVES, JOHN SIMS, distinguished singer, born at Shooter's Hill, Kent; made his first appearance at the age of 18 as a baritone atNewcastle, and then as a tenor, and the foremost in England at the time;performed first in opera and then as a ballad singer at concerts, andtook his farewell of the public on May 11, 1891, though he has frequentlyappeared since; _b_. 1822. 

REFERENDUM, a practice which prevails in Switzerland of referringevery new legislative measure to the electorate in the several electoralbodies for their approval before it can become law. 

REFORM, the name given in England to successive attempts andmeasures towards the due extension of the franchise in the election ofthe members of the House of Commons. 

REFORMATION, the great event in the history of Europe in the 16thcentury, characterised as a revolt of light against darkness, on theacceptance or the rejection of which has since depended the destiny forgood or evil of the several States composing it, the challenge to each ofthem being the crucial one, whether they deserved and were fated tocontinue or perish, and the crucial character of which is visible to-dayin the actual conditions of the nations as they said "nay" to it or"yea, " the challenge to each at bottom being, is there any truth in youor is there none? Austria, according to Carlyle, henceforth "preferringsteady darkness to uncertain new light"; Spain, "people stumbling insteep places in the darkness of midnight"; Italy, "shrugging itsshoulders and preferring going into Dilettantism and the Fine Arts"; andFrance, "with accounts run up on compound interest, " had to answer the"writ of summons" with an all too indiscriminate "Protestantism" of itsown. 

REFORMATION, MORNING STAR OF THE, the title given toJOHN WYCLIFFE (q. V. ). 

REFORMATORIES, schools for the education and reformation ofconvicted juvenile criminals (under 16). Under an order of courtoffenders may be placed in one of these institutions for from 2 to 5years after serving a short period of imprisonment. They are supported bythe State, the local authorities, and by private subscriptions and sumsexacted from parents and guardians. Rules and regulations are supervisedby the State. The first one was established in 1838. There are now 62 inGreat Britain and Ireland; but the numbers admitted are diminishing at aremarkable rate. 

REFORMED CHURCH, the Churches in Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, andelsewhere under Calvin or Zwingle, or both, separated from the Lutheranon matter of both doctrine and policy, and especially in regard to thedoctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. 

REFRACTION. Light travels in straight lines; but when a raytravelling through one medium passes obliquely into another of eithergreater or less density it is bent at the point of incidence. Thisbending or breaking is called refraction. The apparent bend in a stickset sloping in a sheet of water is due to this phenomenon, as are alsomany mirages and other optical illusions. 

REGALIA, the symbols of royalty, and more particularly those used ata coronation. The English regalia include the crown, the sceptre with thecross, the verge or rod with the dove, St. Edward's staff (in realitydating from Charles II. 's coronation), the orbs of king and queen, thesword of mercy called Curtana, the two swords of spiritual and temporaljustice, the ring of alliance with the nation, bracelets, spurs, vestments, &c. These are to be seen in the Tower of London, and arevalued at £3, 000, 000. The regalia of Scotland consist of the crown, thesceptre, and sword of State, and are on exhibition in the Crown-room inEdinburgh Castle. 

REGENERATION, THE, "new or second birth" required of Christ beforeany one can become a member of His kingdom, and which, when achieved, isa resolute and irreversible No to the spirit of the world, and a no lessresolute and irreversible Yea to the spirit of Christ, the No being asessential to it as the Yea. For as in the philosophy of Hegel, so in thereligion of Christ, the negative principle is the creative or thedeterminative principle. Christianity begins in No, subsists in No, andsurvives in No to the spirit of the world; this it at first peremptorilyspurns, and then disregards as of no account, what things were _gain_ init becoming _loss_. A stern requirement, but, as Carlyle says, and knew, one is not born the second time any more than the first without sorebirth-pangs. See HIS "EVERLASTING NO" IN "SARTOR, " LAST PARAGRAPH. 

REGENERATION, BAPTISMAL, the doctrine that the power of spirituallife, forfeited by the Fall, is restored to the soul in the sacrament ofbaptism duly administered. 

REGENSBURG. See RATISBON. 

REGGIO (24), an Italian seaport; capital of a province of the samename; occupies a charming site on the Strait of Messina; built on theruins of ancient Rhegium; is the seat of an archbishop; manufacturessilks, gloves, hose, &c. 

REGICIDES, murderers of a king, but specially applied to the 67members of the court who tried and condemned Charles I. Of England, amongst whom were Cromwell, Bradshaw, Ireton, and others, of whom 10living at the time of the Restoration were executed, and 25 othersimprisoned for life. 

REGILLUS, LAKE, celebrated in ancient Roman history as the scene ofa great Roman victory over the Latins in 496 B. C. ; site probably nearthe modern town of Frascati. 

REGINA, ST. , a virgin martyr of the 3rd century, usually depicted asundergoing the torments of martyrdom, or receiving spiritual consolationin prison by a beautiful vision of a dove on a luminous cross. 

REGIOMONTANUS, name adopted by Johann Müller, a celebrated Germanastronomer and mathematician, born at Königsberg, in Franconia; appointedprofessor of Astronomy in Vienna (1461); sojourned in Italy; settled inNüremberg, where much of his best work was done; assisted Pope Sixtus IV. In reforming the Calendar; was made Bishop of Ratisbon; died at Rome; wasregarded as the most learned astronomer of the time in Europe, and hisworks were of great value to Columbus and other early navigators(1436-1476). 

REGISTRAR-GENERAL, an official appointed to superintendregistration, specially of births, deaths, and marriages. 

REGIUM DONUM, an annual grant formerly voted by Parliament toaugment the stipends of the Presbyterian clergy in Ireland, discontinuedfrom 1869. 

REGNARD, JEAN FRANÇOIS, comic dramatist, born in Paris; inherited afortune, which he increased by gambling; took to travelling, and was at22 captured by an Algerine pirate, and when ransomed continued to travel;on his return to Paris wrote comedies, twenty-three in number, the bestof them being "Le Joueur" and "Le Légataire, " following closely in thesteps of Molière; he was admired by Boileau (1656-1710). 

REGNAULT, HENRI, French painter, born in Paris; son of following; agenius of great power and promise, of which several remarkable works byhim are proof; volunteered in the Franco-German War, and fell at Buzenval(1843-1871). 

REGNAULT, HENRI VICTOR, a noted French physicist, born atAix-la-Chapelle; from being a Paris shopman he rose to a professorship inLyons; important discoveries in organic chemistry won him election to theAcademy of Sciences in 1840; lectured in the "Collège de France and theÉcole Polytechnique;" became director of the imperial porcelainmanufactory of Sèvres; did notable work in physics and chemistry, and wasawarded medals by the Royal Society of London (1810-1878). 

REGNIER, MATHURIN, French poet, born at Chartres; led when young alife of dissipation; ranks high as a poet, but is most distinguished insatire, which is instinct with verve and vigour (1572-1613). 

REGULARS, in the Romish Church a member of any religious order whohas taken the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 

REGULUS, a Roman of the Romans; was twice over Consul, in 267 and256 B. C. ; defeated the Carthaginians, both by sea and land, but was atlast taken prisoner; being sent, after five years' captivity, on paroleto Rome with proposals of peace, dissuaded the Senate from accepting theterms, and despite the entreaties of his wife and children and friendsreturned to Carthage according to his promise, where he was subjected tothe most excruciating tortures. 

REGULUS, ST. , or ST. RULE, a monk of the East who, in the 4thcentury, it is said, came to Scotland with the bones of St. Andrew, anddeposited them at St. Andrews. 

REHAN, ADA, actress, born in Limerick; made her _début_ at 16 inAlbany, New York; came to London in 1884, and again in 1893; playsRosalind in "As You Like It, " Lady Teazle in "School for Scandal, " andMaid Marian in the "Foresters, " and numerous other parts; _b_. 1859. 

REHOBOAM, the king of the Jews on whose accession at the death ofSolomon, in 976 B. C. , the ten tribes of Israel seceded from the kingdomof Judah. 

REICH, THE, the old German Empire. 

REICHENBACH, KARL, BARON VON, expert in the industrial arts, particularly in chemical manufacture; he was a zealous student of animalmagnetism, and the discoverer of Od (1788-1869). 

REICHENBERG (31), a town in North Bohemia, on the Neisse, 86 m. NE. Of Prague; chief seat of the Bohemian cloth manufacture. 

REICHENHALL (4), a popular German health resort, in South-EastBavaria, 10 m. SW. Of Salzburg; is charmingly situated amidst Alpinescenery, and has a number of mineral springs; is the centre of the greatBavarian salt-works. 

REICHSRATH, the Parliament of the Austrian Empire. 

REICHSTADT, DUKE OF, the son and successor of Napoleon as NapoleonII. ; died at Vienna in 1832. 

REICHSTAG, the German Imperial Legislature, representative of theGerman nation, and which consists of 397 members, elected by universalsuffrage and ballot for a term of five years. 

REID, SIR GEORGE, a distinguished portrait-painter, born inAberdeen; his portraits are true to the life, and are not surpassed bythose of any other living artist; _b_. 1841. 

REID, RIGHT HON. G. H. , Premier of Australia, born at Johnstone, Renfrewshire; emigrated with his parents in 1852; adopted law as hisprofession; became Minister of Education in 1883; became Premier ofN. S. W. In 1894; is a great Free Trader, and visited England for the Jubileein 1897; Prime Minister of the Australian Commonwealth, 1904; _b_. 1845. 

REID, CAPTAIN MAYNE, novelist, born in Co. Down; led a life ofadventure in America, and served in the Mexican War, but settledafterwards in England to literary work, and wrote a succession of talesof adventure (1819-1883). 

REID, THOMAS, Scottish philosopher, and chief of the Scottishschool, born in Kincardineshire, and bred for the Scotch Church, in whichhe held office as a clergyman for a time; was roused to philosophicalspeculation by the appearance in 1730 of David Hume's "Treatise on HumanNature, " and became professor of Philosophy in Aberdeen in 1752, and inGlasgow in 1763, where the year after he published his "Inquiry into theHuman Mind, " which was followed in course of time by his "Philosophy ofthe Intellectual and Active Powers"; his philosophy was a protest againstthe scepticism of Hume, founded on the idealism of Berkeley, by appeal tothe "common-sense" of mankind, which admits of nothing intermediatebetween the perceptions of the mind and the reality of things(1710-1796). 

REID, SIR WEMYSS, journalist and man of letters, born inNewcastle-on-Tyne; editor of the _Leeds Mercury_ (1870-86), and of the_Speaker_ since 1890; has written novels and biographies; is President ofthe Institute of Journalists, and was knighted in 1894; _b_. 1842. 

REID, SIR WILLIAM, soldier and scientist; served in the RoyalEngineers with distinction under Wellington; became Governor successivelyof Bermudas, Barbadoes, and Malta, and was the author of a scientificwork on "The Law of Storms" (1791-1858). 

REIGATE (23), a flourishing market-town in Surrey, 21 m. S. OfLondon; is a busy railway centre; has interesting historic ruins; an oldchurch, among others containing the grave of Lord Howard of Effingham. 

REIGN OF A HUNDRED DAYS, the period during which Napoleon reigned inParis from his return from Elba in the beginning of March till he left onthe 12th June 1815 to meet the Allies in the Netherlands. 

REIGN OF TERROR, the name given to the bloody consummation of thefiery French Revolution, including a period which lasted 420 days, fromthe fall of the Girondists on the 31st May 1793 to the overthrow ofRobespierre and his accomplices on 27th July 1794, the actors in which atlength, seeing nothing but "Terror" ahead, had in their despair said tothemselves, "Be it so. _Que la Terreur soit à l'ordre du jour_ (havingsown the wind, come let us reap the whirlwind). One of the frightfulestthings ever born of Time. So many as four thousand guillotined, fusilladed, noyaded, done to dire death, of whom nine hundred werewomen. "

REIMARUS, a philosopher of the _AUFKLÄRUNG_ (q. V. ), bornat Hamburg; author of the "Wolfenbüttel Fragments, " published by Lessingin 1777, and written to disprove the arguments for the historical truthof the Bible, and in the interest of pure deism and natural religion(1694-1768). 

REIS EFFENDI, one of the chief Ministers of State in Turkey, who isLord Chancellor, and holds the bureau of foreign affairs. 

REITERS, the cavalry of the German Empire in the 14th and 15thcenturies. 

RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, the doctrine that all knowledge is ofthings as they appear to us and not of things as they are in themselves, is subjective and not objective, is phenomenal and not noumenal. 

RELIEF, prominence of a sculpture from a plain surface; works inrelief are of three kinds: _alto-relievo_, high relief; _mezzo-relievo_, medium relief; _basso-relievo_, low relief. 

RELIGIO MEDICI, a celebrated work of Sir Thomas Browne's, characterised as a "confession of intelligent, orthodox, and logicalsupernaturalism couched in some of the most exquisite English everwritten. "

RELIGION, a sense, affecting the whole character and life, ofdependence on, reverence for, and responsibility to a Higher Power; or amode of thinking, feeling, and acting which respects, trusts in, andstrives after God, and determines a man's duty and destiny in thisuniverse, or "the manner in which a man feels himself to be spirituallyrelated to the unseen world. "

RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, society founded in 1799 for the circulationof religious works in home and foreign parts, has published in 220languages, and is conducted by an annually elected body, consisting offour ministers and eight laymen in London. 

RELIQUARY, name given to a portable shrine or case for relics ofsaints or martyrs; they assumed many forms, and were often rich inmaterial and of exquisite design. 

REMBRANDT or VAN REJN, a celebrated Dutch historical andportrait painter as well as etcher, born at Leyden, where he began topractise as an etcher; removed in 1630 to Amsterdam, where he spent therest of his life and acquired a large fortune, but lost it in 1656 afterthe death of his first wife, and sank into poverty and obscurity; he wasa master of all that pertains to colouring and the distribution of lightand shade (1608-1669). 

REMIGIUS, ST. , bishop and confessor of the 6th century, representedas carrying or receiving a vessel of holy oil, or as anointing Clovis, who kneels before him. 

REMINGTON, PHILO, inventor of the Remington breech-loading rifle, born at Litchfield, in New York State; 25 years manager of the mechanicaldepartment in his father's small-arms factory; Remington type-writer alsothe outcome of his inventive skill; retired in 1886; _b_. 1816. 

REMONSTRANCE, THE, the name given to a list of abuses of royal powerlaid to the charge of Charles I. And drawn up by the House of Commons in1641, and which with the petition that accompanied it contributed tobring matters to a crisis. 

REMONSTRANTS, a name given to the Dutch Arminians who presented tothe States-General of Holland a protest against the Calvinist doctrinepropounded by the Synod of Dort in 1610. 

REMUS, the twin-brother of Romulus, and who was slain by him becausehe showed his scorn of the city his brother was founding by leaping overthe wall. 

RÉMUSAT, ABEL, Orientalist, born in Paris; studied and qualified inmedicine, but early devoted himself to the study of Chinese literatureand in 1814 became professor of Chinese in the College of France; wroteon the language, the topography, and history of China, and founded theAsiastic Society of Paris (1788-1832). 

RÉMUSAT, CHARLES, COMTE DE, French politician and man of letters, born in Paris; was a Liberal in politics; drew up a protest against theordinances of Polignac, which precipitated the revolution of July; wasMinister of the Interior under Thiers, was exiled after the _coupd'état_, and gave himself mainly to philosophical studies thereafter(1797-1875). 

RENAISSANCE, the name given to the revolution in literature and artin Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, caused by the revival ofthe study of ancient models in the literature and art of Greece and Rome, especially the former, and to the awakening in the cultured classes ofthe free and broad humanity that inspired them, an epoch which marks thetransition from the rigid formality of mediæval to the enlightenedfreedom of modern times. 

RENAIX (17), a busy manufacturing town in East Flanders, Belgium, 22m. SW. Of Ghent; has large cotton and linen factories, breweries, anddistilleries. 

RENAN, ERNEST, Orientalist and Biblical scholar, born in Brittany, son of a sailor, who, dying, left him to the care of his mother andsister, to both of whom he was warmly attached; destined for the Church, he entered the seminary of St. Sulpice, where his studies threw him outof the relation with the Church and obliged him to abandon all thoughtsof the clerical profession; accomplished in Hebrew, he was appointedprofessor of that language in the College of France in 1861, though notinstalled till 1870, and made a member of the French Academy in 1878;having distinguished himself by his studies in the Semitic languages, andin a succession of essays on various subjects of high literary merit, hein 1863 achieved a European reputation by the publication of his "Vie deJésus, " the first of a series bearing upon the origin of Christianity andthe agencies that contributed to its rise and development; he wrote otherworks bearing more immediately on modern life and its destiny, but it isin connection with his views of Christ and Christianity that his namewill be remembered; he entertained at last an overweening faith inscience and scientific experts, and looked to the latter as the elect ofthe earth for the redemption of humanity (1823-1893). 

RENDSBURG (12), a fortified town in Schleswig-Holstein, on the NorthSea and Baltic Canal, 19 m. W. Of Kiel; manufactures cotton, chemicals, brandy &c. 

RENÉ I. , titular king of Naples, born at Angers, son of Louis II. , Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence; on the death of his father-in-law, Duke of Lorraine, he in 1431 claimed the dukedom; was defeated andimprisoned; bought his liberty and the dukedom in 1437, in which year healso made an ineffectual attempt to make good his claim to the throne ofNaples and Sicily; settled down in Provence and devoted himself toliterature and art and to developing the country (1409-1480). 

RENFREW (7), a royal burgh and county-town of Renfrewshire, situatedon the Clyde, 6 m. Below Glasgow; dates back to the 12th century as aburgh; industries include thread, cotton cloths, shawl factories, andshipbuilding. 

RENFREWSHIRE (291), a south-western county of Scotland; faces theFirth of Clyde on the W. , between Ayr on the S. And SW. , and the riverClyde on the N. ; bordered on the E. By Lanark; hilly on the W. And S. , flat on the E. ; is watered by the Gryfe, the Black Cart, and the WhiteCart; dairy-farming is carried on in extensive scale, stimulated by theproximity of Glasgow; nearly two-thirds of the county is undercultivation; coal and iron are mined, and in various parts themanufacture of thread, cotton, chemicals, shipbuilding, &c. , is activelyengaged in. 

RENNELL, JAMES, geographer, born near Chudleigh, Devonshire; passedfrom the navy to the military service of the East India Company; becamesurveyor-general of Bengal; retired in 1782; author of many works on thetopography of India, hydrography, &c. ; the "Geographical System ofHerodotus Examined and Explained" is his most noted work (1742-1830). 

RENNES (65), a prosperous town in Brittany, capital of thedepartment of Ille-et-Vilaine, situated at the junction of the Ille andthe Vilaine; consists of a high and low town, separated by the riverVilaine, mostly rebuilt since the disastrous fire in 1720; has handsomebuildings, a cathedral, &c. ; is the seat of an archbishop, a militarycentre, and manufactures sail-cloth, linen, shoes, hats, &c. ; where thecourt-martial was held which condemned Captain Dreyfus on a second trialin 1899. 

RENNIE, JOHN, civil engineer, born in East Linton, East Lothian;employed by the firm of Messrs. Boulton & Watt at Soho, Birmingham, andentrusted by them to direct in the construction of the Albion Mills, London, he became at once famous for his engineering ability, and was ingeneral request for other works, such as the construction of docks, canals, and bridges, distinguishing himself most in connection with thelatter, of which Waterloo, Southwark, and London over the Thames, areperhaps the finest (1761-1821). 

RENTE, name given to the French funds, or income derivable fromthem. 

RENTON (5), a town in Dumbartonshire, on the Leven, 2 m. N. OfDumbarton; engaged in calico-printing, dyeing, &c. ; has a monument inmemory of Tobias Smollett, who was born in the neighbourhood. 

RENWICK, JAMES, Scottish martyr, born at Moniaive, Dumfriesshire;educated at Edinburgh University, but was refused his degree fordeclining to take the oath of allegiance; completed his studies inHolland, and in 1683 was ordained at Gröningen; came to Scotland; wasoutlawed in 1684 for his "Apologetic Declaration"; refused to recogniseJames II. As king; was captured after many escapes, and executed atEdinburgh, the last of the martyrs of the Covenant (1662-1688). 

REPEALER, an advocate of the repeal of the Union of Great Britainand Ireland. 

REPLICA, is properly the copy of an original picture done by thehand of the same master. 

REPOUSSÉ, a name applied to a style of raised ornamentation in metalobtained by beating out from behind a convex design, which is then chasedin front; was known to the Greeks, and carried to a high pitch ofperfection by Benvenuto Cellini in the 16th century; has beensuccessfully revived, especially in France, in this century. 

REPTON (2), a village of Derbyshire, 6½ m. SW. Of Derby, dates backto the 7th century, and is associated with the establishment ofChristianity in England; has a fine Public school, founded in 1556. 

REPUBLIC, the name given to a State in which the sovereign power isvested in one or more elected by the community, and held answerable to itthough in point of fact, both in Rome and the Republic of Venice thecommunity was not free to elect any one outside of a privileged order. 

REPUBLICANS, THE, the name given latterly in the United States tothe party opposed to the Democrats (q. V. ) and in favour of federalism. 

REQUIEM, a mass set to music, sung for the repose of the soul of adead person. 

REREDOS, the name given to the decorated portion of the wall orscreen behind and rising above a church altar; as a rule it is richlyornamented with niches and figures, and stands out from the east wall ofthe church, but not unfrequently it is joined to the wall; splendidexamples exist at All Souls' College, Oxford, Durham Cathedral, St. Albans, &c. 

RESINA (14), a town of South Italy, looks out upon the sea from thebase of Vesuvius, 4 m. SE. Of Naples, built on the site of ancientHerculaneum; manufactures wine and silk. 

RESPONSIONS, the first of the three examinations for a degree atOxford University, or the Little Go. 

RESSAIDAR, in India, a native cavalry officer in command of aRessalah, or a squadron of native cavalry. 

RESTORATION, THE, the name given in English history to there-establishment of monarchy and the return of Charles II. To the throne, 29th May 1660, after the fall of the Commonwealth. 

RESTORATIONISTS, name of a sect in America holding the belief thatman will finally recover his original state of purity. 

RESURRECTIONIST, one who stealthily exhumed bodies from the graveand sold them for anatomical purposes. 

RETFORD, EAST (11), market-town of Nottinghamshire, on the Idle, 24m. E. By S. Of Sheffield; has foundries, paper and flour mills, &c. 

RETINA, a retiform expansion of the sensatory nerves, which receivesthe impression that gives rise to vision, or visual perception. 

RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE, justice which rewards good deeds, and inflictspunishment on offenders. 

RETZ, CARDINAL DE, born at Montmirail, of Italian descent, and muchgiven to intrigue, obtained the coadjutorship of the archbishopric ofParis, plotted against Mazarin, played an important part in the troublesof the Fronde, and was in 1652 thrown into prison, from which he escaped;he left "Memoirs" which are valuable as a record of the times, though thereaders are puzzled to construe from them the character of the author(1614-1679). 

RETZ, GILLES DE, marshal of France, born in Brittany; distinguishedhimself under Charles VII. Against the English; was condemned to beburned alive at Nantes in 1440 for his unnatural crimes and hiscruelties. 

RETZCH, MORITZ, painter and engraver, born at Dresden, where hebecame a professor of Painting; is famous for his etchings illustrativeof Goethe's "Faust, " of certain of Shakespeare's plays, as well as ofFouqué's "Tales"; the "Chess-Players" and "Man _versus_ Satan, " which isconsidered his masterpiece (1779-1857). 

REUCHLIN, JOHANN, a learned German humanist, born in the BlackForest, devoted himself to the study of Greek and Hebrew, and did much topromote the study of both in Germany, and wrote "Rudiments of the HebrewLanguage"; though he did not attach himself to the Reformers, hecontributed by his works and labours to advance the cause of theReformation; his special enemies were the Dominicans, but he was backedup against them by all the scholars of Germany (1455-1522). 

REUNION (formerly Île de Bourbon) (166), mostly Creoles, a Frenchisland in the Indian Ocean, 358 m. E. Of Madagascar, 38 m. By 28; avolcanic range intersects the island; the scenery is fine; streamsplentiful, but small; one-third of the land is uncultivated, and growsfruits, sugar (chief export), coffee, spices, &c. St. Denis (33), on theN. Coast, is the capital; has been a French possession since 1649. 

REUSS, name of two German principalities stretching between Bavariaon the S. And Prussia on the N. ; they belong to the elder and youngerbranches of the Reuss family. The former is called Reuss-Greiz (63), thelatter Reuss-Schleiz-Gera (120); both are hilly, well wooded, and wellwatered; farming and textile manufacturing are carried on. Both arerepresented in the Reichstag; the executive is in the hands of thehereditary princes, and the legislative powers are vested in popularlyelected assemblies. 

REUTER, FRITZ, a German humourist, born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin;when a student at Jena took part in a movement among the students inbehalf of German unity; was arrested and condemned, after commutation ofsentence of death, to thirty years' imprisonment, but was released, afterseven of them, in broken health; and after eleven more took to writing asuccession of humorous poems in Low German, which placed him in the frontrank of the humourists of Germany (1810-1874). 

REUTER, BARON PAUL JULIUS, the organiser of the conveyance of newsby telegraph, born at Cassel; commenced with Berlin for centre in 1851;transferred his head-quarters to London, and now the "system, " which isin the hands of a limited liability company, has connections with eventhe remotest corner of the globe; _b_. 1818. 

REUTLINGEN (19), a picturesque old town in Würtemberg, on theEchatz, 20 m. S. Of Stuttgart; formerly one of the free imperial citiesof the Swabian League; has a splendid Gothic church; manufactures cloth, cutlery, leather, woollen and cotton yarns, &c. 

REVEL or REVAL (52), capital of the government of Esthonia, inRussia, is a flourishing seaport on the S. Side of the Gulf of Finland, 232 m. W. Of St. Petersburg; has a castle, fortifications, cathedral, mediæval antiquities, &c. ; chiefly engaged in commerce; exports largelyoats and other cereals, spirits, flax, &c. 

REVELATION, name properly applicable to the knowledge of God, or ofdivine things, imparted to the mind of man, by the operation of theDivine Spirit in the human soul, and as apprehended by it. 

REVELATION, BOOK OF, or THE APOCALYPSE, the book that winds upthe accepted canon of Holy Scripture, of the fulfilment of the propheciesof which there are three systems of interpretation: the Præteritist, which regards them all as fulfilled; the Historical, which regards themas all along fulfilling; and the Futurist, which regards them as stillall to be fulfilled. The first is the one which finds favour among moderncritics, and which regards it as a forecast of the struggle thenimpending between the Church under the headship of Christ and the civilpower under the emperor of Rome, though this view need not be accepted asexcluding the second theory, which regards it as a forecast of thestruggle of the Church with the world till the cup of the world'siniquity is full and the day of its doom is come. The book appears tohave been written on the occurrence of some fierce persecution at thehands of the civil power, and its object to confirm and strengthen theChurch in her faith and patience by a series of visions, culminating inone of the Lamb seated on the throne of the universe as a pledge that allHis slain ones would one day share in His glory. 

REVELS, MASTER OF THE, also called LORD OF MISRULE, in oldentimes an official attached to royal and noble households to superintendthe amusements, especially at Christmas time; he was a permanent officerat the English court from Henry VIII. 's reign till George III. 's, butduring the 18th century the office was a merely nominal one. 

REVERBERATORY FURNACE, a furnace with a domed roof, from which theflames of the fire are reflected upon the vessel placed within. 

REVERE, PAUL, American patriot, born in Boston, U. S. , bred agoldsmith; conspicuous for his zeal against the mother-country, and oneof the first actors in the revolt (1735-1818). 

REVEREND, a title of respect given to the clergy, Very Reverend todeans, Right Reverend to bishops, and Most Reverend to archbishops. 

RÉVILLE, ALBERT, a distinguished French Protestant theologian, bornat Dieppe; was from 1851 to 1872 pastor at Rotterdam, in 1880 becameprofessor of the History of Religions in the College of France, and sixyears later was made President of the Section des Études Religieuses atthe Sorbonne, Paris; has been a prolific writer on such subjects as "TheNative Religions of Mexico and Peru" (Hibbert Lectures for 1884), "Religions of Non-civilised Peoples, " "The Chinese Religion, " &c. ; _b_. 1826. 

REVIVAL OF LETTERS, revival in Europe in the 15th century of thestudy of classical, especially Greek, literature, chiefly by the arrivalin Italy of certain learned Greeks, fugitives from Constantinople on itscapture by the Turks in 1453, and promoted, by the invention of printing, to the gradual extinction of the dry, barren scholasticism previously invogue. See RENAISSANCE. 

REVIVAL OF RELIGION, a reawakening of the religious consciousnessafter a period of spiritual dormancy, ascribed by many to a specialoutpouring of the Spirit in answer to prayer, and in connection withevangelical preaching. 

REVOLUTION, a sudden change for most part in the constitution of acountry in consequence of internal revolt, particularly when a monarchyis superseded by a republic, as in France in 1789, in 1848, and 1870, that in 1830 being merely from one branch of the Bourbon family toanother, such as that also in England in 1658. The French Revolution of1798 is the revolution by pre-eminence, and the years 1848-49 were yearsof revolutions in Europe. 

REVUE DES DEUX MONDES, a celebrated French review, devoted toliterature, science, art, politics, &c. , established in 1829, andconducted afterwards by Buloz. 

REYBAUD, MARIE ROCH LOUIS, a versatile littérateur and politician, born at Marseilles; travelled in India, established himself as a Radicaljournalist in Paris in 1829, and edited important works of travel, wrotepopular novels, published important studies in social science; elected amember of the Academy of Moral Sciences (1850); was an active politcian, investigated for government the agricultural colonies in Algeria; authorof "Scenes in Modern Life, " "Industry in Europe, " &c. (1799-1879). 

REYKJAVIK (i. E. Reeky town), (3), capital of Iceland, situated ina barren misty region on the SW. Coast, practically a village of some 100wooden houses; has a brick cathedral, and is the see of a bishop. 

REYNARD THE FOX, an epic of the Middle Ages, in which animalsrepresent men, "full of broad rustic mirth, inexhaustible in comicdevices, a world Saturnalia, where wolves tonsured into monks and nighstarved by short commons, foxes pilgrimaging to Rome for absolution, cocks pleading at the judgment-bar, make strange mummery. " The principalcharacters are Isengrim the wolf and Reynard the fox, the formerrepresenting strength incarnated in the baron and the latter representingcunning incarnated in the Church, and the strife for ascendency betweenthe two one in which, though frequently hard pressed, the latter gets theadvantage in the end. 

REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON, an American general, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania; graduated at 21 at West Point, entered the army, distinguished himself during the Civil War, especially at the secondbattle of Bull Run; was killed at the battle of Gettysburg (1820-1863). 

REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA, the chief of English portrait-painters, bornnear Plymouth; went to London in 1740 to study art, and remained threeyears; visited Italy and the great centres of art there, when he lost hishearing, and settled in London in 1752, where he began to paintportraits, and had as the subjects of his art the most distinguishedpeople, "filled England with the ghosts of her noble squires and dames";numbered among his friends all the literary notabilities of the day; hewas the first President of the Royal Academy, and though it was no partof his duty, delivered a succession of discourses to the students on theprinciples and practice of painting, 15 of which have been published, andare still held in high esteem (1723-1792). 

RHABDOMANCY, a species of divination by means of a hazel rod totrace the presence of minerals or metals under ground. 

RHADAMANTHUS, in the Greek mythology a son of Zeus and Europa, and abrother of MINOS (q. V. ), was distinguished among men for hisstrict justice, and was after his death appointed one of the Judges ofthe dead in the nether world along with Æacus and Minos. 

RHAPSODISTS, a class of minstrels who in early times wandered overthe Greek cities reciting the poems of Homer, and through whom theybecame widely known, and came to be translated with such completeness tous. 

RHEA, in the Greek mythology a goddess, the daughter of Uranus andGaia, the wife of Kronos, and mother of the chief Olympian deities, Zeus, Pluto, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter, and Hestia, and identified by the Greeksof Asia Minor with the great earth goddess Cybele, and whose worship assuch, like that of all the other earth deities, was accompanied with wildrevelry. 

RHEA SILVIA, a vestal virgin, the mother of Romulus and Remus, twins, whom she bore to Mars, the god of war, who had violated her. 

RHEIMS (104), an important French city in the department of Marne, on the Vesle, 100 m. NE. Of Paris; as the former ecclesiasticalmetropolis of France it has historical associations of peculiar interest;the French monarchs were crowned in the cathedral (a Gothic structure ofunique beauty) from 1179 to 1825; has a beautiful 12th-century Romanesquechurch, an archiepiscopal palace, a Roman triumphal arch, a Lycée, statues, &c. ; situated in a rich wine district, it is one of the chiefchampagne entrepôts, and is also one of the main centres of Frenchtextiles, especially woollen goods; is strongly fortified. 

RHEINGAU, a fruitful wine district in the Rhine Valley, stretchingalong the right bank of the river in Hesse-Nassau; has a sunny, shelteredsituation, and its wines are famed for their quality. 

RHENISH PRUSSIA (4, 710), the most westerly and most denselypopulated of the Prussian provinces, lies within the valleys of the Rhineand the Lower Moselle, and borders on Belgium and the Netherlands; ismountainous and forest-clad, except in the fertile plains of the N. Andin the rich river valleys, where vines, cereals, and vegetables areextensively cultivated; large quantities of coal, iron, zinc, and leadare mined; as an industrial and manufacturing province it ranks first inGermany. Coblenz (capital), Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn, and Cologne are amongits chief towns; was formed in 1815 out of several smaller duchies. 

RHEOCHORD, a wire to measure the resistance or variability of anelectric current. 

RHEOMETRY, measurement of the force or the velocity of an electriccurrent. 

RHESUS, a monkey held sacred in several parts of India. 

RHETORIC, the science or art of persuasive or effective speech, written as well as spoken, and that both in theory and practice wascultivated to great perfection among the ancient Greeks and Romans, andto some extent in the Middle Ages and later, but is much less cultivatedeither as a science or an art to-day. 

RHINE, one of the chief rivers of Europe; of several small Alpinehead-streams, the Nearer and the Farther Rhine are the two principal, issuing from the eastern flanks of Mount St Gothard; a junction is formedat Reichenau, whence the united stream--the Upper Rhine--flows N. To LakeConstance, and issuing from the NW. Corner curves westward to Basel, forming the boundary between Switzerland and Germany. From Basel, as theMiddle Rhine, it pursues a northerly course to Mainz, turns sharply tothe W. As far as Bingen, and again resumes its northward course. TheRhine-Highland between Bingen and Bonn is the most romantic andpicturesque part of its course. As the Lower Rhine it flows in asluggish, winding stream through the Rhenish Lowlands, enters Hollandnear Clèves, at Nimeguen bends to the W. , and flowing through Hollandsome 100 m. Reaches the German Ocean, splitting in its lowest part intoseveral streams which form a rich delta, one-third of Holland. It is 800m. In length; receives numerous affluents, _e. G_. Neckar, Main, Moselle, Lippe; is navigable for ships to Mannheim. 

RHINOPLASTIC OPERATION, an operation of repairing destroyed portionsof the nose by skin from adjoining parts. 

RHODE ISLAND (346), the smallest but most densely populated of theUnited States, and one of the original 13; faces the Atlantic betweenConnecticut (W. ) and Massachusetts (N. And E. ); is split into twoportions by Narragansett Bay (30 m. Long); hilly in the N. , but elsewherelevel; enjoys a mild and equable climate, and is greatly resorted to byinvalids from the S. ; the soil is rather poor, and manufactures form thestaple industry; coal, iron, and limestone are found. Providence, Pawtucket, and Newport are the chief towns. 

RHODES (10), a Turkish island in the Mediterranean, 12 m. Distantfrom the SW, coast of Asia Minor, area 49 m. By 21 m. ; mountainous andwoody; has a fine climate and a fertile soil, which produces fruit inabundance, also some grain; it is ill developed, and has a retrogressivepopulation, most of whom are Greeks; sponges, chief export; figuresconsiderably in ancient classic history; was occupied by the KnightsHospitallers of St. John for more than two centuries, and was taken fromthem by the Turks in 1523. 

RHODES, CECIL, statesman, born in Hertfordshire, son of a vicar;went to South Africa; became director of the diamond mines at Kimberley, and amassed a large fortune; entered the Cape Parliament, and becamePrime Minister in 1890; he has been active and successful to extend theBritish territories in South Africa, aiming at destroying the raceprejudices that prevail in it, and at establishing among the differentcolonies a federated union; _b_. 1853. 

RHODESIA, the territory in South Africa occupied and administered by theBritish South Africa Company, under the leadership of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, and founded by royal charter in 1889, hence the name it goes under, isbounded on the E. By Portuguese East Africa, on the N. By German EastAfrica and the Congo Free State, on the W. By Angola and GermanSouth-West Africa, and on the S. By Bechuanaland and the Transvaal; istraversed by the Zambesi, which divides it into Northern and SouthernRhodesia; the Northern has been little prospected, though the land isbeing cultivated, crops raised, and cattle-breeding commenced, besides anew industry started in fibre; the Southern is divided into twoprovinces, MASHONALAND (q. V. ) and MATABELELAND (q. V. ); in Rhodesiapublic roads have been made to the extent of 2230 miles, and telegraphlines to the extent of 1856 miles of line and 2583 of wire; it isfavourable to the breeding of stock, though the rinderpest raged in itdisastrously for a time; the climate is suitable for the cultivation ofcereals of all kinds, and vegetables, tobacco, india-rubber, and indigoare indigenous, and well repay cultivation; there are forests of timber, and gold, silver, copper, coal, tin, &c. , have been discovered; it is, roughly speaking, as large as the German Empire, and in consequence ofthe Jameson raid the control of the military forces, formerly under thecontrol of the Company, is now in the hands of the Imperial Government. 

RHÔNE, one of the four great rivers of France, rises on Mount St. Gothard, in the Swiss Alps; passes through the Lake of Geneva, andflowing in a south-westerly course to Lyons, is there joined by its chiefaffluent, the Saône, hence it flows due S. ; at Arles it divides into twostreams, which form a rich delta before entering the Gulf of Lyons, inthe Mediterranean; length, 504 m. ; navigable to Lyons, but the rapidcurrent and shifting sandbanks greatly impede traffic. 

RHÔNE (807), a department of France lying wholly within the westernside of the Saône and Rhône basin, hilly and fruitful; wine is producedin large quantities; has an active industrial population; capital, Lyons. 

RHUMB LINE, a circle on the earth's surface making a given anglewith the meridian; applied to the course of a ship in navigation. 

RHYL (6), a popular watering-place of Flintshire, North Wales, situated on the coast at the mouth of the Clwyd, 16 m. E. Of Conway; hasa fine promenade pier, esplanade, gardens, &c. 

RHYMER, THOMAS THE, or TRUE THOMAS, Thomas of Ercildoune, orEarlston, a Berwickshire notability of the 13th century, famous for hisrhyming prophecies, who was said, in return for his prophetic gift, tohave sold himself to the fairies. 

RHYS, JOHN, Celtic scholar, born in Wales; professor of Celtic atOxford; has written on subjects related to that of the chair; _b_. 1840. 

RIBBONISM, the principles of secret associations among the lowerIrish Catholics, organised in opposition to Orangeism, the name beingderived from a green ribbon worn as a badge in a button-hole by themembers; they were most active between 1835 and 1855. 

RIBERA, JUSEPE, a Spanish painter, born near Valencia; indulged in arealism of a gruesome type; had Salvator Rosa and Giordano for pupils(1588-1656). 

RICARDO, DAVID, political economist, born in London, of Jewishparentage; realised a large fortune as a member of the Stock Exchange;wrote on political economy on abstract lines, and from a purelymercantile and materialistic standpoint (1772-1823). 

RICASOLI, BARON, Italian statesman, born at Florence; devoted to thecultivation of the vine, the olive, and the mulberry; was drawn intopolitical life in 1847 in the interest of Italian unity, succeeded Cavouras Prime Minister, but retired from political life in 1866; his "Lettersand Papers, " in 5 vols. , were published posthumously (1806-1880). 

RICCI, LORENZO, last general of the Jesuits, born in Florence;entered the order when 15; became general in 1736; on the suppression ofthe order retired to the castle of St. Angelo, where he died 1775. 

RICCI, MATTEO, founder of the Jesuit mission in China, born inMacerato, Italy; accommodated himself to the manners of the Chinese, andwon their confidence (1552-1610). 

RICCIO, DAVID. See RIZZIO. 

RICE, JAMES, novelist, born at Northampton, educated at Cambridge;designed for the law, but took to literature; owned and edited _Once aWeek_; best known as the successful _collaborateur_ of WALTERBESANT (q. V. ) in such popular novels as "The Golden Butterfly, ""Ready-Money Mortiboy, " &c. (1844-1882). 

RICH, EDMUND. See EDMUND, ST. 

RICHARD I. , (surnamed Coeur de Lion), king of England from 1189 to1199, third son and successor of Henry II. ; his early years were spent inPoitou and Aquitaine, where he engaged in quarrels with his father; afterhis accession to the throne he flung himself with characteristic ardourinto the Crusade movement; in 1190 joined his forces with Philip Augustusof France in the third crusade; upheld the claims of Tancred in Sicily;captured Cyprus, and won great renown in the Holy Land, particularly byhis defeat of Saladin; was captured after shipwreck on the coast on hisway home by the Archduke of Austria, and handed over to the Emperor HenryVI. (1193); was ransomed at a heavy price by his subjects, and landed inEngland in 1194; his later years were spent in his French possessionswarring against Philip, and he died of an arrow wound at the siege ofChalus; not more than a year of his life was spent in England, and hisreign is barren of constitutional change (1157-1199). 

RICHARD II. , king of England from 1377 to 1399, son of the BlackPrince, born at Bordeaux; succeeded his grandfather, Edward III. ; duringhis minority till 1389 the kingdom was administered by a council; in 1381the Peasants' Revolt broke out, headed by Wat Tyler, as a result of thediscontent occasioned by the Statutes of Labour passed in the previousreign, and more immediately by the heavy taxation made necessary by theexpense of the Hundred Years' War still going on with France; a corruptChurch called forth the energetic protests of Wycliffe, which started theLOLLARD (q. V. ) movement; an invasion of Scotland (1385), resulting in the capture of Edinburgh, was headed by the young king;coming under French influence, and adopting despotic measures in thelater years of his reign, Richard estranged all sections of his people; arising headed by Henry of Lancaster forced his abdication, and by adecree of Parliament he was imprisoned for life in Pontefract Castle, where he died (probably murdered) soon after (1367-1400). 

RICHARD III. , king of England from 1483 to 1486, youngest brother ofEdward IV. , and last of the Plantagenets, born at Fotheringhay Castle; in1461 was created Duke of Gloucester by his brother for assisting him towin the crown; faithfully supported Edward against Lancastrian attacks;married (1473) Anne, daughter of Warwick, the King-Maker; early in 1483was appointed Protector of the kingdom and guardian of his young nephew, Edward V. ; put to death nobles who stood in the way of his ambitiousschemes for the throne; doubts were cast upon the legitimacy of the youngking, and Richard's right to the throne was asserted; in July 1483 heassumed the kingly office; almost certainly instigated the murder ofEdward and his little brother in the Tower; ruled firmly and well, butwithout the confidence of the nation; in 1488 Henry, Earl of Richmond, head of the House of Lancaster, invaded England, and at the battle ofBosworth Richard was defeated and slain (1452-1485). 

RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER, an English chronicler, born at Cirencester;flourished in the 14th century; was a monk in the Benedictine monasteryof St. Peter, Westminster; wrote a History of England from 447 to 1066;for long the reputed author of a remarkable work on Roman Britain, nowproved to be a forgery; _d_. 1401. 

RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE, journalist and author; turned from law toliterature; author of a number of popular dramas, volumes of poems, essays, &c. ; was the first editor of the _Daily Telegraph_, andafterwards of the _Morning Advertiser_; took an active interest in thevolunteer movement (1820-1876). 

RICHARDSON, SIR BENJAMIN WARD, a distinguished physician and author, born at Somerby, Leicestershire; took the diploma of the Royal College ofPhysicians in 1850, and graduated in medicine at St. Andrews four yearslater; founded the _Journal of Public Health_ in 1855, and _TheAsclepiad_ in 1861, and the _Social Science Review_ in 1862; won theFothergilian gold medal and the Astley-Cooper prize of 300 guineas; mademany valuable medical inventions, and was an active lecturer on sanitaryscience, &c. ; was knighted in 1893 (1828-1896). 

RICHARDSON, CHARLES, lexicographer; was trained for the bar, buttook to literature and education; pensioned in 1852; his chief works are"Illustrations of English Philology" and the "New Dictionary of theEnglish Language" (1837), according to Trench the best dictionary of hisday (1775-1865). 

RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN, M. D. , naturalist and Arctic explorer, born atDumfries; graduated at Edinburgh; for some time a navy surgeon;accompanied Franklin on the expeditions in 1819-22 and 1825-27, and latercommanded one of the Franklin search expeditions (1848); held governmentappointments, and was knighted in 1846 (1787-1865). 

RICHARDSON, SAMUEL, novelist, born in Derbyshire, the son of ajoiner; was apprenticed to a printer in London, whose daughter hemarried; set up in the business for himself, and from his success in itbecame Master of the Stationers Company in 1754, and King's Printer in1761; was 50 before he came out as a novelist; published his "Pamela" in1740, his masterpiece "Clarissa, " written in the form of letters, in1748, and "Sir Charles Grandison" in 1753; they are all three novels ofsentiment, are instinct with a spirit of moral purity, and are morepraised than read (1689-1761). 

RICHELIEU, ARMAND-JEAN DUPLESSIS, CARDINAL DE, born in Paris, of anoble family; was minister of Louis XIII. , and one of the greateststatesmen France ever had; from his installation as Prime Minister in1624 he set himself to the achievement of a threefold purpose, and restednot till he accomplished it--the ruin of the Protestants as a politicalparty, the curtailment of the power of the nobles, and the humiliation ofthe House of Austria in the councils of Europe; his administration wassignalised by reforms in finance, in the army, and in legislation; as thehistorian Thierry has said of him, "He left nothing undone that could bedone by statesmanship for the social amelioration of the country; he hada mind of the most comprehensive grasp, and a genius for the minutestdetails of administration"; he was a patron of letters, and the founderof the French Academy (1585-1642). 

RICHMOND, 1, an interesting old borough (4) in Yorkshire, on theSwale, 49 m. N. W. Of York; has a fine 11th-century castle, now partlyutilised as barracks, remains of a Franciscan friary, a racecourse, &c. 2, A town (23) in Surrey, 9 m. W. Of London; picturesquely situated onthe summit and slope of Richmond Hill, and the right bank of the Thames;has remains of the royal palace of Sheen, a magnificent deer park, ahandsome river bridge, &c. ; supplies London with fruit and vegetables;has many literary and historical associations. 3, Capital (85) ofVirginia, U. S. ; has a hilly and picturesque site on the James River, 116m. S. Of Washington; possesses large docks, and is a busy port, amanufacturing town (tobacco, iron-works, flour and paper mills), and arailway centre; as the Confederate capital it was the scene of amemorable, year-long siege during the Civil War, ultimately falling intothe hands of Grant and Sheridan in 1865. 

RICHMOND, LEGH, an evangelical clergyman of the Church of England, born in Liverpool, famed for a tract "The Dairyman's Daughter"(1772-1827). 

RICHTER, JEAN PAUL FRIEDRICH, usually called Jean Paul simply, thegreatest of German humourists, born at Wunsiedel, near Baireuth, inBavaria, the son of a poor German pastor; had a scanty education, but hisfine faculties and unwearied diligence supplied every defect; was aninsatiable and universal reader; meant for the Church, took to poetry andphilosophy, became an author, putting forth the strangest books with thestrangest titles; considered for a time a strange, crack-brained mixtureof enthusiast and buffoon; was recognised at last as a man of infinitehumour, sensibility, force, and penetration; his writings procured himfriends and fame, and at length a wife and a settled pension; settled inBaireuth, where he lived thenceforth diligent and celebrated in manydepartments of literature, and where he died, loved as well as admired byall his countrymen, and more by those who had known him mostintimately . .. His works are numerous, and the chief are novels, "'Hesperus' and 'Titan' being the longest and the best, the former ofwhich first (in 1795) introduced him into decisive and universalestimation with his countrymen, and the latter of which he himself, as well as the most judicious of his critics, regarded as hismasterpiece" (1763-1825). 

RICHTHOFEN, BARON VON, traveller and geographer, born in Carlsruhe, Silesia; accompanied in 1861 the Prussian expedition to Eastern Asia, travelled in 1862-68 in California, and in 1869-72 in China; has sincebeen professor of Geography successively at Bonn, Leipzig, and Berlin;has written a great work on China; _b_. 1833. 

RICORD, PHILIPPE, a famous French physician, born at Baltimore, U. S. ; came to Paris, was a specialist in a department of surgery, andsurgeon-in-chief to the hospital for venereal diseases (1800-1889). 

RIDLEY, NICOLAS, martyred bishop, born in Northumberland, Fellow andultimately Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge; on a three years' visitto the Continent fell in with certain of the Reformers and returnedconvinced of and confirmed in the Protestant faith; became king'schaplain, bishop of Rochester, and finally of London; favoured the causeof Lady Jane Grey against Mary, who committed him to the Tower, and beingcondemned as a heretic was at Oxford burnt at the stake along withLatimer (1500-1555). 

RIEHM, EDWARD, Protestant theologian, born at Diersburg, Baden, wasprofessor at Halle; wrote many theological works, among them"Handwörterbuch des biblischen Alterthums" (1830-1888). 

RIENZI, COLA DI, Roman tribune, born at Rome, of humble origin; gavehimself to the study of the ancient history of the city, became inspiredwith a noble ambition to restore its ancient glory, and being endowedwith an eloquent tongue, persuaded, with sanction of Pope Clement VI. , who was then at Avignon, his fellow-citizens to rise against the tyrannyto which they were subjected at the hands of the nobles, in which he atlength was successful; but his own rule became intolerable, and he wasassassinated in an _émeute_ just seven years after the commencement ofhis political career (1313-1354). 

RIESENGEBIRGE (i. E. Giant Mountains), a range dividing Bohemiafrom Silesia; Schneekoppe (5260 ft. ) is the highest peak; is a famoussummer resort for Germans. 

RIFACIMENTO, a literary work recast to adapt it to a change in thecircumstances of the time. 

RIFF, the name given to the N. Coast-lands of Morocco from Tangiersto Algeria; is a mountainous and woody region, with a rugged foreshore, inhabited by lawless Berbers. 

RIGA (182), the third seaport of Russia and capital of Livonia, onthe Dwina, 7 m. From its entrance into the Gulf of Riga (a spacious inleton the E. Side of the Baltic); has some fine mediæval buildings; is theseat of an archbishop, and is a busy and growing commercial andmanufacturing town, exporting grain, timber, flax, linseed, wool, &c. 

RIGDUM FUNNIDOS, Scott's nickname for JOHN BALLANTYNE (q. V. ). 

RIGHTS, DECLARATION OF, a declaration of the fundamental principlesof the constitution drawn up by the Parliament of England and submittedto William and Mary on their being called to the throne, and afterwardsenacted in Parliament when they became king and queen. It secures to thepeople their rights as free-born citizens and to the Commons as theirrepresentatives, while it binds the sovereign to respect these rights assacred. 

RIGI, an isolated mountain, 5900 ft. High, in the Swiss canton ofSchwyz, with a superb view from the summit, on which hotels have beenbuilt for the convenience of the many who visit it; is reached by twotoothed railways with a gradient of 1 ft. In 4. 

RIGVEDA, the first of the four sections into which the VEDAS(q. V. ) are divided, and which includes the body of the hymns or versesof invocation and praises; believed to have issued from a narrow circleof priests, and subsequently recast many of them. 

RIMINI (11, with suburbs 20), a walled city of N. Italy, of muchhistoric interest both in ancient and mediæval times, on the small riverMarecchia, spanned by a fine Roman bridge close to its entrance into theAdriatic, 69 m. SE. Of Bologna; has a 15th-century Renaissance cathedral, an ancient castle, and other mediæval buildings, a Roman triumphal arch, &c. ; manufactures silks and sail-cloth. 

RIMMON, name of a Syrian god who had a temple at Damascus called thehouse of Rimmon, a symbol of the sun, or of the fertilising power ofnature. 

RINALDO, one of Charlemagne's paladins, of a violent, headstrong, and unscrupulous character, who fell into disgrace, but after adventuresin the Holy Land was reconciled to the Emperor; Angelica, an infidelprincess, fell violently in love with him, but he turned a deaf ear toher addresses, while others would have given kingdoms for her hand. 

RINDERPEST or CATTLE PLAGUE, a fever of a malignant andcontagious type; the occurrence of it in Britain is due to theimportation of infected cattle from the Asiatic steppes. 

RING AND THE BOOK, a poem by Browning of 20, 000 lines, givingdifferent versions of a story agreeably to and as an exhibition of thepersonalities of the different narrators. 

RIO DE JANEIRO (423), capital and chief seaport of Brazil, charmingly situated on the E. Coast of Brazil, on the W. Shore of aspacious and beautiful bay, 15 m. Long, which forms one of the finestnatural harbours in the world; stretches some 10 m. Along the seaside, and is hemmed in by richly clad hills; streets are narrow and ill kept;possesses a large hospital, public library (180, 000 vols. ), botanicalgardens, arsenal, school of medicine, electric tramways, &c. ; hasextensive docks, and transacts half the commerce of Brazil; coffee is thechief export; manufactures cotton, jute, silk, tobacco, &c. Great heatprevails in the summer, and yellow fever is common. 

RIO GRANDE (known also as Rio Bravo del Norte), an important riverof North America, rises in the San Juan Mountains in Colorado; flows SE. , dividing Texas from Mexico, and enters the Gulf of Mexico after a courseof 1800 m. ; is navigable for steamboats some 500 m. ; chief tributary, RioPecos; also the name given to the head-stream of the river Paraná inBrazil and Argentina. 

RIO GRANDE DO NORTE (310), a maritime State in the NE. Corner ofBrazil, called after the Rio Grande, which flows NE. And enters theAtlantic at Natal, the capital of the State. 

RIO GRANDE DO SUL (645), the southmost state in Brazil, lies N. OfUruguay, fronting the Atlantic; capital, Rio Grande (18). 

RIO NEGRO, 1, One of the larger tributaries of the Amazon, rises asthe Guainia in SE. Columbia; crosses Venezuela and Brazil in a more orless SE. Direction, and joins the Amazon (the Marañon here) near Manaosafter a course of 1350 m. ; some of its tributaries connect the Orinocowith the Amazon. 2, Has its source in a small lake in the Chilian Andes, flows NE. And E. To the Atlantic, is some 500 m. Long, and easilynavigated. 

RIOJA (80), a province of W. Argentina, embraces some of the mostfruitful valleys of the Andes which grow cereals, vines, cotton, &c. ;some mining in copper, silver, and gold is done. The capital, Rioja (6), is prettily planted in a vine and orange district at the base of theSierra Velasco 350 m. NW. Of Cordoba. 

RIOM (10), a pretty little French town in the dep. Of Puy-de-Dôme, noted for its many quaint old houses of the Renaissance period; does agood trade in tobacco, linen, &c. 

RIP VAN WINKLE, a Dutch colonist of New York who, driven from homeby a termagant wife strolls into a ravine of the Katskill Mountains, falls in with a strange man whom he assists in carrying a keg, and comesupon a company of odd-looking creatures playing at ninepins, but neveruttering a word, when, seizing an opportunity that offered, he took upone of the kegs he had carried, fell into a stupor, and slept 20 years, to find his beard and all the world about him quite changed. 

RIPLEY, 1, a manufacturing town (7) of Derbyshire, situated 10 m. NE. Of Derby, in a busy coal and iron district; manufactures silk lace. 2. A Yorkshire village on the Nidd, 3½ m. NW. Of Harrowgate; has aninteresting castle, old church, &c. 

RIPLEY, GEORGE, American transcendentalist, born in Massachusetts; afriend of Emerson's and founder of BROOK FARM (q. V. ); took toCarlyle as Carlyle to him, though he was "grieved to see him" taken upwith the "Progress of Species" set, and "confusing himself" thereby(1802-1880). 

RIPON, FREDERICK JOHN ROBINSON, EARL OF, statesman, younger son ofLord Grantham, entered Parliament in 1806 as a Tory; rose to beChancellor of the Exchequer, and was for a few months in 1827 PrimeMinister; was subsequently in different Cabinets Colonial Secretary, LordPrivy Seal, and President of the Board of Trade; created an Earl In 1833(1782-1859). 

RIPON, GEORGE FREDERICK SAMUEL ROBINSON, MARQUIS OF, statesman, bornin London, son of preceding; entered House of Commons in 1852 as aLiberal; became Secretary for War (1863), and three years later forIndia; was President of the Council in 1868, a popular Viceroy of India(1880-84), First Lord of the Admiralty in 1886, and Colonial Secretary in1892-95; was created Marquis in 1871; went over to the Catholic Church in1874, resigning in consequence the Grand-Mastership of the Freemasons;_b_. 1827. 

RISHANGER, WILLIAM ("Chronigraphus"), an annalist and monk of St. Albans; wrote what is in effect a continuation of MATTHEW PARIS'S(q. V. ) "Chronicle, " and practically a history of his own times from1259 to 1307, which is both a spirited and trustworthy account, albeit inparts not original; _b_. 1250. 

RISHIS (i. E. Seers), a name given by the Hindus to seven wise menwhose eyes had been opened by the study of the sacred texts of theirreligion, the souls of whom are fabled to be incarnated in the sevenstars of the Great Bear. 

RISTORI, ADELAIDE, distinguished Italian tragédienne; was one of afamily of strolling players; her career on the stage was a continuoustriumph; the rôle in which she specially shone was that of Lady Macbeth;she was married in 1847 to the Marquis del Grillo, and is known asMarquise; _b_. 1821. 

RITSCHL, ALBRECHT, Protestant theologian, born at Berlin; studied atRome, where in 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of theology, andin 1860 ordinary professor; after which he was in 1864 transferred toGöttingen, where he spent the rest of his life, gathering year after yeararound him a large circle of students, and enriching theologicalliterature by his writings; the work which defines his position as aGerman theologian is entitled "The Christian Doctrine of Justificationand Reconciliation, " in which he seeks to draw the line betweenChristianity as exhibited respectively in the theology of the Reformationand that of modern Pietism; by his lectures and his writings he becamethe founder of what is called the Göttingen School of Theology, andexercised an influence on the religious philosophy of the time, such ashas not been witnessed in Germany since the days of Schleiermacher; histeaching is distinguished by the prominence it gives to the ethical sideof Christianity, and that it is only as exhibited on the ethical sidethat it becomes the exponent and medium of God's grace to mankind(1822-1889). 

RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, German philologist, born near Erfurt;became professor of Philology successively at Breslau, Bonn, and Leipzig;his influence on philological study was great, and his greatest work wasan edition of Plautus (1806-1876). 

RITSON, JOSEPH, a whimsical and crabbed antiquary; his industry wasgreat, his works numerous, among them one entitled "Ancient EnglishMetrical Romances, " containing a long and still valuable dissertation(1752-1803). 

RITTER, HEINRICH, German philosopher, born in Anhalt; professorsuccessively at Berlin, Kiel, and Göttingen; is distinguished as theauthor of an able "History of Philosophy" (1791-1860). 

RITTER, KARL, celebrated geographer, born at Quedlinburg; thefounder of comparative geography; professor of geography at Berlin; hischief works "Geography in its Relation to Nature, " and the "History ofMan" (1779-1859). 

RITUALISM, respect for forms in the conduct of religious worship, particularly in connection with the administration of the sacraments ofthe Church, under the impression or on the plea that they minister, asthey were ordained in certain cases to minister, to the quickening andmaintenance of the religious life. 

RIVAROL, a French writer, born at Bagnols, in the department of Var;famed for his caustic wit; was a Royalist emigrant at the time of theRevolution, and aided the cause by his pamphlets; he was styled by Burke"The Tacitus of the Revolution" (1753-1801). 

RIVE-DE-GIER (13), a flourishing town in the department of Loire, France, on the Gier, 13 m. NE. Of St. Étienne; is favourably situated inthe heart of a rich coal district; has manufactures of silk, glass, machinery, steel, &c. 

RIVERS, RICHARD WOODVILLE, EARL, a prominent figure in the reigns ofHenry VI. And Edward IV. ; was knighted in 1425; espoused the cause of theLancastrians in the Wars of the Roses, but changed sides on the marriageof his daughter with Edward IV. , who created him an earl in 1460; fellout of jealousy into disfavour with the nobility, and was beheaded in1469; his son ANTHONY, who succeeded to the title, after acting onthe Council of Regency during Edward V. 's reign, was put to death byRichard (III. ), Duke of Gloucester, in 1483. 

RIVIERA, an Italian term for coast-land flanked by mountains, especially applied to the strip of land lying around the Gulf of Genoafrom Nice to Leghorn, which is divided by Genoa into the Western andEastern Riviera, the former the more popular as a health resort; but thewhole coast enjoys an exceptionally mild climate, and is replete withbeautiful scenery. Nice, Monaco, Mentone, and San Remo are among itsmost popular towns. 

RIVIÈRE, BRITON, celebrated painter of animals, born in London;among his pictures, which are numerous, are "Daniel in the Lions' Den, ""Ruins of Persepolis, " "Giants at Play, " and "Væ Victis"; _b_. 1840. 

RIVOLI, 1, town (5) in North Italy, 8 m. W. Of Turin; has two royalcastles, and manufactures silks, woollens, &c. 2, An Italian village, 12m. NW. Of Verona; scene of Napoleon's crushing victory over the Austriansin 1797. 

RIXDOLLAR, a silver coin current on the Continent, of varying value. 

RIZZIO, DAVID, favourite of Mary, Queen of Scots, born in Turin; theson of a dancing-master; was employed by the queen as her secretary, andbeing offensive to the nobles, was by a body of them dragged from thequeen's presence and stabbed to death, 9th March 1566. 

ROANNE (31), an old French town in the department of Loire, on theriver Loire, 49 m. NW of St. Étienne; has interesting ruins, a collegeflourishing cotton and hat factories, dye-works, tanneries, &c. 

ROANOKE (16), a flourishing city of Virginia, U. S. , on the RoanokeRiver; has rapidly sprung into a busy centre of steel, iron, machinery, tobacco, and other factories. 

ROARING FORTIES, a sailor's term for the Atlantic lying between 40°and 50°N. Latitude, so called from the storms often encountered there. 

ROB ROY, a Highland freebooter, second son of Macgregor of Glengyle;assumed the name of Campbell on account of the outlawry of the Macgregorclan; traded in cattle, took part in the rebellion of 1715, had hisestates confiscated, and indemnified himself by raiding (1671-1734). 

ROBBEN ISLAND, a small island at the entrance of Table Bay, 10 m. NW. Of Cape Town; has a lunatic asylum and a leper colony. 

ROBBIA, LUCA DELIA, Italian sculptor, born in Florence, where helived and worked all his days; executed a series of bas-reliefs for thecathedral, but is known chiefly for his works in enamelled terra-cotta, the like of which is named after him, "Robbia-ware" (1400-1482). 

ROBERT I. See BRUCE. 

ROBERT II. , king of Scotland from 1371 to 1390, son of WalterStewart and Marjory, only daughter of Robert the Bruce; succeeded DavidII. , and became the founder of the Stuart dynasty; was a peaceable man, but his nobles were turbulent, and provoked invasions on the part ofEngland by their forays on the Borders (1316-1390). 

ROBERT III. , king of Scotland from 1390 to 1406, son of Robert II. ;was a quite incompetent ruler, and during his reign the barons acquiredan ascendency and displayed a disloyalty which greatly diminished thepower of the Crown both in his and succeeding reigns; the government felllargely into the hands of the king's brother, the turbulent and ambitiousRobert, Duke of Albany; an invasion (1400) by Henry IV. Of England and aretaliatory expedition under Archibald Douglas, which ended in thecrushing defeat of Homildon Hill (1402), are the chief events of thereign (1340-1406). 

ROBERT THE DEVIL, the hero of an old French romance identified withRobert, first Duke of Normandy, who, after a career of cruelty and crime, repented and became a Christian, but had to expiate his guilt bywandering as a ghost over the earth till the day of judgment; he is thesubject of an opera composed by Meyerbeer. 

ROBERTS, DAVID, painter, born in Edinburgh; began as ahouse-painter; became a scene-painter; studied artistic drawing, anddevoted himself to architectural painting, his first pictures being ofRouen and Amiens cathedrals; visiting Spain he published a collection ofSpanish sketches, and after a tour in the East published in 1842 amagnificently-illustrated volume entitled the "Holy Land, Syria, Idumæa, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia;" a great number of his pictures areecclesiastical interiors (1796-1864). 

ROBERTS, LORD, born at Cawnpore, educated in England; entered theBengal Artillery in 1851; served throughout the Indian Mutiny, commandedin the Afghan War, and achieved a brilliant series of successes, whichwere rewarded with honours on his return to England; was madecommander-in-chief of the Madras army in 1881, commander-in-chief inIndia in 1885, and commander of the forces in Ireland in 1895; _b_. 1832. 

ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM, distinguished preacher, born inLondon; a graduate of Brasenose College, Oxford, entered the Church in1840, was curate first at Winchester, next at Cheltenham, and finallysettled in Brighton; is known far and wide by his printed sermons for hisinsight into, and his earnestness in behalf of, Christian truth(1816-1853). 

ROBERTSON, JOSEPH, antiquary, born and educated at Aberdeen;apprenticed to a lawyer, but soon took to journalism, and became editorof the _Aberdeen Constitutional_, and afterwards of the _GlasgowConstitutional_; in 1849 was editor of the _Edinburgh Evening Courant_, and four years later received the post of curator of the historicaldepartment of the Edinburgh Register House; author of various historical, antiquarian, and topographical works (1810-1866). 

ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM, a popular dramatist, the son of an actor, born at Newark-on-Trent; brought up amongst actors, he naturally took tothe stage, but without success; always ready with his pen, he at lastmade his mark with "David Garrick, " and followed it up with the equallysuccessful "Ours, " "Caste, " "School, " &c. (1829-1871). 

ROBERTSON, WILLIAM, historian, born in Borthwick, Midlothian; waseducated in Edinburgh; entered the Church; became minister of Gladsmuir;distinguished himself in the General Assembly of the Church; becameleader of the Moderate party; one of the ministers of Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh, and Principal of the University, having previously written his"History of Scotland, " which brought him other honours, and which wasfollowed by a "History of Charles V. " and a "History of America, " all ofwhich contributed to awaken an interest in historical studies; he waswhat is called a "Moderate" to the backbone, and his cronies were menmore of a sceptical than a religious turn of mind, David Hume being oneof the number; while his history of Scotland, however well it may bewritten, as Carlyle testifies, is no history of Scotland at all(1721-1793)

ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN, leader of the Jacobins in the FrenchRevolution, born in Arras, of Irish origin; bred to the bar; became anadvocate and a judge; he resigned because he could not brook to sentencea man to death; inspired by the gospel of Rousseau, became a red-hotRepublican and an "INCORRUPTIBLE" (q. V. ); carried things with ahigh hand; was opposed by the Girondists, and accused, but threw back thecharge on them; carried the mob along with him, and with them at his backprocured sentence of death against the king; head of the Committee ofPublic Safety, he laid violent hands first on the queen and then on allwho opposed or dissented from the extreme course he was pursuing; had theworship of reason established in June 1794, and was at the end of themonth following beheaded by the guillotine, amid the curses of women andmen (1758-1794). 

ROBIN HOOD, a famous outlaw who, with his companions, held court inSherwood Forest, Nottingham, and whose exploits form the subject of manyan old English ballad and tale. He was a robber, but it was the rich heplundered and not the poor, and he was as zealous in the protection ofthe weak as any Knight of the Round Table; he was an expert in the use ofthe bow and the QUARTER-STAFF (q. V. ), and he and his men led amerry life together. 

ROBINS, BENJAMIN, father of the modern science of artillery, born, the son of a Quaker, at Bath; established himself in London as a teacherof mathematics, as also his reputation by several mathematical treatises;turned his attention to the theoretical study of artillery andfortification; upheld Newton's principle of ultimate ratios againstBerkeley, and in 1742 published his celebrated work, the "New Principlesof Gunnery, " which revolutionised the art of gunnery; was appointedengineer-in-general to the East India Company (1749), and planned thedefences of Madras (1707-1751). 

ROBINSON, EDWARD, Biblical scholar, born in Connecticut; author of"Biblical Researches in Palestine"; a professor in New York (1794-1863). 

ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB, literary dilettante, born at Bury St. Edmunds; lived some years at Weimar, and got acquainted with Goethe andhis circle; called to the English bar, and on quitting practice at itwith a pension, became acquainted with the literary notabilities inLondon, and left a diary full of interesting reminiscences (1775-1807). 

ROBINSON, HERCULES GEORGE ROBERT, LORD ROSMEAD, born, son of anadmiral, in 1824; withdrew from the army shortly after his firstcommission, and gave himself to Government Colonial service; received aknighthood, and held Governorship of Hong-Kong in 1859; was successivelygovernor of Ceylon, New South Wales, New Zealand, Cape of Good Hope, &c. ;created Lord Rosmead in 1896 (1824-1898). 

ROBINSON, MARY, poetess, born at Leamington; author of variouspoetical works, a translation of Euripides' "Hippolytus, " a Life of EmilyBrontë, &c. ; married in 1886 to M. Darmesteter, a noted FrenchOrientalist; _b_. 1857. 

ROBSON, FREDERICK (stage name of F. R. Brownhill), a noted comedian, born at Margate; took to the stage in 1844 after serving some time as anapprentice to a London engraver; his greatest triumphs were won after1853 on the boards of the Olympic Theatre, London; he combined in a highdegree all the gifts of a low comedian with a rare power of rising to thegrave and the pathetic (1821-1864). 

ROCHAMBEAU, COMTE DE, marshal of France, born at Vendôme; commandedthe troops sent out by France to assist the American colonies in theirrebellion against the mother-country (1725-1807). 

ROCHDALE (72), a flourishing town and cotton centre in Lancashire, prettily situated on the Roche, 11 m. NE. Of Manchester; its woollen andcotton trade (flannels and calicoes) dates back to Elizabeth's time; hasan interesting 12th century parish church. 

ROCHE, ST. , the Patron saint of the plague-stricken; beingplague-smitten himself, and overtaken with it in a desert place, he wasdiscovered by a dog, who brought him a supply of bread daily from hismaster's table till he recovered. 

ROCHEFORT, COMTE DE, commonly known as Henri Rochefort, Frenchjournalist and violent revolutionary, who was deported for his share inthe Commune in 1871, but escaped and was amnestied, and went back toParis under eclipse; _b_. 1830. 

ROCHELLE, LA (23), a fortified seaport of France, on an inlet of theBay of Biscay, 95 m. NW. Of Bordeaux; capital of the department ofCharente-Inférieure; has a commodious harbour, noteworthy publicbuildings, a fine promenade and gardens; shipbuilding, glass-works, sugar-refineries, &c. , are among its chief industries. 

ROCHESTER, 1, an interesting old city (26), of Kent, 29 m. SE. OfLondon, on the Medway, lying between and practically forming one townwith Strood and Chatham; the seat of a bishop since 604; has a finecathedral, which combines in its structure examples of Norman, EarlyEnglish, and Decorated architecture; a hospital for lepers founded in1078; a celebrated Charity House, and a strongly posted Norman castle. 2, Capital (163), of Monroe County, New York, on the Genesee River, nearLake Ontario, 67 m. NE. Of Buffalo; is a spacious and well-appointedcity, with a university, theological seminary, &c. ; has varied andflourishing manufactures. 

ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT, EARL OF, a witty profligate of the court ofCharles II. ; wrote poems, many of them licentious, among them, however, some exquisite songs; killed himself with his debauchery; died penitent;he was the author of the epitaph, accounted the best epigram in theEnglish language, "Here lies our sovereign Lord the king, " &c. (1648-1680). 

ROCHET, a linen vestment worn by bishops, abbots, and otherdignitaries, in the form of a surplice, but shorter and open at thesides. 

ROCK ISLAND (14), capital of Rock Island county, Illinois, on theMississippi; a busy centre of railway and river traffic; derives its namefrom an island in the river, where there is an extensive Governmentarsenal; a fine bridge spans the river. 

ROCK TEMPLES, temples hewn out of solid rock, found in Western Indiaespecially, such as those at ELLORA (q. V. ) and ELEPHANTA(q. V. ). 

ROCKALL, a remarkable peak of granite rock, rising some 70 ft. Abovethe sea-level from the bed of an extensive sandbank in the Atlantic, 184m. W. Of St. Kilda; a home and haunt for sea-birds. 

ROCK-BUTTER, a soft mineral substance found oozing from alum slates, and consisting of alum, alumina, and oxide of iron. 

ROCKFORD (24), a busy manufacturing town, capital of WinnebagoCounty, Illinois, on the Rock River, 86 m. NW. Of Chicago. 

ROCKHAMPTON (12), the chief port of Central Queensland, Australia, on the Fitzroy, 35 m. From its mouth; in the vicinity are richgold-fields, also copper and silver; engaged in tanning, meat-preserving, &c. ; is connected by a handsome bridge with its suburb North Rockhampton. 

ROCKING STONES or LOGANS, large stones, numerous in Cornwall, Wales, Yorkshire, &c. , so finely poised as to rock to and fro under theslightest force. 

ROCKINGHAM, CHARLES WATSON WENTWORTH, MARQUIS OF, statesman, of nogreat ability; succeeded to the title in 1750; opposed the policy ofBute, and headed the Whig opposition; in 1762 became Prime Minister, andacted leniently with the American colonies, repealing the Stamp Act; wasa bitter opponent of North's American policy of repression; held thePremiership again for a few months in 1782 (1730-1782). 

ROCKY MOUNTAINS, an extensive and lofty chain of mountains in NorthAmerica, belonging to the Cordillera system, and forming the easternbuttress of the great Pacific Highlands, of which the Sierra Nevada andCascade Mountains form the western buttress, stretching in rugged linesof almost naked rock, interspersed with fertile valleys, from New Mexicothrough Canada to the Arctic Ocean, broken only by a wonderfullybeautiful tract of elevated plateau in southern Wyoming, over whichpasses the Union Pacific Railroad; reaches its greatest height inColorado (Gray's Peak, 14, 341 ft. ); gold, silver, &c. , are foundabundantly. 

ROCOCO, name given to a debased style of architecture, overlaid witha tasteless, senseless profusion of fantastic ornamentation, withoutunity of design or purpose, which prevailed in France and elsewhere inthe 18th century. 

ROCROI (2), a small fortified town of France, about 3 m. From theBelgian frontier, in the dep. Of Ardennes; memorable for a great victoryof the French under Condé over the Spaniards in 1643. 

RODBERTUS, JOHANN KARL, Socialist, born in Greifswald; believed in aSocialism that would in course of time realise itself with the gradualelevation of the people up to the Socialistic ideal (1815-1875). 

RODERIC, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was slain inbattle with the Moors, who had invaded Spain during a civil war, and hisarmy put to flight in 711. 

RODERICK RANDOM, the hero of a novel of Smollett's, a young Scotchscapegrace, rough and reckless, and bold enough. 

RODEZ (15), a town of France, in the dep. Of Aveyron; crowns aneminence at the foot of which flows the Aveyron, 80 m. NE. Of Toulouse;has a beautiful Gothic cathedral, interesting Roman remains; manufacturestextiles, leather, paper, &c. 

RODIN, AUGUSTE, eminent French sculptor, born in Paris, distinguished for his statues and busts; _b_. 1840-1917. 

RODNEY, LORD, English admiral, born at Walton-on-Thames; entered thenavy at the age of 12, and obtained the command of a ship in 1742; didgood service in Newfoundland; was made Admiral of the Blue in 1759, andin that year destroyed the stores at Havre de Grace collected for theinvasion of England; in 1780 defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent; in 1782 defeated the French fleet under Count de Grasse bybreaking the enemy's line; was first made a baronet and then a peer, witha pension of £2000, for his services to the country (1718-1792). 

RODOSTO (19), a Turkish town on the N. Coast of the Sea of Marmora, 60 m. W. Of Constantinople; is the seat of an archbishop of the GreekChurch, has many mosques; fruitful vineyards in the vicinity produceexcellent wine. 

RODRIGUEZ (2), an interesting volcanic island lying far out in theIndian Ocean, 380 m. NE. Of Mauritius, of which it is a dependency;agriculture is the chief employment; has a good climate, but is subjectto severe hurricanes. 

ROE, EDWARD PAYSON, American novelist, born in New Windsor, NewYork; studied for the ministry and served as a chaplain during the CivilWar; settled down as a pastor of a Presbyterian church at Highland Fells;made his mark as a novelist in 1872 with "Barriers Burned Away"; took toliterature and fruit-gardening, and won a wide popularity with suchnovels as "From Jest to Earnest, " "Near to Nature's Heart, " &c. (1838-1888). 

ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR, English Radical politician, born at Madras;represented first Bath and then Sheffield in Parliament, contributed tothe downfall of the Aberdeen Government, and played in general anindependent part; his vigorous procedure as a politician earned for himthe nickname of "Tear 'em" (1802-1879). 

ROERMOND (12), an old Dutch town in Limburg, at the confluence ofthe Roer and the Meuse, 29 m. N. By E. Of Maestricht; has a splendid13th-century cathedral; manufactures cottons, woollens, &c. 

ROESKILDE, an interesting old Danish city, situated on a fjord, 20m. W. By S. Of Copenhagen, dates back to the 10th century; has a fine13th-century cathedral, the burying-place of most of the Danish kings. 

ROGATION DAYS, the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday precedingAscension Day, on which special litanies are sung or recited by the RomanCatholic clergy and people in public procession; has its origin in an oldcustom dating from the 6th century. In England the practice ceased afterthe Reformation. 

ROGER I. , the youngest of the 12 sons of Tancred of Hauteville;conquered Sicily from the Saracens after a war of 30 years, and governedit under the title of count in part from 1071 and wholly from 1089 to1101. 

ROGER II. , son and successor of the preceding, was crowned king ofthe two Sicilies by the Pope; waged war advantageously against theEmperor of the East and the Saracens of North Africa; ruled the countrywell and promoted industry (1097-1154). 

ROGER OF WENDOVER, an early English chronicler, lived in the 13thcentury; was a monk of St. Albans and subsequently prior of Belvoir;wrote a history of the world down to Henry III. 's reign, the onlyvaluable portion of it being that which deals with his own times. 

ROGERS, HENRY, English essayist; contributed for years to the_Edinburgh Review_; author of the "Eclipse of Faith" (1806-1877). 

ROGERS, JAMES E. THORWOLD, political economist, born in Hampshire;became professor of Political Economy at Oxford; author of a "History ofAgriculture and Prices in England" and "Six Centuries of Work and Wages, "an abridgment of it (1823-1890). 

ROGERS, JOHN, the first of the Marian martyrs, born at Birmingham;prepared a revised edition of the English Bible, preached at Paul's Crossagainst Romanism the Sunday after Mary's entrance into London, and wasafter a long imprisonment tried for heresy, and condemned to be burned atSmithfield (1505-1555). 

ROGERS, SAMUEL, English poet, born in London, son of a banker, bredto banking, and all his life a banker--took to literature, produced asuccession of poems: "The Pleasures of Memory" in 1792, "Human Life" in1819, and "Italy, " the chief, in 1822; he was a good conversationalist, and told lots of good stories, of which his "Table-Talk, " published in1856, is full; he issued at great expense a fine edition of "Italy" andearly poems, which were illustrated by Turner and Stothard, and are muchprized for the illustrations (1763-1855). 

ROGET, PETER MARK, physician, born in London; was professor ofPhysiology at the Royal Institution; wrote on physiology in relation tonatural theology; was author of a "Thesaurus of English Words andPhrases" (1779-1869). 

ROHAN, PRINCE LOUIS DE, a profligate ecclesiastic of France whoattained to the highest honours in the Church; became archbishop andcardinal, but who had fallen out with royalty; was debarred from court, tried every means to regain the favour of Marie Antoinette, which he hadforfeited, was inveigled into buying a necklace for her in hope ofthereby winning it back, found himself involved in the scandal connectedwith it, and was sent to the Bastille (1783-1803). See "DiamondNecklace" in CARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES. "

ROHILKHAND (5, 343), a northern division of the North-West Provinces, British India; is a flat, well-watered, fertile district, crossed byvarious railways; takes its name from the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, whohad possession of it in the 18th century. 

ROHILLAS (i. E. Hillmen), a tribe of Afghans who settled in adistrict N. Of Oudh, called Rohilkhand after them, and rose to power inthe 18th century, till their strength was broken by the British in 1774. 

ROHLFS, F. GERARD, German traveller, born near Bremen, travelled invarious directions through North Africa; undertook missions to Abyssinia, and has written accounts of his several journeys; _b_. 1832. 

ROKITANSKY, BARON, eminent physician, born at Königgrätz, professorof Pathological Anatomy at Vienna, and founder of that department ofmedicine (1804-1878). 

ROLAND, one of the famous paladins of Charlemagne, and distinguishedfor his feats of valour, who, being inveigled into the pass ofRoncesvalles, was set upon by the Gascons and slain, along with theflower of the Frankish chivalry, the whole body of which happened to bein his train. 

ROLAND, MADAME, a brave, pure-souled, queen-like woman with "astrong Minerva face, " the noblest of all living Frenchwomen, tookenthusiastically to the French Revolution, but when things went too farsupported the Moderate or Girondist party; was accused, but clearedherself before the Convention, into whose presence she had been summoned, and released; but two days after was arrested, imprisoned in CharlotteCorday's apartments, and condemned; on the scaffold she asked for pen andpaper "to write the strange thoughts that were rising in her, " which wasrefused; looking at the statue of Liberty which stood there, sheexclaimed bitterly before she laid her head on the block, "O Liberty, what crimes are done in thy name!" (1754-1793). 

ROLAND DE LA PLATIÈRE, JEAN MARIE, husband of Madame Roland, wasInspector of Manufactures at Lyons; represented Lyons in the ConstituentAssembly; acted with the Girondists; fled when the Girondist party fled, and on hearing of his wife's fate at Rouen bade farewell to his friendswho had sheltered him, and was found next morning "sitting leant againsta tree, stiff in the rigour of death, a cane-sword run through his heart"(1732-1793). 

ROLLIN, CHARLES, French historian, born in Paris; rector of theUniversity; wrote "Ancient History" in 13 vols. , and "Roman History" in16 vols. , once extremely popular, but now discredited and no longer inrequest (1661-1741). 

ROLLO, a Norwegian, who became the chief of a band of Norse pirateswho one day sailed up the Seine to Rouen and took it, and so ravaged thecountry that Charles the Simple was glad to come to terms with them bysurrendering to them part of Neustria, which thereafter bore from themthe name of Normandy; after this Rollo embraced Christianity, wasbaptized by the Bishop of Rouen, and was the first Duke of Normandy(860-932). 

ROMAGNA, the former name of a district in Italy which comprised theNE. Portion of the Papal States, embracing the modern provinces ofFerrara, Bologna, Ravenna, and Forli. 

ROMAINE, WILLIAM, evangelical divine of the English Church, born atHartlepool, author of works once held in much favour by the evangelicals, entitled severally "The Life, the Walk, and the Triumph of Faith"(1714-1795). 

ROMAN EMPIRE, HOLY, or the REICH, the name of the old GermanEmpire which, under sanction of the Pope, was established by Otho theGreat in 962, and dissolved in 1806 by the resignation of Francis II. , Emperor of Austria, and was called "Holy" as being Christian in contrastwith the old pagan empire of the name. 

ROMANCE LANGUAGES, the name given to the languages that sprung fromthe Latin, and were spoken in the districts of South Europe that had beenprovinces of Rome. 

ROMANES, GEORGE JOHN, naturalist, born at Kingston, Canada; took anhonours degree in science at Cambridge; came under the influence ofDarwin, whose theory of evolution he advocated and developed in lecturesand various works, e. G. "Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution, ""Mental Evolution in Animals, " "Mental Evolution in Man"; his posthumous"Thoughts on Religion" reveal a marked advance from his early agnosticismtowards a belief in Christianity; founded the Romanes Lectures at Oxford(1848-1894). 

ROMANOFF, the name of an old Russian family from which sprung thereigning dynasty of Russia, and the first Czar of which was MichaelFedorovitch (1613-1645). 

ROMANS (17), a town in the dep. Drôme, France, on the Isère, 12 m. NE. Of Valence; a 9th-century bridge spans the river to the opposite townPéage; has a 9th-century abbey; manufactures silk, &c. 

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE, an epistle written from Corinth, in the year59, by St. Paul to the Church at Rome to correct particularly two errorswhich he had learned the Church there had fallen into, on the part, onthe one hand, of the Jewish Christians, that the Gentiles as such werenot entitled to the same privileges as themselves, and, on the otherhand, of the Gentile Christians, that the Jews by their rejection ofChrist had excluded themselves from God's kingdom; and he wrote thisepistle to show that the one had no more right to the grace of God thanthe other, and that this grace contemplates the final conversion of theJews as well as the Gentiles. The great theme of this epistle is thatfaith in Christ is the one way of salvation for all mankind, Jew as wellas Gentile, and its significance is this, that it contains if not thewhole teaching of Paul, that essential part of it which presents andemphasises the all-sufficiency of this faith. 

ROMANTICISM, the name of the reactionary movement in literature andart at the close of last century and at the beginning of this against thecold and spiritless formalism and pseudo-classicism that then prevailed, and was more regardful of correctness of expression than truth of feelingand the claims of the emotional nature; has been defined as the"reproduction in modern art and literature of the life and thought of theMiddle Ages. "

ROME (423), since 1871 capital of the modern kingdom of Italy (q. V. ), on the Tiber, 16 m. From its entrance into the Tyrrhenian Sea;legend ascribes its foundation to Romulus in 753 B. C. , and the story ofits progress, first as the chief city of a little Italian kingdom, thenof a powerful and expanding republic (510 B. C. To 30 B. C. ), and finallyof a vast empire, together with its decline and fall in the 5th century(476 A. D. ), before the advancing barbarian hordes, forms the mostimpressive chapter in the history of nations; as the mother-city ofChristendom in the Middle Ages, and the later capital of the PAPALSTATES (q. V. ) and seat of the Popes, it acquired fresh glory; itremains the most interesting city in the world; is filled with thesublime ruins and monuments of its pagan greatness and the pricelessart-treasures of its mediæval period; of ruined buildings the mostimposing are the Colosseum (a vast amphitheatre for gladiatorial shows)and the Baths of Caracalla (accommodated 1600 bathers); the greataqueducts of its Pre-Christian period still supply the city with waterfrom the Apennines and the Alban Hills; the Aurelian Wall (12 m. ) stillsurrounds the city, enclosing the "seven hills, " the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, &c. , but suburbs have spread beyond; St. Peter's isyet the finest church in the world; the Popes have their residence in theVatican; its manufactures are inconsiderable, and consist chiefly ofsmall mosaics, bronze and plaster casts, prints, trinkets, &c. ; dependsfor its prosperity chiefly on the large influx of visitors, and the courtexpenditure of the Quirinal and Vatican, and of the civil and militaryofficials. 

ROMFORD (8), an old market-town of Essex, on the Bourne or Rom, 12m. NE. Of London; noted for its cattle and corn markets; industriesinclude brewing, market-gardening, foundries, &c. 

ROMILLY, SIR SAMUEL, English lawyer, born in London, of a Huguenotfamily; was a Whig in politics, and was Solicitor-General for a time;devoted himself to the amendment of the criminal law of the country, andwas a zealous advocate against slavery and the spy system (1751-1818). 

ROMNEY, GEORGE, English portrait-painter, born in Lancashire;married at Kendal, left his wife and two children there, and paintedportraits in London for 35 years in rivalry with Reynolds andGainsborough, and retired at the end of that time to Kendal to die, hiswife nursing him tenderly, though in the whole course of the termreferred to, he had visited her only twice (1734-1862). 

ROMNEY, NEW (1), one of the old CINQUE PORTS (q. V. ), in S. Kent, 8 m. SW. Of Hythe; the sea has receded from its shores, leaving itno longer a port; as centre of a fine pastoral district it has animportant sheep fair; the little village of Old Romney lies 1½ m. Inland. 

ROMOLA, a novel by George Eliot, deemed her greatest by many, being"a deep study of life in the city of Florence from an intellectual, artistic, religious, and social point of view. "

ROMSAY (4), a town in Hampshire, on the Test, 8 m. NW. OfSouthampton; has a remarkably fine old Norman church and a corn exchange;birthplace of Lord Palmerston. 

ROMULUS, legendary founder of Rome, reputed son of Mars and RHEASILVIA (q. V. ), daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa; exposed athis birth, along with Remus, his twin-brother (q. V. ); was suckled by ashe-wolf and brought up by Faustulus, a shepherd; opened an asylum forfugitives on one of the hills of Rome, and founded the city in 753 B. C. , peopling it by a rape of Sabine women, and afterwards forming a leaguewith the SABINES (q. V. ); he was translated to heaven during athunderstorm, and afterwards worshipped as Quirinus, leaving Rome behindhim as his mark. 

RONALDSHAY, NORTH AND SOUTH, two of the Orkney Islands; NorthRonaldshay is the most northerly of the Orkney group; South Ronaldshay(2) lies 6¼ m. NE. Of Duncansby Head; both have a fertile soil, and thecoast fisheries are valuable. 

RONCESVALLES, a valley of the Pyrenees, 23 m. NE. Of Pampeluna, where in 775 the rear of the army of Charlemagne was cut in pieces by theBasques, and ROLAND (q. V. ) with the other Paladins was slain. 

RONDA (19), one of the old Moorish towns of Spain, built amid grandscenery on both sides of a great ravine (bridged in two places), downwhich rushes the Guadiaro, 43 m. W. Of Malaga; is a favourite summerresort. 

RONDEAU, a form of short poem (originally French) which, as in the15th century, usually consists of 13 lines, eight of which have one rhymeand five another; is divided into three stanzas, the first line of therondeau forming the concluding line of the last two stanzas; Swinburnehas popularised it in modern times. 

RONDO, a form of musical composition which corresponds to theRONDEAU (q. V. ) in poetry; consists of two or more (usuallythree) strains, the first being repeated at the end of each of the othertwo, but it admits of considerable variation. 

RONSARD, PIERRE, celebrated French poet, born near Vendôme; was fora time attached to the Court; was for three years of the household ofJames V. Of Scotland in connection with it, and afterwards in the serviceof the Duke of Orleans, but having lost his hearing gave himself up toliterature, writing odes and sonnets; he was of the PLÉIADE SCHOOL OFPOETS (q. V. ), and contributed to introduce important changes inthe idiom of the French language, as well as in the rhythm of Frenchpoetry (1521-1585). 

RÖNTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD VON, discoverer of the Röntgen rays, born atLennep, in Rhenish Prussia; since 1885 has been professor of Physics atWürzburg; his discovery of the X-rays was made in 1898, and has won him awide celebrity; _b_. 1845. 

RÖNTGEN RAYS, described by Dr. Knott as "rays of light that passwith ease through many substances that are optically opaque, but areabsorbed by others. " "For example, " he says, "the bony structures of thebody are much less transparent than the fleshy parts; hence by placingthe hand between a fluorescent screen and the source of these rays we seethe shadow of the skeleton of the hand with a much fainter shadow of theflesh and skin bordering it. " See Dr. Knott's "Physics. "

ROOKE, SIR GEORGE, British admiral, born at Canterbury;distinguished himself at the battle of Cape La Hogue in 1692; in anexpedition against Cadiz destroyed the Plate-fleet in the harbour of Vigoin 1702; assisted in the capture of Gibraltar from the Spaniards in 1704, and fought a battle which lasted a whole day with a superior French forceoff Malaga the same year (1650-1709). 

ROON, COUNT VON, Prussian general, born in Pomerania; was Ministerof War in 1859 and of Marine in 1861; was distinguished for the importantreforms he effected in the organisation of the Prussian army, conspicuousin the campaigns of 1866 and 1871-72 (1803-1879). 

ROOT, GEORGE FREDERICK, a popular American song-writer, born atSheffield, Massachusetts; was for some time a music teacher in Boston andNew York; took to song writing, and during the Civil War leaped into fameas the composer of "Tramp, tramp, tramp the Boys are Marching, " "Justbefore the Battle, Mother, " "The Battle Cry of Freedom, " and othersongs; was made a Musical Doctor by Chicago University in 1872(1820-1895). 

ROOT AND BRANCH MEN, name of a party in the Commons who in 1641supported a petition for the abolition of Episcopacy in England, and evencarried a bill through two readings, to be finally thrown out. 

ROPEMAKER, THE BEAUTIFUL. See LABÉ, LOUISE. 

RORKE'S DRIFT, a station on the Tugela River, Zululand, the defenceof which was on the night of the 24th January 1879 successfullymaintained by 80 men of the 24th Regiment against 4000 Zulu warriors. 

ROSA, CARL, father of English opera, born at Hamburg; introduced onthe English stage the standard Italian, French, and German operas with anEnglish text (1842-1889). 

ROSA, SALVATOR, Italian painter, born near Naples, a man ofversatile ability; could write verse and compose music, as well as paintand engrave; his paintings of landscape were of a sombre character, andgenerally representative of wild and savage scenes; he lived chiefly inRome, but took part in the insurrection of Masaniello at Naples in 1647(1615-1673). 

ROSAMOND, FAIR, a daughter of Lord Clifford, and mistress of HenryII. , who occupied a bower near Woodstock, the access to which was by alabyrinth, the windings of which only the king could thread. Her retreatwas discovered by Queen Eleanor, who poisoned her. 

ROSARIO (51), an important city of the Argentine Republic, on theParaná, 190 m. NW. Of Buenos Ayres; does a large trade with Europe, exporting wool, hides, maize, wheat, &c. 

ROSARY, a string of beads used by Hindus, Buddhists, Mohammedans, and Roman Catholics as an aid to the memory during devotional exercises;the rosary of the Roman Catholics consists of beads of two sizes, thelarger ones mark the number of Paternosters and the smaller the number ofAve Marias repeated; of the former there are usually five, of the latterfifty. 

ROSAS, JEAN MANUEL, Argentine statesman, born at Buenos Ayres;organised the confederation, became dictator, failed to force the PlateRiver States into the confederation, and took refuge in England, where hedied (1793-1877). 

ROSCHER, WILHELM, distinguished political economist, born atHanover, professor at Göttingen and Leipzig, the head of the historicalschool of political economy; his chief work a "System of PoliticalEconomy" (1817-1894). 

ROSCIUS, QUINTUS, famous Roman comic actor, born near Lanuvium, inthe Sabine territory; was a friend of Cicero, and much patronised by theRoman nobles; was thought to have reached perfection in his art, so thathis name became a synonym for perfection in any profession or art. 

ROSCOE, SIR HENRY, chemist, born in London, grandson of succeeding, professor at Owens College, Manchester; author of treatises on chemistry;_b_. 1834. 

ROSCOE, WILLIAM, historian, born in Liverpool; distinguished as theauthor of the "Life of Lorenzo de' Medici" and of "Leo X. , " as well as of"Handbooks of the Italian Renaissance" and a collection of poems(1753-1831). 

ROSCOMMON (114), an inland county of Connaught, SW. Ireland; ispoorly developed; one-half is in grass, and a sixth mere waste land;crops of hay, potatoes, and oats are raised, but the rearing of sheep andcattle is the chief industry; the rivers Shannon and Suck lie on its E. And W. Borders respectively; there is some pretty lake-scenery, interesting Celtic remains, castle, and abbey ruins, &c. The county town, 96 m. NW. Of Dublin, has a good cattle-market, and remains of a13th-century Dominican abbey and castle. 

ROSCREA (3), an old market-town of Tipperary, 77 m. SW. Of Dublin;its history reaches back to the 7th century, and it has interesting ruinsof a castle, round tower, and two abbeys. 

ROSEBERY, ARCHIBALD PHILIP PRIMROSE, EARL OF, born in London;educated at Eton and Christ's Church, Oxford; succeeded to the earldom in1868; was twice over Secretary for Foreign Affairs under Mr. Gladstone, in 1885 and 1892; was first Chairman of London County Council; becamePrime Minister on March 1894 on Mr. Gladstone's retirement, and resignedin June 1895; he is one of the most popular statesmen and orators of theday, and held in deservedly high esteem by all classes; _b_. 1847. 

ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE, American general, born at Kingston, Ohio;trained as an engineer, he had settled down to coal-mining when the CivilWar broke out; joined the army in 1861, and rapidly came to the front;highly distinguished himself during the campaigns of 1862-63, winningbattles at Iuka, Corinth, and Stone River; but defeated at Chickamauga helost his command; reinstated in 1864 he drove Price out of Missouri; hasbeen minister to Mexico, a member of Congress, and since 1885 Registrarof the U. S. Treasury; _b_. 1819. 

ROSENKRANZ, KARL, philosopher of the Hegelian school, born atMagdeburg; professor of Philosophy at Königsberg; wrote an exposition ofthe Hegelian system, a "Life of Hegel, " on "Goethe and his Works, " &c. (1805-1879). 

ROSES, WARS OF THE, the most protracted and sanguinary civil war inEnglish history, fought out during the reigns of Henry VI. , Edward IV. , and Richard III. Between the adherents of the noble houses of York andLancaster--rival claimants for the throne of England--whose badges werethe white and the red rose respectively; began with the first battle ofSt. Albans (1455), in which Richard, Duke of York, defeated Henry VI. 'sforces under the Duke of Somerset; but not till after the decisivevictory at Towton (1461) did the Yorkists make good their claim, whenEdward (IV. ), Duke of York, became king. Four times the Lancastrians weredefeated during his reign. The war closed with the defeat and death ofthe Yorkist Richard III. At Bosworth, 1485, and an end was put to therivalry of the two houses by the marriage of Henry VII. Of Lancaster withElizabeth of York, 1486. 

ROSETTA (18), a town on the left branch of the delta of the Nile, 44m. NE. Of Alexandria, famous for the discovery near it by M. Boussard, in1799, of the Rosetta stone with inscriptions in hieroglyphic, demotic andGreek, and by the help of which archæologists have been able to interpretthe hieroglyphics of Egypt. 

ROSICRUCIANS, a fraternity who, in the beginning of the 15thcentury, affected an intimate acquaintance with the secrets of nature, and pretended by the study of alchemy and other occult sciences to bepossessed of sundry wonder-working powers. 

ROSINANTE, the celebrated steed of Don Quixote, reckoned by himsuperior to the Bucephalus of Alexander and the Bavieca of the Cid. 

ROSLIN, a pretty little village of Midlothian, by the wooded side ofthe North Esk, 6½ m. S. Of Edinburgh; has ruins of a 14th-century castle, and a small chapel of rare architectural beauty, built in the 16thcentury as the choir of a projected collegiate church. 

ROSMINI, ANTONIO ROSMINI-SERBATI, distinguished Italian philosopher, born at Rovereto, entered the priesthood, devoted himself to the study ofphilosophy, founded a system and an institute called the "Institute ofthe Brethren of Charity" at Stresa, W. Of Lake Maggiore, on a pietisticreligious basis, which, though sanctioned by the Pope, has encounteredmuch opposition at the hands of the obscurantist party in the Church(1797-1865). 

ROSS, SIR JOHN, Arctic explorer, born in Wigtownshire; made threevoyages, the first in 1811 under Parry; the second in 1829, which hecommanded; and a third in 1850, in an unsuccessful search for Franklin, publishing on his return from them accounts of the first two, in both ofwhich he made important discoveries (1777-1856). 

ROSSANO (19), a town of Southern Italy, in Calabria, 2 m. From theSW. Shore of the Gulf of Taranto; has a fine cathedral and castle;valuable quarries of marble and alabaster are wrought in the vicinity. 

ROSSBACH, a village in Prussian Saxony, 9 m. SW. Of Merseburg, whereFrederick the Great gained in 1767 a brilliant victory with 22, 000 menover the combined arms of France and Austria with 60, 000. 

ROSSE, WILLIAM PARSONS, THIRD EARL OF, born in York; devoted to thestudy of astronomy; constructed reflecting telescopes, and a monster oneat the cost of £30, 000 at Parsonstown, his seat in Ireland, by means ofwhich important discoveries were made, specially in the resolution ofnebulæ (1800-1867). 

ROSSETTI, CHARLES DANTE GABRIEL, poet and painter, born in London, the son of Gabriele Rossetti; was as a painter one of thePRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD (q. V. ), and is characterised byRuskin as "the chief intellectual force in the establishment of themodern romantic school in England, . .. As regarding the external world asa singer of the Romaunts would have regarded it in the Middle Ages, andas Scott, Burns, Byron, and Tennyson have regarded it in modern times, "and as a poet was leader of the romantic school of poetry, which, asStopford Brooke remarks, "found their chief subjects in ancient Rome andGreece, in stories and lyrics of passion, in mediæval romance, in Norselegends, in the old English of Chaucer, and in Italy" (1828-1882). 

ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA, poetess, born in London, sister ofDante Gabriel Rossetti, and of kindred temper with her brother, but withdistinct qualities of her own; her first volume, called the"Goblin-Market, " contains a number of very beautiful short poems; sheexhibits, along with a sense of humour, a rare pathos, which, asProfessor Saintsbury remarks, often "blends with or passes into theutterance of religious awe, unstained and unweakened by any craven fear"(1830-1894). 

ROSSETTI, GABRIELE, Italian poet and orator, born at Vasto; had forhis patriotic effusions to leave Italy, took refuge in London, and becameprofessor of Italian in King's College, London; was a man of strongcharacter, and student of literature as well as man of letters himself;was the father of Dante Gabriel and Christina (1783-1854). 

ROSSI, PELLEGRINO, an Italian jurist and politician, born atCarrara, educated at Bologna, where he became professor of Law in 1812;four years later was appointed to a chair in Geneva, where he also busiedhimself with politics as a member of the Council and deputy in the Diet;settled in Paris in 1833, became professor at the Collège de France, wasnaturalised and created a peer, returned to Rome, broke off hisconnection with France, won the friendship of Pius IX. , and rose to behead of the ministry; was assassinated (1787-1848). 

ROSSINI, GIOACCHINO, celebrated Italian composer of operatic music, born at Pesaro; his operas were numerous, of a high order, and receivedwith unbounded applause, beginning with "Tancred, " followed by "Barber ofSeville, " "La Gazza Ladra, " "Semiramis, " "William Tell, " &c. ; he composeda "Stabat Mater, " and a "Mass" which was given at his grave (1792-1868). 

ROSTOCK (44), a busy German port in Mecklenburg, on the Warnow, 7 m. From its entrance into the Baltic; exports large quantities of grain, wool, flax, &c. , has important wool and cattle markets; shipbuilding isthe chief of many varied industries, owns a flourishing university, abeautiful Gothic church, a ducal palace, &c. 

ROSTOFF, 1, a flourishing town (67) of South Russia, on the Don, 34m. E. Of Taganrog; manufactures embrace tobacco, ropes, leather, shipbuilding, &c. 2, One of the oldest of Russian market-towns (12), onthe Lake of Rostoff, 34 m. SW. Of Jaroslav, seat of an archbishop;manufactures linens, silks, &c. 

ROSTOPCHINE, COUNT, Russian general, governor of Moscow; was chargedwith having set fire to the city against the entrance of the French in1812; in his defence all he admitted was that he had set fire to his ownmansion, and threw the blame of the general conflagration on the citizensand the French themselves (1763-1826). 

ROSTRUM (lit. A beak), a pulpit in the forum of Rome where theorators delivered harangues to the people, so called as originallyconstructed of the prows of war-vessels taken at the first naval battlein which Rome was engaged. 

ROTHE, RICHARD, eminent German theologian, born at Posen, professoreventually at Heidelberg; regarded the Church as a temporary institutionwhich would decease as soon as it had fulfilled its function by leaveningsociety with the Christian spirit; he wrote several works, but thegreatest is entitled "Theological Ethics" (1799-1867). 

ROTHERHAM (42), a flourishing town in Yorkshire, situated on theDon, 5 m. NE. Of Sheffield; its cruciform church is a splendid specimenof Perpendicular architecture; manufactures iron-ware, chemicals, pottery, &c. 

ROTHESAY (9), popular watering-place on the W. Coast of Scotland, capital of Buteshire, charmingly situated at the head of a fine hill-girtbay on the NE. Side of the island of Bute, 19 m. SW. Of Greenock; has anexcellent harbour, esplanade, &c. ; Rothesay Castle is an interestingruin; is a great health and holiday resort. 

ROTHSCHILD, MEYER AMSCHEL, the founder of the celebrated bankingbusiness, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, a Jew by birth; began his careeras a money-lender and made a large fortune (1743-1812); left five sons, who were all made barons of the Austrian empire--AMSELM VON R. , eldest, head of the house at Frankfort (1773-1855); SOLOMON VON R. , the second, head of the Vienna house (1774-1855); NATHAN VON R. , thethird, head of the London house (1777-1836); KARL VON R. , thefourth, head of the house at Naples (1755-1855); and JACOB VON R. , the fifth, head of the Paris house (1792-1868). 

ROTROU, JEAN DE, French poet, born at Dreux; was a contemporary ofCorneille and a rival, wrote a number of plays, almost all tragedies, onromantic and classical subjects, some of which have kept the stage tillnow (1609-1650). 

ROTTERDAM (223), the chief port and second city of Holland, situatedat the junction of the Rotte with the Maas, 19 m. From the North Sea and45 m. SW. Of Amsterdam; the town is cut in many parts by handsome canals, which communicate with the river and serve to facilitate the enormousforeign commerce; the quaint old houses, the stately public buildings, broad tree-lined streets, canals alive with fleets of trim barges, combine to give the town a picturesque and animated appearance. Boymans'Museum has a fine collection of Dutch and modern paintings, and theGroote Kerk is a Gothic church of imposing appearance; there is also alarge zoological garden; shipbuilding, distilling, sugar-refining, machine and tobacco factories are the chief industries. 

ROTTI (60), a fertile hilly island in the Indian Archipelago, SW. OfTimor, a Dutch possession. 

ROUBAIX (115), a busy town in the department of Nord, N. Of France;situated on a canal 6 m. NE. Of Lille; is of modern growth; activelyengaged in the manufacture of all kinds of textiles, in brewing, &c. 

ROUBILLIAC, LOUIS FRANÇOIS, sculptor, born at Lyons; studied inParis, came to London; executed there statues of Shakespeare in theBritish Museum, Sir Isaac Newton at Cambridge, and Händel at London(1693-1762). 

ROUBLE, a silver coin of the value of 3s. 2d. ; the unit of theRussian monetary system; a much depreciated paper rouble is also incirculation; the rouble is divided into 100 copecks. 

ROUEN (112), the ancient capital of Normandy, a busy manufacturingtown on the Seine, 87 m. NW of Paris; a good portion of the old, crowded, picturesque town has given place to more spacious streets and dwellings;the old ramparts have been converted into handsome boulevards; hasseveral Gothic churches unrivalled in beauty, a cathedral (the seat of anarchbishop), &c. ; the river affords an excellent waterway to the sea, andas a port Rouen ranks fourth in France; is famed for its cotton and othertextiles; Joan of Arc was burned here in 1431. 

ROUGET DE LISLE, officer of the Engineers, born at Lons-le-Saulnier;immortalised himself as the author of the "MARSEILLAISE" (q. V. );was thrown into prison by the extreme party at the Revolution, butwas released on the fall of Robespierre; fell into straitenedcircumstances, but was pensioned by Louis Philippe (1760-1836). 

ROUGE-ET-NOIR (i. E. Red and black), a gambling game of chancewith cards, so called because it is played on a table marked with two redand two black diamond-shaped spots, and arranged alternately in fourdifferent sections of the table. 

ROUHER, EUGÈNE, French Bonapartist statesman, born at Riom, where hebecame a barrister; entered the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and in thefollowing year became Minister of Justice; was more or less in officeduring the next 20 years; he became President of the Senate in 1869; fledto England on the fall of the Empire; later on re-entered the NationalAssembly, and vigorously defended the ex-emperor Napoleon III. (1814-1884). 

ROULERS (20), a manufacturing town in West Flanders, 19 m. SW. OfBruges; engaged in manufacturing cottons, lace, &c. ; scene of a Frenchvictory over the Austrians in 1794. 

ROULETTE, a game of chance, very popular in France last century, nowat Monaco; played with a revolving disc and a ball. 

ROUMANIA (5, 800), a kingdom of SE. Europe, wedged in between Russia(N. ) and Bulgaria (S. ), with an eastern shore on the Black Sea; theCarpathians on the W. Divide it from Austro-Hungary; comprises the oldprincipalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which, long subject to Turkey, united under one ruler in 1859, and received their independence in 1878, in which year the province of Dobrudja was ceded by Russia; in 1881 thecombined provinces were recognised as a kingdom; forms a fertile andwell-watered plain sloping N. To S. , which grows immense quantities ofgrain, the chief export; salt-mining and petroleum-making are alsoimportant industries; the bulk of the people belong to the Greek Church;peasant proprietorship on a large scale is a feature of the nationallife; government is vested in a hereditary limited monarch, a council ofministers, a senate, and a chamber of deputies; BUCHAREST (q. V. )is the capital, and GALATZ (q. V. ) the chief port. 

ROUMELIA, a former name for a district which embraced ancient Thraceand a portion of Macedonia; the territory known as East Roumelia wasincorporated with Bulgaria in 1885. 

ROUND TABLE, THE, the name given to the knighthood of King Arthur: alarger, from including as many as 150 knights; and a smaller, fromincluding only 12 of the highest order. 

ROUND TOWERS, ancient towers, found chiefly in Ireland, of a tall, round, more or less tapering structure, divided into storeys, and with aconical top, erected in the neighbourhood of some church or monastery, and presumably of Christian origin, and probably used as strongholds intimes of danger; of these there are 118 in Ireland, and three inScotland--at Abernethy, Brechin, and Eglishay (Orkney). 

ROUNDHEADS, the name of contempt given by the Cavaliers to thePuritans or Parliamentary party during the Civil War, on account of theirwearing their hair close crept. 

ROUS, FRANCIS, provost of Eton, born in Cornwall; sat in theWestminster Assembly, and was the author of the metrical version of thePsalms, as used in Presbyterian churches (1579-1659). 

ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE, French lyric poet, born in Paris, the sonof a shoemaker; gave offence by certain lampoons ascribed to him which tothe last he protested were forgeries, and was banished; his satires werecertainly superior to his lyrics, which were cold and formal; died atBrussels in exile (1670-1741). 

ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES, a celebrated French philosopher, and one orthe great prose writers of French literature, born in Geneva, the son ofa watchmaker and dancing-master; was apprenticed to an engraver, whoseinhuman treatment drove him at the age of 16 into running away; for threeyears led a vagrant life, acting as footman, lackey, secretary, &c. ;during this period was converted to Catholicism largely through theefforts of Madame de Warens, a spritely married lady living apart fromher husband; in 1731 he took up residence in his patroness's house, wherehe lived for nine years a life of ease and sentiment in the ambiguouscapacity of general factotum, and subsequently of lover; supplanted inthe affections of his mistress, he took himself off, and landed in Parisin 1741; supported himself by music-copying, an occupation which was hissteadiest means of livelihood throughout his troubled career; formed a_liaison_ with an illiterate dull servant-girl by whom he had fivechildren, all of whom he callously handed over to the foundling hospital;acquaintance with Diderot brought him work on the famous Encyclopédie, but the true foundation of his literary fame was laid in 1749 by "ADiscourse on Arts and Sciences, " in which he audaciously negatives thetheory that morality has been favoured by the progress of science and thearts; followed this up in 1753 by a "Discourse on the Origin ofInequality, " in which he makes a wholesale attack upon the cherishedinstitutions and ideals of society; morosely rejected the flatteringadvances of society, and from his retreat at Montlouis issued "The NewHéloïse" (1760), "The Social Contract" (1762), and "Émile" (1762); theselifted him into the widest fame, but precipitated upon him the enmity andpersecution of Church (for his Deism) and State; fled to Switzerland, where after his aggressive "Letters from the Mountains, " he wanderedabout, the victim of his own suspicious, hypochondriacal nature; foundfor some time a retreat in Staffordshire under the patronage of Hume;returned to France, where his only persecutors were his own morbidhallucinations; died, not without suspicion of suicide, at Ermenonville;his "Confessions" and other autobiographical writings, althoughunreliable in facts, reflect his strange and wayward personality withwonderful truth; was one of the precursive influences which brought onthe revolutionary movement (1712-1778). 

ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ÉTIENNE THÉODORE, an eminent French artist, born inParis; at 19 exhibited in the Salon; slowly won his way to the front asthe greatest French landscape painter; in 1848 settled down in Barbizon, in the Forest of Fontainebleau, his favourite sketching ground; hispictures (e. G. "The Alley of Chestnut Trees, " "Early Summer Morning")fetch immense prices now (1812-1867). 

ROVEREDO (10), an Austrian town in the Tyrol, pleasantly situated onthe Leno, in the Lägerthal; is the centre of the Tyrolese silk trade. 

ROW, JOHN, a Scottish reformer; graduated LL. D. In Padua; came overfrom the Catholic Church in 1558, and two years later helped to compilethe "First Book of Discipline"; settled as a minister in Perth, and wasfour times Moderator of the General Assembly (1525-1580). His son, JohnRow, was minister of Carnock, near Dunfermline, and author of anauthoritative "History of the Kirk of Scotland" (1568-1646). 

ROWE, NICHOLAS, dramatist and poet-laureate, born at Barford, Bedfordshire; was trained for the law, but took to literature, and madehis mark as a dramatist, "The Fair Penitent, " "Jane Shore, " &c. , longmaintaining their popularity; translated Lucan's "Pharsalia, " which wonDr. Johnson's commendation; edited Shakespeare; became poet-laureate in1715; held some government posts; was buried at Westminster Abbey(1674-1718). 

ROWLANDSON, THOMAS, caricaturist, born in London; studied art inParis; gambled and lived extravagantly; led a roving life in England andWales; displayed great versatility and strength in his artistic work, _e. G_. In "Imitations of Modern Drawings, " illustrations to Sterne's"Sentimental Journey, " "Munchausen's Travels, " &c. ; ridiculed Napoleon inmany cartoons (1756-1827). 

ROWLEY REGIS (31), a flourishing town of Staffordshire, 3 m. SE. OfDudley; has large iron-works, potteries, &c. 

ROWTON HEATH, in the vicinity of Chester, scene of a greatParliamentary victory over the forces of Charles I. In September 1645. 

ROXBURGHSHIRE (54), in Border pastoral county of Scotland, betweenBerwick (NE. ) and Dumfries (SW. ); the Cheviots form its southernboundary; lies almost wholly within the basin of the Tweed, which windsalong its northern border, receiving the Teviot, Jed, &c. ; includes thefine pastoral districts of Teviotdale and Liddesdale, where vast flocksof sheep are reared; agriculture and woollen manufactures are importantindustries; Hawick is the largest town, and Jedburgh the county town;near Kelso stood the royal castle and town of Roxburgh, which gave itsname to the county, destroyed in 1460. 

ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS, in London; was instituted in 1768 by GeorgeIII. As a result of a memorial presented to him by 29 members who hadseceded from "The Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain"(founded 1765); for some years received grants from the privy purse, andwas provided with rooms in Somerset House; removed to Trafalgar Square in1836, and to its present quarters at Burlington House in 1869; receivesnow no public grant; holds yearly exhibitions, and supports an artschool; membership comprises 42 Royal Academicians, besides Associates. The present President is Sir Edward John Poynter. The Royal HibernianAcademy (founded 1823) and the Scottish Academy (1826) are similarinstitutions. 

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, THE, was incorporated by royal charterin 1783 through the efforts of Robertson the historian, and supersededthe old Philosophical Society; held fortnightly meetings (December tillJune) in the Royal Institution; receives a grant of £300; publishes_Transactions_; has a membership of some 550, including foreign andBritish Fellows. 

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, incorporated by royal charter in 1662, butowing its origin to the informal meetings about 1645 of a group ofscientific men headed by Theodore Haak, a German, Dr. Wilkins, andothers; in 1665 the first number of their _Philosophical Transactions_was published which, with the supplementary publication, _Proceedings ofthe Royal Society_, begun in 1800, constitute an invaluable record of theprogress of science to the present day; encouragement is given toscientific investigation by awards of medals (Copley, Davy, Darwin, &c. ), the equipping of scientific expeditions (e. G. The _Challenger_), &c. ;weekly meetings are held at Burlington House (quarters since 1857) duringthe session (November till June); membership comprises some 500 Fellows, including 40 foreigners; receives a parliamentary grant of £4000 a year, and acts in an informal way as scientific adviser to Government. 

ROYAN (6), a pretty seaside town of France, on the estuary of theGironde, 60 m. NW. Of Bordeaux; trebles its population in the summer. 

ROYER-COLLARD, PIERRE PAUL, politician and philosopher, born atSompuis; called to the Paris bar at 20; supported the Revolution, butrefused to follow the Jacobins, and during the Reign of Terror soughtshelter in his native town; was elected to the Council of the FiveHundred in 1797, retired in 1804, and betook himself to philosophicstudies; became professor of Philosophy in Paris 1811, and exercisedgreat influence; re-entered political life in 1815, and was activelyengaged in administrative work till his retirement in 1842; was allthrough his life a doctrinaire and rather unpractical (1763-1842). 

ROYTON (13), a busy cotton town in Lancashire, 2 m. NW. Of Oldham. 

RUABON (18), a mining town in Denbighshire, 4½ m. SW. Of Wrexham;has collieries and iron-works. 

RUBENS, PETER PAUL, the greatest of the Flemish painters, born atSiegen, in Westphalia; came with his widowed mother in 1587 to Antwerp, where he sedulously cultivated the painter's art, and early revealed hismasterly gift of colouring; went to Italy, and for a number of years wasin the service of the Duke of Mantua, who encouraged him in his art, andemployed him on a diplomatic mission to Philip III. Of Spain; executed atMadrid some of his finest portraits; returned to Antwerp in 1609;completed in 1614 his masterpiece, "The Descent from the Cross, " inAntwerp Cathedral; with the aid of assistants he painted the series of 21pictures, now in the Louvre, illustrating the principal events in thelife of Maria de' Medici during 1628-1629; diplomatic missions engagedhim at the Spanish and English Courts, where his superabundant energyenabled him to execute many paintings for Charles I. --e. G. "War andPeace, " in the National Gallery--and Philip IV. ; was knighted by both; inall that pertains to chiaroscuro, colouring, and general technical skillRubens is unsurpassed, and in expressing particularly the "tumult andenergy of human action, " but he falls below the great Italian artists inthe presentation of the deeper and sublimer human emotions; was ascholarly, refined man, an excellent linguist, and a successfuldiplomatist; was twice married; died at Antwerp, and was buried in theChurch of St. Jacques; his tercentenary was celebrated in 1877(1577-1640). 

RUBICON, a famous river of Italy, associated with Julius Cæsar, nowidentified with the modern Fiumecino, a mountain torrent which springsout of the eastern flank of the Apennines and enters the Adriatic N. OfAriminum; marked the boundary line between Roman Italy and CisalpineGaul, a province administered by Cæsar; when he crossed it in 49 B. C. Itwas tantamount to a declaration of war against the Republic, hence theexpression "to cross the Rubicon" is applied to the decisive step in anyadventurous undertaking. 

RUBINSTEIN, ANTON, a famous Russian pianist and composer, born, ofJewish parents, near Jassy, in Moldavia; studied at Moscow, under Lisztin Paris, and afterwards at Berlin and Vienna; established himself at St. Petersburg in 1848 as a music-teacher; became director of theConservatoire there; toured for many years through Europe and the UnitedStates, achieving phenomenal success; resumed his directorship at St. Petersburg in 1887; composed operas (e. G. "The Maccabees, " "TheDemon"), symphonies (e. G. "Ocean"), sacred operas (e. G. "ParadiseLost"), chamber music, and many exquisite songs; as a pianist he was amaster of technique and expression; was ennobled by the Czar in 1869;published an autobiography; his works as well as his performances displayboth vigour and sensibility (1829-1894). 

RUBRICS, a name, as printed originally in red ink, applied to therules and instructions given in the liturgy of the Prayer-Book forregulating the conduct of divine service, hence applied in a widersignificance to any fixed ecclesiastical or other injunction or order;was used to designate the headings or title of chapters of certain oldlaw-books and MSS. , formerly but not now necessarily printed in redcharacters. 

RUBY, a gem which in value and hardness ranks next to the diamond;is dichroic, of greater specific gravity than any other gem, and belongsto the hexagonal system of crystals; is a pellucid, ruddy-tinted stone, and, like the sapphire, a variety of corundum, also found (but rarely) inviolet, pink, and purple tints; the finest specimens come from UpperBurmah; these are the true Oriental rubies, and when above 5 caratsexceed in value, weight for weight, diamonds; the Spinel ruby is thecommoner jeweller's stone; is of much less value, specific gravity andhardness, non-dichroic, and forms a cubical crystal. 

RÜCKERT, FRIEDRICH, German poet, born at Schweinfurt, in Bavaria; atWürzburg University showed his talent for languages, and early devotedhimself to philology and poetry; was for 15 years professor of OrientalLanguages at Erlangen; introduced German readers, by excellenttranslations, to Eastern poetry; filled for some time the chair ofOriental Languages in Berlin; takes rank as a lyrist of no mean powers;essayed unsuccessfully dramatic composition (1788-1866). 

RUDDIMAN, THOMAS, author of a well-known Latin grammar, a Banffshireman, and graduate of Aberdeen University; was school-mastering atLaurencekirk, where his scholarly attainments won him an assistantship inthe Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; spent a busy life in that; city inscholarly occupation, editing many learned works, the most notable beingBuchanan's works and the "immaculate" edition of Livy; his famous Latingrammar was completed in 1732; in 1730 became principal keeper of theAdvocates' Library (1674-1757). 

RUDOLF I. , of the House of Hapsburg, founder of the Austriandynasty; born, the son of a count, at Schloss Limburg (Breisgau); greatlyincreased his father's domain by marriage, inheritance, and conquest, becoming the most powerful prince in S. Germany; acquired a remarkableascendency among the German princes, and was elevated to the imperialthrone in 1273, and by friendly concessions to the Pope, Gregory IX. , terminated the long struggle between the Church and the empire; shatteredthe opposition of Ottocar, king of Bohemia, and brought peace and orderto Germany (1218-1291). 

RUDOLF II. , German Emperor, son of Maximilian II. , born at Vienna;became king of Hungary in 1573, and of Bohemia three years later;ascended the imperial throne in 1576; indolent and incapable, he left theempire to the care of worthless ministers; disorder and foreign invasionspeedily followed; persecution inflamed the Protestants; by 1611 hisbrother Matthias, supported by other kinsmen, had wrested Hungary andBohemia from him; had a taste for astrology and alchemy, and patronisedKepler and Tycho Brahé (1552-1612). 

RUDOLF LAKE, in British East Africa, close to the highlands of S. Ethiopia, practically an inland sea, being 160 m. Long and 20 broad, andbrackish in taste; discovered in 1888. 

RUDRA, in the Hindu mythology the old deity of the storm, and fatherof the Marutz. 

RUGBY (11), a town in Warwickshire, at the junction of the Swift andthe Avon, 83 m. NW. Of London; an important railway centre and seat of afamous public school founded in 1567, of which DR. ARNOLD (q. V. ), and Archbishops Tait and Temple were famous head-masters, is one ofthe first public schools in England, and scholars number about 450. 

RUGE, ARNOLD, a German philosophical and political writer, born atBergen (Rügen); showed a philosophic bent at Jena; was implicated in thepolitical schemes of the BURSCHENSCHAFT (q. V. ), and wasimprisoned for six years; taught for some years in Halle University, butgot into trouble through the radical tone of his writings in the _HalleReview_ (founded by himself and another), and went to Paris; wasprominent during the political agitation of 1848, and subsequently soughtrefuge in London, where for a short time he acted in consort with Mazziniand others; retired to Brighton, and ultimately received a pension fromthe Prussian Government; his numerous plays, novels, translations, &c. , including a lengthy autobiography, reveal a mind scarcely gifted enoughto grasp firmly and deeply the complicated problems of sociology andpolitics; is characterised by Dr. Stirling as the "bold and brilliantRuge"; began, he says, as an expounder of Hegel, and "finished off astranslator into German of that 'hollow make-believe of windy conceit, ' hecalls it, Buckle's 'Civilisation in England'" (1802-1880). 

RÜGEN (45), a deeply-indented island of Germany, in the Baltic, separated from the Pomeranian coast by a channel (Strela Sund) about amile broad; the soil is fertile, and fishing is actively engaged in. Bergen (4) is the capital. 

RUHR, an affluent of the Rhine, which joins it at Ruhrort after acourse of 142 m. ; navigable to craft conveying the product of thecoal-mines to the Rhine. 

RULE OF FAITH, the name given to the ultimate authority or standardin religious belief, such as the Bible alone, as among Protestants; theBible and the Church, as among Romanists; reason alone, as amongrationalists; the inner light of the spirit, as among mystics. 

RUM, a mountainous, forest-clad island in one of the Inner Hebrides, lies 15 m. Off Ardnamurchan Point; a handful of inhabitants cultivate avery small portion of it; the rest is mountain, wood, and moorland; formsa deer-forest. 

RUMFORD, COUNT, Benjamin Thompson, soldier, philanthropist, andphysicist, born at Woburn, Massachusetts; a fortunate marriage lifted himinto affluence, relieving him from the necessity of teaching; fought onthe British side during the American War; became a lieutenant-colonel, and for important services was knighted in 1782 on his return to England;entered the Bavarian service, and carried through a series of remarkablereforms, such as the suppression of mendicity, the amelioration of thepoorer classes by the spread of useful knowledge, culinary, agricultural, &c. ; was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire, and placed in charge ofthe War Department of Bavaria; was a generous patron of science inEngland and elsewhere; retired from the Bavarian service in 1799, andfive years later married the widow of Lavoisier the chemist; his lateryears were spent in retirement in a village near Paris, where he devotedhimself to physical research, especially as regards heat (1753-1814). 

RUMP, THE, name of contempt given to the remnant of the LongParliament in 1659. 

RUNCORN (20), a flourishing river-port of Cheshire, on the Mersey, 12 m. SE. Of Liverpool, at the terminus of the Bridgewater Canal; is anold place dating back to the 10th century; has excellent docks;industries embrace shipbuilding, iron-founding, &c. 

RUNEBERG, JOHAN LUDWIG, the national poet of Finland, born atJacobstad; educated at, and afterwards lectured in, the university ofAbo; published his first volume, "Lyric Poems, " in 1830; edited abi-weekly paper; for forty years (till his death) was Reader of RomanLiterature in the College of Borga; his epic idylls, "The Elk Hunters, ""Christmas Eve, " his epic "King Fjalar, " &c. , are the finest poems in theSwedish language; are characterised by a repose, simplicity, and artisticfinish, yet have withal the warmth of national life in them (1804-1877). 

RUNES, a name given to the letters of the alphabet by heathenTeutonic tribes prior to their coming under the influence of Romancivilisation; are formed almost invariably of straight lines, andscarcely exist except in inscriptions dating back to A. D. 1; foundchiefly in Scandinavia, also in Britain. There are three runic alphabets(much alike), the oldest being the Gothic of 24 letters or runes. Theyare now believed to have first come into use among the Goths in the 6thcentury B. C. , and to be a modified form of the old Greek alphabetintroduced by traders. 

RUNNIMEDE, a meadow on the right bank of the Thames, 36 m. SW. OfLondon, where King John signed the Magna Charta, 15th June 1215. 

RUPEE, a silver coin, the monetary unit of India, whose face valueis 2s. , but which, owing to the depreciation of silver, is now valued inoutside markets at about 1s. 2½d. ; a lac of rupees equals 100, 000. 

RUPERT, PRINCE, son of Frederick V. , Elector Palatine, and grandsonof James I. Of England; received an excellent education; took part in theThirty Years' War, and suffered three years' imprisonment at Linz; inEngland, at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, he was entrusted with acommand by Charles I. , and by his dash and daring greatly heartened theRoyalist cause, taking an active part in all the great battles; finallysurrendered to Fairfax at Oxford in 1646; but two years later tookcommand of the Royalist ships and kept up a gallant struggle till hisdefeat by Blake in 1651; escaped to the West Indies, where he kept up aprivateering attack upon English merchantmen; came in for many honoursafter the Restoration, and distinguished himself in the Dutch War; theclosing years of his life were quietly spent in scientific research(physical, chemical, mechanical), for which he had a distinct aptitude(1619-1682). 

RUPERT'S LAND, a name given by Prince Rupert to territory thedrainage of which flows into Hudson Bay or Strait. 

RUSH, BENJAMIN, a noted American physician and professor, born atByberry, near Philadelphia; studied medicine at Princeton and Edinburgh;became professor of chemistry at Philadelphia in 1769; sat in Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence (1776); held important medicalposts in the army; resigned, and assumed medical professorship inPhiladelphia; won a European reputation as a lecturer, philanthropist, and medical investigator; published several treatises, and from 1799acted as treasurer of the U. S. Mint (1745-1813). 

RUSHWORTH, JOHN, historian and politician, born at Warkworth, Northumberland; although a barrister he never practised, but set himselfto compile elaborate notes of proceedings at the Star Chamber and othercourts, which grew into an invaluable work of 7 vols. , entitled"Historical Collections"; acted as assistant-clerk to the LongParliament; sat as a member in several Parliaments, and was for someyears secretary to Fairfax and the Lord-Keeper; fell into disfavour afterthe Restoration, and in 1684 was arrested for debt and died in prison; isan authority whom Carlyle abuses as a Dry-as-dust (1607-1690). 

RUSKIN, JOHN, art-critic and social reformer, born in London, son ofan honourable and a successful wine-merchant; educated with some severityat home under the eye of his parents, and particularly his mother, whotrained him well into familiarity with the Bible, and did not object tohis study of "Robinson Crusoe" along with the "Pilgrim's Progress" onSundays, while, left to his own choice he read Homer, Scott, and Byron onweek days; entered Christ's Church, Oxford, as a gentleman Commoner in1837, gained the Newdigate Prize in 1839, produced in 1843, under thename of "A Graduate of Oxford, " the first volume of "Modern Painters, "mainly in defence of the painter Turner and his art, which soon extendedto five considerable volumes, and in 1849 "The Seven Lamps ofArchitecture, " in definition of the qualities of good art in that line, under the heads of the Lamps of Sacrifice, of Truth, of Power, of Beauty, of Life, of Memory, and Obedience, pleading in particular for the Gothicstyle; these were followed in 1851 by "PRE-RAPHAELITISM" (q. V. ), and 1851-53 by the "Stones of Venice, " in further exposition of hisviews in the "Seven Lamps, " and others on the same and kindred arts. Nottill 1862 did he appear in the _rôle_ of social reformer, and that was bythe publication of "Unto this Last, " in the _Cornhill Magazine_, on thefirst principles of political economy, the doctrines in which werefurther expounded in "Munera Pulveris, " "Time and Tide, " and "FORSCLAVIGERA" (q. V. ), the principles in which he endeavoured to givepractical effect to by the Institution of St. George's Guild, with theview of commending "the rational organisation of country life independentof that of cities. " His writings are numerous, several of them originallylectures, and nearly all on matters of vital account, besides many otherson subjects equally so which he began, but has had, to the grief of hisadmirers, to leave unfinished from failing health, among these his"Præterita, " or memories from his past life. The most popular of hisrecent writings is "Sesame and Lilies, " with perhaps the "Crown of WildOlive, " and the most useful that of the series beginning with "Unto thisLast, " and culminating in "Time and Tide. " He began his career as anadmirer of Turner, and finished as a disciple of Thomas Carlyle, butneither slavishly nor with the surrender of his own sense of justice andtruth; Justice is the goddess he worships, and except in her return tothe earth as sovereign he bodes nothing but disaster to the fortunes ofthe race; his despair of seeing this seems to have unhinged him, and heis now in a state of fatal collapse; his contemporaries praised his styleof writing, but to his disgust they did not believe a word he said; hesits sadly in these days at Brantwood, in utter apathy to everything ofpassing interest, and if he thinks or speaks at all it would seem hissense of the injustice in things, and the doom it is under, is not yetutterly dead--his sun has not even yet gone down upon his wrath; thekeynote of his wrath was, Men do the work of this world and rogues takethe pay, selling for money what God has given for nothing, or what othershave purchased by their life's blood; _b_. 1819. He died 20th January1900. 

RUSSELL, JOHN, EARL, known best as LORD JOHN RUSSELL, statesman, youngest son of the Earl of Bedford; travelled in Spain, studied at Edinburgh, entered Parliament in 1813, took up vigorously thecause of parliamentary reform and Catholic Emancipation, joined EarlGrey's ministry in 1830 as Paymaster of the Forces, framed and zealouslyadvocated the Reform Bill (1832), drove Peel from office in 1835, andbecame, under Lord Melbourne, Home Secretary and leader of the Commons;four years later he was appointed Colonial Secretary, warmly espoused thecause of repeal of the Corn Laws, formed a Ministry on the downfall ofPeel in 1846, and dealt with Irish difficulties and Chartism; resigned in1852, and in the same year became Foreign Secretary under Aberdeen, became unpopular on account of his management of the Crimean War (1855)and conduct at the Vienna Conference; again Foreign Secretary inPalmerston's ministry of 1859, an earl in 1861, and premier a second timein 1865-66; author of various pamphlets, biographies, memoirs, &c. ; wastwice married; was nicknamed "Finality John" from his regarding hisReform Bill of 1832 as a final measure (1792-1878). 

RUSSELL, WILLIAM, LORD, prominent politician in Charles II. 's reign, younger son of the Earl of Bedford; entered the first RestorationParliament, became a prominent leader in the Country Party in oppositionto the CABAL (q. V. ) and the Popish schemes of the king;vigorously supported the Exclusion Bill to keep James, Duke of York fromthe throne in 1683; was charged with complicity in the Rye-house Plot, was found guilty on trumped-up evidence, and beheaded (1639-1683). 

RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK, a popular writer of nautical novels, born inNew York; gained his experience of sea life during eight years' serviceas a sailor; was a journalist on the staff of the _Daily Chronicle_before, in 1887, he took to writing novels, which include "JohnHoldsworth, " "The Wreck of the 'Grosvenor, '" &c. ; _b_. 1844. 

RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD, a celebrated war correspondent, bornnear Dublin; was educated at Trinity College, called to the English barin 1850, had already acted for some years as war correspondent for the_Times_ before his famous letters descriptive of the Crimean War won hima wide celebrity; subsequently acted as correspondent during the IndianMutiny, American Civil War, Franco-German War, &c. ; accompanied thePrince of Wales to India in 1875; knighted in 1895; _b_. 1821. 

RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, CHARLES RUSSELL, LORD, a distinguished lawyer, born at Newry; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, called to the Englishbar in 1859, entered Parliament in 1880, became Attorney-General in 1886, receiving also a knighthood; in 1894 was elevated to the LordChief-Justiceship and created a life-peer; _b_. 1832. 

RUSSIA (117, 562), next to the British empire the most extensive empire inthe world, embracing one-sixth of the land-surface of the globe, including one-half of Europe, all Northern and a part of Central Asia; onthe N. It fronts the Arctic Ocean from Sweden to the NE. Extremity ofAsia; its southern limit forms an irregular line from the NW. Corner ofthe Black Sea to the Sea of Japan, skirting Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, East Turkestan, and the Chinese empire; Behring Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, andthe Sea of Japan wash its eastern shores; Sweden, the Baltic, Germany, and Austria lie contiguous to it in West Europe. This solid, compact massis thinly peopled (13 to the sq. M. Over all) by some 40different-speaking races, including, besides the dominant Russians(themselves split into three branches), Poles, Finns, Esthonians, Servians, Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Kurds, Persians, Turco-Tartars, Mongols, &c. Three-fourths of the land-surface, with one-fourth of thepopulation, lies in Asia, and is treated under Siberia, Turkestan, Caucasia, &c. Russia in Europe, embracing FINLAND and POLAND (q. V. ), isdivided from Asia by the Ural Mountains and River and Caspian Sea; formsan irregular, somewhat elongated, square plain sloping down to the lowand dreary coast-lands of the Baltic (W. ), White Sea (N. ), and Black Sea(S. ); is seamed by river valleys and diversified by marshes, vast lakes(e. G. Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, and Ilmen), enormous forests, and in the N. And centre by tablelands, the highest of which being the Valdai Hills(1100 ft. ); the SE. Plain is called the STEPPES (q. V. ). The cold andwarm winds which sweep uninterrupted from N. And S. Produce extremes oftemperature; the rainfall is small. Agriculture is the prevailingindustry, engaging 90 per cent. Of the people, although in all not morethan 21 per cent. Of the soil is cultivated; rye is the chief article offood for the peasantry, who comprise four-fifths of the population. Therich plains, known as the "black lands" from their deep, loamy soil, which stretch from the Carpathians to the Urals, are the most productivecorn-lands in Europe, and rival in fertility the "yellow lands" of China, and like them need no manure. Timber is an important industry in the NW. , and maize and the vine are cultivated in the extreme S. ; minerals abound, and include gold, iron (widely distributed), copper (chiefly in middleUrals), and platinum; there are several large coal-fields and richpetroleum wells at Baku. The fisheries, particularly those of theCaspian, are the most productive in Europe. Immense numbers of horses andcattle are reared, e. G. On the Steppes. Wolves, bears, and valuablefur-bearing animals are plentiful in the N. And other parts; the reindeeris still found, also the elk. Want of ports on the Mediterranean andAtlantic hamper commerce, while the great ports in the Baltic are frozenup four or five months in the year; the southern ports are growing inimportance, and wheat, timber, flax, and wool are largely exported. Thereis a vast inland trade, facilitated by the great rivers (Volga, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Vistula, &c. ) and by excellent railway and telegraphiccommunication. Among its varied races there exists a wide variety ofreligions--Christianity, Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Shamanism, &c. ; butalthough some 130 sects exist, the bulk of the Russians proper belong tothe Greek Church. Education is backward, more than 85 per cent. Of thepeople being illiterate; there are eight universities. Conscription isenforced; the army is the largest in the world. Government is an absolutemonarchy, save in FINLAND (q. V. ); the ultimate legislative and executivepower is in the hands of the czar, but there is a State Council of 60members nominated by the czar. In the 50 departments a good deal of localself-government is enjoyed through the village communes and their publicassemblies, but the imperial power as represented by the police andmilitary is felt in all parts, while governors of departments have wideand ill-defined powers which admit of abuse. The great builders of theempire, the beginnings of which are to be sought in the 9th century, havebeen Ivan the Great, who in the 15th century drove out the Mongols andestablished his capital as Moscow; Ivan the Terrible, the first of theczars, who in the 16th century pushed into Asia and down to the BlackSea; and PETER THE GREAT (q. V. ). Its restless energies are stillunabated, and inspire a persistently aggressive policy in the Far East. Within recent years its literature has become popular in Europe throughthe powerful writings of Pushkin, Turgenief, and Tolstoi. 

RUSTCHUK (27), a town in Bulgaria, on the Danube, 40 m. S. By W. OfBucharest; manufactures gold and silver ware, shoes, cloth, &c. ; has anumber of interesting mosques; its once important fortifications werereduced in 1877. 

RUTEBEUF or RUSTEBEUF, a celebrated trouvère of the 13thcentury, of whom little is known save that he led a Bohemian life inParis and was unfortunate in his marriage; his songs, satires, &c. , arevigorous and full of colour, and touch a note of seriousness at timeswhich one hardly anticipates. 

RUTHENIANS, a hardy Slavonic people, a branch of the Little Russianstock, numbering close upon 3½ millions, dwelling in Galicia and NorthernHungary. 

RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL, a Scottish divine, born at Nisbet, nearJedburgh; studied at Edinburgh University, became professor of Humanity, but had to resign; studied divinity, and became minister of Anworth in1627, and was a zealous pastor and a fervid preacher; corresponded farand wide with pious friends by letters afterwards published under hisname, and much esteemed by pious people; became at length professor ofDivinity at St. Andrews, and represented the Scottish Church in theWestminster Assembly in 1643; wrote several works, for one of which hewas called to account, but had to answer a summons on his deathbed beforea higher bar (1600-1661). 

RUTHERGLEN (13), a town of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 3 m. SE. OfGlasgow, of which it is practically a suburb; a handsome bridge spans theriver; has been a royal burgh since 1126, and has interesting historicalassociations. 

RUTHIN (3), an interesting old town of Denbighshire, on the Clwyd, 8m. SE. Of Denbigh. 

RUTHVEN, RAID OF, a conspiracy entered into by certain Scottishnobles, headed by William, first Earl of Gowrie, to seize the young kingJames VI. , and break down the influence of his worthless favourites, Lennox and Arran; at Ruthven Castle, or Huntingtower, in Perthshire, on23rd August 1582, the king was captured and held for 10 months; Arran wasimprisoned, and Lennox fled, to die in France; the conduct of theconspirators was applauded by the country, but after the escape of theking from St. Andrews Castle the conspirators were proclaimed guilty oftreason, and Gowrie was ultimately executed. 

RUTHWELL CROSS, a remarkable sandstone cross, 17¾ ft. High, found inRuthwell parish, 9 m. SE. Of Dumfries; dates back to the 7th century;bears runic and Latin inscriptions, notably some verses of the Saxonpoem, "The Dream of the Holy Rood"; was broken down in 1642 by theCovenanters as savouring of idolatry; found and re-erected in 1802. 

RUTLAND (21), the smallest county of England, bounded by Lincoln, Northampton, and Leicester; has a pleasant undulating surface, withvalleys in the E. , and extensive woods; is watered by the Welland; islargely pastoral, and raises fine sheep; dairy produce (especiallycheese) and wheat are noted; Oakham is the capital. 

RUYSDAEL, JACOB, a famous Dutch landscape-painter, born and died atHaarlem; few particulars of his life are known; his best pictures, to beseen in the galleries of Dresden, Berlin, Paris, &c. , display a finepoetic spirit (1628-1682). 

RUYTER, MICHAEL DE, a famous Dutch admiral, born of poor parents atFlushing; from a boy of 11 served in the merchant and naval service;commanded a ship under Van Tromp in the war with England 1652-1654; wasennobled in 1660 by the king of Denmark for services rendered in theDano-Swedish war; for two years fought against Turkish pirates in theMediterranean; commanded the Dutch fleet in the second war againstEngland, and in 1667 struck terror into London by appearing and burningthe shipping in the Thames; held his own against England and France inthe war of 1672; co-operated with Spain against France; was routed andmortally wounded off the coast of Sicily; a man of sterling worth(1607-1675). 

RYAN, LOCH, an arm of the sea penetrating Wigtownshire in asouth-easterly direction, 8 m. Long and from 1½ to 3 broad; at itslandward end is STRANRAER (q. V. ); forms an excellent anchorage. 

RYBINSK (20, 100 in the summer), a busy commercial town in Russia, on the Volga, 48 m. NW. Of Yaroslav; connected by canal with St. Petersburg; industries embrace boat-building, brewing, distilling, &c. 

RYDE (11), a popular old watering-place on the NE. Coast of the Isleof Wight, 4½ m. SW. Of Portsmouth; rises in pretty wooded terraces fromthe sea; has a fine promenade, park, pier, &c. 

RYE (4), an interesting old port in the SE. Corner of Sussex, situated on rising ground flanked by two streams, 63 m. SE. From London, one of the CINQUE PORTS (q. V. ); the retiral of the sea has leftit now 2 m. Inland; has a fine Norman and Early English church. 

RYE HOUSE PLOT, an abortive conspiracy in 1683 to assassinateCharles II. Of England and his brother James, Duke of York, planned byColonel Rumsey, Lieutenant-Colonel Walcot, the "plotter" Ferguson, andother reckless adherents of the Whig party. The conspirators were toconceal themselves at a farmhouse called Rye House, near Hertford, and towaylay the royal party returning from Newmarket; the plot miscarriedowing to the king leaving Newmarket sooner than was expected; the chiefconspirators were executed. 

RYMER, THOMAS, the learned editor of the "Foedera, " an invaluablecollection of historical documents dealing with England's relations withforeign powers, born at Northallerton; was a Cambridge man and abarrister; turned to literature and wrote much both in prose and poetry, but to no great purpose; was Historiographer-royal; Macaulay incharacteristic fashion calls him "the worst critic that ever lived"; buthis "Foedera" is an enduring monument to his unwearied industry(1639-1714). 

RYSBRACH, MICHAEL, a well-known sculptor in the 18th century, bornat Antwerp; established himself in London and executed busts and statuesof the most prominent men of his day, including the monument to Sir IsaacNewton in Westminster Abbey, statue of Marlborough, busts of Walpole, Bolingbroke, Pope, &c. (1694-1770). 

RYSWICK, PEACE OF, signed on October 30, 1697, at the village ofRyswick, 2 m. S. Of The Hague, by England, Holland, Germany, and Spain onthe one hand and France on the other, terminating the sanguinary strugglewhich had begun In 1688; it lasted till 1702. 

S

SAADI. See SÁDI. 

SAALE, the name of several German rivers, the most important ofwhich rises in the Fichtelgebirge, near Zell, in Upper Bavaria; flowsnorthward, a course of 226 m. , till it joins the Elbe at Barby; hasnumerous towns on its banks, including Jena, Halle, and Naumburg, towhich last it is navigable. 

SAARBRÜCK (10), a manufacturing town in Rhenish Prussia, on theFrench frontier, where the French under Napoleon III. Repulsed theGermans, August 2, 1870. 

SABADELL (18), a prosperous Spanish town, 14 m. NW. Of Barcelona;manufactures cotton and woollen textiles. 

SABÆANS, a trading people who before the days of Solomon and forlong after inhabited South Arabia, on the shores of the Bed Sea, and whoworshipped the sun and moon with other kindred deities; also a religioussect on the Lower Euphrates, with Jewish, Moslem, and Christian rites aswell as pagan, called Christians of St. John; the term Sabæanismdesignates the worship of the former. 

SABAOTH, name given in the Bible, and particularly in the Epistle ofJames, to the Divine Being as the Lord of all hosts or kinds ofcreatures. 

SABATHAI, LEVI, a Jewish impostor, who gave himself out to be theMessiah and persuaded a number of Jews to forsake all and follow him; thesultan of Turkey forced him to confess the imposture, and he turnedMussulman to save his life (1625-1676). 

SABBATH, the seventh day of the week, observed by the Jews as a dayof "rest" from all work and "holy to the Lord, " as His day, specially incommemoration of His rest from the work of creation, the observance ofwhich by the Christian Church has been transferred to the first of theweek in commemoration of Christ's resurrection. 

SABELLIANISM, the doctrine of one Sabellius, who, in the thirdcentury, denied that there were three persons in the Godhead, andmaintained that there was only one person in three functions, aspects, ormanifestations, at least this was the form his doctrine assumed in courseof time, which is now called by his name, and is accepted by many in thepresent day. 

SABIANISM. See SABÆANS. 

SABINE, a river of Texas which, rising in the extreme N. Of theState, flows SE. And S. , forming for 250 m. The boundary betweenLouisiana and Texas, passes through Sabine Lake into the Gulf of Mexicoafter a navigable course of 500 in. 

SABINE, SIR EDWARD, a noted physicist, born in Dublin; served inartillery in 1803, maintained his connection with it till his retirementin 1874 as general, but owes his celebrity to his importantinvestigations into the nature of terrestrial magnetism; accompanied as ascientist Boss and Parry in their search for the North-West Passage(1819-20); was President both of the Royal Society from 1861 to 1879 andof the British Association in 1853 (1788-1883). 

SABINES, an ancient Italian people of the Aryan stock, nearneighbours of ancient Borne, a colony of whom is said to have settled onthe Quirinal, and contributed to form the moral part of the Roman people. Numa, the second king of the city, was a Sabine. See ROMULUS. 

SABLE ISLAND, a low, sandy, barren island in the Atlantic, 110 m. Off the E. Coast of Nova Scotia; is extremely dangerous to navigation, and is marked by three lighthouses; is gradually being washed away. 

SABOTS, a species of wooden shoes extensively worn by the peasantsof France, Belgium, &c. ; each shoe is hollowed out of a single block ofwood (fir, willow, beech, and ash); well adapted for marshy districts. 

SACERDOTALISM, a tendency to attach undue importance to the orderand the ministry of priests, to the limitation of the operation of Divinegrace. 

SACHEVEREL, HENRY, an English Church clergyman, born at Maryborough, who became notorious in the reign of Queen Anne for his embittered attack(contained in two sermons in 1700) on the Revolution Settlement and theAct of Toleration; public feeling was turning in favour of the Tories, and the impolitic impeachment of Sacheverel by the Whig Government fannedpopular feeling to a great height in his favour; was suspended frompreaching for three years, at the expiry of which time the Tories, thenin power, received him with ostentatious marks of favour; was soonforgotten; was an Oxford graduate, and a friend of Addison; a man of noreal ability (1672-1724). 

SACHS, HANS, a noted early German poet, born at Nürnberg; the son ofa tailor, by trade a shoemaker; learned "the mystery of song" from aweaver; was a contemporary of Luther, who acknowledged his services inthe cause of the Reformation; in his seventy-fourth year (1568), onexamining his stock for publication, found that he had written 6048poetical pieces, among them 208 tragedies and comedies, and this besideshaving all along kept house, like an honest Nürnberg burgher, byassiduous and sufficient shoemaking; a man standing on his own basis;wrote "Narrenschneiden, " a piece in which the doctor cures a bloated andlethargic patient by "cutting out half-a-dozen fools from his interior";he sunk into oblivion during the 17th century, but his memory was revivedby Goethe in the 18th (1494-1576). 

SACHS, JULIUS, a German botanist and professor, born at Breslau; haswritten several works on botany, and experimented on the physiology ofplants; _b_. 1832. 

SACKVILLE, THOMAS, EARL OF DORSET, poet and statesman, born atBuckhurst; bred for the bar; entered Parliament in 1558; wrote withThomas Norton a tragedy called "Gorboduc, " contributed to a collection ofBritish legends called the "Mirror of Magistrates" two pieces in nobleverse (1536-1608). 

SACRAMENT, a ceremonial observance in the Christian Church divinelyinstituted as either really or symbolically a means, and in any case apledge, of grace. 

SACRAMENTARIAN, a High Churchman who attaches a special sacredvirtue to the sacraments of the Church. 

SACRAMENTO, largest river of California, rises in the NE. In theSierra Nevada; follows a south-westerly course, draining the centralvalley of California; falls into Suisund Bay, on the Pacific coast, aftera course of 500 miles, of which 250 are navigable. 

SACRAMENTO (29), capital of California, situated at the confluenceof the Sacramento and American Rivers, 90 m. NE. Of San Francisco;industries embrace flour and planing mills, foundries, potteries, &c. ;has an art gallery, court-house, &c. ; the tropical climate is tempered atnight by cool sea breezes. 

SACRED WARS. See AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL. 

SACRIFICE, anything of value given away to secure the possession ofsomething of still higher value, and which is the greater and moremeritorious the costlier the gift. 

SACRING-BELL, or SANCTUS-BELL, the bell which rings when theHost is elevated at the celebration of High Mass. 

SACY, ANTOINE ISAAC, BARON SILVESTRE DE, the greatest of modernOrientalists, born at Paris; by twenty-three was a master of classic, Oriental, and modern European languages; was appointed in 1795 professorof Arabic in the School of Oriental Languages, and in 1806 of Persian inthe College de France, besides which he held various other appointments;founded the Asiatic Society in 1822; was created a baron by NapoleonBonaparte, and entered the Chamber of Peers in 1832; published"Biographies of Persian Poets, " a standard Arabic grammar, &c. ; hiswritings gave a stimulus to Oriental research throughout Europe(1758-1838). 

SADDA, the name given to a Persian epitome of the Zend-Avesta. 

SADDUCEES, a sect of the Jews of high priestly origin that firstcame into prominence by their opposition to the Pharisees, being theparty in power when Pharisaism arose in protestation against their policyas tending to the secularisation of the Jewish faith, or the prostitutionof it to mere secular ends. They represented the Tory or Conservativeparty among the Jews, as the Pharisees did the High Church party amongus. The antagonism which thus arose on political grounds graduallyextended to religious matters. In regard to religion they were the oldorthodox party, and acknowledged the obligation of only the written law, and refused to accept tradition at the hands of the Scribes. They deniedthe immortality of the soul, the separate existence of spirits, and thisthey did on strictly Old Testament grounds, but this not from any realrespect for the authority of Scripture, only as in accord with the mainarticle of their creed, which attached importance only to what bears uponthis present life, and which in modern times goes under the name ofsecularism. They were at bottom a purely political party, and they wentout of sight and disappeared from Jewish history with the fall of theJewish State, only the Pharisaic party surviving in witness of whatJudaism is. 

SADE, DONATIEN ALPHONSE FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE, French novelist, who, after fighting in the Seven Years' War, was sentenced to death for odiouscrimes, effected his escape, but was caught and imprisoned in theBastille, where he wrote a number of licentious romances; died a lunatic(1740-1814). 

SÁDI, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz, of noble lineage, but born poor; bred up in the Moslem faith; made pilgrimages to Mecca nofewer than 15 times; spent years in travel; fell into the hands of theCrusaders; was ransomed by a merchant of Aleppo, who thought him worthransoming at a cost; retired to a hermitage near Shiraz, where he diedand was buried; his works, both in prose and verse, are numerous, but themost celebrated is the "Gulistan" (the rose-gardens), a collection ofmoral tales interlarded with philosophical reflections and maxims ofwisdom, which have made his name famous all over both the East and theWest (1184-1291). 

SADLER, SIR RALPH, a politician and diplomatist; was employed byHenry VIII. In carrying out the dissolution of the monasteries, andconducted diplomatic negotiations with Scotland; distinguished himself atthe battle of Pinkie; enjoyed the favour of Elizabeth; was Queen Mary'skeeper in the Castle of Tutbury; was the bearer of the news of QueenMary's execution to King James (1507-1587). 

SADOLETO, JACOPO, cardinal, born in Modena; acted as secretary underLeo X. , Clement VII. , and Paul III. , the latter of whom created him acardinal in 1536; was a faithful Churchman and an accomplished scholar, and eminent in both capacities (1477-1547). 

SADOWA. See KÖNIGGRÄTZ. 

SAFED (17), a town of Palestine, 12 m. N. Of Tiberias, occupiedprincipally by Jews attracted thither in part by the expectation that theMessiah, when He appears, will establish His kingdom there; it spreads inhorse-shoe fashion round the foot of a hill 2700 ft. High; is a seat ofHebrew learning. 

SAFETY LAMP, name of a variety of lamps for safety in coal-minesagainst "fire-damp, " a highly explosive mixture of natural gas apt toaccumulate in them; the best known being the "Davey Lamp, " invented bySir Humphrey Davy; the "Geordie, " invented by George Stephenson, both ofwhich, however, have been superseded by the Gray, Muesler, Marsant, andother lamps; all are constructed on the principle discovered by Davy andStephenson, that a flame enveloped in wire gauze of a certain finenessdoes not ignite "fire-damp. "

SAFFI, or ASFI (9), a decayed seaport of Morocco, on theMediterranean coast, 120 m. NW. Of the city of Morocco; has ruins of acastle of the Sultans and of the old Portuguese fortifications; has stilla fair export trade in beans, wool, olive-oil, &c. 

SAGAR, a low island at the mouth of the Hûgli, a sacred spot and aplace of pilgrimage to the Hindus; mostly jungle; sparsely peopled. 

SAGAS, a collection of epics in prose embodying the myths andlegends of the ancient Scandinavians, originally transmitted from mouthto mouth, and that began to assume a literary form about the 12thcentury. 

SAGASTA, PRAXEDES MATEO, Spanish statesmen of liberal sympathies;took part in the insurrections of 1856 and 1866, and was for some time afugitive in France; entered Prim's Cabinet, supported the elected KingAmadeus, and since his abdication has led the Liberal party; has twicebeen Prime Minister; _b_. 1827. 

SAGHALIEN (12), a long narrow island belonging to Russia, situatedclose to the E. Coast of Siberia, from which it is separated by theso-called Gulf of Tartary; stretches N. From the island of Yezo, adistance of 670 m. ; is mountainous and forest-clad in the interior; hasexcellent coast fisheries, but a cold, damp climate prevents successfulagriculture; rich coal-mines exist, and are wrought by 4000 or 5000convicts. Ceded by Japan to Russia in 1875. 

SAGUENAY, a large and picturesque river of Canada; carries off thesurplus waters of Lake St. John, replenished by a number of largestreams, and issuing a full-bodied stream, flows SE. Through magnificentforest and mountain scenery till it falls into the St. Lawrence, 115 m. Below Quebec, after a course of 100 m. ; is remarkable for its depth, andis navigable by the largest ships. 

SAGUNTUM, a town of ancient Spain, was situated where now stands thetown of Murviedro, 18 m. NE. Of Valencia; famous in history for itsmemorable siege by Hannibal in 219 B. C. , which led to the Second PunicWar. 

SAHARA, the largest desert region in the world, stretches E. And W. Across Northern Africa, from the Atlantic to the valley of the Nile, adistance of 3000 m. , and on the N. Is limited by the slopes of the AtlasMountains, and on the S. By the valleys of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. The surface is diversified by long sweeps of undulating sand-dunes, elevated plateaux, hill and mountain ranges (8000 ft. Highest) furrowedby dried-up water-courses, and dotted with fertile oases which yielddate-palms, oranges, lemons, figs, &c. The most sterile tract is in theW. , stretching in a semicircle between Cape Blanco and Fezzan. Rain fallsover the greater part at intervals of from two to five years. Temperaturewill vary from over 100°F. To below freezing-point in 24 hours. There area number of definite caravan routes connecting Timbuctoo and the CentralSoudan with the Niger and coast-lands. Dates and salt are the chiefproducts; the giraffe, wild ass, lion, ostrich, python, &c. , are found;it is chiefly inhabited by nomadic and often warlike Moors, Arabs, Berbers, and various negro races. The greater part is within the sphereof French influence. "When the winds waken, and lift and winnow theimmensity of sand, the air itself is a dim sand-air, and dim loomingthrough it, the wonderfullest uncertain colonnades of sand-pillars whirlfrom this side and from that, like so many spinning dervishes, of ahundred feet of stature, and dance their huge Desert waltz there. "

SAHARANPUR (59), a town in the North-West Provinces of India, 125 m. N. Of Delhi, in a district formerly malarious, but now drained andhealthy; the population principally Mohammedans, who have recently builtin it a handsome mosque. 

SAHIB (i. E. Master), used in India when addressing a Europeangentleman; Mem Sahib to a lady. 

SAIGON (16), capital of French Cochin-China, on the river Saigon, one of the delta streams of the Mekhong, 60 m. From the China Sea; ishandsomely laid out with boulevards, &c. ; has a fine palace, arsenal, botanical and zoological gardens, &c. ; Cholon (40), 4 m. SW. , forms abusy trading suburb, exporting rice, cotton, salt, hides, &c. 

SAINT, a name applied to a holy or sacred person, especially onecanonised; in the plural it is the name assumed by the Mormons. 

ST. ALBANS (13), an old historic city of Hertfordshire, on aneminence by the Ver, a small stream, which separates it from the site ofthe ancient Verulamium; has a splendid ancient abbey church, rebuilt in1077; industries include brewing, straw-plaiting, silk-throwing, &c. ;scene of two famous battles (1455 and 1461) during the Wars of the Roses. 

ST. ALOYSIUS, Italian marquis, who renounced his title, became aJesuit, devoted himself to the care of the plague-stricken in Rome; diedof it, and was canonised (1568-1591). 

ST. ANDREWS (7), a famous city of Fife, occupies a bold site on St. Andrews Bay, 42 m. NE. Of Edinburgh; for long the ecclesiasticalmetropolis of Scotland, and associated with many stirring events inScottish history; its many interesting ruins include a 12th-centurypriory, a cathedral, "robbed" in 1559, a castle or bishop's palace builtin the 13th century; has a university (St. Salvator's 1521 and St. Leonard's 1537) the first founded in Scotland, and is still an importanteducational centre, having several excellent schools (Madras College thechief); since the Reformation its trade has gradually dwindled away;fishing is carried on, but it depends a good deal on its large influx ofsummer visitors, attracted by the splendid golf links and excellentsea-bathing. 

SAINT ARNAUD, JACQUES LEROY DE, a noted French marshal, born atBordeaux; was already a distinguished soldier when he entered activelyinto the plans of Louis Napoleon to overthrow the Republic; assisted atthe _coup d'état_, and was created a marshal in reward; commanded theFrench forces at the outbreak of the Crimean War, and took part in thebattle of the Alma, but died a few days later (1796-1854). 

ST. ASAPH (2), a pretty little city in Flintshire, 6 m. SE. Of Rhyl;its cathedral, the smallest in the kingdom, was rebuilt after 1284, mainly in the Decorated style. 

ST. BEES (1), a village on the Cumberland coast, 4 m. S. OfWhitehaven; has a Church of England Theological College, founded in 1816by Dr. Law, bishop of Chester; designed for students of limited means; aruined priory church of Henry I. 's time was renovated for theaccommodation of the college. 

ST. BERNARD, the name of two mountain passes in the Alps: 1, GREATST. BERNARD, in the Pennine Alps, leading from Martigny to Aosta, is8120 ft. High, near the top of which stands a famous hospice, founded in962, and kept by Augustinian monks, who, with the aid of dogs called ofSt. Bernard, do noble service in rescuing perishing travellers from thesnow; 2, LITTLE ST. BERNARD, in the Graian Alps, crosses themountains which separate the valleys of Aosta and Tarantaise in Savoy. Hannibal is supposed to have crossed the Alps by this pass. 

ST. BRIEUC (16), capital of the dep. Of Côtes du Nord, Brittany, onthe Gouet, and 2 m. From its mouth; has a 13th-century cathedral, ruinsof an interesting tower, lyceum, &c. ; at the mouth of the river is theport Le Ligné. 

ST. CHRISTOPHER or ST. KITTS (30), one of the Leeward Islands, in the West Indies archipelago, 45 m. NW. Of Guadeloupe; a narrowmountainous island, 23 m. Long; produces sugar, molasses, rum, &c. ;capital is Basse-terre (7). 

ST. CLAIR, a river of North America, flowing in a broad navigablestream from Lake Huron into Lake St. Clair, which in turn pours itssurplus waters by means of the Detroit River into Lake Erie. 

ST. CLOUD (5), a town in the dep. Of Seine-et-Oise, France; occupiesan elevated site near the Seine, 10 m. W. Of Paris; the fine château, built by Louis XIV. 's brother, the Duke of Orleans, was for long thefavourite residence of the Emperor Napoleon, since destroyed; a part ofthe park is occupied by the Sèvres porcelain factory. 

ST. CYR (3), a French village, 2 m. W. Of Versailles, where LouisXIV. , at the request of Madame de Maintenon, founded an institution forthe education of girls of noble birth but poor, which was suppressed atthe time of the Revolution, and afterwards converted into a militaryschool by Napoleon. 

SAINT-CYR, LAURENT GOUVION, MARQUIS DE, marshal of France, born atToul; joined the army in 1792, and in six years had risen to the commandof the French forces at Rome; fought with distinction in the German andItalian campaigns, and in the Peninsular War; won his marshal's batonduring the Russian campaign of 1812; was captured at the capitulation ofDresden in 1813, much to the regret of Napoleon; created a peer after theRestoration, and was for some time Minister of War; wrote some historicalworks (1764-1830). 

ST. DAVIDS (2), an interesting old cathedral town in Pembrokeshire, on the streamlet Alan, and not 2 m. From St. Brides Bay; its cathedral, rebuilt after 1180 in the Transition Norman style, was at one time afamous resort of pilgrims. On the other side of the Alan stand the ruinsof Bishop Gower's palace. 

ST. DENIS (48), a town of France, on a canal of the same name, 4 m. N. Of Paris, noted for its old abbey church, which from the 7th centurybecame the burying-place of the French monarchs. During the Revolution in1793 the tombs were ruthlessly desecrated; there is also a school for thedaughters of officers of the Legion of Honour, founded by Napoleon;manufactures chemicals, printed calicoes, &c. 

ST. ELIAS, MOUNT, an isolated, inaccessible volcanic mountain in theextreme NW. Of Canada, close to the frontier of Alaska, 18, 010 ft. High;has never been scaled. 

ST. ELMO'S FIRE. See ELMO'S FIRE, ST. 

ST. ÉTIENNE (133), a busy industrial town of France, capital ofdepartment of Loire, on the Furens, 36 m. SW. Of Lyons; has been calledthe "Birmingham of France"; is in the centre of a rich coal district, andproduces every kind of hardware; the manufacture of ribbons is also animportant industry; there is a school of mines. 

SAINT-ÉVREMOND, CHARLES MARGUETEL DE SAINT-DENIS, SEIGNEUR DE, acelebrated French wit and author; won distinction as a soldier, and roseto be a field-marshal; his turn for satiric writing got him into trouble, and in 1661 he fled to England, where the rest of his life was spent;wrote charming letters to his friend Ninon de l'Enclos; enjoyed thefavour of Charles II. , and published satires, essays, comedies, &c. , which are distinguished by their polished style and genial irony; wasburied in Westminster (1613-1703). 

ST. GALL (230), a NE. Canton of Switzerland, on the Austrianfrontier; its splendid lake and mountain scenery and mineral springsrender many of its towns popular holiday resorts; the embroidery ofcottons and other textiles is an important industry. ST. GALL (28), the capital, is situated on the Steinach, 53 m. E. Of Zurich; is a townof great antiquity, and celebrated in past ages for its monastic schools;its magnificent mediæval cathedral has been restored; the old Benedictinemonastery is used now for government purposes, but still contains itsfamous collection of MSS. ; embroidering textiles is the chief industry. 

ST. GOTHARD, a noted mountain in the Lepontine Alps, 9850 ft. High, crossed by a pass leading from Lake Lucerne to Lake Maggiore; since 1882traversed by a railway with a tunnel through from Göschenen to Airolo, adistance of 9¼ m. 

ST. HELENA (4), a precipitous cliff-bound island lying well out inthe Atlantic, 1200 m. Off the W. Coast of Africa; belongs to Britain;celebrated as Napoleon Bonaparte's place of imprisonment from 1815 tillhis death in 1821. Jamestown (2), the capital, is a second-class coalingstation for the navy, and is fortified. 

ST. HELENS (71), a thriving manufacturing town of Lancashire, onSankey Brook, a feeder of the Mersey, 21 m. W. By S. Of Manchester; isthe chief centre of the manufacture of crown, plate, and sheet glass. 

ST. HELIER (29), capital of Jersey Island, on St. Aubin Bay, on theS. Side; is well fortified by Fort Regent and Elizabeth Castle, on arocky islet near the shore; has a college, public library, &c. ; fishingand shipbuilding are important industries. 

ST. IVES, 1, a town in Cornwall, 8 m. N. Of Penzance, theinhabitants of which are chiefly engaged in the pilchard fisheries. 2, Atown in Huntingdonshire, on the Ouse, 5 m. E. Of Huntingdon, whereCromwell lived and Theodore Watts the artist was born. 

ST. JAMES'S PALACE, an old, brick-built palace in Pall Mall, London, originally a hospital, converted into a manor by Henry VIII. , and becameeventually a royal residence. It gives name to the British court. 

ST. JOHN, a river of North America, rises in the highlands of NorthMaine and crosses the continent in an easterly direction and falls intothe Bay of Fundy after a course of 450 m. , of which 225 m. Are in NewBrunswick; is navigable for steamers as far as Fredericton. 

ST. JOHN (39), embracing the adjacent town of Portland, chiefcommercial city of New Brunswick, on the estuary of St. John River, 277m. NW. Of Halifax; has an excellent harbour; shipbuilding, fishing, andtimber exporting are the chief industries; has a great variety ofprosperous manufactures, such as machine and iron works, cotton andwoollen factories, &c. ; does a good trade with the West Indies. 

ST. JOHNS (26), capital of Newfoundland, situated on a splendidharbour on the peninsula or Avalon, in the E. Of the island: is thenearest port of America to the continent of Europe; has oil and tanworks, &c. 

ST. JOSEPH (103), a city of Missouri, on the Missouri River (herespanned by a fine bridge), 110 m. Above Kansas City, is an importantrailway centre; as capital of Buchanan County it possesses a number ofState buildings and Roman Catholic colleges; does a large trade inpork-packing, iron goods, &c. 

SAINT-JUST, LOUIS FLORELLE DE, a prominent French Revolutionist, born at Decize, near Nevers; as a youth got into disgrace with his familyand fled to Paris, where, being bitten already by the ideas of Rousseau, he flung himself heart and soul into the revolutionary movement, becamethe faithful henchman of Robespierre, and finally followed his master tothe guillotine, having in his zeal previously declared "forRevolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb"; "he was a youth ofslight stature, with mild mellow voice, enthusiast olive-complexioned, and long black hair" (1767-1794). 

ST. KILDA. See KILDA, ST. 

ST. LAWRENCE, one of the great rivers of North America; issues in anoble stream from Lake Ontario, and flowing due NE. Discharges into theGulf of St. Lawrence, forming a broad estuary; is 750 m. Long and from 1to 4 m. Broad; the scenery in parts is very grand, notably in theexpansion--the Lake of the Thousand Isles; is navigable for largesteamers as far as Montreal: the Ottawa is its chief tributary; in winternavigation is suspended on account of the ice. 

ST. LÓ (10), a town in Normandy, on a rocky eminence 60 m. SE. OfCherbourg; has textile manufactures; was the birthplace of Leverrier. 

ST. LOUIS, 1, One of the great commercial cities (575) of the UnitedStates, capital of Missouri State; situated on the Mississippi (herespanned by two fine bridges), 21 m. Below its confluence with theMissouri; is a handsomely built city, and equipped with every modernconvenience, entirely lit by electric light, &c. ; has spacious parks, twouniversities, public libraries, &c. ; is a centre for 18 railroads, whichwith the great river-way enables it to carry on a vast trade in grain, cotton, wool, furs, live stock, &c. ; its tobacco manufacture is thegreatest in the world. 2, Also capital (17) of the French colony ofSenegal, in West Africa. 

ST. LUCIA (42), a rocky, forest-clad island in the West Indies, thelargest of the Windward group; exports sugar, cocoa, logwood, &c. ;capital is Castries (8). 

ST. MALO (12), a strongly fortified seaport of France, on theBrittany coast (department of Ille-et-Vilaine), at the mouth of theRanee; the old town is built over the Rocher d'Auron, an islet connectedwith the mainland by a causeway 215 yards long; there is a good harbour, and a considerable amount of shipping is done; potatoes, dairy-produce, and some cereals are exported. It was the birthplace of severaldistinguished French authors and sailors. 

ST. MICHAEL'S (126), the largest and most fertile of the Azores, 40m. Long by from 5 m. To 10 m. In breadth; is of volcanic origin; yieldscereals, oranges, &c. 

ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, an islet, forming a precipitous granite mass, in Mount's Bay, Cornwall, connected with the mainland by a low causewaypassable only at low tides; a fine old castle crowns its rocky height, and a small fishing village lies sheltered on the northern side. 

ST. MICHEL, MONT, a remarkable islet in St. Michel Bay, SW. Cornerof Normandy, 18 m. W. Of Avranches; is formed of a single cone ofgranite, 242 ft. High, crowned by a historic Benedictine monastery; onthe lower slopes is built a little fortified town; a causeway 1 m. Longjoins it to the mainland. 

ST. NAZAIRE (26), a flourishing seaport of France, on the Loire, 40m. W. Of Nantes, where large sums have been expended in improving itsspacious docks to accommodate an increasing shipping-trade; its exports, brandy, coal, wheat, &c. , are mainly from Nantes and the interior. 

ST. NEOTS (4), an old market-town of Huntingdonshire, on the Ouse, 8m. SW. Of Huntingdon; has an interesting old parish church, a cornexchange, and iron and paper works. 

ST. NICHOLAS, the patron saint of boys, who was fabled to bringpresents to good children on Christmas eve; was bishop of Myra in the 4thcentury, and had taken a special interest in the young. 

ST. OMER (20), a fortified town of France, on the Aa, 26 m. SE. OfCalais; has a fine old Gothic cathedral, a ruined Benedictine abbeychurch, a Catholic college, arsenal, &c. ; manufactures embrace lighttextiles, tobacco pipes, &c. 

ST. PAUL (168), capital of Minnesota State, finely situated on theMississippi, a little below the mouth of the Minnesota River; in 1849 avillage of 500 inhabitants; is now a beautiful and spacious city, equipped with colleges, libraries, government buildings, electricstreet-railways, &c. ; is a centre for 10 railways, and carries on a largetrade in distributing groceries and dry goods throughout the State. 

ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL, at West Kensington, London, a famous charityschool founded by JOHN COLET (q. V. ), dean of St. Paul's, forchildren of "every nation, country, and class"; originally stood in St. Paul's Churchyard, but was burned out by the Great Fire of 1666; thepresent building was opened in 1884. The endowment amounts to £10, 000 ayear, and 1000 boys and 400 girls are provided with education and board. There are a number of Oxford and Cambridge exhibitions. 

ST. PETERSBURG (1, 036), capital of Russia, an imposing city, occupying a dreary, isolated site at the head of the Gulf of Finland, onthe banks and delta islands (100) of the Neva, founded in 1702 by Peterthe Great; a large number of bridges span the main stream and itsnumerous divisions; massive stone quays hold back the waters, but a riseof 12 ft. Floods the city (a yearly occurrence in the poorer parts); theriver is ice-bound nearly half the year, and is given over to sleighing, &c. ; the short summer is hot; covers nearly 48 sq. M. ; its palaces andgovernment buildings for number and grandeur are unsurpassed; Neva Viewis the finest street in Europe; is the centre of Russian political, literary, scientific, and artistic life; has a university, numerousacademies, cathedral, technical and training colleges, and libraries (theImperial Public Library contains 1, 200, 000 vols. ); connected with theVolga basin by a canal, and the centre of four railways, it is thecommercial metropolis and chief port of Russia, and carries on half theforeign trade; exports one-fifth of the corn of Russia, besides flax, linseed, leather, petroleum, &c. ; imports coal, machinery, &c. ; principalmanufactures are cotton goods and other textiles, leather, sugar, porcelain goods, &c. 

ST. PIERRE, HENRI BERNARDIN DE, French novelist, born at Havre; anengineer by profession, was a disciple of Rousseau both sentimentally andspeculatively; his chief work, "PAUL AND VIRGINIA" (q. V. ), shows here as in his other writings, says Professor Saintsbury, "aremarkable faculty of word-painting, and also of influencing thefeelings" (1737-1814). 

ST. QUENTIN (48), a manufacturing town of France, on the Somme, 95m. NE. Of Paris; manufactures all kinds of cotton and woollen goods, machinery, paper, &c. ; has a fine old Gothic church and town-hall; herethe French were routed by the Spaniards in 1557, and by the Germans in1871. 

ST. RÉAL, ABBÉ DE, historian, born at Chambéry, where he settled in1679, and where he died; was historiographer to the Duke of Savoy, andwrote the "History of the Conspiracy of Spain against Venice, " amasterpiece of its kind, and modelled on Sallust (1639-1692). 

SAINT SAËNS, CHARLES CAMILLE, a French musician, born in Paris; for19 years organist of the Madeleine; composer of a number of operas (e. G. "Henri VIII. ") indifferently successful, and of much orchestral andchamber music of a masterly kind; is held to be one of the greatest ofliving pianists and organists; also noted for his musical critiques; _b_. 1835. 

ST. SIMON, CLAUDE HENRI, COMTE DE, founder of French Socialism, andof a sect called after him St. Simonians, born in Paris, of an old noblefamily; grand-nephew of the succeeding, but renounced his title anddevoted his life and all his means of living to the promotion of hisSocialist scheme, reducing himself in the end to utter penury; he madefew disciples, though some of them were men of distinction; he iscredited by Carlyle with having discovered, "not without amazement, thatman is still man, of which forgotten truth, " he bids us remark, "he hadmade a false application"; that is, we presume, by reorganisation fromwithout instead of regeneration from within; his scheme was areconstruction of society by the abolition of the hereditary principle, and the vesting of the instruments of production in the State and theadministration of these for the welfare of all its members (1760-1825). 

ST. SIMON, LOUIS DE ROUVROY, DUC DE, French courtier and diplomatistin the reign of Louis XIV. ; left "Memoirs" in record of the times helived in, depicting with remarkable sagacity the manners of the Court andthe characters of the courtiers (1676-1755). 

ST. SIMONIANS. See ST. SIMON, COMTE DE. 

ST. TAMMANY, an American-Indian chief, popularly canonised as asaint, and adopted as the tutelary genius by a section of the democraticparty in the States; his motto was "Unite in peace for happiness; in warfor defence. "

ST. THOMAS, 1, an unhealthy volcanic island (20) in the Gulf ofGuinea, belonging to Portugal; produces coffee, cocoa, and some spices;chief town, St. Thomas (3), a port on the NE. 2, One of the VirginIslands (14), 37 m. E. Of Porto Rico; belongs to Denmark; since theabolition of slavery its prosperous sugar trade has entirely departed;capital, St. Thomas (12), is now a coaling-station for steamers. 

ST. THOMAS'S, a handsome hospital on the S. Side of the Thames, opposite Westminster, founded in 1553, and with an annual revenue of£40, 000. 

SAINT-VICTOR, PAUL DE, an ornate French writer, born in Paris; from1851 was engaged in dramatic and other criticism, and established hisreputation as a stylist of unusual brilliance. "When I read Saint-VictorI put on blue spectacles, " said Lamartine; author of several works onhistorical and æsthetic subjects (e. G. "Anciens et Modernes, " "Hommeset Dieux") was for a number of years General Inspector of Fine Arts(1827-1881). 

ST. VINCENT (41), one of the Windward Islands, in the West Indies, 105 m. W. Of Barbadoes, belongs to Britain; a coaling and cable station;mountainous and volcanic; warm, but healthy climate; exports sugar, rum, spices, &c. ; chief town is Kingston (6), a port on the SW. Coast. 

ST. VINCENT, CAPE, a lofty and rugged headland in the extreme SW. OfPortugal, off which have been fought several naval battles, the mostmemorable being the great victory on February 14, 1797, when Jervis andNelson annihilated the Franco-Spanish fleet. 

ST. VINCENT, JOHN JERVIS, EARL, a noted English admiral, born atMeaford Hill, Staffordshire; ran away to sea when a boy, and by gallantryat Quebec in 1759 and otherwise rose rapidly in the service; commandedthe naval attack upon the French West Indies (1793), and four yearslater, as admiral of the Mediterranean fleet, shared with Nelson thehonours of a brilliant victory over the combined fleets of France andSpain off Cape St. Vincent; was created an earl in reward; during1801-1804 was a successful First Lord of the Admiralty (1734-1823). 

SAINTE-BEUVE, CHARLES AUGUSTIN, the greatest of French literarycritics, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer; adopted medicine as a profession indeference to the wishes of his widowed mother, and for some years studiedat Paris, but even as a student had begun his career as a literary criticby contributions to the _Globe_ newspaper; in 1827 became acquainted withVictor Hugo, whose commanding influence drew him into the Romanticmovement, and determined for him a literary career; a critical work onFrench poetry in the 16th century (1828), two volumes of mediocre poetry(1829-1830), and a psychological novel, "Volupté" (1834), the fruit ofspiritual and mental unrest, preceded his lectures at Lausanne onPort-Royal (1837), which, afterwards elaborated and published, containsome of his finest writings; an appointment in the Mazarin Library, Paris(1840), brought him a modest competence, and allowed him during the next8 years to contribute without strain or stress to the _Revue des DeuxMondes_; was elected in 1845 to the Academy; three years later lecturedfor a session at Liège University; during 1849-1869 he contributed aweekly literary article to the _Constitutionnel_; these form his famous"Causeries du Lundi" and "Nouveaux Lundis, " which, for variety of humaninterest, critical insight, and breadth of sympathy, remain unsurpassed;was appointed professor of Latin in the Collège de France (1854), but hisunpopularity with the students, owing to his support of Napoleon III. , led to his resignation; as a senator in 1865 his popularity revived byhis eloquent advocacy of freedom of thought, and on his decease some10, 000 people attended his funeral (1804-1869). 

SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, HENRI ÉTIENNE, a noted French chemist, bornin St. Thomas, West Indies; occupied for many years the chair ofChemistry in the Sorbonne, Paris; his important contributions to chemicalknowledge include a process for simplifying the extraction of aluminiumand platinum (1818-1881). 

SAINTES (15), an interesting old town in West France, dep. Charente-Inférieure, on the Charente, 28 m. SE. Of Rochefort; known inancient times as Mediolanum; has some splendid Roman remains, acathedral, &c. ; manufactures copper and iron goods, leather, &c. 

SAINTSBURY, GEORGE, literary critic, born at Southampton; graduatedat Merton College, Oxford; was engaged in scholastic work for a number ofyears at Manchester, Guernsey, and Elgin; in 1876 settled in London, andmade a reputation for vigorous and scholarly criticism, devoting much ofhis time to French literature; elected to the Chair of English Literaturein Edinburgh University, 1895; is the author of a "Short History ofFrench Literature, " a "Short History of English Literature, " besidesseveral volumes of essays, &c. ; _b_. 1845. 

SAÏS, a city of ancient Egypt, on the delta, on the right bank ofthe W. Branch of the Nile; gave name to two Egyptian dynasties founded bynatives of it, was a religious centre, and eventually for a time capital, the temple of which was said to contain a veiled statue which became asubject of legend. 

SAIVAS, in the Hindu religion the worshippers of Siva, one of thetwo great sections of the Hindus, the worshippers of Vishnu being theother. 

SAKI, a beer of alcoholic quality made in Japan from rice byfermentation. It is drunk hot at meals, and is in a small wayintoxicating. 

SAKUNTALA, in Hindu mythology a benignant female character, made thesubject of a famous drama of KÁLIDÁSA (q. V. ), translated in1789 by Sir William Jones. 

SAKYAMUNI (i. E. The solitary of the Sakyas), the name given toBuddha, one of the tribe of the Sakyas in Northern India. 

SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS, a well-known journalist, born in London, ofItalian and English parentage; had some training in art before he beganwriting for Dickens's _Household Words_, &c. ; lived a busy, ramblinglife; founded and edited _Temple Bar;_ acted as war-correspondent for the_Daily Telegraph_; author of several popular novels, "Captain Dangerous"and "Quite Alone" among them, and books of travel, "A Trip to Barbary"and "America Revisited" (1828-1895). 

SALAAM, an Oriental term of salutation meaning "Peace, " especiallyamong the Mohammedans. 

SALADIN, sultan of Egypt and Syria, the hero of the third crusade onthe Saracen side; a man of noble and chivalrous character; served firstas a soldier under Nureddin; rose to be vizier of Egypt, and ultimatelysovereign in 1174; distinguished himself by the capture of Damascus, Aleppo, &c. , and entering the Holy Land defeated the Christians atTiberias, thereafter taking Jerusalem and laying siege to Tyre; found inRichard Coeur de Lion a foeman worthy of his steel, concluded a truce in1192, and died the year after (1137-1193). 

SALAMANCA (22), an interesting old city of Spain, capital of aprovince of the same name, occupies a hilly site on the Tormes, herespanned by a Roman bridge, 110 m. NW. Of Madrid, long famous for itsuniversity, which in its heyday (16th century) numbered 8000 students, now fallen to 400; holds within its surrounding walls many fine oldcathedrals, colleges, and other buildings; its industries are greatlyfallen off, and consist mainly of cloth, linen, leather, and potterymanufacturing; in this neighbourhood Wellington won a great victory overthe French on July 22, 1812. 

SALAMANDER, an elemental spirit conceived in the Middle Ages as ananimal that lived in the fire as its proper element. 

SALAMIS, a mountainous island of Greece, on the NW. Coast of Attica, the strait between which and the mainland was the scene of a navalvictory over the armament of Xerxes by the combined fleets of Athens, Sparta, and Corinth in 480 B. C. 

SALDANHA OLIVEIRA E DAUN JOÃO CARLOS, DUKE OF, Portuguese statesmanand soldier, played an honourable and patriotic part in many wars andcrises of his country, notably in Brazil in the struggle between DomPedro and Dom Miguel, and during his occupancy of the Premiership onthree several occasions between 1846-70; proved a mild constitutionalist, and enjoyed the confidence and support of England; was created a duke in1846 (1790-1876). 

SALE, GEORGE, Orientalist, born in Kent, and bred for the bar, contributed to the "Universal History" and the "General Dictionary, " butis best known as the translator of the "Korân, " with a preliminarydissertation and notes; he left a body of MSS. Behind him (1690-1736). 

SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY, British general; saw a great deal offighting; was distinguished in the Burmese War of 1824-25, and in the waragainst Afghanistan in 1834, in both of which he was wounded, andafterwards in the latter country during 1841-42; he was killed at thebattle of Mudki fighting against the Sikhs (1782-1865). 

SALEM, 1, a city (36) and seaport of the United States, founded in1626 on a peninsula in Massachusetts Bay, 15 m. NE. Of Boston; itsforeign trade has fallen away, but a good coasting trade is done in iceand coal; manufactures include cottons, jutes, shoes, &c. 2, Capital (5)of Oregon, on the Willamette River, 720 m. N. Of San Francisco. 

SALERNO (22), a city of South Italy, on a gulf of the name, 33 m. SE. Of Naples; has some fine Gothic buildings, notably the cathedral ofSt. Matthew; had a European fame in the Middle Ages for its medicalschool and university, closed in 1817; cotton-spinning is the chiefindustry; in the neighbourhood are the ruins of Pæstum and an old Normancastle. 

SALETTE, LA, a French village amid Alpine scenery, 28 m. SE. OfGrenoble; has become a place of pilgrimage, since the alleged appearanceof the Virgin to two peasant children on 19th September 1846. 

SALFORD (198), a suburb of Manchester, with cotton factories andiron-works, and with Manchester forms the second largest city in England. 

SALIC LAW, a law which obtained among the Salian Franks, as also incertain German States, which excluded females from succession to thethrone. 

SALICYLIC ACID, produced in commercial quantities from carbolicacid; is a white crystalline powder, soluble in water, odourless, of asweetish acid taste; largely used as an external antiseptic, andinternally in the form of salicylate of sodium as a febrifuge and curefor acute rheumatism. 

SALISBURY (17), a cathedral city, and capital of Wiltshire, 84 m. WSW. Of London; the cathedral, founded in 1225, and frequently added toand restored, is one of the finest specimens of Early Englisharchitecture; has a number of other interesting old buildings--churches, almshouses, inns, an endowed school, &c. ; agriculture is the stapleindustry; also called New Sarum, and a mile to the N. Is thehalf-obliterated site of Old Sarum, with many interesting historicalassociations; while round the neighbourhood sweeps the wide, undulating, pastoral Salisbury Plain, with its Druidical circle of STONEHENGE(q. V. ). 

SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOIGNE CECIL, MARQUIS OF, statesman, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; as Lord Cecil, represented Stamford in Parliament in 1853; was, as Lord Cranborne, Secretary for India in 1866 under Lord Derby; entered the House of Lordsas Lord Salisbury in 1867, and distinguished himself as foremost indebate; became Secretary for India under Disraeli in 1874, and Secretaryfor Foreign Affairs in 1881, in which latter year he, on the death ofBeaconsfield, became leader of the Conservative party; after this he wasthree times raised to the Premiership, the last time on Lord Roseberysretirement in 1890, by coalition with the LIBERAL UNIONISTS (q. V. );was at one time a contributor to the _Saturday Review_, and isinterested in scientific pursuits, chemistry in particular; _b_. 1830. 

SALLUST, Roman historian, born at Amiternum, in the territory of theSabines, and attained the quæstorship and the tribunate, though aplebeian; for a misdemeanour was expelled the Senate; joined Cæsar'sparty in the Civil War, and became governor of Numidia; enriched himselfby extortions, and returned to Rome a rich man, and gave himself toliterature; wrote the "Catiline Conspiracy, " and the "War with Jugurtha, "among other works, in a terse and forcible style, and was the precursorof Livy and Tacitus; as a writer he affects the moralist, though he livedin vice (86-35 B. C. ). 

SALMASIUS, eminent French scholar, learned in Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages; succeeded Scaliger at Leyden, and associatedwith Casaubon, Grotius, and other scholars; embraced Protestantism; wrotea number of learned works, but his "Defence of Charles I. " proved afailure, and provoked from Milton a crushing reply; died a disappointedman, though he refused to sell his literary talent for money, whenRichelieu tried hard to bribe him (1588-1653). 

SALMON, GEORGE, mathematician and divine, born in Dublin, and therein 1839 graduated with mathematical honours at Trinity College; became aFellow, entered the Church, and in 1866 was elected regius professor ofDivinity, becoming provost of the college in 1888; has carried on witheminent success his dual studies, mathematics and theology, and haspublished some notable works in both sciences, e. G. In theology, "Non-Miraculous Christianity, " "Gnosticism and Agnosticism, " a scholarlyand popular "Introduction to the New Testament, " and in mathematics"Analytic Geometry, " "The Higher Plane Curves, " &c. _b_. 1819. 

SALOMON, JOHANN PETER, a violinist and composer, born at Bonn; wasin his youth attached, to the court of Prince Henry of Prussia, at whichtime he wrote some operas; came to London, and is remembered for thegreat stimulus he gave to musical culture, and especially the study ofHaydn in England by his Philharmonic Concerts (1790) and production ofthat great master's symphonies; composed songs, glees, violin pieces, &c. ; buried in Westminster Abbey (1745-1815). 

SALONICA or SALONIKI (122), the Thessalonica of the Scriptures, the second port and city of Turkey in Europe; occupies a bold and rockysite at the head of the Gulf of Salonica, 370 m. SW. Of Constantinople;is surrounded by walls, is well laid out, drained, &c. ; contains manyfine old mosques; has an increasing commerce, exporting corn, cotton, opium, wool, &c. ; founded in 315 B. C. , and has ever since been a placeof considerable importance. 

SALSETTE (108), an island N. Of Bombay, and connected with it by acauseway, with richly cultivated fields and rock temples among otherruins. 

SALT, SIR TITUS, English manufacturer, born near Leeds; introducedthe manufacture of alpaca, planted his factory at Saltaire, near Leeds, which he made a model village for his workers as a philanthropic employerof labour (1803-1876). 

SALT LAKE CITY (53), the capital of Utah, a high-lying city andstronghold of Mormonism, 11 m. From Great Salt Lake; contains the Mormontemple, which it took 40 years to build, and it has besides many finechurches, and the university of Deseret. 

SALT RANGE, a tract of lofty tableland buttressed on either side bymountain ranges 3000 to 5000 ft. High, and stretching across the PunjabE. And W. , between Jhelum and Indus Rivers; derives its name from theremarkably rich deposits of rock-salt, which are extensively worked. 

SALTS, in chemistry an important class of compound substances formedby the union of an acid with a metal or a base, that is, a substancehaving, like a metal, the power of replacing in part or in whole thehydrogen of the acid employed. 

SALTUS, EDGAR, an interesting American writer, born in New York; abusy writer in fiction, biography (Balzac), and philosophy, e. G. "ThePhilosophy of Disenchantment" and "The Anatomy of Negation, " studies in asomewhat cheerful pessimism; _b_. 1858. 

SALVADOR (780), the smallest but the most densely populated of therepublics of Central America, about one-sixth the size of England andWales; has a western foreshore between Guatemala (N. ) and Nicaragua (S. ), fronting the Pacific for 140 m. ; slopes up from rich alluvial coast-landsto high plateaus, which stretch, seamed and broken by rivers andvolcanoes, to the Cordillera frontier of Honduras on the E. ; soil isextremely fertile and naturally irrigated by numerous streams, andproduces in abundance coffee and indigo (chief exports), balsam, tobacco, sugar, cereals, &c. ; has a warm, healthy climate. The natives are chieflyIndians of Aztec descent, but speaking Spanish. The government is vestedin a president and chamber of deputies. Education is free and compulsory. Broke away from Spanish control in 1821; was a member of the CentralAmerican Confederacy, but since 1853 has enjoyed complete independence. Capital, SAN SALVADOR (q. V. ). 

SALVATION ARMY, a modern religious organisation and propaganda, remarkable alike for its novel methods and phenomenal expansion; assumedits present quasi-military form in 1878, but is in reality the outgrowthof a mission founded in London in 1865 by the Rev. WILLIAM BOOTH(q. V. ), and nobly furthered by his wife. It is in essence a protestagainst the older conventional methods of propagating the Christianreligion, and would seem by its remarkable success to have ministered tosome latent and wide-spread need among the poorer classes. In 1895 itnumbered 500, 000 enrolled soldiers, 25, 126 local officers, and 11, 740officers; these are spread over 35 countries. The members assumesemi-military attire, march through the streets to the sound of musicalinstruments, displaying banners; but while these and other sensationaldevices bring its purposes home to the hearts of the people, its vitalityrests upon the real spiritual devotion and self-sacrifice of its members. Various agencies of a more directly philanthropic kind (homes of rest, rescues, workshops, farms, etc. ) have become attached to it, and aregenerously supported by the public. Funds are raised by means of the _WarCry_ and other periodicals. 

SALVINI, TOMMASO, a celebrated Italian tragedian, born, the son ofan actor, at Milan; was trained to the stage, and joined Ristori'scompany; served with distinction in the revolutionary war of 1849, andreturning to the stage won for himself a European fame, appearing inFrance, Spain, United States, England, &c. ; achieved his greatest successin "Othello"; retired after 1884, and published "Leaves from MyAutobiography"; _b_. 1830. 

SALWEEN, a river of Asia whose source is still uncertain; forms inits lower part the boundary between Siam and British Burma, and fallsinto the Gulf of Martaban; its upper course traverses the northern Shandistrict; only 80 m. Of it are navigable. 

SALZBURG (174), a western province and duchy of Austria, borders onBavaria between the Tyrol and Upper Austria; is woody and mountainous, especially in the S. , where fine scenery is formed by the Alps; excellentmeadowland favours a prosperous industry in the rearing of cattle andhorses. The inhabitants, being Protestants, were severely persecuted bythe Church, and 30, 000 of them emigrated in 1730, and on the invitationof Frederick William of Prussia settled in Lithuania, that had beendesolated by plague. Salzburg (28), the capital, occupies a fine site onthe hill-girt banks of the Salzach (crossed by 3 bridges), 80 m. E. By S. Of Münich; is a handsome and interesting city, with many fine oldbuildings, including a cathedral, archbishop's palace, imperial palace, monasteries, &c. ; has a theological college, libraries, &c. ; birthplaceof Mozart; manufactures musical instruments, &c. 

SALZKAMMERGUT (18), a beautiful mountain district of Austria, between Salzburg (W. ) and Styria (E. ); salt mines and springs give a richyield of salt. 

SAM SLICK. See SLICK. 

SAM WELLER. See WELLER. 

SAMARCAND (33), a city of West Turkestan, situated at the westernbase of the Tian-Shan Mountains, 130 m. SE. Of Bokhara. Suffered at thehands of Genghis Khan in the 13th century; was Timur's capital in the14th century, and has since been held sacred by the Moslems. Captured bythe Russians in 1868, who have improved it, and built a handsome suburbon the west. Manufactures silk, cotton, paper, &c. 

SAMARIA, a city of a district of the name between Judea and Galileein the Holy Land, and which became the capital of the North Kingdom ofIsrael after the revolt from the Southern; was desolated by the hosts ofAssyria in 720 B. C. , and repeopled afterwards by Assyrian settlers, whowere converted to the Jewish faith, and ministered to by a Jewish priest;when the Jews rebuilt the Temple of Jerusalem, the Samaritans' offer toaid was rejected, and the refusal led to a bitter hostility between theJews and Samaritans ever after. 

SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH, a version of the Pentateuch in use among theSamaritans, and alone accepted by them as canonical. It is of value fromits independence of other versions. 

SAMARITANS. See SAMARIA. 

SAMAVEDA, the section of the Veda that contains the chants, intendedfor singers. 

SAMIAN SAGE, name given to Pythagoras as a native of Samos. 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of ancient Italy in territory SE. OfRome; gave the Romans much trouble till, after two successive wars in 343and 327 B. C. , they were subdued in 290 B. C. A revolt in 90 B. C. Led totheir extermination as an nation. 

SAMOA, or NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS (36), a group of 14 volcanicislands in the W. Pacific, of which three alone are of any size--Savaii, Upolu, and Tutuila; all are mountainous and richly wooded; climate ismoist and warm; copra is the chief export, and cotton, coffee, tobacco, &c. , are grown; the natives, a vigorous Polynesian race, have beenChristianised; the islands are under the joint suzerainty of Britain, Germany, and the United States; the chief town of the group is Apia (2), at the head of a pretty bay in Upolu; near here R. Louis Stevenson spentthe last five years of his life. 

SAMOS, a fertile island in the Ægean Sea, about 30 m. Long and 8wide, separated from the coast of Ionia, three-quarters of a mile wide;had an extensive trade with Egypt and Crete; came through variousfortunes under the chief Powers of ancient and mediæval Europe till itbecame subject to Turkey; had a capital of the same name, which in thefifth century B. C. Was one of the finest cities in the world. 

SAMOTHRACE, a mountainous, bleak island in the Ægean Sea, NW. Of themouth of the Dardanelles; has only one village of 2000 inhabitants; wasin ancient times place of CABIRI WORSHIP (q. V. ). 

SAMOYEDES, a people of the Mongolian race, occupying the N. Shoresof Russia and Siberia from the White Sea to the Yenisei; live by huntingand fishing, and are idol-worshippers; they are fast disappearing. 

SAMPSON, DOMINIE, a character in Scott's "Guy Mannering. "

SAMSON, ranked as judge of Israel, but the story of his life is asof a Jewish hero, distinguished for his feats of strength; employed inthe service of his country against the Philistines. 

SAMSON AGONISTES, the strong man of a nation or race caught in thenet of his and their enemies, and, encompassed by them, wrestling in hissoul's agony to free himself from them; the imagery here being suggestedby the story of Samson in the hands of the Philistines. 

SAMUEL, a Jewish prophet, born, of the tribe of Levi, about 1155B. C. ; consecrated by his mother from earliest years to the service of theLord; who became a judge when he was 40, anointed first Saul and thenDavid to be king over the till then disunited tribes of Israel, and thusbecame the founder of the Jewish monarchy. 

SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, two books of the Old Testament, originally one, and divided in the Septuagint into two, entitled respectively the Firstand Second Books of Kings; the narrative embraces a period of 125 years, and extends from the time of the Judges to the close of the reign ofDavid, including the intermediate judgeship of Samuel and the reign ofSaul, with the view of exalting the prophetic office on the one hand andthe kingly office on the other. 

SAN ANTONIO (53), the second city of Texas, of Spanish origin, on ariver of the name, 80 m. W. Of Austin; has a Catholic college, cathedral, arsenal, &c. ; does a good trade in the produce of a fertileneighbourhood, and manufactures flour, leather, beer, &c. 

SAN DIEGO (16), a thriving port in S. California, situated on ahandsome bay of the same name, 124 m. SE. Of Los Angeles; wool is thechief export. 

SAN DOMINGO (25), capital of the Dominican Republic, a fortifiedport on the S. Coast of Hayti; has a 16th-century Gothic cathedral, college, hospital, &c. ; founded by Columbus. 

SAN FRANCISCO (342), capital of California, and commercialmetropolis of the W. Coast of America; occupies the NE. Corner of atongue of land stretching between the Pacific and San Francisco Bay, which, with San Pablo Bay and Suisun Bay--extensions to the N. --forms ahandsome land-locked sheet of water 65 m. Long, communicating with theocean by Golden Gate Strait; has practically sprung into existence sincethe discovery of gold in 1847, and is now a spacious and evenly laid-outcity, with every modern convenience--electric light, cable tramways, &c. ;many of the dwelling-houses are of wood, but marble and granite givedignity to Government buildings, hotels, theatres, &c. ; there is aremarkable number of religious sects; has a fine park, many free schools, a number of colleges, and a university; as the western terminus of thegreat continental railroads and outlet for the produce of a rich wheatdistrict it has a large shipping trade; important industries areshipbuilding, whale-fishing, sugar-refining, iron-works, &c. 

SAN JOSÉ (18), a city of California, and capital of Santa Claracounty, on the Guadalupe River, 50 m. SE. Of San Francisco; has a coupleof Catholic colleges, a Methodist university, pretty orchards, &c. ;fruit-canning and the manufacture of flour and woollen goods are thechief industries. The name also of small towns in Guatemala, LowerCalifornia, and Uruguay. 

SAN JOSÉ (19), capital of Costa Rica, situated on a fertile andelevated plain between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific; grain, thevine, and many fruits are grown in the neighbourhood; flour-milling anddistilling (Government works) are the principal town industries; there isa university. 

SAN JUAN (125), a mountainous province of the Argentine Republic, onthe Chilian border; is rich in metals, but, save coal, not worked;agriculture is the chief industry. San Juan (12), on a river of the samename, is the capital, lies 98 m. N. Of Mendoza; has public baths, abull-ring, library, &c. ; exports cattle and fodder, chiefly to Chile. Thename of numerous other towns in different parts of Spanish South America. 

SAN MARINO (8), a little republic of Europe which has maintained itsindependence since the 4th century; comprises a town (same name) andseveral villages occupying rocky and elevated sites on the eastern slopesof the Apennines; some agriculture and cattle-rearing are done; is underthe friendly protection of Italy. 

SAN REMO (12), a town in Northern Italy, on a bay in the Gulf ofGenoa, in the Riviera, 26 m. NE. Of Nice; is sheltered by a semicircle ofhills, and from its mild climate is a favourite winter resort; trades inolive-oil, palms, and lemons. 

SAN SALVADOR (20), capital of SALVADOR (q. V. ), situated ona fertile and elevated plain at the base of an extinct volcano; hassuffered frequently and severely from earthquakes, and after the disasterof 1854 a new town, Nueva San Salvador, was built 12 m. To the SW. , onlyto suffer a similar fate. 

SAN SEBASTIAN (30), a fortified seaport of North Spain, on a smallpeninsula jutting into the Bay of Biscay, 10 m. From the French frontier;is guarded by a strong citadel, and since its bombardment by Wellingtonin 1813 has been spaciously rebuilt; has a beautiful foreshore, and is afavourite watering-place; has a fair export trade. 

SAN STEFANO, a Turkish village, a few miles W. Of Constantinople, where a preliminary treaty was signed between Turkey and Russia after thewar of 1877-78. 

SANCHEZ, THOMAS, a Spanish casuist, born at Cordova; author of atreatise on the "Sacrament of Marriage, " rendered notorious from thesarcastic treatment it received at the hands of Pascal and Voltaire(1550-1610). 

SANCHO PANZA, the immortal squire of Don Quixote. See PANZA, SANCHO. 

SANCHONIATHON, a Phoenician historian of uncertain date; author of ahistory of Phoenicia, of which only a few fragments remain, and that of atranslation into Greek; he is supposed to have lived in the time ofSemiramus. 

SANCROFT, WILLIAM, an English prelate, born in Suffolk; rose througha succession of preferments to be Archbishop of Canterbury; was with sixother bishops committed to the Tower for petitioning against James II. 'ssecond Declaration of Indulgence; refused to take the oath of allegianceto William and Mary, and was driven from his post, after which he retiredto his native place (1616-1693). 

SAND, GEORGE, the assumed name of Aurore Dupin, notable Frenchnovelist, born in Paris; married Baron Dudevant, a man of means, but withno literary sympathies; became the mother of two children, and after nineyears effected a separation from him (1831) and went to Paris to push herway in literature, and involved herself in some unhappy _liaisons_, notably with ALFRED DE MUSSET (q. V. ) and Chopin; after 1848 sheexperienced a sharp revulsion from this Bohemian life, and her lasttwenty-five years were spent in the quiet "Châtelaine of Nohant"(inherited) in never-ceasing literary activity, and in entertaining themany eminent _littérateurs_ of all countries who visited her; hervoluminous works reflect the strange shifts of her life; "Indiana, ""Lélia, " and other novels reveal the tumult and revolt that mark herearly years in Paris; "Consuelo, " "Spiridion, " &c. , show her engaged withpolitical, philosophical, and religious speculation; "Elle et Lui" and"Lucrezia Floriani" are the outcome of her relations with Musset andChopin; the calm of her later years is reflected in "La Petite Fadette, ""François le Champi, " and other charming studies of rustic life; her"Histoire de ma Vie" and posthumous letters also deserve notice; her workis characterised by a richly flowing style, an exuberant imagination, andis throughout full of true colour and vivid emotion (1804-1876). 

SANDEAU, LÉONARD JULES, French novelist, born at Aubusson; gave uplaw for literature; was George Sands first "friend" in Paris, and wrotewith her "Rose et Blanche"; contributed to the _Revue des Deux Mondes_;wrote many novels and plays, and was elected to the Academy (1858), andduring his later life held the librarianship at St. Cloud (1811-1883). 

SANDEMANIANS. See GLASSITES. 

SANDERSON, BURDON, English physiologist; professor of Physiologyfirst at University College, London, and since 1882 at Oxford; is one ofthe greatest authorities on the subject; _b_. 1828. 

SANDERSON, ROBERT, English prelate, great casuist; became chaplainto Charles I. In 1631, and bishop of Lincoln in 1660 (1587-1663). 

SANDHURST or BENDIGO (27), a mining city of Victoria, Australia, on Bendigo Creek, 101 m. NW. Of Melbourne; came into existencewith the "gold rush" of 1851; mines are still of value; a good trade ingrain, brewing, iron-founding, &c. , is also done. 

SANDRINGHAM, an estate in Norfolk of over 7000 acres, 7½ m. NE. OfLynn, the property of the Prince of Wales since 1862. 

SANDWICH (3), one of the old CINQUE PORTS (q. V. ) in Kent, on the Stour, and once on the sea, but now, by the receding of the sea, 2m. Distant; 12 m. E. Of Canterbury; an interesting place of manyhistorical associations; has a splendid golf course, which attractssummer visitors. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS. See HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

SANGHA, the Buddhist Church, and the third term of the Triratna orBuddhist trinity, the two other being Buddha and Dharma, his law. 

SANGRAAL. See GRAAL, HOLY. 

SANHEDRIM, a council of the Jews which held its sittings inJerusalem, and claimed authority and jurisdiction over the whole Jewishpeople; it was an aristocratic body, and was presided over by thehigh-priest; its authority was limited from time to time, and it ceasedto exist with the fall of Jerusalem; there is no note of its existenceprior to the Grecian period of Jewish history. 

SANKARA, a Hindu teacher of the philosophy or the Vedas, who livedsome time between 800 and 200 B. C. , and was the author of a number ofcommentaries on the sacred writings of the Hindus, the teachings ofwhich he contributed to develop. 

SANKHYA, one of three systems of Hindu philosophy, Yoga and Vedântabeing the other two, and the system which is most in affinity with thedoctrine of Buddha. 

SANNAZARO, JACOPO, an Italian poet, enjoyed the favour of KingFrederick III. Of Naples, and wrote amongst other things a pastoralmedley in verse and prose called "Arcadia, " which ranks as an Italianclassic (1458-1530). 

SANS SOUCI (i. E. No Bother), "an elegant, commodious little'country box, ' one storey high, on a pleasant hill-top near Potsdam"; theretreat of Frederick the Great after his wars were over, and in partsketched by himself, and where he spent the last 40 years of his life, specially as years advanced; it is 20 m. From Berlin, and the name isFrederick's own invention. 

SANSCULOTTES (i. E. Fellows without breeches), a name of contemptapplied by the aristocratic party in France to the Revolutionists, and atlength accepted by the latter as a term of honour, as men who assertedtheir claim to regard on their naked manhood. 

SANSCULOTTISM, belief in the rights of man, stript of all theconventional vestures and badges by which alone, and without any otherground of right, one man maintains an ascendency over another. 

SANSKRIT, the name given to the ancient literary language of theHindus, still preserved in their literature, belongs to the Aryan familyof languages, in their purest form and most perfect development. 

SANTA-ANNA, ANTONIO DE, a noted soldier and President of Mexico, entered the army as a boy, and from the proclamation of the Republic in1822 till his final exile in 1867 was embroiled in all the wars, intrigues, and revolutions of his country; was four times President, andon the last occasion (1853) was appointed for life, but his habitualharshness alienated the people in two years; fled the country as on manyformer crises in his life; intrigued against the newly-establishedempire, but was captured and sentenced to death (1867); allowed toexpatriate himself, and died in exile; he was one of the most forcefulcharacters in Mexican history (1795-1876). 

SANTA CLAUS, contraction of ST. NICHOLAS (q. V. ). 

SANTA CRUZ or NITENDI (5), the largest of the Queen Charlotteor Santa Cruz Islands, in the South Pacific, 100 m. N. Of the NewHebrides; on one of the smaller islands Bishop Patteson was brutallymurdered by the natives in 1871. 

SANTA CRUZ or ST. CROIX (20), one of the Virgin Islands;produces sugar, rum, and cotton; ceded by France to Denmark in 1733; aserious nigger revolt took place in 1878; capital is Christianstadt (6). 

SANTA CRUZ or TENERIFFE (13), capital and chief seaport of theCanary Islands, situated on the NE. Side of Teneriffe; has an excellentand strongly-fortified harbour; is an important coaling port for oceansteamers; cochineal, wine, and garden-produce are the chief exports. 

SANTA FÉ, 1, on the Rio Solado, capital (15) of a rich agriculturalprovince (240) of the Argentine Republic, lying N. Of Buenos Ayres. 2, Capital (7) of New Mexico, U. S. ; holds an elevated site amid theRockies; is the centre of a good mining district; has the oldest Spanishcathedral in the United States. 

SANTALS, one of the aboriginal tribes of India, inhabiting adistrict in the province of Bengal, which stretches southward from theGanges; they are chiefly hunters, but also agriculturists; dwell by theforest edges, are fond of music, and are sun-worshippers; numberconsiderably over a million. 

SANTANDER (42), a flourishing port of North Spain, stands on a finebay facing the Bay of Biscay, 316 m. N. Of Madrid; actively engaged incigar-making, brewing, cotton-spinning, flour-milling, &c. ; exportsflour, wine, and cereals; a popular seaside resort. 

SANTERRE, ANTOINE JOSEPH, a popular wealthy brewer, born in Paris;assisted at the fall of the Bastille; played a conspicuous part duringthe Revolution; became commander of the National Guard in 1792; proposedas a relief in famine that every citizen should live two days a week onpotatoes, and that every man should hang his dog; conducted King Louisinto the judgment, holding him by the arm; with a stamp of his footordered him to mount the guillotine; failed in quelling the insurrectionin La Vendée, and was recalled; was made brigadier-general by Napoleon asa reward for keeping the peace which he would fain have disturbed on the18th Brumaire in 1797 (1752-1809). 

SANTIAGO (393), capital of Chile, beautifully situated on a widefertile and elevated plain overhung on the N. And E. By the snow-cladpeaks of the Andes, 90 m. SE. Of Valparaiso; the Mapocho, a mountainstream, passes through the N. Part of the city, is handsomely laid outwith spacious plazas, a noble alameda, and well-paved streets; has manyfine public buildings, hotels, a cathedral, a university, art, agricultural, and military schools, botanical and zoological gardens, &c. ; in the pretty neighbourhood there is a popular racecourse; is animportant commercial centre, with a stock exchange, law-courts, andmanufactures of cloth, flour, ships' biscuits, beer, ice, &c. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA (23), a city of Spain, in Galicia, of whichit was formerly the capital, 26 m. NE. Of Carril, on the coast; has aninteresting old Romanesque cathedral, a noted place of pilgrimage in theMiddle Ages, a university, and several ruined monasteries; manufactureslinen, leather, &c. 

SANTIAGO DE CUBA (71), formerly capital of Cuba, on a beautifulland-locked bay on the S. Coast; the harbour is strongly fortified; isthe see of an archbishop, and has an old Spanish cathedral, alsoflourishing sugar-factories, foundries, &c. 

SANTLEY, CHARLES, a well-known baritone singer, born in Liverpool;studied at Milan; made his _début_ in 1857, and ever since has been anaccepted favourite with the public both as an oratorio and operaticsinger; has published a volume of reminiscences; _b_. 1834. 

SANTORIN or THERA (17), a volcanic island in the Ægean, one ofthe Cyclades; is the southmost of the group, and lies 70 m. N. Of Crete;the vine grows luxuriantly, and there is a good wine trade; has manyinteresting prehistoric remains; chief town, Thera or Phera, on the W. Coast. 

SÃO FRANCISCO, one of the great rivers of Brazil, for the most partnavigable; rises in the SW. , near the source of the Paraná, and flows N. , NE. , and SE. Till it reaches the S. Atlantic after a course of 1800 m. , forming in its lower part the boundary between the maritime provincesSergipe and Alagoas; higher it divides Bahia and Pernambuco. 

SÃO PAULO (35), a manufacturing town of Brazil (minerals, coffee);capital of a productive and healthy State (1, 387) of the same name, situated on a plain 310 m. W. By S. From Rio de Janeiro; has prettysuburbs, electric light, &c. ; is the chief centre of the Brazilian coffeetrade, and has manufactories of cotton, tobacco, spirits, &c. ; is theseat of a law-school. 

SAÔNE, a tributary of the Rhône; rises among the FaucellesMountains, in Vosges, and flows SW. And S. To the Rhône at Lyons; length282 m. , of which one-half is navigable. 

SAÔNE, HAUTE- (281), a department in the E. Of France, near theAlsace border, between Vosges (N. ) and Doubs (S. ); forests abound; aboutone-half is under cultivation, and there are fine cherry orchards;watered by the Saône and its affluents. 

SAÔNE-ET-LOIRE (620), an east-midland department of France, boundedSE. And W. By the Saône and Loire; has a fine fertile surface, and isnoted for its cattle and abundant output of wine; iron and coal arewrought, and its towns are busy with the manufacture of cotton goods, pottery, machinery, &c. 

SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of the corundum class, and differing fromthe RUBY (q. V. ) only in colour, which is a blue of variousshades; the finest specimens are found in Ceylon; its value dependschiefly on quality, and not so much (like the ruby) on size. 

SAPPHO, a lyric poetess of Greece of the 7th century B. C. , and acontemporary of Alcæus; was a woman of strong passions and ofquestionable morality, but of undoubted genius, her lyrics being amongthe masterpieces of antiquity, though only two of her odes and some shortfragments of others remain; of her history little is known, and what isknown is far from reliable. 

SARACENS, the name given in mediæval times to the Arabs orMohammedans, and extended to all the non-Christian races with whom theCrusaders or Christian races came to grips. 

SARAGOSSA (95), an interesting city of Spain, and capital of Aragon, on the Ebro, which flows through it, 212 m. NE. Of Madrid; its historygoes back to far Roman times, and includes fierce struggles betweenGoths, Moors, and Spaniards, and a memorable siege by the French in 1808;being one of the earliest Christian cities of Spain it contains manyinteresting relics, cathedrals, &c. ; there is a university, citadel, archiepiscopal palace, &c. ; manufactures embrace cloth, silks, leather, &c. 

SARASATE, MARTIN MELITON, a Spanish violinist, and one of the mostfinished of the day, a Basque by birth, but educated at Paris; hastravelled over the world, winning fame and a fortune; made his firstappearance in London in 1874; is composer of some light pieces; _b_. 1844. 

SARASVATI, a Hindu goddess, and ultimately the wife of Brahma andgoddess of music and eloquence. 

SARATOFF (122), a handsome city of Russia, on the Volga, 500 m. SE. Of Moscow; has thriving industries in distilling, flour, oil, andtobacco, and trades in corn, salt, textiles, &c. ; the government ofSaratoff (2, 433) is a prosperous agricultural district. 

SARATOGA SPRINGS (12), one of the best-known watering-places of theUnited States, in New York State, 38 m. N. Of Albany; plentifullysupplied with mineral springs; once a village, now growing into a town ofhotels, &c. ; 12 m. To the E. Is the scene of Burgoyne's surrender toGates, October 17, 1777. 

SARA`WAK (320), a principality of North-West Borneo, fronting theChinese Sea on the NW. And contiguous to Dutch Borneo; was granted as anindependent Rajahship to Sir James Brooke by the sultan of Borneo in1841, and governed by him and afterwards by his son, by whom it was putunder British protection in 1888; is very fertile, and grows sugar, coco-nuts, rice, sago, rubber, tea, &c. ; is rich in minerals, and miningis carried on of antimony, quicksilver, gold, and coal; capital Kuching(25), on the Sarawak River. 

SARDANAPÁLUS, the last king of Assyria; led a luxurious, effeminatelife, but surprised when at his ease by a large army of invaders hesuddenly developed into a hero, till hard pressed at length and shut upin Nineveh, and after two years' defence finding resistance hopeless, hereared a funeral pile, and setting fire to it, threw himself upon it andperished in the flames. 

SARDINIA (682), an island of the Mediterranean, 170 m. Long and 75m. Broad, the second largest, Sicily being larger, and to the S. OfCorsica; is since 1859 part of the kingdom of Italy; it has a fruitfulsoil, and presents a diversified surface of hill and valley; the chiefexport is salt, and there are extensive fisheries; the capital isCagliari, in the S. ; it is rich in mineral resources, but theexploitation of these is in a backward state. 

SARDIS, capital of ancient Lydia, in Asia Minor, at the foot ofMount Tmolus, celebrated for its wealth, its trade, and luxury, throughthe market-place of which the river Pactolus flowed with its sands ofgold. 

SARDOU, VICTORIEN, a popular French playwright, born at Paris; gaveup medicine for literature, and his first successes were "Monsieur Garat"and "Les Prés Saint-Gervais, " both in 1800; from that date his popularityand wealth began to flow in upon him; his work has been taken up by SarahBernhardt, for whom he wrote "Fédora, " "Théodora, " and "La Tosca" (1887);a number of his plays have been translated into English, such as "A Scrapof Paper, " "Diplomacy, " &c. ; was elected to the Academy in 1877; hisplays are characterised by clever dialogue and stage effects, and anemotionalism rather French than English; _b_. 1831. 

SARMATIANS or SARMATS, an ancient race, embracing severalwarlike nomadic tribes, who spoke the Scythian language, and inhabitedthe shores of the Black Sea and Eastern Europe as far as the Caucasus;fought with Mithridates against the Romans; were overwhelmed by the Gothsin the 4th century A. D. , and afterwards gradually absorbed by the Slavs. 

SARPEDON, the "Nestor" and king of the Lycians, was son of Zeus andEuropa. 

SARPI, PAUL, an Italian historian of the monastic order, born atVenice; was a man of wide attainments and liberal views; was the championof the Republic against the Pope; was summoned to Rome, and on hisrefusal to obey, excommunicated; his life being in peril he retired intohis monastery, and wrote the "History of the Council of Trent, " withwhich his name has ever since been associated; he was held in high honourby the Venetians, and was honoured at his death by a public funeral(1565-1623). 

SARTO, ANDREO DEL (i. E. Andrew, the tailors son), a Florentineartist; painted in oil and fresco numerous works; died of the plague atFlorence, his work displays accuracy of drawing and delicacy of feeling(1486-1531). 

SARTOR RESARTUS (i. E. The tailor patched), a book written byCarlyle at CRAIGENPUTTOCK (q. V. ) in 1831, published piecemealin _Frazer's Magazine_ in 1833-34, and that first appeared in a book formin America, under Emerson's auspices, in 1836, but not in England till1838. It professes to be on the PHILOSOPHY OF "CLOTHES" (q. V. ), and is divided into three sections, the first in exposition of thephilosophy, the second on the life of the philosopher, and the third onthe practical bearings of his idea. It is a book in many respectsunparalleled in literature, and for spiritual significance and worth themost remarkable that has been written in the century. It was written _in_the time and _for_ the time by one who understood the time as not anotherof his contemporaries succeeded in doing, and who interprets it in alight in which every man must read it who would solve its problems to anypurpose. Its style is an offence to many, but not to any one who loveswisdom and has faith in God. For it is a brave book, and a reassuring, aswell as a wise, the author of it regarding the universe not as a deadthing but a living, and athwart the fire deluges that from time to timesweep it, and seem to threaten with ruin everything in it we hold sacred, descrying nothing more appalling than the phoenix-bird immolating herselfin flames that she may the sooner rise renewed out of her ashes and soaraloft with healing in her wings. See CARLYLE, THOMAS, EXODUS FROMHOUNDSDITCH, NATURAL SUPERNATURALISM, &C. 

SASKATCHEWAN, one of the great and navigable rivers of Canada, risesamong the Rockies in two great branches, called respectively the Northand South Saskatchewan, 770 and 810 m. , which flowing generally E. , unite, and after a course of 282 m. Pass into Lake Winnipeg, whence itissues as the Nelson, and flows 400 m. NE. To Hudson's Bay. The upperbranches traverse and give their name to one of the western territoriesof Canada. 

SASSARI (32), the second city of Sardinia, in the NW. , prettilysituated amid olive and orange groves, 12 m. From the Gulf of Asinara;has an old cathedral, castle, and university, and does a good trade inolive-oil, grain, &c. 

SATAN, an archangel who, according to the Talmud, revolted againstthe Most High, particularly when required to do homage to Adam, and whofor his disobedience was with all his following cast into the abyss ofhell. See DEVIL. 

SATANIC SCHOOL, name applied by Southey to a class of writers headedby Byron and Shelley, because, according to him, their productions were"characterised by a Satanic spirit of pride and audacious impiety, " andwho, according to Carlyle, wasted their breath in a fierce wrangle withthe devil, and had not the courage to fairly face and honestly fight him. 

SATELLITES (lit. Attendants), name given to the secondary bodieswhich revolve round the planets of the solar system, of which the Earthhas one, Mars two, Jupiter four, Saturn eight, Uranus four, and Neptuneis known to have at least one, as Venus is surmised to have. 

SATIRE, a species of poetry or prose writing in which the vice orfolly of the times is held up to ridicule, a species in which Horace andJuvenal excelled among the Romans, and Dryden, Pope, and Swift among us. 

SATRAP, a governor of a province under the ancient Persian monarchy, with large military and civil powers; when the central authority began towane, some of them set up as independent rulers. 

SATURN, in the Roman mythology a primitive god of agriculture inItaly, often confounded with the Greek Kronos, the father of Zeus, andsovereign of the Golden Age; was represented as an old man bearing asickle. 

SATURN, the planet of the solar system whose orbit is outside thatof Jupiter, is 880 millions of miles from the sun, round which it takes10, 759 days or nearly 30 years to revolve, revolving on its own axis inabout 10½ hours; its diameter is nine times greater than that of theearth; it is surrounded by bright rings that appear as three, and isaccompanied by eight moons; the rings are solid, and are supposed toconsist of a continuous belt of moons. 

SATURNALIA, a festival in ancient Rome in honour of Saturn, in whichall classes, free and bond, and young and old, enjoyed and indulged inall kinds of merriment without restraint. 

SATYRS, in the Greek mythology semi-animal woodland deities whoroamed the hills generally in the train of DIONYSUS (q. V. ), dancing to rustic music; represented with long pointed ears, flat noses, short horns, and a hair-clad man's body, with the legs and hoofs of agoat; they are of lustful nature, and fond of sensual pleasure generally. 

SAUERKRAUT, a favourite article of food in Germany and elsewhere inNorth Europe; formed of thinly sliced young cabbage laid in layers, withsalt and spice-seeds, pressed in casks and allowed to ferment. 

SAUERTEIG (i. E. Leaven), an imaginary authority alive to the"celestial infernal" fermentation that goes on in the world, who has aneye specially to the evil elements at work, and to whose opinion Carlylefrequently appeals in his condemnatory verdict on sublunary things. 

SAUL, a Benjamite, the son of Kish, who fell in with Samuel as hewas on the way in search of his father's asses that had gone astray, andfrom his stature and stately bearing was anointed by him to be first kingof Israel; he distinguished himself in the field against the enemies ofhis people, but fell at the hands of the Philistines after a reign of 40years, and after several insane attempts on the life of David, who hadbeen elected to succeed him. 

SAUMAREZ, JAMES, BARON DE, English admiral, born at Guernsey;entered the navy at 13, distinguished himself in the American War, captured a French frigate in 1793, which brought him knighthood; wassecond in command at the battle of the Nile, and gained a great victoryoff Cadiz in 1801; was raised to the peerage in 1831 (1757-1836). 

SAUMUR (14), a town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, situated on the Loire and partly on an island in the river, 32 m. SE. OfAngers; once famous for its Protestant theological seminary, and till theEdict of Nantes a stronghold of the Huguenots; has interesting churches, a castle (still used as an arsenal), and a noted cavalry school; hastrade in grain, dried fruits, rosaries, &c. 

SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE, geologist and physicist, born inGeneva; was the first to ascend Mont Blanc in the interest of science, and was distinguished for his researches in the same interest all overthe Alps and on other mountain ranges; he invented or improved severalscientific instruments (1740-1799). 

SAVAGE, RICHARD, English poet, with a worthless character, whogained the regard of Johnson; his chief poem, "The Wanderer, " of nopoetic merit (1697-1743). 

SAVANNAH, a name used chiefly in Florida and neighbouring States todesignate the wide treeless plains of these parts; is practically anequivalent for "pampa, " "prairie, " &c. ; comes from a Spanish word meaning"a sheet. "

SAVANNAH (54), a city and port of the United States, capital ofChatham County, Georgia, on the Savannah River, 18 m. From its mouth;well equipped with parks, electric light, handsome churches, governmentbuildings, &c. , an important naval stores station and second cotton portof the U. S. , and has foundries, rice, flour, cotton, and paper-mills, &c. 

SAVE, a tributary of the Danube, rises in the Julian Alps and flowsSE. Across Southern Austria till it joins the Danube at Belgrade after acourse of 556 m. , of which 366 are navigable. 

SAVIGNY, KARL VON, a German jurist, born in Frankfort-on-the-Main, of French parentage; wrote a treatise on the Right of Property, becameprofessor of Roman Law at Berlin; his chief works were the "History ofRoman Law in the Middle Ages" and the "History of Roman Law in ModernTimes" (1779-1861). 

SAVILLE, SIR HENRY, a learned scholar, born in Yorkshire; was tutorto Queen Elizabeth and provost of Eton, and founder of the Savilianprofessorships of Geometry and Astronomy at Oxford (1549-1642). 

SAVONA (24), a seaport of Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, in theRiviera, 26 m. SW. Of Genoa, in the midst of orange groves, &c. ;handsomely laid out; has a 16th-century cathedral, castle, palace, picture gallery, &c. ; exports pottery and has prosperous iron-works, glass-works, tanneries, &c. 

SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO, Italian reformer, born at Ferrara of a noblefamily; was in his youth of a studious ascetic turn, became at 24 aDominican monk, was fired with a holy zeal for the purity of the Church, and issued forth from his privacy to denounce the vices that everywhereprevailed under her sanction, with threats of divine judgment on herhead, so that the impressions his denunciations made were deep andwide-spread; the effect was especially marked in Florence, where forthree years the reformer's influence became supreme, till a combinationof enemies headed by the Pope succeeded in subverting it to his ejectionfrom the Church, his imprisonment, and final execution, preceded by thatof his confederates Fra Domenico and Fra Silvestro; it was as a reformerof the morals of the Church and nowise of its dogmas that Savonarolopresented himself, while the effect of his efforts was limited prettymuch to his own day and generation (1452-1498). 

SAVOY, DUCHY OF (532), in the SE. Of France, on the Italianfrontier, comprises the two departments of Haute-Savoie and Savoie;previous to 1860 constituted a province of the kingdom of Sardinia; Lakeof Geneva bounds it on the N. And the lofty Graian Alps flank it on theE. , forming part of the Alpine highlands; it is charmingly picturesque, with mountain, forest, and river (numerous tributaries of the Rhône); hasexcellent grazing lands; grows the vine abundantly, besides the usualcereals; the people are industrious and thrifty, but for the most partpoor. Aix-les-Bains, Evian, and Challes are popular watering-places. Chambéry was the old capital. 

SAVOY, HOUSE OF, an ancient royal house of Europe (represented nowby the king of Italy), whose territorial possessions were constituted acounty of the empire in the 12th century under the name Savoy; wascreated a duchy in the 15th century. By the treaty of Utrecht (1713) theisland of Sicily was ceded to Savoy and the title of king bestowed uponthe duke; in 1720 Victor Amadeus II. Was forced to cede Sicily to Austriain exchange for Sardinia, which with Savoy and Piedmont, &c. , constitutedthe kingdom of Sardinia till its dissolution in 1860, when Savoy wasceded to France and the remaining portion merged in the new Italiankingdom under Victor Emmanuel. 

SAVOY, THE, a district of the Strand, London, in which a palace wasbuilt in 1245 called of the Savoy, in which John of France was confinedafter his capture at Poitiers; was burnt at the time of the Wat Tylerinsurrection, but rebuilt in 1505 as a hospital; it included a chapel, which was damaged by fire in 1864, but restored by the Queen. 

SAXE, MAURICE, marshal of France, natural son of Augustus II. , kingof POLAND (q. V. ) distinguished himself under various warcaptains, Marlborough and Prince Eugene in particular, and eventuallyentered the service of France; commanding in the War of the AustrianSuccession he took Prague and Egra, and was made a marshal, and appointedto the command of the army of Flanders, in which he gained victories andcaptured fortresses, and was thereafter loaded with honours by Louis XV. ;was one of the strongest and most dissolute men of his age; died ofdropsy, the result of his debaucheries (1698-1750). 

SAXE-COBURG, DUKE OF, second son of the Queen, Duke of Edinburgh;married a daughter of Alexander II. , czar of Russia; succeeded to thedukedom in 1893; retains his annuity as an English prince of £10, 000;_b_. 1844. 

SAXE-WEIMAR, AMALIA, DUCHESS OF, was of the Guelph family, andmarried to the duke, and in two years was left a widow and in governmentof the duchy, attracting to her court all the literary notabilities ofthe day, Goethe the chief, till in 1775 she resigned her authority to herson, who followed in her footsteps (1739-1807). 

SAXO GRAMMATICUS, a Danish chronicler who flourished in the 12thcentury; wrote "Gesta Danorum, " which brings the history of Denmark downto the year 1158, and is in the later sections of great value. 

SAXON SWITZERLAND, name given to a mountainous region in Saxony, SE. Of Dresden. 

SAXONS, a people of the Teutonic stock who settled early on theestuary of the Elbe and the adjoining islands, who in their piraticalexcursions infested and finally settled in Britain and part of Gaul, andwho, under the name of Anglo-Saxons, now hold sovereign sway over largesections of the globe. 

SAXONY (3, 502), a kingdom of Germany, lies within the basin of theElbe, facing on the E. , between Bavaria (S. ) and Prussia (N. ), themountainous frontier of Bohemia; a little less in size than Yorkshire, but very densely inhabited; spurs of the Erzgebirge, Fichtelgebirge, andRiesengebirge diversify the surface; is a flourishing mining andmanufacturing country; Dresden is the capital, and other important townsare Leipzig, Chemnitz, and Freiburg; the government is vested in the kingand two legislative chambers; is represented in the Reichstag andReichsrath of the empire; by the time of the Thirty Years' War theelectorate of Saxony, which in its heyday had stretched to the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Elbe, had sadly dwindled away; it suffered muchat the hands of Frederick the Great during the Seven Years' War, and in1815, having sided with Napoleon, a portion of its territory was, by theCongress of Vienna, ceded to Prussia; was defeated along with Austria in1866, and thus joined the North German Confederation, to be incorporatedafterwards in the new German Empire. 

SAXONY, PRUSSIAN (2, 580), a province of Prussia, chiefly comprisesthat part of SAXONY (q. V. ) added to Prussia in 1815; situatedin the centre of Prussia, N. Of the kingdom of Saxony; is watered by theElbe and its numerous affluents, and diversified by the Harz Mountainsand Thuringian Forest; contains some of the finest growing land inPrussia; salt and lignite are valuable products, and copper is alsomined; the capital is Magdeburg, and other notable towns are Halle (withits university), Erfurt, &c. 

SAYCE, ALEXANDER HENRY, philologist, born near Bristol; has writtenworks on the monuments of the East, bearing chiefly on Old Testamenthistory; _b_. 1846. 

SCÆVOLA, CAIUS MUCIUS, a patriotic Roman who, when sentenced to beburnt alive by Lars Porsena the Etrurian, then invading Rome, forattempting to murder him, unflinchingly held his right hand in a burningbrazier till it was consumed, as a mark of his contempt for the sentence. Porsena, moved by his courage, both pardoned him, and on hearing that 300as defiant had sworn his death, made peace with Rome and departed. Thename Scævola (i. E. Left-handed) was given him from the loss of hisright hand on the occasion. 

SCAFELL, a Cumberland mountain on the borders of Westmorland, withtwo peaks, one 3210 ft. , and the other 3161 ft. High, the highest inEngland. 

SCALE, DELFA, a prince of Verona, and a general of the Ghibellinesin Lombardy, who offered Dante an asylum when expelled from Florence(1291-1329). 

SCALIGER, JOSEPH JUSTUS, eminent scholar, son of the following, bornat Agen; educated by his father; followed in his father's footsteps, andfar surpassed him in scholarship; travelled over Europe, and became azealous Protestant; accepted the chair of _belles lettres_ in theUniversity of Leyden on condition that he should not be called upon tolecture, and gave himself up to a life of study, especially on mattersphilological and literary; was a man of universal knowledge, and thecreator of modern chronology (1540-1609). 

SCALIGER, JULIUS CÆSAR, surnamed the Elder, classical scholar, became page to the Emperor Maximilian, and served him in war and peacefor 17 years; at 40 quitted the army, and took to study the learnedlanguages among other subjects; wrote a treatise on poetics and acommentary on the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle, and became anauthority on the Aristotelian philosophy (1484-1558). 

SCANDERBEG (i. E. Prince or Bey Alexander), the patriot chief ofAlbania, and the great hero of Albanian independence, who in the 15thcentury renounced Islamism for Christianity, and by his military prowessand skill freed Albania from the Turkish yoke; throughout his lifetimemaintained its independence, crushing again and again the Turkish armies;was known among the Christians as George Castriot (1403-1468). 

SCANDEROON or ALEXANDRETTA (2), the port of Aleppo, in Turkeyin Asia, situated in the Gulf of Scanderoon, in the NE. Of the Levant, 77m. NW. Of Aleppo; is itself an insignificant place, but has a largetransit trade. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name (still used) of the great northernpeninsula of Europe, which embraces NORWAY (q. V. ) and SWEDEN (q. V. );also used in a broader sense to include Denmark and Iceland. 

SCARBOROUGH (34), a popular seaside town and watering-place on theYorkshire coast; built on rising ground on the shores of a fine bay; is aplace of great antiquity, with interesting ruins; has churches, harbour, piers, and a fine promenade; noted for the manufacture of jet. 

SCARPA, ANTONIO, Italian anatomist, professor at Pavia (1747-1832). 

SCARRON, PAUL, a French humourist, writer of the burlesque, born, ofgood parentage, in Paris; entered the Church, and was for some yearssomewhat lax-living abbé of Mans, but stricken with incurable diseasesettled in Paris, and supported himself by writing; is chiefly rememberedfor his "Virgile Travesti" and "Le Roman Comique, " which "gave theimpulse out of which sprang the masterpieces of Le Sage, Defoe, Fielding, and Smollett"; married in 1652 Françoise d'Aubigné, a girl of fifteen, afterwards the famous MADAME DE MAINTENON (q. V. ); was a man whoboth suffered much and laughed much (1610-1660). 

SCATTERY ISLAND, in the Shannon estuary, 3 m. SW. Of Kilrush; anearly Christian place of pilgrimage, with ruins and a "round tower"; isfortified and marked by a lighthouse. 

SCEPTICISM, primarily doubt respecting, and ultimately disbelief in, the reality of the super-sensible, or the transcendental, or the validityof the evidence on which the belief in it is founded, such as reason orrevelation, and in religious matters is tantamount to infidelity more orless sweeping. 

SCEPTRE, the symbol of royal power, power to command and compel, originally a club, the crown being the symbol of dominion. 

SCHADOW, JOHANNES GOTTFRIED, sculptor, born in Berlin; was trainedin Rome under the best masters, returned to Berlin, and became Directorof the Academy of Arts; laboured here for 62 years, and produced workswhich placed him among the first rank of artists; he had two sons, one ofwhom distinguished himself as a sculptor, and the other as a painter(1764-1850). 

SCHAFF, PHILIP, a theologian, born in Switzerland; studied inGermany; came recommended by high names to the United States, and becameprofessor first in Pennsylvania, and finally in New York (1819-1893). 

SCHAFFHAUSEN (38), a canton in the extreme N. Of Switzerland, surrounded NE. And W. By Baden; the Rhine flanks it on the S. ; is hilly, with fertile valleys sloping to the Rhine, and is chiefly given up toagriculture. The capital, Schaffhausen (19), occupies a picturesque siteon the Rhine, 31 m. NW. Of Constance; has a 12th-century cathedral, aninteresting old castle, &c. The famous falls, the finest on the Rhine, are 3 m. Below the town. 

SCHÄFFLE, DR. ALBERT, eminent German economist, born in Würtemberg;has written, besides other works, "The Quintessence of Socialism, " anable _exposé_; _b_. 1831. 

SCHALL, JOHANN ADAM VON, Jesuit missionary to China, born atCologne; was received with honours at the Imperial Court; obtainedpermission to preach, and founded churches to the spread of Christianity, a privilege which was revoked by the next emperor; he was subjected toimprisonment, which shortened his life (1591-1669). 

SCHAMYL. See SHAMYL. 

SCHARNHORST, GERHARD VON, a Prussian general, distinguished as theorganiser of the Prussian army, to the establishment of a national forceinstead of a mercenary; died of a wound in battle (1756-1813). 

SCHEELE, CARL WILHELM, Swedish chemist, born in Pomerania, was anapothecary at Upsala and Köping; during his residence at the latter madenumerous important discoveries, and published many chemical papers, hischief work "Experiments on Air and Fire" (1742-1786). 

SCHEFFEL, JOSEPH VICTOR VON, German poet, bred to law, but abandonedit for literature; his first and best work "Der Trompeter von Sakkingen, "a charming tale in verse of the Thirty Years' War, succeeded by"Gaudeamus, " a collection of songs and ballads familiar to the Germanstudents all over the Fatherland (1826-1886). 

SCHEFFER, ARY, painter, born at Dordrecht, of German and Dutchparentage; settled in Paris; began as a _genre_-painter; illustratedDante, Goethe, and Byron, and in the end painted religious subjects; hedid excellent portraits also; was of the Romantic school (1795-1858). 

SCHEHERAZADE, daughter of the grand vizier, who, in the "ArabianNights, " marries the Sultan and saves her life by entertaining him nightafter night with her tales. 

SCHELDT, an important river of Belgium and Holland, rises in theFrench dep. Of Aisne, and flows northwards past Cambrai (its highestnavigable point) and Valenciennes, entering Belgium a little S. OfTournay and continuing northward, with Oudenarde, Ghent, and Antwerp onits banks; enters Holland, and at the island of S. Beveland splits intothe Wester Scheldt and the Ooster Scheldt, which enter the North Sea, theformer at Flushing, the latter at Bergen-op-Zoom; length 267 m. , much thegreater part being in Belgium. 

SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH, German philosopher, born inWürtemberg; studied at Tübingen, where he became acquainted with Hegel;wrote first on theological subjects and then on philosophical; went toJena and became a disciple and follower of Fichte; gradually abandonedFichte's position and began to develop ideas of his own, and inconjunction with Hegel edited the _Critical Journal of Philosophy_; heldafterwards a professorship at Münich and a lectureship at Berlin; hisphilosophy is no finished or completed system, but is essentially ahistory of the progressive stages through which he himself passed; duringthe reign of Hegel he kept silence, and only broke it when Hegel wasdead; thought to outstrip him by another philosophy, but the attempt hasproved fruitless of any important results (1775-1854). 

SCHEMNITZ (15), a town of Hungary, noted as a mining centre sinceRoman times, situated in the midst of a mountainous region, 65 m. N. ByW. Of Pesth; gold, silver, copper, and lead are largely wrought, chieflyin the interests of the State. 

SCHENKEL, DAVID, German theologian, born in Switzerland, became, after a pastorate at Schaffhausen, professor first at Basel and then atHeidelberg; was a man of liberal principles, and was zealous for theunion of the Protestants, Lutheran and Reformed, in one body on a broadbasis; is noted as author of a work entitled "Das Characterbild Jesu, "being an attempt to construe the character of Christ on rationalisticlines (1813-1885). 

SCHERER, EDMOND, French critic, born in Paris, spent his early yearsin England, his mother being English; was for some time devoted totheology and the Church, but changed his views; settled in Paris, andtook to journalism and politics, distinguishing himself more especiallyin literary criticism (1815-1889). 

SCHILLER, FRIEDRICH, German poet and dramatist, born at Marbach onthe Neckar, son of an army-surgeon; bred first to law and then tomedicine, but took chief interest in philosophy and literature, to thecultivation of which he by-and-by devoted his life; his first work, aplay, "The Robbers, " which on its publication in 1782 produced quite aferment, and was followed in 1783 by two tragedies, "Fresco" and "Kabaleund Liebe"; but it was with "Don Carlos" in 1787 his mature authorshipbegan, and this was followed by the "History of the Netherlands" and"History of the Thirty Years' War, " to be succeeded by "Wallenstein"(1799), "Maria Stuart" (1800), "The Maid of Orleans" (1801), "The Brideof Messina" (1803), and "Wilhelm Tell" (1804); he Wrote besides a numberof ballads and lyrics; in 1794 his friendship with Goethe began, and itwas a friendship which was grounded on their common love for art, andlasted with life; he was an earnest man and a serious writer, and muchbeloved by the great Goethe (1759-1805). See CARLYLE'S "LIFE OFSCHILLER, " and his essay on him in his "MISCELLANIES. "

SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON, German man of letters, born atHanover; studied theology at first, but turned to literature and beganwith poetry; settled in Jena, and in 1798 became professor of Fine Artsthere; was associated in literary work with Madame de Staël for 14 years;delivered "Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature" at Vienna in 1708, and finished with a professorship of Literature at Bonn, havingpreviously distinguished himself by translations into German ofShakespeare, Dante, &c. ; he devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit whenat Bonn, where he had Heine for pupil (1767-1845). 

SCHLEGEL, FRIEDRICH VON, German critic and author, born at Hanover, brother of preceding, joined his brother at Jena, and collaborated withhim; became a zealous promoter of all the Romantic movements, and soughtrelief for his yearnings in the bosom of the Catholic Church; wrotelectures, severally published, on the "Philosophy of History, " of"Literature, " of "Life, " and on "Modern History, " and book on Sanskritand the philosophy of India (1772-1829). 

SCHLEICHER, AUGUST, German philologist, did eminent service by hisstudies in the Indo-Germanic languages, and particularly in the Slavoniclanguages (1821-1868). 

SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH ERNEST DANIEL, great German theologian, born at Breslau; brought up among the Moravians, his mind revoltedagainst the narrow orthodoxy of their creed, which was confirmed by hisstudy of Plato and the philosophy of the school of Kant, as it for himculminated in Schelling, though the religious feeling he inherited neverleft him; under these influences he addressed himself to the task ofelaborating a theology in which justice should be done to the claims ofthe intellect and the emotions of the heart, and he began by translatingPlato; soon he formed a school, which included among its members men suchas Neander and others, distinguished at once for their learning and theirpiety, and to which all the schools of theology in Germany since havebeen more or less affiliated; his great merit lay in the importance heattached to the religious consciousness as derived from that of Christ, and the development therefrom in the life and history of the Church ofChrist; it was to the religious interest he dedicated his life andconsecrated all his learning, which was immense (1768-1834). 

SCHLEMIHL, PETER, the name of a man who in Chamisso's tale sold hisshadow to the devil, a synonym of one who makes a desperate or sillybargain. 

SCHLIEMANN, HEINRICH, a German explorer, born inMecklenburg-Schwerin; excavated at his own cost the ruins, among othersin Greece, of Hissarlik, in the Troad, believing them to be those ofTroy; spent 12 years in this enterprise, collecting the spoils anddepositing them in safe keeping in Berlin; died at Naples before hisexcavations were complete (1822-1890). 

SCHLOSSNER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH, German historian, born inOldenburg; was studios of the moral factor in history, and gave especialprominence to it (1776-1861). 

SCHMALKALDIC LEAGUE, a league of the Protestant States of Germanyconcluded in 1531 at Schmalkalden, Prussia, in defence of theirreligious and civil liberties against the Emperor Charles V. And theCatholic States. 

SCHNITZER, EDUARD, physician, born in Breslau; went to Turkey, entered the Turkish medical service, adopted the name Emin Pasha, and wasappointed by Gordon medical officer of the Equatorial Province of Egypt, and raised to the rank of Pasha; soon after the outbreak of the Mahdistinsurrection he was cut off from civilisation, but was discovered byStanley in 1889 and brought to Zanzibar, after which he was murdered byArabs (1840-1893). 

SCHOLASTICISM, the name given to the philosophy that prevailed inEurope during the Middle Ages, particularly in the second half of them, and has been generally characterised as an attempt at conciliationbetween dogma and thought, between faith and reason, an attempt to form ascientific system on that basis, founded on the pre-supposition that thecreed of the Church was absolutely true, and capable of rationalisation. 

SCHOLIASTS, name given to a class of grammarians who appendedannotations to the margins of the MSS. Of the classics. 

SCHOLIUM, a marginal note explanatory of the text of a classicauthor. 

SCHOLTEN, HENDRIK, a Dutch theologian of the rationalistic school(1811-1885). 

SCHOMBERG, DUKE OF, French marshal, of German origin and theProtestant persuasion; took service under the Prince of Orange, and fellat the battle of the Boyne (1618-1690). 

SCHÖNBRUNN, imperial palace near Vienna, built by Maria Theresa in1744. 

SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE, a noted American ethnologist, born in NewYork State; at 24 was geologist to an exploring expedition undertaken byGeneral Cass to Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi; married theeducated daughter of an Ojibway chief; founded the Historical Society ofMichigan and the Algic Society at Detroit; discovered the sources of theMississippi in 1832; was an active and friendly agent for the Indians, and in 1847 began, under Government authorisation, his great work ofgathering together all possible information regarding the Indian tribesof the United States, an invaluable work embodied in six great volumes;author also of many other works treating of Indian life, exploration, etc. (1793-1864). 

SCHOOLMEN, teachers of the SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY (q. V. ). 

SCHOPENHAUER, ARTHUR, a bold metaphysical thinker, born in Danzig, of Dutch descent; was early dissatisfied with life, and conceivedpessimistic views of it; in 1814 jotted down in a note-book, "Inwarddiscord is the very bane of human nature so long as a man lives, " and onthis fact he brooded for years; at length the problem solved itself, andthe solution appears in his great work, "Die Welt als Wille undVorstellung" ("The World as Will and Idea"), which he published in 1718;in it, as in others of his writings, to use the words of the lateProfessor Wallace of Oxford, Schopenhauer "draws close to the great heartof life, and tries to see clearly what man's existence and hopes anddestiny really are, which recognises the peaceful creations of art as themost adequate representation the sense-world can give of the true inwardbeing of all things, and which holds the best life to be that of one whohas pierced, through the illusions dividing one conscious individualityfrom another, into that great heart of eternal rest where we are eachmembers one of another essentially united in the great ocean of Being, inwhich, and by which, we alone live. " Goethe gives a similar solution inhis "Wilhelm Meister"; is usually characterised as a pessimist, and sodiscarded, but such were all the wise men who have contributed anythingto the emancipation of the world, which they never would have attemptedbut for a like sense of the evil at the root of the world's misery; andas for his philosophy, it is a protest against treating it as a scienceinstead of an art which has to do not merely with the reasoning powers, but with the whole inmost nature of man (1788-1860). 

SCHOUVALOFF, COUNT PETER, a Russian ambassador, born at St. Petersburg; became in 1806 head of the secret police; came to England in1873 on a secret mission to arrange the marriage of the Emperor AlexanderII. 's daughter with the Duke of Edinburgh; was one of Russia'srepresentatives at the Congress of Berlin (1827-1889). His brother, CountPaul, fought in the Crimean War, helped to liberate the Russian serfs, fought in the Russo-Turkish War, and was governor of Warsaw during1895-1897; _b_. 1830. 

SCHREINER, OLIVE, authoress, daughter of a Lutheran clergyman atCape Town; achieved a great success by "The Story of an African Farm" in1883, which was followed in 1890 by "Dreams, " also later "Dream Life andReal Life"; she is opposed to the South African policy of Mr. Rhodes. 

SCHREINER, RIGHT HON. W. P. , Premier of the Cape Parliament, brotherof preceding; bred to the bar, favours arbitration in the South Africandifficulty, and is a supporter of the Africander Bond in politics. 

SCHUBERT, FRANZ PETER, composer, born, the son of a Moravianschoolmaster, at Vienna; at 11 was one of the leading choristers in thecourt-chapel, later on became leading violinist in the school band; histalent for composition in all modes soon revealed itself, and by the timehe became an assistant in his father's school (1813) his supreme gift oflyric melody showed itself in the song "Erl King, " the "Mass in F, " etc. ;his too brief life, spent chiefly in the drudgery of teaching, washarassed by pecuniary embarrassment, embittered by the slow recognitionhis work won, though he was cheered by the friendly encouragement ofBeethoven; his output of work was remarkable for its variety andquantity, embracing some 500 songs, 10 symphonies, 6 masses, operas, sonatas, etc. ; his abiding fame rests on his songs, which are infused, asnone other are, by an intensity of poetic feeling--"divine fire"Beethoven called it (1797-1828). 

SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, HERMANN, founder of the system of "people'ssavings-banks, " born at Delitzsch, and trained to the law; he settled inhis native town and give himself to social reform, sat in the NationalAssembly in Berlin on the Progressionist side, but opposed Lasalle'ssocialistic programme; his project of "people's savings-banks" wasstarted in 1850, and immediately took root, spreading over the countryand into Austria, Italy, Belgium, etc. (1808-1883). 

SCHUMANN, ROBERT, an eminent German composer and musical critic, born at Zwickau, in Saxony; law, philosophy, and travel occupied hisearly youth, but in 1831 he was allowed to follow his bent for music, andsettled to study it at Leipzig; two years later started a musical paper, which for more than 10 years was the vehicle of essays in musicalcriticism; during these years appeared also his greatest pianoforteworks, songs, symphonies, and varied chamber music; "Paradise and thePart" and scenes from "Faust" appeared in 1843; symptoms of cerebraldisease which in the end proved fatal, began to manifest themselves, andhe withdrew to a quieter life at Dresden, where much of his operatic andother music was written; during 1850-54 he acted as musical director atDüsseldorf, but insanity at length supervened, and after attemptingsuicide in the Rhine he was placed in an asylum, where he died two yearslater; his work is full of the fresh colour and variety of Romanticism, his songs being especially beautiful (1810-1856). 

SCHÜRER, EMIL, biblical scholar, born at Augsburg, professor ofTheology at Kiel, author of "History of the Jewish People"; _b_. 1844. 

SCHUYLER, PHILIP JOHN, leader in the American War of Independence, born at Albany, of Dutch descent; served in arms under Washington, andhealth failing for action, became one of Washington's most sagaciousadvisers (1733-1804). 

SCHUYLKILL, a river of Pennsylvania, rises on the N. Side of theBlue Mountains and flows SE. 130 m. To its junction with the DelawareRiver at Philadelphia; is an important waterway for the coal-miningindustry of Pennsylvania. 

SCHWANN, THEODOR, German physiologist, born at Neuss; made severaldiscoveries in physiology, and established the cell theory (1810-1882). 

SCHWANTHALER, LUDWIG, German sculptor, born at Münich, of an oldfamily of sculptors; studied at Rome; has adorned his native city withhis works both in bas-reliefs and statues, at once in single figures andin groups; did frescoes and cartoons also (1802-1848). 

SCHWÄRMEREI (lit. Going off in swarms, as bees under their queen), name given to a more or less insane enthusiasm with which a mass of menis affected. 

SCHWARZ, BERTHOLD, an alchemist of the 13th century, born atFribourg, a monk of the order of Cordeliers; is credited with thediscovery of gunpowder when making experiments with nitre. 

SCHWARZ, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, German missionary in India, born inBrandenburg; laboured 16 years at Trichinopoly, gained the friendship ofthe Rajah of Tanjore, and settled there in 1778; succeeded also inwinning the favour of Hyder Ali of Mysore, and proved himself to be inall senses a minister of the gospel of peace (1726-1798). 

SCHWARZBURG, HOUSE OF, one of the oldest noble families of Germany;first comes into authentic history in the 12th century with Count SizzoIV. (the first to take the title of Schwarzburg), and in the 16th centurydivides into the two existing branches, the Schwarzburg-Sondershausen andSchwarzburg-Rudolstadt--which give their names to two sovereignprincipalities of Central Germany wedged in between Prussia and thelesser Saxon States, the latter embracing part of the Thuringian Forest;both are prosperous agricultural and mining regions. 

SCHWARZENBURG, KARL PHILIP, PRINCE VON, Austrian general, born atVienna, of a noble family there; entered the army and distinguishedhimself in the wars against the Turks, the French Republic, and Napoleon;fought at Austerlitz and Wagram, negotiated the marriage of Napoleon withMaria Louisa, commanded the Austrian contingent sent to aid France in1812, but joined the allies against Napoleon at Dresden and Leipzig, andcaptured Paris in 1814 at the head of the army of the Rhine (1771-1820). 

SCHWARZWALD, the Black Forest in Germany. 

SCHWEGLER, ALBERT, theologian, born at Würtemberg; treated first ontheological subjects, then on philosophical; is best known among us byhis "History of Philosophy, " translated into English by Dr. HutchesonStirling, "written, so to speak, at a single stroke of the pen, as, inthe first instance, an article for an encyclopædia, " . .. The author being"a remarkably ripe, full man" (1819-1857). 

SCHWEINFURTH, GEORG AUGUST, German traveller in Africa, born atRiga; wrote "The Heart of Africa, " which gives an account of his travelsamong the mid-African tribes; _b_. 1836. 

SCHWENCKFELD, CASPAR VON, a Protestant sectary, born in LowerSilesia, of a noble family; as a student of the Scriptures embraced theReformation, but differed from Luther on the matter of the dependence ofthe divine life on external ordinances, insisting, as George Foxafterwards did, on its derivation from within; like Fox he travelled fromplace to place proclaiming this, and winning not a few disciples, andexposed himself to much persecution at the hands of men of whom betterthings were to be expected, but he bore it all with a Christ-likemeekness; died at Ulm; his writings were treated with the same indignityas himself, and his followers were after his death driven from one placeof refuge to another, till the last remnant of them found shelter underthe friendly wing of COUNT ZINZENDORF (q. V. ) (1490-1561). 

SCHWERIN (34), capital of the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin;has a pretty site on Lake of Schwerin (14 m. By 3), 47 m. SE. Of Lübeck;has a 14th-century cathedral, Renaissance castle, arsenal, &c. , andmanufactures of lacquered ware, machinery, &c. 

SCHWYZ (50), one of the three original cantons of Switzerland, German speaking and Catholic; Lake Zurich forms part of the N. Border, and Lake Lucerne part of the S. ; Zug with its lake is on the W. ; ismountainous, but good pasturage favours cattle-breeding, sheep and goatrearing, &c. ; important industries in cotton and silk are carried on;Einsiedeln, with its famous monastery, attracts thousands of pilgrims, and the Rigi is a favourite resort of summer visitors. The capital (7), same name, is prettily situated 26 m. E. Of Lucerne. 

SCIENCE, as it has been said, "has for its province the world ofphenomena, and deals exclusively with their relations, consequences, orsequences. It can never tell us what a thing really and intrinsically is, but only why it has become so; it can only, in other words, refer us toone inscrutable as the ground and explanation of another inscrutable. " "Ascience, " says Schopenhauer, "anybody can learn, one perhaps with more, another with less trouble; but from art each receives only so much as hebrings, yet latent within him. .. . Art has not, like science, to do merelywith the reasoning powers, but with the inmost nature of man, where eachmust count only for what he really is. "

SCILLY ISLANDS, a rugged group of islands belonging to Cornwall, 27m. SW. Of Land's End; consists of six larger islands--St. Mary's (1528acres, pop. 1200), the largest--and some 30 smaller, besides numerousrock clusters, the name Scilly being strictly applicable to a rocky isletin the NW. Of the group; climate is damp and mild; the cultivation andexport of large quantities of lilies is the principal industry, butgenerally industries have decayed, lighthouses have reduced greatly thehereditary occupation of pilotage, and emigration goes on; the only townis Hugh Town (with two hotels, banks, pier, &c. ), on St. Mary's; thereare some interesting ecclesiastical ruins, &c. ; since 1834 much has beendone to improve the condition of the islanders by the then proprietor Mr. A. J. Smith, and his nephew, T. A. Darien Smith, who succeeded in 1872. 

SCIOPPIUS, CASPAR, a Protestant renegade, born in the Palatinate;turned Catholic on a visit to Rome, and devoted his life to vilify hisformer co-religionists, and to invoke the Catholic powers to combine totheir extermination; he was a man of learning, but of most infirm temper(1576-1649). 

SCIPIO, P. CORNELIUS, THE ELDER, surnamed Africanus Major, acelebrated Roman general; was present at the engagement near the Tacinusand at Cannæ; was appointed proconsul of Spain at the age of 24, and madehimself master of nearly the whole of it against the Carthaginians; onhis return to Rome was made consul; transferred the seat of war againstCarthage to Africa, and landed at Utica; met Hannibal on the field ofZama, and totally defeated him, and ended the Second Punic War in 202B. C. (234-183 B. C. ). 

SCIPIO, P. CORNELIUS, THE YOUNGER, surnamed Africanus Minor, adoptedby the preceding, the proper name being L. Paullus Æmelius; afterdistinguishing himself in Spain proceeded to Africa to take part in theThird Punic War; laid siege to Carthage, took it by storm, and levelledit with the ground in 146 B. C. ; he was afterwards sent to Spain, wherehe captured Numantia after a stubborn resistance, to the extension of thesway of Rome; he was an upright and magnanimous man, but his characterwas not proof against assault; he died by the hand of an assassin. 

SCONE (pronounced Scoon), a, village in Perthshire, on the left bankof the Tay, 2 m. N. Of Perth; once the capital of the Pictish kingdom, and the place of the coronation of the Scottish kings; near it is theseat of the Earl of Mansfield. 

SCOPAS, Greek sculptor, born at Paros, who flourished in 4th centuryB. C. 

SCORESBY, WILLIAM, scientist, born at Whitby; began life as asailor; visited the Arctic regions twice over, and wrote an account ofhis explorations; took to the Church, and held several clerical charges, but retired in 1849, and gave himself to scientific researches, both athome and abroad (1787-1857). 

SCORY, JOHN, a Cambridge Dominican friar in 1530, who became bishopof Rochester in 1551, and later of Chichester; was deprived of his livingon Queen Mary's accession; recanted, but fled abroad, whence he issuedhis "Epistle to the Faytheful in Pryson in England"; returned inElizabeth's reign, and became bishop of Hereford; _d_. 1585. 

SCOT, REGINALD, author of a famous work, "The Discoverie ofWitchcraft" (1584), remarkable as one of the earliest exposures of theabsurdities of witchcraft and kindred superstitions, which provoked KingJames's foolish defence "Dæmonology"; son of a Kentish baronet; educatedat Oxford, and spent a peaceful life gardening and studying; wrote also"The Hoppe Garden" (1538-1599). 

SCOTLAND (4, 026), the northern portion of the island of GreatBritain, separated from England by the Solway, Cheviots, and Tweed, andbounded N. And W. By the Atlantic and E. By the German Ocean; inclusiveof 788 islands (600 uninhabited), its area, divided into 33 counties, isslightly more than one-half of England's, but has a coast-line longer by700 m. ; greatest length from Dunnet Head (most northerly point) to Mullof Galloway (most southerly) is 288 m. , while the breadth varies from 32to 175, Buchan Ness being the eastmost point and Ardnamurchan Point thewestmost; from rich pastoral uplands in the S. --Cheviots, Moffat Hills, Lowthers, Moorfoots, and Lammermoors--the country slopes down to thewide, fertile lowland plain--growing fine crops of oats barley, wheat, &c. --which stretches, with a varying breadth of from 30 to 60 m. , up tothe Grampians (highest peak Ben Nevis, 4406 ft. ), whence the countrysweeps northwards, a wild and beautiful tract of mountain, valley, andmoorland, diversified by some of the finest loch and river scenery in theworld; the east and west coasts present remarkable contrasts, the latterrugged, irregular, and often precipitous, penetrated by long sea-lochsand fringed with numerous islands, and mild and humid in climate; theformer low and regular, with few islands or inlets, and cold, dry, andbracing; of rivers the Tweed, Forth, Tay, Dee, and Clyde are theprincipal, and the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Hebrides the chief islandgroups; coal and iron abound in the lowlands, more especially in theplain of the Forth and Clyde, and granite in the Grampians; stapleindustries are the manufacture of cottons, woollens, linen, jute, machinery, hardware, paper, and shipbuilding, of which Glasgow is thecentre and commercial metropolis, while Edinburgh (capital) is the chiefseat of law, education, &c. ; of cultivated land the percentage variesfrom 74. 8 in Fife to 2. 4 in Sutherland, and over all is only 24. 2; goodroads, canals, extensive railway and telegraph systems knit all parts ofthe country together; Presbyterianism is the established form ofreligion, and in 1872 the old parish schools were supplanted by anational system under school-boards similar to England; the lowlandersand highlanders still retain distinctive characteristics of theirTeutonic and Celtic progenitors, the latter speaking in many parts of theHighlands their native Gaelic; originally the home of the PICTS(q. V. ), and by them called Alban or Albyn, the country, alreadyoccupied as far as the Forth and Clyde by the Romans, was in the 5thcentury successfully invaded by the Scots, a Celtic tribe from Ireland;in 843 their king Kenneth was crowned king of Picts and Scots, and by the10th century the country (known to the Romans as Caledonia) began to becalled Scotia or Scotland; government and power gradually centred in thericher lowlands, which, through contact with England, and from the numberof English immigrants, became distinctively Anglo-Saxon; since the Unionwith ENGLAND (q. V. ) the prosperity of Scotland has been ofsteady and rapid growth, manufactures, commerce, and literature (in allbranches) having flourished wonderfully. 

SCOTS, THE, a tribe of Celts from Ireland who settled in the W. OfNorth Britain, and who, having gained the ascendency of the Picts in theE. , gave to the whole country the name of Scotland. 

SCOTT, DAVID, Scotch painter, born in Edinburgh; he was an artist ofgreat imaginative power, and excelled in the weird; his best picture, exhibited in 1828, was "The Hopes of Early Genius Dispelled by Death, "though his first achievements in art were his illustrations of the"Ancient Mariner"; but his masterpiece is "Vasco da Gama encountering theSpirit of the Cape"; he was a sensitive man, and disappointment hastenedhis death (1806-1849). 

SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT, English architect, born inBuckinghamshire, son of Scott the commentator; was the builder orrestorer of buildings both in England and on the Continent after theGothic, and wrote several works on architecture. 

SCOTT, MICHAEL, a sage with the reputation of a wizard, who livedabout the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, of whoseart as a magician many legends are related. 

SCOTT, THOMAS, commentator, born in Lincolnshire; became rector ofAston Sandford, Bucks; was a Calvinist in theology, author of the "Forceof Truth" and "Essays on Religion, " the work by which he is best knownbeing his "Commentary on the Bible, " a scholarly exposition (1747-1821). 

SCOTT, SIR WALTER, the great romancer, born in Edinburgh, throughboth father and mother of Scottish Border blood; his father, a lawyer, aman "who passed from the cradle to the grave without making an enemy orlosing a friend, " his mother a little kindly woman, full of most vividmemories, awakening an interest in him to which he owed much; was ahealthy child, but from teething and other causes lost the use of hisright limb when 18 months old, which determined, to a marked extent, thecourse of his life; spent many of the months of his childhood in thecountry, where he acquired that affection for all natural objects whichnever left him, and a kindliness of soul which all the lower animals thatapproached him were quick to recognise; he was from the first home-bred, and to realise the like around his own person was his fondest dream, andif he failed, as it chanced he did, his vexation was due not to thematerial loss it involved, but to the blight it shed on his home life andthe disaster on his domestic relationships; his school training yieldedresults of the smallest account to his general education, and a writer ofbooks himself, he owed less to book-knowledge than his own shrewdobservation; he proceeded from the school (the High School, it was) at 15to his father's office and classes at the University, and at both hecontinued to develop his own bent more than the study of law or learning;at his sixteenth year the bursting of a blood-vessel prostrated him inbed and enforced a period of perfect stillness, but during this time hewas able to prosecute sundry quiet studies, and laid up in his memorygreat stores of knowledge, for his mind was of that healthy quality whichassimilated all that was congenial to it and let all that did not concernit slip idly through, achieving thereby his greatest victory, that ofbecoming an altogether _whole_ man. Professionally he was a lawyer, and agood lawyer, but the duties of his profession were not his chiefinterest, and though he received at length a sheriffship worth £300 ayear, and a clerkship to the court worth £1500, he early turned his mindto seek promotion elsewhere, and chose a literary career. His firstliterary efforts were translations in verse from the German, but hisfirst great literary success was the publication, in 1802, of "TheMinstrelsy of the Scottish Border, " and in this he first gave evidenceboth of the native force and bent of his genius; it gave the keynote ofall that subsequently proceeded from his pen. This was followed the sameyear by "Cadzow Castle, " a poem instinct with military ardour, and thisby "The Lay of the Last Minstrel" in 1805; the first poem which gainedhim popular favour, by "Marmion" in 1808, and by "The Lord of the Isles"in 1814. Much as the rise of Scott's fame was owing to his poeticalworks, it is on the ground of his prose writings, as the freest andfullest exhibition of his genius, that it is now mainly founded. Theperiod of his productivity in this line extended over 18 years in all, commencing with the year 1814. This was the year of the publication of"Waverley, " which was followed by that of "Guy Mannering, " "TheAntiquary, " "Rob Roy, " "Old Mortality, " and "The Heart of Midlothian" inthe year 1819, when he was smitten down by an illness, the effects ofwhich was seen in his after-work. "The Bride of Lammermoor, " "Ivanhoe, ""The Monastery, " "The Abbot, " "Kenilworth, " and "The Pirate" belong tothe years that succeeded that illness, and all more or less witness toits sorrowful effects, of which last "The Abbot" and "The Monastery" arereckoned the best, as still illustrating the "essential powers" of Scott, to which may be added "Redgauntlet" and "The Fortunes of Nigel, "characterised by Ruskin as "quite noble ones, " together with "QuentinDurward" and "Woodstock, " as "both of high value. " Sir Walter's own lifewas, in its inner essence, an even-flowing one, for there were in it nocrises such as to require a reversal of the poles of it, and a spiritualnew birth, with crucifixion of the old nature, and hence it is easilydivisible, as it has been divided throughout, into the three naturalperiods of growth, activity, and death. His active life, which rangesfrom 1796 to 1826, lay in picturing things and traditions of things as inyouth, a 25 years' period of continuous crescent expansiveness, he hadlearned to view them, and his slow death was the result, not of mereweariness in working, but of the adverse circumstances that thwarted andfinally wrecked the one unworthy ambition that had fatally takenpossession of his heart. Of Scott Ruskin says, "What good Scott had inhim to do, I find no words full enough to express. .. Scott is beyondcomparison the greatest intellectual force manifested in Europe sinceShakespeare. .. All Scott's great writings were the recreations of a mindconfirmed in dutiful labour, and rich with organic gathering of boundlessresource" (1771-1832). 

SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL, painter and poet, brother of David Scott, bornin Edinburgh; did criticism and wrote on artists; is best known by hisautobiography (1811-1890). 

SCRANTON (102), capital of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, on theLackawanna River, 144 m. NW. Of New York; does a large trade in coal, andis the centre of a busy steel, iron, and machinery industry. 

SCRIBE, EUGENE, French dramatist, a prolific and a successful, whoproduced plays for half a century, well adapted for the stage, ifotherwise worthless (1791-1861). 

SCRIBES, THE (i. E. Writers), a non-priestly class among the Jewsdevoted to the study and exposition of the Law, and who rose to aposition of importance and influence in the Jewish community, were knownin the days of Christ also by the name of Lawyers, and were addressed asRabbis; their disciples were taught to regard them, and did regard themwith a reverence superior to that paid to father or mother, the spiritualparent being reckoned as much above the natural, as the spirit and itsinterests are above the flesh and its interests. 

SCRIBLERUS, MARTINUS, the subject of a fictitious memoir publishedin Pope's works and ascribed to ARBUTHNOT (q. V. ), intended toridicule the pedantry which affects to know everything, but knows nothingto any purpose. 

SCRIVENER, FREDERICK HENRY AMBROSE, New Testament critic, born atBermondsey, Surrey, educated at Cambridge; head-master of Falmouth Schoolfrom 1846 to 1856, and after 15 years' rectorship of Gerrans, becamevicar of Hendon and prebendary of Exeter; his "Plain Introduction to theCriticism of the New Testament" ranks as a standard work; was editor ofthe Cambridge Paragraph Bible, and one of the New Testament revisers(1813-1891). 

SCROGGS, SIR WILLIAM, an infamous Judge of Charles II. 's reign, whobecame Chief-Justice of the King's Bench in 1678, and whose name isassociated with all manner of injustice and legal corruption; wasimpeached in 1680, and pensioned off by the king; _d_. 1683. 

SCUDÉRY, MADELEINE DE, French novelist, born at Havre, came to Parisin her youth, and there lived to an extreme old age; was a prominentfigure in the social and literary life of the city; collaborated at firstwith her brother Georges, but subsequently was responsible herself for aset of love romances of an inordinate length, but of great popularity intheir day, e. G. "Le Grand Cyrus" and "Clélie, " &c. , in which a realgift for sparkling dialogue is swallowed up in a mass of improbableadventures and prudish sentimentalism (1607-1701). 

SCULPTURED STONES, a name specially applied to certain varieties ofcommemorative monuments (usually rough-hewn slabs or boulders, and in afew cases well-shaped crosses) of early Christian date found in variousparts of the British Isles, bearing lettered and symbolic inscriptions ofa rude sort and ornamental designs resembling those found on Celtic MSS. Of the Gospels; lettered inscriptions are in Latin, OGAM (q. V. ), and Scandinavian and Anglican runes, while some are uninscribed;usually found near ancient ecclesiastical sites, and their date isapproximately fixed according to the character of the ornamentation; someof these stones date as late as the 11th century; the Scottish stones areremarkable for their elaborate decoration and for certain symboliccharacters to which as yet no interpretation has been found. 

SCUTARI (50), a town of Turkey in Asia, on the Bosporus, oppositeConstantinople; has several fine mosques, bazaars, &c. ; large barracks onthe outskirts were used as hospitals by Florence Nightingale during theCrimean War; has large and impressive cemeteries; chief manufactures areof silks, cottons, &c. Also name of a small town (5) in European Turkey, situated at the S. End of Lake Scutari, 18 by 16 m. , in North Albania. 

SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS, two rocks opposite each other at a narrow passof the strait between Italy and Sicily, in the cave of one of which dweltthe former, a fierce monster that barked like a dog, and under the cliffof the other of which dwelt the latter, a monster that sucked upeverything that came near it, so that any ship passing between inavoiding the one become a prey to the other. 

SCYTHIANS, the name of a people of various tribes that occupied thesteppes of SE. Of Europe and W. Of Asia adjoining eastward, were ofnomadic habit; kept herds of cattle and horses, and were mostly in asemi-savage state beyond the pale of civilisation; the region theyoccupied is called Scythia. 

SEABURY, SAMUEL, American prelate, born at Groton, Connecticut, graduated at Yale and studied medicine in Edinburgh; entered the Churchof England in 1753, and devoted himself at first to missionary work;subsequently held "livings" in Long Island and New York State in 1782;was appointed bishop by the clergy of Connecticut; sought consecration atthe hands of the English archbishops who were afraid to grant it, and hadto resort to the bishops of the Scotch Episcopal Church for the purpose;did notable work in establishing and consolidating Episcopacy in America(1729-1796). 

SEALED ORDERS, the orders given the commanding officer of a ship orsquadron that are sealed up, which he is not allowed to open till he hasproceeded a certain length into the high seas; an arrangement in order toensure secrecy in a time of war. 

SEA-SERPENT, a marine monster of serpent-like shape whose existenceis still a matter of question, although several seemingly authenticaccounts have been circulated in attestation. The subject has given riseto much disputation and conjecture on the part of naturalists, butopinion mostly favours the supposition that these gigantic serpent-likeappearances are caused by enormous cuttlefish swimming on the surface ofthe water, with their 20 ft. Long tentacles elongated fore and aft. Otherfishes which might also be mistaken for the sea-serpent are thebarking-shark, tape-fish, marine snake, &c. 

SEBASTIAN. ST. , a Roman soldier at Narbonne, and martyred underDiocletian when it was discovered he was a Christian; is depicted in artbound naked to a tree and pierced with arrows, and sometimes with arrowsin his hand offering them to Heaven on his knees, he having been shotfirst with arrows and then beaten to death. 

SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO, Italian painter, born at Venice; was anexcellent colourist, and collaborated with Michael Angelo (1485-1547). 

SEBASTOPOL (34), a fortified seaport of Russia, situated on asplendid natural harbour (4½ m. By ½), on the SW. Of the Crimea; duringthe Crimean War was destroyed and captured by the French and Englishafter a siege lasting from October 9, 1854, to September 18, 1855; has, since 1885, been restored, and is now an important naval station; exportslarge quantities of grain. 

SEBILLOT, PAUL, celebrated French folk-lorist; _b_. 1843. 

SECKER, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire; first studied medicine and graduated at Leyden in 1721, but was induced to take orders, and after a year at Oxford was ordained apriest in 1723; held various livings till his appointment to the Primacyin 1758; noted as a wise and kindly ecclesiastic (1693-1768). 

SECOND-SIGHT, name given to the power of seeing things future ordistant; a power superstitiously ascribed to certain people in theHighlands of Scotland. 

SECULARIST, name given to one who, discarding as irrelevant alltheories and observances bearing upon the other world and its interests, holds that we ought to confine our attention solely to the immediateproblems and duties of this, independently of all presumed dependence onrevelation and communications from a higher sphere. 

SEDAN (20), a town of France, in department of Ardennes, on theMaas, 164 m. NE. Of Paris; once a strong fortress, but dismantled in1875, where in 1870 Napoleon III. And 86, 000 men under Marshal Macmahonsurrendered to the Germans; noted for its cloth manufactories. Previousto the Edict of Nantes was a celebrated centre of Huguenot industry andtheological learning. 

SEDGEMOOR, district in central Somersetshire, 5 m. SE. OfBridgwater, scene of a famous battle between the troops of James II. Andthose of the Duke of Monmouth on July 6, 1685, in which the latter werecompletely routed. 

SEDGWICK, ADAM, geologist, born at Dent, Yorkshire; graduated atCambridge in 1808, became a Fellow in the same year, and in 1818 waselected to the Woodward chair of Geology; co-operated with Murchison inthe study of the geological formation of the Alps and the Devonian systemof England; strongly conservative in his scientific theories, he stoutlyopposed the Darwinian theory of the origin of species; his best work wascontributed in papers to the Geological Society of London, of which hewas President 1829-1831; published "British Palæozoic Rocks and Fossils"(1785-1873). 

SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT, author of "Ecce Homo, " born in London;studied at Cambridge, became professor of History there in 1869 onKingsley's retirement; his "Ecce Homo" was published in 1865, a piece ofperfect literary workmanship, but which in its denial of theself-originated spirit of Christ offended orthodox belief and excitedmuch adverse criticism; wrote in 1882 a work entitled "Natural Religion, "in which he showed the same want of sympathy with supernatural ideas, asalso several historical works (1834-1895). 

SEGOVIA (14), a quaint old Spanish city, capital of a province (154)of the same name; crowns a rocky height looking down on the river Eresma, 32 m. NW. Of Madrid; its importance dates from Roman times; has a greataqueduct, built in Trajan's reign, and a fine Moorish castle and Gothiccathedral; cloth-weaving the only important industry. 

SEGU (36), a town of West Africa, on the Joliba, 400 m. SW. OfTimbuctoo; chiefly occupied by trading Arabs; once the capital of a nowdecayed native State. 

SEINE, an important river of France, rises in the tableland ofLangres, takes a winding course to the NW. , passing many important towns, Troyes, Fontainebleau, Paris, St. Denis, Rouen, &c. , and discharges intothe English Channel by a broad estuary after a course of 482 m. , of which350 are navigable. 

SEINE (3, 142), the smallest but most populous department of France, entirely surrounded by the department of Seine-et-Oise; Paris and itsadjacent villages cover a considerable portion of the area; presents arichly wooded, undulating surface, traversed by the Seine in a NW. Direction. 

SEINE-ET-MARNE (356), a north-midland department of France lying E. Of Seine; the Marne crosses the N. And the Seine the S. ; has a fertilesoil, which grows in abundance cereals, vegetables, and fruits; many finewoods, including Fontainebleau Forest, diversify its undulating surface. Melun (capital) and Fontainebleau are among its important towns. 

SEINE-ET-OISE (628), a department of NW. France, encloses thedepartment of Seine; grain is grown in well-cultivated plains and thevine on pleasant hill slopes; is intersected by several tributaries ofthe Seine, and the N. Is prettily wooded. Versailles is the capital;Sèvres and St. Cloud are other interesting places. 

SEINE-INFÉRIEURE (839), a maritime department of North-West France, in Normandy, facing the English Channel; is for the most part a fertileplain, watered by the Seine and smaller streams, and diversified by finewoods and the hills of Caux; is a fruit and cider producing district; hasflourishing manufactures. Rouen is the capital, and Havre and Dieppe areimportant trading centres. 

SELBORNE, ROUNDELL PALMER, EARL OF, Lord Chancellor, born inOxfordshire; called to the bar in 1837, and after a brilliant career atOxford entered Parliament in 1847, and in 1861 became Solicitor-Generalin Palmerston's ministry, receiving at the same time a knighthood; twoyears later was advanced to the Attorney-Generalship; in 1872 was electedLord Chancellor, a position he retained till 1874, and again held from1880 to 1885; refused to adopt Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule policy forIreland and joined the Liberal-Unionists, but declined to take officeunder Lord Salisbury; was raised to an earldom in 1882, received varioushonorary degrees; greatly interested himself in hymnology, and edited"The Book of Praise"; wrote also several works on Church questions(1812-1895). 

SELBY (6), a market-town of Yorkshire, on the Ouse, 15 m. S. OfYork; has a noted cruciform abbey church, founded in the 12th century, and exhibiting various styles of architecture; has some boat-building;manufactures flax, ropes, leather, bricks, &c. 

SELDEN, JOHN, born at Salvington, Sussex; adopted law as aprofession, and was trained at Clifford's Inn and the Inner Temple, London; successful as a lawyer, he yet found time for scholarly pursuits, and acquired a great reputation by the publication of various eruditeworks bearing on old English jurisprudence and antiquities generally; a"History of Tithes" (1618), in which he combats the idea that "tithes"are divinely instituted, got him into trouble with the Church; wasimprisoned in 1621 for encouraging Parliament to repudiate James'sabsolutist claims; from his entrance into Parliament in 1623 continued toplay an important part throughout the troublous reign of Charles;sincerely attached to the Parliamentary side, he was one of the framersof the Petition of Right, and suffered imprisonment with Holies and theothers; sat in the Long Parliament, but, all through out of sympathy withthe extremists, disapproved of the execution of Charles; held variousoffices, e. G. Keeper of the Rolls and Records in the Tower; continuedto write learned and voluminous works on biblical and historicalsubjects, but is best remembered for his charming 'Table-talk, a book ofwhich Coleridge remarked, "There is more weighty bullion sense in thisbook than I can find in the same number of pages of any uninspiredwriter" (1584-1654). 

SELENE, in the Greek mythology the moon-goddess, the sister ofHelios, and designated Phoebe as he was Phoebus; she became by Endymionthe mother of 50 daughters. 

SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, a resolution of the Long Parliament passedin 1644, whereby the members bound themselves not to accept certainexecutive offices, particularly commands in the army. 

SELIM I. , a warlike sultan of Turkey, who, having dethroned and putto death his father, Bajazet II. , entered upon a victorious career ofmilitary aggrandisement, overcoming the Persians in 1515, conquering andannexing Egypt, Syria, and the Hejaz in 1517, finally winning for himselfthe position of Imâm or head of the Mohammedan world; greatlystrengthened his country, and strove according to his lights to dealjustly with and ameliorate the condition of the peoples whom he conquered(1467-1520). 

SELJUKS, a Turkish people who in the 10th century, headed by a chiefnamed Seljuk (whence their name), broke away from their allegiance to thekhan of Kirghiz, adopted the Mohammedan faith, and subsequently conqueredBokhara, but were driven across the Oxus and settled HI Khorassan; underToghril Beg, grandson of Seljuk, they in the 11th century won forthemselves a wide empire in Asia, including the provinces of Syria andAsia Minor, whose rulers, by their cruel persecution of Christianpilgrims, led to the Crusade movement in Europe. The Seljuks were in partgradually absorbed by the advancing Mongol tribes, while numbers fledwestward, where they were at length incorporated in the Ottoman Empire inthe 14th century. 

SELKIRK (6), county town of Selkirkshire, on the Ettrick, 40 m. SE. Of Edinburgh; famed at one time for its "Souters"; is a centre of themanufacture of tweeds. 

SELKIRKSHIRE (27), a south inland county of Scotland; extends S. From the corner of Midlothian to Dumfriesshire, between Peebles (W. ) andRoxburgh (E. ); the grassy slopes of its hills afford splendid pasturage, and sheep-farming is a flourishing industry; manufactures are mainlyconfined to Galashiels and Selkirk; is traversed by the Ettrick and theYarrow, whose romantic valleys are associated with much of the finestballad literature of Scotland. 

SELWYN, GEORGE, a noted wit in the social and literary life ofLondon in Horace Walpole's time, born, of good parentage, inGloucestershire; was expelled from Oxford in 1743 for blasphemy; fouryears later entered Parliament, and supported the Court party, andreceived various government favours; his vivacious wit won him readyentrance into the best London and Parisian society; is the chief figurein Jesse's entertaining "George Selwyn and his Contemporaries"(1719-1791). 

SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS, the first bishop of New Zealand, in whichcapacity he wrought so zealously, that his diocese, by his extension ofEpiscopacy, was subdivided into seven; on his return to England he wasmade bishop of Lichfield (1809-1878). 

SEMAPHORE, a name applied to the mechanism employed for telegraphingpurposes prior to the discovery of the electric telegraph; invented in1767 by Richard Edgeworth, but first extensively used by the French in1794, and afterwards adopted by the Admiralty in England; consisted atfirst of six shutters set in two rotating circular frames, which, byopening and shutting in various ways, were capable of conveyingsixty-three distinct signals; these were raised on the tops of woodentowers erected on hills; later a different form was adopted consisting ofa mast and two arms worked by winches. The speed at which messages couldbe transmitted was very great; thus a message could be sent from Londonto Portsmouth and an answer be received all within 45 seconds. Therailway signal now in use is a form of semaphore. 

SEMELE, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Cadmus and the motherof Dionysus by Zeus, was tempted by Hera to pray Zeus to show himself toher in his glory, who, as pledged to give her all she asked, appearedbefore her as the god of thunder, and consumed her by the lightning. SeeDIONYSUS. 

SEMINOLES, a nomadic tribe of American Indians who from 1832 to 1839offered a desperate resistance to the Americans before yielding up theirterritory SE. Of the Mississippi (Florida, etc. ); finally settled in theIndian Territory, where they now number some 3000, and receive an annuityfrom the American Government; missionary enterprise among them has beensuccessful in establishing schools and churches. 

SEMIPALATINSK (586), a mountainous province of Asiatic Russia, stretching between Lake Balkash (S. ) and Tomsk; encloses stretches ofsteppe-land on which cattle and horses are reared; some mining of silver, lead, and copper is also done. Semipalatinsk, the capital (18), stands onthe Irtish; has two annual fairs, and is an important trading mart. 

SEMI-PELAGIANISM. See PELAGIUS. 

SEMIRAMIS, legendary queen of Assyria, to whom tradition ascribesthe founding of Babylon with its hanging gardens, and is said to havesurpassed in valour and glory her husband Ninus, the founder of Nineveh;she seems to have in reality been the Venus or Astarte of the Assyrianmythology. The story goes that when a child she was deserted by hermother and fed by doves. 

SEMIRAMIS OF THE NORTH, a name given to Margaret, Queen of Denmark;also to Catharine II. Of Russia. 

SEMIRETCHINSK (758), a mountainous province of Asiatic Russia, stretches S. Of Lake Balkash to East Turkestan and Ferghana on the S. ; istraversed E. And W. By the lofty ranges of the Alatau and Tian-ShanMountains; the vast bulk of the inhabitants are Kirghiz, and engaged inraising horses, camels, and sheep. 

SEMITIC RACES, races reputed descendants of Shem, including theJews, the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Syrians, the Phoenicians, and theArabs, and are "all marked, " as the editor has observed elsewhere, "bycommon features; such appear in their language, their literature, theirmodes of thinking, social organisation, and religious belief. Theirlanguage is poor in inflection, has few or no compound verbs orsubstantives, has next to no power of expressing abstract ideas, and isof simple primitive structure or syntax. Their literature has neither thebreadth nor the flow of that of Greece or Rome, but it is instinct with apassion which often holds of the very depths of being, and appeals to theends of the earth. In their modes of thinking they are taken up withconcrete realities instead of abstractions, and hence they havecontributed nothing to science or philosophy, much as they have to faith. Their social order is patriarchal, with a leaning to a despotism, whichin certain of them, such as the Jews and Arabs, goes higher and highertill it reaches God; called, therefore, by Jude 'the Only Despot. '"

SEMMERING, a mountain of Styria, Austria, 60 m. SW. Of Vienna, 4577ft. Above sea-level; is crossed by the Vienna and Trieste railway, whichpasses through 15 tunnels and over 16 viaducts. 

SEMPACH (1), a small Swiss town, 9 m. NW. Of Lucerne, on the Lake ofSempach; here on the 9th of July 1386 a body of 1500 Swiss soldierscompletely routed the Austrians, 4000 strong, under Leopold, Duke ofAustria. 

SEN, CHUNDER. See CHUNDER SEN. 

SÉNANCOUR, ÉTIENNE PIVERT DE, French writer, born at Paris; delicatein his youth; was driven by an unsympathetic father to quit his home at19, and for some time lived at Geneva and Fribourg, where a brief periodof happy married life was closed by the death of his young wife; returnedto Paris in 1798; supported himself by writing, and latterly by a smallGovernment pension granted by Louis Philippe; is best known as the authorof "Obermann, " a work of which Matthew Arnold wrote, "The stir of all themain forces by which modern life is and has been impelled, lives in theletters of Obermann. .. . To me, indeed, it will always seem that theimpressiveness of this production can hardly be rated too high"(1770-1846). 

SENATE (i. E. "an assembly of elders"), a name first bestowed bythe Romans on their supreme legislative and administrative assembly; itsformation is traditionally ascribed to Romulus; its powers, at theirgreatest during the Republic, gradually diminished under the Emperors; inmodern times is used to designate the "Upper House" in the legislature ofvarious countries, e. G. France and the United States of America; isalso the title of the governing body in many universities. 

SENECA, ANNÆUS, rhetorician, born at Cordova; taught rhetoric atRome, whither he went at the time of Augustus, and where he died A. D. 32. 

SENECA, L. ANNÆUS, philosopher, son of the preceding, born atCordova, and brought to Rome when a child; practised as a pleader at thebar, studied philosophy, and became the tutor of Nero; acquired greatriches; was charged with conspiracy by Nero as a pretext, it is believed, to procure his wealth, and ordered to kill himself, which he did byopening his veins till he bled to death, a slow process and an agonising, owing to his age; he was of the Stoic school in philosophy, and wrote anumber of treatises bearing chiefly on morals; _d_. A. D. 65. 

SENEGAL, an important river of West Africa, formed by the junction, at Bafulabé, of two head-streams rising in the highlands of WesternSoudan; flows NW. , W. , and SW. , a course of 706 m. , and discharges intothe Atlantic 10 m. Below St. Louis; navigation is somewhat impeded by asand-bar at its mouth, and by cataracts and rapids in the upper reaches. 

SENEGAL (136), a French colony of West Africa, lying along the banksof the Senegal River. See SENEGAMBIA. 

SENEGAMBIA, a tract of territory lying chiefly within the basins ofthe rivers Senegal and Gambia, West Africa, stretching from the Atlantic, between Cape Blanco and the mouth of the Gambia, inland to the Niger;embraces the French colony of Senegal, and various ill-defined nativeStates under the suzerainty of France; the interior part is also calledthe French Soudan; the vast expanse of the contiguous Sahara in the N. , and stretches of territory on the S. , extending to the Gulf of Guinea, are also within the French sphere of influence, altogether forming animmense territory (1, 000), of which ST. LOUIS (q. V. ) inSenegambia proper, is considered the capital; ground-nuts, gums, india-rubber, &c. , are the chief exports. 

SENESCHAL, an important functionary at the courts of Frankishprinces, whose duty it was to superintend household feasts andceremonies, functions equivalent to those of the English High Steward. 

SENNAAR (8), capital of a district of the Eastern Soudan, which liesbetween the Blue and the White Nile, situated on the Blue Nile, 160 m. SE. Of Khartoum. 

SENNACHERIB, a king of Assyria, whose reign extended from 702 to 681B. C. , and was distinguished by the projection and execution of extensivepublic works; he endeavoured to extend his conquests westward, but wasbaffled in Judea by the miraculous destruction of his army. See 2 Kingsxix. 35. 

SENS (14), an old cathedral town of France, on the Yonne, 70 m. SE. Of Paris; the cathedral is a fine Gothic structure of the 12th century;has also an archbishop's palace, and is still surrounded by massive stonewalls; does a good trade in corn, wine, and wool. 

SENUSSI, a Mohammedan brotherhood in the Soudan, founded byMohammed-es-Senussi from Mostaganem, in Algeria, who flourished between1830 and 1860. The brotherhood, remarkable for its austere and fanaticalzeal, has ramified into many parts of N Africa, and exercisesconsiderable influence, fostering resistance to the encroachments of theinvading European powers. 

SEPOY, the name given to a native of India employed as a soldier inthe British service in India. 

SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, so called as having been theseventh in the Roman calendar. 

SEPTEMBER MASSACRES. An indiscriminate slaughter in Paris whichcommenced on Sunday afternoon, September 2, 1792, "a black day in theannals of men, " when 30 priests on their way to prison were torn from thecarriages that conveyed them, and massacred one after the other, all saveAbbé Secard, in the streets by an infuriated mob; and continuedthereafter through horror after horror for a hundred hours long, all donein the name of justice and in mock form of law--a true Reign of Terror. 

SEPTUAGINT, a version, and the oldest of any known to us, of theHebrew Scriptures in Greek, executed at Alexandria, in Egypt, bydifferent translators at different periods, commencing with 280 B. C. ; itis known as the Alexandria version, while the name Septuagint, or LXX. , was given to it on the ground of the tradition that it was the work of70, or rather 72, Jews, who had, it is alleged, been Drought fromPalestine for the purpose, and were fabled, according to one tradition, to have executed the whole in as many days, and, according to another, tohave each done the whole apart from the rest, with the result that theversion of each was found to correspond word for word with that of allthe others; it began with the translation of the Pentateuch and wascontinued from that time till 130 B. C. By the translation of the rest, the whole being in reality the achievement of several independentworkmen, who executed their parts, some with greater some with lessability and success; it is often literal to a painful degree, and itswarms with such pronounced Hebraisms, that a pure Greek would often failto understand it. It was the version current everywhere at the time ofthe planting of the Christian Church, and the numerous quotations in theNew Testament from the Old are, with few exceptions, quotations from it. 

SEPULVEDA, JUAN GINES, Spanish historian, born at Pozo-Blanco, nearCordova; in 1536 became historiographer to Charles V. And tutor to thefuture Philip II. ; was subsequently canon of Salamanca; author of severalhistorical works, of which a "History of Charles V. " is the mostimportant, a work characterised by broad humanistic proclivities unusualin his day and country; _d_. 1574. 

SERAGLIO, in its restricted sense applied in the East to a harem orwomen's quarters in a royal household; the former residence of the sultanof Turkey, occupies a beautiful site on the E. Side of Constantinople, ona projecting piece of land between the Golden Horn and the Sea ofMarmora, enclosing within its 3 m. Of wall government buildings, mosques, gardens, &c. , chief of which is the harem, which occupies an innerenclosure. 

SERAING (34), a manufacturing town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 4 m. SW. Of Liège; noted for its extensive machine-shops (locomotives, &c. );established in 1817 by John Cockerill, and now, with forges, coal-mines, &c. , giving employment to some 12, 000 men. 

SERAMPUR (36), a town of modern aspect in India, on the Hooghly, 13m. N. Of Calcutta; originally Danish, was purchased by the British in1845; manufactures paper and mats, and is associated with the successfulmissionary enterprise of the Baptists Carey, Marshman, and Ward. 

SERAPHIC DOCTOR, appellation applied to ST. BONAVENTURA (q. V. ); also byCarlyle to the doctors of the modern school of Enlightenment, ormarch-of-intellect school. See _AUFKLÄRUNG_. 

SERAPHIM, angels of the highest order and of etheriel temper, represented as guarding with veiled faces the Divine glory, andconsidered to have originally denoted the lightning darting out from theblack thunder-cloud. 

SERAPIS, an Egyptian divinity of partly Greek derivation and partlyEgyptian, and identified with Apis. 

SERASKIER, a Turkish general, in especial the commander-in-chief orminister of war. 

SERBONIAN BOG, a quagmire in Egypt in which armies were fabled to beswallowed up and lost; applied to any situation in which one is entangledfrom which extrication is difficult. 

SERFS, under the feudal system a class of labourers whose positiondiffered only from that of slaves in being attached to the soil and soprotected from being sold from hand to hand like a chattel, although theycould be transferred along with the land; liberty could be won bypurchase, military service, or by residing a year and a day in a borough;these and economic changes brought about their gradual emancipation inthe 15th and 16th centuries; mining serfs, however, existed in Scotlandas recently as the 18th century, and in Russia their emancipation onlytook place in 1861. 

SERINGAPATAM (10), a decayed city of S. India, formerly capital ofMysore State, situated on an island in the Kaveri, 10 m. NE. Of Mysorecity; in the later 18th century was the stronghold of Tippoo Sahib, whowas successfully besieged and slain by the British in 1799; hasinteresting ruins. 

SERJEANT-AT-ARMS, an officer attendant on the Speaker of the Houseof Commons, whose duty it is to preserve order and arrest any offenderagainst the rules of the House. 

SERPENT, THE, is used symbolically to represent veneration from theshedding of its skin, and sometimes eternity, and not unfrequently aguardian spirit; also prudence and cunning, especially as embodied inSatan; is an attribute of several saints as expressive of their powerover the evil one. 

SERPUKOFF (21), an ancient and still prosperous town of Russia, onthe Nara, 57 m. S. Of Moscow; has a cathedral, and manufactures ofcottons, woollens, &c. 

SERRANO Y DOMINGUEZ, Duke de la Torre, Spanish statesman andmarshal; won distinction in the wars against the Carlists, and turningpolitician, became in 1845 a senator and favourite of Queen Isabella; wasprominent during the political unrest and changes of her reign; joinedPrim in the revolution of 1868, defeated the queen's troops; becamepresident of the Ministry; commander-in-chief of the army, and in 1869Regent of Spain, a position he held till Amadeus's succession in 1871;won victories against the Carlists in 1872 and 1874; was again at thehead of the executive during the last months of the republic, but retiredon the accession of Alfonso XII. ; continued in active politics till hisdeath (1810-1885). 

SERTORIUS, Roman statesman and general; joined the democratic partyunder MARIUS (q. V. ) against Sulla; retired to Spain on thereturn of Sulla to Rome, where he sought to introduce Roman civilisation;was assassinated 73 B. C. 

SERVETUS, MICHAEL, physician, born at Tudela, in Navarre; had aleaning to theology, and passing into Germany associated with theReformers; adopted Socinianism, and came under ban of the orthodox, andwas burnt alive at Geneva, after a trial of two months, under sanction, it is said, of Calvin (1511-1553). 

SERVIA (2, 227), a kingdom of Europe occupying a central position inthe Balkan Peninsula between Austria (N. ) and Turkey (S. And W. ), withRoumania and Bulgaria on the E. ; one-third the size of England and Wales;its surface is mountainous and in many parts thickly forested, but widefertile valleys produce in great abundance wheat, maize, and othercereals, grapes and plums (an important export when dried), while immenseherds of swine are reared on the outskirts of the oak-forests; is wellwatered by the Morava flowing through the centre and by the Save andDanube on the N. ; climate varies considerably according to elevation; notmuch manufacturing is done, but minerals abound and are partiallywrought; the Servians are of Slavonic stock, high-spirited and patriotic, clinging tenaciously to old-fashioned methods and ideas; have produced anotable national literature, rich in lyric poetry; a good system ofnational education exists; belong to the Greek Church; the monarchy islimited and hereditary; government is vested in the King, Senate, andNational Assembly; originally emigrants in the 7th century from districtsround the Carpathians, the Servians had by the 14th century established akingdom considerably larger than their present domain; were conquered bythe Turks in 1389, and held in subjection till 1815, when a nationalrising won them Home Rule, but remained tributary to Turkey until 1877, when they proclaimed their independence, which was confirmed by theTreaty of Berlin in 1878. 

SERVIUS TULLIUS, the sixth king of Rome from 578 to 534 B. C. , divided the Roman territory into 30 tribes, and the people into 5classes, which were further divided into centuries. 

SESOSTRIS, a legendary monarch of Egypt, alleged to have achieveduniversal empire at a very remote antiquity, and to have executed avariety of public works by means of the captives he brought home from hisconquests. 

SESTERTIUS, a Roman coin either bronze or silver one-fourth of adenarius, originally worth 2½ asses but afterwards 4 asses, up to thetime of Augustus was worth fully 2d. , and subsequently one-eighth less;Sestertium, a Roman "money of account, " never a coin, equalled 1000sestertii, and was valued at £8, 15s. 

SETTLE, ELKANAH, a playwright who lives in the pages of Dryden'ssatire "Absalom and Achitophel"; was an Oxford man and littérateur inLondon; enjoyed a brief season of popularity as author of "Cambyses, " and"The Empress of Morocco"; degenerated into a "city poet and a puppet-showkeeper, " and died in the Charterhouse; was the object of Dryden's andPope's scathing sarcasms (1648-1723). 

SETUBAL (English, St. Ubes) (15), a fortified seaport of Portugal, at the mouth of the Sado, on a bay of the same name, 17 m. SE. Of Lisbon;has a good trade in wine, salt, and oranges; in the neighbourhood is aremarkable stalactite cave. 

SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHRISTENDOM, St. George, of England; St. Denis, of France; St. James, of Spain; St. Anthony, of Italy; St. Andrew, ofScotland; St. Patrick, of Ireland; and St. David, of Wales--often alludedto by old writers. 

SEVEN DEADLY SINS, Pride, Wrath, Envy, Lust, Gluttony, Avarice, andSloth. 

SEVEN DOLOURS OF THE VIRGIN, the prediction of Simeon (Luke ii. 35);the flight into Egypt; the loss of the child in Jerusalem; the sight ofher Son bearing the cross; the sight of Him upon the cross; the descentfrom the cross; and the entombment--the festival in connection with whichis celebrated on the Friday before Palm Sunday. 

SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE, Solon of Athens, his motto "Know thyself";Chilo of Sparta, his motto "Consider the end"; Thales of Miletus, hismotto "Whoso hateth suretyship is sure"; Bias of Priene, his motto "Mostmen are bad"; Cleobulus of Lindos, his motto "Avoid extremes"; Pittacusof Mitylene, his motto "Seize Time by the forelock"; Periander ofCorinth, his motto "Nothing is impossible to industry. "

SEVEN SLEEPERS, seven noble youths of Ephesus who, to escape thepersecution of Decius, fled into a cave, where they fell asleep and wokeup at the end of two centuries. 

SEVEN WISE MASTERS, the title of a famous cycle of mediæval taleswhich centre round the story of a young prince who, after baffling allefforts of former tutors, is at last, at the age of 20, instructed in allknowledge by Sindibad, one of the king's wise men, but having cast hishoroscope Sindibad perceives the prince will die unless, afterpresentation at the court, he keeps silence for seven days; one of theking's wives, having in vain attempted to seduce the young man, inbaffled rage accuses him to the king with tempting her virtue, andprocures his death-sentence; the seven sages delay the execution bybeguiling the king with stories till the seven days are passed, when theprince speaks and reveals the plot; an extraordinary number of variantsexist in Eastern and Western languages, the earliest written versionbeing an Arabian text of the 10th century: a great mass of literature hasgrown round the subject, which is one of the most perplexing as well asinteresting problems of storiology. 

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the pyramids of Egypt, the hanginggardens of Babylon, the tomb of Mausolus, the temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the statue of Jupiter by Phidias at Olympia, andthe Pharos at Alexandria. 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the name given to the third and most terriblestruggle between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa, empress of Austria, for, the possession of Silesia, which embroiledalmost all Europe in war, and which had far-reaching effects on thedestinies of England and France as well as Prussia; began in 1756 byFrederick's successful advance on Dresden, anticipating Maria Theresa'sintention of attempting the recovery of Silesia, lost to her in theprevious two wars. With Austria were allied France, Sweden, Poland, andRussia, while Prussia was supported till 1761 by England. In 1762 PeterIII. Of Russia changed sides, and Frederick, sometimes victorious, oftendefeated, finally emerged successful in 1763, when the war was brought toa close by the Peace of Hubertsburg. Besides demonstrating the strengthand genius of Frederick and raising immensely the prestige of Prussia, itenabled England to make complete her predominance in North America and toestablish herself securely in India, while at the same time it gave thedeath-blow to French hopes of a colonial empire. 

SEVERN, the second river of England, rises on the E. Side ofPlinlimmon, in Montgomeryshire, and flows in a circuitous southerlydirection through Montgomeryshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, andGloucestershire, falling into the Bristol Channel after a course of 210m. ; is navigable to Welshpool (180 m. ); chief tributaries are the Terne, Wye, and the Stratford Avon; there is a "bore" perceptible 180 m. Fromthe mouth. 

SEVERUS, L. SEPTIMIUS, Roman emperor, born in Leptis Magna, inAfrica; was in command at Pannonia, and elected emperor on the murder ofPertinax, and after conquering his rivals achieved victories in the East, especially against the Parthians, and thereafter subdued a rebellion inBritain, and secured South Britain against invasions from the north by awall; died at York (146-211). 

SÉVIGNÉ, MADAME DE, maiden name Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, the mostcharming of letter-writers, born at Paris; married at 18 the dissoluteMarquis de Sévigné, who left her a widow at 25; her beauty and rarecharms attracted many suitors, to one and all of whom, however, sheturned a deaf ear, devoting herself with touching fidelity to her son anddaughter, and finding all her happiness in their affection and in thesocial intercourse of a wide circle of friends; her fame rests on herletters, written chiefly to her daughter in Provence, which reflect thebrightest and purest side of Parisian life, and contain the tenderoutpourings of her mother's heart in language of unstudied grace(1626-1696). 

SEVILLE (144), a celebrated Spanish city and river port on theGuadalquivir, 62 m. NE. Of Cadiz; an iron bridge connects it with Triana, a large suburb on the other side of the river; many of the oldpicturesque Moorish buildings have given place to modern and morecommodious structures and broader streets; the great Gothic cathedral(15th century), containing paintings by Murillo, &c. , is among the finestin Europe; the Moorish royal palace, the great Roman aqueduct (in useuntil 1883), the museum, with masterpieces of Murillo, Velasquez, &c. , the university, archbishop's palace, Giralda Campanile, and the vastbull-ring, are noteworthy; chief manufactures embrace cigars, machinery, pottery, textiles, &c. ; while lead, quicksilver, wines, olive-oil, andfruits are exported; is capital of a province (545). 

SÈVRES (7), a French town on the Seine, 10½ m. SW. Of Paris, celebrated for its fine porcelain ware (especially vases), themanufacture of which was established in 1755; has a school of mosaic workand museums for pottery ware of all ages and countries. 

SÈVRES, DEUX- (354), a department of West France; is watered by tworivers, and in the N. Thickly wooded; a varied agriculture, cattle andmule breeding, and cloth manufacture are the principal industries. Niortis the capital. 

SEWARD, ANNA, poetess, born at Eyam, Derbyshire, but from the age ofseven spent her life at Lichfield, where her father was residentiarycanon; was a friend and indefatigable correspondent of Mrs. Piozzi, Dr. Darwin, Southey, Scott, and others; author of "Louisa, " a novel inpoetry, "Sonnets" and other poems, which had in their day considerablepopularity; her correspondence is collected in 6 vols. (1747-1809). 

SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY, American statesman, born at Florida, New YorkState; was called to the bar at Utica in 1822, and soon took rank as oneof the finest forensic orators of his country; engaged actively in thepolitics of his State, of which he was governor in 1838 and 1840; enteredthe U. S. Senate in 1849 as an abolitionist, becoming soon the recognisedleader of the Anti-Slavery party; was put forward by the Republican partyas a candidate for presidential nomination, but failing in this hezealously supported Lincoln, under whom he served as Secretary of State, conducting with notable success the foreign affairs of the country duringthe Civil War and up to the accession of President Grant in 1869; spenthis closing years in travel and retirement (1801-1872). 

SEXTANT, an instrument used in navigation (sometimes also inland-surveying) for measuring the altitudes of celestial bodies and theirangular distances; consists of a graduated brass sector, the sixth partof a circle, and an arrangement of two small mirrors and telescope;invented in 1730 by John Hadley. 

SEYCHELLES (16), a group of some 30 islands, largest Mahé (59 sq. M. ), situated in the Indian Ocean, 600 m. NE. Of Madagascar; taken fromthe French by Britain in 1798, and now under the governor of Mauritius;are mountainous and mostly surrounded by coral reefs; export fibres, nuts, palm-oil, &c. ; Victoria, in Mahé, is the chief town, and animperial coaling station. 

SFORZA (i. E. Stormer), Italian family celebrated during the 15thand 16th centuries, founded by a military adventurer, a peasant of thename of Muzia Allendolo, and who received the name; they became dukes ofMilan, and began by hiring their services in war, in which they werealways victorious, to the highest bidder, the first of the number toattain that rank being Francesco Sforza, the son of the founder, in 1450(1401-1466), the last of the series being François-Marie (1492-1535). 

SGRAFFITO, a decorative wall painting, produced by layers of plasterapplied to a moistened surface and afterwards operated on so as toproduce a picture. 

SHADWELL, THOMAS, dramatist, who lives as the "MacFlecknoe" ofDryden's "Absalom and Achitophel, " born, of a good family, in Norfolk;studied law and adopted literature, in which he made a successful startwith the comedy "The Sullen Lovers" (1668); his numerous plays, chieflycomedies, are of little poetic value, but serve as useful commentaries onthe Restoration period; quarrelled with and satirised Dryden in the"Medal of John Bayes, " which drew forth the crushing retort in Dryden'sfamous satire; succeeded Dryden as poet-laureate in 1688 (1640-1692). 

SHAFITES, a sect of the Sunnites or orthodox Mohammedans, so calledfrom Shafei, a descendant of Mohammed. 

SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, EARL OF, a notable politician, prominent in the times of Cromwell and Charles II. , born, of goodparentage, in Dorsetshire; passed through Oxford and entered Lincoln'sInn; sat in the Short Parliament of 1640; changed from the Royalist tothe Parliamentary side during the Civil War, and was a member ofCromwell's Council of State, but latterly attacked the Protector'sGovernment, and was one of the chief promoters of the Restoration;Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1661, and later a member of the "Cabal";he in 1672 was created an earl and Lord Chancellor, but, hoodwinked byCharles in the secret Treaty of Dover, went over to the Opposition, losthis chancellorship, supported an Anti-Catholic policy, leagued himselfwith the Country Party, and intrigued with the Prince of Orange; cameinto power again, after the "Popish Plot, " as the champion of tolerationand Protestantism, became President of the Council, and passed the HabeasCorpus Act; his virulent attacks on James and espousal of Monmouth'scause brought about his arrest on a charge of high treason (1681), andalthough acquitted he deemed it expedient to flee to Holland, where hedied; one of the ablest men of his age, but of somewhat inscrutablecharacter, whose shifting policy seems to have been chiefly dominated bya regard for self; is the "Achitophel" of Dryden's great satire(1621-1683). 

SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, EARL OF, grandson of thepreceding, philosopher, born in London; was an ardent student in hisyouth, made the grand tour, and entered Parliament in 1694, moving to theUpper House on the death of his father in 1699, where, as a staunch Whig, he gave steady support to William III. ; withdrew from politics, never acongenial sphere to him, on the accession of Anne, and followed his bentfor literature and philosophy; in 1711 his collected writings appearedunder the title "Characteristics, " in which he expounds, in the politestyle of the 18th century, with much ingenuity and at times force, asomewhat uncritical optimism, enunciating, among other things, thedoubtful maxim that ridicule is the test of truth (1671-1713). 

SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, SEVENTH EARL OF, statesman andphilanthropist, born in London; was a distinguished graduate of Oxford, and entered Parliament as a Conservative in 1826, took office underWellington in 1828, and was a lord of the Admiralty in Peel's ministry of1834; succeeded to the earldom in 1851; but his name lives by virtue ofhis noble and lifelong philanthropy, which took shape in numerous Acts ofParliament, such as the Mines and Collieries Act (1842), excluding womenand boys under 13 working in mines; the Better Treatment of Lunatics Act(1845), called the Magna Charta of the insane; the Factory Acts (1867);and the Workshop Regulation Act (1878); while outside Parliament hewrought with rare devotion in behalf of countless benevolent andreligious schemes of all sorts, notably the Ragged School movement andthe better housing of the London poor; received the freedom of Edinburghand London; was the friend and adviser of the Prince Consort and theQueen (1801-1885). 

SHAH (Pers. "King"), an abbreviation of Shah-in-Shah ("King ofKings"), the title by which the monarchs of Persia are known; may also beused in Afghanistan and other Asiatic countries, but more generally theless assuming title of Khan is taken. 

SHAH-JEHAN ("King of the World"), fifth of the Mogul emperors ofDelhi; succeeded his father in 1627; a man of great administrativeability and a skilled warrior; conquered the Deccan and the kingdom ofGolconda, and generally raised the Mogul Empire to its zenith; his courtwas truly Eastern in its sumptuous magnificence; the "Peacock Throne"alone cost £7, 000, 000; died in prison, a victim to the perfidy of hisusurping son Aurungzebe; _d_. 1666. 

SHAKERS, a fanatical sect founded by one Ann Lee, so called fromtheir extravagant gestures in worship; they are agamists and communists. 

SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM, great world-poet and dramatist, born inStratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; his father, John Shakespeare, arespected burgess; his mother, Mary Arden, the daughter of a well-to-dofarmer, through whom the family acquired some property; was at school atStratford, married Anne Hathaway, a yeoman's daughter, at 18, she eightyears older, and had by her three daughters; left for London somewherebetween 1585 and 1587, in consequence, it is said, of some deer-stealingfrolic; took charge of horses at the theatre door, and by-and-by becamean actor. His first work, "Venus and Adonis, " appeared in 1593, and"Lucrece" the year after; became connected with different theatres, and ashareholder in certain of them, in some of which he took part as actor, with the result, in a pecuniary point of view, that he bought a house inhis native place, extended it afterwards, where he chiefly resided forthe ten years preceding his death. Not much more than this is known ofthe poet's external history, and what there is contributes nothingtowards accounting for either him or the genius revealed in his dramas. Of the man, says Carlyle, "the best judgment not of this country, but ofEurope at large, is slowly pointing to the conclusion that he is thechief of all poets hitherto--the greatest intellect, in our recordedworld, that has left record of himself in the way of literature. On thewhole, I know not such a power of vision, such a faculty of thought, ifwe take all the characters of it, in any other man--such a calmness ofdepth, placid, joyous strength, all things in that great soul of his sotrue and clear, as in a tranquil, unfathomable sea. .. . It is not atransitory glance of insight that will suffice; it is a deliberateillumination of the whole matter; it is a calmly _seeing_ eye--a greatintellect, in short. .. . It is in delineating of men and things, especially of men, that Shakespeare is great. .. . The thing he looks atreveals not this or that face, but its inmost heart, its generic secret;it dissolves itself as in light before him, so that he discerns theperfect structure of it. .. . It is a perfectly _level_ mirror we havehere; no _twisted_, poor convex-concave mirror reflecting all objectswith its own convexities and concavities, that is to say, withal a manjustly related to all things and men, a good man. .. . And his intellect isan unconscious intellect; there is more virtue in it than he himself isaware of. .. . His art is not artifice; the noblest worth of it is notthere by plan or pre-contrivance. It grows up from the deeps of Nature, through this noble sincere soul, who is a voice of Nature. .. . It isNature's highest reward to a true, simple, great soul that he got thus tobe _part of herself_. " Of his works nothing can or need be said here;enough to add, as Carlyle further says, "His works are so many windowsthrough which we see a glimpse of the world that was in him. .. . Alas!Shakespeare had to write for the Globe Playhouse; his great soul had tocrush itself, as it could, into that and no other mould. It was with him, then, as it is with us all. No man works save under conditions. Thesculptor cannot set his own free thought before us, but his thought as hecould translate into the stone that was given, with the tools that weregiven. _Disjecta membra_ are all that we find of any poet, or of anyman. " Shakespeare's plays, with the order of their publication, are asfollows: "Love's Labour's Lost, " 1590; "Comedy of Errors, " 1591; 1, 2, 3"Henry VI. , " 1590-1592; "Two Gentlemen of Verona, " 1592-1593;"Midsummer-Night's Dream, " 1593-1594; "Richard III. , " 1593; "Romeo andJuliet, " 1591-1596 (?); "Richard II. , " 1594; "King John, " 1595; "Merchantof Venice, " 1596; 1 and 2 "Henry IV. , " 1597-1598; "Henry V. , " 1599;"Taming of the Shrew, " 1597 (?); "Merry Wives of Windsor, " 1598; "Much Adoabout Nothing, " 1598; "As You Like It, " 1599; "Twelfth Night, " 1600-1601;"Julius Cæsar, " 1601; "All's Well, " 1601-1602 (?); "Hamlet, " 1602, "Measure for Measure, " 1603; "Troilus and Cressida, " 1603-1607 (?);"Othello, " 1604; "Lear, " 1605; "Macbeth, " 1606; "Antony and Cleopatra, "1607; "Coriolanus, " 1608; "Timon, " 1608; "Pericles, " 1608; "Cymbeline, "1609; "Tempest, " 1610; "Winter's Tale, " 1610-1611; "Henry VIII. , "1612-1613 (1564-1616). 

SHAKESPEARE OF DIVINES, an epithet sometimes applied to JEREMYTAYLOR (q. V. ) on account of his poetic style. 

SHALOTT, LADY OF, subject of a poem of Tennyson's in love withLancelot; wove a web which she must not rise from, otherwise a cursewould fall on her; saw Lancelot pass one day, entered a boat and glideddown to Camelot, but died on the way. 

SHAMANISM, the religion of the native savage races of North Siberia, being a belief in spirits, both good and evil, who can be persuaded tobless or curse by the incantations of a Priest called a Shaman. 

SHAMMAI, an eminent Jewish rabbi of the time of Herod, who held theposition of supreme judge in the Sanhedrim under the presidency ofHILLEL (q. V. ), and whose narrow, rigid orthodoxy and repressivepolicy became the leading principles of his school, "the House ofShammai, " which, however, carried the system to a pitch of fanatical zealnot contemplated by its originator. 

SHAMROCK, a small trefoil plant, the national emblem of Ireland; itis matter of dispute whether it is the wood-sorrel, a species of clover, or some other allied trefoil; the lesser yellow trefoil is perhaps themost commonly accepted symbol. 

SHAMYL, a great Caucasian chief, head of the Lesghians, who combinedthe functions of priest and warrior; consolidated the Caucasian tribes intheir resistance to the Russians, and carried on a successful struggle inhis mountain fastnesses for thirty years, till his forces were worn outand himself made captive in 1859; _d_. 1871. 

SHANGHAI (380), the chief commercial city and port of China, on theWusung, an affluent of the Yangtse-kiang, 12 m. From the coast, and 160m. SE. Of Nanking; large, densely-peopled suburbs have grown round theclosely-packed and walled city, which, with its narrow, unclean streets, presents a slovenly appearance; the French and English occupy thebroad-streeted and well-built suburbs in the N. ; the low-lying siteexposes the city to great heat in the summer, and to frequent epidemicsof cholera and fever; an extensive system of canals draws down a greatpart of the interior produce, and swells the export trade in tea, silk, cotton, rice, sugar, &c. 

SHANNON, the first river of Ireland, and largest in the BritishIslands, rises in the Cuilcagh Mountains, Co. Cavan; flows in asouth-westerly direction through Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg, besidesforming several lough expansions, to Limerick, whence it turns due W. , and opens out on the Atlantic in a wide estuary between Kerry (S. ) andClare (N. ); has an entire course of 254 m. , and is navigable to LoughAllen, a distance of 213 m. 

SHANS or LAOS, the name of a people, descendants of aboriginesof China, forming several large tribes scattered round the frontiers ofBurma, Siam, and South China, whose territory, roughly speaking, extendsN. As far as the Yunnan Plateau of South China; some are independent, butthe bulk of the tribes are subject to Siam, China, and the British inBurma; practise slavery, are Buddhists, somewhat superstitious, indolent, pleasure-loving, and for the most part peaceable and content; chased goldand silver work, rice, cotton, tobacco, &c. , are their chief exports. 

SHARON, a fertile region in Palestine of the maritime plain betweenCarmel and Philistia. 

SHARP, ABRAHAM, a schoolmaster of Liverpool, and subsequentbookkeeper in London, whose wide knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, &c. , attracted FLAMSTEED (q. V. ), by whom he was invited in 1688to enter the Greenwich Royal Observatory, where he did notable work, improving instruments, and showing great skill as a calculator; published"Geometry Improved, " logarithmic tables, &c. (1651-1742). 

SHARP, BECKY, an intriguing character in Thackeray's "Vanity Fair, "very clever, but without heart. 

SHARP, GRANVILLE, a noted abolitionist, born in London; trained forthe bar, but accepted a post in the London Ordnance Office, which he helduntil the outbreak of the American War; was a voluminous writer onphilology, law, theology, &c. , but mainly devoted himself to the cause ofnegro emancipation, co-operating with Clarkson in founding theAssociation for the Abolition of Negro Slavery, and taking an activeinterest in the new colony for freedom in Sierra Leone; won a famousdecision in the law-courts to the effect that whenever a slave set footon English soil he becomes free; he was also one of the founders of theBible Society (1734-1813). 

SHARP, JAMES, archbishop of St. Andrews, born in Banff Castle;educated at Aberdeen University, visited England, where he formedimportant friendships, and in 1643 was appointed "regent" or professor ofPhilosophy at St. Andrews, a post he resigned five years later to becomeminister of Crail; during the Protectorate he sided with the"Resolutioners" or Moderates, and appeared before Cromwell in London toplead their cause; in 1660 received a commission to go to London tosafeguard the interests of the Scottish Church, a trust he shamefullybetrayed by intriguing with Charles at Breda, and with Clarendon and themagnates of the English Church to restore Prelacy in Scotland, he himself(by way of reward) being appointed Archbishop of St. Andrews;henceforward he was but a pliant tool in the hands of his Englishemployers, and an object of intense hatred to the Covenanters; in 1668his life was attempted in Edinburgh by Robert Mitchell, a covenantingpreacher, and ultimately on Magus Muir, May 1679, he was mercilesslyhacked to pieces by a band of Covenanters headed by Hackston and JohnBalfour (1618-1679). 

SHASTER, a book containing the institutes of the Hindu religion orits legal requirements. 

SHAWNEES, a tribe of American Indians located originally in theeastern slopes of the Alleghanies, but now removed to Missouri, Kansas, and the Indian Territory. 

SHEBA, believed to be a region in South Arabia, along the shore ofthe Red Sea. 

SHECHINAH, a glory as of the Divine presence over the mercy-seat inthe Jewish Tabernacle, and reflected from the winged cherubim whichovershadowed it, the reality of which it is the symbol being the Divinepresence in man. 

SHEEPSHANKS, JOHN, art collector, born at Leeds, son of amanufacturer; presented in 1856 a collection of works by British artiststo the nation, now housed in South Kensington (1787-1863). 

SHEERNESS (14), a fortified seaport and important garrison town withimportant naval dockyards in Kent, occupying the NW. Corner of SheppeyIsle, where the Medway joins the Thames, 52 m. E. Of London; is dividedinto Blue-town (within the garrison, and enclosing the 60 acres ofdocks), Mile-town, Banks-town, and Marina-town (noted for sea-bathing). 

SHEFFIELD (324), a city of Yorkshire, and chief centre of theEnglish cutlery trade, built on hilly ground on the Don near itsconfluence with the Sheaf, whence its name, 41 m. E. Of Manchester; is afine, clean, well-built town, with notable churches, public halls, theatres, &c. , and well equipped with libraries, hospitals, parks, colleges (e. G. Firth College), and various societies; does a vasttrade in all forms of steel, iron, and brass goods, as well as plated andbritannia-metal articles; has of late years greatly developed itsmanufactures of armour-plate, rails, and other heavier goods; itsimportance as a centre of cutlery dates from very early times, and theCutlers' Company was founded in 1624; has been from Saxon times thecapital of the manor district of Hallamshire; it is divided into fiveparliamentary districts, each of which sends a member to Parliament. 

SHEFFIELD, JOHN, Duke of Buckinghamshire, son of the Earl ofMulgrave, whose title he succeeded to in 1658; served in the navy duringthe Dutch wars of Charles II. ; held office under James II. , and was byWilliam III. Created Marquis of Normanby; a staunch Tory in Anne's reign, he was rewarded with a dukedom, lost office through opposing Marlborough, but was reinstated after 1710, and in George I. 's reign worked in theStuart interest; wrote an "Essay on Poetry, " &c. (1649-1721). 

SHEIKH, the chief of an Arab tribe; used often as a title ofrespect, Sheikh-ul-Islam being the ecclesiastical head of Mohammedans inTurkey. 

SHEIL, RICHARD LALOR, Irish patriot, born in Tipperary; bred to thebar; gave himself for some time to literature, living by it; joined theCatholic Association; was distinguished for his oratory and his devotion, alongside of O'Connell, to Catholic emancipation; supported the WhigGovernment, and held office under Melbourne and Lord John Russell(1791-1851). 

SHEKEL, among the ancient Hebrews originally a weight, andeventually the name of a coin of gold or silver, or money of a certainweight, the silver = 5s. Per oz. , and the gold = £4. 

SHELBURNE, WILLIAM PETTY, EARL OF, statesman, born in Dublin;succeeded to his father's title in 1761, a few weeks after his electionto the House of Commons; held office in the ministries of Grenville(1763), of Chatham (1766), and of Rockingham (1782); his acceptance ofthe Premiership in 1782, after Rockingham's death, led to the resignationof Fox and the entry of William Pitt, at the age of 23, into the Cabinet;his short ministry (July 1782 to Feb. 1783) saw the close of theContinental and American wars, and the concession of independence to thecolonies, collapsing shortly afterwards before the powerful coalition ofFox and North; in 1784, on his retirement from politics, was createdMarquis of Lansdowne; was a Free-Trader, supporter of Catholicemancipation, and otherwise liberal in his views, but rather tactless insteering his way amid the troublous politics of his time (1737-1805). 

SHELDONIAN THEATRE, "Senate House" of Oxford; so called from GilbertSheldon, archbishop of Canterbury, who built it. 

SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT, author of "Frankenstein, " daughter ofWilliam Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft; became the wife of the poetShelley in 1816 after a two years' illicit relationship; besides"Frankenstein" (1828), wrote several romances, "The Last Man, " "Lodore, "&c. , also "Rambles in Germany and Italy"; edited with valuable notes herhusband's works (1797-1851). 

SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE, born at Field Place, near Horsham, Sussex, eldest son of Sir Timothy Shelley, a wealthy landed proprietor; waseducated at Eton, and in 1810 went to Oxford, where his impatience ofcontrol and violent heterodoxy of opinion, characteristic of himthroughout, burst forth in a pamphlet "The Necessity of Atheism, " whichled to his expulsion in 1811, along with Jefferson Hogg, his subsequentbiographer; henceforth led a restless, wandering life; married at 19Harriet Westbrook, a pretty girl of 16, a school companion of his sister, from whom he was separated within three years; under the influence ofWILLIAM GODWIN (q. V. ) his revolutionary ideas of politics andsociety developed apace; engaged in quixotic political enterprises inDublin, Lynmouth, and elsewhere, and above all put to practical testGodwin's heterodox view on marriage by eloping (1814) to the Continentwith his daughter Mary, whom he married two years later after theunhappy suicide of Harriet; in 1816, embittered by lord Eldon's decisionthat he was unfit to be trusted with the care of Harriet's children, andwith consumption threatening, he left England never to return; spent thefew remaining years of his life in Italy, chiefly at Lucca, Florence, andPisa, in friendly relations with Byron, Leigh Hunt, Trelawney, &c. ;during this time were written his greatest works, "Prometheus Unbound, ""The Cenci, " his noble lament on Keats, "Adonais, " besides other longerworks, and most of his finest lyrics, "Ode to the South Wind, " "TheSkylark, " &c. ; was drowned while returning in an open sailing-boat fromLeghorn to his home on Spezia Bay; "An enthusiast for humanitygenerally, " says Professor Saintsbury, "and towards individuals a man ofinfinite generosity and kindliness, he yet did some of the cruellest andsome of not the least disgraceful things from mere childish want ofrealising the _pacta conventa_ of the world;" Shelley is pre-eminentlythe poet of lyric emotion, the subtle and most musical interpreter ofvague spiritual longing and intellectual desire; his poems form together"the most sensitive, " says Stopford Brooke, "the most imaginative, andthe most musical, but the least tangible lyrical poetry we possess"(1792-1821). 

SHENANDOAH, a river of Virginia, formed by two head-streams risingin Augusta Co. , which unite 85 m. W. Of Washington, and flowing NE. Through the beautiful "Valley of Virginia, " falls into the Potomac atHarper's Ferry, after a course of 170 m. ; also the name of a town (16) inPennsylvania, 138 m. NW. Of Philadelphia; centre of an important coaldistrict. 

SHENSTONE, WILLIAM, poet, born, the son of a landed proprietor, atHales-Owen, Shropshire; was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, andduring the years 1737-42 produced three vols. Of poetry, the most notedbeing "The Schoolmistress"; succeeded to his father's estate in 1745, andentered with much enthusiasm and reckless expenditure intolandscape-gardening, which won him in his day a wider reputation than hispoetry; his "Essays" have considerable critical merit and originality, while his poetry--ballads odes, songs, &c. --has a music and grace despiteits conventional diction (1714-1763). 

SHEOL, the dark underworld or Hades of the Hebrews, inhabited by theshades of the dead. 

SHEPHERD KINGS or HYKSOS, a tribe of shepherds, alleged to haveinvaded Lower Egypt 2000 years before Christ, overthrown the reigningdynasty, and maintained their supremacy for 200 years. 

SHEPHERD OF SALISBURY PLAIN, name of the hero, a shepherd of thename of Saunders, in a tract written by Hannah More, characterised byhomely wisdom and simple piety. 

SHEPPARD, JACK, a notorious criminal, whose audacious robberies anddaring escapes from Newgate Prison made him for a time the terror andtalk of London; drew some 200, 000 people to witness his execution atTyburn; figures as the hero of a well-known novel by Harrison Ainsworth(1702-1724). 

SHEPPEY, ISLE OF, an islet in the estuary of the Thames, at themouth of the Medway, belonging to Kent, from which it is separated by theSwale (spanned by a swing-bridge); great clay cliffs rise on the N. , andlike the rest of the island, are rich in interesting fossil remains; cornis grown, and large flocks of sheep raised; chief town isSHEERNESS (q. V. ), where the bulk of the people are gathered; isgradually diminishing before the encroaching sea. 

SHERBORNE (4), an interesting old town of Dorsetshire, pleasantlysituated on rising ground overlooking the Yeo, 118 m. SW. Of London; hasone of the finest Perpendicular minsters in South England, ruins of anElizabethan castle, and King Edward's School, founded in 1550, andranking among the best of English public schools. 

SHERBROOKE, ROBERT LOW, VISCOUNT, statesman, born, the son of arector, at Bingham, Notts; graduated at Oxford; obtained a Fellowship, and in 1836 was called to the bar; six years later emigrated toAustralia; made his mark at the Sydney bar, taking at the same time anactive part in the politics of the country; returned to England in 1850, and entered Parliament, holding office under Lord Aberdeen (1853) andLord Palmerston (1855); education became his chief interest for sometime, and in 1866 he fiercely opposed the Whig Reform Bill, butsubsequently made amends to his party by his powerful support ofGladstone's Irish Church Disestablishment Bill, and was included in theLiberal ministry of 1868 as Chancellor of the Exchequer, a post he heldtill 1873, when he became Home Secretary; a man of great intellectualforce and independency of judgment; created a viscount in 1880; wasD. C. L. Of Oxford and LL. D. Of Edinburgh (1811-1892). 

SHERE ALI, Ameer of Afghanistan, son and successor of Dost Mohammed, at first favoured by Britain, but at last distrusted and was driven fromthe throne (1823-1879). 

SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY, a distinguished American general, born, of Irishparentage, in Albany, New York; obtained a cadetship at West PointMilitary Academy, and entered the army as a second-lieutenant in 1853;served in Texas and during the Civil War; won rapid promotion by hisgreat dash and skill as commander of a cavalry regiment; gained widerepute by his daring raids into the S. ; cleared the Confederates out ofthe Shenandoah Valley in 1864, and by his famous ride (October 19, 1864)from Winchester to Cedar Creek snatched victory out of defeat, routingthe conjoined forces of Early and Lee; received the thanks of Congress, and was created major-general; took an active part under Grant incompelling the surrender of Lee, and in bringing the war to aclose; subsequently during Grant's presidency was promoted tolieutenant-general; visited Europe in 1870 to witness the Franco-GermanWar, and in 1883 succeeded Sherman as general-in-chief of the Americanarmy (1831-1888). 

SHERIDAN, RICHARD BRINSLEY BUTLER, dramatist and politician, born inDublin; educated at Harrow; was already committed to literature when, in1773, he settled down in London with his gifted young wife, ElizabethLinley, and scored his first success with the "Rivals" in 1775, followingit up with the overrated "Duenna"; aided by his father-in-law becameowner of Drury Lane Theatre, which somewhat lagged till the production ofhis most brilliant satirical comedy, "The School for Scandal" (1777) andthe "Critic" set flowing the tide of prosperity; turning his attentionnext to politics he entered Parliament under Fox's patronage in 1780, andtwo years later became Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs inRockingham's ministry; his great speech (1787) impeaching Hastings forhis treatment of the Begums placed him in the front rank of orators, butalthough he sat for 32 years in Parliament, only once again reached thesame height of eloquence in a speech (1794) supporting the FrenchRevolution, and generally failed to establish himself as a reliablestatesman; meanwhile his theatrical venture had ended disastrously, andother financial troubles thickening around him, he died in poverty, butwas accorded a burial in Westminster Abbey (1751-1816). 

SHERIF or SHEREEF, a title of dignity among Mohammedans ofeither sex bestowed upon descendants of the Prophet through his daughtersFatima and Ali; as a distinguishing badge women wear a green veil, andmen a green turban. 

SHERIFF, in England the chief officer of the Crown in every county, appointed annually, and intrusted with the execution of the laws and themaintenance of peace and order, with power to summon the _possecommitatus_. The office originated in Anglo-Saxon times, when itexercised wide judicial functions which have been gradually curtailed, and such duties as remain--the execution of writs, enforcement of legaldecisions, &c. , are mostly delegated to an under-sheriff (usually alawyer) and bound-bailiffs, while the sheriff himself, generally a personof wealth (the office being unsalaried and compulsory, but notnecessarily for more than one year) discharges merely honorary duties. InScotland the sheriff, or sheriff-depute as he is called, is the chiefjudge of the county, and has under him one or more sheriffs-substitute, upon whom devolves the larger portion of the important and multifariousduties of his office. In America the sheriff is the chief administrativeofficer of the county, but exercises no judicial functions at all. 

SHERIFFMUIR, a barren spot stretching N. Of the Ochils, inPerthshire, 5 m. NE. Of Stirling; was the scene of an indecisive conflictbetween 9000 Jacobites under the Earl of Mar and 3500 Royalists under theDuke of Argyll, November 13, 1715. 

SHERLOCK, THOMAS, English prelate, born in London; became bishop insuccession of Bangor, Salisbury, and London, declining the Primacy; wroteseveral theological works, and took up arms against the rationalists ofthe day, such as Collins and Woolston (1678-1761). 

SHERLOCK HOLMES, an amateur detective, a creation of Dr. ConanDoyle. 

SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH, a distinguished American general, born, the son of a judge, in Lancaster, Ohio; first saw service as a lieutenantof artillery in the Indian frontier wars in Florida and California;resigned from the army in 1853, and set up as a banker in San Francisco, but at the outbreak of the Civil War accepted a colonelcy in theFederalist ranks; distinguished himself at the battles of Bull Run (1861)and Shiloh (1862); received promotion, and as second in command to Grantrendered valuable service in reducing Vicksburg and Memphis; was presentat the victory of Chattanooga, and during 1864 entered into command ofthe SW. ; captured the stronghold of Atlanta, and after a famous marchseaward with 65, 000 men took Savannah, which he followed up with a seriesof victories in the Carolinas, receiving, on 26th April 1865, thesurrender of General Johnston, which brought the war to a close; wascreated general and commander-in-chief of the army in 1869, a position heheld till 1869; published memoirs of his military life (1820-1891). 

SHERWOOD FOREST, once an extensive forest, the scene of Robin Hood'sexploits, in Nottinghamshire, stretching some 25 m. Between Worksop andNottingham, but now a hilly, disafforested tract occupied by countryhouses and private parks, several villages, and the town of Mansfield. 

SHETLAND or ZETLAND (29), a group of over 100 islands, islets, and skerries, of which 29 are inhabited, forming the northernmost countyof Scotland, lying out in the Atlantic, NNE. Of the Orkneys; Mainland(378 sq. M. ), Fell, and Unst are the largest; the coast-line is boldlyprecipitous and indented, while the scenery all over the island is verygrand; the soil is peaty, ill adapted to cultivation, but there isconsiderable rearing of stock, and the little shaggy pony is well known;fishing is the chief industry, herring, cod, ling, &c. LERWICK(q. V. ) is the capital. 

SHIBBOLETH, a word by which the Gileadites distinguished anEphraimite from his inability to sound the _sh_ in the word, and sodiscovered whether he was friend or foe; hence it has come to denote aparty cry or watchword. 

SHIELDS, NORTH, a flourishing seaport of Northumberland, on theTyne, near the mouth, 8 m. NE. Of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and lying withinthe municipal borough of Tynemouth (47); is of quite modern growth, andof a plain, uninteresting appearance; has a theatre, free library, Mariners' Home, fine park, &c. ; the docks cover 79 acres, and a largeexport trade in coal is carried on. 

SHIELDS, SOUTH (78), a busy seaport and popular watering-place inDurham, with a frontage of 2 m. On the south bank of the Tyne, 9 m. NE. Of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a place of residence from ancient times, withRoman remains, &c. ; has a theatre, public library, marine school, twofine parks with central parade, 50 acres of docks, &c. ; exports immensequantities of coal and coke. 

SHIITES, a sect of the Mohammedans, who reject the "SUNNA"(q. V. ) and championed the claims of Ali Mahommed's cousin andson-in-law to succeed to the Caliphate, and maintain the divine right ofhis descendants to represent the prophet in the Mohammedan Church. ThePersians belong to this sect. 

SHIKARPUR (42), capital of a district (853) in N. Sind, India, situated on rich alluvial ground, 18 m. W. Of the Indus, and 330 m. N. OfKarachi; since the opening of the Indus Valley Railway it has lost muchof its importance as a commercial entrepôt between India and Khorassan;vicinity produces excellent grain crops, and carpets, cottons, &c. , aremanufactured in the town. 

SHILOH, a village 20 m. N. Of Jerusalem, sacred as the site of theresting-place of the Tabernacle on the settlement of the Jews in the landof promise. Is a name also of the Messiah. 

SHINAR, the vast alluvial plain extending along the Tagus andEuphrates, forming the country of Chaldea and Babylonia. 

SHINTOISM, the native religion of Japan; a system of ancestorworship chiefly, combined with which is a religious homage paid to theMikado. 

SHIP-MONEY, a tax levied by Charles I. At the suggestion of Noy, theAttorney-General, who based its imposition on an old war-tax leviable onport-towns to furnish a navy in times of danger, and which Charlesimposed in a time of peace without consent of Parliament, and upon inlandas well as port-towns, provoking thereby wide-spread dissatisfaction, andHampden's refusal to pay, which with the trial and decision in favour ofCharles contributed to bring about the Civil War, which cost Charles hislife; was declared illegal by the Long Parliament in 1640. 

SHIPTON, MOTHER, a prophetess of English legend, whose preternaturalknowledge revealed in her prophecies, published after her death, wasascribed to an alliance with the devil, by whom it was said she becamethe mother of an ugly impish child. 

SHIRAZ (30), a celebrated city of Persia, occupying a charming siteon an elevated plain, 165 m. NE. Of Bushire; founded in the 8th century;was for long a centre of Persian culture, and a favourite resort of theroyal princes; its beauties are celebrated in the poems of Häfiz andSádi, natives of the place; has been thrice wrecked by earthquakes, andpresents now a somewhat dilapidated appearance. 

SHIRÉ, a river of East Africa, flows out of Lake Nyassa, and passesin a southerly course through the Shiré Highlands, a distance of 370 m. , till it joins the Zambesi; discovered by Livingstone. 

SHIRLEY, JAMES, dramatist, born in London, educated at Oxford andCambridge; entered the Church, but turning Catholic resigned, and aftertrying teaching established himself in London as a play-writer; wrotewith great facility, producing upwards of thirty plays before thesuppression of theatres in 1642; fell back on teaching as a means oflivelihood, and with a temporary revival of his plays after theRestoration eked out a scanty income till fear and exposure during theGreat Fire brought himself and his wife on the same day to a commongrave; of his plays mention may be made of "The Witty Fair One, " "TheWedding, " "The Lady of Pleasure, " "The Traitor, " etc. (1596-1666). 

SHISHAK, the name of several monarchs of Egypt of the twenty-seconddynasty, the first of whom united nearly all Egypt under one government, invaded Judea and plundered the Temple of Jerusalem about 962 B. C. 

SHITTIM WOOD, a hard, close-grained acacia wood of an orange-browncolour found in the Arabian Desert, and employed in constructing theJewish Tabernacle. 

SHOA (1, 500), the southmost division of ABYSSINIA (q. V. );was an independent country till its conquest by Theodore of Abyssinia in1855; is traversed by the Blue Nile, and has a mixed population of Gallasand Abyssinians. 

SHODDY, a stuff woven of old woollen fabrics teased into fibre andof new wool intermixed. 

SHOEBURYNESS, a town in Essex, near Southend, a stretch of moorlandutilised by the Government for gunnery practice. 

SHOLAPUR (61), chief town in the Presidency of Bombay, in a district(750) of the name, 283 m. E. Of Bombay; has cotton and silk manufactures. 

SHORE, JANE, the celebrated mistress of Edward IV. ; was the youngwife of a respected London goldsmith till she was taken up by the king, through whom, till the close of the reign, she exercised great power, "never abusing it to any man's hurt, but to many a man's comfort andrelief"; was ill-treated and persecuted by Richard III. For politicalpurposes; subsequently lived under the patronage of Lord Hastings, andafterwards of the Marquis of Dorset, surviving till 1527; the story ofher life has been made the subject of many ballads, plays, etc. 

SHOREDITCH (120), parliamentary borough of East London; returns twomembers to Parliament; manufactures furniture, boot and shoes, beer, etc. 

SHOREHAM, NEW, a seaport 6 m. W. Of Brighton; has oyster and otherfisheries, and shipbuilding yards. 

SHORTHOUSE, JOSEPH HENRY, author of "John Inglesant, " born inBirmingham; wrote also "Sir Percival" and "Little Schoolmaster Mark, "etc. ; is remarkable for his refined style of writing, latterly too muchso; his first work, "John Inglesant, " published in 1881, is his best;_b_. 1834. 

SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY, a celebrated English admiral, born at Clay, in Norfolk; was apprenticed to a cobbler, but ran away to sea, and rosefrom grade to grade till in 1674 we find him a lieutenant in theMediterranean fleet; was knighted in 1689 for his gallantry as commanderof a ship in the battle of Bantry Bay, and in the following year asrear-admiral was prominent at the engagement off Beachy Head; in 1692gave heroic assistance to Admiral Russell at La Hogue, and in 1702 toRooke at Malaga; elevated to the commandership of the English fleets hein 1705 captured Barcelona, but on his way home from an unsuccessfulattack upon Toulon was wrecked on the Scilly Isles and drowned(1650-1707). 

SHREWSBURY (27), county town of Shropshire, situated on a smallpeninsula formed by a horse-shoe bend of the Severn, 42 m. W. By N. OfBirmingham; three fine bridges span the river here, connecting it withseveral extensive suburbs; a picturesque old place with winding streetsand quaint timber dwelling-houses, a Norman castle, abbey church, ruinedwalls, etc. The public school, founded by Edward VI. , ranks amongst thebest in England; figures often in history as a place where Parliament metin 1397-98, and in 1403 gave its name to the battle which resulted in thedefeat of Hotspur and the Earl of Douglas by Henry IV. ; it was taken bythe Parliamentarians in 1644; chief industries are glass-painting, malting, and iron-founding. 

SHROPSHIRE or SALOP (236), an agricultural and mining county ofEngland, on the Welsh border, facing Montgomery chiefly, between Cheshire(N. ) and Hereford (S. ); is divided into two fairly equal portions by theSevern, E. And N. Of which is low, level, and fertile, excepting theWrekin (1320 ft. ), while on the SW. It is hilly (Clee Hills, 1805 ft. );Ellesmere is the largest of several lakes; Coalbrookdale is the centre ofa rich coal district, and iron and lead are also found. Shrewsbury is thecapital; it consists of four Parliamentary divisions. 

SHROVETIDE, confession-time, especially the days immediately beforeLent, when, in Catholic times, the people confessed their sins to theparish priest and afterwards gave themselves up to sports, and dined onpancakes, Shrove Tuesday being Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, or the firstday of Lent. 

SHUMLA or SHUMNA (24), a fortified city of Bulgaria, 80 m. SE. Of Rustchuk; has an arsenal, barracks, etc. , is an important strategicalcentre between the Lower Danube and the East Balkans. 

SHYLOCK, the Jew in Shakespeare's "Merchant of Venice. "

SIAM (9, 000 of Siamese, Chinese, Shans, and Malays), occupies thecentral portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, wedged in between Annamand Cambodia (E. ) and Burma (W. ), and extending down into the MalayPeninsula; the wide Gulf of Siam forms the southern boundary; the richalluvial valleys of the Menam and the Mekhong produce great quantities ofrice (chief export), teak-wood, hemp, tobacco, cotton, etc. , but of theland surface only about one-twentieth is cultivated, a large portion ofthe rest lying under forest and jungle; the Siamese are indolent, ignorant, ceremonious, and the trade is mainly in the hands of theChinese; the mining of gold, tin, and especially rubies and sapphires, isalso carried on. Buddhism is the national religion, and elementaryeducation is well advanced; government is vested in a king (at present anenlightened and English-educated monarch) and council of ministers; sinceSir J. Bowring's treaty in 1856, opening up the country to European tradeand influences, progress has been considerable in roads and railway, electric, telephonic, and postal communication. BANGKOK (q. V. )is the capital. In 1893 a large tract of territory NE. Of the Mekhong wasceded to France. 

SIAMESE TWINS, twins born in Siam, of Chinese parents, whose bodieswere united by a fleshy band extended between corresponding breast-bones;were purchased from their mother and exhibited in Europe and America, realised a competency by their exhibitions, married and settled in theStates; having lost by the Civil War, they came over to London andexhibited, where they died, one 2½ hours after the other (1811-1874). 

SIBBALD, SIR ROBERT, physician and naturalist, born in Edinburgh, ofBalgonie, Fife; established a botanic garden in Edinburgh, and was one ofthe founders of the Royal College of Physicians (16411712). 

SIBERIA (5, 000), a vast Russian territory in North Asia (one and athird times the size of Europe), stretching from the Ural Mountains (W. )to the seas of Behring, Okhotsk, and Japan (E. ), bounded on the N. By theArctic Ocean and on the S. By China and the Central Asiatic provinces ofRussia; forms in the main an immense plain, sloping from the Altai andother mountain ranges on the S. To the dreary, ice-bound littoral on theN. , drained by the northward-flowing Obi, Irtish, Yenesei, Lena, &c. , embracing every kind of soil, from the fertile grain-growing plains ofthe S. And rich grazing steppe-land of the W. To the forest tracts andbogland of the N. And experiencing a variety of climates, but for themost part severely cold; hunting, fishing, and mining are the chiefindustries, with agriculture and stock-raising in the S. And W. The greatTrans-Siberian Railway, in construction since 1891, is opening up thecountry, which is divided into eight "governments, " the chief towns beingTomsk, Irkutsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk; three-fifths of the population areRussians, chiefly exiles and descendants of exiles. Russian advance inAsia against the Tartars was begun in 1850, and was carried on by warlikeCossack marauders, followed by hunters, droves of escaping serfs, andpersecuted religious sects. 

SIBYL, name given to a woman, or rather to a number of women, muchfabled of in antiquity, regarded by Ruskin as representing the voice ofGod in nature, and, as such, endowed with visionary prophetic power, orwhat in the Highlands of Scotland is called "second-sight"; the mostfamous of the class being the Sibyl of Cumæ, who offered King Tarquin ofRome nine books for sale, which he refused on account of the exorbitantsum asked for them, and again refused after she had burnt three of them, and in the end paid what was originally asked for the three remaining, which he found to contain oracular utterances bearing on the worship ofthe gods and the policy of Rome. These, after being entrusted to keepers, were afterwards burned, and the contents replaced by a commissionappointed to collect them in the countries around, to share the same fateas the original collection. The name is applied in mediæval times tofigures representative of the prophets who foretold the coming of Christ;the prophets so represented were reckoned sometimes 10, sometimes 12 innumber; they are, says Fairholt, "of tall stature, full of vigour andmoral energy; the costume rich but conventional, ornamented with pearlsand precious stones. "

SICILIAN VESPERS, name given to a massacre of the French in Sicilyat the hour of vespers on the eve of Easter Monday in 1282, the signalfor the commencement being the first stroke of the vesper bell; themassacre included men and women and children to the number of 8000 souls, and was followed by others throughout the island. 

SICILY (3, 285), the largest island in the Mediterranean, lying offthe SW. Extremity of Italy, to which it belongs, and from which it isseparated by the narrow strait of Messina, 2 m. Broad; the threeextremities of its triangular configuration form Capes Faro (NE. ), Passaro (S. ), and Boco (W. ); its mountainous interior culminates in thevolcanic Etna, and numerous streams rush swiftly down the thickly-woodedvalleys; the coast-lands are exceptionally fertile, growing (althoughagricultural methods are extremely primitive) excellent crops of wheatand barley, as well as an abundance of fruit; sulphur-mining is animportant industry, and large quantities of the mineral are exported;enjoys a fine equable climate, but malaria is in parts endemic; theinhabitants are a mixed--Greek, Italian, Arabic, &c. --race, and differconsiderably in language and appearance from Italians proper; areill-governed, and as a consequence discontented and backward, evenbrigandage not yet being entirely suppressed. Palermo, the largest city, is situated on the precipitous N. Coast. As part of the "Kingdom of theTwo Sicilies, " comprising Sicily and Naples, it was overrun by Garibaldiin 1860, and in the same year was incorporated with the kingdom of Italy. 

SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON, a German free-lance, a man of a knightlyspirit and great prowess; had often a large following, Götz vonBerlichingen of the number, and joined the cause of the Reformation; losthis life by a musket-shot when besieged in the castle of Landstuhl; hewas a warm friend of Ulrich von Hutten (1481-1523). 

SICYON, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, was situated near theCorinthian Gulf, 7 m. NW. Of Corinth; was an important centre of Grecianart, especially of bronze sculptures and painting; in the time of Aratus(251 B. C. ) figured as one of the chief cities of the Achæan League; onlya few remains now mark its site. 

SIDDONS, SARAH, the greatest tragic actress of England, born atBrecon, the daughter and eldest child of Roger Kemble, manager of anitinerant theatrical company; became early a member of her father'scompany, and at 19 married an actor named Siddons who belonged to it; herfirst appearance in Drury Lane as Portia in 1755 was a failure; by 1782her fame was established, after which she joined her brother, JohnKemble, at Covent Garden, and continued to act there till her retirementin 1812; she was distinguished in many parts, and above all Lady Macbeth, in which character she took farewell of the stage; she appeared onceagain in London after this in 1815, for the benefit of her brotherCharles, and again a few nights in Edinburgh in aid of a widoweddaughter-in-law (1755-1831). 

SIDEREAL YEAR, the period during which the earth makes a revolutionin its orbit with respect to the stars. 

SIDGWICK, HENRY, writer on ethics, born at Shipton, Yorkshire;professor of Moral Philosophy at Cambridge; "Methods of Ethics, " being acompromise between the intuitionalists and utilitarians, "the Principlesof Political Economy, " and the "Elements of Politics"; he holds a highplace in all these three studies; _b_. 1838. 

SIDLAW HILLS, a range of hills extending from Kinnoul Hill, nearPerth, NE. To Brechin, in Forfarshire; most interesting point Dunsinane(1114 ft. ). 

SIDMOUTH (4), a pretty little watering-place on the S. Devonshirecoast, 14 m. ESE. Of Exeter; lies snugly between high cliffs at the mouthof a small stream, the Sid; is an ancient place, and has revived inpopularity since the opening of the railway; has a fine promenade 1½ m. Long. 

SIDMOUTH, HENRY ADDINGTON, VISCOUNT, statesman, born in London, theson of a physician; studied at Oxford, and was called to the bar, butgave up law for politics, entered Parliament in 1783, and was Speakerfrom 1789 till 1801, in which year, after the fall of Pitt over Catholicemancipation, he formed a ministry, assuming himself the offices of FirstLord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. This ministry ofthe "King's Friends" went out of office in 1804, after negotiating thePeace of Amiens (1802), and in subsequent governments of Pitt Sidmouthheld various offices, being an unpopular Home Secretary from 1812 to1821; created viscount in 1805 (1757-1844). 

SIDNEY or SYDNEY, ALGERNON, a noted politician and soldierof extreme republican views, second son of Robert, second Earl ofLeicester; first came into public notice in 1641-1642 by his gallantconduct as leader of a troop of horse in the Irish Rebellion; came overto England in 1643, joined the Parliamentarians, rose to a colonelcy andcommand of a regiment in 1645; was subsequently governor of Dublin and ofDover (1647), entered Parliament (1646), and although appointed one ofthe commissioners to try Charles I. , absented himself from theproceedings, but afterwards approved of the execution; withdrew frompolitics during Cromwell's Protectorate, but on the reinstating of theLong Parliament (1659) became a member of the Council of State; was on adiplomatic mission to Denmark when the Restoration took place, and tillhis pardon in 1677 led a wandering life on the Continent; intrigued withLouis XIV. Against Charles II. , assisted William Penn in drawing up therepublican constitution of Pennsylvania, was on trumped-up evidence triedfor complicity in the Rye House Plot and summarily sentenced to death byJudge Jeffreys, the injustice of his execution being evidenced by thereversal of his attainder in 1689 (1622-1683). 

SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP, poet, and one of the most attractive figures atElizabeth's court, born at Penshurst, Kent, the son of Sir Henry Sidney, lord-deputy of Ireland; quitted Oxford in 1572, and in the manner of thetime finished his education by a period of Continental travel, from whichhe returned imbued with the love of Italian literature; took his place atonce in the court of Elizabeth, his uncle, the Earl of Leicester, beingthen high in favour, and received rapid promotion, being sent asambassador in 1576 to the court of Vienna; nor was his favour with thequeen impaired by his bold "Remonstrance" against her marriage with theDuke of Anjou, and in 1583 received a knighthood; two years later, "lestshe should lose the jewel of her dominions" the queen forbade him toaccompany Drake to the West Indies, and appointed him governor ofFlushing, but in the following year he received his death-wound at thebattle of Zutphen gallantly leading a troop of Netherlander against theSpaniards; his fame as an author rests securely on his euphuistic proseromance "Arcadia, " his critical treatise "The Defence of Poesy, " andabove all on his exquisite sonnet-series "Astrophel and Stella, " in whichhe sings the story of his hapless love for Penelope Devereux, who marriedLord Rich; was the friend of Edmund Spenser, and the centre of aninfluential literary circle (1554-1586). 

SIDON, an ancient Phoenician city on the E. Of the Mediterranean, 20m. N. Of Tyre, with an extensive commerce; was famed for its glass andpurple dye; also suffered many a reverse of fortune. 

SIEBENGEBIRGE, a range of hills on the right bank of the Rhine, 20m. Above Köln, distinguished by its seven high peaks. 

SIEGFRIED, a hero of various Scandinavian and Teutonic legends, andespecially of the "NIBELUNGEN LIED" (q. V. ), was renderedinvulnerable by bathing in the blood of a dragon which he had slain, except at a spot on his body which had been covered by a falling leaf; hewore a cloak which rendered him invisible, and wielded a miraculous swordnamed BALMUNG (q. V. ). 

SIEMENS, WERNER VON, a celebrated German electrician and inventor, born at Lenthe, Hanover; served in the Prussian artillery, and renderedvaluable services in developing the telegraphic system of Prussia;patented a process for electro-plating in gold and silver, and was thefirst to employ electricity in exploding submarine mines; retired fromthe army in 1849, and along with Halske established a business in Berlinfor telegraphic and electrical apparatus, which has become notablethroughout the world, having branches in several cities; made manycontributions to electrical science; was ennobled in 1888 (1816-1892). 

SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM (Karl William), younger brother of thepreceding, born at Lenthe, Hanover; like his brother took to science, andin 1844 settled in England, naturalising in 1859; was manager of theEnglish branch of the Siemens Brothers firm, and did much to developelectric lighting and traction (Portrush Electric Tramway); his inventivegenius was productive of a heat-economising furnace, a water-meter, pyrometer, bathometer, &c. ; took an active part in various scientificsocieties; was President of the British Association (1882), and receiveda knighthood in 1883 (1823-1883). 

SIENNA or SIENA (28), an interesting old Italian city of muchimportance during the Middle Ages, in Central Italy, 60 m. S. OfFlorence, is still surrounded by its ancient wall, and contains severalfine Gothic structures, notably its cathedral (13th century) andmunicipal palace; has a university and institute of fine arts; silk andcloth weaving, and a wine and oil trade are the chief industries. 

SIERRA, the name given to a range of mountains with a saw-likeridge. 

SIERRA LEONE (75), a British maritime colony since 1787, on the W. Coast of Africa, having a foreshore of 180 m. Between Rivières du Sud(N. ) and Liberia (S. ); includes the peninsula of Sierra Leone proper withits densely-wooded Sugar-Loaf Mountain, and a number of coast islands, and stretches back to a highland eastern frontier ill defined; theclimate is hot, humid, and unhealthy; has been called "The White Man'sGrave"; is fertile, but not well exploited by the indolent negropopulation, half of whom are descendants from freed slaves; ground-nuts, kola-nuts, ginger, hides, palm-oil, &c. , are the principal exports. FREETOWN (q. V. ) is the capital. The executive power isexercised by a governor and council of five. 

SIERRA MADRE, the main cordillera system of Mexico, extending in anortherly direction to Arizona, and forming the western buttress of afertile plateau stretching eastwards; to the W. The States of Sinaloa andSonora slope downwards to the sea. 

SIERRA MORENA, a mountain chain in South Spain, forming thewatershed between the valleys of the Gaudiana (N. ) and Guadalquivir (S. );has valuable deposits of lead, silver, quicksilver, and other metals. 

SIERRA NEVADA, 1, a mountain range in South Spain, 60 m. In length;lies for the most part in Granada, crossing the province E. And W. Inbold, rugged lines, and clad on its higher parts with perpetual snow, whence the name; Mulhacen (11, 660 ft. ) is the highest peak. 2, A mountainsystem in California, stretching NW. And SE. 450 m. , and forming theeastern buttress of the Great Central Valley; highest peak Mount Whitney(14, 886 ft. ). 3, A lofty mountain group in Colombia, South America, stretching NE. Almost to the borders of Venezuela. 

SIEYÈS, ABBÉ, a conspicuous figure all through the FrenchRevolution, the Consulate, and the Empire, who thought in his simplicitythat the salvation of France and the world at large depended on soundpolitical institutions, in the drafting of which he spent his life; wasborn in Frèjus, of the bourgeois class; represented Paris in the StatesGeneral; sat in the Centre in the Legislative Assembly; renounced theChristian religion in favour of the Goddess of Reason; projected aconstitution which was rejected; supported Napoleon; fled to Belgium onthe return of the Bourbons, and returned to France in 1830, by which timehe was politically defunct (1748-1836). 

SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany, son of the Emperor Charles IV. , wasmarkgrave of Brandenburg, king of Hungary, and palatine of the Rhine;struggled hard to suppress the Hussites; held the Council of Constance, and gave HUSS (q. V. ) a safe-conduct to his doom; he is the"Super Grammaticam" of Carlyle's "Frederick" (1362-1437). 

SIGISMUND is the name of three kings of Poland, the last of whomdied in 1632. 

SIGNORELLI, LUCA, the precursor of Michael Angelo in Italian art, born at Cortona; studied at Arezzo under Piero della Francesca, andbecame distinguished for the accurate anatomy of his figures and for thegrandeur and originality of design exhibited in his admirable frescoes ofreligious subjects at Loretto, Orviëto, and elsewhere (1441-1525). 

SIGOURNEY, MRS. , American authoress, was a prolific writer; wrotetales, poems, essays, chiefly on moral and religious subjects; was calledthe American Hemans (1791-1863). 

SIGURD. See SIEGFRIED. 

SIKHS (lit. Disciples), a native religious and military community, scattered, to the number of nearly two millions, over the Punjab, andforming some fifteen States dependent on the Punjab government; founded(1469) by Baber Nanak as a religious monotheistic sect purified from thegrosser native superstitions and practices; was organised on a militaryfooting in the 17th century, and in the 18th century acquired aterritorial status, ultimately being consolidated in to a powerfulmilitary confederacy by Ranjit Singh, who, at the beginning of the 19thcentury, extended his power over a wider territory. In 1845-46 theycrossed their E. Boundary, the Sutlej, and invaded English possessions, but were defeated by Gough and Hardinge, and had to cede a considerableportion of their territory; a second war in 1848-49 ended in theannexation of the entire Punjab, since when the Sikhs have been thefaithful allies of the English, notably in the Indian Mutiny. 

SIKKIM (7), a small native State in North-East India, lying on thesouthern slopes of the Himalayas, between Nepal (W. ) and Bhotan (E. );under British protection; the ruling family being Buddhist, and ofTibetan descent. 

SILAGE, the name given to green fodder, vegetables, &c. , stored instacks or pits (or silos) under heavy pressure, the process being knownas ensilage. The practice of thus preserving green crops for fodder datesfrom earliest times, but its general adoption in Britain only began in1882 since when its spread has been rapid. Originally the process invogue involved slight fermentation, resulting in "sour silage, " but in1884 it was found that by delaying the application of pressure for a dayor two a rise of temperature took place sufficiently great to destroy thebacteria producing fermentation, the result being "sweet silage. " Bothkinds are readily eaten by cattle. 

SILENCE, WORSHIP OF, Carlyle's name for the sacred respect forrestraint in speech till "thought has silently matured itself, . .. Tohold one's tongue till _some_ meaning lie behind to set it wagging, " adoctrine which many misunderstand, almost wilfully, it would seem;silence being to him the very womb out of which all great things areborn. 

SILENUS, a satyr who attended Dionysus, being his foster-father andteacher; assisted in the war of the giants, and slew Enceladus; had thegift of vaticination; is represented as mounted on an ass and supportedby other satyrs. 

SILESIA (4, 224), a province of South-East Prussia, stretching S. Between Russian Poland (E. ) and Austria (W. And S. ); the Oder flows NW. Through the heart of the country, dividing the thickly forested and inparts marshy lands of the N. And E. From the mountainous and extremelyfertile W. ; rich coal-fields lie to the S. , and zinc is also a valuableproduct; agriculture and the breeding of cattle, horses, and sheepflourish, as also the manufacture of cottons, linens, &c. ; Breslau is thecapital; for long under the successive dominions of Poland and Bohemia, the Silesian duchies became, in the 18th century, a _casus belli_ betweenAustria and Prussia, resulting in the SEVEN YEARS' WAR (q. V. )and the ultimate triumph of Frederick the Great of Prussia. 

SILESIA, AUSTRIAN (602), that portion of the original Silesiancountry preserved to Austria after the unsuccessful struggle withPrussia; forms a duchy and crownland of Austria, and extends SW. From theborder of Prussian Silesia; agriculture and mining are the chiefindustries. 

SILHOUETTE, name given to the profile of a portrait filled in withblack; a design familiar to the ancients, and in vogue in France duringthe reign of Louis XV. 

SILISTRIA (12), a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, 70 m. BelowRustchuk; occupies a fine strategical position, and is stronglyfortified; withstood successfully a 39 days' siege by the Russians duringthe Crimean War; cloth and leather are the chief manufactures. 

SILIUS ITALICUS, a Roman poet; was consul in the year of Nero'sdeath, and his chief work an epic "Punica, " relating the events of theSecond Punic War, a dull performance. 

SILLIMAN, BENJAMIN, American chemist and geologist, born in NorthStratford (now Trumbull), Connecticut; graduated at Yale, and was calledto the bar in 1802, but in the same year threw up law for science; becameprofessor of Chemistry at Yale, a position he held for 50 years (till1853); did much to stimulate the study of chemistry and geology bylectures throughout the States; founded (1818) the _American Journal ofScience_, and was for 28 years its editor; during 1853-55 was lecturer onGeology at Yale; his writings include "Journals of Travels in England, Holland, and Scotland" (1779-1864). BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, son ofpreceding, also an active scientist along his father's lines; founded theYale School of Science, and filled the chairs of Chemistry at Louisville(1849-1854) and at Yale (till 1869); was co-editor of the _Journal ofScience_ (1845-85), and wrote various popular text-books of chemistry andphysics (1816-1885). 

SILLOTH (3), a watering-place of Cumberland, on the Solway Firth, 20m. W. Of Carlisle; has good docks and an increasing commerce. 

SILURES, one of the ancient British tribes occupying the SE. OfWales; conjectured to be of Non-Aryan stock, and akin to the Iberians;offered a fierce resistance to the invading Romans. 

SILVANUS, an Italian divinity, the guardian of trees, fields, andhusbandmen; represented as a hale, happy, old man. 

SILVER AGE, the age in the Greek mythology in succession to theGolden; gold being viewed as the reality, and silver the idle reflection. See AGES and GOLDEN AGE. 

SIMEON, ST. , the aged seer who received the infant Christ in hisarms as He was presented to the Lord by His mother in the Temple; usuallyso represented in Christian art. 

SIMEON STYLITES, famous as one of the PILLAR SAINTS (q. V. ). 

SIMFEROPOL (36), a town in the Crimea, 49 m. NE. Of Sebastopol;surrounded by gardens, orchards, and vineyards; exports a great quantityof fruit. 

SIMLA (15, but largely increased in summer), the chief town of adistrict in the Punjab, and since 1864 the summer hill-quarters of theBritish Government in India; beautifully situated on the wooded southernslopes of the Himalayas, 7156 ft. Above sea-level, and 170 m. N. OfDelhi; has a cool and equable climate, and possesses two vice-regalpalaces, government buildings, beautiful villas, &c. 

SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE, a prolific American writer, born atCharleston, South Carolina; turned from law to literature; engaged injournalism for some years, and found favour with the public as a writerof poems, novels, biographies, &c. , in which he displays a gift forrapid, vivid narrative, and vigour of style; "Southern Passages andPictures" contains characteristic examples of his poetry, and of hisnovels "The Yemassee, " "The Partisan, " and "Beauchampe" may be mentioned(1806-1870). 

SIMON, JULES, French statesman and distinguished writer on social, political, and philosophic subjects, born at Lorient; succeeded Cousin inthe chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne; entered the Chamber of Deputiesin 1848; lost his post at the Sorbonne in 1852 for refusing to take theoath of allegiance to Napoleon III. ; subsequently became Minister ofEducation under Thiers (1871-73), a life-senator in 1875, and in 1876Republican Prime Minister; later more conservative in his attitude, heedited the _Echo Universel_, and was influential as a member of theSupreme Educational Council, and as permanent secretary of the Academy ofMoral and Political Sciences; his voluminous works include treatises on"Liberty, " "Natural Religion, " "Education, " "Labour, " &c. , and variousphilosophic and political essays (1814-1896). 

SIMON, RICHARD, a celebrated French biblical scholar, born atDieppe; entered the Congregation of the Oratory in 1659, and becameprofessor of Philosophy at the College of Juilly; was summoned to Paris, and under orders of his superiors spent some time in cataloguing theOriental MSS. In the library of the Oratory; his free criticisms and loveof controversy got him into trouble with the Port-Royalists and theBenedictines, and the heterodoxy of his "Histoire Critique du VieuxTestament" (1678) brought about his withdrawal to Belleville, where heremained as curé till 1682, when he retired to Dieppe to continue hiswork on Old and New Testament criticism; he ranks as among the first todeal with the scriptural writings as literature, and he anticipated not afew of the later German theories (1638-1712). 

SIMON MAGUS, a sorcerer, one who by his profession of magicaggrandised himself at the expense of the people of Samaria, and who, when he saw the miracles wrought by the Apostles, and St. Peter inparticular, offered them money to confer the like power on himself;Peter's well-known answer was not without effect on him, but it was onlytemporary, for he afterwards appeared in Rome and continued to imposeupon the people so as to persuade them to believe him as an incarnationof the Most High. Hence Simony, the sin of making gain by the buying orselling of spiritual privileges for one's material profit. 

SIMONIDES OF AMORGOS, a Greek poet who flourished in the 7th centuryB. C. ; dealt in gnome and satire, among the latter on the differentclasses of women. 

SIMONIDES OF CEOS, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece;spent most of his life in Athens, employed his poetic powers incelebrating the events and heroes of the Persian wars; gained overÆschylus the prize for an elegy on those who fell at Marathon; composedepigrams over the tombs of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylæ, and inhis eightieth year was crowned victor at Athens; shortly after this wasinvited by Hiero to Syracuse, at whose court he died; his poetry wasdistinguished at once for sweetness and finish; he was a philosopher aswell as a poet (556-467 B. C. ). 

SIMOOM or SIMOON, a hot, dry wind-storm common to the aridregions of Africa, Arabia, and parts of India; the storm moves in cyclone(circular) form, carrying clouds of dust and sand, and produces on menand animals a suffocating effect. 

SIMPLON, a mountain in the Swiss Alps, in the canton of Valais, traversed by the famous Simplon Pass (6594 ft. High), which stretches 41m. From Brieg in Valais to Domo d'Ossola in Piedmont, passing over 611bridges and through many great tunnels, built by Napoleon 1800-6. 

SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG, physician, born, the son of a baker, atBathgate, Linlithgowshire; graduated M. D. At Edinburgh in 1832; wasassistant to the professor of Pathology and one of the Presidents of theRoyal Medical Society before his election to the chair of Midwifery in1840; as an obstetrician his improvements and writings won him widerepute, which became European on his discovery of chloroform in 1847; wasone of the Queen's physicians, and was created a baronet in 1866;published "Obstetric Memoirs, " "Archæological Essays, " &c. (1811-1870). 

SIMROCK, KARL JOSEPH, German scholar and poet, born at Bonn; studiedat Bonn and Berlin, where he became imbued with a love for old Germanliterature, in connection with which he did his best-known work;modernised the "Nibelungen Lied" (1827), and after his withdrawal fromthe Prussian service gave himself to his favourite study, becomingprofessor of Old German in 1850, and popularising and stimulating inquiryinto the old national writings by volumes of translations, collections offolk-songs, stories, &c. ; was also author of several volumes of originalpoetry (1802-1876). 

SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT, playwright and novelist, born in London; wasfor a number of years on the staff of _Fun_ and a contributor to the_Referee_ and _Weekly Dispatch_, making his mark by his humorous andpathetic Dagonet ballads and stories; has been a busy writer of popularplays (e. G. "The Lights o' London, " "The Romany Rye") and novels (e. G. "Rogues and Vagabonds, " "Dramas of Life"); contributed noteworthyletters to the Daily News on the condition of the London poor; _b_. 1847. 

SIMSON, ROBERT, mathematician, born in Ayrshire; abandoned hisintention of entering the Church and devoted himself to the congenialstudy of mathematics, of which he became professor in the old universityat Glasgow (1711), a position he held for 50 years; was the author of thewell-known "Elements of Euclid, " but is most celebrated as the firstrestorer of Euclid's lost treatise on "Porisms" (1687-1768). 

SINAI, MOUNT, one of a range of three mountains on the peninsulabetween the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba, at the head of the RedSea, and from the summit or slopes of which Moses is said to havereceived the Ten Commandments at the hands of Jehovah. 

SINCERITY, in Carlyle's ethics the one test of all worth in a humanbeing, that he really with his whole soul means what he is saying anddoing, and is courageously ready to front time and eternity on the stake. 

SINCLAIR, name of a Scottish family of Norman origin whose founderobtained from David I. The grant of Roslin, near Edinburgh. 

SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN, philanthropist and statistician, born at ThursoCastle, bred to the bar; succeeding to the family estate devoted himselfto his duties as a landed proprietor; sat for different constituencies inParliament; published in 1784 "History of the Revenue of the BritishEmpire, " and in 1791-99, in 21 vols. , "Statistical Account of Scotland"(1754-1835). 

SIND, SINDH, or SCINDE (2, 903), a province of North-West India, in the Presidency of Bombay; extends from Beluchistan and Punjab (N. ) tothe Indian Ocean and Runn of Cutch (S. ); traversed by the Indus, whosedelta it includes, and whose broad alluvial valley-tracts yield abundantcrops of wheat, barley, hemp, rice, cotton, etc. , which are exported, andgive employment to the majority of the people; N. And E. Are widestretches of desert-land, and in the S. Are the Hala Mountains; wasannexed to the British possessions after the victories of Sir CharlesNapier in 1843; chief city and port is Kurrachee. 

SINDIA, the hereditary title of the Mahratta dynasty in Gwalior, Central India, founded in 1738 by Ranojee Sindia, who rose from beingslipper-bearer to the position of hereditary prime minister of theMahrattas; these princes, both singly and in combination with otherMahratta powers, offered determined resistance to the British, but in1803 the confederated Mahratta power was broken by Sir Arthur Wellesley, and a large portion of their territory passed into British hands. Gwaliorhaving been restored (1805), and retaken in 1844, the Sindia dynasty wasreinstated under a more stringent treaty, and Boji Rao Sindia provedfaithful during the Mutiny, receiving various marks of good-will from theBritish; was succeeded by his adopted son, a child of six, in 1886. 

SINGAPORE, 1, (185, chiefly Chinese), the most important of theBRITISH STRAITS SETTLEMENTS (q. V. ); consists of the island ofSingapore and upwards of 50 islets, off the southern extremity of theMalay Peninsula, from which it is separated by a narrow strait (2 to ½ m. Broad); is hot, humid, and low-lying, yet healthy, and possessing afertile soil which grows all kinds of spices, fruits, sugar-cane, coffee, etc. ; purchased by the British in 1824. 2, Capital (160) and port, on theStrait of Singapore, close to the equator; the chief emporium of tradewith the East Indies and South-Eastern Asia generally; is a picturesqueand handsome town, strongly fortified, and an important naval coalingstation and depôt, with spacious harbour, docks, etc. 

SINOLOGY, the science treating of the language, literature, laws, and history of the Chinese. 

SINON, a wily Greek who beguiled the Trojans and persuaded them toadmit the Wooden Horse into the city, to its ruin. 

SINOPE (8), a seaport of Turkey in Asia, situated on a narrowisthmus connecting with the mainland the rocky headland of Cape Sinopewhich projects into the Black Sea, 350 m. NE. Of Constantinople;possesses two fine harbours, naval arsenal, Byzantine ruins, etc. ; anancient Greek town, the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital ofMithridates; it was captured by the Turks in 1461, who themselves in 1853suffered a disastrous naval defeat in the Bay of Sinope at the hands ofthe Russians. 

SION, capital of the Swiss canton of Valais, on the Rhine, 42 m. E. Of Lausanne; is a mediæval town, with an old Gothic cathedral, and in theneighbourhood ruined castles. 

SIOUT or ASIOOT (32), capital of Upper Egypt; commands a fineview near the Nile, 200 m. S. Of Cairo; has a few imposing mosques and agovernment palace; is a caravan station, and noted for its red and blackpottery; occupies the site of the ancient city of Lycopolis. 

SIOUX or DAKOTA INDIANS, a North American Indian tribe, oncespread over the territory lying between Lake Winnipeg (N. ) and theArkansas River (S. ), but now confined chiefly to South Dakota andNebraska. Failure on the part of the United States Government to observecertain treaty conditions led to a great uprising of the Sioux in 1862, which was only put down at a great cost of blood and treasure; conflictsalso took place in 1876 and 1890, the Indians finding in their chief, Sitting Bull, a determined and skilful leader. 

SIRDAR, a name given to a native chief in India. 

SIREN, an instrument for measuring the number of aërial vibrationsper second, and thereby the pitch of a given note. 

SIRENS, in the Greek mythology a class of nymphs who were fabled tolure the passing sailor to his ruin by the fascination of their music;Ulysses, when he passed the beach where they were sitting, had his earsstuffed with wax and himself lashed to the mast till he was at a safedistance from the influence of their charm. Orpheus, however, as hepassed them in the Argonautic expedition so surpassed their music by hismelodious notes, that in very shame they flung themselves into the seaand were changed into boulders. 

SIRIUS or THE DOG-STAR, the brightest star in the heavens, oneof the stars of the Southern constellation of _Canis Major_; iscalculated to have a bulk three times that of the sun, and to give 70times as much light. See DOG-DAYS. 

SIRKAR, a name used in India to designate the government. 

SIROCCO. See SIMOOM. 

SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES LÉONARD SIMONDE DE, celebrated Swisshistorian, born at Geneva; son of a Protestant clergyman of Italiandescent; the family fortune was lost in the troublous days of the FrenchRevolution, and exile in England and Italy followed, but in 1800 Sismondireturned to Geneva, and having received a municipal appointment gavehimself to literary pursuits; the works which have established hisreputation are his great histories of "The Italian Republics in theMiddle Ages, " "European Literature, " and "A. History of the French";wrote also on political economy (1773-1842). 

SISTINE CHAPEL, celebrated chapel of the Vatican at Rome, constructed by order of Pope Sixtus IV. , and decorated with frescoes byMichael Angelo, representing a succession of biblical subjects, includingamong others the "Creation of the World, " the "Creation of Man, " the"Creation of Woman, " the "Temptation of Eve, " the "Deluge, " "Judith andHolophernes, " "David and Goliath, " "The Last Judgment, " &c. 

SISTOVA (12), a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, 33 m. AboveRustchuk; carries on trade in wine, leather, and cereals; was captured bythe Russians in 1877. 

SISYPHUS, a mythical king of Corinth, who for some offence he gavethe gods was carried off to the nether world, and there doomed to roll ahuge block up a hill, which no sooner reached the top than it boundedback again, making his toil endless. 

SITKA or NEW ARCHANGEL (1), capital of Alaska, on the W. Coastof Baranof Island, overhung by snowy mountains; has a good harbour;salmon fishing and curing the chief employment of most of theinhabitants, mostly Indians. 

SIVA or ÇIVA, the Destroyer in the Hindu trinity, in whichBrahma is the Creator and Vishnu the Preserver; Vishnu representing, asit were, death issuing in life, and Siva life issuing in death, thetransition point, and Brahma, who, by means of them, "kills that he maymake alive. " He is worshipped as "Mahâdêva" or the great god, and hisworshippers are called Saivas or Çaivas, as distinct from those ofVishnu, which are called Vaishnavas. The LINGA (q. V. ) is hissymbol, in emblem of the creation which follows destruction. See Psalmxc. 3. 

SIVAJI, the founder of the Mahratta power in India, a bold warriorbut an unlettered, of Rajput descent, brought up at Poona; began hiscareer at 19; on his succession assumed the title of rajah in 1664, andwas enthroned at Raigpur in 1674, and died sovereign of the whole Deccan(1627-1680). 

SIX ARTICLES. See BLOODY STATUTE. 

SIXTUS, the name of five popes. S. I. , St. , Pope from 116 to125; S. II. , st. , pope from 257 to 259; S. III. , Pope from 432to 440; S. IV. , pope from 1471 to 1484; S. V. , Pope from 1585to 1590; of whom only two are of any note. 

SIXTUS IV. , born near Savona, the son of a fisherman; became generalof the Franciscans; succeeded Paul II. As Pope; was notorious for hisnepotism; abetted Pazzi in his conspiracy against the Medici at Florence, but was a good administrator, and a man of liberal views; _b_. 1414. 

SIXTUS V. , born near Monalto, of poor parents, was of the Franciscanorder, and famed as a preacher; was elected successor to Gregory XIII. , during whose pontificate he affected infirmity, to reveal himself avigorous pontiff as soon as he was installed; set himself at once tostamp out disorder, reform the administration, and replenish theexhausted treasury of the Church; he allowed freedom of worship to theJews, and yet was zealous to put down all heresy in the Christian Statesof Europe; his services to Rome were not repaid with gratitude, for thecitizens destroyed his statue on his death; _b_. 1521. 

SIZAR, a poor student at the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, so called from the size or allowance of food they were recipients of outof the college buttery. 

SKAGER-RACK, an arm of the North Sea stretching NE. Between Norwayand Denmark, and connecting the Cattegat with the North Sea, 140 m. Longand 70 broad, the deep water being on the Norwegian coast. 

SKALD, an old Scandinavian poet, a reciter or singer of poems inpraise of the Norse warriors and their deeds. 

SKEAN-DHU, a small dirk which a Highlander wears in his stocking. 

SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM, English philologist, born in London;professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge; author of "Etymological Dictionaryof the English Language, " and a great authority on Early Englishliterature; the first Director of the Dialect Society, established in1873; _b_. 1835. 

SKEGGS, MISS, a character in the "Vicar of Wakefield, " boastful forher aristocratic connections and delicacy of taste, but vulgar at bottom. 

SKELTON, JOHN, early English satirist, his chief poetic works being"Why come ye not to Courte, " a satire against Wolsey; the "Book of ColinClout, " against the corruption of the Church; and the "Book of PhyllypSparrow, " the grief of a nun for the death of her sparrow; Erasmus callshim "the glory and light of English letters" (1460?-1528). 

SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES, Scottish historian, born in Kincardineshire, bred to law; devoted 40 years of his life to the study of the early, inparticular the Celtic, periods of Scottish history, and was from 1881historiographer for Scotland (1809-1892). 

SKERRYVORE, a rock with a lighthouse, one of an extensive reef 10 m. W. Of Tiree, on the west coast of Scotland; the light is a revolving one;is seen at the distance of over 18 nautical miles. 

SKIDDAW, a mountain in Cumberland, 3054 ft. In height; is some 6 m. From Keswick, whence it is of easy ascent. 

SKIMPOLE, HAROLD, a plausible character in "Bleak House, " who was inthe habit of sponging his friends. 

SKINNER, JOHN, author of "Tullochgorum, " born in Bervie, Aberdeenshire; originally a schoolmaster; became an Episcopal clergyman(1721-1807). 

SKIPTON (10), a market-town in Yorkshire, 26 m. NW. Of Leeds;population largely engaged in agriculture; has manufactures of cotton andwoollen goods. 

SKOBELEFF, MICHAEL, a Russian general, distinguished himself by hisbravery in the Russian service, particularly in the Russo-Turkish War of1877-78; was a leader in the Panslavist movement; died suddenly(1841-1882). 

SKYE (16), next to Lewis the largest of the Hebrides Islands, belongs to the Inner group, and is included in Inverness-shire, from themainland of which it is separated by the narrow channel Kyle Rhea; has adeeply indented coast-line, and a picturesquely diversified surface ofmountain, moor, and loch; the most notable features being the loftyCoolin Hills (highest point 3234 ft. ), Loch Coruisk, Glen Sligachan, andthe wild columnar height of basalt, the Quiraing; sheep and Highlandcattle are raised, and valuable ling, cod, and herring fisheries arecarried on in the coastal waters. Portree is the chief town and port, butis little better than a small village. 

SLADE, FELIX, antiquary and art-collector; left his art-collectionto the British Museum, and money to found Slade professorships of art atOxford, Cambridge, and London Universities (1789-1868). 

SLAVE COAST, name given to the Bight of Benin, in West Africa, fromLagos to the Volta River. 

SLAVONIA, a kingdom that at one time included Croatia and that liesbetween the Drave and the Military Frontier. 

SLAVS, an important branch of the Aryan race-stock, comprising anumber of European peoples chiefly in East Europe, including theRussians, Bulgarians, Servians, Bohemians, Poles, Croatians, Moravians, Silesians, Pomeranians, &c. At the dawn of history we find them alreadysettled in Europe, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the Carpathians, whence they spread N. , S. , and W. , assuming their present position by the7th century. They are estimated to number now 100, 000, 000, and thevarious languages spoken by them are notable, compared with the Teutonicand Celtic tongues, for their rich inflections. 

SLAWKENBERGIUS, an author quoted and referred to in "TristramShandy, " distinguished by the length of his nose, and a great authorityon the subject of noses. 

SLEEPING BEAUTY, a princess who was by enchantment shut up to sleep100 years in a castle surrounded by a dense forest, and was deliveredfrom her trance at the end of that term by a prince, to admit whom theforest opened of itself. 

SLEIPNIR, in the Scandinavian mythology the horse of Odin, which hadeight legs, as representing the wind with its eight principal "airts. "

SLESWICK-HOLSTEIN (1, 217), a province of North Prussia, stretchingup to Denmark, between the North Sea and the Baltic; various canals crossthe country, bearing to the coast the export produce--corn and cattle;the land is highly cultivated, and fishing is an important industry onthe Baltic coast; Flensburg, the chief seaport, and Sleswick (15), thecapital, are both situated on inlets of the Baltic; the latter lies 28 m. NW. Of Kiel, consists of a single street 3½ m. Long, and possesses a fineGothic cathedral with a fine altar-piece, &c. , the sections representingthe history of the Passion of Christ. 

SLICK, SAM, a clockmaker and pedlar, a character illustrating Yankeepeculiarities, and remarkable for his wit, his knowledge of human nature, and his use of "soft sawder, " a creation of JUDGE HALIBURTON'S(q. V. ). 

SLIGO, 1, a maritime county of North-West Ireland (98), in theprovince of Connaught; fronts the Atlantic on the N. Between Mayo (W. )and Leitrim (E. ), Roscommon forming the S. Boundary; the land, sloping N. To the coast from the Ox Mountains, is chiefly under grass for cattlepasture, and divided into small holdings; Sligo Bay is a fine sheet ofwater, and in the S. And E. Are the picturesque Loughs Arrow and Gill;the manufacture of coarse woollens and linens and fishing are theprincipal industries; the Moy, Owenmore, and Garvogue are navigablerivers. 2, At the mouth of the Garvogue stands Sligo (10), the countytown, 137 m. NW. Of Dublin; has ruins of a 13th-century Dominican abbey, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and exports cattle, corn, butter, &c. 

SLOANE, SIR HANS, physician and naturalist, born in co. Down, Ireland, of Scotch descent; settled as a physician in London; attainedthe highest distinction as a professional man; his museum, which was alarge one, of natural objects, books, and MSS. Became by purchase theproperty of the nation, and formed the nucleus of the British Museum(1660-1753). 

SLÖJD (sleight), a system of manual training adopted to developtechnical skill originally in the schools of Sweden and Finland; iseducation of the eye as well as the hand. 

SLOP, DOCTOR, a choleric physician in "Tristram Shandy. "

SLOUGH OF DESPOND, a deep bog in the "Pilgrim's Progress, " intowhich Christian sinks under the weight of his sins and his sense of theirguilt. 

SLOVAKS, a Slavonic peasant people numbering some 2, 000, 000, subjectto the crown of Hungary since the 11th century, and occupying thehighlands of North-West Hungary; speak a dialect of Czech. 

SLOVENIANS, a Slavonic people akin to the Servians and Croatians inAustro-Hungary, dwelling chiefly in Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. 

SLY, CHRISTOPHER, a drunken sot of a tinker in the "Induction" to"Taming of the Shrew. "

SMART, CHRISTOPHER, English poet, born in Kent; was a Fellow ofCambridge and a friend of Johnson's; author of the "Song to David, " nowfamous, much overrated, think some; he was subject to insanity, and itwas written during lucid intervals; he was the author of a prosetranslation of Horace (1722-1771). 

SMEATON, JOHN, civil engineer, born near Leeds; began life as amathematical instrument-maker; made improvements in mill-work, and gainedthe Copley Medal in 1758; visited the principal engineering works inHolland and Belgium; was entrusted with the rebuilding of EDDYSTONELIGHTHOUSE (q. V. ) after it was in 1755 burnt down, which hefinished in 1759; did other engineering work in the construction ofcanals, harbours, and mills, rising to the summit of his profession(1724-1792). 

SMECTYMNUUS, a pamphlet written in 1641, the title of which is madeup of the initial letters of the names of the authors. 

SMELFUNGUS, a name given by Sterne to Smollett as author of volumeof "Travels through France and Italy, " for the snarling abuse he heaps onthe institutions and customs of the countries he visited; a name Carlyleassumes when he has any seriously severe criticisms to offer on thingsparticularly that have gone or are going to the bad. 

SMILES, SAMUEL, author of "Self-Help, " born in Haddington; was bredto medicine, and professed it for a time, but abandoned it for literaryand other work; wrote the "Life of George Stephenson" in 1857, followedby "Self-Help" two years after; _b_. 1812. 

SMITH, ADAM, political economist, born in Kirkcaldy, Fife; studiedat Glasgow and Oxford, went to Edinburgh and became acquainted with DavidHume and his confrères; was appointed to the chair of Logic in Glasgow in1751, and the year after of Moral Philosophy; produced in 1759 his"Theory of Moral Sentiments, " visited Paris with the young Duke ofBuccleuch, got acquainted with Quesnay, D'Alembert, and Necker, andreturning in 1766, settled in his native place under a pension from theDuke of Buccleuch, where in 1776 he produced his "Inquiry into the Natureand Causes of the Wealth of Nations, " a work to which he devoted 10 yearsof his life, and which has had a world-wide influence, and that hasrendered his name world-famous; in 1778 he settled in Edinburgh asCommissioner of Customs for Scotland, and in 1787 was elected Lord Rectorof Glasgow University (1723-1790). 

SMITH, ALEXANDER, poet, born in Kilmarnock; began life as apattern-designer, contributed to the _Glasgow Citizen_, wrote a volume ofpoems, "A Life Drama, " and produced other works in a style characterisedas "spasmodic, " and which, according to Tennyson, "showed fancy, but notimagination" (1880-1807). 

SMITH, GEORGE, Assyriologist, born at London; trained as a bank-noteengraver, but attracted the attention of Sir Henry Rawlinson by hisinterest in cuneiform inscriptions, and in 1867 received an appointmentin the British Museum; acquired great skill as an interpreter of Assyrianinscriptions, published "Annals of Assurbanipal, " and in 1872 discovereda tablet with the "Chaldean Account of the Deluge"; carried throughimportant expeditions (1871-3-6) in search of antiquities in Nineveh andother parts of Assyria, accounts of which he published; wrote alsohistories of Babylonia, Assyria, Sennacherib, &c. (1840-1876). 

SMITH, GOLDWIN, English man of letters, born in Berks; was at onetime intimately associated with Oxford University, went to America andbecame professor of English History in Cornell University, and since 1871has settled in Canada, and believes that Canada will be annexed to theUnited States; has written a number of books and pamphlets, one on the"Relations between England and America" and another on "The PoliticalDestiny of Canada"; he is an ultra-Liberal; _b_. 1823. 

SMITH, JAMES AND HORACE, authors of the famous parodies "TheRejected Addresses, " born at London: James, in business as a solicitor, and Horace, a wealthy stockbroker; both were occasional contributors tothe periodical press before the public offer of a prize for the bestpoetical address to be spoken at the re-opening of Drury Lane Theatreprompted them to issue a series of "Rejected Addresses, " parodying thepopular writers of the day--Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, Scott, Byron, &c. ; intensely clever, these parodies have never been surpassed in theirkind; Horace was also a busy writer of novels now forgotten, and alsopublished two vols. Of poetry; James subsequently wrote a number ofCharles Mathews' "Entertainments" (James, 1775-1839; Horace, 1779-1849). 

SMITH, JOHN, Cambridge Platonist, born in Northamptonshire; left"Select Discourses, " giving signs both of spiritual insight and vigour ofthinking (1616-1652). 

SMITH, JOHN, sailor, born in Lincolnshire; had a life of adventureand peril, and became leader of the English colonists of Virginia;established friendly relations with the Indians, returned to this countrytwice over, and introduced POCAHONTAS (q. V. ) to the Queen; diedat Gravesend (1580-1631). 

SMITH, SYDNEY, political writer and wit, born at Woodford, Essex, ofpartly English and partly Huguenot blood; educated at Westminster andOxford, bred for the Church; after a brief curacy in Wiltshire settled inEdinburgh from 1798 to 1803, where, while officiating as a clergyman, hebecame one of the famous editors of the _Edinburgh Review_, and acontributor; settled for a time afterwards in London, where he delivereda series of admirable lectures on ethics, till he was appointed to asmall living in Yorkshire, and afterwards to a richer living in Somerset, and finally a canonry in St. Paul's; his writings deal with abuses of theperiod, and are, except his lectures perhaps, all out of date now(1771-1845). 

SMITH, SIR WILLIAM, classical and biblical scholar, born in London;distinguished himself at the university there and took a course of law atGray's Inn, but followed his bent for scholarship, and in 1840-42 issuedhis great "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, " following it upwith the "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" and the"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography"; did eminent service to thecause of education by a series of popular editions of Greek and Latintexts, school grammars, dictionaries, &c. ; not less valuable are his"Dictionary of the Bible, " &c. ; was editor of the _Quarterly Review_ from1867, and in 1892 received a knighthood (1813-1893). 

SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON, biblical scholar and critic, born at Keig, Aberdeenshire; educated for the Scottish Free Church, became professor ofHebrew in the connection at Aberdeen; was prosecuted for heresy in thematter of the origin of the books of the Old Testament, and finallyremoved from the chair; became joint-editor of the "EncyclopædiaBritannica, " and finally professor of Arabic at Cambridge; he was a manof versatile ability, extensive scholarship, keen critical acumen, and hecontributed not a little to vindicate the claims of the scholar in regardto the Bible (1846-1894). 

SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY, British admiral, born at Westminster;entered the navy at 12, became a captain after many gallant services at18, was naval adviser to the king of Sweden and knighted, joined LordHood off Toulon and helped to burn the French fleet; was taken prisonerby the French in 1796, and after two years made his escape; forcedNapoleon to raise the siege of Acre, and was wounded at Aboukir; wasrewarded with a pension of £1000, and raised in the end to the rank ofadmiral (1764-1840). 

SMITHFIELD or SMOOTHFIELD, an open space of ground in London, N. Of Newgate, long famous for its live-stock markets; in olden times layoutside the city walls, and was used as a place of recreation and ofexecutions; the scene of William Wallace's execution and the death of WatTyler; gradually surrounded by the encroaching city, the cattle-marketbecame a nuisance, and was abolished in 1855; is partly laid out as agarden. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, a celebrated American institution "for theincrease and diffusion of knowledge among men, " in Washington; foundedand endowed by James Macie Smithson, a natural son of the Duke ofNorthumberland, a zealous chemist and mineralogist, after having had apaper rejected by the Royal Society, of which he was a Fellow. Thebuilding is one of the finest in the capital; is under governmentcontrol, and the President of the United States is _ex officio_ the headof the institution; encourages scientific research, administers variousfunds, and directs expeditions for scientific purposes. 

SMOKY CITY, Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, from the effect produced bythe bituminous coal used in the manufactories. 

SMOLENSK (34), an ancient town of Russia, and capital of agovernment (1, 412) of the same name, on the Dnieper, 244 m. SW. OfMoscow; is surrounded by walls; has a fine cathedral, and is stronglyfortified; carries on a good grain trade; here in 1812 Napoleon defeatedthe Russians under Barclay de Tolly and Bagration on his march to Moscowin August 1812. 

SMOLLETT, TOBIAS GEORGE, novelist, born at Dalquhurn, Dumbartonshire, of good family; bred to medicine, but drifted toliterature, in prosecution of which he set out to London at the age of18; his first effort was a failure; he took an appointment as a surgeon'smate on board a war-ship in 1746, which landed him for a time in the WestIndies; on his return to England in 1748 achieved his first success in"Roderick Random, " which was followed by "Peregrine Pickle" in 1751, "Count Fathom" in 1755, and "Humphrey Clinker" in 1771, added to which hewrote a "History of England, " and a political lampoon, "The Adventuresof an Atom"; his novels have no plot, but "in inventive tale-telling andin cynical characterisation he is not easily equalled" (1721-1771). 

SMRITI, in the Hindu religion the name given to traditional usage, as opposed to Sruti, or revelation, and from which proceeded, at a laterdate, the body of laws, such as that of Manu, in which the moralityprescribed is, "sound, solid, and practical. "

SMYRNA (210), a town of great antiquity, since ancient times thechief port of Asia Minor; is situated amid surrounding hills at the headof the Gulf of Smyrna, an arm of the Ægean Sea; has no imposingstructures, and is, especially in the Turkish quarter, ill-drained andcrowded; is the seat of the Turkish Governor-General of the province, ofarchbishops, Roman Catholic, Greek, and Armenian; manufactures embracecarpets, pottery, cottons and woollens; a splendid harbour favours alarge import and export trade; for long a possession of Greece and thenof Rome, it finally fell into the hands of the Turks in 1424. 

SMYRNA, GULF OF, an inlet of the Ægean Sea, 40 m. In length by 20 m. In breadth, with an excellent anchorage. 

SNAKE RIVER, chief tributary of the Columbia; rises in Wyoming amidthe Rockies; flows S. And NW. Through Idaho, forming the Shoshone Falls, rivalling Niagara, which they exceed in height; through SouthernWashington it flows W. Under the name of the Lewis River or Fork, anddischarges into the Columbia after a course of 1050 m. 

SNAKE-STONES, stones popularly believed to cure the bites of snakes, probably due to a porosity in their substance drawing off the poison. 

SNIDER, JACOB, American mechanical genius; invented a method ofconverting muzzle-loading rifles into breech-loading; died unrewarded in1866. 

SNODGRASS, AUGUSTUS, a member of the Pickwick Club in the "PickwickPapers. "

SNORRI STURLASON, Icelandic historian and poet; published thecollection of sagas entitled "Heimskringla, " among which were many songsof his own composition; was a man of position and influence in Iceland, but having provoked the ill-will of Haco was at his instigationassassinated in 1241. See EDDA. 

SNOWDON, a mountain range in Carnarvon, North Wales, extending fromthe coast to near Conway; it has five distinct summits, of whichMoel-y-Wyddfa (the conspicuous peak) is the highest, being 3560 ft. ; theeasiest ascent is from Llanberis on the N. , and is the route usuallytaken by tourists, for whose behoof there is a house on the summit. 

SOANE, SIR JOHN, English architect, who left his house in Lincoln'sInn Fields with art collection to the nation at his death in 1837. 

SOBIESKI, surname of the great patriot king of Poland, John III. , inthe 17th century; born at Olesko, in Galicia; was elected king of Polandin 1674, having, by repeated victories over the Turks and Russians, shownhimself the greatest soldier of his country; proved a wise and braveruler, a true leader of his people, and with unbroken success defied theutmost efforts of the infidel Turks (1624-1696). 

SOBRAON (4), a town in the Punjab, India, on the Sutlej, in thevicinity of which Sir Henry Gough won the decisive victory over theSikhs, 10th February 1846. 

SOCAGE, name given to a feudal tenure by a certain and determinateservice other than knight service. 

SOCIAL WAR, name given to an Insurrection of the allied States inItaly against the domination of Rome, and which lasted from 90 to 88 B. C. , in consequence of their exclusion from the rights of citizenship andthe privileges attached; they formed a league to assert their rights, which ended in defeat. 

SOCIALISM, a social system which, in opposition to the competitivesystem that prevails at present, seeks to reorganise society on thebasis, in the main, of a certain secularism in religion, of community ofinterest, and co-operation in labour for the common good, agreeably tothe democratic spirit of the time and the changes required by the rise ofindividualism and the decay of feudalism. 

SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, a society founded in 1698which during the last 200 years has originated and supported a number ofagencies, both in this country and abroad, for propagating Christianknowledge; distributed into a number of separate departments. 

SOCIETY ISLANDS (24), an archipelago in the South Pacific, consisting of 13 principal islands and numerous islets, the chief beingTahiti; they are mountainous, and engirdled by belts of flat land as wellas coral reefs; have a fertile soil and luxuriant vegetation, while theclimate is healthy though enervating; the inhabitants are intelligent butindolent, and the land is worked by immigrant races. 

SOCIETY OF JESUS, the Jesuit order founded by IGNATIUS LOYOLA(q. V. ). 

SOCINIANS, a sect of the Unitarian body who, in the 16th century, take their name from FAUSTUS SOCINUS (q. V. ), who, besidesdenying the doctrine of the Trinity, deny the divinity of Christ and thedivine inspiration of Scripture; they arose into importance originally inPoland, and in the 17th century spread by degrees in Prussia, theNetherlands, and England. 

SOCINUS, FAUSTUS, a theologian, born in Italy; had for his views toexile himself for years, and was much persecuted for his opinions; inCracow, where he dwelt for a time, he was by a mob dragged from asick-bed half-naked along the street, had his house robbed and his papersburned (1530-1601). 

SOCIOLOGY, the science which treats of the nature and thedevelopments of society and of social institutions; a science to whichHerbert Spencer, in succession to Comte, has contributed more than anyother scientist, deducing, as he does, a series of generalisations bycomparison of individual organisms with social. 

SOCOTRA (10), an island off the E. Coast of Africa, 148 m. NE. OfCape Guardafui, over 70 m. Long and 20 m. Broad; it is mountainous, surrounded by a margin of plain land from 2 to 4 m. Broad; iscomparatively barren; is inhabited by Mohammedans, who rear sheep, goats, and cattle; exports aloes, hides, and pearls; the sultan is a feudatoryof Britain. 

SOCRATES, Athenian philosopher, pronounced by the Delphic oracle thewisest of men; was the son of Sophroniscus, a statuary, and Phænarete, amidwife; was brought up to his father's profession, in which it wouldseem he gave promise of success; he lived all his days in Athens, andgathered about him as his pupils all the ingenuous youth of the city; hewrote no book, propounded no system, and founded no school, but was everabroad in the thoroughfares in all weather talking to whoso would listen, and instilling into all and sundry a love of justice and truth; of quacksand pretenders he was the sworn foe, and he cared not what enmity heprovoked if he could persuade one and another to think and do what wasright; "he was so pious, " says Xenophon in his "Memorabilia, " "that hedid nothing without the sanction of the gods; so just, that he neverwronged any one, even in the least degree; so much master of himself, that he never preferred the agreeable to the good; so wise, that indeciding on the better and the worse he never faltered; in short, he wasthe best and happiest man that could possibly exist;" he failed not toincur enmity, and his enemies persecuted him to death; he was chargedwith not believing in the State religion, with introducing new gods, andcorrupting the youth, convicted by a majority of his judges and condemnedto die; thirty days elapsed between the passing of the sentence and itsexecution, during which period he held converse with his friends andtalked of the immortality of the soul; to an offer of escape he turned adeaf ear, drank the hemlock potion prepared for him with perfectcomposure, and died; "the difference between Socrates and Jesus Christ, "notes Carlyle in his "Journal, " "the great Conscious, the immeasurablygreat Unconscious; the one cunningly manufactured, the other created, living and life-giving; the epitome this of a grand and fundamentaldiversity among men; but did _any_ truly great man ever, " he asks, "gothrough the world without _offence_, all rounded in, so that the currentmoral systems could find no fault in him? most likely never"(469-399 B. C. ). 

SOCRATES, APOLOGY OF, a work of Plato's, being a speech put into themouth of Socrates before the AREOPAGUS (q. V. ) in his defence inanswer to the charge brought against him, and which Plato wrote after hisdeath. 

SOCRATES, Church historian of the 4th century, born at Byzantium;bred to the bar; his "Ecclesiastical History" embraces a period from 306to 439, a work of no great merit. 

SODOM AND GOMORRAH, two ancient cities which, for their wickednesswere, as the Bible relates, consumed with fire from heaven; they aresupposed to have stood near the S. Border of the Dead Sea, though theywere not, as was at one time supposed, submerged in the waters of it. 

SOFALA, a Portuguese maritime district of South-East Africa, stretching from the Zambesi S. To Delagoa Bay, and forming the S. Portionof the colony of Mozambique. Sofala (1), chief port on a bay of the samename, is a place of little importance. 

SOFIA (50), capital since 1878 of Bulgaria; is a fortified town, situated in the broad valley of the Isker, a tributary of the Danube, 75m. NW. Of Philippopolis; has recently largely undergone reconstruction, and with hotels, banks, a government palace, &c. , presents a fine modernappearance; has a national university; is an important trade emporium, and is on the Constantinople and Belgrade railway; manufactures cloth, silks, leather, &c. , and has long been famed for its hot mineral springs. 

SOFRONIA, a Christian maiden of Jerusalem, who, to avert a generalmassacre of the Christians by the Mohammedan king, accused herself of thecrime for which they were all to suffer, and whose story with the issueis touchingly related in Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered. "

SOISSONS (11), a fortified town of North France, dep. Aisne, on theAisne, 65 m. NE. Of Paris; has a 12th-century cathedral and ruins of afamous abbey; chief industries are brewing and the manufacture of varioustextiles; was a place of much importance in early times, and figures inthe wars of Clovis and Pepin, frequently in the Hundred Years' War, andin 1870 was captured by the Germans; is considered the key to Paris fromthe Netherlands side. 

SOKOTO (11, 000), a native kingdom of West Central Africa, withinterritories administered now by the British Government; lies between theSoudan (N. ) and the river Benuë (S. ), the main affluent of the Niger; thedominant people are the Fulahs, exercising sway over various nativetribes; is a country capable of much agricultural development, and haslarge deposits of iron. Wurno (15), the capital, is on the Gandi, 18 m. E. Of the town of Sokoto. 

SOLANO, name given to a hot oppressive wind in the Mediterranean. 

SOLAR CYCLE, a period of 28 years, within which the first day of theyear passes successively through the same sequence of week-days. 

SOLAR MYTH, a myth, the subject of which is a deifiedpersonification of the sun or phenomena connected with it. 

SOLAR YEAR, the period of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 52 secondswhich the earth takes to complete a revolution of the sun. 

SOLDAN, a corruption of Sultan, and denoting in mediæval romance theSaracen king. 

SOLECISM, the name given to a violation of the syntax or idiom of alanguage, as well as to an incarnate absurdity of any kind, whether inmind or morals. 

SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT. See COVENANT. 

SOLENT, the western portion, SPITHEAD (q. V. ) being theeastern, of the strait which separates the Isle of Wight from themainland of Hants, 17 m. Long, with an average breadth of 3 m. , but atits W. Entrance, opposite Hurst Castle, contracts to ¾ m. 

SOLEURE (86), a canton of North-West Switzerland, between Bern (W. And S. ) and Aargau (E); is hilly, but fertile and well cultivated, especially in the valley of the Aar; inhabitants are mainly Catholics andGerman-speaking. Soleure, the capital (8), situated on the Aar, 18 m. NE. Of Berne, has a fine cathedral, and manufactures of cottons, clocks, andcement. 

SOLFATA`RA, a fissure or crevice in the earth which emits sulphurousand other vapours, and in regions where volcanoes have ceased to beactive; they are met with in South Italy, the Antilles, Mexico, and Java. 

SOLFERINO, a village in North Italy, 20 m. NW. Of Mantua, where theAustrians were defeated by the French and Piedmontese in 1859. 

SOLIDARITY, community of interest or responsibility; also thatcommunity of being which binds humanity into one whole, so that eachaffects and is affected by all. 

SOLIDUS, a Roman gold coin adopted by the Franks, and first coinedby them in gold, but subsequently in silver, when it was equivalent toone-twentieth of the libra, or pound; as the "sol" or "sou" itdepreciated greatly in value; was minted in copper, and on theintroduction of the decimal system its place was taken by a five-centimepiece; the "soldo" in Italy, and the Solidus L. S. D. Owe their origin tothis coin. 

SOLINGEN (37), a manufacturing town of Prussia, situated near theWupper, 13 m. E. Of Düsseldorf; has long been famed for its steel andiron works and cutlery manufactures. 

SOLOMON, king of Israel from 1015 to 977 B. C. , second son of Davidand Bathsheba, and David's successor; in high repute far and wide for hislove of wisdom and the glory of his reign; he had a truly Orientalpassion for magnificence, and the buildings he erected in Jerusalem, including the Temple and a palace on Mount Zion, he raised regardless ofan expense which the nation resented after he was gone; the burden ofwhich it would seem had fallen upon them, for when his successor, following in his courses, ascended the throne, ten of the tribesrevolted, to the final rupture of the community, and the fall of firstthe one section and then the other under alien sway. 

SOLOMON OF ENGLAND, an appellation conferred on Henry VII. , and alsosatirically on James I. , characterised by Sully as "the wisest fool inChristendom. "

SOLOMON OF FRANCE, a title bestowed on Louis IX. 

SOLOMON ISLANDS (167), a large group of islands in the West Pacific, 500 m. E. Of New Guinea, the N. Islands of which belong to Germany, andthe S. To Britain; are volcanic in origin, mountainous, wooded, andthickly populated by Melanesian savages, who are totem worshippers, andstill practise cannibalism. 

SOLOMON'S RING, a ring worn by Solomon, in which was a stone fromwhich, according to the Rabbins, he learned whatever he wished to know. 

SOLON, the great Athenian law-giver, and one of the seven sages ofGREECE (q. V. ), born in Athens, was of royal degree, and kinsmanof Pisistratus; began life as a trader, and in that capacity acquired alarge experience of the world, and he soon turned his attention topolitical affairs, and showed such wisdom in the direction of them thathe was elected archon in 594 B. C. , and in that office was invested withfull power to ordain whatever he might deem of advantage for the benefitof the State; he accordingly set about the framing of a constitution inwhich property, not birth, was made the basis of the organisation, andthe title to honour and office in the community; he divided the citizensinto four classes, gave additional power to the assemblies of the people, and made the archons and official dignitaries responsible to them in theadministration of affairs; when he had finished his work, he ordered thelaws he had framed to be engraved on tablets and set up in a publicplace, then took oath of the people to observe them for ten years, afterwhich he left the country and set out on travel; at the end of the tenyears he returned, to find things lapsing into the old disorder, andPisistratus ready to seize the sovereignty of the State, whereupon hewithdrew into private life, and died the subject of a tyrant at the ageof eighty (640-559 B. C. ). 

SOLSTICE, summer and winter, the two recurring periods of the yearat which the sun is farthest distant N. Or S. From the equator, whichmark midsummer and midwinter, the times being the 21st of June and 22ndof December; also applied to the two points in the ECLIPTIC (q. V. ), which the sun appears to reach on these two dates. 

SOLWAY FIRTH, an arm of the Irish Sea, and in its upper part formingthe estuary of the river Esk, separating Cumberland from the S. OfScotland (Kirkcudbright and Dumfries); stretches inland from BalcarryPoint 36 m. , and from 2 to 20 m. Broad; receives the Annan, Dee, Nith, Eden, and Derwent, and has valuable salmon-fishings; the spring tides ebband flow with remarkable rapidity, the "bore" often reaching a speed offrom 8 to 10 m. An hour; is spanned near Annan by a railway viaduct 1960yards long. 

SOLWAY MOSS, a moss, now drained and cultivated, in Cumberland, onthe Scottish border, that was the scene of the defeat of the Scotch armyin 1542, a disaster which broke the heart of James V. 

SOLYMAN II. , surnamed THE MAGNIFICENT, the tenth and greatest ofthe Ottoman sultans, the son and successor of Selim I. ; succeeded hisfather at 24; set himself at once to reform abuses and place the internaladministration on a strict basis, and after making peace with Persia andallaying tumult in Syria, turned his arms westwards, captured Belgrade, and wrested the island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John; he twiceover led his army into Hungary; in connection with the latter invasionlaid siege to Vienna, from which he was obliged to retire after the lossof 40, 000 men, after which he turned his arms to the east, adding to histerritory, and finally to the North of Africa, to the conquest of thegreater part of it; he died at Szigeth while opening a new campaignagainst Hungary; _d_. 1566. 

SOMA, the intoxicating juice of a plant offered in libation to aHindu god, especially to INDRA (q. V. ), to strengthen him in hiswar with the demons, and identified with the invigorating and inspiringprinciple in nature which manifests itself at once in the valour of thesoldier and the inspiration of the poet; as a god Soma is the counterpartof AGNI (q. V. ). 

SOMAI, BRAHMO. See BRAHMO-SOMAJ. 

SOMALILAND, a broad plateau of East Africa, bounded by the Gulf ofAden on the N. And the Indian Ocean on the SE. ; inhabited by the Somalis, a pastoral people, who rear camels, sheep, and oxen, and are of theMohammedan faith; are under chiefs, and jealous of strangers. 

SOMERSET HOUSE, a handsome Government building in London, with adouble frontage on the Strand and the Victoria Embankment, built on thesite of the palace of the Protector Somerset, and opened in 1786;accommodates various civil departments of the Government--the InlandRevenue, Audit and Exchequer, Wills and Probate, Registry-General. Theeast wing is occupied by King's College and School. 

SOMERSETSHIRE (484), a maritime county of England, fronting theBristol Channel, between Devon (N. ) and Gloucester (SW. ), with Wilts andDorset on the E. And S. ; diversified by the Mendips (NE. ), QuantockHills, Exmoor (SW. ), and other smaller elevations; is yet in the mainoccupied by wide level plains largely given over to pastoral and dairyfarming; watered by the Bristol Avon, the Parret, and other lesserstreams; its orchards rank next to those of Devon; is prolific in Roman, Saxon, and ancient British remains; Taunton is the county town, but Baththe largest. 

SOMERVILLE, MRS. MARY, a lady skilled in mathematics and physics, born at Jedburgh; was brought up at Burntisland and Edinburgh;contributed to the _Transactions of the Royal Society_; wrote a bookentitled the "Mechanism of the Heavens" on the suggestion of LordBrougham, as a popularisation of Laplace's "Mechanique Céleste, " whichwas followed by her "Connection of the Physical Sciences, " "PhysicalGeography, " and "Molecular and Microscopic Science, " the last publishedin her ninetieth year; died at Naples (1770-1872). 

SOMME, 1, a river of North France; rises in the department of Aisne, near St. Quentin, and flows 150 m. SW. And NW. To the English Channel;navigable as far as Abbeville. 2, A department (546) of North France, fronting the English Channel, between Seine-Inférieure (S. ) andPas-de-Calais (N. ); one of the most prosperous agricultural andmanufacturing districts of France; AMIENS (q. V. ) is the chieftown. 

SOMNATH (7), an ancient maritime town of Oujarat, India, in the SW. Of the peninsula of Kathiawar; has interesting memorials of Krishna, who, it is alleged, is hurled in the vicinity; close by is a famousruined Hindu temple, despoiled in the 11th century of its treasures, sacred idol, and gates; in 1842 Lord Ellenborough brought hack fromAfghanistan gates which he thought to be the famous "Gates of Somnath, "but doubt being cast on their authenticity, they were eventually placedin the arsenal of Agra. 

SOMNATH, IDOL OF, "a mere mass of coarse crockery, " says JephersonBrick, an imaginary friend of Carlyle's, "not worth five shillings, satlike a great staring god, with two diamonds for eyes, which one day acommander of the Faithful took the liberty to smite once as he rode upwith grim battle-axe and heart full of Moslem fire, and which thereuponshivered into a heap of ugly potsherds, yielding from its belly half awaggon-load of gold coins; the gold coins, diamond eyes, and othervaluables were carefully picked up by the Faithful; confused jingle ofpotsherds was left lying; and the idol of Somnath, once showing what it_was_, had suddenly come to a conclusion. "

SOMNUS, the god of Sleep, a brother of Death, and a son of Night, represented, he and Death, as two youths sleeping or holding invertedtorches in their hands; near the dwelling of Somnus flowed the river ofLethe, which crept along over pebbles, and invited to sleep; he wasattended by Morpheus, who inspired pleasing dreams. 

SONATA, a musical composition chiefly designed for solo instruments, especially the pianoforte, and consisting generally of three or fourcontrasted movements--the allegro, adagio, rondo, minuetto or scherzo;reaches its noblest expression in the sonatas of Beethoven. 

SONDERBUND, the name given to the union of the Catholic cantons(Lucerne, Zug, Freiburg, and Valais) of Switzerland, which led to thecivil disturbances of 1845-1846, and the war of 1847. 

SONNET, a form of poetical composition invented in the 13th century, consisting of 14 decasyllabic or hendecasyllabic iambic lines, rhymedaccording to two well-established schemes which bear the names of theirtwo most famous exponents, Shakespeare and Petrarch. The Shakespeariansonnet consists of three four-lined stanzas of alternate rhymes clinchedby a concluding couplet; the Petrarchan of two parts, an octave, thefirst eight lines rhymed abbaabba, and a sestet, the concluding six linesarranged variously on a three-rhyme scheme. 

SONS OF THE PROPHETS. See NEBIIM. 

SONTAG, HENRIETTA, a German singer, born at Coblenz; made her_début_ at 15; had a brilliant career twice over (1806-1854). 

SOOCHOO (500), a large city in China, 50 m. NW. Of Shanghai; isintersected by canals, walled all round, and manufactures fine silk. 

SOPHERIM, THE, the name by which the SCRIBES (q. V. ) aredesignated in Jewish literature. 

SOPHIA, ELECTRESS OF HANOVER, youngest daughter of ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF BOHEMIA (q. V. ), and mother of George I. (1630-1714). 

SOPHIA, ST. , the personification of the Divine wisdom, to whom, asto a saint, many churches have been dedicated, especially the Church ofConstantinople. 

SOPHIE CHARLOTTE, wife of Friedrich I. Of Prussia, born in Hanover, daughter of Electress Sophia; famous in her day both as a lady and aqueen; was, with her mother, of a philosophic turn; "persuaded, " saysCarlyle, "that there was some nobleness for man beyond what the tailorimparts to him, and even very eager to discover it had she known how";she had the philosopher Leibnitz often with her, "eagerly desirous todraw water from that deep well--a wet rope with cobwebs sticking to itoften all she got--endless rope, and the bucket never coming to view"(1668-1705). 

SOPHISTS, a sect of thinkers that arose in Greece, and whose radicalprinciple it was that we have only a subjective knowledge of things, andthat we have no knowledge at all of objective reality, that things are asthey seem to us, and that we have no knowledge of what they are inthemselves; "on this field, " says SCHWEGLER, "they disported, enjoying with boyish exuberance the exercise of the power ofsubjectivity, and destroying, by means of a subjective dialectic, allthat had been ever objectively established, " such as "the laws of theState, inherited custom, religious tradition, and popular belief. .. . Theyform, in short, the German AUFKLÄRUNG (q. V. ), the GreekIllumination (q. V. ). They acknowledged only _private_ judgment andignored the existence of a judgment that is not private, and has absoluterights irrespective of the sentiments of the individual. "

SOPHOCLES, Athenian tragic poet, born at Colonos, a suburb ofAthens; when but 16, such was his musical talent, he was selected to leadthe choir that sang the song of triumph over the victory of Salamis; hisfirst appearance as a dramatist was in 488 B. C. , when he had Æschylus ashis rival and won the prize, though he was seven years afterwardsdefeated by Euripides, but retrieved the defeat the year following by theproduction of his "Antigone. " That same year one of the 10 _strategi_ (orgenerals) and he accompanied Pericles in his war against the aristocratsof Samos. He wrote a number of dramas, over 100 it is alleged, but only 7survive, and these in probable order are "Ajax, " "Antigone, " "Electra, ""Oedipus Tyrannus, " "Trachineæ, " "Oedipus Coloneus, " and "Philoctetes. "Thus are all his subjects drawn from Greek legend, and they are all alikeremarkable for the intense humanity and sublime passion that inspiresthem and the humane and the high and holy resolves they stir up. 

SORATA, a volcanic peak in the Bolivian Andes, 21, 470 ft. In height. 

SORBONNE, a celebrated college of Paris, taking its name from itsfounder, Robert of Sorbon, chaplain to Saint Louis in the 13th century;was exclusively devoted to theology, and through the rigour of itsdiscipline and learning of its professors soon exercised a predominantinfluence on the theological thought of Europe, which it maintained untilthe new learning of the Renaissance (16th century), together with its owndogmatic conservatism, left it hopelessly stuck in the "Sorbonnian bog"of derelict scholastic theology; became an object of satiric attacks byBoileau, Voltaire, and others, and was suppressed in 1789 at the outburstof the Revolution; was revived by Napoleon in 1808; is at present theseat of the Académie Universitaire de Paris, with faculties of theology, science, and literature. 

SORDELLO, a Provençal poet whom Dante and Virgil met in Purgatorysitting solitary and with a noble haughty mien, but who sprang up atsight of Virgil and embraced him and accompanied him a part of his way;Browning used his name, as the title of a poem showing the conflict aminister experiences in perfecting his craft. 

SOREL, AGNES, the mistress of Charles VII. Of France, who had agreat influence over him; had been maid of honour to the queen(1409-1450). 

SORROW, SANCTUARY OF, Goethe's name for the fold of Christ, wherein, according to His promise (Matt. V. 4) the "mourners" who might gathertogether there would find relief and be comforted, the path of sorrowleading up to the "porch" of the sanctuary. 

SORROW, WORSHIP OF, Goethe's name for the Christian religion, "ourhighest religion, for the Son of Man, " Carlyle adds, interpreting this, "there is no noble crown, well worn or even ill worn, but is a crown ofthorns. "

SORROWS OF THE VIRGIN. See SEVEN DOLOURS. 

SORROWS OF WERTHER, a work by Goethe and one of his earliest, theproduction of which constituted a new era in the life of the poet, andmarks a new era in the literature of Europe, "as giving expression to aclass of feelings deeply important to modern minds, but for which ourolder poetry offered no exponent, and perhaps could offer none, becausethey are feelings that arise from Passion incapable of being convertedinto Action, and belong to an ignorant, uncultivated, and unbelieving agesuch as ours, " feelings that Byronically, "in dark wayward" mood reflecta mere sense of the miseries of human life. 

SORTES VIRGILIANÆ, consulting the pages of Virgil to ascertain one'sfortune, by opening the book at random, putting the finger on a passageand taking that for the oracle of fate one is in quest of. 

SOSTRATUS, architect of the Pharos of Alexandria, lived in the 3rdcentury B. C. , and was patronised by Ptolemy Philadelphus. 

SOTHERN, EDWARD ASKEW, comedian, born in Liverpool; at 23 went onthe stage, and for some time was a member of the stock company of theTheatre Royal, Birmingham; afterwards acted in America, and made his markin Tom Taylor's "Our American Cousin" (1858) in the small part of LordDundreary, which he gradually developed into an elaborate andphenomenally successful caricature of an English peer, and in which heappeared thousands of times in America and England; scored a greatsuccess also as David Garrick in Robertson's well-known comedy(1826-1881). 

SOUBISE, DUC DE, French soldier; served first under Prince Mauriceof Orange, and commanded the Huguenots against Louis XIII. , but aftersome successes was compelled to take refuge in England; distinguishedhimself at the defence of Rochelle, but was defeated again and had tobetake himself to England as before, where he died (1589-1641). 

SOUBISE, PRINCE DE, marshal of France; was aide-de-camp to Louis XV. In Flanders, was favoured by Pompadour, held an important command in theSeven Years' War, but was defeated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach(1713-1787). 

SOUDAN or "THE LAND OF THE BLACKS, " the cradle of the negrorace, a vast tract of territory stretching E. And W. Across the Africancontinent from the Atlantic (W. ) to the Red Sea and Highlands ofAbyssinia (E. ), between the Sahara (W. ) and the Gulf of Guinea and thecentral equatorial provinces (S. ); divided into (a) Upper Soudan, embracing Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Ashanti, Dahomey, Liberia, and westcoast-lands; (6) Lower Soudan, including the Fulah States, Massina, Gando, Sokoto, &c. ; (c) Egyptian Soudan, which in 1882 was subdividedinto (1) West Soudan, including Dar-Fur, Kordofan, Bahr-el-Ghazal, andDongola; (2) Central Soudan, comprising Khartoum, Sennaar, Berber, Fashoda, and the Equatorial Province, &c. ; (3) Eastern Soudan, borderingon the Red Sea, and embracing Taka, Suakim, and Massowah; (4) Harar, stretching E. Of Abyssinia. The extension of Egyptian rule into thisterritory began in 1819 with the capture of Khartoum, which became thebase of military operations, ending in the gradual conquest of thesurrounding regions in 1874. A serious revolt, fanned by religiousfanaticism, broke out in 1882, and headed by the MAHDI (q. V. )and his lieutenant Osman Digna, ended in the utter rout of the Egyptianforces under Hicks Pasha and Baker Pasha; Gordon, after a vain attempt torelieve him, perished in Khartoum; but Stanley was more successful inrelieving Emin Bey in the Equatorial Province. Anarchy and despotismensued until the victorious campaign of KITCHENER (q. V. ) againrestored the lost provinces to Egypt. 

SOUFFLOT, French architect of the Pantheon of Paris (1713-1780). 

SOUL, the name given to the spiritual part of man, the SEAT OFREASON (q. V. ) and conscience, by which he relates and subordinateshimself to the higher spiritual world, inspiring him with a sense ofindividual responsibility. 

SOULT, NICOLAS-JEAN DE DIEU, duke of Dalmatia and marshal of France, born at St. Amans-la-Bastide, department of Tarn; enlisted as a privatein 1785, and by 1794 was general of a brigade; gallant conduct in Swissand Italian campaigns under Masséna won him rapid promotion, and in 1804he was created a marshal; served with the emperor in Germany, and led thedeciding charge at Austerlitz, and for his services in connection withthe Treaty of Tilsit received the title of Duc de Dalmatia; at the headof the French army in Spain he outmanoeuvred the English in 1808, conquered Portugal, and opposed to Wellington a skill and tenacity notless than his own, but was thwarted in his efforts by the obstinateincompetence of Joseph Bonaparte; turned Royalist after the abdication ofNapoleon, but on his return from Elba rallied to the emperor's standard, and fought at Waterloo; was subsequently banished, but restored in 1819;became active in the public service, and was honoured as ambassador inEngland in 1838; retired in 1845 with the honorary title of"Marshal-General of France" (1769-1851). 

SOUND, THE, a strait, 50 m. Long, between Sweden and Denmark, whichconnects the Cattegat with the Baltic Sea; dues at one time levied onships passing through the channel were abolished in 1857, and over threemillions paid in compensation, Britain contributing one-third andundertaking to superintend the navigation and maintain the lighthouses. 

SOUTH, ROBERT, an English divine, born at Hackney; obtained severalpreferments in the Church, but refused a bishopric; was distinguished forhis hostility to the Dissenters, and was never tired of heaping ridiculeon them and their principles; wrote a book in defence of the Trinity in asomewhat rationalistic view of it, which involved him in a furiouscontroversy with Dr. Sherlock; was a man of great wit and good sense aswell as refinement; his chief writings consist of "Sermons" (1633-1716). 

SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY. See RHODESIA. 

SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. See TRANSVAAL. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA (320), second largest of the five colonies ofAustralia, stretches N. And S. In a broad band, 1850 in. Long, throughthe heart of the continent from the Southern Ocean to the Gulf ofCarpentaria and the Arafura Sea, having Queensland, New South Wales, andVictoria on the E. , and Western Australia on the W. ; ten times the sizeof Great Britain, but the greater portion comprises the NorthernTerritory, which consists, save a low alluvial coastal strip, of parchedand uninhabited tableland. South Australia proper begins about 26° S. Latitude, and is traversed southwards by the Finke River as far as EyreLake (3706 sq. M. ), by the Flinders Range, and the lower Murray River inthe E. , and diversified here and there by low ranges and Lake Amadeus(NW. ), Torrens and Gairdner (S. ); the S. Coast is penetrated by the greatgulfs of Spencer and St. Vincent, round and to the N. And E. Of which thebulk of the population is gathered in a region not much larger thanScotland; is the chief wheat-growing colony, and other importantindustries are mining (chiefly copper), sheep-rearing, and wine-making;chief exports, wool, wheat, and copper; the railway and telegraph systemsare well developed, the Overland Telegraph Line (1973 m. ) stretchingacross the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin being a marvel ofengineering enterprise. Adelaide is the capital. The governor isappointed by the crown, and there are a legislative council or upperhouse, and an assembly or lower house. State education is free. Began tobe settled in 1836, and five years later became a Crown colony. 

SOUTH SEA BUBBLE, the name given to the disastrous financial projectset on foot by HARLEY (q. V. ) to relieve the national debt andrestore public credit, which produced an unparalleled rush ofspeculation, ending in the ruin of thousands of people. Through theefforts of Harley a company of merchants was induced in 1711 to buy upthe floating national debt of £10, 000, 000 on a government guarantee of 6per cent. Interest, and a right to a monopoly of trade in the South Seas. The shares rose by leaps and bounds as tales of the fabulous wealth ofthe far South Seas circulated, till, in 1720, £200 shares were quoted at£1000; earlier in the same year the company had taken over the entirenational debt of upwards of 30 millions. In the craze for speculationwhich had seized the public hundreds of wild schemes were floated. Atlength the "Bubble" burst. The chairman and several directors of thecompany sold out when shares had reached £1000; suspicion followed, confidence vanished, stock fell, and in a few days thousands from end toend of the country were bewailing their ruin. The private estates of thefraudulent directors were confiscated for the relief of the sufferers. ToSir Robert Walpole belongs the credit of extricating the finances of thecountry from the muddle into which they had fallen. 

SOUTHAMPTON (94), an important seaport of South Hampshire, 79 m. SW. Of London, situated on a small peninsula at the head of Southampton Water(a fine inlet, 11 m. By 2), between the mouths of the Itchen (E. ) and theTest (W. ); portions of the old town-walls and four gateways still remain;is the head-quarters of the Ordnance Survey; has splendid docks, and isan important steam-packet station for the West Indies, Brazil, and SouthAfrica; yacht and ship building and engine-making are flourishingindustries. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a prophetess, born in Devon, of humble parents;became a Methodist; suffered under religious mania; gave herself out asthe woman referred to in Revelation xii. ; imagined herself to be withchild, and predicted she would on a certain day give birth to thepromised Prince of Peace, for which occasion great preparations weremade, but all to no purpose; she died of dropsy two months after the timepredicted; she found numbers to believe in her even after her death; shetraded in passports to heaven, which she called "seals, " and persuadednumbers to purchase them (1750-1814). 

SOUTHERN CROSS, a constellation of the southern heavens, the fiveprincipal stars of which form a rough and somewhat irregular cross, theshape of which is gradually changing; it corresponds in the southernheavens to the Great Bear in the northern. 

SOUTHEY, ROBERT, poet-laureate, born, the son of a linen-draper, atBristol; was expelled from Westminster School for a satirical article inthe school magazine directed against flogging; in the following year(1793) entered Balliol College, where he only remained one year, leavingit a Unitarian and a red-hot republican; was for a time enamoured ofColeridge's wild pantisocratic scheme; married (1795) clandestinely EdithFrickes, a penniless girl, sister to Mrs. Coleridge, and in disgrace withhis English relatives visited his uncle in Lisbon, where in six months helaid the foundation of his knowledge of Spanish history and literature;the Church and medicine had already, as possible careers, been abandoned, and on his return to England he made a half-hearted effort to take uplaw; still unsettled he again visited Portugal, and finally was relievedof pecuniary difficulties by the settlement of a pension on him by an oldschool friend, which he relinquished in 1807 on receiving a pension fromGovernment; meanwhile had settled at Keswick, where he prosecuted withuntiring energy the craft of authorship; "Joan of Arc, " "Thalaba, ""Madoc, " and "The Curse of Kehama, " won for him the laureateship in 1813, and in the same year appeared his prose masterpiece "The Life of Nelson";of numerous other works mention may be made of his Histories of Braziland the Peninsular War, Lives of Bunyan and Wesley, and "Colloquies onSociety"; declined a baronetcy offered by Peel; domestic affliction--thedeath of children, and the insanity and death of his wife--saddened hislater years, which were brightened in the last by his second marriage(1839) with the poetess and his twenty years' friend, Caroline Bowles; asa poet Southey has few readers nowadays; full of miscellaneous interest, vigour of narrative, and spirited rhythm, his poems yet lack the finerspirit of poetry; but in prose he ranks with the masters of English prosestyle "of a kind at once simple and scholarly" (1774-1843). 

SOUTHPORT (41), a watering-place of Lancashire, situated on thesouthern shore of the Ribble estuary, 18 m. N. Of Liverpool; is a town ofquite modern growth and increasing popularity; has a fine sea-shore, esplanade, park, theatre, public library, art gallery, etc. 

SOUTHWARK (339), or the BOROUGH, a division of London, on theSurrey side of the Thames, opposite the City, and annexed to it in 1827;it sends three members to Parliament, and among its principal buildingsare St. Saviour's Church and Guys Hospital. 

SOUTHWELL, ROBERT, poet, born in Norfolk; studied at Douay, andbecame a Jesuit priest; came to England as a missionary, was thrown intoprison, tortured ten times by the rack, and at length executed at Tyburnas a traitor for disseminating Catholic doctrine; his poems are religiouschiefly, and excellent, and were finally collected under the title "St. Peter's Complaint, " "Mary Magdalen's Tears, and Other Works"; "TheBurning Babe" is characterised by Professor Saintsbury as a "splendidpoem" (1560-1595). 

SOUVESTRE, ÉMILE, French novelist and playwright, born at Morlaix;at 30 he established himself in Paris as a journalist, and became notedas a writer of plays and of charming sketches of Breton life, essays, andfiction; "Les Derniers Bretons" and "Foyer Breton" are considered hisbest work (1806-1854). 

SOUZA, MADAME DE (maiden name Adelaide Filleul), French novelist, born in Paris, and educated in a convent, on her leaving which she wasmarried to the Comte de Flahaut, a man much older than herself, and withwhom she lived unhappily; fled to Germany and then to England on theoutbreak of the Revolution; afterwards returned to Paris, and as the wifeof the Marquis de Souza-Botelho presided over one of the most charming of_salons_, in which the chief attraction was her own bright and giftedpersonality; her novels, "Eugène de Rothelin, " "Eugénie et Mathilde, "etc. , breathe the spirit of the old régime, and are full of natural andvivacious pictures of French life (1761-1836). 

SOWERBY BRIDGE (10), manufacturing town in West Riding of Yorkshire, 3 m. SW. Of Halifax; cotton-spinning, woollen manufactures, and dyeingare the chief; it was the birthplace of Tillotson. 

SOY, a sauce or condiment used in Japan and China; prepared from abean which is extensively cultivated in those countries. 

SOYER, ALEXIS, a famous cook, born at Meaux; turned aside from atempting career as a vocalist and took up gastronomy as a profession;during the 1830 Revolution he narrowly escaped with his life to London, which he henceforth made his head-quarters, rising to the position ofcook to the Reform Club; rendered important services as a culinary expertin Ireland during the 1847 famine, and at the Crimea (1855); was theauthor of various highly popular works on the art of cooking, "The ModernHousewife, " "Shilling Cookery Book, " etc. (1809-1858). 

SPA (7), a watering-place in Belgium, 20 m. SE. Of Liège; afavourite health and fashionable resort on account of its springs and itspicturesque surroundings, the number of visitors during the seasonamounting to 12, 000. 

SPAHI, an Algerine cavalry soldier serving in the French army. 

SPAIN (17, 800), a kingdom of South-West Europe, which with Portugal(less than one-fifth the size of Spain) occupies the entire IberianPeninsula, and is divided from France on the N. By the PyreneesMountains, and on the E. And S. Is washed by the Mediterranean; the NW. Corner fronts the Bay of Biscay (N. ) and the Atlantic (W. ), whilePortugal completes the western boundary; its area, three and one-thirdtimes the size of England and Wales, is, along with the Canaries and theBalearic Isles, divided into 49 provinces, although the more familiarnames of the 14 old kingdoms, states, and provinces (New and Old Castile, Galicia, Aragon, etc. ) are still in use; forms a compact square, with aregular, in parts precipitous, coast-line, which is short compared withits area; is in the main a highland country, a vast plateau (2000 to 3000ft. High) occupying the centre, buttressed and crossed by ranges (SierraNevada in the S. , Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra Morena, etc. ), anddiversified by the long valleys of the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other lesser rivers, all of which are rapid, and only a fewnavigable; climate varies considerably according as one proceeds to thecentral plains, where extremes of heat and cold are experienced, but overall is the driest in Europe; agriculture, although less than a half ofthe land is under cultivation, is by far the most important industry, andValencia and Catalonia the provinces where it is most successfullycarried out, wheat and other cereals, the olive and the vine, being thechief products; other important industries are mining, the Peninsulabeing extremely rich in the useful minerals; Merino sheep farming, anchovy and sardine fisheries, wine-making, and the manufacture ofcotton, silk, leather, and paper; chief exports are wine, fruits, mineralores, oil and cork; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Malaga arethe chief towns; the widest variety of character exists among the nativesof the various provinces, from the hard-working, thrifty Catalan to thelazy, improvident Murcian, but all possess the southern love "of song, dance, and colour, " and have an inherent grace and dignity of manner;Roman Catholicism is the national religion; and although systems ofelementary and secondary schools are in vogue, education over all is in adeplorably backward condition; the Government is a hereditary andconstitutional monarchy; the Cortes consists of the Senate and theChamber of Deputies; universal suffrage and trial by jury are recentinnovations. The outstanding fact in the history of Spain, after thedownfall of the Roman Empire, of which she had long formed a part, is thenational struggle with the Moors, who overran the peninsula in the 8thcentury, firmly established themselves, and were not finally overthrowntill Granada, their last possession, was taken in 1492; sixteen yearslater the country became a united kingdom, and for a brief period, withits vast American colonies and wide European possessions, became in the16th century the dominant power of Europe; since then she has lagged moreand more in the race of nations, and her once vast colonial empire hasgradually crumbled away till now, since the unsuccessful war with Americain 1898, only an island or two remains to her. 

SPALATO (15), a historic and flourishing town of Dalmatia, finelysituated on a promontory on the E. Side of the Adriatic, 160 m. SE. OfFiume; a place of considerable antiquity, and one of the great cities ofthe Roman world; is chiefly famed for the vast palace built byDiocletian, and which became his residence after his abdication;subsidiary buildings and grounds were enclosed by walls, within which nowa considerable part of the town stands; the noblest portions of thepalace are still extant; the modern town carries on an active trade ingrain, wine, cattle, etc. ; is noted for its liqueurs. 

SPALDING, a market-town in Lincolnshire, 34 m. SE. Of Lincoln, inthe heart of the Fens; is a very ancient place; has a trade inagricultural produce, and is a railway centre. 

SPALLANZANI, LAZARO, a noted Italian scientist, born at Scandiano, in Modena; held chairs of Philosophy and Greek in the Universities ofReggio and Modena, but more attracted to natural science he in 1768became professor of Natural History at Pavia; wrote elaborate accounts ofexpeditions to Sicily and elsewhere; overturned Button's theory ofspontaneous generation, and in important works made some valuablecontributions to physiological science (1729-1799). 

SPANDAU (45), an important town and fortress of Prussia, inBrandenburg, at the confluence of the Spree and Havel, 8 m. W. By N. OfBerlin; fortifications are of the strongest and most modern kind, and inthe "Julius Tower" of the powerful citadel the German war-chest of£6, 000, 000 is preserved; there is an arsenal and large Governmentcannon-foundries, powder-factories, etc. 

SPANHEIM, FRIEDRICH, a theological professor at Geneva (1631), andafterwards at Leyden (1641); author of the work on "Universal Grace"(1600-1648). His son, EZECHIEL SPANHEIM (1629-1710) became professorof Eloquence in his native town, Geneva, and after acting as tutor tothe sons of the Elector Palatine was employed on several importantdiplomatic missions to Italy, England, and France; meanwhile devoted hisleisure to ancient law and numismatics, publishing learned works on thesesubjects. FRIEDRICH SPANHEIM, brother of preceding, was a learnedCalvinistic professor of Theology at Heidelberg (1685), and afterwards atLeyden (1632-1701). 

SPANISH MAIN (i. E. Mainland), a name given at one time to theCentral American provinces of Spain bordering on the Caribbean Sea, andalso to the Caribbean Sea itself. 

SPARKS, JAMES, president of Harvard University, born in Connecticut;bred a carpenter, took to study, attended Harvard, where he graduated, studied theology, and became Unitarian, becoming a minister in that body, but retired from the ministry and settled in Boston; edited the _NorthAmerican Review_; wrote and edited biographies of eminent Americans, andedited the writings of Benjamin Franklin and George Washington(1789-1866). 

SPARTA or LACEDEMON, the capital of ancient Laconia, in thePeloponnesus, on the right bank of the Eurotas, 20 m. From the sea; was 6m. In circumference, consisted of several distinct quarters, originallyseparate villages, never united into a regular town; was never surroundedby walls, its walls being the bravery of its citizens; its mythicalfounder was Lacedemon, who called the city Sparta from the name of hiswife; one of its early kings was Menelaus, the husband of Helen;LYCURGUS (q. V. ) was its law-giver; its policy was aggressive, and its sway gradually extended over the whole Peloponnesus, to theextinction at the end of the Peloponnesian War of the rival power ofAthens, which for a time rose to the ascendency, and its unquestionedsupremacy thereafter for 30 years, when all Greece was overborne by theMacedonian power. 

SPARTACUS, leader of the revolt of the slaves at Rome, which brokeout about 73 B. C. ; was a Thracian by birth, a man of powerful physique, in succession a shepherd, a soldier, and a captain of banditti; was inone of his predatory expeditions taken prisoner and sold to a trainer ofgladiators, and became one of his slaves; persuaded his fellow-slaves toattempt their freedom, and became their chief and that of other runawayswho joined them; for two years they defied and defeated one Roman armyafter another sent to crush them, and laid Italy waste, till at the endof that time Licinius Crassus, taking up arms in earnest, overpoweredthem in a decisive battle at the river Silarus, in which Spartacus wasslain. 

SPASMODIC SCHOOL, name given to a small group of minor poets aboutthe middle of the 19th century, represented by Philips, James Bailey, Sydney Dobell, and Alexander Smith, from their strenuous, overstrained, and unnatural style. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, the weight of a body compared with another ofequal bulk taken as a standard, such as the weight of a cubic inch ofwater. 

SPECTRUM, the name given to coloured and other rays of pure lightseparated by refraction in its transmission through a prism, as exhibitedon a screen in a darkened chamber. 

SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, name given to the method of determining thecomposition of a body by means of the spectrum of light which it givesforth or passes through it, founded on the principle that a substancepowerfully absorbs exactly the rays it radiates, and every substance hasits own absorbing powers; or it may be defined the method ofdistinguishing different kinds of matter by their properties in relationto light. 

SPECULATIVE, THE, that which we think and which as such goes nodeeper than the intellect, which is but the eye of the soul, not theheart of it. See SPIRITUAL, THE. 

SPEDDING, JAMES, editor of Bacon, born at Mirehouse, near Keswick, son of a Cumberland squire; scholar and honorary Fellow of Cambridge;became in 1847 Under-Secretary of State with £2000 a year; devoted hislife to the study of Bacon, the fruit of which the "Letters and the Lifeof Francis Bacon, including all his Occasional Works, newly selected andset forth with a Commentary, Biographical and Historical, " in 7 vols. ; atruly noble man, and much esteemed by his contemporaries in literature(1808-1881). 

SPEKE, JOHN BANNING, African explorer, born in Somersetshire; becamea soldier, and served in the Punjab; joined Burton in 1854 in anexpedition into Somaliland, and three years after in an attempt todiscover the sources of the Nile, and setting out alone discoveredVictoria Nyanza, which he maintained was the source of the river, butwhich Burton questioned; on his return he published in 1863 an account ofhis discovery, which he was about to defend in the British Associationwhen he was shot by the accidental discharge of his gun while he was outhunting (1827-1864). 

SPENCE, JOSEPH, a miscellaneous writer, born in Hants; educated atand a Fellow of Oxford; his principal work, "Polymetis; or, an Inquiryinto the Agreement between the Works of the Roman Poets and the Remainsof Ancient Artists"; his "Anecdotes" are valuable from his acquaintancewith the literary class of the time, and have preserved his name(1699-1768). 

SPENCER, HERBERT, systematiser and unifier of scientific knowledgeup to date, born at Derby, son of a teacher, who early inoculated himwith an interest in natural objects, though he adopted at first theprofession of a railway engineer, which in about eight years he abandonedfor the work of his life by way of literature, his first effort being aseries of "Letters on the Proper Sphere of Government" in the_Nonconformist_ in 1842, and his first work "Social Statics, " publishedin 1851, followed by "Principles of Psychology" four years after; in 1861he published a work on "Education, " and his "First Principles" thefollowing year, after which he began to construct his system of"Synthetic Philosophy, " which fills a dozen large volumes, and hasestablished his fame as the foremost scientific philosopher of the time. Following in the lines of Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill, he takes awider sweep than either of them, fills the field he occupies with fullerand riper detail, resolves the whole of science into still more ultimateprinciples, and works the whole up into a more compact and comprehensivesystem. He is valiant before all for science, and relegates everythingand every interest to Agnosticism that cannot give proof of itsscientific rights. "What a thing is in itself, " he says, "cannot beknown, because to know it we must strip it of all that it becomes, of allthat has come to adhere to it. " The ultimate thus arrived at he finds tobe, and calls, Energy, and that therefore, he says, we don't and can'tknow. That a thing _is_ what it becomes seems never to occur to him, andyet only the knowledge of that is the knowledge of the ultimate of being, which is the thing he says we cannot know. To trace life to its roots hegoes back to the cell, whereas common-sense would seem to require us, inorder to know what the cell is, to inquire at the fruit. This is thedoctrine of St. John, "The Word was God. " In addition to agnosticismanother doctrine of Spencer's is Evolution, but in maintaining this hefails to see he is arguing for an empty conception barren of all thought, which thought is the alpha and omega of the whole process, and is as muchan ultimate as and still more so than the energy in which he absorbs God. Indeed, his philosophy is what is called the AUFKLÄRUNG (q. V. )in full bloom, and in which he strips us of all our spiritual content or_Inhalt_, and under which he would lead us out of "HOUNDSDITCH"(q. V. ), not _with_, but _without_, all that properly belongs to us;_b_. 1820. 

SPENCER GULF, a deep inlet on the coast of South Australia, 180 m. By 90 m. 

SPENER, PHILIP JACOB, German Protestant theologian, founder of thePIETISTS (q. V. ), born in Alsace, studied in Strasburg; in 1670held a series of meetings which he called "Collegia Pietatis, " whence thename of his sect; established himself in Dresden and in Berlin, but Hallewas the centre of the movement; he was an earnest and universallyesteemed man (1636-1705). 

SPENSER, EDMUND, author of the "Faërie Queene, " and one of England'sgreatest poets; details of his life are scanty and often hypothetical;born at London of poor but well-connected parents; entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, as a "sizar" in 1569, and during his seven years' residencethere became an excellent scholar; took a master's degree, and formed animportant friendship with Gabriel Harvey; three years of unsettled lifefollowed, but were fruitful in the production of the "Shepheards'Calendar" (1579), which at once placed him at the head of the Englishpoets of his day; had already taken his place in the best London literaryand political circles as the friend of Sir Philip Sidney and Leicester, and in 1580 was appointed private secretary to Lord Grey, then proceedingto Ireland as the Lord Deputy, and although his master soon returned toEngland Spencer continued to make his home in Ireland, where he obtainedsome civil appointments, and in 1591 entered into possession of aconsiderable portion of the forfeited estates of the Earl of Desmond, adjacent to his house, Kilcolman Castle, co. Cork; seems to have been apretty stern landlord, and, as expounded in his admirable tract, "A Viewof the Present State of Ireland, " the advocate of a policy of"suppression and repression"; consequently was little loved by the Irish, and on the outbreak of Tyrone's rebellion in 1598 his house was sackedand burned, and he himself forced to flee to London, where he died a fewweeks later "a ruined and heart-broken man"; the rich promise of the"Shepheards' Calendar" had been amply fulfilled in the "Complaints, ""Amoretti, " "Colin Clout's Come Home Again, " the "Epithalamium" thefinest bridal song in any language, and above all in the six publishedbooks of "The Faërie Queene" (1589 and 1596), in which all his gifts andgraces as a poet are at their best; "He may be read, " says ProfessorSaintsbury, "in childhood, chiefly for his adventure; in later youth, forhis display of voluptuous beauty; in manhood, for his historical andethical weight; in age, for all combined" (1552-1599). 

SPERMACETI, a white waxy matter obtained in an oily state from thehead of the sperm-whale inhabiting the Pacific and Indian Oceans; candlesmade of it yield a particularly steady and bright light. 

SPEY, a river in the N. Of Scotland which, rising in Badenoch, flowsNE. Through Inverness, Elgin, and Banffshire, falls into the Moray Firthafter a course of 107 miles; the salmon-fisheries are valuable; it is theswiftest of the rivers of Great Britain. 

SPEZIA (20), the chief naval station, "the Portsmouth, " of Italy;occupies a strongly fortified site at the head of a bay on the W. Side ofItaly, 56 m. SE. Of Genoa; here are the naval shipbuilding yards, national arsenal, navy store-houses, besides schools of navigation, manufactures of cables, sail-cloth, &c. 

SPHINX, a fabled animal, an invention of the ancient Egyptians, withthe body and claws of a lioness, and the head of a woman, or of a ram, orof a goat, all types or representations of the king, effigies of whichare frequently placed before temples on each side of the approach; themost famous of the sphinxes was the one which waylaid travellers andtormented them with a riddle, which if they could not answer she devouredthem, but which Oedipus answered, whereupon she threw herself into thesea. "Such a sphinx, " as we are told in "Past and Present, " "is this lifeof ours, to all men and nations. Nature, like the Sphinx, is of womanlycelestial loveliness and tenderness, the face and bosom of a goddess, butending in the claws and the body of a lioness . .. Is a heavenly bride andconquest to the wise and brave, to them who can discern her behests anddo them; a destroying fiend to them who cannot. Answer herriddle--Knowest thou the meaning of to-day?--it is well with thee. Answerit not; the solution for thee is a thing of teeth and claws. "

SPICE ISLANDS. See MOLUCCAS. 

SPINELLO, ARETINO, a celebrated Italian fresco-painter, born atArezzo, where, with visits to Florence, his life was chiefly spent; wasin his day the rival of Giotto, but few of his frescoes are preserved, and such of his paintings as are to be found in various galleries ofEurope are inferior to his frescoes (1330-1410). 

SPINOLA, AMBROSIO, MARQUIS OF, great Spanish general under PhilipII. Of Spain, born at Genoa, with a following of 9000, maintained at hisown expense, took Ostend after a resistance of 3 years, in consequence ofwhich feat he was appointed commander-in-chief, in which capacitymaintained and again maintained a long struggle with Prince Maurice ofNassau, terminated only with the death of the latter; his services onbehalf of Spain, in the interest of which he spent his fortune, werenever acknowledged, and he died with poignant grief (1571-1630). 

SPINOZA, BENEDICT, great modern philosopher, born in Amsterdam, ofJews of Portuguese extraction in well-to-do circumstances, and had beentrained as a scholar; began with the study of the Bible and the Talmud, but soon exchanged the study of theology in these for that of physics andthe works of Descartes, in which study he drifted farther and fartherfrom the Jewish creed, and at length openly abandoned it; this exposedhim to a persecution which threatened his life, so that he left Amsterdamand finally settled at The Hague, where, absorbed in philosophic study, he lived in seclusion, earning a livelihood by polishing optical glasses, which his friends disposed of for him; his days were short; he sufferedfrom ill-health, and died of consumption when he was only 44; he was aman of tranquil temper, moderate desires, purity of motive, and kindly inheart; his great work, his "Ethica, " was published a year after hisdeath; he had held it back during his lifetime because he foresaw itwould procure him the name of atheist, which he shrank from with horror;Spinoza's doctrine is summed up by Dr. Stirling thus, "Whatever is, is;and that is extension and thought. These two are all that is; andbesides these there is nought. But these two are one; they are attributesof the single substance (that which, for its existence, stands in need ofnothing else), very God, in whom, then, all individual things and allindividual ideas (modes of extension those, of thought these) arecomprehended and take place"; thus we see Spinoza includes under the termextension all individual objects, and under thought all individual ideas, and these two he includes in God, as He in whom they live and move andhave their being, --a great conception and a pregnant, being thespeculative ground of the being of all that lives and is; not withoutgood reason does Novalis call him "Der Gott-getrunkene Mensch, " theGod-intoxicated man (1632-1677). 

SPINOZISM, the pantheism of SPINOZA (q. V. ), which regardsGod as the one self-subsistent substance, and both matter and thoughtattributes of Him. 

SPIRES or SPEYER, an old German town on the left bank of theRhine, in the Palatinate, 14 m. SW. Of Heidelberg, the seat of a bishopand with a cathedral, of its kind one of the finest in Europe, and theremains of the Retscher, or imperial palace, where in 1529 the Diet ofthe Empire was held at which the Reformers first got the name ofProtestants, because of their protestation against the imperial decreeissued at Worms prohibiting any further innovations in religion. 

SPIRIT (lit. Breath of life), in philosophy and theology is theDivine mind incarnating itself in the life of a man, and breathing in allhe thinks and does, and so is as the life-principle of it; employed alsoto denote any active dominating and pervading principle of life inspiredfrom any quarter whatever and coming to light in the conduct. 

SPIRIT, THE HOLY, the Divine Spirit manifested in Christ whichdescended upon His disciples in all its fulness when, shortly after Hisdecease, their eyes were opened to see the meaning of His life and theirhearts to feel the power of it. 

SPIRITUAL, THE, the fruit of the quickening and abiding action of ahigher principle at the centre of the being, operating so as to suffusethe whole of it, pervade the whole of it, to its utmost limits, which, seating itself in the heart of the thoughts and affections, works andweaves itself into all the life tissues and becomes part and parcel ofthe very flesh and blood. No idea, however true, however elevated orelevating one may feel it, is spiritual till it centralises in the heartand affects all the issues thereof. 

SPIRITUALISM, a term that has two very different meanings, denotingat one time the doctrine that the only real is the SPIRITUAL (q. V. ), and at another time a belief in the existence of spirits whom we, by means of certain media, can hold correspondence with, and who, whetherwe are conscious of it or not, exercise in some cases an influence overhuman destiny, more particularly of the spirits of dead men with whom intheir disembodied state we can by means of certain mediums holdcorrespondence, and who, from their continued interest in the world, doin that state keep watch and ward over its affairs as well as mingle inthem, forming a world of spirits gone from hence, yet more or less activein the sense world. 

SPITHEAD, the eastern portion of the strait which separates the Isleof Wight from the Hampshire coast, 14 m. Long, with an average breadth of4 m. ; is a sheltered and safe riding for ships, and as such is much usedby the British navy; receives its name from a long "spit" of sandbankjutting out from the mainland. See the _SOLENT_. 

SPITZBERGEN, the name of an Arctic archipelago lying 400 m. N. OfNorway, embracing West Spitzbergen (15, 260 sq. M. ), North-East Land, Stans Foreland, King Charles land or Wiche Island, Barents Land, PrinceCharles Foreland, besides numerous smaller islands; practically liesunder great fields of ice, enormous glaciers, and drifts of snow, piercedhere and there by mountain peaks, hence the name Spitzbergen; the home ofvast flocks of sea-birds, of polar bears, and Arctic foxes, while herdsof reindeer are attracted to certain parts by a scanty summer vegetation;there are no permanent inhabitants, but the fiord-cut shores arefrequented in summer by Norwegian seal and walrus hunters. 

SPLÜGEN, an Alpine pass in the Swiss canton of the Grisons; theroadway 24 m. Long, opened in 1822, crosses the Rhætian Alps from Chur, the capital of Grisons, to Chiavenna, in Lombardy, and reaches a heightof 6595 ft. 

SPOHR, LUDWIG, musical composer and violinist, born in Brunswick;produced both operas and oratorios, "Faust" among the former, the "LastJudgment" and the "Fall of Babylon" among the latter; his violin-playingwas admirable, producing from the tones of the instrument the effects ofthe human voice; wrote a handbook for violinists (1784-1859). 

SPOLETO (8), an ancient city of Central Italy, built on the rockyslopes of a hill, in the province of Umbria, 75 m. NE. Of Rome; isprotected by an ancient citadel, and has an interesting old cathedralwith frescoes by Lippo Lippi, and an imposing 7th-century aqueduct; wascapital of a Lombard duchy, and in 1220 was joined to the Papal States. 

SPONTINI, GASPARO, Italian operatic composer, born at Majolati;settled in Paris in 1803, and a year later made his mark with the littleopera "Milton, " and subsequently established his fame with the threegrand operas, "La Vestale, " "Ferdinand Cortez, " and "Olympia"; from 1820to 1842 was stationed at Berlin under court patronage, and in the face ofpublic and press opposition continued to write in a strain of elevatedand melodious music various operas, including his greatest work "Agnesvon Hohenstaufen" (1774-1851). 

SPORADES, a group of islands in the Ægean Sea, of which the largestis the Mitylene. 

SPOTTISWOODE, JOHN, archbishop of St. Andrews; accompanied James VI. To London, was zealous for the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland;was archbishop of Glasgow before he was translated to St. Andrews;officiated at coronation of Charles I. At Holyrood in 1633, and was twoyears after made Chancellor of Scotland; wrote a "History of the Churchof Scotland"; was buried in Westminster (1565-1639). 

SPOTTISWOODE, WILLIAM, mathematician and physician, born in London;was Queen's printer, as his father had been before him; publishednumerous important papers on scientific subjects, his greatest work "ThePolarization of Light, " a subject on which he was a great authority(1825-1883). 

SPREE, a river of Prussia, rises in East Saxony close to theBohemian border, follows a winding and generally N. And NW. Course of 227m. Till its Junction with the Havel at Spandau; chief towns on its banksare Bautzen, Kottbus, Lübben, and Berlin; is connected with the Oder bythe Frederick William Canal. 

SPRENGEL, CARL, physician and botanist, born in Pomerania; heldprofessorship in Halle; wrote on the history of both medicine and botany(1766-1833). 

SPRENGER, ALOYS, eminent Orientalist, born in the Tyrol; studied inVienna; went to India in 1843, where he diligently occupied his mind instudy, and on his return in 1857 was appointed professor of OrientalLanguages at Bern, from which he was translated to Heidelberg; editedPersian and Arabic works, and wrote the "Life and Doctrine of Mohammed";_b_. 1813. 

SPRINGFIELD, 1, capital (34) of Illinois, situated in a flourishingcoal district, 185 m. SW. Of Chicago; has an arsenal, two colleges, and ahandsome marble capitol; coal-mining, foundries, and flour, cotton, andpaper mills are the chief industries; the burial-place of AbrahamLincoln. 2, A nicely laid out and flourishing city (62) of Massachusetts, capital of Hampden County, on the Connecticut River (spanned here by fivebridges), 99 m. W. By S. Of Boston; settled in 1635; has importantmanufactories of cottons, woollens, paper, and a variety of otherarticles, besides the United States armoury. 3, Capital (22) of GreeneCounty, Missouri, 232 m. WSW. Of St. Louis; has rapidly increasingmanufactories of cottons, woollens, machinery, &c. ; in the vicinity wasfought the battle of Wilson's Creek, 10th August 1861. 4, Capital (38) ofClark County, Ohio, on Lagonda Creek and Mad River, 80 m. NE. OfCincinnati; is an important railway centre, and possesses numerousfactories of machinery, bicycles, paper, &c. 

SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON, a great preacher, born at Kelvedon, Essex;had no college training; connected himself with the Baptists; commencedas an evangelist at Cambridge when he was but a boy, and was only 17 whenhe was appointed to a pastorate; by-and-by on invitation he settled inSouthwark, and held meetings which were always requiring larger andlarger accommodation; at length in 1861 the Metropolitan Tabernacle, capable of accommodating 6000, was opened, where he drew about him largecongregations, and round which he, in course of time, established anumber of institutions in the interest at once of humanity and religion;his pulpit addresses were listened to by thousands every Sunday, and wereone and all printed the week following, and circulated all over the landand beyond it till they filled volumes; no preacher of the time had suchan audience, and none such a wide popularity; he preached the old Puritangospel, but it was presented in such a form and in such simple, idiomaticphrase, as to commend it as no less a gospel to his own generation:besides his sermons as published, other works were also widelycirculated; special mention may be made of "John Ploughman's Talk"(1834-1892). 

SPURZHEIM, JOHANN CASPAR, phrenologist, born in Trèves; went tostudy medicine at Vienna; attended the lectures of Gall and became adisciple, accompanying him on a lecturing tour through Central Europe, and settling with him in 1807 in Paris; in 1813 he separated from Gall, and went to lecture in England with much acceptance; in 1832 he proceededto America with the same object, but he had hardly started on his missionwhen he died at Boston; he wrote numerous works bearing on phrenology, education, &c. (1776-1832). 

SRUTI, the name given to sacred and revealed tradition, orrevelation generally, among the Hindus. 

STAAL, JEAN, a French lady of humble circumstances, of metaphysicalturn; skilled in the philosophies of Descartes and Malebranche; was inthe Bastille for two years for political offences; was a charming woman, and captivated the Baron de Staal; left Memoirs and Letters (1693-1750). 

STABAT MATER, A Latin hymn on the dolours of the Virgin, beginningwith these words, and composed in the 13th century by Jacopone da Todi, aFranciscan monk, and set to music by several composers, the most popularbeing Rossini's. 

STADIUM, the course on which were celebrated the great games(foot-racing, wrestling, &c. ) of ancient Greece, held at Olympia, Athens, and other places; the most famous was that laid out at Olympia; length600 Greek feet, which was adopted as the Greek standard of measure, andequalled 606½ English feet. 

STADTHOLDER, an anglicised form of the Dutch "stadhouder" (i. E. Stead-holder), a title conferred on the governors of provinces in the LowCountries, but chiefly associated with the rulers of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht; in 1544 the title was held by William the Silent, andcontinued to be the designation of the head of the new republic of theUnited Provinces of the Netherlands until 1802, when William V. Wascompelled to resign his stadtholdership to France, the country afterwardsassuming a monarchical government. 

STAËL, MADAME DE, distinguished French lady, born in Paris, daughterof Necker, and only child; a woman of eminent ability, and an admirer ofRousseau; wrote "Letters" on his character and works; married a man tenyears older than herself, the Baron de Staël-Holstein, the Swedishambassador in Paris, where she lived all through the events of theRevolution in sympathy with the royal family; wrote an appeal in defenceof the queen, and quitted the city during the Reign of Terror; on herreturn in 1795 her _salon_ became the centre of the literary andpolitical activity of the time; the ambition of Napoleon excited herdistrust, and forced her into opposition so expressed that in 1801 shewas ordered to leave Paris within 24 hours, and not to come within 40leagues of it; in 1802 she was left a widow, and soon after she wentfirst to Weimar, where she met Goethe and Schiller, and then to Berlin;by-and-by she returned to France, but on the publication of her"Corinne, " was ordered out of the country; after this appeared her greatepoch-making work on Germany, "L'Allemagne, " which was seized by theFrench censors; after this she quitted for good the soil of France, towhich she had returned; settled in Switzerland, at Coppet, where she died(1766-1817). 

STAFFA ("pillar Island"), an uninhabited islet of basaltic formationoff the W. Coast of Scotland, 54 m. W. Of Oban; 1½ m. In circumference, and girt with precipitous cliffs, except on the sheltered NE. , wherethere is a shelving shore; is remarkable for its caves, of which Fingal'sCave is the most famous, having an entrance 42 ft. Wide and 66 ft. High, and penetrating 227 ft. 

STAFFORD (20), county town of Staffordshire, on the Sow, 29 m. NNW. Of Birmingham; has two fine old churches, St. Mary's and St. Chad's, interesting architecturally, King Edward's grammar school, and StaffordCastle finely situated on the outskirts; is an important railway centre, and noted for its boot and shoe manufactures. 

STAFFORDSHIRE (1, 083), a midland mining and manufacturing county ofEngland, wedged in on the N. Between Cheshire (W. ) and Derby (N. ), andextending southward to Worcester, with Shropshire on the W. , andLeicester and Warwick on the E. ; with the exception of the wild and hilly"moorland" in the N. Consists of an undulating plain crossed by theTrent, and intersected in all directions by canals and railways; embracestwo rich coal-fields, one in the "Black Country" of the S. , where richdeposits of iron-stone are also worked, and one in the N. , embracing thedistrict of the "Potteries"; famous breweries exist at Burton;Wolverhampton is the largest town. 

STAGIRITE, THE, ARISTOTLE (q. V. ), so called from hisnative place Stagira. 

STAHL, FRIEDRICH JULIUS, writer of jurisprudence, born at Münich, ofJewish parents; embraced Christianity; wrote "The Philosophy of Law";became professor thereof at Berlin; was a staunch Lutheran, and aConservative in politics (1802-1861). 

STAHL, GEORG ERNEST, a German chemist, born at Anspach; wasprofessor of Medicine at Halle; author of the theory of PHLOGISTON(q. V. ) and of ANIMISM (q. V. ) (1650-1735). 

STAINES (5), a pretty little town of Middlesex, on the Thames(spanned here by a fine granite bridge), 6 m. SE. Of Windsor; St. Mary'schurch has a tower designed by Inigo Jones; has breweries, mustard-mills, and other factories; in the neighbourhood are RUNNYMEDE andCOOPER'S HILL (q. V. ). 

STAIR, JOHN DALRYMPLE, 1ST EARL OF, eldest son of James Dalrymple(1619-1695) of Stair (a distinguished lawyer in his day, who rose to bePresident of the Court of Session; wrote a well-known work, "Institutesof the Law of Scotland"; as a Protestant supported the Prince of Orange, and by him was raised to the peerage as viscount in 1690); adopted law asa profession, and was called to the bar in 1672; got into trouble withClaverhouse, and was fined and imprisoned, but in 1687 was received intoroyal favour, became Lord Advocate, a Lord Ordinary in the Court ofSession, and subsequently as Secretary of State for Scotland was mainlyresponsible for the MASSACRE OF GLENCOE (q. V. ); was created anearl in 1703, and later was active in support of the union of the Englishand Scottish Parliaments (1648-1707). 

STAIR, JOHN DALRYMPLE, 2ND EARL OF, second son of preceding; enteredthe army at 19, and fought with his regiment, the Cameronians, atSteinkirk; studied law for some time at Leyden, but went back to thearmy, and by 1701 was a lieutenant-colonel in the Scots Foot Guards, andin 1706 colonel of the Cameronians; fought with distinction underMarlborough at Venlo, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and, as commander of abrigade, at the siege of Lille and at Malplaquet; was active in supportof the Hanoverian succession, and subsequently in the reigns of George I. And II. Filled important diplomatic and military posts (1673-1747). 

STALACTITE, a cone of carbonate of lime attached like an icicle tothe roof of a cavern, and formed by the dripping of water charged withthe carbonate from the rock above; Stalagmite being the name given to thecone formed on the floor by the dripping from a stalactite above. 

STALYBRIDGE (44), a manufacturing town of Cheshire and Lancashire, on both banks of the Tame, 7½ m. E. By N. Of Manchester; is of moderngrowth, and noted for its large cotton-yarn and calico factories, iron-foundries and machine-shops. 

STAMFORD (8), an interesting old town, partly in Lincolnshire andpartly in Northamptonshire, on the Welland, 12 m. WNW. Of Peterborough;was one of the five Danish burghs, and is described in DOMESDAYBOOK (q. V. ); a massacre of Jews occurred here in 1140, and inPlantagenet times it was a place of ecclesiastical, parliamentary, androyal importance; figures in the Wars of the Roses and the Civil War ofCharles I. 's time; has three fine Early English churches, a cornexchange, two handsome schools, Browne's Hospital, founded in RichardIII. 's reign, and Burghley House, a noble specimen of Renaissancearchitecture; the _Stamford Mercury_ (1695) is the earliest provincialnewspaper; the district is mainly agricultural. 

STAMFORD (16), a town of Connecticut, situated amid surroundinghills in Long Island Sound, 33 m. NE. Of New York; is a summer resort, and has iron and bronze foundries, etc. 

STAMFORD BRIDGE, a village of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 9¼ m. NE. Of York; the scene of Harold's victory over the invading forces of HaroldHaarfager on September 25, 1066. 

STAMP ACT, a measure passed by Grenville's Ministry in 1765 enactingthat all legal documents used in the colonies should bear Governmentstamps. The Americans resisted on the ground that taxation withoutrepresentation in Parliament was unjust. Riots broke out, and the stampedpaper was carefully avoided. In 1766 Pitt championed the cause of thecolonists, and largely through his eloquence Government in that year wasinduced to repeal the Act. 

STANDING STONES, rude unhewn stones standing singly or in groups invarious parts of the world, and erected at remote periods, presumably inmemory of some great achievement or misfortune, or as having somemonumental reference. 

STANDISH, MILES, one of the Puritan fathers, of Lancashire birth, and a cadet of a family of knightly rank in the county; served in theNetherlands as a soldier, and went to America in the Mayflower in 1620, and was helpful to the colony in its relations both with the Indians andthe mother-country; is the hero of a poem of Longfellow's. 

STANFIELD, CLARKSON, English landscape-painter, born in Sunderland, of Irish descent; began as a scene-painter; his first picture, "Market-boats on the Scheldt, " proving a success, he devoted himself toeasel-painting, and his principal works were "Wreckers off Fort Rouge, ""A Calm at Sea, " "The Abandoned, " "The Bass Rock"; his frequent visits tothe Continent supplied him with fresh subjects; and Ruskin says of one ofhis pictures, "it shows as much concentrated knowledge of the sea and skyas, diluted, would have lasted any of the old masters for life"(1793-1866). 

STANHOPE, LADY HESTER LUCY, born at Chevening, Kent, the eldestdaughter of the third Earl of Stanhope, and niece of William Pitt; awoman of unusual force of character and attractiveness; from 1803 to 1806was, as the confidant and housekeeper of her uncle William Pitt, a leaderof society; retired with a Government pension after Pitt's death, butimpelled by her restless nature, led an unsettled life in SouthernEurope, and finally settled in Syria in 1814, making her home in the oldconvent of Mar Elias, near Mount Lebanon, where, cut off from Westerncivilisation, for 25 years she exercised a remarkable influence over therude tribes of the district; assumed the dress of a Mohammedan chief, andsomething of the religion of Islam, and in the end came to look uponherself as a sort of prophetess; interesting accounts of her strange lifeand character have been published by her English physician, Dr. Madden, and others (1776-1839). 

STANHOPE, PHILIP HENRY, EARL, historian, born at Walmer, only son ofthe fourth Earl of Stan hope; graduated at Oxford in 1827, and threeyears later entered Parliament as a Conservative; held office asUnder-Secretary for Foreign Affairs in Peel's Ministry of 1834-35, and asSecretary to the Indian Board of Control during 1845-46; succeeded hisfather in 1855, before which he was known by the courtesy title of LordMahon; literature was his chief interest, and as a historian andbiographer he has a deservedly high reputation for industry andimpartial judgment; a "History of England from 1713 to 1783, " a "Historyof Spain under Charles II. , " "Historical and Critical Essays, " and Livesof Pitt, Condé, and Belisarius, are his most important works (1805-1875). 

STANISLAS I. , LECZINSKI, king of Poland, born in Lemberg; afterwardssovereign of the Duchies of Bar and Lorraine; became the father-in-law ofLouis XV. (1677-1766). 

STANLEY. ARTHUR PENRHYN, widely known as Dean Stanley, having beendean of Westminster, born at Alderley, in Cheshire, son of the rector, who became bishop of Norwich; was educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, andafterwards at Balliol College, Oxford; took orders, and was for 12 yearstutor in his college; published his "Life of Dr. Arnold" in 1844, his"Sinai and Palestine" in 1855, after a visit to the East; held aprofessorship of Ecclesiastical History in Oxford for a time, andpublished lectures on the Eastern Church, the Jewish Church, theAthanasian Creed, and the Church of Scotland; accompanied the Prince ofWales to the East in 1862, and became dean of Westminster next year insuccession to Trench; wrote "Historical Monuments of Westminster Abbey"and "Christian Institutions"; he had been married to Lady Augusta Bruce, and her death deeply affected him and accelerated his own; he was buriedbeside her in Henry VII. 's chapel; he was an amiable man, an interestingwriter, and a broad churchman of very pronounced views (1815-1881). 

STANLEY, HENRY MORTON, African explorer, born in Denbigh, Wales, inhumble circumstances, his parental name being Rowlands, he having assumedthe name of Stanley after that of his adopted father, Mr. Stanley, NewOrleans; served in the Confederate army; became a newspaper foreigncorrespondent, to the _New York Herald_ at length; was summoned to go and"find Livingstone"; after many an impediment found Livingstone on 10thNovember 1871, and after staying with him, and accompanying him inexplorations, returned to England in August next year; in 1874 he set outagain at the head of an expedition, solved several problems, and returnedhome; published "Congo and its Free State, " "In Darkest Africa, " &c. ;represents Lambeth, North, in Parliament, having been elected in 1895;_b_. 1840. 

STANNARY, a general term used to cover the tin mines of a specifieddistrict, the miners themselves, and such customs and privileges asappertain to the workers and the mines. In England the term is speciallyassociated with the stannaries of Devon and Cornwall, which by an Act ofEdward III. Were conferred in perpetuity upon the Prince of Wales as Dukeof Cornwall, who holds the title of Lord Warden of the Stannaries. Special Stannary Courts for the administration of justice amongst thoseconnected with the mines are held in the two counties, and are eachpresided over by a warden and a vice-warden. Up to 1752 representativeassemblies of the miners, called Stannary Parliaments, were held. Appealsfrom the Stannary Courts may be made now to the higher courts of England. 

STAR-CHAMBER, a court which originated in the reign of Edward III. , and consisted practically of the king's ordinary council, meeting in theStarred Chamber, and dealing with such cases as fell outside thejurisdiction of the Court of Chancery; was revived and remodelled byHenry VII. , and in an age when the ordinary courts were often intimidatedby powerful offenders, rendered excellent service to the cause ofjustice; was further developed and strengthened during the chancellorshipof Wolsey, and in the reign of James I. Had acquired jurisdiction as acriminal court over a great variety of misdemeanours--perjury, riots, conspiracy, high-treason, &c. Already tending to an exercise ofunconstitutional powers, it in the reign of Charles I. Became aninstrument of the grossest tyranny, supporting the king in his absolutistclaims, and in 1641 was among the first of the many abuses swept away bythe Long Parliament. 

STARS, THE, are mostly suns, but being, the nearest of them, at adistance from us more than 500, 000 times our distance from the sun, areof a size we cannot estimate, but are believed to be 300 times largerthan the earth; they are of unequal brightness, and are, according tothis standard, classified as of the first, second, down to the sixteenthmagnitude; those visible to the naked eye include stars from the first tothe sixth magnitude, and number 3000, while 20, 000, 000 are visible by thetelescope; of these in the MILKY WAY (q. V. ) alone there are18, 000, 000; they are distinguished by their colours as well as theirbrightness, being white, orange, red, green, and blue according to theirtemperature and composition; they have from ancient date been groupedinto constellations of the northern and the southern hemispheres and ofthe ZODIAC (q. V. ), the stars in each of which being noted bythe Greek letters, as [Greek: alpha], [Greek: beta], according to theirbrightness; they all move more or less, and some go round each other, andare called double according as there are two or more of them sorevolving; besides stars singly visible there are others calledCLUSTERS OR NEBULÆ (q. V. ). 

STARS AND STRIPES, the flag of the United States, the stripesrepresenting the original States of the Union, and stars those annexedsince. 

STATEN ISLAND, 1, belonging to New York State (52), and comprisingthe county of Richmond; is a picturesque island (14 m. Long), 5 m. SW. OfNew York, separated from Long Island by the Narrows and from New Jerseyby the Kill van Kull and Staten Island Sound; pretty watering-villagesskirt its shores, and Forts Richmond and Wadsworth guard the entrance tothe Narrows. 2, A lofty, precipitous, and rugged island, snow-clad mostof the year, belonging to Argentina, lying to the SE. Of Tierra delFuego, from which it is separated by Le Maire Strait (40 m. ). 

STATES-GENERAL, name given to an assembly of the representatives ofthe three estates of nobles, clergy, and bourgeoisie, or the _Tiers État_as it was called, in France prior to the Revolution of 1789, and whichwas first convoked in 1302 by Philip IV. ; they dealt chiefly withtaxation, and had no legislative power; they were convoked by Louis XIII. In 1614, and dismissed for looking into finance, and not convoked againtill the last time in 1789, for the history of which see Carlyle's"French Revolution. "

STATES-RIGHTS, doctrine of the contention of the Democrats in theUnited States that the several States of the Union have all the rights, powers, and privileges not expressly made over to the central government, and by extremists even the right of secession. 

STATIONERS' HALL, the hall of the old Company of London Stationers, incorporated in 1557, who enjoyed till the Copyright Act of 1842 the soleright of having registered at their offices every pamphlet, book, andballad published in the kingdom. Although no longer compulsory, thepractice of entering books at Stationers' Hall is still found useful forcopyright purposes. The register-rolls of books entered at Stationers'Hall have been carefully preserved, and are of the highest value to theliterary historian. 

STATIONS OF THE CROSS, steps in the passage of Jesus from thejudgment-hall to Calvary, or representations of these, before each one ofwhich the faithful are required to kneel and offer up a prayer. 

STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS, a Latin poet, born in Naples; lived atRome, flourished at court, particularly that of Domitian, whom heflattered, but retired to his native place after defeat in a competition;his chief work is the "Thebaïs, " an epic in 12 books, embodying thelegends connected with the war against Thebes; he ranks first among thepoets of the silver age; a collection of short pieces of his named"Silvæ" have been often reprinted (61-96). 

STAUBBACH (dust stream), a famous waterfall in Bern, nearLauterbrunnen, 8 m. S. Of Interlaken, with a sheer descent of 980 ft. ; inthe sunlight it has the appearance of a rainbow-hued transparent veil, and before it reaches the ground it is dissipated in silvery spray. 

STAUNTON, HOWARD, a famous chess-player; was an Oxford man, and leda busy life as a journalist and miscellaneous writer in London; won thechess championship in 1843, and did much to extend the scientific studyof the game by various publications, "The Chess-Player's Handbook, " &c. ;was also held in high repute as a Shakespearian scholar; publishedwell-annotated editions of Shakespeare's works and a facsimile of thefirst folio (1810-1874). 

STAVANGER (24), a flourishing port of Norway, on a fiord on the SW. Coast, 100 m. S. Of Bergen; is of modern aspect, having been largelyrebuilt; has two excellent harbours, a fine 11th-century Gothiccathedral, and is the centre of important coast fisheries. 

STAVROPOL (657), a Russian government on the Caspian Sea, theinhabitants of which are chiefly nomads and breed horses, with a capitalof the same name (36) on a hill, a modern town and a prosperous, both inmanufacture and trade. 

STEEL, SIR JOHN, sculptor, born at Aberdeen; studied at Edinburghand Rome; made his mark in 1832 by a model of a statue, "Alexander andBucephalus, " and soon took rank with the foremost and busiest sculptorsof his day; his works are mostly to be found in Edinburgh, and includethe equestrian statue of Wellington, statues of Sir Walter Scott (in theScott Monument), Professor Wilson, Dr. Chalmers, Allan Ramsay, etc. ; thesplendid figure of Queen Victoria over the Royal Institution gained himthe appointment (1844) of sculptor to Her Majesty in Scotland, and on theunveiling of his fine equestrian statue of Prince Albert in 1876 he wascreated a knight (1804-1891). 

STEELE, SIR RICHARD, a famous English essayist, born, the son of anattorney, in Dublin; educated as a foundationer at the Charterhouse andat Oxford; enamoured of a soldier's life, enlisted (1694) as a cadet inthe Life Guards; in the following year received an ensigncy in theColdstream Guards, and continued in the army till 1706, by which time hehad attained the rank of a captain; a good deal of literary work was doneduring his soldiering, notably "The Christian Hero" and several comedies;appointed Gazetteer (1707), and for some two years was in the privateservice of the Prince Consort, George of Denmark; began in 1709 to issuethe famous tri-weekly paper the _Tatler_, in which, with littleassistance, he played the part of social and literary censor about town, couching his remarks in light and graceful essays, which constituted afresh departure in literature; largely aided by Addison, his old schoolcompanion, he developed this new form of essay in the _Spectator_ and_Guardian_; sat in Parliament as a zealous Whig, and in George I. 's reignwas knighted and received various minor court appointments; continued abusy writer of pamphlets, &c. , but withal mismanaged his affairs, anddied in Wales, secured from actual penury by the property of his secondwife; as a writer shares with Addison the glory of the Queen Anne Essay, which in their hands did much to purify, elevate, and refine the mind andmanners of the time (1671-1729). 

STEEN, JAN, Dutch painter, born in Leyden; was a _genre_ painter ofthe style of Rembrandt, and his paintings display severity with sympathyand a playful humour; he is said to have led a dissipated life, and tohave left his wife and a large family in extreme destitution (1626-1679). 

STEEVENS, GEORGE, commentator on Shakespeare, born at Stepney; in1736 edited 20 of Shakespeare's plays carefully reprinted from theoriginal quartos, and in 1731 his notes with those of Johnson in anotheredition; a further edition, with a number of gratuitous alterations ofthe text, was issued by him in 1793, and that was the accepted one tillthe publication of Knight's in 1838 (1736-1800). 

STEIN, BARON VON, Prussian statesman, born at Nassau; rose rapidlyin the service of the State, and became Prussian Prime Minister underWilliam III. In 1807, in which capacity he effected important changes inthe constitution of the country to its lasting benefit, till Napoleonprocured his dismissal, and he withdrew to Austria, and at length to St. Petersburg, where he was instrumental in turning the general tide againstNapoleon (1757-1831). 

STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON, a lady friend of Goethe's, born at Weimar;Goethe's affection for her cooled on his return from Italy to see her sochanged; she never forgave him for marrying a woman beneath him; lettersby Goethe to her were published in successive editions, but hers to himwere destroyed by her (1742-1827). 

STEINMETZ, CARL FRIEDRICH VON, Prussian general, born at Eisenach;distinguished himself in the war of 1813-1814, and inflicted crushingdefeats on the Austrians in 1866; fell below his reputation in theFranco-German War, and was deprived of his command after the battle ofGravelotte, but was elected Governor-General of Posen and Silesia(1796-1877). 

STEINTHAL, HEYMANN, German philologist, born at Gröbzig, in Anhalt;studied at Berlin, where in 1863 he became professor of ComparativePhilology, and in 1872 lecturer at the Jewish High School on OldTestament Criticism and Theology; author of various learned and acuteworks on the science of language; _b_. 1823. 

STELLA, the name under which Swift has immortalised Hester Johnson, the story of whose life is inseparably entwined with that of the greatDean; was the daughter of a lady-companion of Lady Gifford, the sister ofSir William Temple, who, it is conjectured, was her father. Swift firstmet her, a child of seven, when he assumed the duties of amanuensis toSir William Temple in 1688, and during his subsequent residence with SirWilliam (1696-1699) stood to her in the progressive relationship oftutor, friend, and lover; but for some unaccountable reason it would seemthey never married, although their mutual affection and intimacy enduredtill her death; to her was addressed, without thought of publication, theimmortal "Journal to Stella, " "the most faithful and fascinating diarythe world has ever seen, " which throws an invaluable flood of light onthe character of Swift, revealing unsuspected tendernesses and affectionsin the great satirist (1681-1728). 

STENCILLING, a cheap and simple process of printing on varioussurfaces letters or designs; the characters are cut out in thin plates ofmetal or card-board, which are then laid on the surface to be imprinted, and the colour, by means of a brush, rubbed through the cut spaces. 

STENO, NICHOLAS, a noted anatomist, born at Copenhagen, where hestudied medicine and kindred sciences with great enthusiasm; becamewidely known in European medical circles by his important investigationsinto the natural functions of glands (salivary and parotid), the heart, brain, &c. ; in 1667 became physician to the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, residing at Florence, where he renounced Lutheranism for Catholicism;made valuable geological investigations, but finally gave himself up to areligious life; was created a bishop, and in 1677 Vicar-Apostolic ofNorth Germany; chiefly remembered for his contributions to anatomicalscience (1638-1687). 

STENTOR, a Grecian herald who accompanied the Greeks in the TrojanWar, and whom Homer describes as "the great-hearted, brazen-voicedStentor, whose shout was as loud as that of fifty other men, " hence theepithet stentorian. 

STEPHEN, king of England from 1135 to 1154, nephew of Henry I. , hismother being Adela, daughter of William I. ; acquired French possessionsthrough the favour of his uncle and by his marriage; in 1127 swore fealtyto his cousin Matilda, daughter of Henry I. , as his future sovereign, buton the death of his uncle usurped the throne, an action leading to aviolent civil war, which brought the country into a state of anarchy; theScots invaded on behalf of Matilda, but were beaten back at Northallerton(the Battle of the Standard, 1138); foreign mercenaries introduced by theking only served to embitter the struggle; the clergy, despoiled by theking, turned against him, and in the absence of a strong centralauthority the barons oppressed the people and fought with one another;"Adulterine Castles" sprang up over the country, and "men said openlythat Christ and His saints were asleep"; in 1141 Matilda won the battleof Lincoln and for a few months ruled the country, but "as much too harshas Stephen was too lenient, " she rapidly became unpopular, and Stephenwas soon again in the ascendant; the successes of Henry, son of Matilda, led in 1153 to the treaty of Wallingford, by which it was arranged thatStephen should retain the crown for life, while Henry should be his heir;both joined in suppressing the turbulent barons and the "AdulterineCastles"; more fortunately circumstanced, Stephen had many qualitieswhich might have made him a popular and successful king (1105-1154). 

STEPHEN, the name of nine popes; S. I. , Pope from 253 to 257, signalised by his zeal against the heresies of his time; S. II. , Pope from 752 to 757, in whose reign, under favour of Pepin le Bref, began the temporal power of the Popes; S. III. , Pope from 768 to772, sanctioned the worship of saints and images; S. IV. , Pope from816 to 817; S. V. , Pope from 885 to 891, distinguished for hischarity; S. VI. , Pope from 896 to 897, strangled after a reign of 18months; S. VII. , Pope from 829 to 831, entirely under the control ofhis mistresses; S. VIII. , pope from 939 to 942; S. IX. , Popefrom 1057 to 1058, vigorously opposed the sale of benefices and theimmorality of the clergy. 

STEPHEN, GEORGE, archæologist, born in Liverpool; settled in Sweden, and became professor of English in Copenhagen; his great work entitled"Old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England"; _b_. 1813. 

STEPHEN, JAMES, slavery abolitionist, born in Dorsetshire; held apost in the West Indies; wrote "Slavery in the British West Indies, " anable book; had sons more or less distinguished in law and law practice(1759-1832). 

STEPHEN, LESLIE, man of letters, born at Kensington, educated atEton and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow; becameeditor of the _Cornhill_ and of the first 26 volumes of the "Dictionaryof National Biography"; is the author of "Hours in a Library" and"History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, " books that haveproduced a deep impression; has also produced several biographies, distinguished at once by accuracy, elegance, and critical acumen; _b_. 1832. 

STEPHEN, ST. , protomartyr of the Christian Church, who was (Actsvii. ) stoned to death in A. D. 33; his death is a frequent subject of theold painters, the saint himself being less frequently depicted, but whenso he is represented usually in a deacon's dress, bearing a stone in onehand and a palm-branch in the other, or both hands full of stones. 

STEPHENS, JAMES, Fenian conspirator, born in Kilkenny; became "HeadCentre, " and zealous in the Fenian cause both in Ireland and America; wasarrested in Dublin, but escaped; found his way to New York, but wasdeposed, and has sunk out of sight; _b_. 1824. 

STEPHEN'S, ST. , the Parliament House of Westminister, distinguishedfrom St. James's, which denotes the Court, as Downing Street does theGovernment. 

STEPHENSON, GEORGE, inventor of the locomotive, born, the son of apoor colliery engineman, at Wylam, near Newcastle; was early set to work, first as a cowherd and then as a turnip-hoer, and by 15 was earning 12s. A week as fireman at Throckley Bridge Colliery, diligently the whileacquiring the elements of education; married at 21, and supplemented hiswage as brakesman at Killingworth Colliery by mending watches and shoes;in 1815 invented a safety-lamp for miners, which brought him a publictestimonial of £1000; while at Killingworth turned his attention to theapplication of steam to machinery, and thus constructed his firstlocomotive in 1814 for the colliery tram-road; railway and locomotiveconstruction now became the business of his life; superintended theconstruction of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (1821-25), theLiverpool and Manchester Railway (1826-29), over which he ran hislocomotive the "Rocket" at a maximum rate of 35 m. An hour; in theoutburst of railway enterprise which now ensued Stephenson's serviceswere in requisition all over the country; became principal engineer onmany of the new railways; bought the country-seat of Tapton, nearChesterfield, to which he retired for much-needed rest; a man ofcharacter, gentle and simple in his affections, strong and purposeful inhis labours, who, as he himself says, "fought for the locomotivesingle-handed for nearly 20 years, " and "put up with every rebuff, determined not to be put down" (1781-1848). 

STEPHENSON, ROBERT, son of preceding, born at Willington Quay, waswell educated at Newcastle, and for a session at Edinburgh University;began in 1823 to assist his father, and from 1824 to 1827 fulfilled anengineering engagement in Colombia, South America; rendered valuableservice in the construction of the "Rocket, " and as joint-engineer withhis father of the London and Birmingham line, was mainly responsible forits construction; turning his attention specially to bridge-building heconstructed the Britannia and Conway Tubular bridges, besides manyothers, including those over the Nile, St. Lawrence, &c. ; was returned tothe House of Commons in 1847; received the Grand Cross of the Legion ofHonour from the French emperor, and many other distinctions at home andabroad; was buried in Westminster Abbey (1803-1859). 

STEPNIAK, Russian Nihilist and apostle of freedom; exiled himself toEngland; author of "Underground Russia" (1852-1895). 

STEPPES, the name given to wide, treeless plains, barren except inspring, of the SE. Of Russia and SW. Of Siberia. 

STEREOSCOPE, a simple optical apparatus which, when two photographsof an object taken from slightly different standpoints (so as to securethe appearance it presents to either eye singly) are placed under itstwin magnifying lenses, presents to the eyes of the looker a singlepicture of the object standing out in natural relief. 

STERLING, JOHN, a friend of Carlyle's, born at Kames Castle, Bute, son of Captain Sterling of the _Times_; studied at Glasgow and Cambridge;a man of brilliant parts and a liberal-minded, but of feeble health; hadJulius Hare for tutor at Cambridge, and became Hare's curate atHurstmonceaux for eight months; wrote for reviews, and projected literaryenterprises, but achieved nothing; spent his later days moving from placeto place hoping to prolong life; formed an acquaintanceship with Carlylein 1832; became an intelligent disciple, and believed in him to the last;Hare edited his papers, and wrote his life as a clergyman, and Carlyle, dissatisfied, wrote another on broader lines, and by so doingimmortalised his memory (1806-1843). 

STERN, DANIEL. See AGOULT. 

STERNE, LAURENCE, English humourist, born at Clonmel, Ireland, sonof Roger Sterne, captain in the army; his mother an Irishwoman; waseducated at Halifax and Cambridge, by-and-by took orders, and receivedlivings in Sutton and Shillington, became a prebend at York, and finallygot a living at Coxwold; in 1759 appeared the first two volumes of"Tristram Shandy, " and in 1767 the last two; in 1768 his "SentimentalJourney, " and in the interim his "Sermons, " equally characteristic of theman as the two former productions. Stopford Brooke says, "They have noplot, they can scarcely be said to have any story. The story of 'TristramShandy' wanders like a man in a labyrinth, and the humour is aslabyrinthine as the story. It is carefully invented, and whimsicallysubtle; and the sentiment is sometimes true, but mostly affected. But acertain unity is given to the book by the admirable consistency of thecharacters, " his masterpieces, among which is "Uncle Toby"; the authordied in London of pulmonary consumption (1713-1763). 

STERNHOLD, THOMAS, principal author of the first English metricalversion of the Psalms, originally attached to the Prayer-Book asaugmented by John Hopkins; continued in general use till Tate and Brady'sversion of 1696 was substituted in 1717; was a Hampshire man, and heldthe post of Groom of the Robes to Henry VIII. And Edward VI. (1500-1549). 

STEROPES, one of the three CYCLOPS (q. V. ). 

STESICHORUS, a celebrated Greek lyric poet, born in Sicily;contemporary of Sappho, Aleacus, and Pittacus; at his birth it is said anightingale alighted on his lips and sang a sweet strain (632-652 B. C. ). 

STETTIN (116), capital of Pomerania, and a flourishing river-port onboth banks of the Oder, 30 m. From its entrance into the Baltic, and 60m. NE. Of Berlin; lies contiguous to, and is continuous with, the smallertowns of Bredow, Grabow, and Züllchow; principal buildings are the royalpalace (16th century), the Gothic church of St. Peter (12th century), andSt. James's (14th century); is a busy hive of industry, turning outships, cement, sugar, spirits, &c. , and carrying on a large export andimport trade. 

STEUBEN, BARON VON, general in the American War of Independence, born in Magdeburg; originally in the Prussian service under Frederick theGreat, and had distinguished himself at the siege of Prague and atRossbach; emigrating to America at the end of the Seven Years' War heoffered his services, which were readily welcomed, and contributed toorganise and discipline the army, to the success of the revolution(1730-1794). 

STEVENSON, ROBERT, an eminent Scottish engineer, born at Glasgow, the son of a West India merchant; adopted the profession of hisstepfather Thomas Smith, and in 1796 succeeded him as first engineer tothe Board of Northern Lighthouses, a position he held for 47 years, during which he planned and erected as many as 23 lighthouses round thecoasts of Scotland, his most noted erection being that on the Bell Rock;introduced the catoptric system of illumination and other improvements;was also much employed as a consulting engineer in connection withbridge, harbour, canal, and railway construction (1772-1850). 

STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS BALFOUR, novelist and essayist, grandson ofthe preceding, born at Edinburgh, where in 1875 he was called to the bar, after disappointing his father by not following the family vocation ofengineering; had already begun to write for the magazines, and soonabandoned law for the profession of letters, in which he rapidly came tothe front; in 1878 appeared his first book, "An Inland Voyage, " quicklyfollowed by "Travels with a Donkey, " "Virginibus Puerisque, " "FamiliarStudies"; with "Treasure Island" (1883) found a wider public as a writerof adventure and romance, and established himself permanently in thepublic favour with "Kidnapped" (1886, most popular story), "The Master ofBallantrae, " "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, " &c. ; his versatility in letterswas further revealed in his charming "A Child's Garden of Verse, ""Ballads, " "Memories and Portraits, " and "A Footnote to History" (onSamoan politics); in 1890 failing health induced him to make his home inthe island of Samoa, where he died and is buried; "His too short life, "says Professor Saintsbury, "has left a fairly ample store of work, notalways quite equal, seldom quite without a flaw, but charming, stimulating, distinguished as few things in this last quarter of acentury have been" (1850-1894). 

STEWARD, LORD HIGH, in early times the highest office of state inEngland, ranking in power next to the sovereign; hereditary during manycenturies, the office lapsed in the reign of Henry IV. , and since hasbeen revived only on special occasions, e. G. A coronation, a trial ofa peer, at the termination of which the office is demitted, the Lord HighSteward himself breaking in two his wand of office. 

STEWART, BALFOUR, physicist, born in Edinburgh; after finishing hisuniversity curriculum went to Australia and engaged for some time inbusiness; returned to England; became director at Kew Observatory, andprofessor of Natural Philosophy at Owens College, Manchester; madediscoveries in radiant heat, and was one of the founders of SPECTRUMANALYSIS (q. V. ); published text-books on physics, in wide repute(1828-1887). 

STEWART, DUGALD, Scottish philosopher, born in Edinburgh, son ofMatthew Stewart; attended the High School and the University; studied onesession at Glasgow under Dr. Reid; assisted his father in conducting themathematical classes in Edinburgh, and succeeded Adam Ferguson in theMoral Philosophy chair in 1785, a post, the active duties of which hedischarged with signal success for twenty-five years, lecturing on a widerange of subjects connected with metaphysics and the science of mind; hewrote "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, " "PhilosophicalEssays, " &c. ; "His writings, " says Carlyle, who held him in highveneration, "are not a philosophy, but a making ready for one. He doesnot enter on the field to till it; he only encompasses it with fences, invites cultivators, and drives away intruders; often (fallen on evildays) he is reduced to long arguments with the passers-by to prove thatit _is_ a field, that this so highly-prized domain of his is, in truth, soil and substance, not clouds and shadows. It is only to a superficialobserver that the import of these discussions can seem trivial; rightlyunderstood, they give sufficient and final answer to Hartley's andDarwin's and all other possible forms of Materialism, the grand Idolatry, as we may rightly call it, by which, in all times, the true Worship, thatof the Invisible, has been polluted and withstood" (1753-1858). 

STEWART, HOUSE OF. See STUART. 

STEWART, MATTHEW, mathematician, born at Rothesay; bred for theChurch, was for a time minister of Roseneath, and succeeded Maclaurin asprofessor of Mathematics in Edinburgh in 1747; was the author of amathematical treatise or two, and the lifelong friend of Robert Simson(1717-1785). 

STEYER (17), a manufacturing town of Upper Austria, at the junctionof the Steyer and Enns, 20 m. NE. Of St. Valentin; noted for itsflourishing iron and steel manufactures, of which it is the chief seat inAustria. 

STHENO, one of the THREE GORGONS (q. V. ). 

STIELER, a celebrated German cartographer, born at Gotha; hisatlases are deservedly held in high esteem for their excellence(1775-1836). 

STIER, RUDOLF EWALD, German theologian; was a devout student of theBible as the very Word of God, and is best known as the author of the"Words of the Lord Jesus" (1800-1862). 

STIGAND, archbishop of Canterbury and favourite of Edward theConfessor, who advanced him to the bishoprics of Elmham and Winchesterand to the Primacy in 1052; his appointment was popularly regarded asuncanonical, and neither Harold nor William the Conqueror allowed him toperform the ceremony of coronation; through William's influence was bythe Pope deprived of his office and condemned to imprisonment. 

STIGMATA, impressions of marks corresponding to certain woundsreceived by Christ at His crucifixion, and which certain of the saintsare said to have been supernaturally marked with in memory of His. St. Francis in particular showed such marks. 

STILICHO, a Roman general, son of a Vandal captain under the emperorValens; on the death of Theodosius I. , under whom he served, became theruler of the West, and by his military abilities saved the WesternEmpire; defeated Alaric the Goth in a decisive battle and compelled himto retire from Italy, as he did another horde of invading barbariansafterwards; aspired to be master of the Roman empires, but wasassassinated at Ravenna in 403. 

STILL, JOHN, bishop of Bath and Wells, born at Grantham; rose in theChurch through a succession of preferments: is credited with theauthorship of one of the oldest comedies in the English language, "GammerGurton's Needle, " turning on the loss and recovery by her of the needlewith which she was mending her goodman's breeches (1543-1607). 

STILLING, JUNG, a German mystic; studied medicine at Strasburg, andwhen there became acquainted with Goethe, who took a liking for him andremained his warm friend; settled as a physician at Elberfeldt and becameprofessor at Marburg and at Heidelberg; he was distinguished for hisskill in operations on the eye, and is said to have restored to sightwithout fee or reward 3000 poor blind persons; he is best known by hisautobiography; Carlyle defines him as the German "Dominie Sampson. "

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD, bishop of Worcester, born in Dorsetshire; wasa scholarly man, wrote on apologetics, in defence of the Church ofEngland as a branch of the Church Catholic, in support of the doctrine ofthe Trinity, and in advocacy of harmony in the Church; was an ablecontroversialist and a generous minded; was a handsome man, and popularlycalled the "Beauty of holiness" (1635-1699). 

STIPPLE, a mode of engraving by dots instead of lines, each dot whenmagnified showing a group of small ones. 

STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHISON, master in philosophy, born in Glasgow;bred to medicine and practised for a time in South Wales; went to Germanyto study the recent developments in philosophy there, on his return toScotland published, in 1863, his "Secret of Hegel: being the HegelianSystem in Origin, Principle, Form, and Matter, " which has provedepoch-making, and has for motto the words of Hegel, "The Hidden Secret ofthe Universe is powerless to resist the might of thought! It must unclosebefore it, revealing to sight and bringing to enjoyment its riches andits depths. " It is the work of a master-mind, as every one must feel whotackles to the study of it, and of one who has mastered the subject of itas not another in England, or perhaps even in Germany, has done. The griphe takes of it is marvellous and his exposition trenchant and clear. Itwas followed in 1881 by his "Text-book to Kant, " an exposition which his"Secret" presupposes, and which he advised the students of it to expect, that they might be able to construe the entire Hegelian system from itsroot in Kant. It is not to the credit of his country that Dr. Stirlinghas never been elected to a chair in any of her universities, though itis understood that is due to the unenlightened state of mind of electoralbodies in regard to the Hegelian system and the prejudice against it, particularly among the clergy of the Church. He was, however, elected tobe the first Gifford Lecturer in Edinburgh University, and his admirershave had to content themselves with that modicum of acknowledgment atlast. He is the author of a critique on Sir William Hamilton's theory ofperception, on Huxley's doctrine of protoplasm, and on Darwinianism, besides a translation of SCHWEGLER'S "History of Philosophy, " withnotes, a highly serviceable work. His answer to Huxley is crushing. He isthe avowed enemy of the Aufklärung and of all knowledge that consists ofmere Vorstellungen and does not grasp the ideas which they present; _b_. 1820. 

STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL OF, poet, born at Menstrie, nearAlloa; was for a time tutor to the family of Argyll; was the author ofsonnets called "Aurora, " some curious tragedies, and an "Elegy on theDeath of Prince Henry"; he was held in high honour by James VI. Andfollowed him to London, obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, and madeSecretary of State for Scotland; he has been ranked as a poet withDrummond of Hawthornden, who was his friend (1580-1640). 

STIRLING-MAXWELL, See MAXWELL, STIRLING. 

STIRLING (17), the county town of Stirlingshire, and one of the mostancient and historically-interesting cities of Scotland; occupies a finesite on the Forth, 36 m. NW. Of Edinburgh and 29 m. NE. Of Glasgow; mostprominent feature is the rocky castle hill, rising at the westward end ofthe town to a height of 420 feet, and crowned by the ancient castle, afavourite Stuart residence, and associated with many stirring events inScottish history, and utilised now as a garrison-station; interestingalso are "Argyll's Lodging, " Greyfriars Church (Pointed Gothic of the15th century), the fine statue of Bruce, &c. ; has manufactures oftartans, tweeds, carpets, &c. , and a trade in agricultural and miningproducts. 

STIRLINGSHIRE (126), a midland county of Scotland, stretching E. AndW. From Dumbarton (W. ) to the Forth (E. ); between Lanark (S. ) and Perth(N. ) it forms the borderland between the Lowlands and the Highlands; LochLomond skirts the western border, and on the northern Loch Katrine, stretching into Perthshire; Ben Lomond and lesser heights rise in theNW. ; main streams are the Avon, Carron, Bannock, &c. ; between Alloa andStirling stretches the fertile and well-cultivated plain, "The Carse ofStirling"; in the W. Lies a portion of the great western coal-field, fromwhich coal and iron-stone are largely extracted; principal towns areSTIRLING (q. V. ), Falkirk, and Kilsyth; interesting remains ofAntoninus' Wall, from Forth to Clyde, still exist; within its borderswere fought the battles of Bannockburn, Sauchieburn, Stirling Bridge, Falkirk, &c. 

STIRRUP CUP, a "parting cup" given by the Highlanders to guests whenthey are leaving and have their feet in the stirrups. 

STOBSÆUS, JOANNES, a native of Stobi, in Macedonia; flourished atthe end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th century; celebrated as thecompiler (about 500 A. D. ) of a Greek Anthology, through which manyvaluable extracts are preserved to us from works which have since his daybeen lost. 

STOCK EXCHANGE, a mart for the buying and selling of Governmentstocks, company shares, and various securities, carried on usually by themembers of an associated body of brokers having certain rules andregulations. Such associations exist now in most of the important citiesof the United Kingdom and commercial world generally (on the Continentare known as _Bourses_). The London Stock Exchange, transacting businessin handsome buildings in Capel Court, facing the Bank of England, wasestablished in 1801, stock-exchange transactions previous to then beingcarried on in a loose, ill-regulated fashion by private parties chieflyin and around Change Alley, the scene of the memorable SOUTH SEABUBBLE (q. V. ) speculation. The great development in stock-exchangebusiness in recent times is due chiefly to the sale of foreign andcolonial bonds, and the remarkable growth and spread of joint-stockcompanies since the Joint-Stock Company Act of 1862. 

STOCKHOLM (246), capital of Sweden; occupies a charming site on thechannel leading out of Lake Mälar into a bay of the Baltic; stands partlyon the mainland and partly on nine islands, communication between whichis facilitated by handsome bridges and a busy service of boats; itswooded and rocky islands, crowned with handsome buildings, its windingwaterways, peninsulas, crowded wharves, and outlook over the isletedlake, combine to make it one of the most picturesque cities of Europe;Town Island, the nucleus of the city, is occupied by the royal palace, House of Nobles, principal wharf, &c. , while on Knights' Island stand theHouses of Parliament, law-courts, and other public buildings; Norrmalm, with the Academy of Science, National Museum, Academy of Fine Arts, HopGarden, &c. , is the finest quarter of the city; manufactures embracesugar, tobacco, silks, linen, cotton, &c. , besides which there areflourishing iron-works and a busy export trade in iron and steel, oats, and tar, despite the hindrance caused by the ice during three or fourmonths in winter; founded in 1255 by Birger Jarl. 

STOCKMAR, BARON DE, statesman, born at Coburg; bred to medicine, became physician to Leopold I. Of Belgium, and at length his adviser; wasadviser also of Queen Victoria before her accession; accompanied PrinceAlbert to Italy before his marriage, and joined him thereafter in Englandas the trusted friend of both the queen and him; he had two politicalideals--a united Germany under Prussia, and unity of purpose betweenGermany and England (1757-1863). 

STOCKPORT (70), a cotton town of East Cheshire; occupies a site onthe slopes of a narrow gorge overlooking the confluence of the Thame andGoyt (forming the Mersey), 37 m. E. Of Liverpool; a handsome viaductspans the river; has an old grammar-school, free library, technicalschool, &c. ; during the present century has grown to be a busy centre ofcotton manufactures, and has besides flourishing iron and brassfoundries, machine-shops, breweries, &c. 

STOCKTON-ON-TEES (69), a prosperous manufacturing town and port ofDurham, on the Tees, 4 m. From its mouth; an iron bridge spanning theriver connects it with Thornaby-on-Tees; has the usual public buildings;steel and iron shipbuilding building, potteries, foundries, machine-shopsare flourishing industries; iron and earthenware are the chief exports, and with imports of corn and timber give rise to a busy and increasingshipping, facilitated by the excellent river-way. 

STOICS, the disciples of Zeno; derived their name from the _stoa_ orportico in Athens where their master taught and founded the school in 340B. C. The doctrines of the school were completely antagonistic to thoseof Epicurus, and among the disciples of it are to be reckoned some of thenoblest spirits of the heathen world immediately before and after theadvent of Christ. These appear to have been attracted to it by thecharacter of its moral teachings, which were of a high order indeed. Theprinciple of morality was defined to be conformity to reason, and theduty of man to lie in the subdual of all passion and a composedsubmission to the will of the gods. It came short of Christian morality, as indeed all Greek philosophy did, in not recognising the Divinesignificance and power of humility, and especially in its failure to see, still more to conform to, the great doctrine of Christ which makes thesalvation of a man to depend on the interest he takes in, as well as inthe fact of the salvation of, other men. The Stoic was a proud man, andnot a humble, and was content if he could only have his own soul for aprey. He did not see--and no heathen ever did--that the salvation of oneman is impossible except in the salvation of other men, and that no mancan save another unless he descend into that other's case and stand, asit were, in that other's stead. It is the glory of Christ that He was thefirst to feel Himself, and to reveal to others, the eternal validity anddivinity of this truth. The Stoic morality is selfish; the morality ofChrist is brotherly. 

STOKE-UPON-TRENT (24), chief seat of the "Potteries, " inStaffordshire, on the Trent and the Trent and Mersey Canal, 15 m. SE. OfCrewe; is of modern growth, with free library, infirmary, public baths, statue to Wedgwood, &c. , and is busily engaged in the manufacture of allsorts of porcelain ware, earthenware, encaustic tiles, &c. , besides whichthere are flourishing iron-works, machine-shops, coal-mines, &c. 

STOKES, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL, mathematician and physicist, born inSkreen, co. Sligo; he is great in the department of mathematical physics, and has been specially devoted to the study of hydro-dynamics and thetheory of light; has opened new fields of investigation, and suppliedfuture experimenters with valuable hints; he was one of the foremostphysicists of the day; _b_. 1819. 

STOLBERG, CHRISTIAN, COUNT, German poet of the Göttingen school, towhich Bürger and Voss belonged, born in Hamburg; was with his brother afriend of Goethe's, and held a civil appointment in Holstein (1748-1821). 

STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, COUNT OF, German poet, born inHolstein, brother of preceding; held State appointments in Denmark;joined the Romish Church, and showed a religious and ascetic temper(1750-1819). 

STOLE, a long scarf worn by bishops and priests in theadministration of the sacraments of the Church, and sometimes whenpreaching, as well as in symbol of authority. 

STONE AGE, the name given to that period in the history ofcivilisation when the weapons of war and the chase and the implements ofindustry were made of stone, prior to employment for these purposes ofbronze, characteristic of the age succeeding. 

STONE CIRCLES, circles of STANDING STONES (q. V. ) found invarious parts of Great Britain, North Europe generally, and also, but ofmore recent origin, in North India; were certainly, in the most of cases, set up to mark the circular boundary of a place of burial; erroneouslyascribed to the Druids; from the character of numerous cinerary urnsexhumed, seem to have belonged to the bronze age in Great Britain; mostinteresting are those of Stennis, in Orkney, with a circumference of 340ft. , Avebury, in Wiltshire, and STONEHENGE (q. V. ). 

STONEHAVEN (4), fishing port and county town of Kincardineshire, situated at the entrance of Carron Water (dividing the town) into SouthBay, 16 m. SSW. Of Aberdeen; has a small harbour, and is chiefly engagedin herring and haddock fishing. 

STONEHENGE, the greatest and best preserved of the STONECIRCLES (q. V. ) of Britain, situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, 7 m. N. Of Salisbury; "consists of two concentric circles, enclosing twoellipses"; the diameter of the space enclosed is 100 ft. ; the stones arefrom 13 ft. To 28 ft. High; is generally regarded as an exceptionaldevelopment of the ordinary stone circle, but the special purpose of itsunusual construction is still a matter of uncertainty. 

STONYHURST, a celebrated Roman Catholic college in East Lancashire, 10 m. N. Of Blackburn; established in 1794 by certain Jesuit fathers who, after the suppression of their seminary at St. Omer, in France, by theBourbons, took up their residence at Bruges and then at Liège, but fledthence to England during the Revolution, and accepted the shelter offeredthem at Stonyhurst by Mr. Weld of Lulworth; there are about 300 students, and upwards of 30 masters; a preparatory school has been established atHodder, a mile distant; in 1840 was affiliated to the University ofLondon, for the degrees of which its students are chiefly trained;retains in its various institutions many marks of its French origin. 

STOOL OF REPENTANCE, in Scotland in former times an elevated seat ina church on which for offences against morality people did penance andsuffered rebuke. 

STORM, THEODORE WOLDSEN, German poet and exquisite story-teller, born in Sleswig; was a magistrate and judge in Sleswig-Holstein(1817-1888). 

STORM-AND-STRESS PERIOD, name given in the history of Germanliterature to a period at the close of the 18th century, when the nationbegan to assert its freedom from artificial literary restraint, a periodto which Goethe's "Goetz von Berlichingen" and Schiller's "Robbers"belong, and the spirit of which characterises it; the representatives ofthe period were called Kraftmänner (Power-men), who "with extremeanimation railed against Fate in general, because it enthralled freevirtue, and with clenched hands or sounding shields hurled defiancetowards the vault of heaven. "

STORMS, CAPE OF, name originally given in 1486 to the Cape of GoodHope by the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Dias. 

STORNOWAY, a fishing-port, the capital of Lewis, and the chief townin the Outer Hebrides, with Stornoway Castle adjoining. 

STORTHING (i. E. Great court), the national Parliament of Norway, composed of two chambers, the Lagthing or Upper Chamber, and theOdelsthing or Lower. 

STORY, JOSEPH, American jurist and judge, born in Massachusetts(1779-1845). 

STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE, poet and sculptor, son of preceding; _b_. 1819. 

STOTHARD, THOMAS, artistic designer and book illustrator, as well aspainter, born in London, son of an innkeeper; illustrated, among otherworks, "Pilgrim's Progress, " and along with Turner, Rogers' "Italy"(1755-1834). 

STOURBRIDGE, manufacturing town in Worcestershire; its staplemanufactures are glass and pottery. 

STOW, JOHN, English antiquary, born in London; bred a tailor; tookto antiquarian pursuits, which he prosecuted with the zeal of a devoteethat spared no sacrifice; wrote several works on antiquities, the chiefand most valuable being his "Survey of London and Westminster"; he endedhis days in poverty (1525-1605). 

STOWELL, WILLIAM SCOTT, eminent English judge, born at Heworth, brother of Lord Eldon; famed for his judicial decisions (1745-1836). 

STRABO, ancient geographer, born at Amasia, in Pontus; flourished inthe reign of Augustus, and the early part of that of Tiberius; was alearned man, lived some years in Rome, and travelled much in variouscountries; wrote a history of 43 books, all lost, and a work ongeography, in 17 books, which has come down to us entire all to the 7th;the work is in general not descriptive; it comprehends principallyimportant political events in connection with the countries visited, witha notice of their illustrious men, or whatever seemed to himcharacteristic in them or was of interest to himself; born about 63 B. C. 

STRADDHA, the funeral rites and funeral offerings for the dead amongthe Hindus. 

STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF, English statesman, born inLondon, of an old Yorkshire family; studied at Cambridge; after somemonths' travel on the Continent entered Parliament in 1614, but took noactive part in affairs till 1621; he took sides at first with the partyfor freedom, but in 1622 felt compelled to side with the king, to hiselevation of greater and greater influence as his counsellor; his policy, named "Thorough, " was to establish a strong Government with the king atthe head, and to put down with a strong hand all opposition to the royalauthority; appointed Lord-Deputy in Ireland in 1633, he did all he couldto increase the royal resources, and was at length, in 1640, exalted tothe Lord-Lieutenancy, being at the same time created Earl of Strafford;he had risen by this time to be the chief adviser of the king, and washeld responsible for his arbitrary policy; after the meeting of the LongParliament he was impeached for high treason; the impeachment seemedlikely to fail, when a Bill of Attainder was produced; to this the kingrefused his assent, but he had to yield to the excitement his refusalproduced, and as the result Strafford was beheaded on Tower Hill(1593-1641). 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS (507, of which 150 are Chinese), British colonyin the East Indies, embracing the British possessions in the MalayPeninsula (on the Strait of Malacca), Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and theKeeling Islands and Christmas Island; were under the jurisdiction of theGovernor-General of India till 1867, in which year they passed under thecontrol of the Colonial Office at home. 

STRALSUND (28), a fortified seaport of North Prussia, on StrelaSound, opposite the island of Rügen, in the Baltic, and 66 m. NW. OfStettin, forms of itself an islet, and is connected with the mainland(Pomerania) by bridges; is a quaint old town, dating back to the 13thcentury; figures often in the wars of Prussia, and is now a place ofconsiderable commercial importance. 

STRANGFORD, PERCY C. S. SMYTHE, VISCOUNT, diplomatist; graduated atTrinity College, Dublin, in 1800; entered the diplomatic service, and inthe following year succeeded to the title; was ambassador to Portugal, Sweden, Turkey, and Russia; translated the "Rimas" of Camoëns, and wasraised to the peerage (1825) as Baron Penshurst (1780-1855). 

STRANGFORD, PERCY E. F. W. SMYTHE, son of preceding, diplomatist andnoted philologist, born at St. Petersburg; passed through Harrow andOxford; entered the diplomatic service; became attaché at Constantinople, and during the Crimean War served as Oriental Secretary, acquiring thewhile a profound grip of the Eastern Question, and an unrivalledknowledge of European and Asiatic languages--Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Slavonic, Afghan, Basque, &c. ; succeeded to the title in 1855, andhenceforth resided chiefly in London; was President of the AsiaticSociety, and was considered by Freeman "our greatest Englishphilologist"; author of various articles on political, geographical, andphilological subjects (1825-1869). 

STRANRAER (6), a royal burgh and seaport of Wigtownshire, finelysituated at the southern extremity of Loch Ryan, 73 m. W. Of Dumfries;has an interesting 16th-century castle, and a handsome town-hall andcourt-house; there is some shipping in agricultural produce, and steamersply daily between Stranraer and Larne, in Ireland. 

STRAPAROLA, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO, author of a famous collection ofstories after the style of Boccaccio's "Decameron, " partly borrowed andpartly genuine folk-stories, which ranks as an Italian classic, and hasbeen translated into various European languages; flourished in the 16thcentury. 

STRAP, HUGH, a simple-hearted friend and adherent of Roderick Randomin Smollett's novel of that name. 

STRAPPADO, an obsolete military punishment by drawing a culprit tothe top of a beam and then letting him drop the length of the rope. 

STRASBURG (124), capital, since 1871, of Alsace-Lorraine, on theIll, a few miles above its confluence with the Rhine, 89 m. N. Of Basel;a place of great strategical importance, and a fortress of the firstclass; is a city of Roman origin, and contains a magnificent Gothiccathedral (11th century) with a famous astronomical clock, an imperialpalace, university, &c. ; manufactures embrace beer, leather, cutlery, jewellery, &c. ; there is also a busy transit trade; a free town of theGerman empire in the 13th century; fell into the hands of the French in1681, and was captured by the Germans, after a seven weeks' siege, on28th September 1870, after which it became finally German, as it wasoriginally, by the peace of Frankfort, May 1871. 

STRATFORD (40), manufacturing town in Essex, on the Lee, 4 m. NE. OfLondon. 

STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, SIR STAFFORD CANNING, FIRST VISCOUNT, adistinguished ambassador, born in London, son of a well-connectedmerchant, and cousin to Canning the statesman; passed from Cambridge tothe Foreign Office in 1807 as a précis-writer to his cousin; in threeyears had risen to the post of minister-plenipotentiary atConstantinople, where he speedily gave evidence of his remarkable powersas a diplomatist by arranging unaided the treaty of Bucharest (1814)between Russia and Turkey, and so setting free the Russian army to fallupon Napoleon, then retreating from Moscow; as minister to Switzerlandaided the Republic in drawing up its constitution, and in the same year(1815) acted as commissioner at the Congress of Vienna; was subsequentlyemployed in the United States and various European capitals, but hisunrivalled knowledge of the Turkish question brought him again, in 1842, to Constantinople as ambassador, where his remarkable power and influenceover the Turks won him the title of "Great Elchi"; exerted in vain hisdiplomatic skill to prevent the rupture between Turkey and Russia, whichprecipitated the Crimean War; resigned his embassy in 1858; was raised tothe peerage in 1852; sat in Parliament for several years previous to1842, but failed to make his mark as a debater; ranks among the greatambassadors of England (1786-1880). 

STRATFORD-ON-AVON (8), a pleasant old market-town of Warwickshire, on the right bank of the Avon, 8 m. SW. Of Warwick and 110 m. NW. OfLondon; forever famous as the birth and burial place of Shakespeare, withwhom all that is of chief interest in the town is associated, the househe was born in, his old school, Anne Hathaway's cottage on theoutskirts, the fine Early English church (14th century), where he liesburied, the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, museum, &c. ; is Visitedannually by some 20, 000 pilgrims; a thriving agricultural centre. 

STRATHCLYDE or NORTHERN CUMBRIA, an ancient kingdom of theBritons, which originated in the 8th century, and comprised the W. Sideof Scotland between the Solway and the Clyde; Alclyde or Dumbarton wasthe capital; was permanently annexed to Scotland in 1124 under David I. 

STRATHFIELDSAYE, an estate in Hampshire with a fine Queen Annemansion, 7 m. NE. Of Basingstoke, purchased by Parliament for £263, 000, and presented to the Duke of Wellington in 1817. 

STRATHMORE ("Great Valley"), the great plain of Scotland stretchingfor 100 m. (5 to 10 m. Broad), in a north-easterly direction fromDumbartonshire to Stonehaven, in Kincardineshire, between the greatmountain barrier of the Highlands, the Grampians, and the SouthernLennox, Ochil, and Sidlaw Hills; in a more restricted sense denotes theplain between Perth and Brechin. 

STRATHPEFFER, a watering-place in Ross and Cromarty, 5 m. W. OfDingwall, a great health-resort, and much frequented on account of itsmineral waters and bracing air and other attractions. 

STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH, German theological and biblical critic, born at Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg; studied in the Theological Instituteof Tübingen under Baur, was ordained in 1830, and went in 1834 to Berlinto attend the lectures of Hegel and Schleiermacher, and returning toTübingen gave lectures on Hegel in 1832, he the while maturing his famoustheory which, published in 1835, made his name known over the wholetheological world; this was his "Leben Jesu, " the first volume of whichappeared that year, in which he maintained that, while the life of Christhad a historical basis, all the supernatural element in it and theaccounts of it were simply and purely mythical, and the fruit of the ideaof His person as Divine which at the foundation of the Christian religiontook possession of the mind of the Church; the book proved epoch-making, and the influence of it, whether as accepted or as rejected, affected, asit still does, the whole theology of the Church; the effect of it was ashock to the whole Christian world, for it seemed as if with the denialof the supernatural the whole Christian system fell to pieces; and itsauthor found the entire Christian world opposed to him, and he was castout of the service of the Church; this, however, did not daunt hisardour, for he never abandoned the ground he had taken up; his last workwas entitled "Der Alte und der Neue Glaube, " in which he openlyrepudiates the Christian religion, and assigns the sovereign authority inspiritual matters to science and its handmaid art. In a spiritualreference the whole contention of Strauss against Christianity is atissue of irrelevancies, for the spirit of it, which is its life andessence, is true whatever conclusion critics in their seraphic wisdom maycome to regarding the facts (1808-1874). 

STRAUSS, JOHANN, musical composer, born at Vienna; was a musicalconductor and composer, chiefly of waltz music. 

STREATHAM (48), a Surrey suburb of London, 6½ m. SW. Of St. Paul's. 

STREET, GEORGE EDMUND, architect, born in Essex; was the architectof the New Law Courts in London; had been trained under Gilbert Scott(1824-1881). 

STRELITZES, the name given to the life-guards of the czar, which atone time numbered 40, 000; became so unruly and dangerous to the Statethat they were dissolved by Peter the Great, and dispersed in 1705. 

STRETTON, HESBA, the _nom de plume_ of Sarah Smith, daughter of aShropshire bookseller, whose semi-religious stories, chiefly for theyoung, have won wide acceptance in English homes since the publication of"Jessica's First Prayer" in 1867; was a regular contributor to _HouseholdWords_ and _All the Year Round_ during Dickens's editorship; has writtenupwards of 40 volumes. 

STRICKLAND, AGNES, biographer of the queens of England, born atRoydon Hall, near Southwold, Suffolk; had already published poems andsome minor works before she conceived the plan of writing a series ofbiographies of the queens of England; these appeared in 12 vols. During1840-1848, and such was their popularity that a similar work dealing withthe queens of Scotland was immediately undertaken; was aided in these byher sister Elizabeth (1794-1875); was the author of various other works, "Lives of the Seven Bishops, " "Bachelor Kings of England, " &c. ; herwritings are of no value as history, but are full of entertaining details(1806-1874). 

STRINDBERG, AUGUST, the most noted of modern Swedish writers, bornat Stockholm; accumulated stores of valuable experience during variousearly employments, which he utilised in his first successful work, "TheRed Room" (1879), a satire on social life in Sweden, "The New Kingdom"(1882), equally bitter in its attack on social conventions, got him intotrouble, and since then his life has been spent abroad; "Married Life, " acollection of short stories, brought upon him a charge of "outragingChristianity, " but after trial at Stockholm, in which he eloquentlydefended himself, he was acquitted; a prolific writer in all kinds ofliterature, and imbued with modern scientific and socialistic ideas, hiswritings lack the repose necessary to the highest literary achievement;_b_. 1849. 

STROMBOLI, one of the Lipari Islands; has an active volcano, thecone 3022 ft. , which erupts every five minutes what happens to be littleelse than steam; it is 12 m. In circuit, and contains about 1000inhabitants. 

STROMKARL, a Norwegian spirit who has 11 different music strains, to10 of which people may dance, the 11th being his night strain, to thetune of which every one and everything begins to dance. 

STROMNESS, a seaport on the Orkney island of Pomona. 

STROUD (10), a busy manufacturing town of Gloucestershire; stands onrising ground overlooking the confluence of the Frome and Slade, whichunite to form the Frome or Stroud Water, 10 m. SE. Of Gloucester;numerous cloth and dye works are built along the banks of the river; inthe town are several woollen factories. 

STRUCK JURY, a jury of men who possess special qualifications tojudge of the facts of a case. 

STRUENSEE, Danish statesman, bred to medicine; became minister ofCharles VII. , took advantage of his imbecility and directed the affairsof government, roused the jealousy of the nobles, and he was arrested, tried on false charges, and was beheaded (1737-1776). 

STRUTT, JOSEPH, antiquary, born in Essex; wrote the "Regal andEcclesiastical Antiquities of England, " followed by other works on themanners and customs of the English people, that on their "Sports andPastimes" the chief (1742-1802). 

STRYPE, JOHN, historian and biographer, born in London; was avoluminous writer, wrote Lives of eminent English Churchmen and upon theEnglish Reformation (1643-1737). 

STUART, ARABELLA, daughter of the Earl of Lennox, and, as descendedfrom Margaret Tudor, heiress to the English throne in default of JamesVI. Of Scotland and his family, and towards whom James all alongcherished a jealous feeling, and who was subjected to persecution at hishands; when she chose to marry contrary to his wish he confined her inthe Tower, where she went mad and died. 

STUART DYNASTY, a dynasty of Scotch and finally English kings aswell, commenced with Robert II. , who was the son of Marjory, Robert theBruce's daughter, who married Walter, the Lord High Steward of Scotland, hence the name, his successors being Robert III. , James I. , James II. , James III. , James IV. , and James V. , Mary Queen of Scots, and James VI. In Scotland, and ended with James II. Of England, who was expelled fromthe throne for an obstinacy of temper which characterised all the membersof his house, "an unfortunate dynasty, " too, being appointed at length torule at a time and over a people that thought kings were born for thecountry and not the country for kings, a dictum which they stubbornlyrefused to concede, thinking that the nation existed for them instead ofthem for the nation. The line became extinct by the death of CardinalYork in 1807, who survived his brother Charles Edward 19 years. 

STUART, GILBERT CHARLES, American portrait-painter, born atNarragansett, Rhode Island; was taken up by a Scotch painter namedAlexander, whom he accompanied to Edinburgh, but was set adrift by thedeath of his patron, and for some years led a wandering life in Americaand London till his great gift of portrait-painting was recognised; in1792 returned to America, and there painted portraits of Washington, Jefferson, and other noted Americans (1756-1828). 

STUART, JOHN, Scottish antiquary; author of "The Sculptured Stonesof Scotland, " "The Book of Deer, " and frequent contributor to the_Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries_; held a post in theRegister House for 24 years (1813-1877). 

STUBBS, C. W. , English clergyman, born in Liverpool; has heldseveral incumbencies; is rector at Wavertree, near Liverpool, and takes agreat interest in the working-classes and in social subjects; is liberalboth in his political and in his theological opinions; has written onquestions of the day in a Christian reference; _b_. 1845. 

STUBBS, WILLIAM, historian, born at Knaresborough; studied atOxford; became a Fellow of Trinity and of Oriel, professor of ModernHistory at Oxford, and finally bishop; was author of "ConstitutionalHistory of England, " an epoch-making book in three volumes, and editor ofa collection of mediæval Chronicles, with valuable prefaces accompanying;his writings are distinguished by their learning and accuracy; _b_. 1825. 

STUHLWEISSENBURG (25), an old historic Hungarian town, 42 m. SW. OfPesth; was for long the residence of the Hungarian kings, in thecathedral of which they were crowned and buried. 

STUKELEY, WILLIAM, antiquary, born at Holbeach, Lincolnshire;graduated in medicine at Cambridge, and practised in London and elsewheretill 1729, when he took holy orders, and, after holding livings atStamford and Somerby, was presented in 1747 to the rectory of St Georgethe Martyr in London; maintained a lifelong interest in antiquarianresearch, and published many volumes on British and Roman antiquities, inwhich he displays unflagging industry and an exuberant fancifulness; "Ihave used his materials, " says Gibbon, "and rejected most of his fancifulconjectures"; his credulous works on the supposed Druidical remains atStonehenge and elsewhere gained him the title of the "Arch-Druid"(1687-1765). 

STUMP ORATOR, one who is ready to take up any question of the day, usually a political one, and harangue upon it from any platform offhand;the class, the whole merely a talking one, form the subject, in a prettywide reference, of one of Carlyle's scathing "Latter-Day Pamphlets. "

STURM, JOHANN, educational reformer, born In Luxemburg; settled inParis; established a school there for dialectics and rhetoric for a time, but left it on account of his Protestantism for Strasburg at theinvitation of the civic authorities, and became rector of the gymnasiumthere, which under him acquired such repute that the Emperor Maximilianconstituted it a university with him at the head; his adoption of thetheological views of Zwingli in opposition to those of Luther made himmany enemies, and he was dismissed from office, but was allowed apension; he was a great student of Cicero; he wrote many works in Latinin a style so pure and elegant that he was named the German Cicero(1507-1589). 

STURM-UND-DRANG. See STORM-AND-STRESS. 

STURT, CHARLES, a noted Australian explorer, and a captain in thearmy; during 1828-45 was the determined leader of three importantexploratory expeditions into Central Australia, the results of which heembodied in two works; became colonial secretary of South Australia, butfailing health and eyesight led to his retirement, and he was pensionedby the first Parliament of South Australia; he returned to Englandtotally blind (1795-1869). 

STUTTGART (140), capital of Würtemberg, stands amid beautifulvine-clad hills in a district called the "Swabian Paradise, " on anaffluent of the Neckar, 127 m. SE. Of Frankfort; is a handsome city withseveral royal palaces, a 16th-century castle, interesting old churches, aroyal library (450, 000 vols. ), a splendid royal park, conservatory ofmusic, picture gallery, and various educational establishments; ranksnext to Leipzig as a book mart, and has flourishing manufactures oftextiles, beer, pianofortes, chemicals, &c. 

STYLITES. See PILLAR-SAINTS. 

STYMPHALIAN BIRDS, fabulous birds with brazen claws, wings, andbeaks, that used their feathers as arrows, ate human flesh, and infestedArcadia; Hercules startled them with a rattle, and with his arrows eithershot them or drove them off. 

STYRIA (1, 281), a central duchy of Austria, stretching in asemicircle from Upper Austria and Salzburg on the NW. To Croatia andSlavonia on the SE. , and flanked by Hungary on the E. ; a mountainousregion crossed by various eastern ranges of the Alpine system, anddrained by the Drave, Save, Inn, and other rivers; more than half liesunder forest; agriculture flourishes, but mineral products, iron, salt, coal, &c. , constitute the chief wealth. The principal manufactures areconnected therewith; was joined to the Austrian crown in 1192. 

STYX, name (from the Greek verb signifying "to abhor") of theprincipal river of the nether world, which it flows sluggishly roundseven times; is properly the river of death, which all must cross toenter the unseen world, and of which, in the Greek mythology, Charon wasthe ferryman. In their solemn engagements it was by this river the godstook oath to signify that they would forego their godhood if they sworefalsely. The Styx was a branch of the Great Ocean which girds theuniverse. See OCEANUS. 

SUAKIN or SAWAKIN (11), a seaport under Egyptian control, andsince the Mahdi's revolt garrisoned by the English, on the Nubian coastof the Red Sea; stands on a rocky islet, and is connected with El Keff onthe mainland by a causeway; is the starting-point of caravans to Berberand Khartoum, and as such has a large transit trade, exporting silverornaments, ivory, gums, hides, gold, &c. ; here African pilgrims to Meccaembark to the number of 6000 or 7000 annually. 

SUAREZ, FRANCISCO, scholastic philosopher, born at Grenada; afterjoining the Jesuit body became professor of Theology at Coimbra, attempted to reconcile realism with nominalism, and adopted in theology asystem called "Congruism, " being a modification of Molinism; wrote a"Defence of the Catholic Faith against the Errors of the Anglican Sect"at the instance of the Pope against the claims of James I. In his oath ofallegiance (1548-1617). 

SUBAHDAR, a title given to governors of provinces in the times ofthe Mogul dynasty, now bestowed upon native officers in the Indian armyholding rank equivalent to an English captaincy. 

SUBIACO (7), an ancient and interesting town of Central Italy;occupies a pleasant site amid encircling hills on the Teverone, 32 m. E. By N. Of Rome; has a quaint, mediæval appearance, and is overlooked by anold castle, a former residence of the Popes; there are two Benedictinemonasteries dating from the 6th century, and in a grotto near St. Benedictine lived, in his youth, a hermit life for three years. 

SUBJECTIVE, THE, that, in contrast to objective, which rests on thesole authority of consciousness, and has no higher warrant. 

SUBJECTIVISM, the doctrine of the pure relativity of knowledge, orthat it is purely subjective. 

SUBLAPSARIANISM, same as INFRALAPSARIANISM (q. V. ). 

SUBLIMATION, the vaporisation of a solid body and its resumptionthereafter of the solid form. 

SUBLIME PORTE, a name given to the Ottoman Government, so calledfrom a lofty gateway leading into the residence of the Vizier. 

SUBSTITUTION, in theology the doctrine that Christ in His obedienceand death stood in the place of the sinner, so that His merits on theirfaith in Him are imputed to them. 

SUBTLE DOCTOR, name given to DUNS SCOTUS (q. V. ) for hishairsplitting acuteness and extreme subtlety of distinction. 

SUCCESSION WARS, the general title of several European wars whicharose in the 18th century consequent on a failure of issue in certainroyal lines, most important of which are (1) WAR OF THE SPANISHSUCCESSION (1701-1713). The death (1700) of Charles II. Of Spainwithout direct issue caused Louis XIV. Of France and the Emperor LeopoldI. (the former married to the elder sister of Charles, the latter to theyounger sister, and both grandsons of Philip III. Of Spain) to put forthclaims to the crown, the one on behalf of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, the other for his second son, the Archduke Charles. War broke out on theentry of Philip into Madrid and his assumption of the crown, England andthe United Netherlands uniting with the emperor to curb the ambition ofLouis. During the long struggle the transcendent military genius ofMarlborough asserted itself in the great victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, and Oudenarde, but the lukewarmness of England in thestruggle, the political fall of Marlborough, and the Tory vote for peaceprevented the allies reaping the full benefit of their successes. TheTreaty of Utrecht (1713) left Philip in possession of his Spanishkingdom, but the condition was exacted that the crowns of Spain andFrance should not be united. The emperor (the Archduke Charles since1711) attempted to carry on the struggle, but was forced to sign theTreaty of Rastadt (1714), acknowledging Philip king of Spain. Spain, however, ceded her Netherlands Sardinia, &c. , to the emperor, whileGibraltar, Minorca, and parts of North America fell to England. (2) WAROF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740-1748) followed on the death (1740)of the Emperor Charles VI. Without male issue. His daughter, MariaTheresa, entered into possession of Bohemia, Hungary, and the Archduchyof Austria, but was immediately attacked by the Elector Charles Albert ofBavaria and Augustus of Saxony and Poland, both rival claimants for theimperial crown, while Frederick II. Of Prussia seized the opportunity ofMaria's embarrassment to annex Silesia. France, Spain, and England weredrawn into the struggle, the last in support of Maria. Success oscillatedfrom side to side, but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which brought thewar to a close, left Maria pretty well in possession of her inheritancesave the loss of Silesia to Frederick. 

SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, DUC D'ALBUFERA, marshal of France, born inLyons; distinguished himself in Italy, Egypt, Austria, and Prussia, andbecame general in command in Aragon, by his success in ruling which lasthe gained the marshal's baton and a dukedom; he rejoined Napoleon duringthe Hundred Days; after Waterloo he lost his peerage, but recovered it in1819 (1770-1826). 

SUCKLING, SIR JOHN, poet, born, of good parentage, at Whitton, Middlesex; quitted Cambridge in 1628 to travel on the Continent, and fora time served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany; returning toEngland about 1632 he became a favourite at Court, where he was noted forhis wit, prodigality, and verses; supported Charles in the Bishops' Warsagainst the Scots; sat in the Long Parliament; was involved in a plot torescue Strafford, and to bring foreign troops to the aid of the king, butdiscovered, had to flee the country; died, probably by his own hand, inParis; wrote several forgotten plays, a prose treatise on "Religion byReason, " and miscellaneous poems, amongst which are his charming songsand ballads, his title to fame (1609-1642). 

SUDARIUM, the handkerchief given by ST. VERONICA (q. V. ) toChrist as He was passing to crucifixion, and on which His face wasmiraculously impressed as He wiped the sweat off it. 

SUDBURY (7), a borough of Suffolk, on the Stour, where it crossesthe Essex border, 58 m. NE. Of London; has three old churches(Perpendicular style), a grammar-school founded in the 15th century, acorn-exchange, &c. ; manufactures embrace cocoa-nut matting, silk, &c. 

SUDETIC MOUNTAINS stretch in irregular broken masses and subsidiarychains for 120 m. Across South-East Germany, separating Bohemia andMoravia from Saxony and Prussian Silesia, and forming a link between theCarpathians and mountains of Franconia; highest and central position isknown as the RIESENGEBIRGE (q. V. ); Schneekoppe is the culminating pointof the range. 

SUDRAS, the fourth and lowest of the HINDU CASTES (q. V. );are by some alleged to be of the aboriginal race of India who to retaintheir freedom adopted Brahmanism. 

SUE, MARIE-JOSEPH-EUGÈNE, a writer of sensational novels, born atParis; was for some years an army surgeon, and served in the Spanishcampaign of 1823; his father's death (1829) bringing him a handsomefortune, he retired from the army to devote himself to literature; hisreputation as a writer rests mainly on his well-known works "TheMysteries of Paris" (1842) and "The Wandering Jew" (1845), which, displaying little skill on the artistic side, yet rivet their readers'attention by a wealth of exciting incident and plot; was elected to theChamber of Deputies in 1850, but the _coup d'état_ of 1852 drove him anexile to Annecy, in Savoy, where he died (1804-1859). 

SUETONIUS, TRANQUILLUS, Roman historian; practised as an advocate inRome in the reign of Trajan; was a friend of the Younger Pliny, becameprivate secretary to Hadrian, but was deprived of this post through anindiscretion; wrote several works, and of those extant the chief is the"Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, " beginning with Julius Cæsar and ending withDomitian, a work which relates a great number of anecdotes illustratingthe characters of the emperors; _b_. A. D. 70. 

SUEZ (13), a town of Egypt, stands at the edge of the desert at thehead of a gulf of the same name and at the S. End of the Suez Canal, 75m. E. Of Cairo, with which it is connected by railway; as a tradingplace, dating back to the times of the Ptolemies, has had a fluctuatingprosperity, but since the completion of the canal is growing steadily inimportance; is still for the most part an ill-built and ill-kept town;has a large English hospital and ship-stores. 

SUEZ CANAL, a great artificial channel cutting the isthmus of Suez, and thus forming a waterway between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea;was planned and undertaken by the French engineer Lesseps, through whoseuntiring efforts a company was formed and the necessary capital raised;occupied 10 years in the construction (1859-69), and cost some 20 millionpounds; from Port Said on the Mediterranean to Suez at the head of theRed Sea the length is about 100 m. , a portion of which lies through LakesMenzaleh, Ballah, Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes; as widened and deepenedin 1886 it has a minimum depth of 28 ft. , and varies from 150 to 300 ft. In width; traffic is facilitated by electric light during the night, andthe passage occupies little more than 24 hours; has been neutralised andexempted from blockade, vessels of all nations in peace or war being freeto pass through; now the highway to India and the East, shortening thevoyage to India by 7600 m. ; three-fourths of the ships passing throughare English; an annual toll is drawn of close on three million pounds, the net profit of which falls to be divided amongst the shareholders, ofwhom since 1875 the British Government has been one of the largest. 

SUFFOLK (371), eastmost county of England, fronts the North Seabetween Norfolk (N. ) and Essex (S. ); is a pleasant undulating county withpretty woods and eastward-flowing streams (Waveney, Aide, Orwell, Stour, &c. ); long tracts of heathland skirt the coast; agriculture is still thestaple industry, wheat the principal crop; is famed for its antiquities, architecture, historic associations, and long list of worthies. Ipswichis the county town. 

SUFFREN, BAILLI DE, a celebrated French admiral, who entered thenavy a boy of 14 during the wars with England, and rose to be one of hiscountry's greatest naval heroes, especially distinguishing himself ascommander of a squadron in the West Indies, proving himself a master ofnaval tactics in more or less successful engagements with the English; isregarded by Professor Laughton as "the most illustrious officer that hasever held command in the French navy"; sprang from good Provence stock(1729-1788). 

SUFISM, the doctrine of the Sufis, a sect of Mohammedan mystics;imported into Mohammedanism the idea that the soul is the subject ofecstasies of Divine inspiration in virtue of its direct emanation fromthe Deity, and this in the teeth of the fundamental article of theMohammedan creed, which exalts God as a being passing all comprehensionand ruling it by a law which is equally mysterious, which we have only toobey; this doctrine is associated with the idea that the body is thesoul's prison, and death the return of it to its original home, adoctrine of the dervish fraternity, of which the Madhi is high-priest. 

SUGER, ABBÉ, abbot of St. Denis, minister of Louis VI. And LouisVII. ; reformed the discipline in his abbey, emancipated the serfsconnected with it, maintained the authority of the king against the greatvassals; he was regent of the kingdom during the second Crusade, andearned the title of Father of his Country; he wrote a Life of Louis VI. (1082-1152). 

SUIDAS, name of a grammarian and lexicographer of the 10th or 11thcentury; his "Lexicon" is a kind of encyclopædic work, and is valuablechiefly for the extracts it contains from ancient writers. 

SUIR, a river of Ireland which rises in Tipperary and joins theBarrow after a course of 100 m. 

SUKKUR (29), a town on the Indus (here spanned by a fine bridge), 28m. SE. Of Shikarpur; has rail communication with Kurrachee andAfghanistan, and considerable trade in various textiles, opium, saltpetre, sugar, &c. ; 1 m. Distant is Old Sukkur; the island of Bukkur, in the river-channel and affording support to the bridge, is occupied andfortified by the British. 

SULEIMAN PASHA, a distinguished Turkish general, born in Roumelia;entered the army in 1854, fought in various wars, became director of theMilitary Academy at Constantinople; distinguished himself in the ServianWar of 1876, and was elected governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina; duringthe Russian-Turkish War made a gallant attempt to clear the enemy fromthe Shipka Pass, but as commander of the Danube army was defeated nearPhilippopolis (1878), and subsequently court-martialled and sentenced to15 years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by the sultan (1838-1883). 

SULIMAN or SULEIMAN MOUNTAINS, a bare and rugged range, stretching N. And S. For upwards of 350 m. From the Kyber Pass almost tothe Arabian Sea, and forming the boundary between Afghanistan and thePunjab, India. 

SULIOTES, a Græco-Albanian race who in the 17th century, to escapetheir Turkish oppressors, fled from their old settlement in Epirus to themountains of Suli, in South Albania, where they prospered in thefollowing century in independence; driven out by the Turks in 1803, theyemigrated to the Ionian Islands; came to the aid of Ali Pasha against thesultan in 1820, but, defeated and scattered, found refuge in Cephalonia, and later gave valuable assistance to the Greeks in their struggle forindependence. The treaty of 1829 left their district of Suli in the handsof the Turks, and since then they have dwelt among the Greeks, many ofthem holding high government rank. 

SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman of patrician birth; leader of thearistocratic party in Rome, and the rival of Marius (q. V. ), under whomhe got his first lessons in war; rose to distinction in arms afterwards, and during his absence the popular party gained the ascendency, andMarius, who had been banished, was recalled; the blood of his friends hadbeen shed in torrents, and himself proscribed; on the death of Marius hereturned with his army, glutted his vengeance by the sacrifice ofthousands of the opposite faction, celebrated his victory by a triumph ofunprecedented splendour, and caused himself to be proclaimed Dictator 81B. C. ; he ruled with absolute power two years after, and then resigninghis dictatorship retired into private life; _d_. 76 B. C. At the age of60. 

SULLAN PROSCRIPTIONS, sentences of proscription issued by Sullaagainst Roman citizens in 81 B. C. Under his dictatorship. 

SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR SEYMOUR, English composer, born in London; wonthe Mendelssohn scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and by meansof it completed his musical education at Leipzig; in 1862 composedincidental music for "The Tempest, " well received at the Crystal Palace;since then has been a prolific writer of all kinds of music, ranging fromhymns and oratorios to popular songs and comic operas; his oratoriosinclude "The Prodigal Son" (1868), "The Light of the World, " "The GoldenLegend, " &c. , but it is as a writer of light and tuneful operas(librettos by W. S. GILBERT, q. V. ) that he is best known; thesebegan with "Cox and Box" (1866), and include "Trial by Jury, " "TheSorcerer" (1877), "Pinafore, " "Patience" (1881), "Mikado" (1885), &c. , inall of which he displays great gifts as a melodist, and wonderfulresource in clever piquant orchestration; received the Legion of Honourin 1878, and was knighted in 1883; _b_. 1842. 

SULLIVAN'S ISLAND, a long and narrow island, a favourite sea-bathingresort, on the N. Of the entrance to Charleston Harbour, South Carolina, U. S. 

SULLY, MAXIMILIEN DE BÉTHUNE, DUKE OF, celebrated minister of HenryIV. Of France, born at the Château of Rosny, near Mantes, whence he wasknown at first as the Baron de Rosny; at first a ward of Henry IV. OfNavarre, he joined the Huguenot ranks along with him, and distinguishedhimself at Coutras and Ivry, and approved of Henry's policy in changinghis colours on his accession to the throne, remaining ever after by hisside as most trusted adviser, directing the finances of the country witheconomy, and encouraging the peasantry in the cultivation of the soil;used to say, "Labourage et pasteurage, voilà les deux mamelles dont LaFrance est alimentée, les vraies mines et trésors de Pérou, " "Tillage andcattle-tending are the two paps whence France sucks nourishment; theseare the true mines and treasures of Peru;" on the death of the king heretired from court, and occupied his leisure in writing his celebrated"Memoirs, " which, while they show the author to be a great statesman, give no very pleasant idea of his character (1560-1611). 

SULLY-PRUDHOMME, French poet, born in Paris; published a volume ofpoems in 1865 entitled "Stances and Poèmes, " which commanded instantregard, and have been succeeded by others which have deepened theimpression, and entitled him to the highest rank as a poet; they giveevidence of a serious mind occupied with serious problems; was elected tothe Academy in 1881; _b_. 1839. 

SULPICIUS SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical historian, born in Aquitaine;wrote a "Historia Sacra, " and a Life of St. Martin (363-406). 

SULTAN, the title of a Mohammedan sovereign, Sultana being thefeminine form. 

SULU ISLANDS (75), an archipelago of 162 islands in Asiatic waters, lying to the NE. Of Borneo, and extending to the Philippines; belongs tothe Spaniards who, in 1876, subdued the piratical Malay inhabitants; thetrade in pearls and edible nests is mainly carried on by Chinese. 

SUMATRA (3, 572, including adjacent islands), after Borneo thelargest of the East Indian islands, stretches SE. Across the Equatorbetween the Malay Peninsula (from whose SW. Coast it is separated by theStrait of Malacca) to Java (Strait of Sunda separating them); has anextreme length of 1115 m. , and an area more than three times that ofEngland; is mountainous, volcanic, covered in central parts by virginforest, abounds in rivers and lakes, and possesses an exceptionally richflora and peculiar fauna; rainfall is abundant; some gold and coal areworked, but the chief products are rice, sugar, coffee, tobacco, petroleum, pepper, &c. ; the island is mainly under Dutch control, butmuch of the unexplored centre is still in the hands of savage tribes whohave waged continual warfare with their European invaders. Padang (150)is the official Dutch capital. 

SUMBAWA (150), one of the Sunda Islands, lying between Lombok (W. )and Flores (E. ); mountainous and dangerously volcanic; yields rice, tobacco, cotton, &c. ; is divided among four native rulers under Dutchauthority. 

SUMNER, CHARLES, American statesman and abolitionist, born inBoston; graduated at Harvard (1830), and was called to the bar in 1834, but found a more congenial sphere in writing and lecturing; during1837-40 pursued his favourite study of jurisprudence in France, Germany, and England; was brought into public notice by his 4th of July oration(1845) on "The True Grandeur of Nations, " an eloquent condemnation ofwar; became an uncompromising opponent of the slave-trade; was one of thefounders of the Free Soil Party, and in 1851 was elected to the NationalSenate, a position he held until the close of his life, and where he didmuch by his eloquent speeches to prepare the way for emancipation, andafterwards to win for the blacks the rights of citizenship (1811-1874). 

SUMNER, JOHN BIRD, archbishop of Canterbury; rose by a succession ofpreferments to the Primacy, an office which he discharged with discretionand moderation (1780-1862). 

SUMPTUARY LAWS, passed in various lands and ages to restrict excessin dress, food, and luxuries generally; are to be found in the codes ofSolon, Julius Cæsar, and other ancient rulers; Charles VI. Of Francerestricted dinners to one soup and two other dishes; appear at varioustimes in English statutes down to the 16th century against the use of"costly meats, " furs, silks, &c. , by those unable to afford them; wereissued by the Scottish Parliament against the extravagance of ladies inthe matter of dress to relieve "the puir gentlemen their husbands andfathers"; were repealed in England in the reign of James I. ; at no timewere they carefully observed. 

SUMTER, FORT, a fort on a shoal in Charleston harbour, 3½ m. Fromthe town; occupied by Major Anderson with 80 men and 62 guns in theinterest of the secession of South Carolina from the Union, and theattack on which by General Beauregard on 12th April 1861 was thecommencement of the Civil War; it held out against attack and bombardmenttill the month of July following. 

SUN, THE, is a star; is the centre of the solar system, as it is inconsequence called, is a globe consisting of a mass of vapour at whiteheat, and of such enormous size that it is 500 times larger than all theplanets of the system put together, or of a bulk one million and a halftimes greater than the earth, from which it is ninety-two and a halfmillion miles distant; the bright surface of it is called the_photosphere_, and this brightness is diversified with brighter spotscalled _faculæ_, and dark ones called _sun-spots_, and by watching whichlatter as they move over the sun's disk we find it takes 25 days torevolve on its axis, and by means of SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (q. V. )find it is composed of hydrogen and a number of vaporised metals. 

SUNDA ISLANDS, a name sometimes applied to the long chain of islandsstretching SE. From the Malay Peninsula to North Australia, includingSumatra, Timor, &c. , but more correctly designates the islands Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sandalwood Island, &c. , which lie between Javaand Timor, are under Dutch suzerainty, and produce the usual East Indianproducts. See various islands named. 

SUNDERBUNDS or SUNDARBANS, a great tract of jungle, swamp, andalluvial plain, forming the lower portion of the Ganges delta; extendsfrom the Hooghly on the W. To the Meghna on the E. , a distance of 165 m. ;rice is cultivated on the upper part by a sparse population; the lowerpart forms a dense belt of wild jungle reaching to the sea, and isinfested by numerous tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, pythons, cobras, &c. 

SUNDERLAND (142), a flourishing seaport of Durham, situated at themouth of the Wear, 12 m. SE. Of Newcastle-upon-Tyne; embraces some veryold parishes, but as a commercial town has entirely developed within thepresent century, and is of quite modern appearance, with the usual publicbuildings; owes its prosperity mainly to neighbouring coal-fields, theproduct of which it exports in great quantities; has four large dockscovering 50 acres; also famous iron shipbuilding yards, large iron-works, glass and bottle works, roperies, &c. 

SUNDERLAND, CHARLES SPENCER, THIRD EARL, son of succeeding, and sonin law of the Duke of Marlborough; was a Secretary of State in QueenAnne's reign during 1706-1710, and in the following reign, as leader ofthe Whigs, exercised unbounded influence over George I. ; narrowlyescaped, chiefly through Walpole's help, being found guilty of acceptingheavy bribes from the South Sea Company; lost office, and was displayinghis father's propensity to underhand scheming by intriguing with theTories and the Pretender's party when death cut short his career(1675-1722). 

SUNDERLAND, ROBERT SPENCER, SECOND EARL OF, an English statesmanprominent in the reign of Charles II. , James II. , and William III. ; wasfor some years engaged in embassies abroad before being appointedSecretary of State in 1679; adroit and insinuating, and with greatcapacity for business, he soon became a leading minister; attachedhimself to the Duchess of Portsmouth, and in the corrupt politics of thetwo Stuart kings played his own hand with consummate if unscrupulousskill, standing high in King James's favour as Prime Minister, althoughhe had formerly intrigued in favour of Monmouth; supported the ExclusionBill, and even then was in secret communication with the Prince ofOrange; after the Revolution rose to high office under William; wasinstrumental in bringing the Whigs into power, and during 1695-1697 wasacknowledged head of his Government (1640-1702). 

SUNNITES, the orthodox Mohammedans, a name given to them becausethey accept the _Sunna_, i. E. Traditional teaching of the Prophet, asof the same authority as the Korân, in the matter of both faith andmorals, agreeably to a fundamental article of Mohammedanism, that notonly the rule of life, but the interpretation of it, is of divinedictation. 

SUN-WORSHIP, the worship of the sun is conceived of as animpersonation of the deity, that originated among races so far advancedin civilisation as to recognise what they owed to its benignantinfluence, in particular as tillers of the soil, and, is associated withadvance as the worship of Bacchus was, which could not originate prior tocultivation of the vine. 

SUONADA, the Inland Sea of Japan, separating Kyushu and Shikoku fromthe Main Island, Honshiu, a fine sheet of water (250 m. By 50), picturesquely studded with islands which, however, render navigationdifficult. 

SUPEREROGATION, WORKS OF, name given in the Roman Catholic theologyto works or good deeds performed by saints over and above what isrequired for their own salvation, and the merit of which is held to betransferable to others in need of indulgence. 

SUPER-GRAMMATICAM (above grammar), name given to Sigismund, emperorof Germany, from his rejoinder to a cardinal who one day on a highoccasion mildly corrected a grammatical mistake he had made in a grandoration, "I am King of the Romans, and above grammar. "

SUPERIOR, LAKE, largest fresh-water lake on the globe, lies betweenthe United States and Canada, the boundary line passing through thecentre; area, 31, 200 sq. M. , almost the size of Ireland; maximum depth, 1008 ft. ; St. Mary's River, the only outlet, a short rapid stream, carries the overflow to Lake Huron; receives upwards of 200 rivers, butnone of first-class importance, largest is the St. Louis; is dotted withnumerous islands; water is singularly clear and pure, and abounds withfish; navigation is hindered in winter by shore-ice, but the lake neverfreezes over. 

SUPERSTITION, the fear of that which is not God, as if it were God, or the fear of that which is not the devil, as if it were the devil; or, as it has in more detail been defined by Ruskin, "the fear of a spiritwhose passions and acts are those of a man present in some places and notothers; kind to one person and unkind to another, pleased or angry, according to the degree of attention you pay him, or the praise yourefuse him; hostile generally to human pleasure, but may be bribed bysacrificing part of that pleasure into permitting the rest. "

SUPRALAPSARIANISM, the doctrine of the extreme Calvinists, that thedecree of God as regards the eternal salvation of some and the eternalreprobation of others is unconditional. 

SUPREMACY, ROYAL, the supremacy of the sovereign in mattersecclesiastical and matters of civil right to the exclusion of mattersspiritual and the jurisdiction in the former claimed by the Pope. 

SURABAYA (127), a seaport on the NE. Coast or Java, is thehead-quarters of the Dutch military, and exports tropical products; ofthe population 6000 are European, and 7000 or so Chinese. 

SURAT (109), a city of India, Bombay Presidency, on the Tapti, 14 m. From its entrance into the Gulf of Bombay; stretches along the S. Bank ofthe river, presenting no architectural features of interest save someMohammedan, Parsee, and Hindu temples, and an old castle or fortress;chief exports are cotton and grain; the English erected here their firstfactory on the Indian continent in 1612, and with Portuguese and Dutchtraders added, it became one of the principal commercial centres ofIndia; in the 18th century the removal of the English East India Companyto Bombay drew off a considerable portion of the trade of Surat, which ithas never recovered. 

SURINAM. See GUIANA, DUTCH. 

SURPLICE, a linen robe with wide sleeves worn by officiatingclergymen and choristers, originating in the rochet or alb of earlytimes. 

SURREY (1, 731), an inland county, and one of the fairest of England, in the SE. Between Kent (E. ) and Hampshire (W. ), with Sussex on the S. , separated from Middlesex on the N. By the Thames; the North Downstraverse the county E. And W. , slope gently to the Thames, andprecipitously in the S. To the level Weald; generally presents abeautiful prospect of hill and heatherland adorned with splendid woods;the Wey and the Mole are the principal streams; hops are extensivelygrown round Farnham; largest town is Croydon; the county town, Guildford. 

SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF, poet, son of the Duke of Norfolk;early attached to the court of Henry VIII. , he attended his royal masterat the "Field of the Cloth of Gold, " and took part in the coronationceremony of Anne Boleyn (1533); was created a Knight of the Garter in1542, and two years later led the English army in France with varyingsuccess; imprisoned along with his father on a charge of high treason, for which there was no adequate evidence, he was condemned and executed;as one of the early leaders of the poetic renaissance, and introducer ofthe sonnet and originator of blank verse, he deservedly holds a highplace in the history of English literature (1516-1547). 

SURYA, in the Hindu mythology the sun conceived of as a femaledeity. 

SUSA (the Shushan of Daniel, Esther, &c. ), an ancient city ofPersia, now in ruins, that spread over an area of 3 sq. M. , on theKerkha, 250 m. SE. Of Bagdad; was for long the favourite residence of thePersian kings, the ruins of whose famous palace, described in Esther, arestill extant. 

SUSAN, ST. , the patron saint and guardian of innocence and saviourfrom infamy and reproach. See SUSANNA. 

SUSANNA, THE HISTORY OF, a story in the Apocrypha, evidentlyconceived to glorify Daniel as a judge, and which appears to have beenoriginally written by a Jew in Greek. She had been accused of adultery bytwo of the elders and condemned to death, but was acquitted on Daniel'sexamination of her accusers to their confusion and condemnation to deathin her stead. The story has been allegorised by the Church, and Susannamade to represent the Church, and the two elders her persecutors. 

SUSQUEHANNA, a river of America, formed by the junction atNorthumberland, Pennsylvania, of the North Branch (350 m. ) flowing out ofSchuyler Lake, central New York, and the West Branch (250 m. ) rising inthe Alleghany Mountains; flows in a shallow, rapid, unnavigable course S. And SE. Through beautiful scenery to Port Deposit, at the N. End ofChesapeake Bay; length, 150 m. 

SUSSEX (550), a S. Maritime county of England, fronts the EnglishChannel between Hampshire (W. ) and Kent (E. ), with Surrey on its northernborder; is traversed E. And W. By the South Downs, which afford splendidpasturage for half a million sheep, and terminates in Beachy Head; in theN. Lies the wide, fertile, and richly-wooded plain of the Weald; chiefrivers are the Arun, Adur, Ouse, and Rother, of no great size; is a fineagricultural county, more than two-thirds of its area being undercultivation; was the scene of Cæsar's landing (55 B. C. ), of Ælla's, theleader of the South Saxons (whence the name Sussex), and of William theConqueror's (1066); throughout the country are interesting antiquities;largest town, Brighton; county town, Lewes. 

SUTHERLAND (22), a maritime county of N. Scotland; presents a N. Anda W. Shore to the Atlantic, between Ross and Cromarty (S. ) and Caithness(E. ), and faces the North Sea on the SE. , whence the land slopes upwardsto the great mountain region and wild, precipitous loch-indented coastsof the W. And N. ; scarcely 3 per cent, of the area is cultivated, butlarge numbers of sheep and cattle are raised; the Oykell is the longest(35 m. ) of many streams, and Loch Shin the largest of 300 lochs; thereare extensive deer forests and grouse moors, while valuable salmon andherring fisheries exist round the coasts; is the most sparsely populatedcounty in Scotland. Dornoch is the county town. 

SUTLEJ, the eastmost of the five rivers of the Punjab; itshead-waters flow from two Thibetan lakes at an elevation of 15, 200 ft. , whence it turns NW. And W. To break through a wild gorge of theHimalayas, thence bends to the SW. , forms the eastern boundary of thePunjab, and joins the Indus at Mithankot after a course of 900 m. 

SUTRAS, name given to a collection of aphorisms, summaries of theteachings of the Brahmans, and of rules regulative of ritual or religiousobservances, and also given to these aphorisms and rules themselves. 

SUTTEE, a Hindu widow who immolates herself on the funeral pile ofher husband, a term applied to the practice itself. The practice was ofvery ancient date, but the custom was proclaimed illegal in 1829 underLord William Bentinck's administration, and it is now very seldom that awidow seeks to violate the law. In 1823, in Bengal alone, 575 widows gavethemselves to be so burned, of whom 109 were above sixty, 226 aboveforty, 209 above twenty, and 32 under twenty. 

SUWARROW or SUVOROFF, Russian field-marshal, born at Moscow;entered the army as a private soldier, distinguished himself in the SevenYears' War, and after 20 years' service rose to command; in command of adivision he in 1773 routed an army of the Turks beyond the Danube, and in1783 he reduced a tribe of Tartars under the Russian yoke; his greatestexploit perhaps was his storming of Ismail, which had resisted allattempts to reduce it for seven months, and which he, but with revoltingbarbarities however, in three days succeeded by an indiscriminatemassacre of 40, 000 of the inhabitants; his despatch thereafter to QueenCatharine was "Glory to God and the Empress, Ismail is ours!" he afterthis conducted a cruel campaign in Poland, which ended in its partition, and a campaign in Italy to the disaster of the French and his elevationto the peerage as a prince, with the title of Italinski; he was all alongthe agent of the ruthless purposes of POTEMKIN (q. V. ) (1730-1800). 

SVEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, protecting Helsingfors, inthe Baltic, 3 m. Distant from that town, and called the "Gibraltar of theNorth. "

SVIR, a Russian river that flows into Lake Ladoga. 

SWABIA, an ancient duchy in the SW. Of Germany, and most fertilepart, so called from the Suevi, who in the 1st century displaced theaboriginal Celts, and which, along with Bavaria, formed the nucleus ofthe Fatherland; was separated by the Rhine from France and Switzerland, having for capital Augsburg, and being divided now into Würtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Lichtenstein. 

SWAHILI (i. E. Coast people), a people of mixed Bantu and Arabstock occupying Zanzibar and the adjoining territory from nearly Mombasato Mozambique; they are an enterprising race, and are dispersed astraders, hunters, carriers, &c. , far and wide over Central Africa. 

SWALE, a river in the North Riding of Yorkshire, uniting, after acourse of 60 miles, with the Ure to form the Ouse. 

SWAMMERDAM, JAN, a Dutch entomologist, born at Amsterdam, where hesettled as a doctor, but turning with enthusiasm to the study of insectlife, made important contributions to, and practically laid thefoundations of, entomological science (1637-1680). 

SWAN OF AVON, sweet name given by Ben Jonson to Shakespeare. 

SWAN OF MANTUA, name given to Virgil, as born at Mantua. 

SWANSEA (90), a flourishing and progressive seaport ofGlamorganshire, at the entrance of the Tawe, 45 m. Into Swansea Bay; hasa splendid harbour, 60 acres of docks, a castle, old grammar-school, &c. ;is the chief seat of the copper-smelting and of the tin-plate manufactureof England, and exports the products of these works, as well as coal, zinc, and other minerals, in large quantities. 

SWATOW (30), a seaport of China, at the mouth of the Han, 225 m. E. Of Canton; has large sugar-refineries, factories for bean-cake andgrass-cloth; since the policy of "the open door" was adopted in 1867 hashad a growing export trade. 

SWAZILAND (64), a small South African native State to the E. Of theTransvaal, of which in 1893 it became a dependency, retaining, however, its own laws and native chief; is mountainous, fertile, and rich inminerals; the Swazis are of Zulu stock, jealous of the Boers, andfriendly to Britain. 

SWEATING SICKNESS, an epidemic of extraordinary malignity whichswept over Europe, and especially England, in the 15th and 16thcenturies, attacking with equal virulence all classes and all ages, andcarrying off enormous numbers of people; was characterised by a sharpsudden seizure, high fever, followed by a foetid perspiration; firstappeared in England in 1485, and for the last time in 1551. 

SWEATING SYSTEM, a term which began to be used about 1848 todescribe an iniquitous system of sub-contracting in the tailoring trade. Orders from master-tailors were undertaken by sub-contractors, whothemselves farmed the work out to needy workers, who made the articles intheir own crowded and foetid homes, receiving "starvation wages. " Theterm is now used in reference to all trades in cases where the conditionsimposed by masters tend to grind the rate of payment down to a bareliving wage and to subject the workers to insanitary surroundings byovercrowding, &c. , and to unduly long hours. Kingsley's pamphlet, "CheapClothes and Nasty, " and novel, "Alton Locke, " did much to draw publicattention to the evil. In 1890 an elaborate report by a committee of theHouse of Lords was published, and led in the following year to thepassing of the Factory and Workshops Act and the Public Health Act, whichhave greatly mitigated the evil. 

SWEDEN (4, 785), a kingdom of Northern Europe, occupying the easternportion of the great Scandinavian Peninsula, bounded W. By Norway, E. ByRussian Finland, Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic, and on the N. Stretchesacross the Arctic circle between Norway (NW. ) and Russia (NE. ), while itssouthern serrated shores are washed by the Skager-Rack, Cattegat, andBaltic. From the mountain-barrier of Norway the country slopes down inbroad terrace-like plains to the sea, intersected by many useful riversand diversified by numerous lakes, of which Lakes Wenner, Wetter, andMälar (properly an arm of the sea) are the largest, and lying underforest to the extent of nearly one-half its area; is divided into threegreat divisions: 1, Norrland in the N. , a wide and wild tract ofmountainous country, thickly forested, infested by the wolf, bear, andlynx, in summer the home of the wood-cutter, and sparsely inhabited byLapps. 2, Svealand or Sweden proper occupies the centre, and is theregion of the great lakes and of the principal mineral wealth (iron, copper, &c. ) of the country. 3, Gothland, the southern portion, embracesthe fertile plains sloping to the Cattegat, and is the chief agriculturaldistrict, besides possessing iron and coal. Climate is fairly dry, with awarm summer and long cold winter. Agriculture (potatoes, grain, rye, beet), although scarcely 8 per cent. Of the land is under cultivation, isthe principal industry, and with dairy-farming, stock-raising, &c. , givesemployment to more than one-half of the people; mining and timber-fellingare only less important; chief industries are iron-works, sugar-refineries, cotton-mills, &c. ; principal exports timber (much thelargest), iron, steel, butter, &c. , while textiles and dry-goods are thechiefly needed imports. Transit is greatly facilitated by the numerouscanals and by the rivers and lakes. Railways and telegraphs are welldeveloped in proportion to the population. As in Norway, the nationalreligion is Lutheranism; education is free and compulsory. Government isvested in the king, who with the advice of a council controls theexecutive, and two legislative chambers which have equal powers, but themembers of the one are elected for nine years by provincial councils, while those of the other are elected by the suffrages of the people, receive salaries, and sit only for three years. The national debt amountsto 14½ million pounds. In the 14th century the country became an appanageof the Danish crown, and continued as such until freedom was again won inthe 16th century by the patriot king, Gustavus Vasa. By the 17th centuryhad extended her rule across the seas into certain portions of theempire, but selling these in the beginning of the 18th century, fell fromher rank as a first-rate power. In 1814 Norway was annexed, and the twocountries, each enjoying complete autonomy, are now united under onecrown. 

SWEDENBORG, EMMANUEL, a mystic of the mystics, founder of the "NewChurch, " born at Stockholm, son of a bishop, a boy of extraordinary giftsand natural seriousness of mind; carefully educated under his father, attended the university of Upsala and took his degree in philosophy in1709; in eager quest of knowledge visited England, Holland, France, andGermany; on his return, after four years, was at 28 appointed by CharlesXII. Assessor of the Royal College of Mines; in 1721 went to examine themines and smelting-works of Europe; from 1716 spent 30 years in thecomposition and publication of scientific works, when of a sudden hethrew himself into theology; in 1743 his period of illumination began, and the publication of voluminous theological treatises; the Swedishclergy interfered a little with the publication of his works, but he keptthe friendship of people in power. He was never married, his habits weresimple, lived on bread, milk, and vegetables, occupied a house situatedin a large garden; visited England several times, but attracted nospecial attention; died in London of apoplexy in his eighty-fifth year. "He is described, in London, as a man of quiet, clerical habit, notaverse to tea and coffee, and kind to children. He wore a sword when infull velvet dress, and whenever he walked out carried a gold-headedcane. " This is Emerson's account in brief of his outer man, but for aglimpse or two of his ways of thinking and his views the reader isreferred to Emerson's "Representative Men. " The man was a seer; what hesaw only himself could tell, and only those could see, he would say, whohad the power of transporting themselves into the same spiritual centre;to him the only real world was the spirit-world and the world of senseonly in so far as it reflected to the soul the great invisible(1688-1772). 

SWEDENBORGIANS, the members of the "New Jerusalem Church, " foundedon the teaching of EMMANUEL SWEDENBORG (q. V. ) on a belief indirect communion with the world of spirits, and in God as properlyincarnate in the divine humanity of Christ. 

SWEDISH NIGHTINGALE, name popularly given to JENNY LIND (q. V. ). 

SWERGA or SVARGA, the summit of Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus, the heaven or abode of INDRA (q. V. ) and of the gods in general. 

SWETCHINE, MADAME, a Russian lady, Sophie Soymanof, born at Moscow, who married General Swetchine, and, after turning Catholic, becamecelebrated in Paris during 1817-51 as the gracious hostess of a salonwhere much religious and ethical discussion went on; plain and unimposingin appearance, she yet exercised a remarkable fascination over her"coterie" by the elevation of her character and eager spiritual nature(1782-1857). 

SWIFT, JONATHAN, born at Dublin, a posthumous son, of well-connectedparents; educated at Kilkenny, where he had Congreve for companion, andat Trinity College, Dublin, where he was a somewhat riotous and a by nomeans studious undergraduate, only receiving his B. A. By "special grace"in 1686; two years later the Revolution drove him to England; becameamanuensis to his mother's distinguished relative Sir William Temple, whose service, however, was uncongenial to his proud independent nature, and after taking a Master's degree at Oxford he returned to Dublin, tookorders, and was presented to the canonry of Kilroot, near Belfast; thequiet of country life palling upon him, he was glad to resume secretarialservice in Temple's household (1696), where during the next three yearshe remained, mastering the craft of politics, reading enormously, andfalling in love with STELLA (q. V. ); was set adrift by Temple'sdeath in 1699, but shortly afterwards became secretary to Lord Berkeley, one of the Lord-Deputies to Ireland, and was soon settled in the vicarageof Laracor, West Meath; in 1704 appeared anonymously his famous satires, the "Battle of the Books" and the "Tale of a Tub, " masterpieces ofEnglish prose; various squibs and pamphlets followed, "On theInconvenience of Abolishing Christianity, " &c. ; but politics more andmore engaged his attention; and neglected by the Whigs and hating theirwar policy, he turned Tory, attacked with deadly effect, during hiseditorship of the _Examiner_ (1710-11), the war party and its leaderMarlborough; crushed Steele's defence in his "Public Spirit of theWhigs, " and after the publication of "The Conduct of the Allies" stoodeasily the foremost political writer of his time; disappointed of anEnglish bishopric, in 1713 reluctantly accepted the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin, a position he held until the close of his life; becameloved in the country he despised by eloquently voicing the wrongs ofIreland in a series of tracts, "Drapier's Letters, " &c. , fruitful of goodresults; crowned his great reputation by the publication (1726) of hismasterpiece "Gulliver's Travels, " the most daring, savage, and amusingsatire contained in the world's literature; "Stella's" death and the slowprogress of a brain disease, ending in insanity, cast an ever-deepeninggloom over his later years (1667-1745). 

SWILLY, LOUGH, a narrow inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast ofDonegal, North Ireland, running in between Dunaff Head (E. ) and FanadPoint (W. ), a distance of 25 m. ; is from 3 to 4 m. Broad; the entrance isfortified. 

SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES, poet and prose writer, born in London, son of Admiral Swinburne; educated at Balliol College, Oxford, went toFlorence and spent some time there; his first productions were plays, twoof them tragedies, and "Poems and Ballads, " his later "A Song of Italy, "essay on "William Blake, " and "Songs before Sunrise, " instinct withpantheistic and republican ideas, besides "Studies in Song, " "Studies inProse and Poetry, " &c. ; he ranks as the successor of Landor, of whom heis a great admirer, stands high both as a poet and a critic, and is a manof broad and generous sympathies; his admirers regard it as a reproach tohis generation that due honour is not paid by it to his genius; _b_. 1837. 

SWINDON (32), a town in Wiltshire, 77 m. W. Of London; contains theGreat Western Company's engineering works, which cover 200 acres, andemploy 10, 000 hands. 

SWINEMÜNDE (9), a fortified seaport on the island of Usedom, in theBaltic, near the mouth of the Swine, one of the outlets of the Oder. 

SWISS CONFEDERATION, a league of the several Swiss cantons to resistan attempt on the part of the Emperor Albrecht to incorporate certain ofthe free towns into his family possessions. 

SWISS GUARDS. See GARDES SUISSES. 

SWITHIN, ST. , bishop of Winchester from 852 to 862; was buried byhis own request in Winchester Churchyard, "where passers-by might treadabove his head, and the dews of heaven fall on his grave. " On hiscanonisation, a century after, the chapter resolved to remove his body toa shrine in the cathedral, but their purpose was hindered on account of arain which lasted 40 days from the 15th July; hence the popular notionthat if it rained that day it would be followed by rain for 40 daysafter. 

SWITZERLAND (2, 918), a republic of Central Europe, bounded byGermany (N. ), France (W. ), Italy (S. ), and Austria and Germany (E. ); insize is slightly more than one-half of Scotland, of semicircular shape, having the Jura Alps on its French border, and divided from Italy by thegreat central ranges of the Alpine system, whence radiate the SwissAlps--Pennine, Lepontine, Bernese, &c. --covering the E. And S. , andoccupying with intervening valleys two-thirds of the country; theremaining third is occupied by an elevated fertile plain, extendingbetween Lakes of Constance and Geneva (largest of numerous lakes), andstudded with picturesque hills; principal rivers are the Upper Rhône, theAar, Ticino, and Inn; climate varies with the elevation, from the highregions of perpetual snow to warm valleys where ripen the vine, fig, almond, and olive; about one-third of the land surface is under forest, and one quarter arable, the grain grown forming only one-half of what isrequired; flourishing dairy farms exist, prospered by the fine meadowsand mountain pastures which, together with the forests, comprise thecountry's greatest wealth; minerals are exceedingly scarce, coal beingentirely absent. Despite its restricted arable area and lack of mineralsthe country has attained a high pitch of prosperity through the thriftand energy of its people, who have skilfully utilised the inexhaustiblemotive-power of innumerable waterfalls and mountain streams to drivegreat factories of silks, cottons, watches, and jewellery. The beauty ofits mountain, lake, and river scenery has long made Switzerland thesanatorium and recreation ground of Europe; more than 500 health resortsexist, and the country has been described as one vast hotel. The Alpinebarriers are crossed by splendid roads and railways, the great tunnelsthrough St. Gothard and the Simplon being triumphs of engineering skilland enterprise. In 1848, after the suppression of the SONDERBUND(q. V. ), the existing league of 22 semi-independent States(constituting since 1798 the Helvetic Republic) formed a closer federalunion, and a constitution (amended in 1874) was drawn up conserving asfar as possible the distinctive laws of the cantons and localinstitutions of their communes. The President is elected annually by theFederal Assembly (which consists of two chambers constituting thelegislative power), and is assisted in the executive government by aFederal Council of seven members. By an institution known as the"Referendum" all legislative acts passed in the Cantonal or FederalAssemblies may under certain conditions be referred to the mass of theelectors, and this is frequently done. The public debt amounts to overtwo million pounds. The national army is maintained by conscription; 71per cent. Of the people speak German, 22 per cent. French, and 5 percent. Italian; 59 per cent. Are Protestants, and 41 per cent. Catholics. Education is splendidly organised, free, and compulsory; there are fiveuniversities, and many fine technical schools. 

SYBARIS, an ancient city of Magna Græcia, on the Gulf of Tarentum, flourished in the 17th century B. C. , but in 510 B. C. Was captured andtotally obliterated by the rival colonists of Crotona; at the height ofits prosperity the luxury and voluptuousness of the inhabitants was suchas to become a byword throughout the ancient world, and henceforth aSybaris city is a city of luxurious indulgence, and Sybarite a devotee ofpleasure. 

SYBEL, HEINRICH VON, German historian, born at Düsseldorf; was apupil of RANKE'S (q. V. ), and became professor of History atMünich and Bonn; he was a Liberal in politics; his great works are a"History of the Period of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1795, andthen to 1800, " in five volumes, and the "History of the Founding of theGerman Empire under William I. , " in five volumes; he has also written a"History of the First Crusade" (1817-1895). 

SYCORAX, a hag in the "Tempest, " the dam of Caliban. 

SYDENHAM, a district of Kent and suburb of London, to the SE. Ofwhich it lies 7 m. , includes the Surrey parish of Lambeth, where in1852-54 the Crystal Palace was erected and still stands, a far-famedsight of London, containing valuable collections illustrative of the artsand sciences, and surrounded by a magnificent park and gardens. 

SYDENHAM, FLOYER, Greek scholar; translated some of the Dialogues ofPlato into English, and wrote a dissertation on Heraclitus, which failedof being appreciated, and involved in embarrassment, he was thrown intoprison because he could not pay a small bill for provisions, and theredied; his sad fate led to the foundation of the Literary Fund(1710-1787). 

SYDENHAM, THOMAS, the "English Hippocrates, " born in Dorsetshire, educated at Oxford, and a Fellow of All Souls'; practised medicine inLondon, where, though regarded with disfavour by the faculty, he stood inhigh regard, and had an extensive practice, from his study of thesymptoms of disease, and the respect he paid to the constitution of thepatient; he used his own sense and judgment in each case, and histreatment was uniformly successful; he commanded the regard of hiscontemporaries Locke and Boyle, and his memory was revered by suchexperts as Boerhaave, Stahl, Pinel, and Haller; he ranks as a greatreformer in the healing art (1624-1689). 

SYDNEY (488), the capital of New South Wales, the oldest city inAustralia, and one of the first in the world, on the S. Shore of thebasin of Port Jackson; and the entrance of a magnificent, almostland-locked, harbour for shipping of the largest tonnage; the situationof the city is superb, and it is surrounded by the richest scenery; theshores of the basin are covered with luxuriant vegetation, studded withislands and indented with pretty bays; it is well paved, has broadstreets, and some fine buildings, the principal being the university, thetwo cathedrals, the post-office, and the town hall. It is a commercialrather than a manufacturing city, though its resources for manufactureare considerable, for it is in the centre of a large coal-field, inconnection with which manufacturing industries may yet develop. 

SYDNEY, ALGERNON. See SIDNEY, ALGERNON. 

SYLLOGISM, an argument consisting of three propositions, of whichtwo are called premises, major and minor, and the one that necessarilyfollows from them the conclusion. 

SYLPHS, elemental spirits of the air, as salamanders, are of fire, of light figure with gliding movements and procreative power. 

SYLVESTER, ST. , the name of three popes: S. I. , Pope from 314to 335; S. II. , Pope from 999 to 1003, alleged, from his reconditeknowledge as an alchemist, to have been in league with the devil; and S. III. , Anti-Pope from 1041 to 1046. 

SYLVESTER, ST. , the first Pope of the name, said to have convertedConstantine and his mother by restoring a dead ox to life which amagician for a trial of skill killed, but could not restore to life; isusually represented by an ox lying beside him, and sometimes in baptizingConstantine. 

SYMBOLISM has been divided into two kinds, symbolism of colour andsymbolism of form. Of colours, BLACK typifies grief and death; BLUE, hope, love of divine works, divine contemplation, piety, sincerity; PALEBLUE, power, Christian prudence, love of good works, serene conscience;GOLD, glory and power; GREEN, faith, immortality, resurrection, gladness;PALE GREEN, baptism; GREY, tribulation; PURPLE, justice, royalty; RED, martyrdom for faith, charity, divine love; ROSE-COLOUR, martyrdom;SAFFRON, confessors; SCARLET, fervour and glory; SILVER, chastity andpurity; VIOLET, penitence; WHITE, purity, temperance, innocence, chastity, and faith in God. Instances of form: ANCHOR typifies hope;PALM, victory; SWORD, death or martyrdom; the LAMB, christ; UNICORN, purity. Of stones, moreover, the AMETHYST typifies humility; DIAMOND, invulnerable faith; SARDONYX, sincerity; SAPPHIRE, hope, &c. 

SYME, JAMES, a great surgeon, born in Edinburgh; was demonstratorunder Liston; was elected to the chair of Clinical Surgery in 1833; gaveup the chair to succeed Liston in London in 1848, but returned a fewmonths after; was re-elected to the chair he had vacated; he was muchhonoured by his pupils, and by none more than Dr. John Brown, whocharacterised him as "the best, ablest, and most beneficent of men"; hewrote treatises and papers on surgery (1799-1870). 

SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON, English man of letters, born at Bristol;educated at Harrow and Oxford; author of "The Renaissance in Italy, " awork which shows an extensive knowledge of the subject, and is written ina finished but rather flowery style, and a number of other works of akindred nature showing equal ability and literary skill; his translationof Benvenuto Cellini's autobiography is particularly noteworthy; wasconsumptive, and spent his later years at Davos, in the Engadine(1840-1893). 

SYMPHLAGADES, two fabulous floating rocks at the entrance of theEuxine, which, when driven by the winds, crushed every vessel thatattempted to pass between them; the ship ARGO (q. V. ) managed topass between them, but with the loss of part of her stern, after whichthey became fixed. 

SYMPHONY, an elaborate orchestral composition consisting usually offour contrasted and related movements; began to take distinctive shape inthe 17th century, and was for long merely a form of overture to operas, &c. , but as its possibilities were perceived was elevated into anindependent concert-piece, and as such exercised the genius of Mozart andHaydn, reaching its perfection of form in the symphonies of Beethoven. 

SYNAGOGUE, a Jewish institution for worship and religiousinstruction which dates from the period of the Babylonian Captivity, specially to keep alive in the minds of the people a knowledge of thelaw. The decree ordaining it required the families of a district to meettwice every Sabbath for this purpose, and so religiously did the Jewishpeople observe it that it continues a characteristic ordinance of Judaismto this day. The study of the law became henceforth their one vocation, and the synagogue was instituted both to instruct them in it and toremind them of the purpose of their separate existence among the nationsof the earth. High as the Temple and its service still stood in theesteem of every Jew, from the period of the Captivity it began to be feltof secondary importance to the synagogue and its service. With theerection and extension of the latter the people were being slowly trainedinto a truer sense of the nature of religious worship, and gradually madeto feel that to know the will of God and do it was a more genuine act ofhomage to Him than the offering of sacrifices upon an altar or theobservance of any religious rite. Under such training the issue betweenthe Jew and the Samaritan became of less and less consequence, and he andnot the Samaritan was on the pathway which led direct to the finalworship of God in spirit and in truth (John iv. 22). 

SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT, the name given to a council at Jerusalem, consisting of 120 members, there assembled about the year 410 B. C. Togive final form to the service and worship of the Jewish Church. A Jewishtradition says Moses received the law from Sinai; he transmitted it toJoshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets, to the men ofthe Great Assembly, who added thereto these words: "Be circumspect injudgment, make many disciples, and set a hedge about the law. " To thembelong the final settlement and arrangement of the Jewish Scriptures, theintroduction of a new alphabet, the regulation of the synagogue worship, and the adoption of sundry liturgical forms, as well as the establishmentof the FEAST OF PURIM (q. V. ), and probably the "schools" of theScribes. 

SYNCRETISM, name given to an attempted blending of different, moreor less antagonist, speculative or religious systems into one, such asCatholic and Protestant or Lutheran and Reformed. 

SYNDICATE, in commercial parlance is a name given to a number ofcapitalists associated together for the purpose of carrying through someimportant business scheme, usually having in view the controlling andraising of prices by means of a monopoly or "corner. "

SYNERGISM, the theological doctrine that divine grace requires acorrespondent action of the human will to render it effective, a doctrinedefended by Melanchthon when he ascribes to the will the "power ofseeking grace, " the term "synergy" meaning co-operation. 

SYNESIUS, BISHOP PTOLEMAIS, born at Cyrene; became a pupil ofHYPATIA (q. V. ) and was to the last a disciple, "a father of theChurch without having been her son, " and is styled by Kingsley "thesquire bishop, " from his love of the chase; "books and the chase, " on oneoccasion he writes, "make up my life"; wrote one or two curious books, and several hymns expressive of a longing after divine things (375-414). 

SYNOD, name given to any assembly of bishops in council, and in thePresbyterian Church to an assembly of a district or a general assembly. 

SYNOPTIC GOSPELS, the first three Gospels, so called because theyare summaries of the chief events in the story, and all go over the sameground, while the author of the fourth follows lines of his own. 

SYRA (31), an island of the Cyclades group, in the Ægean Sea, 10 m, by 5 m. , with a capital called also Hermoupolis; on the E. Coast is theseat of the government of the islands, and the chief port. 

SYRACUSE, 1, one of the great cities of antiquity (19), occupied awide triangular tableland on the SE. Coast of Sicily, 80 m. SW. OfMessina, and also the small island Ortygia, lying close to the shore;founded by Corinthian settlers about 733 B. C. ; amongst its rulers werethe tyrants DIONYSIUS THE ELDER and DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER(q. V. ) and Hiero, the patron of Æschylus, Pindar, &c. ; successfullyresisted the long siege of the Athenians in 414 B. C. , and rose to agreat pitch of renown after its struggle with the Carthaginians in 397B. C. , but siding with Hannibal in the Punic Wars, was taken after a twoyears' siege by the Romans (212 B. C. ), in whose hands it slowlydeclined, and finally was sacked and destroyed by the Saracens in 878 A. D. Only the portion on Ortygia was rebuilt, and this constitutes themodern city, which has interesting relics of its former greatness, but isotherwise a crowded and dirty place, surrounded by walls, and fortified;exports fruit, olive-oil, and wine. 2, A city (108) of New York State, United States, 148 m. W. Of Albany, in the beautiful valley of Onondaga;is a spacious and handsomely laid-out city, with university, &c. ; hasflourishing steel-works, foundries, rolling-mills, &c. , and enormous saltmanufactures. 

SYRIA (2, 000), one of three divisions of Asiatic Turkey, slightlylarger than Italy, forms a long strip of mountains and tablelandintersected by fertile valleys, lying along the eastern end of theMediterranean from the Taurus range in the N. To the Egyptian border onthe 8. , and extending to the Euphrates and Arabian desert The coastalstrip and waters fall within the LEVANT (q. V. ). In the S. LiesPalestine, embracing Jordan, Dead Sea, Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), Jerusalem, Gaza, &c. ; in the N. , between the parallel ranges of Lebanonand Anti-Lebanon, lies the valley of Coele-Syria, through which flows theOrontes. Important towns are Aleppo, Damascus, Beyrout (chief port), &c. ;principal exports are silk, wool, olive-oil, and fruits. Four-fifths ofthe people are Mohammedans of Aramæan (ancient Syrian) and Arabic stock. Once a portion of the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (q. V. ), it became apossession successively of the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Egyptians, and finally fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks in 1516, under whose rule it now languishes. For further particulars see variousnames and places mentioned. 

SYRIANUS, a Greek Neoplatonic philosopher of the 5th century; hadPROCLUS (q. V. ) for a disciple; left a valuable commentary onthe metaphysics of Aristotle. 

SYRINX, an Arcadian nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, fled into ariver, was metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan made his flute. 

SYRTIS, MAJOR AND MINOR, the ancient names of the Gulfs of Sidra andCabes on the N. Coast of Africa, the former between Tripoli and Barca, the latter between Tunis and Tripoli. 

SYRUS, PUBLIUS, a slave brought to Rome, and on account of his witmanumitted by his master; made his mark by composing memoirs and acollection of pithy sayings that appear to have been used as aschool-book; flourished in 45 B. C. 

SYSTÈME DE LA NATURE, a book, the authorship of which is ascribed toBARON HOLBACH (q. V. ), which appeared in 1770, advocating aphilosophical materialism and maintaining that nothing exists but matter, and that mind is either naught or only a finer kind of matter; there isnowhere anything, it insists, except matter and motion; it is thefarthest step yet taken in the direction of speculative as opposed topolitical nihilism. 

SYZYGY, the point on the orbit of a planet, or the moon when it isin conjunction with, or in opposition to, the sun. 

SZECHUAN (71, 000), the largest province of China, lies in the W. Between Thibet (NW. ) and Yunnan (SW. ); more than twice the size of GreatBritain; a hilly country, rich in coal, iron, &c. , and traversed by theYangtse-kiang and large tributaries; Chingtu is the capital; two townshave been opened to foreign trade, opium, silk, tobacco, musk, white wax, &c. , being chief exports. 

SZEGEDIN (89), a royal free city of Hungary, situated at theconfluence of the Maros and Theiss, 118 m. SE. Of Budapest, to which itranks next in importance as a commercial and manufacturing centre; hasbeen largely rebuilt since the terribly destructive flood of 1879, andpresents a handsome modern appearance. 

T

TABARD, a tunic without sleeves worn by military nobles over theirarms, generally emblazoned with heraldic devices. "Toom Tabard, " emptyking's cloak, nickname given by the Scotch to John Balliol as nothingmore. 

TABERNACLE, a movable structure of the nature of a temple, erectedby the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness; it was aparallelogram in shape, constructed of boards lined with curtains, theroof flat and of skins, while the floor was the naked earth, included asanctum and a sanctum sanctorum, and contained altars for sacrifice andsymbols of sacred import, especially of the Divine presence, and wasaccessible only to the priests. See FEASTS, JEWISH. 

TABLE MOUNTAIN, a flat-topped eminence in the SW. Of Cape Colony, rising to a height of 3600 ft. Behind Cape Town and overlooking it, oftensurmounted by a drapery of mist. 

TABLES, THE TWELVE, the tables of the Roman laws engraven on brassbrought from Athens to Rome by the decemvirs. 

TABLETS, name given to thin boards coated with wax and included in aframe for writing on with a stylus. 

TABLE-TURNING, movement of a table ascribed to the agency of spiritsor some recondite spiritual force acting through the media of a circle ofpeople standing round the edge touching it with their finger-tips incontact with those of the rest. 

TABOO or TABU, a solemn prohibition or interdict among thePolynesians under which a particular person or thing is pronouncedinviolable, and so sacred, the violation of which entails malediction atthe hands of the supernatural powers. 

TABOR, MOUNT, an isolated cone-shaped hill, 1000 ft. In height andclothed with olive-trees, on the NE. Borders of ESDRAËLON (q. V. ), 7 m. E. Of Nazareth. A tradition of the 2nd century identifies itas the scene of the Tranfiguration, and ruins of a church, built by theCrusaders to commemorate the event, crown the summit. 

TABRIZ (170), an ancient and still important commercial city ofPersia, 320 m. SE. Of Tiflis, 4500 ft. Above sea-level; occupies anelevated site on the Aji, 40 m. E. Of its entrance into Lake Urumiah;carries on a flourishing transit trade and has notable manufactures ofleather, silk, and gold and silver ware; has been on several occasionsvisited by severe earthquakes. 

TACITUS, CORNELIUS, Roman historian, born presumably at Rome, ofequestrian rank, early famous as an orator; married a daughter ofAgricola, held office under the Emperors Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva, and conducted along with the younger Pliny the prosecution of MariusPriscus; he is best known and most celebrated as a historian, and ofwritings extant the chief are his "Life of Agricola, " his "Germania, " his"Histories" and his "Annals"; his "Agricola" is admired as a modelbiography, while his "Histories" and "Annales" are distinguished for"their conciseness, their vigour, and the pregnancy of meaning; a singleword sometimes gives effect to a whole sentence, and if the meaning ofthe word is missed, the sense of the writer is not reached"; his greatpower lies in his insight into character and the construing of motives, but the picture he draws of imperial Rome is revolting; _b_. About A. D. 54. 

TACNA (14), capital of a province (32) in North Chile, 38 m. N. OfArica, with which it is connected by rail; trades in wool and minerals;taken from Peru in 1883. 

TACOMA (38), a flourishing manufacturing town and port of WashingtonState, on Puget Sound; has practically sprung into existence within thelast 15 years, and is the outlet for the produce of a rich agriculturaland mining district. 

TADMOR. See PALMYRA. 

TAEL, a Chinese money of account of varying local value, and risingand falling with the price of silver, but may be approximately valued atbetween 6s. And 5s. 6d. The customs tael, equivalent in value to about 4s9d. , has been superseded by the new dollar of 1890, which is equal tothat of the United States. 

TAGANROG (50), a Russian seaport on the N. Shore of the Sea of Azov;is the outlet for the produce of a rich agricultural district, wheat, linseed, and hempseed being the chief exports. Founded by Peter the Greatin 1698. 

TAGLIONI, MARIA, a famous ballet-dancer, born at Stockholm, thedaughter of an Italian ballet-master; made her _début_ in Paris in 1827and soon became the foremost _danseuse_ of Europe; married Count deVoisins in 1832; retired from the stage in 1847 with a fortune, which shesubsequently lost, a misfortune which compelled her to set up as ateacher of deportment in London (1804-1884). 

TAGUS, the largest river of the Spanish peninsula, issues from thewatershed between the provinces of Guadalajara and Teruel; follows a moreor less westerly course across the centre of the peninsula, and, afterdividing into two portions below Salvaterra, its united waters enter theAtlantic by a noble estuary 20 m. Long; total length 566 m. , of which 190are in Portugal; navigable as far as Abrantes. 

TAHITI (11), the principal island of a group in the South Pacific;sometimes called the Society Islands, situated 2000 m. NE. Of NewZealand; are mountainous, of volcanic origin, beautifully wooded, andgirt by coral reefs; a fertile soil grows abundant fruit, cotton, sugar, &c. , which, with mother-of-pearl, are the principal exports; capital andchief harbour is Papeete (3); the whole group since 1880 has become aFrench possession. 

TAILLANDIER, SAINT-RENÉ, French littérateur and professor, born atParis; filled the chair of Literature at the Sorbonne from 1863; wrotevarious works of literary, historical, and philosophical interest, anddid much by his writings to extend the knowledge of German art andliterature in France; was a frequent contributor to the _Revue des DeuxMondes_, and in 1873 was elected a member of the Academy (1817-1879). 

TAILORS, Carlyle's humorsome name in "Sartor" for the architects ofthe customs and costumes woven for human wear by society, the inventorsof our spiritual toggery, the truly _poetic_ class. 

TAILORS, THE THREE, OF TOOLEY STREET, three characters said byCanning to have held a meeting there for redress of grievances, and tohave addressed a petition to the House of Commons beginning "We, thepeople of England. "

TAIN (2), a royal burgh of Ross-shire, on the S. Shore of theDornoch Firth, 44 m. NE. Of Inverness; has interesting ruins of a13th-century chapel, a 15th-century collegiate church, an academy, &c. 

TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE, an eminent French critic and historian, born at Vouziers, in Ardennes; after some years of scholastic drudgery inthe provinces returned to Paris, and there, by the originality of hiscritical method and brilliancy of style soon took rank among the foremostFrench writers; in 1854 the Academy crowned his essay on Livy; ten yearslater became professor of Æsthetics at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and in 1878 was admitted to the French Academy; his voluminous writingsembrace works on the philosophy of art, essays critical and historical, volumes of travel-impressions in various parts of Europe; but his finestwork is contained in his vivid and masterly studies on "Les Origines dela France Contemporaine" and in his "History of English Literature"(1833-4; Eng. Trans, by Van Laun), the most penetrative and sympatheticsurvey of English literature yet done by a foreigner; he was a discipleof Sainte-Beuve, but went beyond his master in ascribing character toomuch to external environment (1828-1893). 

TAI-PINGS, a name bestowed upon the followers of Hung Hsiû-ch`wan, avillage schoolmaster of China, who, coming under the influence ofChristian teaching, sought to subvert the religion and ruling dynasty ofChina; he himself was styled "Heavenly King, " his reign "Kingdom ofHeaven, " and his dynasty "Tai-Ping" (Grand Peace); between 1851 and 1855the rising assumed formidable dimensions, but from 1855 began to decline;the religious enthusiasm died away; foreign auxiliaries were called in, and under the leadership of GORDON (q. V. ) the rebellion wasstamped out by 1865. 

TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, archbishop of Canterbury, of Scotchdescent, born in Edinburgh; educated at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Oxford;when at Oxford led the opposition to the Tractarian Movement; in 1842succeeded Arnold as head-master at Rugby; in 1850 became Dean ofCarlisle; in 1856 Bishop of London; and in 1868 Primate. This last officehe held at a critical period, and his episcopate was distinguished bygreat discretion and moderation (1811-1882). 

TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE, physicist and mathematician, born at Dalkeith;educated in Edinburgh; became senior wrangler at Cambridge, and Smith'sprizeman in 1852; was in 1854 elected professor of Mathematics atBelfast, and in 1860 professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh; hasdone a great deal of experimental work, especially in thermo-electricity, and has contributed important papers on pure mathematics; wrote, alongwith Lord Kelvin, "Treatise on Natural Philosophy, " and along withBalfour Stewart "The Unseen Universe, " followed by "ParadoxicalPhilosophy"; _b_. 1831. 

TAI-WAN (70), capital of FORMOSA (q. V. ), an importantcommercial emporium, situated about 3 m. From the SW. Coast, on which, however, it has a port, ranking as a treaty-port. 

TAJ MAHAL. See AGRA. 

TALARIA, wings attached to the ankles or sandals of Mercury as themessenger of the gods. 

TALAVERA DE LA REINA (10), a picturesque old Spanish town on theTagus, situated amid vineyards, 75 m. SE. Of Madrid; scene of a greatvictory under Sir Arthur Wellesley over a French army commanded by JosephBonaparte, Marshals Jourdan and Victor, 27th July 1809. 

TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY FOX, one of the earliest experimenters and adiscoverer in photography, born in Chippenham, which he represented inParliament; was also one of the first to decipher the Assyrian cuneiforminscriptions (1800-1877). 

TALE OF A TUB, a great work of Swift's, characterised by ProfessorSaintsbury as "one of the very greatest books of the world, in which agreat drift of universal thought receives consummate literary form . .. The first great book, " he announces, "in prose or verse, of the 18thcentury, and in more ways than one the herald and champion at once of itsspecial achievements in literature. "

TALENT, a weight, coin, or sum of money among the ancients, ofvariable value among different nations and at different periods; theAttic weight being equal to about 57 lbs. Troy, and the money to £243, 15s. ; among the Romans the great talent was worth £99, and the littleworth £75. 

TALFOURD, SIR THOMAS NOON, lawyer and dramatist, born at Doxey, nearStafford; was called to the bar in 1821, and practised with notablesuccess, becoming in 1849 a justice of Common Pleas and a knight; was forsome years a member of Parliament; author of four tragedies, of which"Ion" is the best known; was the intimate friend and literary executor ofCharles Lamb (1795-1854). 

TALISMAN, a magical figure of an astrological nature carved on astone or piece of metal under certain superstitious observances, to whichcertain wonderful effects are ascribed; is of the nature of a charm toavert evil. 

TALLARD, COMTE DE, marshal of France; served in the War of theSpanish Succession; was taken prisoner by Marlborough at Hochstädt, onwhich occasion he said to the duke, "Your Grace has beaten the finesttroops in Europe, " when the duke replied, "You will except, I hope, thosewho defeated them" (1652-1728). 

TALLEMANT DES RÉAUX, GÉDÉON, French writer, native of La Rochelle;author of a voluminous collection of gossipy biographies, or anecdotesrather, "Historiettes, " filling five volumes, which throw a flood oflight on the manners and customs of 17th-century life in France, thoughallowance must be made for exaggerations (1619-1692). 

TALLEYRAND DE PÉRIGORD, CHARLES MAURICE, PRINCE OF BENEVENTO, Frenchstatesman and diplomatist, born in Paris, of an illustrious family;rendered lame by an accident, was cut off from a military career; waseducated for the Church, and made bishop of Autun; chosen deputy of theclergy of his diocese to the States-General in 1789, threw himself withzeal into the popular side, officiated in his pontifical robes at thefeast of the Federation in the Champs de Mars, and was the first to takethe oath on that side, but on being excommunicated by the Pope resignedhis bishopric, and embarked on a statesman's career; sent on a mission toEngland in 1792, remained two years as an _émigré_, and had to deporthimself to the United States, where he employed himself in commercialtransactions; recalled in 1796, was appointed Minister of ForeignAffairs; supported Bonaparte in his ambitious schemes, and on the latterbecoming Emperor, was made Grand Chamberlain and Duke of Benevento, whilehe retained the portfolio of Foreign Affairs; in a fit of irritationNapoleon one day discharged him, and he refused to accept office againwhen twice over recalled; he attached himself to the Bourbons on theirreturn, and becoming Foreign Minister to Louis XVIII. , was made a peer, and sent ambassador to the Congress of Vienna; went into opposition tillthe fall of Charles X. , and attached himself to Louis Philippe in 1830;Carlyle in his "Revolution" pronounced him "a man living in falsehood andon falsehood, yet, as the specialty of him, not what you can call a falseman . .. An enigma possible only in an age of paper and the burning ofpaper, " in an age in which the false was the only real (1754-1838). 

TALLIEN, JEAN LAMBERT, a notable French Revolutionist, born inParis; a lawyer's clerk; threw in his lot with the Revolution, and becameprominent as the editor of a Jacobin journal, _L'Ami des Citoyens_; tookan active part in the sanguinary proceedings during the ascendency ofRobespierre, notably terrorising the disaffected of Bordeaux by amerciless use of the guillotine; recalled to Paris, and became Presidentof the Convention, but fearing Robespierre, headed the attack whichbrought the Dictator to the block; enjoyed, with his celebrated wife, Madame de Fontenay, considerable influence; accompanied Napoleon toEgypt; was captured by the English, and for a season lionised by theWhigs; his political influence at an end, he was glad to accept the postof consul at Alicante, and subsequently died in poverty (1769-1820). 

TALLIS, THOMAS, "the father of English cathedral music, " born in thereign of Henry VIII. , lived well into the reign of Elizabeth; was anorganist, and probably "a gentleman of the Chapel Royal"; composedvarious anthems, hymns, Te Deums, etc. , including "The Song of the FortyParts" (c. 1515-1585). 

TALLY, a notched stick used in commercial and Exchequer transactionswhen writing was yet a rare accomplishment; the marks, of varyingbreadth, indicated sums paid by a purchaser; the stick was splitlongitudinally, and one-half retained by the seller and one by the buyeras a receipt. As a means of receipt for sums paid into the Exchequer, thetally was in common use until 1782, and was not entirely abolished till1812. Tally System, a mode of credit-dealing by which a merchant providesa customer with goods, and receives in return weekly or monthly paymentsto account. 

TALMA, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH, a famous French tragedian, born in Paris, where in 1787 he made his _début_; from the first his great gifts wereapparent, and during the Revolution he was the foremost actor at theThéâtre de la République, and subsequently enjoyed the favour ofNapoleon; his noble carriage and matchless elocution enabled him to playwith great dignity such characters as Othello, Nero, Orestes, Leicester, etc. ; introduced, like Kemble in England, a greater regard for historicalaccuracy in scenery and dress (1763-1826). 

TALMUD, a huge limbo, in chaotic arrangement, consisting of theMishna, or text, and Gemara, or commentary, of Rabbinical speculations, subtleties, fancies, and traditions connected with the Hebrew Bible, andclaiming to possess co-ordinate rank with it as expository of its meaningand application, the whole collection dating from a period subsequent tothe Captivity and the close of the canon of Scripture. There are twoTalmuds, one named the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the other the Talmud ofBabylon, the former, the earlier of the two, belonging in its presentform to the close of the 4th century, and the latter to at least acentury later. See HAGGADAH and HALACHA. 

TALUS, a man of brass, the work of Hephæstos, given to Minos toguard the island of Crete; he walked round the island thrice a day, andif he saw any stranger approaching he made himself red-hot and embracedhim. 

TAMATAVE, the chief town of Madagascar, on a bay on the E. Coast. 

TAMERLANE or TIMUR, a great Asiatic conqueror, born at Hesh, near Samarcand; the son of a Mongol chief, raised himself by militaryconquest to the throne of Samarcand (1369), and having firmly establishedhis rule over Turkestan, inspired by lust of conquest began the wonderfulseries of military invasions which enabled him to build up an empire thatat the time of his death extended from the Ganges to the GrecianArchipelago; died whilst leading an expedition against China; was atypical Asiatic despot, merciless in the conduct of war, but inpeace-time a patron of science and art, and solicitous for his subjects'welfare (1336-1405). 

TAMESIS, the Latin name for the Thames, and so named by Cesar in his"Gallic War. "

TAMIL, a branch of the Dravidian language, spoken in the S. Of Indiaand among the coolies of Ceylon. 

TAMMANY SOCIETY, a powerful political organisation of New YorkCity, whose ostensible objects, on its formation in 1805, were charityand reform of the franchise; its growth was rapid, and from the first itexercised, under a central committee and chairman, known as the "Boss, "remarkable political influence on the Democratic side. Since the giganticfrauds practised in 1870-1871 on the municipal revenues by the then"Boss, " William M. Tweed, and his "ring, " the society has remained underpublic suspicion as "a party machine" not too scrupulous about its waysand means. The name is derived from a celebrated Indian chief who livedin Penn's day, and who has become the centre of a cycle of legendarytales. 

TAMMERFORS (20), an important manufacturing city of Finland, situated on a rapid stream, which drives its cotton, linen, and woollenfactories, 50 m. NW. Of Tavastehuus. 

TAMMUZ, a god mentioned in Ezekiel, generally identified with theGREEK ADONIS (q. V. ), the memory of whose fall was annuallycelebrated with expressions first of mourning and then of joy all overAsia Minor. Adonis appears to have been a symbol of the sun, departing inwinter and returning as youthful as ever in spring, and the worship ofhim a combined expression of gloom, connected with the presence ofwinter, and of joy, associated with the approach of summer. 

TAMPICO (5), a port of Mexico, on the Panuco, 9 m. From its entranceinto the Gulf of Mexico; the harbour accommodation has been improved, andtrade is growing. 

TAMWORTH (7), an old English town on the Stafford and Warwickshireborder, 7 m. SE. Of Lichfield; its history goes back to the time of theDanes, by whom it was destroyed in 911; an old castle, and the church ofSt. Edith, are interesting buildings; has prosperous manufactures ofelastic, paper, &c. ; has a bronze statue of Sir Robert Peel, whorepresented the borough in Parliament. 

TANAÏS, the Latin name for the Don. 

TANCRED, a famous crusader, hero of Tasso's great poem; was the sonof Palgrave Otho the Good, and of Emma, Robert Guiscard's sister; forgreat deeds done in the first crusade he was rewarded with theprincipality of Tiberias; in the "Jerusalem Delivered" Tasso, followingthe chroniclers, represents him as the very "flower and pattern ofchivalry"; stands as the type of "a very gentle perfect knight"; died atAntioch of a wound received in battle (1078-1112). 

TANDY, JAMES NAPPER, Irish patriot, born in Dublin, where he becamea well-to-do merchant, and first secretary to the United Irishmenassociation; got into trouble through the treasonable schemes of theUnited Irishmen, and fled to America; subsequently served in the Frencharmy, took part in the abortive invasion of Ireland (1798); ultimatelyfell into the hands of the English Government, and was sentenced to death(1801), but was permitted to live an exile in France (1740-1803). 

TANGANYIKA, a lake of East Central Africa, stretching between theCongo Free State (W. ) and German East Africa (E. ); discovered by Spekeand Burton in 1858; more carefully explored by Livingstone and Stanley in1871; the overflow is carried off by the Lukuga into the Upper Congo; isgirt round by lofty mountains; length 420 m. , breadth from 15 to 80 m. 

TANGIER or TANGIERS (20), a seaport of Morocco, on a small bayof the Strait of Gibraltar; occupies a picturesque site on two hills, butwithin its old walls presents a dirty and crowded appearance; has aconsiderable shipping trade; was a British possession from 1662 to 1683, but was abandoned by them, and subsequently became infested by pirates. 

TANIS, an ancient city of Egypt, whose ruins mark its site on theNE. Of the Nile delta; once the commercial metropolis of Egypt, and aroyal residence; fell into decay owing to the silting up of the Taniticmouth of the Nile, and was destroyed in A. D. 174 for rebellion. 

TANIST STONE, monolith erected by the Celts on a coronation, agreeably to an ancient custom (Judges ix. 6). 

TANISTRY, a method of tenure which prevailed among the Gaelic Celts;according to this custom succession, whether in office or land, wasdetermined by the family as a whole, who on the death of one holderelected another from its number; the practice was designed probably toprevent family estates falling into the hands of an incompetent orworthless heir. 

TANJORE (54), capital of a district (2, 130) of the same name, inMadras Province, India, situated in a fertile plain 180 m. SW. Of Madras, and about 45 m. From the sea; surrounded by walls; contains a rajah'spalace, a British residency, and manufactures silk, muslin, and cotton. 

TANNAHILL, ROBERT, Scottish poet, born at Paisley; the son of aweaver, was bred to the hand-loom, and with the exception of a two years'residence in Lancashire, passed his life in his native town; anenthusiastic admirer of Burns, Fergusson, and Ramsay, he soon began toemulate them, and in 1807 published a volume of "Poems and Songs, " which, containing such songs as "Gloomy Winter's noo Awa, " "Jessie the Flower o'Dunblane, " "The Wood o' Craigielea, " &c. , proved an immediate success;disappointment at the rejection by Constable of his proffered MSS. Of anew and enlarged edition of his works and a sense of failing health ledto his committing suicide in a canal near Paisley; his songs are markedby tenderness and grace, but lack the force and passion of Burns(1774-1810). 

TANNER, THOMAS, bishop and antiquary, born at Market Lavington, Wiltshire; became a graduate and Fellow of Oxford; took orders, and roseto be bishop of St. Asaph; his reputation as a learned and accurateantiquary rests on his two great works "Notitia Monastica, or a ShortAccount of the Religious Houses in England and Wales, " and "BibliothecaBritannico-Hibernica, " a veritable mine of biographical andbibliographical erudition; bequeathed valuable collections of charters, deeds, &c. , to the Bodleian Library (1674-1735). 

TANNHÄUSER, a knight of medieval legend, who wins the affection of alady, but leaves her to worship in the cave-palace of Venus, on learningwhich the lady plunges a dagger into her heart and dies; smitten withremorse he visits her grave, weeps over it, and hastens to Rome toconfess his sin to Pope Urban; the Pope refuses absolution, and protestsit is no more possible for him to receive pardon than for the dry wand inhis hand to bud again and blossom; in his despair he flees from Rome, butis met by Venus, who lures him back to her cave, there to remain till theday of judgment; meanwhile the wand he left at Rome begins to put forthgreen leaves, and Urban, alarmed, sends off messengers in quest of theunhappy knight, but they fail to find him. 

TANNIN, an astringent principle found in gallnuts and the barkchiefly of the oak. 

TANTALUS, in the Greek mythology a Lydian king, who, being admittedfrom blood relationship to the banquets of the gods, incurred theirdispleasure by betraying their secrets, and was consigned to the netherworld and compelled to suffer the constant pangs of hunger and thirst, though he stood up to the chin in water, and had ever before him theoffer of the richest fruits, both of which receded from him as heattempted to reach them, while a huge rock hung over him, everthreatening to fall and crush him with its weight. 

TANTIA TOPEE, the most daring and stubborn of Nana Sahib'slieutenants during the Indian Mutiny; in alliance with the Rani of Jhansihe upheld for a time the mutiny after the flight of his chief, but wasfinally captured and executed in 1859. 

TAOISM, the religious system of LAOTZE (q. V. ). 

TAORMINA (2), a town of Sicily; crowns the summit of Monte Tauro, 35m. SW. Of Messina; chiefly celebrated for its splendid ruins of anancient theatre, aqueducts, sepulchres, &c. 

TAPAJOS, one of the greater affluents of the Amazon; its head-watersrise in the Serra Diamantina, in the S. Of Matto-Grosso State; has anorthward course of over 1000 m. Before it joins the Amazon; is a broadand excellent waterway, and navigable in its lower course for 150 m. 

TAPLEY, MARK, body-servant to Martin Chuzzlewit, in Dickens's novelof the name. 

TAPTI, a river of Bombay; has its source in the Betul district ofthe Central Provinces, and flows westward across the peninsula 450 m. Tothe Gulf of Cambay; is a shallow and muddy stream, of little commercialuse. 

TARA, HILL OF, a celebrated eminence, cone-shaped (507 ft. ), incounty Meath, 7 m. SE. Of Navan; legend points to it as the site of theresidence of the kings of Ireland, where something like a parliament washeld every three years. 

TARANAKI (22), a provincial district of New Zealand, occupying theSW. Corner of North Island; remarkable for its dense forests, which covernearly three-fourths of its area, and for its beds (2 to 5 ft. Deep) oftitaniferous iron-sand which extend along its coasts, out of which thefinest steel is manufactured; New Plymouth (4) is the capital. 

TARANTO (25), a fortified seaport of South Italy, situated on arocky islet which lies between the Gulf of Taranto and the Mare Piccolo, a broad inlet on the E. , 72 m. S. Of Bari; is well built, and containsvarious interesting buildings, including a cathedral and castle; isconnected with the mainland on the E. By a six-arched bridge, and by anancient aqueduct on the W. ; some textile manufactures are carried on, andoyster and mussel fisheries and fruit-growing are important; as theancient Tarentum its history goes back to the time when it was the chiefcity of Magna Græcia; was captured by the Romans in 272 B. C. , and afterthe fall of the Western Empire was successively in the hands of Goths, Lombards, and Saracens, and afterwards shared the fate of the kingdom ofNaples, to which it was united in 1063. 

TARAPACA (47), a maritime province of North Chili, taken from Peruin 1883; its immense deposits of nitrate of soda are a great source ofwealth to the country; capital IQUIQUE (q. V. )

TARARE (12), a town of France, dep. Of Rhône, 21 m. NW. Of Lyons;busy with the manufacture of muslins, silks, and other fine textiles. 

TARASCON (7), a picturesque old town of France, 18 m. SW. OfAvignon; is surrounded by walls, has a 15th-century castle (King Rent's), a Gothic church, silk and woollen factories. 

TARBES (25), an old historic town of France, on the Adour, 100 m. SW. Of Toulouse; has a fine 12th-century cathedral, a Government cannonfactory, etc. 

TARE AND TRET, commercial terms, are deductions usually made fromthe gross weight of goods. Tare is the weight of the case or covering, box, or such-like, containing the goods; deducting this the _net weight_is left. Tret is a further allowance (not now so commonly deducted) madeat the rate of 4 lb. For every 104 lb. For waste through dust, sand, etc. 

TARENTUM. See TARANTO. 

TARGUMS, translations, dating for the most part as early as the timeof Ezra, of several books of the Old Testament into Aramaic, which bothin Babylonia and Palestine had become the spoken language of the Jewsinstead of Hebrew, executed chiefly for the service of the Synagogue;they were more or less of a paraphrastic nature, and were accompaniedwith comments and instances in illustration; they were delivered at firstorally and then handed down by tradition, which did not improve them. Oneof them, on the Pentateuch, bears the name of Onkelos, who sat at thefeet of Gamaliel along with St. Paul, and another the name of Jonathan, in the historical and prophetical books, though there are others, theJerusalem Targum and the Pseudo-Jonathan, which are of an inferior stampand surcharged with fancies similar to those in the TALMUD (q. V. ). 

TARIFA (13), an interesting old Spanish seaport, the most southerlytown of Europe, 21 m. SW. Of Gibraltar, derives its name from the Moorishleader Tarif, who occupied it 710 A. D. ; held by the Moors for more than500 years; still thoroughly Moorish in appearance, dingy, crowded, andsurrounded by walls; is connected by causeway with the strongly-fortifiedIsleta de Tarifa. 

TARNOPOL (26), a town of Galicia, Austria, on the Sereth, 80 m. SE. Of Lemberg; does a good trade in agricultural produce; inhabitantschiefly Jews. 

TARNOV (25), a town of Galicia, Austria, on the Biala, 48 m. SE. OfCracow; is the see of a bishop, with cathedral, monastery, etc. ;manufactures linen and leather. 

TARPEIAN ROCK, a precipitous cliff on the W. Of the Capitoline Hillat Rome, from which in ancient times persons guilty of treason werehurled; named after Tarpeia, a vestal virgin, who betrayed the city tothe Sabine soldiers, then besieging Rome, on condition that they gave herwhat they wore on their left arms, meaning their golden bracelets;instead the soldiers flung their shields (borne on their left arms) uponher, so keeping to the letter of their promise, but visiting perfidy withmerited punishment; at the base of the rock her body was buried. 

TARQUINIUS, name of an illustrious Roman family of Etruscan origin, two of whose members, according to legend, reigned as king in Rome:LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, fifth king of Rome; the friend andsuccessor of Ancus Martius; said to have reigned from 616 to 578 B. C. , and to have greatly extended the power and fame of Rome; was murdered bythe sons of Ancus Martius. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, seventh andlast king of Rome (534-510), usurped the throne after murdering hisfather-in-law, King Servius Tullius; ruled as a despot, extended thepower of Rome abroad, but was finally driven out by a people goaded torebellion by his tyranny and infuriated by the infamous conduct of hisson Sextus (the violator of Lucretia); made several unsuccessful attemptsto regain the royal power, failing in which he retired to Cumæ, where hedied. 

TARRAGONA (27), a Spanish seaport, capital of a province (349) ofits own name, situated at the entrance of the Francoli into theMediterranean, 60 m. W. Of Barcelona; contains many interesting remainsof the Roman occupation, including an aqueduct, still used, and the Towerof the Scipios; possesses also a 12th-century Gothic cathedral; has alarge shipping and transport trade, and manufactures silk, jute, lace, &c. 

TARRYTOWN (4), a village of New York State, on the Hudson, 21 m. N. Of New York; associated with the arrest of Major André in 1780, and theclosing scenes of Washington Irving's life. 

TARSHISH, a place frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, nowgenerally identified with Tartessus, a Phoenician settlement in the SW. Of Spain, near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, which became co-extensivewith the district subsequently known as Andalusia; also conjectured tohave been Tarsus, and also Yemen. 

TARSUS (8), a city of great antiquity and interest, the ancientcapital of Cilicia, now in the province of Adana, in Turkey in Asia, onthe Cydnus, 12 m. Above its entrance into the Mediterranean; legendascribes its foundation to Sennacherib in 690 B. C. ; in Roman times was afamous centre of wealth and culture, rivalling Athens and Alexandria;associated with the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra and the deaths of theemperors Tacitus and Maximinus; here St. Paul was born and notable Stoicphilosophers; in the hands of the Turk has decayed into a squalidresidence of merchants busy with the export of corn, cotton, wool, hides, &c. In winter the population rises to 30, 000. 

TARTARS (originally TATARS), a name of no precise ethnologicalsignification, used in the 13th century to describe the Mongolic, Turkish, and other Asiatic hordes, who, under GENGHIS KHAN (q. V. ), were the terror of Eastern Europe, and now bestowed upon varioustribes dwelling in Tartary, Siberia, and the Asiatic steppes. 

TARTARUS, a dark sunless waste in the nether deeps, as far belowearth as heaven is above it, into which Zeus hurled the Titans thatrebelled against him; the term was subsequently sometimes used to denotethe whole nether world and sometimes the place of punishment. 

TARTESSUS, the Greek and Roman name for the Scriptural Tarshish. 

TARTINI, GIUSEPPE, a famous Italian violinist and composer, born atPirano, in Istria; got into trouble over his clandestine marriage withthe niece of the archbishop of Padua, and fled for sanctuary to amonastery at Assisi; subsequently reunited to his wife establishedhimself in Padua as a teacher and composer; wrote a "Treatise on Music, "and enjoyed a wide celebrity, and still ranks as one of the greatviolinists of the past (1692-1770). 

TARTUFFE, a knave, a creation of Molière's, who makes a cloak ofreligion to cover his knaveries, and the name of the play in which thecharacter appears, Molière's greatest. 

TASHKAND or TASHKENT (100), capital of Russian Turkestan, onthe Tchirshik, 300 m. NE. Of Samarcand; an ancient place still surroundedby its 12 m. Circuit of wall, and fortified; Russian enterprise has donemuch for it, introducing schools, &c. ; carries on a brisk trade, andmanufactures silks, leather, porcelain ware, &c. 

TASMAN SEA, the sea lying between the New Zealand group and theislands of Australia and Tasmania. 

TASMANIA (146), an island and colony of Britain, lying fully 100 m. S. Of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass Strait; about thesize of Scotland; the beauty of its mountain and lake scenery has won itthe name of "the Switzerland of the South"; extensive stretches oftableland diversified by lakes--largest Great Lake, 90 m. Incircumference--occupy the centre; wide fertile valleys stretch down tothe coastal plains, often richly wooded with lofty eucalyptus and variouspine trees; rivers are numerous, and include the Derwent and Tamar, whichform excellent waterways into the interior; enjoys a genial and temperateclimate, more invigorating than that of Australia; sheep-farming andlatterly mining (coal in particular), and fruit-growing are the principalindustries; gold, silver, and tin are also wrought; the flora, as alsothe fauna, is practically identical with that of Australia; has a long, irregular coast-line, with many excellent harbours; chief exports arewool, tin, fruit, timber, coal, and gold; was discovered in 1642 byTasman, a Dutchman, and first settled by Englishmen in 1803; theaborigines are now completely extinct; was till 1852 a penal settlement, and received representative government in 1855; is divided into 18counties; government is conducted by a legislative council, a house ofassembly, and a crown-appointed governor; most of the colonists belong tothe Church of England; compulsory education is in vogue; is well suppliedwith railways and telegraphs; was formerly called Van Diemen's Land afterVan Diemen, the Dutch governor-general of Batavia, who despatched Tasmanon his voyage of discovery. 

TASSO, BERNARDO, an Italian poet of some repute in his own day, butnow chiefly remembered as the father of the greater Torquato, born inVenice (1493-1569). 

TASSO, TORQUATO, an illustrious Italian poet, son of preceding, bornat Sorrento, near Naples; educated at a Jesuit school in Naples, hedisplayed unusual precocity, and subsequently studied law at theuniversity of Padua, but already devoted to poetry, at 18 published hisfirst poem "Rinaldo, " a romance in 12 cantos, the subject-matter of whichis drawn from the Charlemagne legends; in 1566 he entered the service ofCardinal Luigi d'Este, by whom he was introduced to Alfonso, Duke ofFerrara, brother of the cardinal, within whose court he received theneedful impulse to begin his great poem "La Gerusalemme Liberata"; forthe court stage he wrote his pastoral play "Aminta, " a work of highpoetic accomplishment, which extended his popularity, and by 1575 hisgreat epic was finished; in the following year the symptoms of mentaldisease revealed themselves, and after a confinement of a few days hefled from Ferrara, and for two years led the life of a wanderer, thevictim of his own brooding, religious melancholy, passing on foot fromcity to city of Italy; yielding to a pent-up longing to revisit Ferrarahe returned, but was coldly received by the duke, and after an outburstof frenzy placed in confinement for seven years; during these years thefame of his epic spread throughout Italy, and the interest created in itsauthor eventually led to his liberation; in 1595 he was summoned by PopeClement VIII. , from a heartless and wandering life, to appear at Rome tobe crowned upon the Capitol the poet-laureate of Italy, but, although hereached the city, his worn-out frame succumbed before the ceremony couldtake place; "One thing, " says Settembrini, the literary historian ofItaly, "Tasso had, which few in his time possessed, a great heart, andthat made him a true and great poet, and a most unhappy man;" Fairfax'stranslation of the "Jerusalem Delivered" is one of his greattranslations in the English language (1544-1595). 

TATAR, a word derived from a Turanian root signifying "to pitch atent, " hence appropriate to nomadic tribes, became converted by Europeanchroniclers into Tartar, a fanciful derivative from Tartaros (Gr. Hell), and suggestive of fiends from hell. Tartary, as a geographical expressionof the Middle Ages, embraced a vast stretch of territory from theDnieper, in Eastern Europe, to the Sea of Japan; but subsequentlydwindled away to Chinese and Western Turkestan. 

TATE, NAHUM, poet-laureate, born in Dublin, where he was educated atTrinity College; came to London to ply the craft of letters, and in 1690succeeded Shadwell in the laureateship; improvident, and probablyintemperate, he died in the Mint, the refuge of bankrupts in those days;wrote some dramatic pieces, but is to be remembered mainly for hismetrical version of the Psalms, executed in conjunction with NicholasBrady, which superseded the older version done by STERNHOLD (q. V. )and Hopkins (1652-1715). 

TATIUS, ACHILLES, a Greek romancer who flourished about thebeginning of the 4th century A. D. ; wrote the romance of "Leucippe andCleitophon. "

TATTERSALL'S, a noted horse-mart and haunt of racing men atKnightsbridge, London, established by Richard Tattersall (1724-1795), anauctioneer, who in 1766 obtained a 99 years' lease from Lord Grosvenor ofpremises in Hyde Park Corner; the present premises were occupied on theexpiry of the lease in 1867. 

TATTOOING, a practice of imprinting various designs, oftenpictorial, upon the skin by means of colouring matter, e. G. Chineseink, cinnabar, introduced into punctures made by needles; widely in voguein past and present times amongst uncivilised peoples, and even to someextent amongst civilised races; like the use of rouge, was mainly for thepurpose of ornamentation and for improving the appearance, but also insome cases for religious purposes; reached its highest perfection inJapan, where it seems to have been largely resorted to as a substitutefor clothing, and was never employed on the face, feet, or hands; amongthe South Sea islanders the custom is universal, and is still practisedby considerable numbers of the lower-class criminals of Europe. 

TAU, CROSS OF, or ST. ANTHONY'S CROSS, a cross resembling theletter T. 

TAUCHNITZ, KARL CRISTOPH TRAUGOTT, a noted German printer andbookseller, born at Grosspardau, near Leipzig; trained as a printer, hestarted on his own account in Leipzig in 1796, flourished, and becamecelebrated for his neat and cheap editions of the Roman and Greekclassics; introduced stereotyping into Germany (1761-1836). Thewell-known "British Authors" collection was started in 1841 by CHRISTIANBERNARD, BARON VON TAUCHNITZ, a nephew of the preceding, whoestablished himself as a printer and publisher in Leipzig in 1837; wasennobled in 1860, and made a Saxon life-peer in 1877; _b_. 1816. 

TAULER, JOHANN, a German mystic, born in Strasburg, bred a monk ofthe Dominican order, had, along with the rest of his order, to flee thecity, and settled in Basel, became a centre of religious life there, andacquired repute as one of the most eloquent preachers of the day; hissphere was not speculative thought but practical piety, and his "Sermons"take rank among the aboriginal monuments of German prose literature(1300-1361). 

TAUNTON, 1, (18), a trim, pleasantly-situated town of Somersetshire(18), on the Tone, 45 m. SW. Of Bristol; has a fine old castle founded inthe 8th century, rebuilt in the 12th century, and having interestingassociations with Perkin Warbeck, Judge Jeffreys, and Sydney Smith; hasvarious schools, a college, barracks, &c. ; noted for its hosiery, glove, and silk manufactures, and is also a busy agricultural centre. 2, Capital(31) of Bristol County, Massachusetts, on the Taunton River, 34 m. S. OfBoston, a well equipped and busy manufacturing town. 

TAURIDA (1, 060), a government of South Russia, of extensive area, jutting down in peninsular shape into the Black Sea, and including theCrimea and isthmus of Perekop; forms the western boundary of the Sea ofAzov; cattle-breeding and agriculture the staple industries. 

TAURUS, or THE BULL, a constellation, the second in size of thezodiac, which the sun enters towards the 20th of April. 

TAURUS, MOUNT, a mountain range of Turkey in Asia, stretching W. Forabout 500 m. In an unbroken chain from the head-waters of the Euphratesto the Ægean Sea, and forming the S. Buttress of the tableland of AsiaMinor; in the E. Is known as the Ala Dagh, in the W. As the Bulghar Dagh. The Anti-Taurus is an offshoot of the main range, which, continuing tothe NE. , unites with the systems of the Caucasus. 

TAVERNIER, JEAN BAPTIST, BARON D'AUBONNE, a celebrated Frenchtraveller, born in Paris, the son of an Antwerp engraver; was a wandererfrom his boyhood, starting on his travels at the age of 15, and by theend of 1630 had made his way as valet, page, &c. , over most of Europe;during the years 1630-1669 he in six separate expeditions traversed mostof the lands of Asia in the capacity of a dealer in jewels; reaped largeprofits; was honoured by various potentates, and returned with stores ofvaluable information respecting the commerce of those countries, whichwith much else interesting matter lie embodied in his great work, "SixVoyages, " a classic now in travel-literature; was ennobled in 1669 byLouis XIV. (1605-1689). 

TAVIRA (11), a seaport in the S. Of Portugal; has a Moorish castle, and good sardine and tunny fisheries. 

TAVISTOCK (6), a market-town of Devon, situated at the western edgeof Dartmoor, on the Tavy, 11 m. N. Of Plymouth; has remains of a10th-century Benedictine abbey, a guild-hall, grammar school, &c. ; is oneof the old stannary towns, and still largely depends for its prosperityon the neighbouring tin, copper, and arsenic mines. 

TAXIDERMY, the art of preparing and preserving the skins of animalsfor exhibition in cabinets. 

TAY, a river of Scotland whose drainage area lies almost whollywithin Perthshire; rises on the northern slope of Ben Lui, on the Argylland Perthshire border, and flowing 25 m. NE. Under the names of Fillanand Dochart, enters Loch Tay, whence it sweeps N. , SE. , and E. , passingAberfeldy, Dunkeld, Perth, and Dundee, and enters the North Sea by anoble estuary 25 m. Long and from ½ m. To 3½ m. Broad; chief affluentsare the Tummel, Isla, Almond, and Earn; discharges a greater body ofwater than any British stream; is renowned for the beauty of its scenery, and possesses valuable salmon fisheries; has a total length of 120 m. , and is navigable to Perth; immediately W. Of Dundee it is spanned by theTAY BRIDGE, the longest structure of its kind in the world, consisting of 95 spans, with a total width of 3440 yards; Loch Tay, oneof the finest of Highland lochs, lies at the base of Ben Lawers, stretches 14½ m. NE. From Killin to Kenmore, and varies from ½ m. To 1½m. In breadth. 

TAYGETUS, a range of mountains in the Peloponnese, separatingLaconia from Messina. 

TAYLOR, BAYARD, a noted American writer and traveller, born atKennett Square, Pennsylvania; was bred to the printing trade, and by 21had published a volume of poems, "Ximena, " and "Views Afoot, or Europeseen with Knapsack and Staff, " the fruit of a walking tour throughEurope; next for a number of years contributed, as travel correspondent, to the _Tribune_, visiting in this capacity Egypt, the greater part ofAsia, Central Africa, Russia. Iceland, etc. ; during 1862-1863 acted asSecretary of Legation at St. Petersburg, and in 1878 was appointedambassador at Berlin; his literary reputation rests mainly on his poeticworks, "Poems of the Orient, " "Rhymes of Travel, " etc. , and an admirabletranslation of Goethe's "Faust"; also wrote several novels (1825-1878). 

TAYLOR, SIR HENRY, poet, born at Bishop. Middleham, in Durham; aftera nine months' unhappy experience as a midshipman obtained his discharge, and having acted for some years as clerk in the Storekeeper-General'sDepartment, entered the Colonial Office in 1823, where he continued tillhis retirement in 1872; literature engaged his leisure hours, and hisfour tragedies--the best of which is "Philip van Artevelde"--are animportant contribution to the drama of the century, and characterised asthe noblest effort in the true taste of the English historical dramaproduced within the last century; published also a volume of lyric poems, besides other works in prose and verse, including "The Statesman, " and acharming "Autobiography, " supplemented later by his no less charming"Correspondence"; received the distinctions of K. C. M. G. (1869) andD. C. L. (1800-1886). 

TAYLOR, ISAAC, a voluminous writer on quasi-philosophic subjects, born in Lavenham, Suffolk; passed his life chiefly at Ongar engaged inliterary pursuits; contributed to the _Eclectic Review_, _Good Words_, and wrote amongst other works "Natural History of Enthusiasm, " "NaturalHistory of Fanaticism, " "Spiritual Despotism" and "Ultimate Civilisation"(1787-1865). His eldest son, Isaac, entered the Church, and rose to berector of Settrington, in Yorkshire, and was collated to a canonry ofYork in 1885; has a wide reputation as a philologist, and author of"Words and Places, " and "The Alphabet, an Account of the Origin andDevelopment of Letters, " besides "Etruscan Researches, " "The Origin ofthe Aryans, " etc. ; _b_. 1829. 

TAYLOR, JEREMY, great English divine and preacher, born atCambridge, son of a barber; educated at Caius College; became a Fellow ofAll Souls', Oxford; took orders; attracted the attention of Laud; wasmade chaplain to the king, and appointed to the living of Uppingham; onthe sequestration of his living in 1642 joined the king at Oxford, andadhered to the royal cause through the Civil War; suffered muchprivation, and imprisonment at times; returning to Wales, he procured thefriendship and enjoyed the patronage of the Earl of Carberry, in whosemansion at Grove he wrote a number of his works; before the Restorationhe received preferment in Ireland, and after that event was made bishop, first of Down and then of Dromore; his life here was far from a happyone, partly through insubordination in his diocese and partly throughdomestic sorrow; his works are numerous, but the principal are his"Liberty of Prophesying, " "Holy Living and Holy Dying, " "Life of Christ, ""Ductor Dubitantium, " a work on casuistry; he was a good man and afaithful, more a religious writer than a theological; his books are readmore for their devotion than their divinity, and they all give evidenceof luxuriance of imagination, to which the epithet "florid" has notinappropriately been applied; in Church matters he was a follower of Laud(1613-1667). 

TAYLOR, JOHN, known as the "Water-Poet, " born at Gloucester; wassuccessively a waterman on the Thames, a sailor in the navy, public-housekeeper in Oxford, etc. ; walked from London to Edinburgh, "not carryingany money to or fro, neither begging, borrowing, or asking meat, drink, or lodging, " and described the journey in his "Penniless Pilgrimage";wrote also "Travels in Germanie, " and enjoyed considerable repute in histime as a humorous rhymester (1580-1654). 

TAYLOR, TOM, a noted playwright and journalist, born at Sunderland;was elected to a Fellowship at Cambridge, for two years filled the chairof English Literature at University College, London; in 1845 was calledto the bar, but shortly afterwards took to journalism, writing leadersfor the _Morning Chronicle_ and _Daily News_; during 1850-1872 heldsecretarial appointments to the Board of Health and in the LocalGovernment Act Office; succeeded Shirley Brooks as editor of _Punch_ in1874; was throughout his life a prolific writer and adapter of plays, staging upwards of 100 pieces, of which the best known are "To Parentsand Guardians, " "Still Waters Run Deep, " "Our American Cousin, ""Ticket-of-Leave Man, " etc. (1817-1880). 

TAYLOR, WILLIAM, literary historian and critic, born at Norwich;residence on the Continent enabled him to master French, Italian, andespecially German, and confirmed him in his taste for literature, topursue which he abandoned business; various essays and reviews formed thegroundwork of his elaborate "Historic Survey of German Literature, " thefirst systematic survey of German literature presented to Englishreaders; taught German to George Borrow, who in "Lavengro" sketched hisinteresting personality, which may be further studied in hiscorrespondence with Southey, Scott, etc. (1765-1836). 

TAYLOR, ZACHARY, twelfth President of the United States, born inOrange County, Virginia; obtained a lieutenancy in the navy in 1808;first saw service in Indian wars on the north-west frontier; in 1836cleared the Indians from Florida and won the brevet of brigadier-general;great victories over the Mexicans on the Texan frontier during 1845-48raised his popularity to such a pitch that on his return he was carriedtriumphantly into the Presidency; the burning questions of his brief termof office were the proposed admission of California as a free State andthe extension of slavery into the newly-acquired territory; was a man ofstrong character, a daring and skilful general, of unassuming manners, and loved by the mass of the people, to whom he was known as "Old Roughand Ready" (1784-1850). 

TAYLOR INSTITUTE, a building in Oxford erected from bequests by SirRobert Taylor and Dr. Randolph as a gallery to contain works of art leftto the university, and which contains a noble collection. 

TE DEUM (Thee, O God), a grand hymn in Latin, so called from thefirst words, sung at matins and on occasions of joy and thanksgiving; ofuncertain authorship; is called also the Ambrosian Hymn, as ascribed, though without foundation, to St. Ambrose; is with more reason seeminglyascribed to Hilary, bishop of Aries. 

TEAZLE, LADY, the heroine in Sheridan's "School for Scandal, "married to a man old enough to be her father, Sir Peter Teazle. 

TECK, a German principality, named after a castle which crowns aneminence called "The Teck, " in the Swabian Alb, 20 m. SE. Of Stuttgart, conferred in 1868 on Duke Albert of Würtemberg's son, who in 1866 marriedthe Princess Mary of Cambridge; their daughter, Princess May, became in1893 the Duchess of York. 

TEES, English river, rises on Cross Fell, Cumberland, and flows E. , forming the boundary between Durham and York; enters the North Sea 4 m. Below Stockton. 

TEGNER, ESAIAS, a popular Swedish poet, born at Kyrkerud, the son ofa country parson; graduated with distinction at Lund University in 1802, and shortly afterwards became lecturer in Philosophy; in 1812, already anoted poet, he was called to the chair of Greek, and in later years wasthe devoted bishop of Vexiö; his poems, of which "Frithiof's Saga" isreckoned the finest, have the clearness and finish of classic models, butare charged with the fire and vigour of modern romanticism (1782-1846). 

TEGUCIGALPA (12), capital of Honduras, situated near the centre ofthe country at a height of 3400 ft. , in the fertile valley of the RioGrande, surrounded by mountains; has a cathedral and university. 

TEHAMA, a low, narrow plain in Arabia, W. Of the mountain rangewhich overlooks the Red Sea. 

TEHERAN (210), capital of Persia, stands on a plain near the ElburzMountains, 70 m. S. Of the Caspian Sea; is surrounded by a bastionedrampart and ditch, 10 m. In circumference, and entered by 12 gateways;much of it is of modern construction and handsomely laid out with parks, wide streets, and imposing buildings, notable among which are the shah'spalace and the British Legation, besides many of the bazaars and wealthymerchant's houses; heat during the summer drives the court, foreignembassies, and others to the cooler heights in the N. ; staple industriesare the manufactures of carpets, silks, cottons, &c. 

TEHUANTEPEC, an isthmus in Mexico, 140 m. Across, between a gulf ofthe name and the Bay of Campeachy; it contains on the Pacific coast atown (24) of the same name, with manufactures and pearl fisheries. 

TEIGNMOUTH (8), a watering-place and port of Devonshire, on theestuary of the Teign (here crossed by a wooden bridge 1671 ft. Long), 12m. S. Of Exeter; has a Benedictine nunnery, baths, pier, &c. ; does someshipbuilding. 

TEINDS, in Scotland tithes derived from the produce of the land forthe maintenance of the clergy. 

TELAMONES, figures, generally colossal, of men supportingentablatures, as Caryatides of women. 

TEL-EL-KEBIR (the "Great Mound"), on the edge of the Egyptiandesert, midway between Ismaila and Cairo, the scene of a memorablevictory by the British forces under Sir Garnet Wolseley over the Egyptianforces of Arabi Pasha (September 13, 1882), which brought the war to aclose. 

TELEMACHUS, the son of Ulysses and Penelope (q. V. ), who an infantwhen his father left for Troy was a grown-up man on his return; havinggone in quest of his father after his long absence found him on hisreturn in the guise of a beggar, and whom he assisted in slaying hismother's suitors. 

TELEOLOGY, the doctrine of final causes, particularly the argumentfor the being and character of God from the being and character of Hisworks, that the end reveals His purpose from the beginning, the end beingregarded as the thought of God at the beginning, or the universe viewedas the realisation of Him and His eternal purpose. 

TELEPATHY, name given to the supposed power of communication betweenmind and mind otherwise than by the ordinary sense vehicles. 

TELFORD, THOMAS, a celebrated engineer, born, the son of a shepherd, in Westerkirk parish, Eskdale; served an apprenticeship to a stone-mason, and after a sojourn in Edinburgh found employment in London in 1782; assurveyor of public works for Shropshire in 1787 constructed bridges overthe Severn, and planned and superintended the Ellesmere Canal connectingthe Dee, Mersey, and Severn; his reputation now made, he was in constantdemand by Government, and was entrusted with the construction of theCaledonian Canal, the great road between London and Holyhead (includingthe Menai Suspension Bridge), and St. Katherine Docks, London; but hisbridges, canals, harbours, and roads are to be found in all parts of thekingdom, and bear the stamp of his thorough and enduring workmanship;"the Colossus of Roads, " Southey called him (1757-1834). 

TELL, a fertile strip of land of 47 m. Of average breadth inNorth-West Africa, between the mountains and the Mediterranean Sea;produces cereals, wine, &c. 

TELL, WILLIAM, Swiss hero and patriot, a peasant, native of thecanton of Uri, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century;resisted the oppression of the Austrian governor Gessler, and was takenprisoner, but was promised his liberty if with his bow and arrow he couldhit an apple on the head of his son, a feat he accomplished with onearrow, with the second arrow in his belt, which he told Gessler he hadkept to shoot him with if he had failed. This so incensed the governorthat he bound him to carry off to his castle; but as they crossed thelake a storm arose, and Tell had to be unbound to save them, when heleapt upon a rock and made off, to lie in ambush, whence he shot theoppressor through the heart as he passed him; a rising followed, whichended only with the emancipation of Switzerland from the yoke of Austria. 

TELLEZ, GABRIEL, the assumed name of Tirso de Molina, Spanishdramatist, born in Madrid; became a monk; wrote 58 comedies, some ofwhich keep their place on the Spanish stage; as a dramatist ranks next toLope de Vega, whose pupil he was (1583-1648). 

TELLICHERRI (27), a seaport on the Malabar coast, Madras Presidency, India; is fortified and garrisoned; surrounding country is pretty, aswell as productive of coffee, cardamoms, and sandal-wood. 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal usually found in combination with othermetals. 

TEMESVAR (40), a royal free city of Hungary, on the Bega Canal, 75m. NE. Of Belgrade; is a strongly-fortified, well-built city, equippedwith theatre, schools, colleges, hospitals, &c. , and possesses a handsomeGothic cathedral and ancient castle; manufactures flour, woollens, silks, paper, &c. 

TEMPE, VALE OF, a valley in the NE. Of Thessaly, lying betweenOlympus on the N. And Ossa on the S. , traversed by the river Peneus, andfor the beauty of its scenery celebrated by the Greek poets as afavourite haunt of Apollo and the Muses; it is rather less than 5 m. Inlength, and opens eastward into a spacious plain. 

TEMPLARS, a famous order of knights which flourished during theMiddle Ages, and originated in connection with the Crusades. Its founderswere Hugues de Payen and Geoffroi de St. Omer, who, along with 17 otherFrench knights, in 1119 formed themselves into a brotherhood, taking vowsof chastity and poverty, for the purpose of convoying, in safety fromattacks of Saracens and infidels, pilgrims to the Holy Land. King BaldwinII. Of Jerusalem granted them a residence in a portion of his palace, built on the site of the Temple of Solomon, and close to the Church ofthe Holy Sepulchre, which became the special object of their protection. Hence their assumption of the name "Templars. " The order rapidlyincreased in numbers, and drew members from all classes. "The Templar wasthe embodiment of the two strongest passions of the Middle Ages--thedesire for military renown and for a monk's life. " A constitution wasdrawn up by Bernard of Clairvaux (1128), and later three ranks wererecognised--the knights, who alone wore the mantle of white linen and redcross, men-at-arms, and lower retainers, while a grand-master, seneschal, and other officers were created. During the first 150 years of theirexistence the Templars increased enormously in power; under papalauthority they enjoyed many privileges, such as exemption from taxes, tithes, and interdict. After the capture of Jerusalem by the infidelsCyprus became in 1291 their head-quarters, and subsequently France. Buttheir usefulness was at an end, and their arrogance, luxury, and quarrelswith the Hospitallers had alienated the sympathies of Christendom. Measures of the cruellest and most barbarous kind were taken for theirsuppression by Philip the Fair of France, supported by Pope Clement IV. Between 1306 and 1314 hundreds were burned at the stake, the orderscattered, and their possessions confiscated. 

TEMPLE, FREDERICK, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Santa Maura, inLeukas, one of the Ionian Islands; was highly distinguished at BalliolCollege, Oxford, as graduate, fellow, and tutor; in 1846 became Principalof Kneller Hall Training College, was one of H. M. Inspectors of Schools, and during 1858 and 1869 was head-master of Rugby; a Liberal in politics, he supported the disestablishment of the Irish Church, and as aBroad-Churchman was elected to the bishopric of Exeter (1869), of London(1885), and in 1896 was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury; contributedto the celebrated "Essays and Reviews"; published "Sermons Preached inRugby Chapel, " and in 1884 was Bampton Lecturer; _b_. 1821. 

TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, diplomatist and essayist, born in London, andeducated at Cambridge; travel on the Continent, courtship, and marriage, and some years of quiet and studious retirement in Ireland, occupied himduring the Protectorate; in 1660 was returned to the ConventionParliament at Dublin, and five years later, having resettled in England, began his diplomatic career, the most notable success in which was hisarrangement in 1668 of the Triple Alliance between England, Holland, andSweden to hold in check the growing power of France; as ambassador at TheHague became friendly with the Prince of Orange, whose marriage with thePrincess Mary (daughter of James II. ) he negotiated; was recalled in1671, but after the Dutch War returned to his labours at The Hague, andin 1679 carried through the Peace of Nimeguen; although offered a StateSecretaryship more than once, shrank from the responsibilities of officeunder Charles II. , a diffidence he again showed in the reign of WilliamIII. ; the later years of his life were spent in Epicurean ease, in theenjoyment of his garden, and in the pursuit of letters at his villa atSheen, and, after 1686, at Moor Park, in Surrey, where he had Swift forsecretary; is remembered in constitutional history for his scheme (afailure ultimately) to put the king more completely under the check ofthe Privy Council by remodelling its constitution; was a writer ofconsiderable distinction, his miscellaneous essays and memoirs beingnotable for grace and perspicuity of style (1628-1699). 

TEMPLE, THE, of Jerusalem, a building constructed on the same planand for the same purpose as the TABERNACLE (q. V. ), only oflarger dimensions, more substantial and costly materials, and a moreornate style; it was a magnificent structure, contained treasures ofwealth, and was the pride of the Hebrew people. There were threesuccessive structures that bore the name--Solomon's, built by Solomon in1004 B. C. , and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 588 B. C. ; Zerubbabel's, built in 515, and pillaged and desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes in 167B. C. ; and Herod's, on the ruins of the former, begun in 16 B. C. , finished in 29 A. D. , and destroyed by Titus in 70 A. D. All three werebuilt on Mount Moriah, on the spot where Abraham offered up Isaac, andwhere David afterwards raised an altar to the Lord; and of the number thepalm must be given to the Temple of Solomon, it was the Temple _parexcellence_. 

TEMPLE BAR, a famous London gateway, which formerly divided FleetStreet from the Strand; pressure of traffic caused its removal in 1879;now stands in Theobald's Park, Cheshunt. 

TENASSERIM (972), the southernmost division of Burma, forms a longcoastal strip facing the Bay of Bengal and backed by the mountain barrierof Siam; acquired by the British in 1825. 

TENBY (5), a popular little watering-place of Pembrokeshire, has arocky site on Carmarthen Bay coast; ruins of its old wall and of a castlestill remain; has a fine 13th-century Gothic church, marble statue of thePrince Consort, &c. , while its extensive sands and splendid bathingfacilities attract crowds of summer visitors. 

TENCIN, MADAME DE, a French writer of romances, a woman of cleverwit and of personal charms, who abandoned a religious life and, coming toParis in 1714, immersed herself in the political and fashionable life ofthe city; was not too careful of her morals, and ranked among her loversthe Regent, Fontenelle, and Cardinal Dubois; used her influence againstthe Jansenists; more circumspect in later life she presided over afashionable salon; was the mother of D'Alembert (1681-1749). 

TENDON ACHILLES, name given to the tendon of the leg above the heel, so called as being the tendon by which Thetis held Achilles when shedipped him in the Styx, and where alone he was in consequence vulnerable. 

TENEDOS, a rocky but fertile little island belonging to Turkey, inthe Ægean, 3 m. Off the mainland of Turkey in Asia, and 12 m. S. Of theentrance to the Dardanelles; it was the place the Greeks made a feintthey had returned to during the Trojan War. 

TENERIFE (108), the largest of the Canary Islands (q. V. ), ofvolcanic formation, with cliff-bound coast; richly fruit-bearing; chiefexports, cochineal, tobacco, and wine; capital, SANTA CRUZ (q. V. );most notable natural feature is the famous Peak of Tenerife, aconical-shaped dormant volcano, 12, 000 ft. In height, at the summit ofwhich there is a crater 300 ft. In circuit; last eruption took place in1798. 

TENIERS, DAVID, the elder (1582-1649), and DAVID TENIERS, theyounger (1610-1690), father and son, both famous masters of the Flemishschool of painting, and natives of Antwerp; the greater genius belongedto the younger, who carried his father's gift of depicting rural andhomely life to a higher pitch of perfection. 

TENNANT, WILLIAM, a minor Scottish poet, born at Anstruther, Fife;was educated at St. Andrews, and after a short experience of businesslife betook himself to teaching in 1813, filling posts at Dunino, Lasswade, and Dollar; his most notable poem, "Anster Fair" (1812), waswarmly received, and in 1835 his knowledge of Eastern languages won himthe chair of Oriental Languages in St. Andrews (1784-1848). 

TENNEMANN, W. GOTTLIEB, German historian of philosophy; wasprofessor at Marburg; wrote both a history and a manual of philosophy(1761-1819). 

TENNESSEE (1, 768, of which 434 are coloured), one of the centralStates of the American Union, lies S. Of Kentucky, and stretches from theMississippi (W. ) to North Carolina (E. ); is one-third larger thanIreland; politically it is divided into three districts withcharacteristic natural features; East Tennessee, mountainous, with ridgesof the Appalachians, possessing inexhaustible stores of coal, iron, andcopper; Middle Tennessee, an undulating, wheat, corn, and tobacco-growingcountry; and West Tennessee, with lower-lying plains growing cotton, andtraversed by the Tennessee River, the largest affluent of the Ohio;Nashville is the capital and largest city; became a State in 1796. 

TENNIEL, JOHN, a celebrated cartoonist who, since 1864, has week byweek drawn the chief political cartoon in _Punch_, the merits of whichare too well known to need comment; illustrations to "Æsop's Fables, ""Ingoldsby Legends, " "Alice in Wonderland, " and other works, reveal thegrace and delicacy of his workmanship; born in London, and practically aself-taught artist; joined the staff of _Punch_ in 1851; was knighted in1893; _b_. 1820. 

TENNYSON, ALFRED, LORD, poet-laureate, born at Somersby, inLincolnshire, son of a clergyman, and of aristocratic descent; waseducated at the grammar school of Louth and at Trinity College, Cambridge, which latter he left without taking a degree; having alreadydevoted himself to the "Ars Poetica, " an art which he cultivated more andmore all his life long; entered the university in 1828, and issued hisfirst volume of poems in 1830, though he had four years previouslycontributed to a small volume conjointly with a brother; to the poems of1830 he added others, and published them in 1833 and 1842, after which, endowed by a pension from the Civil List of £200, he produced the"Princess" in 1847, and "In Memoriam" in 1850; was in 1851 appointed tothe laureateship, and next in that capacity wrote his "Ode on the Deathof the Duke of Wellington"; in 1855 appeared his "Maud, " in 1859 thefirst four of his "Idylls of the King, " which were followed by "EnochArden" and the "Northern Farmer" in 1864, and by a succession of otherpieces too numerous to mention here; he was raised to the peerage in 1884on the recommendation of Mr. Gladstone; he was a poet of the ideal, andwas distinguished for the exquisite purity of his style and the harmonyof his rhythm; had a loving veneration for the past, and an adoringregard for everything pure and noble, and if he indulged in a vein ofsadness at all, as he sometimes did, it was when he saw, as he could nothelp seeing, the feebler hold regard for such things had on the men andwomen of his generation than the worship of Mammon; Carlyle thoughtaffectionately but plaintively of him, "One of the finest-looking men inthe world, " he writes to Emerson; "never had such company over a pipe!. .. A truly interesting son of earth and son of heaven . .. Wanted a _task_, with which that of spinning rhymes, and naming it 'art' and 'high art' ina time like ours, would never furnish him" (1809-1892). 

TENTERDEN, a market-town in Kent, once a Cinque Port; the steeple ofthe church of which is reported to have been the cause of the GoodwinSands, the stones intended for the dyke which kept the sea off havingbeen used instead to repair the church. 

TENTERDEN, LORD, English judge, born at Canterbury; wrote a"Treatise on the Law relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen"; was raisedto the peerage; an obstinate enemy of Reform (1762-1832). 

TEOCALLI, among the ancient Mexicans a spirally-terraced pyramidalstructure surmounted by a temple containing images of the gods. 

TEPLITZ (15), a popular health resort in N. Bohemia, finely situatedin a valley between the Erzgebirge and Mittelgebirge, 20 m. NW. OfLeitmeritz; its thermal springs are celebrated for the cure of gout, rheumatism, &c. 

TERAPHIM, small images, a sort of household gods among the Hebrews, consulted as oracles, and endowed with some magic virtue. 

TERATOLOGY, the branch of biology which treats of malformations ordepartures from the normal type. 

TERBURG, GERHARD, a noted Dutch painter, whose portraits and _genre_pictures are to be found in most of the great European galleries; born atZwolle; after travelling in Germany, Italy, England, and Spain, settledat Deventer, where he became burgomaster; his most famous pictures are aportrait of William of Orange, "Father's Advice, " and his "Congress ofMünster, 1648, " which last was bought for £7280 and presented to theNational Gallery, London (16081681). 

TERCEIRA (45), the second largest of the Azores; rears cattle, andyields grain, oranges, &c. ; chief town Angra, capital of the group. 

TERENCE, Roman comic poet, born at Carthage; brought thence as aslave; educated by his master, a Roman senator, and set free; composedplays, adaptations of others in Greek by Menander and Apollodorus; theydepict Greek manners for Roman imitation in a pure and perfect Latinstyle, and with great dramatic skill (185-159 B. C. ). 

TEREUS. See PHILOMELA. 

TERMINUS, in Roman mythology a deity who presided over boundaries, the worship of whom was instituted by _Numa_ (q. V. ). 

TERPSICHORË, the Muse of choral song and dancing. 

TERRA-COTTA, a composition of fine clay and fine colourless sandmoulded into shapes and baked to hardness. 

TERRAY, ABBÉ, "dissolute financier" of Louis XV. ; "paying eightpencein the shilling, so that wits exclaim in some press at the play-house, 'Where is Abbé Terray that he might reduce it to two-thirds!'"; lived ascandalous life, and ingratiated himself with Madame Pompadour; he heldhis post till the accession of Louis XVI. , and fell with his iniquitouscolleagues (1715-1778). 

TERRE-HAUTE (37), capital of Vigo County, Indiana, stands on aplateau overlooking the Wabash, 178 m. S. Of Chicago; is situated in arich coal district, and has numerous foundries and various factories; iswell equipped with schools and other public institutions. 

TERRY, ELLEN (Mrs. Charles Kelly), the most celebrated of livingEnglish actresses, born at Coventry; made her _début_ at the early age ofeight, appearing as Mamilius in "The Winter's Tale, " at the PrincessTheatre, then under the management of Charles Kean; during 1864--74 shelived in retirement, but returning to the stage in 1875 achieved herfirst great success in the character of Portia; played for some time withthe Bancrofts and at the Court Theatre; in December 1878 made her firstappearance at the Lyceum Theatre, then under the management of HENRYIRVING (q. V. ), with whose subsequent successful career her own isinseparably associated, sharing with him the honours of a long list ofmemorable Shakespearian and other performances; _b_. 1848. 

TERSANCTUS, the ascription of praise, Holy, Holy, Holy, preliminaryto the consecrating prayer in Holy Communion. 

TERTULLIAN, QUINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS, one of the Latin Fathers, born at Carthage, the son of a Roman centurion; was well educated; bred arhetorician; was converted to Christianity, became presbyter of Carthage, and embraced MONTANIST VIEWS (q. V. ); wrote numerous works, apologetical, polemical, doctrinal, and practical, the last of an ascetictendency (150-230). 

TEST ACT, act of date 1673, now repealed, requiring all officialsunder the crown to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy, &c. ;directed equally against Dissenters, Roman Catholics, &c. 

TESTUDO (tortoise-shell), in ancient Roman warfare a covering of theshields of the soldiers held over their heads as protection againstmissiles thrown from the walls when besieging a city. 

TETANUS or LOCK-JAW, a nervous affection of a most painful andfatal character, which usually begins with intensely painful andpersistent cramp of the muscles of the throat and jaws, spreading down tothe larger muscles of the body. As the disease progresses the musclesbecome more and more rigid, while the paroxysms of pain increase inviolence and frequency. Death as a rule results from either sheerexhaustion or failure of breath through the spasmodic closure of theglottis. The cause of the disease is now ascertained to be due to theaction of a microbe, which may find an entrance through any wound orabrasion of the skin, not necessarily of the thumb as is the popularbelief. 

TETHYS, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Uranus and Gaia, wifeof OCEANUS (q. V. ), and mother of the river-gods. 

TETRAGRAMMATON, the mystic number "four, " symbolical of deity, whosename in different languages is composed of four letters. 

TETUAN (22), a port and walled town of Morocco, on the Martil, 4 m. Above its entrance into the Mediterranean and 22 m. S. Of Ceuta; has afortified castle and wall-towers; exports provisions to Ceuta, and has agood trade in fruit, wool, silk, cotton, &c. 

TETZEL, JOHN, a Dominican monk, born at Leipzig; was employed in thesale of indulgences to all who subscribed to the fund for building St. Peter's at Rome, in opposition to whom and his doings Luther publishedhis celebrated theses in 1517, and whose extravagances involved him inthe censure of the Church (1455-1519). 

TEUFELSDRÖCK, the hero of "Sartor" and prototype of the author as athinker and a man in relation to the spirit of the time, which is suchthat it rejects him as its servant, and he rejects it as his master; theword means "outcast of the devil, " and the devil is the spirit of thetime, which the author and his prototype here has, God-compelled, risenup in defiance of and refused to serve under; for a time the one or theother tried to serve it, till they discovered the slavery the attemptmore and more involved them in, when they with one bold effort toreasunder the bands that bound them, and with an "Everlasting No" achievedat one stroke their emancipation; a man this born to look through theshow of things into things themselves. 

TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, like the TEMPLARS (q. V. ) andHospitallers, a religious order of knighthood which arose during theperiod of the Crusades, originally for the purpose of tending woundedcrusaders; subsequently became military in character, and besides thecare of the sick and wounded included among its objects aggressivewarfare upon the heathen; was organised much in the same way as theTemplars, and like them acquired extensive territorial possessions;during the 14th and 15th centuries were constantly at war with theheathen Wends and Lithuanians, but the conversion of these toChristianity and several defeats destroyed both the prestige andusefulness of the knights, and the order thenceforth began to decline. Asa secularised, land-owning order the knighthood lasted till 1809, when itwas entirely suppressed in Germany by Napoleon; but branches still existin the Netherlands and in Austria, where care for the wounded in war hasbeen resumed. 

TEUTONS, the most energetic and progressive section of the Aryangroup of nations, embracing the following races speaking languagestraceable to a common stock: (1) Germanic, including Germans, Dutch, Flemings, and English; (2) Scandinavian, embracing Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders. But naturally Celts and other race-elements havein the course of centuries entered into the composition of these peoples. 

TEWFIK PASHA, MOHAMMED, khedive of Egypt from the time of hisfather's abdication in 1879; a man of simple tastes and religiousdisposition, friendly and loyal to the English; Arabi Pasha'sinsurrection, closed at TEL-EL-KEBIR (q. V. ), the Mahdi's risingand capture of Khartoum, occurred during his reign, which, however, alsowitnessed Egypt's steadily increasing prosperity under English rule(1852-1892). 

TEWKESBURY (5), a market-town of Gloucestershire, at the confluenceof the Avon and Severn (here spanned by one of Telford's bridges), 10 m. NE. Of Gloucester; possesses one of the finest of old English churches inthe Norman style; trades chiefly in agricultural produce; half a miledistant is the field of the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471), where theYorkists under Edward IV. Crushed the Lancastrians. 

TEXAS (2, 236, including 493 coloured), the largest of the UnitedStates of America, in the extreme SW. , fronts the Gulf of Mexico for 400m. Between Mexico (W. ) and Louisiana (E. ); has an area more than twicethat of the British Isles, exhibiting a great variety of soil from richalluvial valleys and pastoral prairies to arid deserts of sand in the S. Climate in the S. Is semi-tropical, in the N. Colder and drier. Theuseful metals are found in abundance, but agriculture and stock-raisingare the chief occupations, Texas being the leading cattle-raising andcotton State in the Union; seceded from the republic of Mexico in 1835, and was an independent State till 1845, when it was annexed to theAmerican Union. Austin is the capital and Galveston the principal port. 

TEXEL (7), an island of North Holland, situated at the entrance tothe Zuider Zee and separated from the mainland by a narrow strait calledthe Marsdiep, the scene of several memorable naval engagements betweenthe Dutch and English; staple industries are sheep and dairy farming. 

TEZCUCO (15), a city of Mexico which, under the name Acolhuacan, wasonce a centre of Aztec culture, of which there are interesting remainsstill extant; is situated on a salt lake bearing the same name, 25 m. NE. Of Mexico City. 

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE, novelist, born in Calcutta, educatedat the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge; after leavingcollege, which he did without taking a degree, travelled on theContinent, making long stays at Rome and Paris, and "the dear littleSaxon town (Weimar) where Goethe lived"; his ambition was to be anartist, but failing in that and pecuniary resources, he turned toliterature; in straitened circumstances at first wrote for the journalsof the day and contributed to _Punch_, in which the well-known "SnobPapers" and "Jeames's Diary" originally appeared; in 1840 he produced the"Paris Sketch-Book, " his first published work, but it was not till 1847the first of his novels, "Vanity Fair, " was issued in parts, which wasfollowed in 1848 by "Pendennis, " in 1852 by "Esmond, " in 1853 by "TheNewcomes, " in 1857 by "The Virginians, " in 1862 by "Philip, " and in 1863by "Denis Duval"; in 1852 he lectured in the United States on "TheEnglish Humorists of the Eighteenth Century, " and in 1855 on "The FourGeorges, " while in 1860 he was appointed first editor of _Cornhill_. When"Vanity Fair" was issuing, Mrs. Carlyle wrote her husband: "Very goodindeed; beats Dickens out of the world"; but his greatest effort was"Esmond, " which accordingly is accounted "the most perfect, artistically, of his fictions. " Of Thackeray, in comparison with Dickens, M. Tainesays, he was "more self-contained, better instructed and stronger, alover of moral dissertations, a counsellor of the public, a sort of laypreacher, less bent on defending the poor, more bent on censuring man;brought to the aid of satire a sustained common-sense, great knowledge ofthe heart, consummate cleverness, powerful reasoning, a store ofmeditated hatred, and persecuted vice with all the weapons ofreflection. .. His novels are a war against the upper classes of hiscountry" (1811-1863). 

THAÏS, an Athenian courtezan who accompanied Alexander the Great onhis expedition into Asia; had children after his death to Ptolemy Lagi. 

THALBERG, SIGISMUND, a celebrated pianist, born at Geneva; earlydisplayed a talent for music and languages; was intended and trained fora diplomatic career, but, overcoming his father's scruples, followed hisbent for music, and soon took rank as one of the most brilliant pianistsof the age; "Thalberg, " said Liszt, "is the only pianist who can play theviolin on the key-board"; composed a large number of pianoforte pieces, chiefly fantasias and variations (1812-1871). 

THALES, philosopher of Greece, and one of her seven sages; was aphilosopher of the physical school, and the father of philosophy ingeneral, as the first to seek and find within Nature an explanation ofNature; "the principle of all things is water, " he says; "all comes fromwater, and to water all returns"; flourished about the close of the 7thcentury B. C. 

THALIA, one of the THREE GRACES (q. V. ), as also of theNINE MUSES (q. V. ). 

THALLIUM, a rare metallic element similar to lead, but heavier, discovered in 1861 by the green in the spectrum in the flame as it wasbeing volatilised. 

THAMES, the most important river of Great Britain, formed by thejunction at Lechdale of four head-streams--the Isis, Churn, Coln, andLeach--which spring from the SE. Slope of the Cotswold Hills; windsacross the southern midlands eastwards till in a wide estuary it entersthe North Sea; forms the boundary-line between several counties, andpasses Oxford, Windsor, Eton, Richmond, London, Woolwich, and Gravesend;navigable for barges to Lechdale, and for ocean steamers to TilburyDocks; tide is felt as far as Teddington, 80 m. ; length estimated at 250m. 

THANE or THEGN, a title of social distinction among theAnglo-Saxons, bestowed, in the first instance, upon men bound in militaryservice to the king, and who came to form a nobility of service asdistinguished from a nobility of blood; these obtained grants of land, and had thegns under them; in this way the class of thegns widened;subsequently the name was allowed to the ceorl who had acquired fourhides of land and fulfilled certain requirements; after the NormanConquest the thegnhood practically embraced the knighthood; the namedropped out of use after Henry II. 's reign, but lasted longer inScotland. 

THANET, ISLE OF (58), forms the NE. Corner of Kent, from themainland of which it is separated by the Stour and the rivuletNethergong; on its shores, washed by the North Sea, stand the popularwatering-places, Ramsgate, Margate, and Broadstairs; the north-easternextremity, the North Foreland, is crowned by a lighthouse. 

THASOS (5), an island of Turkey, in the Ægean Sea, near theMacedonian coast; is mountainous and richly wooded; inhabited almostentirely by Greeks. 

THAUMUZ. See TAUMUZ. 

THÉÂTRE FRANÇAIS, theatre in the Palais Royal, Paris, where theFrench classic plays are produced and rendered by first-class artistes. 

THEBAÏDE, a desert in Upper Egypt; the retreat in early times of anumber of Christian hermits. 

THEBANS, name given to the inhabitants of Boeotia, from Thebes, thecapital; were reckoned dull and stupid by the Athenians. 

THEBES, an ancient city of Egypt of great renown, once capital ofUpper Egypt; covered 10 sq. M. Of the valley of the Nile on both sides ofthe river, 300 m. SE. Of Cairo; now represented by imposing ruins oftemples, palaces, tombs, and statues of colossal size, amid which thehumble dwellings of four villages--Luxor, Karnack, Medinet Habu, andKurna--have been raised. The period of its greatest flourishing extendedfrom about 1600 to 1100 B. C. , but some of its ruins have been dated asfar back as 2500 B. C. 

THEBES, capital of the ANCIENT GRECIAN STATE BOEOTIA (q. V. ), whose site on the slopes of Mount Teumessus, 44 m. NW. Of Athens, is now occupied by the village of Thiva; its legendary history, embracingthe names of Cadmus, Dionysus, Hercules, Oedipus, &c. , and authenticstruggles with Athens and Sparta during the Peloponnesian War, its riseto supremacy under Epaminondas over all Greece, and its destruction byAlexander, have all combined to place it amongst the most famous citiesof ancient Greece. 

THEISM, belief in the existence of God associated in general with abelief in Providence and Revelation. 

THEISS, the longest river of Hungary and largest of the affluents ofthe Danube; is formed in East Hungary by the confluence of the WhiteTheiss and the Black Theiss, both springing from south-western slopes ofthe Carpathians; after a great sweep to the NW. Bends round to the S. , and flows steadily southward through the centre of Hungary until it joinsthe Danube 20 m. Above Belgrade, after a course of 750 m. ; with itsgreater tributaries, the Maros and the Bodrog, it forms a splendid meansof internal commerce. 

THEMIS, in the Greek mythology the goddess of the established orderof things; was a daughter of Uranos and Gaia, and the spouse of Zeus, through whom she became the mother of the divinities concerned inmaintaining order among, at once, gods and men. 

THEMISTOCLES, celebrated Athenian general and statesman; rose topolitical power on the ostracism of Aristides, his rival; persuaded thecitizens to form a fleet to secure the command of the sea against Persianinvasion; commanded at Salamis, and routed the fleet of Xerxes, andafterwards accomplished the fortification of the city in spite of theopposition of Sparta, but falling in popular favour was ostracised, andtook refuge at the court of Artaxerxes of Persia, where he died in highfavour with the king (520-453 B. C. ). 

THEOBALD, LEWIS, Shakespearian critic, born at Sittingbourne, Kent;bred to the law by his father, an attorney, but took to literature; wrotea tragedy; contributed to _Mist's Journal_, and in 1716 began histri-weekly paper, the _Censor_; roused Pope's ire by his celebratedpamphlet, "Shakespeare Restored, " an exposure of errors in Pope'sedition, and although ruthlessly impaled in his "Dunciad, " of which hewas the original hero, made good his claim to genuine Shakespearianscholarship by his edition, in 1733, of the dramatist's works, an editionwhich completely superseded Pope's (1688-1744). 

THEOCRACY, government of a State professedly in the name and underthe direction as well as the sanction of Heaven. 

THEOCRATES, great pastoral poet of Greece, born at Syracuse; was thecreator of bucolic poetry; wrote "Idyls, " as they were called, descriptive of the common life of the common people of Sicily, in athoroughly objective, though a truly poetical, spirit, in a style whichnever fails to charm, being as fresh as ever; wrote also on epic subjects(300-220 B. C. ). 

THEODICY, name given to an attempt to vindicate the order of theuniverse in consistency with the presence of evil, and specially to thatof Leibnitz, in which he demonstrates that this is the best of allpossible worlds. 

THEODORA, the famous consort of the ROMAN EMPEROR JUSTINIANI. (q. V. ), who, captivated by her extraordinary charms of wit andperson, raised her from a life of shame to share his throne (527), a highoffice she did not discredit; scandal, busy enough with her early years, has no word to say against her subsequent career as empress; the poor andunfortunate of her own sex were her special care; remained to the lastthe faithful helpmate of her husband (508-548). 

THEODORE, "King of Corsica, " otherwise Baron Theodore de Neuhoff, born in Metz; a soldier of fortune under the French, Swedish, and Spanishflags successively, whose title to fame is his expedition to Corsica, aided by the Turks and the Bey of Tunis, in 1736, to aid the islanders tothrow off the Genoese yoke; was crowned King Theodore I. , but in a fewmonths was driven out, and after unsuccessful efforts to regain hisposition came as an impoverished adventurer to London, where creditorsimprisoned him, and where sympathisers, including Walpole, subscribed forhis release (1686-1756). 

THEODORE, bishop of Mopsuestra, in Cilicia, born at Antioch; was abiblical exegete, having written commentaries on most of the books of theBible, eschewing the allegorical method of interpretation, and acceptingthe literal sense; he held Nestorian views, and his writings wereanathematised; he was a friend of St. Chrysostom; _b_. 429. 

THEODORET, Church historian, born at Antioch; as bishop of theSyrian city, Cyrus, gave himself to the conversion of the Marcionites; aleader of the Antioch school of theology, he took an active part in theNestorian and Eutychian controversies, and was deposed by the so-calledrobber-council of Ephesus, but was reinstated by the Council of Chalcedonin 451 (about 390-457). 

THEODORIC, surnamed the Great, founder of the monarchy of the Ostro- orEast Goths, son of Theodemir, the Ostrogothic king of Pannonia; wasfor ten years during his youth a hostage at the Byzantine Court atConstantinople; succeeded his father in 475, and immediately began topush the fortunes of the Ostrogoths; various territories fell into hishands, and alarm arose at the Imperial Court; in 493 advanced upon Italy, overthrew Odoacer, and after his murder became sole ruler; was now themost powerful of the Gothic kings, with an empire embracing Italy, Sicily, and Dalmatia, besides German possessions; as a ruler provedhimself as wise as he was strong; became in after years one of the greatheroes of German legend, and figures in the "Nibelungenlied" (455-526). 

THEODOSIUS I. , THE GREAT, Roman emperor; was the son of Theodosiusthe Elder, a noted general, whose campaigns in Britain and elsewhere heparticipated in; marked out for distinction by his military prowess he, in 379, was invited by the Emperor Gratian to become emperor in the East, that he might stem the advancing Goths; in this Theodosius wassuccessful; the Goths were defeated, conciliated, had territory concededto them, and became in large numbers Roman citizens; rebellions in theWestern Empire and usurpations of the throne compelled Theodosius toactive interference, which led to his becoming sole head of the empire(394), after successfully combating the revolutionaries, Franks andothers; was a zealous Churchman, and stern suppressor of the "ArianHeresy"; the close of his reign marks the beginning of the end of theRoman Empire, for his death opened the floodgates of barbarian invasion, and from this date begins the formation of the new kingdoms of Europe(346-395). 

THEOGNIS, an elegiac poet of Megara; flourished in the second halfof the 6th century B. C. ; lost his possessions during a revolution atMegara, in which the democrats overpowered the aristocrats, to whichparty he belonged; compelled to live in exile, he found solace in thewriting of poetry full of a practical and prudential wisdom, bitterlybiased against democracy, and tinged with pessimism. 

THEOLOGY, the science which treats of God, particularly as Hemanifests Himself in His relation to man in nature, reason, orrevelation. 

THEOPHRASTUS, a peripatetic philosopher, born in Lesbos; pupil, heir, and successor of Aristotle, and the great interpreter and expounderof his philosophy; was widely famous in his day; his writings werenumerous, but only a few are extant, on plants, stars, and fire; _d_. 286B. C. 

THEOSOPHY (lit. Divine wisdom), a mystic philosophy of verydifficult definition which hails from the East, and was introduced amongus by Madame Blavatsky, a Russian lady, who was initiated into itsmysteries in Thibet by a fraternity there who professed to be the solecustodiers of its secrets as the spiritual successors of those to whom itwas at first revealed. The radical idea of the system appears to bereincarnation, and the return of the spirit to itself by a succession ofincarnations, each one of which raises it to a higher level until, byseven stages it would seem, the process is complete, matter has becomespirit, and spirit matter, God has become man, and man God, agreeablysomewhat to the doctrine of Amiel, that "the complete spiritualisation ofthe animal element in us is the task of our race, " though with them itseems rather to mean its extinction. The adherents of this system, withtheir head-quarters at Madras, are numerous and wide-scattered, and forman organisation of 300 branches, having three definite aims: (1) Toestablish a brotherhood over the world irrespective of race, creed, caste, or sex; (2) to encourage the study of comparative philosophy, religion, and science; and (3) to investigate the occult secrets ofnature and the latent possibilities of man. The principal books inexposition of it are, "The Secret Doctrine, " "Isis Unveiled, " "The Key toTheosophy, " by Mme. Blavatsky; "Esoteric Buddhism, " "The Occult World, "&c. , by Sinnett; "The Ancient Wisdom, " "The Birth and Evolution of theSoul, " &c. , by Annie Besant. 

THERAPEUTÆ, a Jewish ascetic sect in Egypt, who lived a life ofcelibacy and meditation in separate hermitages, and assembled for worshipon Sabbath. 

THERMO-DYNAMICS, name given to the modern science of the relationbetween heat and work, which has established two fundamental principles, that when heat is employed to do work, the work done is the exactequivalent of the heat expended, and when the work is employed to produceheat, the heat produced is exactly equivalent to the work done. 

THERMOPYLÆ (i. E. "the hot gates"), a famous pass in N. Greece, the only traversable one leading southward into Thessaly, lies 25 m. N. Of Delphi, and is flanked on one side by Mount Oeta, and on the other bythe Maliac Gulf (now the Gulf of Zeitouni); for ever memorable as thescene of Leonidas' heroic attempt with his 300 Spartans to stem theadvancing Persian hordes under Xerxes (480 B. C. ); also of Greece'sfutile struggles against Brennus and the Gauls (279 B. C. ), and Philipthe Macedonian (207 B. C. )

THERSITES, a deformed Greek present at the siege of Troy, distinguished for his insolent raillery at his betters, and who was slainby Achilles for deriding his lamentation over the death ofPENTHESILEA (q. V. ). 

THESEUS, legendary hero of Attica, and son of Ægeus, king of Athens;ranks second to Hercules, captured the Marathonian bull, and slew theMINOTAUR (q. V. ) by the help of ARIADNE (q. V. ); waged war against theAmazons, and carried off the queen; assisted at the Argonauticexpedition, and is famed for his friendship for Perithous, whom he aidedagainst the Centaurs. 

THESPIS, the father of Greek tragedy, hence Thespian art for thedrama. 

THESSALONIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, epistles of St. Paul to the Church atThessalonica; of which there are two; the first written from Corinthabout A. D. 53 to exhort them to beware of lapsing, and comforting themwith the hope of the return of the Lord to judgment; the second, within afew months after the first, to correct a false impression produced by itin connection with the Lord's coming; they must not, he argued, neglecttheir ordinary avocations, as though the day of the Lord was close athand; that day would not come till the powers of evil had wrought theirworst, and the cup of their iniquity was full; this is the first purelydogmatic epistle of St. Paul. 

THESSALONICA. See SALONICA. 

THESSALY, the largest division of ancient Greece, a wide, fertileplain stretching southward from the Macedonian border to the Maliac Gulf, and entirely surrounded by mountains save the Vale of Tempe in the NE. Between Mounts Ossa and Olympus; was conquered by Philip of Macedon inthe 4th century B. C. , and subsequently incorporated in the Roman Empire, on the break up of which it fell into the hands of the Venetians, andeventually of the Turks (1335), and remained a portion of the OttomanEmpire till 1881, when the greater and most fertile part was ceded toGreece. Chief town, Larissa. 

THETFORD (4), a historic old market-town on the Norfolk and Suffolkborder, at the confluence of the Thet and Little Ouse, 31 m. SW. OfNorwich; a place of importance in Saxon times, and in Edward III. 's reignan important centre of monasticism; has interesting ruins, a notableCastle Hill, and industries in brewing, tanning, &c. 

THETIS, in the Greek mythology the daughter of NEREUS (q. V. )and Doris, who being married against her will to Peleus, became themother of Achilles; she was therefore a NEREID (q. V. ), andgifted with prophetic foresight. 

THEURIET, ANDRÉ, modern French poet and novelist, born at Marly leRoi, near Paris; studied law, and in 1857 received a post in the officeof the Minister of Finance; has published several volumes of poems, dealing chiefly with rustic life, but is more widely known by his novels, such as "Mademoiselle Guignon, " "Le Mariage de Gérard, " "Deux Soeurs, "&c. , all of them more or less tinged with melancholy, but also inspiredby true poetic feeling; _b_. 1833. 

THIALFI, in the Norse mythology the god of manual labour, Thor'shenchman and attendant. 

THIERRY, JACQUES NICOLAS AUGUSTIN, French historian, born at Blois;came early under the influence of Saint-Simon, and during 1814-17 livedwith him as secretary, assimilating his socialistic ideas and ventilatingthem in various compositions; Comte became his master next, and historyhis chief study, an outlet for his views on which he found in the_Censeur Européen_, and the COURRIER FRANÇAIS, to which hecontributed his "Letters on French History" (1820); five years laterappeared his masterpiece, the "Conquest of England, " to be followed by"Letters on History" and "Dix Ans d'Études" (1835), in which same year hewas appointed librarian at the Palais Royal; in 1853 appeared his "TiersÉtat, " the last of his works; has been called the "father of romantichistory, " and was above all a historical artist, giving life and colourto his pictures of bygone ages, but not infrequently at the cost ofhistoric accuracy (1795-1856). 

THIERS, LOUIS ADOLPHE, French statesman and historian, born atMarseilles, of parents in poor circumstances; studied law at Aix, becameacquainted with Mignet the historian; went with him to Paris, and took tojournalism; published in 1827 his "History of the French Revolution, "which established his rank as a writer; contributed to the Julyrevolution; supported Louis Philippe, and was in 1832 elected a deputyfor Aix; obtained a post in the ministry, and eventually head; was sweptout of office at the revolution of 1848; voted for the presidency ofLouis Napoleon, but opposed the _coup d'état_; withdrew from public lifefor a time; published in 1860 the "History of the Consulate and theEmpire" a labour of years; entered public life again, but soon retired;at the close of the Franco-German War raised the war indemnity, and sawthe Germans off the soil; became head of the Provisional Government, andPresident of the Republic from 1871 to 1873; his histories are veryone-sided, and often inaccurate besides; Carlyle's criticism of his"French Revolution" is well known, "Dig where you will, you come towater" (1795-1877). 

THING, name for a legislative or judicial assembly among theScandinavians. 

THINKER, THE, defined to be "one who, with fresh and powerfulglance, reads a new lesson in the universe, sees deeper into the secretof things, and carries up the interpretation of nature to higher levels;one who, unperturbed by passions and undistracted by petty detail, cansee deeper than others behind the veil of circumstance, and catchglimpses into the permanent reality. "

THIRLMERE, one of the lakes in the English Lake District, inCumberland, 5 m. SE. Of Keswick; since 1885 its waters have beenimpounded for the use of Manchester, the surface raised 50 ft. Byembankments, and the area more than doubled. 

THIRLWALL, CONOP, historian, born at Shepney; was a precociouschild, was educated at the Charterhouse, had Grote for a school-fellow, and was a student of Trinity College, Cambridge; called to the bar, buttook orders in 1827, having two years previously translatedSchleiermacher's "Essay on St. Luke, " and was thus the first to introduceGerman theology into England; wrote a "History of Greece, " which, thoughsuperior in some important respects, was superseded by Grote's as wantingin realistic power, a fatal blemish in a history; was a liberal man, andbishop of St. David's for half a lifetime (1797-1875). 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, the name given to a series of wars arising out ofone another in Germany during 1618-48; was first a war of Catholicsagainst Protestants, but in its later stages developed into a strugglefor supremacy in Europe. On the Catholic side were Austria, variousGerman Catholic princes, and Spain, to whom were opposed successivelyBohemia, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, and France; originated in Bohemia, where the Protestants were goaded to revolt against the intolerance ofthe empire, Moravians and Hungarians came to their assistance, but theimperial forces were too powerful and the rising was suppressed, only tobe renewed in 1624, when Denmark espoused the Protestant cause, butstruggled vainly against Catholic armies under Wallenstein and Tilly. Thetactless oppression of the Emperor Ferdinand again fanned into flame thefires of rebellion; Swedish armies now came to the assistance of theProtestants, and under Gustavus Adolphus waged successful war against theemperor, but the death of Gustavus at Lützen (1632) turned the tide infavour of the imperial forces; the German Protestant prince made adisadvantageous peace in 1635, but Sweden, now joined by France, continued the struggle against the Austrian empire. Turenne and Condébecame the heroes of the war, and a series of decisive victories rolledback the imperial armies, and by 1848 were converging upon Austria, whendiplomacy brought the war to an end by the Peace of Westphalia, the chiefgains of which were the securing of religious tolerance and therecognition of the independence of Switzerland and the United Provinces. 

THISBE. See PYRAMUS. 

THISTLE, ORDER OF THE, an order of Scottish knighthood, sometimescalled the Order of St. Andrew, instituted in 1687 by James VII. OfScotland (James II. Of England); fell into abeyance during the reign ofWilliam and Mary, but was revived by Queen Anne in 1703; includes thesovereign, 16 knights, and various officials. The principal article inthe insignia is a gold collar composed of thistles intertwined withsprigs of rue. 

THOLUCK, FRIEDRICH AUGUST, theologian, born at Breslau; came underthe influence of Neander (q. V. ) and became professor of Theology atHalle, where he exercised a considerable influence over the many studentswho were attracted from far and near by his learning and fervour(1799-1877). 

THOM, WILLIAM, a minor Scottish vernacular poet, author of "TheMitherless Bairn, " &c. ; was a native of and hand-loom weaver at Aberdeen;endured much hardship and poverty (1799-1848). 

THOMAS, AMBROISE, French composer, born at Metz; proved himself abrilliant student at the Paris Conservatoire; became professor ofComposition in 1852, and nine years later succeeded Auber as director ofthe Conservatoire; a prolific writer in all forms of musical composition, but has won celebrity mainly as a writer of, operas, the most popular ofwhich are "La Double Échelle, " "Mignon, " "Hamlet, " &c. ; was decoratedwith the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour in 1880 (1811-1896). 

THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING, composer, born near Eastbourne; studied atthe Paris Conservatoire and Royal Academy for Music, London; becamepopular through the merit of his operas "Esmeralda, " "Nadeshda, " thecantata "Sun-worshippers, " and songs; committed suicide (1851-1892). 

THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY, American general, born in Virginia; a man offine character, lacking none of the sterner stuff of the soldier, butblended with modesty and gentleness; universally popular in the army, which he joined in 1840 and continued in till his death, rising to begeneral of a division through gallantry in the Indian frontier wars andin the Civil War, in which, at the battle of Nashville (1864), hecompletely routed the Confederate forces; had command of the militarydivision of the Pacific at the time of his death (1816-1870). 

THOMAS, ST. , the Apostle, is represented in art as bearing a spearin his hand, and sometimes an arrow, a book, and a carpenter's square. 

THOMAS THE RHYMER. See RHYMER, THOMAS THE. 

THOMASIUS, CHRISTIAN, a German jurist, born at Leipzig; was thefirst to prelect on jurisprudence in the German tongue, on which account, as on account of his advanced theological views, he encountered no smallpersecution; became at length professor of Jurisprudence at Halle, hisinfluence on the study of which was considerable (1655-1728). 

THOMISM, the doctrine of THOMAS AQUINAS (q. V. ), particularly in reference to predestination and grace. 

THOMS, WILLIAM JOHN, a noted antiquary and bibliographer, born inWestminster; a clerk for 20 years in the Chelsea Hospital andsubsequently in the House of Lords, where during 1863-1882 he wasdeputy-librarian; his leisure was given to his favourite pursuits, andbore fruit in many volumes dealing with "folk-lore" (a word of his owninvention) and the like; was secretary of the Camden Society, and in 1849founded, and continued to edit till 1872, _Notes and Queries_(1803-1885). 

THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE, zoologist, born at Bonsyde, Linlithgow; educated at Merchiston Castle, Edinburgh, and at theuniversity there; a lecturer on botany at Aberdeen (1850), professor ofNatural History in Queen's College, Cork (1853), of Geology at Belfast(1854), and of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh (1870);accompanied the _Challenger_ expedition (1872-1876) as head of thescientific department; knighted 1876; wrote "The Depths of the Sea" and"The Voyage of the _Challenger_" (1830-1882). 

THOMSON, GEORGE, a noted collector of songs, who set himself togather in one work every existing Scotch melody; his untiring zealresulted in the publication of 6 vols. Of Scotch songs, the words ofwhich had been adapted and supplied by a host of writers, includingScott, Campbell, Joanna Baillie, and above all, Robert Burns, whocontributed upwards of 120; Haydn, Beethoven, Mozart, Weber, and otherswere engaged to supply instrumental preludes and codas; also publishedcollections of Irish songs and Welsh melodies; was a native of Limekilns, Fife, and for 60 years principal clerk to the Board of Trustees, Edinburgh (1759-1851). 

THOMSON, JAMES, the poet of the "Seasons, " born, the son of theparish minister, at Ednam, Roxburghshire; was educated and trained forthe ministry at Edinburgh University, but already wooing the muse, he, shortly after his father's death in 1725, went to London to push hisfortune; his poem "Winter, " published in the following year, hadimmediate success, and raised up a host of friends and patrons, and whatwith tutoring and the proceeds of "Summer, " "Spring, " "Autumn, " variousworthless tragedies, and other products of his pen, secured a fairliving, till a pension of £100 from the Prince of Wales, to whom he haddedicated the poem of "Liberty, " and a subsequent £300 a year asnon-resident Governor of the Leeward Islands, placed him in comparativeaffluence; the "Masque of Alfred, " with its popular song "RuleBritannia, " and his greatest work "The Castle of Indolence" (1748), werethe outcome of his later years of leisure; often tediously verbose, notinfrequently stiff and conventional in diction and trite in itsmoralisings, the poetry of Thomson was yet the first of the 18th centuryto shake itself free of the town, and to lead, as Stopford Brooke says, "the English people into that new world of nature which has enchanted usin the work of modern poetry" (1700-1748). 

THOMSON, JAMES, the poet of pessimism, born, a sailor's son, atPort-Glasgow, and brought up in an orphanage; was introduced toliterature by MR. BRADLAUGH (q. V. ), to whose _NationalReformer_ he contributed much of his best poetry, including his gloomyyet sonorous and impressive "The City of Dreadful Night, " besides essays(1834-1882). 

THOMSON, JOHN, the artist minister of Duddingston, born at Dailly, in Ayrshire; succeeded his father in the parish of Dailly (1800), andfive years later was transferred to Duddingston parish, near Edinburgh;faithful in the discharge of his parochial duties, he yet found time tocultivate his favourite art of painting, and in the course of his 35years' pastorate produced a series of landscapes which won him widecelebrity in his own day, and have set him in the front rank of Scottishartists (1778-1840). 

THOMSON, JOSEPH, African explorer, born at Thornhill, studied atEdinburgh University, and in 1878 was appointed zoologist to the RoyalGeographical Society's expedition to Lake Tanganyika, which, after thedeath of the leader, Keith Johnston, at the start, he, at the age of 20, carried through with notable success; in 1882 explored with importantgeographical results Massai-land, and subsequently headed expeditious upthe Niger and to Sokoto, and explored the Atlas Mountains; publishedinteresting accounts of his various travels (1858-1895). 

THOMSON, SIR WILLIAM, LORD KELVIN, great physicist, born at Belfast;studied at St. Peter's College, Cambridge; was senior wrangler in 1845, and elected professor of Natural Philosophy in Glasgow in 1846; it is inthe departments of heat and electricity he has accomplished his greatestachievements, and his best-known work is the invention of thesiphon-recorder for the Atlantic cable, on the completion of which, in1866, he was knighted, to be afterwards raised to the peerage in 1892; hehas invented a number of ingenious and delicate scientific instruments, as well as written extensively on mathematical and physical subjects;_b_. 1824. 

THOR, in the Norse mythology "the god of thunder; the thunder washis wrath, the gathering of the black clouds is the drawing down ofThor's angry brows; the fire-bolt bursting out of heaven is theall-rending hammer flung from the hand of Thor; he urges his loud chariotover the mountain tops--that is the peal; wrathful he 'blows in hisbeard'--that is the rustling of the storm-blast before the thunderbegin"; he is the strongest of the gods, the helper of both gods and men, and the mortal foe of the chaotic powers. 

THOREAU, HENRY DAVID, an American author who, next to his friend andneighbour Emerson, gave the most considerable impulse to the"transcendental" movement in American literature, born in Concord, wherehis life was mostly spent, of remote French extraction; was withdifficulty enabled to go to Harvard, where he graduated, but withoutdistinction of any sort; took to desperate shifts for a living, butsimplified the problem of "ways and means" by adopting Carlyle's plan of"lessening your denominator"; the serious occupation of his life was tostudy nature in the woods around Concord, to make daily journal entriesof his observings and reflections, and to preserve his soul in peace andpurity; his handicrafts were unwelcome necessities thrust upon him; "Whatafter all, " he exclaims, "does the practicalness of life amount to? Thethings immediate to be done are very trivial; I could postpone them allto hear this locust sing. The most glorious fact in my experience is notanything I have done or may hope to do, but a transient thought or visionor dream which I have had"; his chief works are "Walden, " the account ofa two years' sojourn in a hut built by his own hands in the Concord Woodsnear "Walden Pool, " "A Week on the Concord and Merrimac River, " essays, poems, etc. (1817-1862). 

THORN (27), a town and fortress of the first rank in West Prussia, on the Vistula, 115 m. NW. Of Warsaw; formerly a member of theHANSEATIC LEAGUE (q. V. ); was annexed by Prussia in 1815; thebirthplace of Copernicus; carries on a brisk trade in corn and timber. 

THORNBURY, GEORGE WALTER, a miscellaneous writer, author of numerousnovels, "Songs of the Cavaliers and Roundheads, " "Life of Turner, " "Oldand New London, " etc. ; born in London, where his life was spent inliterary work (1828-1876). 

THORNHILL, SIR JAMES, an English artist of the school of Le Brun, born at Woodland, Dorsetshire; treated historical subjects in allegoricalfashion, and was much in request for decorative work, his most notableachievements being the decoration of the dome of St. Paul's, of rooms inHampton Court, Blenheim House, and Greenwich Hospital; wassergeant-painter to Queen Anne, and was knighted by George I. ; member ofParliament from 1719 till his death (1676-1734). 

THORNYCROFT, HAMO, sculptor, born in London; has done statues ofGeneral Gordon (1885), John Bright (1892), and Oliver Cromwell (1899);_b_. 1850. 

THOROUGH, name given by the EARL OF STRAFFORD (q. V. ) to ascheme of his to establish absolute monarchy in England. 

THORWALDSEN, BERTEL, an eminent Danish sculptor, born nearCopenhagen, the son of a poor Icelander; won a Government scholarship atthe Academy of Copenhagen in 1793, which enabled him to study in Rome, where he was greatly inspired by the ancient Greek sculptures, and firedwith the ambition of emulating the classical masters; Canova encouragedhim, and a fine statue of Jason established his reputation; his lifehenceforth was one of ever-increasing fame and prosperity. Denmarkreceived him with highest honour in 1819, but the milder Italian climatebetter suited his health, and he returned to Rome, where he executed allhis great works; these deal chiefly with subjects chosen from the Greekmythology, in which he reproduces with marvellous success the classicspirit and conception; executed also a colossal group of "Christ and theTwelve Apostles, " "St. John Preaching in the Wilderness, " and otherreligious subjects, besides statues of Copernicus and Galileo, and thecelebrated reliefs "Night" and "Morning": bequeathed to his country hislarge fortune and nearly 300 of his works, now in the Thorwaldsen Museum, one of the great sights of Copenhagen (1770-1844). 

THOTH, the Egyptian Mercury, inventor of arts and sciences;represented as having the body of a man and the head of a lamb or ibis. 

THOU, JACQUES-AUGUSTE DE, a celebrated historian, born at Paris;enjoyed the favour of Henry III. , and by Henry IV. Was appointed keeperof the royal library; his history of his own times is a work of greatvalue as a clear and remarkably impartial survey of an interesting periodof European history (1553-1617). 

THOUSAND ISLANDS, 2000 islands which stud the river St. Lawrencebelow Kingston, at the outlet of the river from Lake Ontario. 

THRACE, in ancient Greece, was a region, ill defined, stretching N. Of Macedonia to the Danube, and W. Of the Euxine (Black Sea); appearsnever to have been consolidated into one kingdom, but was inhabited byvarious Thracian tribes akin to the Greeks, but regarded by them asbarbarians; since the capture of Constantinople by the Turks the northernportion of Thrace has been annexed to Eastern Roumelia, while theremainder has continued a portion of the Turkish empire. 

THRASYBULUS, famous Athenian general and democratic statesman; cameto the front during the later part of the Peloponnesian War; took anactive share in overturning the oligarchy of the Four Hundred, and inrecalling Alcibiades (411 B. C. ); was exiled by the Thirty Tyrants, andwithdrew to Thebes, but subsequently was permitted to return, and laterwas engaged in commanding Athenian armies against Lesbos and in supportof Rhodes; was murdered (389 B. C. ) by natives of Pamphylia. 

THREE HOURS' AGONY, a service held on Good Friday from 12 noon till3 o'clock to commemorate the Passion of Christ. 

THREE RIVERS (9), capital of St. Maurice Co. , Quebec, 95 m. NE. OfMontreal; does a considerable trade in lumber, iron-ware, &c. ; is theseat of a Roman Catholic bishop. 

THRING, EDWARD, a celebrated educationist, born at Alford Rectory, Somersetshire; educated at Eton and Cambridge, where he obtained aFellowship; entered the Church, and served in various curacies till in1853 he began his true lifework by an appointment to the head-mastershipof Uppingham School, which he raised to a high state of efficiency, andstamped with the qualities of his own strong personality, as did Arnoldat Rugby; published various educational works, "The Theory and Practiceof Teaching, " "Addresses, " "Poems and Translations, " &c. (1821-1887). 

THROGMORTON, SIR NICHOLAS, English diplomatist; was ambassador inParis under Elizabeth, and afterwards to Scotland; fell into disgrace asinvolved in an intrigue for the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots, withthe Duke of Norfolk (1513-1571). 

THUCYDIDES, historian of the Peloponnesian War, born in Athens nineyears after the battle of Salamis, of a wealthy family; was in Athensduring the plague of 430 B. C. ; was seized, but recovered; served asnaval commander in 424 in the Peloponnesian War, but from neglect of dutywas banished; returned from exile 20 years after; his great achievementis his history, all derived from personal observation and oralcommunication, the materials of which were collected during the war, andthe whole executed in a style to entitle it to rank among the noblestliterary monuments of antiquity; it is not known how or when he died, buthe died before his history was finished. 

THUGS, a fraternity of professed worshippers of the goddess Kali, the wife of Siva, who, professedly to propitiate her, practised murder, and lived on the spoils of the victims. THUGGEE, a name for thepractice, originally by strangling and at times by poisoning. 

THULE, ULTIMA, name given by the ancients to the farthest N. Part ofEurope, which they conceived as an island. 

THUN (6), a quaint old town of Switzerland, on the Aar, 17 m. SE. OfBern, and barely 1 m. Distant from Lake of Thun (12 m. By 2 m. ); has a12th-century castle, &c. 

THUNDERER, name given to the _Times_, from certain powerful articlesin it ascribed to the editor, Captain Edward Stirling. 

THURGAU (105), a canton of Switzerland, on the NE. Frontier, whereLake Constance for a considerable distance forms its boundary;inhabitants are mainly Protestant; country is hilly but not mountainous, fertile, and traversed by the river Thur, a tributary of the Rhine;capital Frauenfeld. 

THURIBLE, a censer suspended by chains and held in the hand by apriest during mass and other offices of the Romish Church. 

THÜRINGIA, originally the territory of the Thuringians (an ancientGerman tribe), now an integral portion of the German empire, occupies acentral position, with Saxony on its N. And E. , and Bavaria on the S. ; aconsiderable portion of it is covered by the Thuringian Forest. 

THURLES (5), a town of Tipperary, on the Suir, 87 m. SW. Of Dublin;is the seat of a Catholic archbishop, college, and cathedral; in thevicinity are the fine ruins of Holy Cross Abbey. 

THURLOW, EDWARD, BARON, a noted lawyer and politician of GeorgeIII. 's reign, born, a clergyman's son, at Bracon-Ash, Norfolk; quittedCambridge without a degree, and with a reputation for insubordination andbraggadocio rather than for scholarship; called to the bar in 1754, hesoon made his way, aided by an imposing presence, which led Fox toremark, "No man ever was so wise as Thurlow looked"; raised hisreputation by his speeches in the great Douglas case, and throughinfluence of the Douglas family was made a King's counsel; enteredParliament in 1768; became a favourite of the king, and rose through theoffices of Solicitor-General and Attorney-General to the LordChancellorship in 1778, being raised to the peerage as Baron; lost hisposition during the Coalition Ministry of Fox and North, but was restoredby Pitt, who, however, got rid of him in 1792, after which hisappearances in public life were few; not a man of fine character, butpossessed a certain rough vigour of intellect which appears to have madeconsiderable impression on his contemporaries (1732-1806). 

THURSDAY, fifth day of the week, dedicated to THOR (q. V. ). 

THURSDAY ISLAND, a small island in Normanby Sound, Torres Strait, belonging to Queensland, and used as a Government station; has a fineharbour, Port Kennedy, largely used for the Australian transit trade;also the centre of valuable pearl fisheries. 

THURSO (4), a seaport in Caithness, at the mouth of the ThursoRiver, 21 m. NW. Of Wick; does a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, and paving stones. 

THYRSUS, an attribute of Dionysus, being a staff or spear entwinedwith ivy leaves and a cone at the top; carried by the devotees of the godon festive occasions; the cone was presumed to cover the spear point, awound from which was said to cause madness. 

TIAN-SHAN ("Celestial Mountains"), a great mountain range of CentralAsia, separating Turkestan from Eastern and Chinese Turkestan; highestsummit Kaufmann Peak, 22, 500 ft. 

TIBER, a river of Italy celebrated in ancient Roman history, risesin the Apennines, in the province of Arezzo, Tuscany; rapid and turbid inits upper course, but navigable 100 m. Upwards from its mouth; flowsgenerally in a S. Direction, and after a course of about 260 m. Entersthe Mediterranean about 15 m. Below Rome. 

TIBERIUS, second Roman emperor, born at Rome; was of the Claudianfamily; became the step-son of Augustus, who, when he was five years old, had married his mother; was himself married to Agrippina, daughter ofAgrippa, but was compelled to divorce her and marry Augustus's daughterJulia, by whom he had two sons, on the death of whom he was adopted asthe emperor's successor, whom, after various military services in variousparts of the empire, he succeeded A. D. 14; his reign was distinguishedby acts of cruelty, specially at the instance of the minister Sejanus, whom out of jealousy he put to death; given up to debauchery, he wassuffocated in a fainting fit by the captain of the Prætorian Guards inA. D. 37, and succeeded by Caligula; it was during his reign Christ wascrucified. 

TIBERT, SIR, the cat in "Reynard the Fox. "

TIBET (6, 000), a country of Central Asia, and dependency of Chinasince 1720, called by the natives themselves Bod or Bodyul, comprises awide expanse of tableland, "three times the size of France, almost ascold as Siberia, most of it higher than Mount Blanc, and all of it, except a few valleys, destitute of population"; enclosed by the loftyranges of the Himalaya and Kuen-lun Mountains, it has been leftpractically unexplored; possesses great mineral wealth, and a largeforeign trade is carried on in woollen cloth (chief article ofmanufacture); polyandry and polygamy are prevailing customs among thepeople, who are a Mongolic race of fine physique, fond of music anddancing, jealous of intrusion and wrapt up in their own ways and customs;the government, civil and religious, is in the hands of the clergy, thelower orders of which are numerous throughout the country; a variation ofMongol Shamanism is the native religion, but Lamaism is the officialreligion of the country, and the supreme authority is vested in the DalaiLama, the sovereign pontiff, who resides at Lhassa, the capital. 

TIBULLUS, ALBIUS, Roman elegiac poet, a contemporary of Virgil andHorace, the latter of whom was warmly attached to him; he accompaniedMessala his patron in his campaigns to Gaul and the East, but had noliking for war, and preferred in peace to cultivate the tendersentiments, and to attune his harp to his emotions. 

TICHBORNE, a village and property of Hampshire, which becamenotorious in the "seventies" through a butcher, from Wagga Wagga, inAustralia, named Thomas Castro, otherwise Thomas Orton, laying claim toit in 1866 on the death of Sir Alfred Joseph Tichborne; the "Claimant"represented himself as an elder brother of the deceased baronet, supposed(and rightly) to have perished at sea; the imposture was exposed after alengthy trial, and a subsequent trial for perjury resulted in a sentenceof 14 years' penal servitude. Orton, after his release, confessed hisimposture in 1895. 

TICINO (127), the most southerly canton of Switzerland, lies on theItalian frontier; slopes down from the Lepontine Alps in the N. Tofertile cultivated plains in the S. , which grow olives, vines, figs, &c. ;the inhabitants speak Italian, and the canton, from the mildness of itsclimate and richness of its soil, has been called the "ItalianSwitzerland, " embraces most of Lakes Lugano and Maggiore, and istraversed by the St. Gothard Railway. 

TICINO, a river of Switzerland and North Italy; springs from the S. Side of Mount St. Gothard, flows southwards through Lake Maggiore and SE. Through North Italy, joining the Po 4 m. Below Pavia, after a course of120 m. 

TICKELL, THOMAS, a minor English poet, born at Bridekirk, Cumberland; enjoyed the friendship and favour of Addison, who praised himin the _Spectator_, and held till his death the appointment of secretaryto the Lords Justices of Ireland; his poetry does not count for much inthe history of English literature, but he was happy in the composition ofoccasional poems, e. G. "The Prospect of Peace, " "The Royal Progress, "and in ballads, such as "Colin and Lucy, " &c. , and his translation of thefirst book of the "Iliad" was so good as to rouse the jealousy of Pope(1686-1740). 

TICKNOR, GEORGE, American man of letters, born in Boston; studied invarious European cities, where he was received in the best literarycircles, and of which he has left in his journal interesting impressions;held the professorship of French and Spanish in Harvard University for anumber of years; published in 1849 his "History of Spanish Literature, "the standard work on the subject; also wrote lives of Lafayette andPrescott, &c. (1791-1871). 

TICONDEROGA (3), a township of New York, on Lake Champlain, 100 m. N. Of Albany; has various factories, mines in the vicinity, &c. ; a placeof much prominence during the struggles with the French and later duringthe revolutionary war. 

TIECK, LUDWIG, German poet, born in Berlin; was one of the foundersof the Romantic school in Germany, was a friend of the Schlegels andNovalis; wrote novels and popular tales and dramas; his tales, inparticular, are described by Carlyle as "teeming with wondrous shapesfull of meaning; true modern denizens of old fairyland . .. Shows a gaysouthern fancy living in union with a northern heart;. .. In the provinceof popular traditions reigns without a rival" (1773-1853). 

TIENTSIN (950), an important city and river-port of China, on thePei-ho, 34 m. From its mouth and 80 m. SE. Of Peking, of which it is theport; since 1858 has been one of the open treaty ports, and in 1861 aBritish consulate was established; three months of the year the Pei-ho isfrozen over; there is an increasing transit trade with Russia. 

TIERRA DEL FUEGO, a compact island-group at the southern extremityof the South American continent, from which it is separated by the Straitof Magellan; the most southerly point is CAPE HORN (q. V. ); ofthe group Tierra del Fuego, sometimes called King Charles South Land, belongs partly to the Argentine and partly to Chile, to which also belongthe other islands, except Staten Island, an Argentine possession; savefor a few fertile plains in the N. , where some sheep-farming goes on, theregion is bleak, barren, and mountainous, with rocky, fiord-cut coastsswept by violent and prolonged gales; scantily peopled by now harmlessIndians of a low type. 

TIERS ÉTAT (third estate), name given to the Commons section in theStates-General of France. 

TIFLIS (105), capital of a mountainous, forest-clad government (875)of the same name and of Russian Caucasia, on the Kar, 165 m. SE. Of theBlack Sea; is a city of considerable antiquity and note, and owes muchto-day to the energy of the Russians, who annexed it in 1802; noted forits silver and other metal work. 

TIGRIS, an important river of Turkey in Asia; rises in the mountainsof Kurdistan, flows SE. To Diarbekir, E. To Til (where it receives theBitlis), and hence SE. Through a flat and arid country, till, after acourse of 1100 m. , it unites with the Euphrates to form the Shat-el-Arab, which debouches into the Persian Gulf 90 m. Lower; is navigable for 500m. To Bagdad; on its banks are the ruins of Nineveh, Seleucia, andCtesiphon. 

TILBURY FORT, on the Essex bank of the Thames, opposite Gravesend;the main defence of the river above Sheerness; in 1886 extensive docks, quays, a tidal basin, &c. , were opened. 

TILLOTSON, JOHN ROBERT, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Sowerby, Yorkshire, of a Puritan family, and trained on Puritan lines; studied atClare Hall, Cambridge, came under the influence of CUDWORTH (q. V. ), conformed to the Established Church at the Restoration and becameking's chaplain and a prebend of Canterbury, till at length he rose to bedean and primate; was an eloquent preacher, a man of moderate views, andrespected by all parties; his "Sermons" were models for a time, but areso no longer (1630-1694). 

TILLY, JOHANN TSERKLAES, COUNT OF, one of the great generals of theTHIRTY YEARS' WAR (q. V. ), born in Brabant; was designed for thepriesthood and educated by Jesuits, but abandoned the Church for thearmy; was trained in the art of war by Parma and Alva, and proved himselfa born soldier; reorganised the Bavarian army, and, devoted to theCatholic cause, was given command of the Catholic army at the outbreak ofthe Thirty Years' War, during the course of which he won many notablebattles, acting later on in conjunction with Wallenstein, whom in 1630 hesucceeded as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces, and in thefollowing year sacked with merciless cruelty the town of Magdeburg, adeed which Gustavus Adolphus was swift to avenge by crushing the Catholicforces in two successive battles--at Breitenfeld and at Rain--in thelatter of which Tilly was mortally wounded (1559-1632). 

TILSIT (25), a manufacturing town of East Prussia, on the Memel orNiemen, 65 m. NE. Of Königsberg; here was signed in 1807 a memorabletreaty between Alexander I. Of Russia and Napoleon, as the result ofwhich Friedrich Wilhelm III. Of Prussia was deprived of the greater partof his dominions. 

TIMBUCTOO (20), an important city of the Western Soudan, situated atthe edge of the Sahara, 8 m. N. Of the Upper Niger, at the centre of fivecaravan routes which lead to all parts of North Africa; carries on alarge transit trade, exchanging European goods for native produce; wasoccupied by the French in 1894. 

TIMOLEON, a celebrated general of ancient Greece, born, of a noblefamily, in Corinth, about 395 B. C. ; ardently espoused the cause of theGreeks in Sicily, who were in danger of forfeiting their liberties to theCarthaginians, and headed an army to Syracuse, where he defeated anddrove out Dionysius the Younger (344), subsequently cleared the island ofthe oppressors, and brought back order and good government, after whichhe quietly returned to private life, and spent his later years atSyracuse, beloved by the Sicilians as their liberator and benefactor;_d_. 337 B. C. 

TIMON OF PHLIUS, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of PYRRHO(q. V. ), flourished 280 B. C. ; wrote a satirical poem on the wholeGreek philosophy up to date, which is the source of our knowledge of hismaster's opinions. Also the name of a misanthrope of Athens, acontemporary of Socrates. 

TIMOR (500), the largest of the long chain of islands whichstretches eastward from Java, of volcanic formation, mountainous, wooded, and possessing deposits of various metals, but mainly exports maize, sandal-wood, wax, tortoise-shell, &c. ; population consists chiefly ofPapuans, whose native chiefs are the real rulers of the island, whichbelongs, the W. Portion of it to Holland and the E. To Portugal; E. OfTimor lies a group of three low-lying islands of coral formation, knownas Timor-Laut or Tenimber Islands (25); Dutch possession. 

TIMOTHY, a convert of St. Paul's, associate and deputy, to whom, asin charge of the Church at Ephesus, he wrote two epistles in the intervalbetween his imprisonment and death at Rome, the First Epistle to directhim in the discharge of his pastoral duties, and the Second to invite himto Rome, and counsel him, should he not be dead before he arrived. 

TIMUR THE TARTAR. See TAMERLANE. 

TINDAL, MATTHEW, English deistical writer, born in Devonshire;studied at Oxford, became Fellow of All Souls', was first a Protestant, then a Catholic, and then a free-thinker of a very outspoken type, exhibited in a polemic which provoked hostility on all sides; his mostfamous work was "Christianity as old as Creation; or, the Gospel aRepublication of the Religion of Nature, " a work which did not attackChristianity, but rationalised it (1656-1733). 

TINEWALD, THE, name of the Manx Parliament. 

TINNEVELLI (23), a town of Madras Presidency, SE. India, capital ofa district (1, 916) of the same name; lies 50 m. N. Of Cape Comorin, andadjoins Pallamcotta, head-quarters of the British military andgovernment; is a centre of Protestant mission work, and possesses a Sindtemple and a Hindu college. 

TINTAGEL HEAD, a rocky headland, 300 ft high, on the W. Cornishcoast, 22 m. W. Of Launceston; associated with the Arthurian legend asthe site of King Arthur's castle and court; 6 m. Distant lies Camelford, the famous Camelot. 

TINTERN ABBEY, one of the most beautiful ruined abbeys of England, founded by the Cistercian monks in 1131 on the Wye, in Monmouthshire, 5m. Above Chepstow; associated with Wordsworth's great poem, "Linescomposed a few miles above Tintern Abbey. "

TINTORETTO, baptized JACOPO ROBUSTI, a famous Italian artist, one of Ruskin's "five supreme painters, " born at Venice; save for a fewlessons under Titian he seems to have been self-taught; took for hismodels Titian and Michael Angelo, and came specially to excel in grandeurof conception and in strong chiaroscuro effects; amongst his most notablepictures are "Belshazzar's Feast, " "The Last Supper, " "The Crucifixion, ""The Last Judgment, " "The Resurrection, " &c. ; some of these are ofenormous size (1518-1594). 

TIPPERARY (173), a south-midland county of Ireland, in the provinceof Munster, stretching N. Of Waterford, between Limerick (W. ) andKilkenny (E. ); possesses a productive soil, which favours a considerableagricultural and dairy-farming industry; coal is also worked; the Suir isthe principal stream; the generally flat surface is diversified in the S. By the Galtees (3008 ft. ) and Knockmeledown (2609 ft. ), besides smallerranges elsewhere; county town Tipperary (7), 110 m. SW. Of Dublin; notedfor its butter market. 

TIPPOO SAIB, son of HYDER ALI (q. V. ), whom he succeeded inthe Sultanate of Mysore in 1782; already a trained and successful warriorin his father's struggles with the English, he set himself withimplacable enmity to check the advance of British arms; in 1789 invadedTravancore, and in the subsequent war (1790-1792), after a desperateresistance, was overcome and deprived of half of his territories, andcompelled to give in hostage his two sons; intrigued later with theFrench, and again engaged the English, but was defeated, and his capital, Seringapatam, captured after a month's siege, himself perishing in thefinal attack (1749-1799). 

TIPTON (29), an iron-manufacturing town of Staffordshire, 8½ m. NW. Of Birmingham. 

TIRABOSCHI, GIROLAMO, an Italian writer, who for some time filledthe chair of Rhetoric at Milan University, and subsequently becamelibrarian to the Duke of Modena; is celebrated for his exhaustive surveyof Italian literature in 13 vols. , a work of the utmost value(1731-1794). 

TIRESIAS, in the Greek mythology a soothsayer, who had been struckblind either by Athena or Hera, but on whom in compensation Zeus hadconferred the gift of prophecy, and length of days beyond the ordinaryterm of existence. 

TIRNOVA (11), a fortified town of Bulgaria, 35 m. SSE. Of Sistova;is the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch; formerly the State capital. 

TIRYNS, an ancient city of Greece, excavated by Schliemann in1884-1885; situated in the Peloponnesus, in the plain of Argolis, 3 m. From the head of the Argolic Gulf; legend associates it with the earlylife of Hercules; has ruins of a citadel, and of Cyclopean wallsunsurpassed in Greece. 

TISCHENDORF, CONSTANTIN VON, biblical scholar, born in Saxony; spenthis life in textual criticism; his great work "Critical Edition of theNew Testament" (1815-1874). 

TISIPHONE, one of the three FURIES (q. V. ). 

TITANIA, the wife of Oberon and the queen of the fairies. 

TITANIUM, a rare, very hard metal, always found in combination. 

TITANS, in the Greek mythology sons of Uranos and Gaia, beings ofgigantic strength, and of the dynasty prior to that of Zeus, who made waron Zeus, and hoped to scale heaven by piling mountain on mountain, butwere overpowered by the thunderbolts of Zeus, and consigned to a limbobelow the lowest depths of Tartarus; they represent the primitive powersof nature, as with seeming reluctance submissive to the world-orderestablished by Zeus, and symbolise the vain efforts of mere strength tosubvert the ordinance of heaven; they are not to be confounded with theGiants, nor with their offspring, who had learned wisdom from the failureof their fathers, and who, Prometheus one of them, represented the ideathat the world was made for man and not man for the world, and that allthe powers of it, from highest to lowest, were there for his behoof. 

TITHONUS, in the Greek mythology son of Laomedon, who was wedded toEos, who begged Zeus to confer on him immortality but forgot to beg foryouth, so that his decrepitude in old age became a burden to him; he waschanged into a cicada. 

TITIAN, VECELLIO, great Italian painter, born at Capo del Cadore, the prince of colourists and head of the Venetian school; studied atVenice, and came under the influence of Giorgione; he was a master of hisart from the very first, and his fame led to employment in all directionsover Italy, Germany, and Spain; his works were numerous, and rich invariety; he was much in request as a portrait-painter, and he paintedmost of the great people he knew; he ranks with Michael Angelo andRaphael as the head of the Italian renaissance; lived to a great age(1477-1576). 

TITIENS, TERESA, a famous operatic singer, born of Hungarian parentsin Hamburg; made her _début_ in 1849 at Altona, in the character ofLucrezia Borgia (1849), and soon took rank as the foremost singer on theGerman lyric stage; appeared with triumphant success in London (1858), and henceforth made her home in England, associated herself with themanagement of Mapleson; visited America in 1875; her commanding physiqueand powerful acting, together with her splendid voice, made her an idealinterpreter of such tragic characters as Norma, Fidelio, Margarita, Ortrud, &c. (1834-1877). 

TITMARSH, MICHAEL ANGELO, pseudonym assumed for a series of years byThackeray. 

TITUS, a convert of St. Paul, a Greek by birth, appears to haveaccompanied St Paul on his last journey, and to have been with him at hisdeath; Paul's Epistle to him was to instruct and encourage him during hisministry in Crete. 

TITUS, FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, Roman emperor, born at Rome, the son ofVespasian, served in Germany and Britain, and under his father in Judæa;on his father's elevation to the throne persecuted the Jews, laid siegeto Jerusalem, and took the city in A. D. 70; on his accession to thethrone he addressed himself to works of public beneficence, and becamethe idol of the citizens; his death was sudden, and his reign lasted onlythree years; during that short period he won for himself the title of the"Delight of Mankind" (40-81). 

TITYUS, a giant whose body covered nine acres of land, son of Zeusand Gaia, who for attempting to force Latona was punished in the netherworld by two vultures continually gnawing at his liver. 

TIVERTON (11), an interesting old town of Devonshire, pleasantlysituated between the Exe and Loman, 12 m. N. By E. Of Exeter; possessespublic baths, assembly rooms, almshouses, and a 17th-centurygrammar-school; noted for its lace manufactures. 

TIVOLI (9), a town of Italy, known to the ancients as Tibur, beautifully situated on the Teverone, 18 m. E. Of Rome; was much resortedto by the wealthy Roman citizens, and is celebrated by Horace; is full ofinteresting remains. 

TLAXCALA (138), a State of North Mexico, and formerly an Aztecrepublic; capital, Tlaxcala (4); has woollen manufactures. 

TOBAGO (21), one of the WINDWARD ISLANDS (q. V. ), the mostsoutherly of the group; a British possession since 1763, politicallyattached to Trinidad; is hilly, picturesque, and volcanic; exports rum, molasses, and live-stock. 

TOBIT, THE BOOK OF, a book of the Apocrypha giving account of thelife and vicissitudes of a pious Israelitish family in the Assyriancaptivity, that consisted of Tobit, Anna his wife, and Tobias his son;all three are held up to honour for their strict observance of the Law ofthe Lord and their deeds of charity to such as loved it, and notable forthe prominence given in it to the ministry of angels, both good and bad, among the former Raphael and among the latter Asmodeus, and is the workof a Jew whose mind was imbued with Oriental imagery. 

TOBOLSK (20), a town and government (1, 313), of W. Siberia, picturesquely planted at the confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, 2000 m. E. Of St. Petersburg; has a cathedral, barracks, theatre, prison forSiberian slaves, &c. 

TOBY, UNCLE, the hero of Sterne's "Tristram Shandy, " a retiredcaptain, distinguished for his kindness, gallantry, and simplicity. 

TOCANTINS, one of the great rivers of Brazil, rises in the State ofGoyaz; flows northwards, and after a course of 1500 m. Enters the estuaryof the Pará, one of the mouths of the Amazon, 138 m. From the Atlantic;receives the Araguay from the S. , an affluent 1600 m. Long. 

TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS CLÉREL DE, French economist, born at Verneuil, of an old Norman family, bred to the bar, and specially distinguished asthe author of two works in high repute, "La Democratie en Amérique" and"L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution"; died at Cannes, leaving much of hiswork unfinished (1805-1861). 

TODHUNTER, ISAAC, mathematician, born at Rye; educated at UniversityCollege, London, and at Cambridge, where he graduated senior wrangler andSmith's prizeman in 1848; elected Fellow and principal mathematicallecturer of his college (St. John's), and soon became widely known ineducational circles by his various and excellent handbooks and treatiseson mathematical subjects (1820-1884). 

TODLEBEN, EDUARD IVANOVITCH, a noted Russian general of Germandescent, who, trained in the engineer corps, greatly distinguishedhimself by his defensive operations at Sebastopol during its siege by theFrench and English in the Crimean War, and subsequently by the reductionof Plevna, his greatest achievement, which brought to a close the warwith Turkey in 1877; subsequently became commander-in-chief in Bulgaria(1818-1884). 

TODMORDEN (25), a cotton town prettily situated amid hills on theborder of Lancashire and Yorkshire, on the Calder, 21 m. NE. OfManchester; coal abounds in the vicinity. 

TOGA, an outer garment, usually of white wool like a large blanket, folded about the person in a variety of ways, but generally with theright arm free, thrown over the left shoulder, and hanging down the back;it was at once the badge of manhood and Roman citizenship. 

TOGOLAND, a German protectorate on the Slave Coast, in Upper Guinea, Gold Coast Colony on the W. , and Dahomey on the E. ; exports palm-oil andivory. 

TOKAY (5), a Hungarian town on the Theiss, 130 m. NE. Of Pesth;greatly celebrated for its wines, of which it manufactures 34 differentsorts. 

TOKYO or TOKEI (1, 376), formerly called Yeddo, capital of theJapanese Empire, situated on a bay of the same name on the SE. Coast ofHondo, and partly built on the delta of the river Sumida; is for the mostpart flat and intersected by canals and narrow irregular streets, and hasa finely-wooded river-side avenue 5 m. Long; on account of frequentearthquakes most of the houses are of light bamboo structure, which, however, renders them liable to destructive fires; has a fine castle, government offices, university, and some 700 schools and colleges; as thepolitical, commercial, and literary metropolis it possesses anovershadowing influence over the national life of the empire. Yokohama, 17 m. Distant, is the port of entry. 

TOLA, a weight in India for gold and silver, equal to 180 grainstroy. 

TOLAND, JOHN, political and deistical writer, born in Derry, ofCatholic parents; abandoned the Catholic faith; studied at Leyden andOxford; his first work, "Christianity not Mysterious, " which created agreat stir, and was burned in Ireland by the common hangman; it wassucceeded, along with others, by "Nazarenus, " which traced Christianityto conflicting elements in the early Church; he was a disciple of Locke(1669-1722). 

TOLEDO (20), a city of Spain, capital of a province (360), andformer capital of the kingdom, occupies a commanding site amid hills, onthe Tagus, 40 m. SW. Of Madrid; within and without presents a sombre andimposing appearance; is the see of the primate of Spain, and possesses anoble Gothic cathedral, ruins of the Cid's castle, and remains of theMoorish occupation (712-1085); the manufacture of sword-blades, famous inRoman times, is still carried on in a government establishment a mile outof the city. 

TOLEDO (131), capital of Lucas County, Ohio, on the Maumee River, 80m. W. Of Lake Erie; is a busy centre of iron manufactures, and does alarge trade in grain, flour, lumber, &c. , facilitated by a fine harbour, canal, and railway systems. 

TOLERATION ACT, a statute passed in 1689 to relieve all Dissentersfrom certain penalties, except Roman Catholics and Unitarians. 

TOLSTOI, COUNT LEO, novelist, social reformer, and religious mystic, born in Tula, of a noble family; served for a time in the army, soonretired from it, and travelled; married, and settled on his estate nearMoscow in 1862; his two great works are "War and Peace" (1865-68) and"Anna Karenina" (1875-78); has written many works since, all more or lessin a religious vein, and in the keenest, deepest sympathy with thesoul-oppression of the world, finding the secret of Christianity to liein the precept of Christ, "Resist not evil, " and exemplifying that as theprinciple of his own life; _b_. 1828. 

TOMMY ATKINS, the British soldier, as Jack Tar is the Britishsailor, from a hypothetical name inserted in a War Office schedule at onetime issued to each soldier. 

TOMSK (37), a town and government (1, 300) of W. Siberia, on theTom, 55 m. From its confluence with the Obi; has a university, and is animportant depôt on the trade-route to China. 

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE, Irish patriot, born in Dublin; called to thebar in 1789; found a congenial sphere for his restless, reckless naturein the disturbed politics of his time, and was active in founding the"United Irishmen, " whose intrigues with France got him into trouble, andforced him to seek refuge in America, and subsequently France, where heschemed for a French invasion of Ireland; eventually was captured by theEnglish while on his way with a small French squadron against Ireland;was condemned at Dublin, but escaped a death on the gallows by committingsuicide in prison (1763-1798). 

TONGA ISLANDS or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (19), an archipelago in theS. Pacific, 250 m. SE. Of Fiji; Tonga-tabu is the largest; volcanic andfruit-bearing; missionary enterprise (Wesleyan Methodist) has done muchto improve the mental, moral, and material condition of the natives, whobelong to the fair Polynesian stock, and are a superior race to the othernatives of Polynesia, but are diminishing in numbers. See FRIENDLYISLANDS. 

TONGALAND (100), a native State on the E. Coast of South Africa, stretching N. Of Zululand. 

TONGKING, TONQUIN, or TONKIN (9, 000), a fertile northernprovince of ANNAM (q. V. ), ceded to France in 1884; is richlyproductive of rice, cotton, sugar, spices, &c. , but has an unhealthyclimate. 

TONGRES (9), an episcopal city of Belgium, 12 m. NW. Of Liège; itschurch of Notre Dame dates from 1240. 

TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, the name given to certain duties first leviedin Edward II. 's reign on every _tun_ of imported wine, and on every_pound_ weight of merchandise exported or imported; Charles I. 's attemptto levy these without parliamentary sanction was one of the complaints ofhis Long Parliament; were swept away by the Customs Consolidation Act of1787. 

TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, baptismal name JOHN HORNE, born, the son ofa well-to-do poulterer, in London; graduated at Cambridge, and to pleasehis father took holy orders in 1760, but after some years, during whichhe had tutored abroad, zealously assisted Wilkes in his election toParliament, and successfully encountered "Junius"; he abandoned theChurch and studied for the bar, to which, on account of his holy orders, he was refused a call; became an active political free-lance, andacquired great popularity as a strenuous advocate of parliamentaryreform; entered Parliament in 1801, but in the following year wasexcluded by an Act making it illegal for any one in priest's orders to bereturned; inherited the fortune and assumed the name of his friendWilliam Tooke of Purley; is best known as the author of the "Diversionsof Purley, " "a witty medley of etymology, grammar, metaphysics, andpolitics" (1736-1812). 

TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE, a celebrated comedian, born in London, wherehe was educated at the City School, and afterwards put to business, butsoon took to the stage, serving his apprenticeship and gaining aconsiderable reputation in the provinces before making his appearance atSt. James's Theatre in London in 1854; became the leading low-comedian ofhis day, and in 1880 took over the management of the Folly Theatre, whichhe re-named Toole's Theatre; has unrivalled powers of blending pathoswith burlesque, and in such characters as Paul Pry, Caleb Plummer, Chawles, &c. , is a special favourite all over the English-speaking world;_b_. 1832. 

TOOM TABARD. See TABARD. 

TOPE, the popular name in Buddhist countries for a species ofcupola-shaped tumulus surmounted by a finial, in shape like an openparasol, the emblem of Hindu royalty; these parasol finials were oftenplaced one upon the top of the other until a great height was reached;one in Ceylon attains a height of 249 ft. , with a diameter of 360 ft. ;were used to preserve relics or to commemorate some event. 

TOPEKA (34), capital of Kansas, on the Kansas River, 67 m. W. OfKansas City; is a spacious, well laid out town, the seat of an Episcopalbishop, well supplied with schools and colleges, and busy with themanufacture of flour, heavy iron goods, &c. 

TÖPFFER, RUDOLF, caricaturist and novelist of Geneva, where hefounded a boarding-school, and became professor of Rhetoric in the GenevaAcademy; author of some charming novels, "Nouvelles Genévoises, " "LaBibliothèque de mon Oncle, " &c. (1799-1846). 

TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE, hymn-writer, born at Farnham, Surrey;became vicar of Broad Hembury, Devonshire, in 1768; was an uncompromisingCalvinist, and opponent of the Methodists; survives as the author of"Rock of Ages, " besides which he wrote "Poems on Sacred Subjects, " andcompiled "Psalms and Hymns, " of which a few are his own (1740-1778). 

TORGAU (11), a fortified town of Prussia, on the Elbe, 70 m. SW. OfBerlin; has a church consecrated by Luther, and in the town-church thewife of the great reformer lies buried; scene of a victory of Frederickthe Great over the Austrians in November 1760. 

TORONTO (181), the second city of Canada, and metropolis of the W. And NW. Regions, capital of Ontario; situated on a small bay on the NW. Coast of Lake Ontario, 315 m. SW. Of Montreal; is a spacious andhandsomely built city, with fine churches, a splendidly equippeduniversity, Parliament buildings, law courts, theological colleges, schools of medicine and music, libraries, &c. ; does a large shipping andrailway trade in lumber, fruit, grain, coal, &c. 

TORQUAY (26), a popular watering-place of South Devon, on Tor Bay, 23 m. S. Of Exeter; with a fine climate and beautiful surroundings, hassince the beginning of the century grown from a little fishing village tobe "the Queen of English watering-places"; a great yachting centre, &c. 

TORQUEMADA, THOMAS DE, a prior of a Dominican monastery who becamein 1483, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, head of theInquisition, a "holy office" he administered with merciless cruelty(1420-1498). 

TORRES STRAIT separates Australia from New Guinea, 80 m. Broad, andfrom its numerous islands, shoals, and reefs is exceedingly difficult tonavigate. 

TORRES-VEDRAS (5), a town of Portugal, 26 m. N. Of Lisbon;celebrated for the great lines of defence Wellington constructed in 1810, and behind which he successfully withstood the siege of the French underMassena, thus saving Lisbon, and preparing the way for his subsequentexpulsion of the French from the Peninsula. 

TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA, a celebrated Italian physicist; devotedhimself to science, and attracted the attention of Galileo, whom hesubsequently succeeded as professor at the Florentine Academy; discoveredthe scientific principle of the barometer, which is sometimes called theTorricellian tube, and made notable advances in mathematical and physicalscience (1608-1647). 

TORRINGTON (3), a market-town of North Devon, built on an eminenceoverlooking the Torridge, 10 m. SW. Of Barnstaple; manufactures gloves;was the scene of a Parliamentary victory in 1646, during the greatrebellion. 

TORTURE, JUDICIAL, torture to extort a confession, practised inEngland till 1588, and in Scotland by thumbscrews and the boot till 1690. 

TORY, the old name for a Conservative in politics, generally of verydecided type; originally denoted an Irish robber of the English inIreland. 

TOTEMISM, division of a race into tribes, each of which has its ownTotem, or animal, as the symbol of it and the name, and as such treatedwith superstitious veneration, as involving religious obligation. 

TOTNES (4), a quaint old market-town of Devonshire, overlooking theDart, 29 m. SW. Of Plymouth; has interesting Norman and other remains; acentre of agricultural industry. 

TOUL (12), a strongly-fortified town of France, on the Moselle, 20m. W. Of Nancy; has a noble Gothic cathedral and lace and hatmanufactures; was captured by the Germans in 1870. 

TOULON (74), chief naval station of France, on the Mediterranean, situated 42 m. SE. Of Marseilles; lies at the foot of the Pharon Hills, the heights of which are strongly fortified; has a splendid 11th-centurycathedral, and theatre, forts, citadel, 240 acres of dockyard, arsenal, cannon foundry, &c. ; here in 1793 Napoleon Bonaparte, then an artilleryofficer, first distinguished himself in a successful attack upon theEnglish and Spaniards. 

TOULOUSE (136), a historic and important city of South France, capital of Haute-Garonne, pleasantly situated on a plain and touching onone side the Garonne (here spanned by a fine bridge) and on the other theCanal du Midi, 160 m. SE. Of Bordeaux; notable buildings are thecathedral and Palais de Justice; is the seat of an archbishop, schools ofmedicine, law, and artillery, various academies, and a Roman Catholicuniversity; manufactures woollens, silks, &c. ; in 1814 was the scene of avictory of Wellington over Soult and the French. Under the name of Tolosait figures in Roman and mediæval times as a centre of learning andliterature, and was for a time capital of the kingdom of the Visigoths. 

TOURCOING (65), a thriving textile manufacturing town of France, 9m. NE. Of Lille. 

TOURNAMENTS, real or mock fights by knights on horseback in proof ofskill in the use of arms and in contests of honour. 

TOURNAY (35), a town of Hainault, Belgium, on the Scheldt, 35 m. SW. Of Brussels; in the 5th century was the seat of the Merovingian kings, but now presents a handsome modern appearance; has a fine Romanesquecathedral and flourishing manufactures of hosiery, linen, carpets, andporcelain. 

TOURNEUR, CYRIL, a later Elizabethan dramatist, who seems to haveled an adventurous life, and whose "Atheist's Tragedy" and "Revenger'sTragedy" reach a high level of dramatic power, and have been greatlypraised by Swinburne; wrote also the "Transformed Metamorphosis" andother poems; lived into James I. 's reign; almost nothing is known of hislife. 

TOURS (60), a historic old town of France, on the Loire, 145 m. SW. Of Paris; presents a spacious and handsome appearance, and contains anoble Gothic cathedral, archbishop's palace, Palais de Justice, besidesancient châteaux and interesting ruins; is a centre of silk and woollenmanufactures, and does a large printing trade; suffered greatly by theRevocation of the Edict of Nantes and during the Franco-German War;became the seat of government after the investment of Paris and until itscapitulation to the Germans. 

TOURVILLE, ANNE HILARION DE COTENTIN, COUNT DE, a French naval hero, born at Tourville, La Manche; entered the navy in 1660, established hisreputation in the war with the Turks and Algerines, and in 1677 won avictory over the Dutch and Spanish fleets; supported James II. In 1690, and in the same year, as commander of the French Channel fleet, inflicteda crushing defeat on the Dutch and English; but off Cape La Hogue in1692, after a five days' engagement, had his fleet all but annihilated, amemorable victory which freed England from the danger of invasion byLouis XIV. ; was created a marshal in 1693, and a year later closed hisgreat career of service by scattering an English mercantile fleet andputting to flight the convoy squadron under Sir George Rooke (1642-1701). 

TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, a negro hero of Hayti, born, the son of anAfrican slave at Breda; took part in the native insurrection of 1791, andin 1797 became a general of brigade in the service of the French, and bygallant soldiership cleared the English and Spanish out of Hayti; becamepresident for life of the republic of Hayti, and began to work for thecomplete independence of the island; in 1801, when Napoleon endeavouredto re-introduce slavery, he revolted, but was subdued by a strong Frenchforce and taken to France, where he died in prison; is the subject of awell-known sonnet by Wordsworth (1743-1803). 

TOWER HAMLETS, a parliamentary division of London E. Of the city, originally a group of hamlets at one time within the jurisdiction of theLieutenant of the Tower. 

TOWERS OF SILENCE, towers in Persia and India, some 60 ft. Inheight, on the top of which the Parsees deposit their dead to be gnawedby vultures. 

TOWNSHEND, CHARLES, VISCOUNT, statesman, born at Raynham, Norfolk;succeeded to the title on his father's death, and after taking his seatin the Upper House turned Whig, and soon became prominent in the party;was one of the commissioners who arranged the Scottish Union; accompaniedMarlborough as joint-plenipotentiary to the Gertruydenburg Conference(1709); got into political trouble for signing the Barrier Treaty whileacting as ambassador to the States-General; under George I. Rose to highfavour, became acknowledged leader of the Whigs, passed the SeptennialAct, but after 1721 was eclipsed in the party by the greater abilities ofWalpole, and after unpleasant rivalries was forced to withdraw from theministry (1730); gave himself then to agricultural pursuits (1674-1738). 

TOWNSHEND, CHARLES, statesman and orator, grandson of preceding;entered Parliament in 1747 as a Whig, and after his great speech againstthe Marriage Bill of 1753 ranked among the foremost orators of his day;held important offices of State under various ministers, Bute, Chatham, and Rockingham, and as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1767 wasresponsible for the imposition of the paper, tea, and other duties on theAmerican colonies which provoked the War of Independence and led to theloss of the colonies; a man of brilliant gifts and noted wit, but led bywhat Burke termed "an immoderate love of fame" to play "the weathercock"in politics; died when on the point of attaining the premiership(1725-1767). 

TOWTON, a village of Yorkshire, 3 m. SE. Of Tadcaster, where in1461 Edward IV. At the head of the Yorkists completely routed theLancastrians under the Duke of Somerset. 

TOYNBEE HALL, an institution in Whitechapel, London, founded in 1885for the social welfare of the poor in the district, established in memoryof Arnold Toynbee (1852-1883), who had come under Ruskin's influence andtook a deep interest in the working-classes, his zeal for whose benefitshortened his days. 

TRACTARIANISM, the tenets of the High Church party in the EnglishChurch advocated in "Tracts for the Times, " published at Oxford between1833 and 1841, the chief doctrine of which was that the Church, throughits sacraments in the hands of a regularly-ordained clergy, is the onlydivinely-appointed channel of the grace of Christ. 

TRADE, BOARD OF, a Government office which, as now constituted, dates from 1786, but whose functions within recent times have beenconsiderably widened; consists of a president (a Cabinet minister), and_ex officio_ the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury, First Lord ofthe Treasury, the principal Secretaries of State, Chancellor of theExchequer, the Speaker, and others, but the actual work of the Board isleft in the hands of the president and his secretarial staff; comprisesfive departments: (1) statistical and commercial; (2) railway; (3)marine; (4) harbour; (5) financial. 

TRAFALGAR, CAPE, on the S. Coast of Spain, at the NW. Entrance ofthe Strait of Gibraltar; scene of naval engagements in which Nelson losthis life after inflicting (October 21, 1805) a crushing defeat on thecombined fleets of France and Spain. 

TRAJAN, MARCUS ULPIUS, Roman emperor, born in Spain; his great deedsin arms won him a consulship in 91, and in 97 Nerva invited him to be hiscolleague and successor; a year later he became sole emperor, ruled theempire with wisdom and vigour, set right the finances, upheld animpartial justice, and set on foot various schemes of improvement;suppressed the Christians as politically dangerous, but with no fanaticextravagance; remained above all a warrior and true leader of thelegions, and crowned his military fame by his successful conquest ofDacia, in commemoration of which he is said to have erected the famousTrajan Column, which still stands in Rome (56-117). 

TRAJAN'S COLUMN, a column erected by Trajan in the Forum at Rome inmemory of his victory over the Dacians, and sculptured with the story ofhis exploits, is 125 ft. In height, and ascended by 185 steps; wassurmounted by a statue of Trajan, for which Pope Sextus V. Substitutedone of St. Peter. 

TRANSCAUCASIA, an extensive tract of Russian territory stretching E. And W. Between the Caucasus (N. ) and Turkey in Asia and Persia (S. ). SeeCAUCASIA. 

TRANSCENDENTALISM, name now principally employed to denote the greatdoctrine of Kant and his school, that there are principles of _a priori_derivation, that is, antecedent to experience, that are regulative andconstitutive of not only our thoughts but our very perceptions, and theoperation of which is antecedent to and sovereign over all our mentalprocesses; which principles are denominated the categories of thought;the name is also employed to characterise every system which groundsitself on a belief in a supernatural of which the natural is but theembodiment and manifestation. See NATURAL SUPERNATURALISM. 

TRANSMIGRATION, the doctrine prevalent in the East, that the soul isimmortal, and that when it leaves the body at death it passes intoanother, a transition which in certain systems goes under the name ofreincarnation. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of Roman Catholics as defined bythe Council of Trent, that the bread and wine of the Eucharist is, afterconsecration by a priest, converted mystically into the body and blood ofChrist, and is known as the docrine of the Real Presence. 

TRANSVAAL, formerly SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC (1350), a country ofSE. Africa, stretching northwards from the Vaal River, and bounded N. ByMatabeleland, E. By Portuguese E. Africa and Swaziland, S. By Natal andthe Orange River Colony, and W. By Bechuanaland and BechuanalandProtectorate; comprises elevated plateaux, but is mountainous in the E. ;about the size of Italy; has a good soil and climate favourable foragriculture and stock-raising, to which latter the inert Dutch farmerchiefly devotes himself; its chief wealth, however, lies in its extremelyrich deposits of gold, especially those of the "Rand, " of which itexports now more than any country in the world; its advance since thegold discoveries has been great, but the trade is almost entirely in thehands of the British immigrants; JOHANNESBURG (q. V. ) is thelargest town, and Pretoria (15) the seat of Government. In 1856 theregion was settled by Dutch farmers, who had "trekked" from Natal(recently annexed by Britain) to escape British Rule, as in 1835, for asimilar reason, they had come from the Cape to Natal. Fierce encounterstook place with the native Basutos, but in the end the "Boers" made goodtheir possession. In 1877 the Republic, then in a disorganised andimpoverished condition, and threatened with extinction by the natives, came under the care of the British, by whom the natives were reduced andthe finances restored. In 1880 a rising of the Boers to regain completeindependence resulted in the Conventions of 1881 and 1884, by which theindependence of the Republic was recognised, but subject to the right ofBritain to control the foreign relations. Within recent years agitationswere carried on by the growing "Uitlander" population to obtain a sharein the government to which they contributed in taxes the greater part ofthe revenue, and a succession of attempts were made by the BritishGovernment to get the Boers to concede the franchise to the "Uitlanders"and remedy other grievances; but the negotiations connected therewithwere suddenly arrested by an ultimatum of date 9th October 1899, presented to the British Government by the Transvaal, and allowing themonly 48 hours to accept it. It was an ultimatum they were bound toignore, and accordingly, the time having expired on the 11th, war wasdeclared by the Boers. It proved a costly and sanguinary one to bothsides in the conflict; but the resistance of the Boers was ultimatelyovercome, and hostilities ceased in May 1902. Previously to this, theColony had been annexed by Great Britain (1900). It is at present (1905)administered by a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and an ExecutiveCouncil; but it is proposed that, in the near future, representativeinstitutions should be granted. 

TRANSYLVANIA (2247), eastern division of the Austrian Empire; is atableland enclosed NE. And South by the Carpathians, contains wide tractsof forests, and is one-half under tillage or in pasture; yields largecrops of grain and a variety of fruits, and has mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, &c. , though the manufactures and trade are insignificant;the population consists of Roumanians, Hungarians, and Germans; it wasunited to Hungary in 1868. 

TRAPANI (32), an ancient seaport of Sicily, known in Roman times asDREPANUM, in the NW. , 40 m. W. Of Palermo; presents now a handsomemodern appearance, and trades in wheat, wine, olives, &c. 

TRAPPISTS, an order of Cistercian monks founded in 1140 at LaTrappe, in the French department of Orne, noted for the severity of theirdiscipline, their worship of silence and devotion to work, meditation, and prayer, 12 hours out of the 24 of which they pass in the latterexercise; their motto is "Memento Mori"; their food is chieflyvegetables. 

TRASIMENE LAKE, a historic lake of Italy; lies amid hills betweenthe towns Cortona and Perugia; shallow and reedy, 10 m. Long; associatedwith Hannibal's memorable victory over the Romans 217 B. C. 

TRAVANCORE (2, 557), a native State in South India, under Britishprotection, between the Western Ghâts and the Arabian Sea; it isconnected with the Madras Presidency; it is traversed by spurs of theWestern Ghâts, beyond which, westward, is a plain 10 m. Wide, coveredwith coco-nut and areca palms; the population mainly Hindus; there arenative Christians and some black Jews; Trivandrum is the capital. 

TRAVIATA, an opera representing the progress of a courtezan. 

TREBIZOND (50), a city and thriving seaport NE. Of Asia Minor, theoutlet of Persia and Armenia, on the Black Sea; is walled, and outsideare various suburbs; manufactures silks. 

TRELAWNEY, EDWARD JOHN, friend of Shelley and Byron; entered thenavy as a boy, but deserted and took to adventure; met with Shelley atPisa; saw to the cremation of his body when he was drowned, and went withByron to Greece; was a brave, but a restless mortal; wrote "Recollectionsof the Last Days of Shelley and Byron" (1792-1881). 

TRELAWNEY, SIR JONATHAN, one of the seven bishops tried under JamesII. ; is the hero of the Cornish ballad, "And shall Trelawney die?" _d_. 1721. 

TRENCH, RICHARD CHEVENIX, archbishop of Dublin, born in Dublin;educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge; took orders; becamecurate to Samuel Wilberforce, and wrote "Notes on the Miracles andParables" and "The Study of Words"; was Dean of Westminster before hebecame archbishop (1807-1886). 

TRENCK, BARON VON, general, first in the service of Austria, then ofRussia; dismissed from both; commanded a regiment of pandours in theAustrian Succession War in the interest of Maria Theresa; tried tocapture Frederick the Great; was caught, tried, and condemned to prison, escaped, was captured, and took poison; had a cousin with a similar fate(1711-1749). 

TRENT, an English river, rises in NW. Of Staffordshire, flows NE. , and unites with the Ouse, 15 m. W. Of Hull. 

TRENT (21), an Austrian town in S. Of Tyrol, in a valley on theAdige, 60 m. N. Of Verona; has an Italian appearance, and Italian isspoken. 

TRENT, COUNCIL OF, an oecumenical council, the eighteenth, held atTrent, and whose sittings, with sundry adjournments, extended from 13thDecember 1545 until 4th December 1563, the object of which was to definethe position and creed of the Church of Rome in opposition to thedoctrines and claims of the Churches of the Reformation. 

TRENTON (73), capital of New Jersey State, on the Delaware River, 57m. SW. Of New York; divided into two portions by Assanpink Creek, andhandsomely laid out in broad, regular streets; public buildings include astate-house, federal buildings, &c. ; is the great emporium in the UnitedStates of crockery and pottery manufactures. 

TREPANNING, an operation in surgery whereby portions of the skullare removed by means of an instrument called a trepan, which consists ofa small cylindrical saw; resorted to in all operations on the brain. 

TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, politician and man of letters, born atRothley Temple, Leicestershire, son of Sir Charles Trevelyan (adistinguished servant of the East India Company, governor of Madras, baronet, and author) and Hannah, sister of Lord Macaulay; educated atHarrow and Cambridge, and entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1865; hasheld successively the offices of parliamentary secretary to the Board ofAdmiralty, Chief Secretary for Ireland, Chancellor of the Duchy ofLancaster with a seat in the Cabinet, and Secretary for Scotland;resigned his seat in 1897; has written "Life and Letters of LordMacaulay, " "Early History of Charles James Fox, " "The AmericanRevolution, " &c. , all of which are characterised by admirable lucidityand grace of style; _b_. 1838. 

TRÈVES (36), a famous old city of Prussia, beautifully situated onthe Moselle, 69 m. SW. Of Coblenz; held to be the oldest city in Germany, and claiming to be 1300 years older than Rome; is full of most strikingRoman remains, and possesses an interesting 11th-century cathedral, having among many relics the celebrated seamless "Holy Coat, " said tohave been the one worn by Christ; manufactures woollens, cottons, andlinens, and wine. 

TRIBUNES, in ancient Rome officers elected by the plebs to preservetheir liberties and protect them from the tyranny of the aristocraticparty, their institution dating from 493 B. C. , on the occasion of acivil tumult. 

TRICHINOPOLI (91), capital of a district of same name in MadrasPresidency, on the Kaveri, 56 m. Inland; is a fortified town, with animposing citadel, barracks, hospital, &c. ; noted for its cheroots andjewellery; seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric and college. 

TRICOLOUR, a flag adopted by the French Revolutionists in 1789, andconsisting of three vertical stripes, blue, white, and red, the blue nextthe staff. 

TRIDENT, originally a three-pronged fork used by fishermen, and atlength the symbol, in the hands of Poseidon and Britannia, of sovereigntyover the sea. 

TRIESTE (158), an ancient town and still the first seaport ofAustro-Hungary; at the head of the NE. Arm of the Adriatic, 214 m. SW. OfVienna; an imperial free city since 1849; consists of an old and a newtown on the level fronting the sea; has a fine harbour and extensivemanufactures, embracing shipbuilding, rope-making, &c. 

TRIM, CORPORAL, Uncle Toby's attendant in "Tristram Shandy. "

TRIMURTI, the Hindu trinity, embracing BRAHMA THE CREATOR, VISHNU THEPRESERVER, and SIVA (q. V. ) the Destroyer; represented sometimes as abody with three heads, that of Brahma in the centre, of Vishnu on theright, and of Siva on the left. 

TRINCOMALEE (10), an important naval station and seaport on the NE. Coast of Ceylon, 110 m. NE. Of Kandy; possesses barracks, officialresidences, and a splendid harbour, a haven of shelter to shipping duringthe monsoons, and is strongly fortified. 

TRINIDAD (208), the largest of the Windward Islands, and mostsoutherly of the ANTILLES (q. V. ), lies off the mouth of theOrinoco, 7 m. From the coast of Venezuela; is of great fertility, with ahot, humid, but not unhealthy climate; sugar, coffee, tobacco, and cocoaare the chief exports; a source of great wealth is a wonderful pitch lakewhich, despite the immense quantities annually taken from it, shows noperceptible diminution; inhabitants are mainly French; taken by theBritish in 1797, and forms, with Tobago, a crown colony; capital, Port ofSpain. 

TRINITARIANS, name applied to those who believe in an ontological aswell as those who believe in a theological trinity, that is to say, whorecognise the like principle pervading the universe of being. 

TRINITY, the doctrine, variously interpreted, that in the godhead ordivine nature there are three persons, respectively denominated Father, Son, and Spirit--Father, from whom; Son, to whom; and Spirit, throughwhom are all things; is essentially triunity in unity. 

TRIPITAKA, (the three baskets), name given to the collection of thesacred books of Buddhism, as being formed of three minor collections, bearing the Sutras on discipline, the Vinaya on doctrine, and theAbidharma on metaphysics. 

TRIPOD, seat with three legs on which the priestess of Apollo satwhen delivering her oracles. 

TRIPOLI (17), a seaport of Syria, 40 m. NE. Of Beyrout; a place ofgreat antiquity, and successively in the hands of the Phoenicians, Crusaders, and Mamelukes; it has many interesting Saracenic and otherremains; its trade is passing over to Beyrout. 

TRIPOLI (1, 000), a province (since 1835) of Turkey, in North Africa, most easterly of the Barbary States; stretches northwards from the LibyanDesert, lies between Tunis (W. ) and Fezzan (E. ), with which latter, asalso with Barca, it is politically united; carries on a brisk caravantrade with Central Africa; capital, Tripoli (20), situated on a spit ofrocky land jutting into the Mediterranean; surrounded by high walls, andMoorish in appearance. 

TRIPTOLEMUS, in the Greek mythology the favourite of DEMETER(q. V. ), the inventor of the plough, and of the civilisation therewithconnected; played a prominent part in the Eleusinian Mysteries; wasfavoured by Demeter for the hospitality he showed her when she was inquest of her daughter. 

TRISMEGISTUS (thrice greatest), the Egyptian Hermes, regarded as thefountain of mysticism and magic. 

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, the largest of three small islands lying out inthe South Atlantic, about 1300 m. SW. Of St. Helena; 20 m. Incircumference; taken possession of by the British in 1817, and utilisedas a military and naval station during Napoleon's captivity on St. Helena; now occupied by a handful of people, who lead a simple, communistic life. 

TRISTRAM, SIR, one of the heroes of mediæval romance, whoseadventures form an episode in the history of the Round Table. 

TRITON, in the Greek mythology a sea deity, son of Poseidon andAmphitrite; upper part of a man with a dolphin's tail; often representedas blowing a large spiral shell; there were several of them, and wereheralds of Poseidon. 

TRITRATNA, name given to the BUDDHIST TRINITY, BUDDHA, THE DHARMA, and the SANGHA (q. V. ). 

TROCHU, LOUIS JULES, a distinguished French general, who came to thefront during the Crimean end Italian campaigns, but fell into disfavourfor exposing in a pamphlet (1867) the rotten state of the French army;three years later, on the outbreak of the Franco-German War, wasappointed Governor of Paris, and, after the proclamation of the Republic, general of the defence of the city till its capitulation, after which heretired into private life (1815-1896). 

TROLLOPE, ANTHONY, English novelist; belonged to a literary family;his mother distinguished as a novelist no less; educated at Winchesterand Harrow; held a high position in the Post Office; his novels werenumerous; depict the provincial life of England at the time; the chiefbeing "Barchester Towers, " "Framley Parsonage, " and "Dr. Thorne"; wrote a"Life of Cicero, " and a biography of Thackeray; he was an enthusiasticfox-hunter (1815-1882). 

TROMP, CORNELIUS, Dutch admiral, son of succeeding, born atRotterdam; fought many battles with the English and proved himself aworthy son of a heroic father; was created a baron by Charles II. OfEngland (1675); aided the Danes against Sweden, and subsequentlysucceeded Ruyter as lieutenant admiral-general of the United Provinces(1629-1691). 

TROMP, MARTIN HARPERTZOON, famous Dutch admiral, born at Briel;trained to the sea from his boyhood, in 1637 was createdlieutenant-admiral, and in two years' time had twice scattered Spanishfleets; defeated by Blake in 1652, but six months later beat back theEnglish fleet in the Strait of Dover, after which he is said to havesailed down the Channel with a broom to his masthead as a sign he hadswept his enemies from the seas; in 1653 Blake renewed the attack andinflicted defeat on him after a three days' struggle; in June and JulyTromp was again defeated by the English, and in the last engagement offthe coast of Holland was shot dead (1597-1653). 

TROMSÖ, a town (6) and island (65) of Norway, in the NW. 

TRONDHJEM (29), an important town, the ancient capital of Norway, onTrondhjem Fjord, 250 m. N. Of Christiania; is well laid out with broadlevel streets, most of the houses are of wood; possesses a fine13th-century cathedral, where the kings of Norway are crowned; carries ona flourishing trade in copper ore, herrings, oil, &c. ; is stronglyfortified. 

TROPHONIUS, in Greek legend, along with his brother Agamedes, thearchitect of the temple of Apollo at Delphi; had a famous oracle in acave in Boeotia, which could only be entered at night. 

TROPICS, two parallels of latitude on either side of the equator, which mark the limits N. And S. Of the sun's verticality to the earth'ssurface, the distance being in each case 23½°; the northern tropic iscalled the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern the Tropic of Capricorn. 

TROPPAU (21), capital of Austrian Silesia, 184 m. E. Of Vienna;contains a castle, gymnasium, and an extensive library; manufactureslinen and woollen textiles, beetroot sugar, &c. 

TROSSACHS, a romantic pass in the Perthshire Highlands, 8 m. W. OfCallander, stretching for about a mile between Lochs Katrine and Achray, is charmingly wooded; is celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his "Lady ofthe Lake. "

TROUBADOURS, a class of poets who flourished in Provence, EasternSpain, and Northern Italy from the 11th to the 13th century, whose songsin the Langue d'Oc were devoted to subjects lyrical and amatory, and whonot infrequently were men of noble birth and bore arms as knights, and assuch were distinguished from the Jongleurs, who were mere strollingminstrels. 

TROUVÈRES, a class of ancient poets in Northern France, who like theTroubadours of Southern France were of court standing, but whose poems, unlike those of the Troubadours, were narrative or epic. 

TROWBRIDGE (12), a market-town of Wiltshire, 25 m. NW. Of Salisbury;has a fine 15th-century Perpendicular church, in which the poet Crabbe isburied; has woollen and fine cloth manufactures. 

TROY, a city of Troas, a territory NW. Of Mysia, Asia Minor, celebrated as the scene of the world-famous legend immortalised by the"Iliad" of Homer in his account of the war caused by the rape of Helen, and which ended with the destruction of the city at the hands of theavenging Greeks. 

TROY (61), capital of Rensselaer County, New York, on the HudsonRiver, 5 m. Above Albany; possesses handsome public buildings, and is abusy centre of textile, heavy iron goods, and other manufactures; hasdaily steamship service with New York. 

TROYES (50), a quaint old town of France, capital of the departmentof Aube, on the Seine, 100 m. SE. Of Paris; possesses a fine FlamboyantGothic cathedral, founded in 872, several handsome old churches, a largepublic library; has flourishing manufactures of textile fabrics, andtrades in agricultural produce; here in 1420 was signed the Treaty ofTroyes, making good the claims of Henry V. Of England to the Frenchcrown. 

TRUCK-SYSTEM, the paying of workmen's wages in goods in place ofmoney; found useful where works are far distant from towns, but liable tothe serious abuse from inferior goods being supplied; Acts of Parliamenthave been passed to abolish the system, but evasions of the law are notuncommon. 

TRUMBULL, JONATHAN, an American patriot, judge and governor ofConnecticut, who supported the movement for independence with great zeal;was much esteemed and consulted by Washington, whose frequent phrase, "Let us hear what Brother Jonathan says, " gave rise to the appellation"Brother Jonathan" (1710-1785). 

TRUNNION, COMMODORE HAWSER, an eccentric retired naval officer inSmollett's "Peregrine Pickle, " affects the naval commander in hisretirement. 

TRURO (11), an episcopal city and seaport of Cornwall; exportslargely tin and copper from surrounding mines; its bishopric was revivedin 1876, and a handsome Early English cathedral is nearing completion;has also infirmary, old grammar-school, libraries, &c. 

TUAM (4), a town of Galway, Ireland, 129 m. NW. Of Dublin; is theseat of an Anglican bishop and of a Catholic archbishop. 

TÜBINGEN (13), a celebrated university town of Würtemberg, 18 m. SW. Of Stuttgart; is quaint and crowded in the old town, but spreads out intospacious and handsome suburbs, where is situated the new university. Under Melanchthon and Reuchlin the old university became a distinguishedseat of learning, and later, during the professorship of BAUR (q. V. ), acquired celebrity as a school of advanced biblical criticism, which gave great stimulus to a more rationalistic interpretation of theScripture narratives; has now an excellent medical school; also bookprinting and selling, and other industries are actively carried on. 

TUCKER, ABRAHAM, author of "The Light of Nature Pursued"; educatedat Oxford and the Inner Temple, but possessed of private means betookhimself to a quiet country life near Dorking and engaged in philosophicalstudies, the fruit of which he embodied in seven volumes of miscellaneoustheological and metaphysical writing (1705-1774). 

TUCUMAN, a north-central province (210) and town (26) of theArgentine Republic, the latter on the Rio Sil, 723 m. NW. Of BuenosAyres. 

TUDELA (9), ecclesiastical city of Spain, on the Ebro, 46 m. NW. OfSaragossa. 

TUDOR, the family name of the royal house that occupied the Englishthrone from 1485 (accession of Henry VII. ) to 1603 (death of QueenElizabeth), founded by Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, who became Clerk ofthe Household, and subsequently the husband of Catherine of Valois, widowof Henry V. ; their son, Edmund, Earl of Richmond, married MargaretBeaufort, a direct descendant of Edward III. , and became the father ofHenry VII. 

TULA (64), capital of a government (1, 409) of the same name inCentral Russia, 107 m. S. Of Moscow, the residence of a military and of acivil governor, the seat of a bishop, and a busy centre of firearms, cutlery, and other manufactures. 

TULCHAN BISHOPS, bishops appointed in Scotland by James VI. To drawthe Church revenues for his behoof in part, a tulchan being "a calf-skinstuffed into the rude similitude of a calf" to induce the cow to give hermilk freely; "so of the bishops, which the Scotch lairds were glad toconstruct and make the milk come without disturbance. "

TULLE (15), a town of France, capital of the dep. Of Corrèze, 115 m. NE. Of Bordeaux; possesses a cathedral, episcopal palace, &c. ; chiefmanufacture firearms; the fine silk fabric which takes its name from itis no longer manufactured here. 

TUNBRIDGE (10), a market-town of Kent, 11 m. SW. Of Maidstone, witha fine old castle, a notable grammar-school, and manufactures of fancywood-wares. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS (28), a popular watering-place on the border of Kentand Sussex, 34 m. SE. Of London; with chalybeate waters noted for upwardsof 250 years. 

TUNIS (1, 500), a country of North Africa, slightly larger thanPortugal; since 1882 a protectorate of France; forms an easterncontinuation of Algeria, fronting the Mediterranean to the N. And E. , andstretching S. To the Sahara and Tripoli; is inhabited chiefly by BedouinArabs; presents a hilly, and in parts even mountainous, aspect; itsfertile soil favours the culture of fruits, olives, wheat, and esparto, all of which are in gradually increasing amounts exported; fine marblehas been recently found, and promises well. The capital is Tunis (134), situated at the SW. End of the Lake of Tunis, a few miles SE. Of theruined city of CARTHAGE (q. V. ); is for the most part a crowdedunwholesome place, but contains well-supplied bazaars, finely decoratedmosques, the bey's palace, a citadel, and is showing signs of improvementunder French management. 

TUNSTALL (16), a market-town of Staffordshire, 4½ m. NE. OfNewcastle-under-Lyme, is a coal-centre, with manufactures of earthenwareand iron. 

TUPPER, MARTIN, author of "Proverbial Philosophy, " born inMarylebone; bred to the bar; wrote some 40 works, but the "Philosophy"(1838), though dead now, had a quite phenomenal success, having sold inthousands and hundreds of thousands, as well as being translated intovarious foreign languages (1810-1889). 

TURENNE, VICOMTE DE, a famous marshal of France, born at Sedan ofnoble parentage; was trained in the art of war under his uncles Mauriceand Henry of Nassau in Holland, and entered the French service in 1630under the patronage of Richelieu; gained great renown during the ThirtyYears' War; during the wars of the FRONDE (q. V. ) first sidedwith the "Frondeurs, " but subsequently joined Mazarin and the courtparty; crushed his former chief Condé; invaded successfully the SpanishNetherlands, and so brought the revolt to an end; was createdMarshal-General of France in 1660; subsequently conducted to a triumphantissue wars within Spain (1667), Holland (1672), and during 1674 conqueredand devastated the Palatinate, but during strategical operationsconducted against the Austrian general Montecuculi was killed by acannon-ball (1611-1675). 

TURGOT, ANNE ROBERT JACQUES, French statesman, born at Paris, ofNorman descent; early embraced the doctrines of the _philosophe_ party, and held for 13 years the post of intendant of Limoges, the affairs ofwhich he administered with ability, and was in 1774 called by Louis XVI. To the management of the national finances, which he proceeded to do oneconomical principles, but in all his efforts was thwarted by theprivileged classes, and in some 20 months was compelled to resign andleave the matter to the fates, he himself retiring into private life(1727-1781). 

TURIN (230), a celebrated city of North Italy, a former capital ofPiedmont, 80 m. NW. Of Genoa; although one of the oldest of Italiancities it presents quite a modern appearance, with handsome streets, statues, squares, gardens, a Renaissance cathedral, palaces, university(over 2000 students), large library, colleges and museums, &c. ;manufactures are chiefly of textiles; has an interesting history from thetime of its first mention in Hannibal's day. 

TURKESTAN, a wide region in Central Asia, divided by the Pamir plateauinto sections: (1) WESTERN TURKESTAN, which embraces Russian Turkestan(3, 342), the KHANATES OF KHIVA (q. V. ) and BOKHARA (q. V. ), and AfghanTurkestan. (2) EASTERN TURKESTAN (600), formerly called Chinese Tartary;unproductive in many parts, and but sparsely populated; produces somegold, and a considerable quantity of silk, besides linens and cottons. 

TURKEY or THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, a great Mohammedan State embracing wideareas in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, besides the province of Tripoliin North Africa, and the tributary States Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (under Austria), Cyprus (under Britain), Samos andEgypt (practically controlled by Britain). EUROPEAN TURKEY (4, 786), whichduring the last 200 years has been gradually losing territory, nowcomprises a narrow strip of land between the Adriatic (W. ) and the BlackSea (E. ), about twice the size of England; is traversed by the DinaricAlps and Pindus Mountains, which strike southwards into Greece, whileoffshoots from the BALKANS (q. V. ) diversify the E. ; climate is veryvariable, and is marked by high winds and extremes of cold and heat; thesoil is remarkably fertile and well adapted for the cultivation ofcereals, but agricultural enterprise is hampered by excessive taxation;there is abundance of the useful metals; is the only non-Christian Statein Europe. ASIATIC TURKEY (16, 000) is bounded N. By the Black Sea, S. Bythe Arabian Desert and the Mediterranean, E. By Persia and Transcaucasia, and W. By the Archipelago; has an area more than ten times that of Turkeyin Europe, is still more mountainous, being traversed by the Taurus, Anti-Taurus, and the Lebanon ranges; is ill watered, and even the valleysof the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan are subject to great drought in thesummer; embraces ASIA MINOR (q. V. ), SYRIA (q. V. ), PALESTINE (q. V. ), and the coast strips of Arabia along the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf;chief exports are fruits, silk, cotton, wool, opium, &c. The populationof the Ottoman Empire is of a most heterogeneous character, embracingTurks, Greeks, Slavs, Albanians, Armenians, Syrians, Arabs, Tartars, &c. The government is a pure despotism, and the Sultan is regarded as theCaliph or head of Islam; military service is compulsory, and the army ona war footing numbers not less than 750, 000, but the navy is small; since1847 there has been considerable improvement in education; the financeshave long been mismanaged, and an annual deficit of two millions sterlingis now a usual feature of the national budget; the foreign debt isupwards of 160 millions. From the 17th century onwards the once wideempire of the Turks has been gradually dwindling away. The Turks areessentially a warlike race, and commerce and art have not flourished withthem. Their literature is generally lacking in virility, and is mostlyimitative and devoid of national character. 

TURNER, CHARLES TENNYSON, an elder brother of Alfred Tennyson; a manof fine nature and delicate susceptibility as a poet, whose friendshipand "heart union" with his greater brother is revealed in "Poems by TwoBrothers" (1808-1879). 

TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM, great English landscape painter, born probably in London, the son of a hairdresser; had little education, and grew up illiterate, as he remained all his days; took to art from hisearliest boyhood; soon became acquainted with the artist class, and cameunder the notice of Sir Joshua Reynolds; began to exhibit at 15; waselected Associate of the Royal Academy at 24, and made an Academician at28; he took interest in nothing but art, and led the life of a recluse;was never married, and was wedded solely to his work; travelled much inEngland and on the Continent, sketching all day long; produced inwater-colour and oil scene after scene, and object after object, as theyimpressed him, and represented them as _he_ saw them; being a man ofmoderate desires he lived economically, and he died rich, leaving hismeans to found an asylum for distressed artists; of his works there is nospace to take note here; yet these are all we know of the man, and theystamp him as a son of genius, who saw visions and dreamed dreams; heearly fascinated the young Ruskin; Ruskin's literary career began withthe publication of volume after volume in his praise, and in hisenthusiasm he characterised him as the "greatest painter of all time"(1775-1851). See PERUGINO. 

TURNER, SHARON, historian, born in London, where he led a busy lifeas an attorney; devoted his leisure to historical studies, the first ofwhich were "History of Anglo-Saxons" and "History of England from theNorman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth, " essays, &c. (1768-1847). 

TURPIN, DICK, a felon executed at York for horse-stealing;celebrated for his ride to York in Ainsworth's "Rookwood. "

TUSCANY (2, 274), a department of Italy, formerly a grand-duchy, liesS. And W. Of the Apennines, fronting the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W. ;mountainous in the N. And E. , but otherwise consisting of fertile daleand plain, in which the vine, olive, and fruits abound; silk is animportant manufacture, and the marble quarries of Siena are noted; formeda portion of ancient ETRURIA (q. V. ); was annexed to Sardiniain 1859, and in 1861 was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. Capital, Florence. 

TUSCULUM, a ruined Roman city, 15 m. SE. Of Rome; at one time afavourite country resort of wealthy Romans; Brutus, Cæsar, Cicero, andothers had villas here; was stormed to ruins in 1191; has manyinteresting remains. 

TUSSAUD, MADAME, foundress of the famous waxwork show in London, born at Berne, and trained in her art in Paris; patronised by the sisterof Louis XVI. ; was imprisoned during the Revolution, and in 1802 came toLondon (1760-1850). 

TWEED, a famous river of Scotland, rises in the S. Of Peeblesshire, and flows for 97 m. In a generally north-eastward direction; enters theGerman Ocean at Berwick; is a noted salmon river, and inseparablyassociated with the glories of Scottish literature and history. 

TWICKENHAM (16), a town of Middlesex, on the Thames, 11½ m. SW. OfLondon; a fashionable resort in the 18th century; the dwelling-place ofPope, Horace Walpole, Turner, and others. 

TWISS, SIR TRAVERS, jurist and economist, born in Westminster;professor of Political Economy at Oxford, and subsequently of Civil Law;drew up in 1884 a constitution for the Congo Free State; his writingsinclude "View of the Progress of Political Economy since the SixteenthCentury, " "International Law, " "The Law of Nations, " all of which rank asstandard and authoritative works (1809-1897). 

TWIST, OLIVER, hero of Dickens's novel of the name. 

TYCHE, the Greek name of the Latin goddess Fortuna, represented withvarious attributes to symbolise her fickleness, her influence, hergenerosity, &c. 

TYLER, EDWARD BURNET, a distinguished anthropologist, born atCamberwell; in 1856 he travelled through Mexico in company with HenryChristy, the ethnologist; five years later published "Anahuac; or, Mexicoand the Mexicans"; in 1883 became keeper of the Oxford University Museumand reader in Anthropology; in 1888 was appointed Gifford Lecturer atAberdeen, and in 1891 president of the Anthropological Society; his greatworks are "Researches into the Early History of Mankind" and "PrimitiveCulture"; _b_. 1832. 

TYLER, JOHN, president of the United States, born in Charles CityCounty, Virginia; became a barrister; elected vice-president of theUnited States in 1840, and on the death of Harrison succeeded to thepresidential office; showed much independence and strength of mind, exercising his veto on several occasions; the ASHBURTON (q. V. )Treaty and the annexation of Texas were the principal events of hispresidency; made strenuous endeavours to secure peace in 1861, butfailing sided with the South, and was a member of the ConfederateCongress (1790-1862). 

TYLER, WAT, a tiler in Dartford, Kent, who roused into rebellion thelong-discontented and over-taxed peasantry of England by striking dead in1381 a tax-gatherer who had offered insult to his young daughter; underTyler and Jack Straw a peasant army was mustered in Kent and Essex, and adescent made on London; the revolters were disconcerted by the tact ofthe young king RICHARD II. (q. V. ), and in a scuffle Tyler waskilled by Walworth, Mayor of London. 

TYNDAL, JOHN, physicist, born in co. Carlow, Ireland; succeededFaraday at the Royal Institution; wrote on electricity, sound, light, andheat, as well as on the "Structure and Motion of the Glaciers, " inopposition to Forbes, whose theory was defended in strong terms byRuskin; wrote also "Lectures on Science for Unscientific People, " muchpraised by Huxley (1820-1893). 

TYNE, river of North England, formed by the confluence near Hexhamof the N. Tyne from the Cheviots, and the S. Tyne, which rises on CrossFell, in E. Cumberland; forms the boundary between Durham andNorthumberland, and after a course of 32 m. Enters the sea betweenTynemouth and South Shields. 

TYNEMOUTH (28 township, 46 borough), a popular watering-place ofNorthumberland, at the mouth of the Tyne, 9 m. E. Of Newcastle; has afine sweep of promenaded shore, an aquarium, pier, lighthouse, baths, &c. ; North Shields and several villages lie within the boroughboundaries. 

TYPHON, in the Greek mythology a fire-breathing giant, struck by athunderbolt of Jupiter, and buried under Etna. 

TYRANTS, in ancient Greece men who usurped or acquired supremeauthority in a State at some political crisis, who were despotic in theirpolicy, but not necessarily cruel, often the reverse. 

TYRCONNEL, RICHARD TALBOT, EARL OF, a Catholic politician andsoldier, whose career during the reigns of Charles II. And James II. Is arecord of infamous plotting and treachery in support of the CatholicStuarts; was created an earl and lord-deputy of Ireland by James II. ;fled to France after the battle of the Boyne (1625-1691). 

TYRE, a famous city of ancient PHOENICIA (q. V. ), about 30m. N. Of Acre; comprised two towns, one on the mainland, the other on anisland opposite; besieged and captured in 332 B. C. By Alexander theGreat, who connected the towns by a causeway, which, by silting sands, has grown into the present isthmus; its history goes back to the 10thcentury B. C. , when it was held by Hiram, the friend of Solomon, andsustained sieges by Nebuchadnezzar and others; was reduced by CæsarAugustus, but again rose to be one of the most flourishing cities of theEast in the 4th century A. D. ; fell into ruins under the Turks, and isnow reduced to some 5000 of a population. 

TYROL (929), a crownland of Austria; lies between Bavaria (N. ) andItaly (S. And W. ); traversed by three ranges of the Alps and by therivers Inn and Adige; it is famed for the beauty of its scenery;inhabited by Catholic Germans and Italians; sheep-farming, mining, andforest, fruit, and wine cultivation are the chief industries; capitalINNSBRUCK (q. V. ). 

TYRONE (171), a central county of Ulster, Ireland; is hilly, picturesque, and fertile in the lower districts; a considerable portionis taken up by barren mountain slopes and bogland, and agriculture isbackward; coal and marble are wrought; Omagh is the capital, and Strabaneand Dungannon are prosperous towns. 

TYRONE, HUGH O'NEIL, EARL OF, a notable Irish rebel; assumed thetitle of "The O'Neil, " and offered open rebellion to Queen Elizabeth'sauthority, but, despite assistance from Spain, was subdued by Essex andMountjoy; was permitted to retain his earldom, but in James I. 's reignwas again discovered intriguing with Spain; fled the country, and had hislands confiscated; _d_. 1616. 

TYRRHENIAN SEA, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching betweenCorsica, Sardinia, and Sicily on the W. , and Italy on the E. 

TYRTÆUS, a lyric poet of ancient Greece, of the 7th century B. C. , and whose war-songs greatly heartened the Spartans in their struggle withthe Messenians. 

TYRWHITT, THOMAS, English scholar, the son of an English Churchcanon, born in London; was a Fellow of Merton in 1755, and in 1762 becameclerk to the House of Commons, a post, however, which proved too arduousfor him, and in 1768 he resigned; the remainder of his life was given toliterary pursuits; produced the first adequate edition of Chaucer (1775), besides an edition of Aristotle's "Poetics, " and books on Chatterton's"Rowley Poems, " &c. (1730-1786). 

TYTLER, PATRICK FRASER, historian, son of Alexander Fraser Tytler, alord of Session under the title of Lord Woodhouselee, author of the"Elements of History" (1747-1813), born in Edinburgh; abandoned the barfor literature, and established his fame by his scholarly "History ofScotland"; wrote biographies of Wycliffe, Raleigh, Henry VIII. , &c. ;received a Government pension from Sir Robert Peel (1791-1849). 

U

UCAYALI, a tributary of the Amazon, which rises in the S. PeruvianAndes, and which it joins after a northward course of over 1000 m. 

UDALL, NICHOLAS, author of "Ralph Roister-Doister, " the earliest ofEnglish comedies, and "the earliest picture of London manners, " born inHants; was a graduate of Oxford, and head-master first of Eton andsubsequently of Westminister School (1505-1556). 

UEBERWEG, FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, professor at Königsberg;author of a "History of Philosophy, " an excellent text-book (1826-1871). 

UGANDA, a territory in East Africa along the N. And NW. Shore ofVictoria Nyanza, with a population of from 300, 000 to 500, 000, and theseat of an active mission propaganda on the part of both the Catholic andProtestant Churches; has since 1890 been under British protection. Thecapital is Mengo. 

UGOLINO, COUNT, tyrant of Pisa; was of the Guelph party; celebratedfor his tragic fate; having fallen into the hands of his enemies, he wasin 1288 thrown into a dungeon along with his two sons and two grandsons, and starved to death, a fate which suggested to Dante one of the mostterrible episodes in his "Inferno"; the dungeon referred to has sinceborne the name of the "Tower of Hunger. "

UHLAND, JOHANN LUDWIG, German poet, born at Tübingen; studied law, and wrote essays as well as poems, but it is on the latter his famerests, and that is as wide as the German world; he was a warm-heartedpatriot, and in keen sympathy with the cause of German liberation(1787-1862). 

UHLANS, a body of light cavalry in the German army, introduced firstinto the Polish service, and of Tartar origin it is said. 

UIST, two islands of the Outer Hebrides, called respectively Northand South, forming part of Inverness-shire; separated by the island ofBenbecula, with a population of over 3000 each; engaged chiefly infishing. 

UKASE, an edict issued by the Czar, having the force of a law. 

UKRAINE (frontier), a fertile Russian province of undefined limitsin the basin of Dnieper, originally a frontier territory of Polandagainst the Tartars. 

ULEABORG (11), a seaport town in Russian Finland, near the head ofthe Gulf of Bothnia; trades in wood and tar. 

ULEMA, a body in Turkey, or any Mohammedan country, of the learnedin the Mohammedan religion and law, such as the Imams, or religiousteachers, the Muftis, or expounders of the law and the Cadis, or judges;its decrees are called "fetvas. "

ULLMANN, KARL, German theologian; was professor at Heidelberg: wrote"Reformers before the Reformation, " but is best known as author of "TheSinlessness of Jesus" (1796-1865). 

ULLSWATER, second largest of the English lakes, lies betweenCumberland and Westmorland, 8 m. Long, and its average breadth 1 m. ; islooked down upon by Helvellyn, on the SW. 

ULM (36), city of Würtemberg, on the Danube, 46 m. SE. Of Stuttgart;was an imperial free city, and is a place of great importance; is famedfor its cathedral, which for size ranks next to Cologne, as well as forits town hall; has textile manufactories and breweries, and is famed forits confectionery; here General Mack, with 28, 000 Austrians, surrenderedto Marshal Key in 1805. 

ULOTRICHI, name given to the races that have crisp or woolly hair. 

ULPHILAS, Gothic bishop; famous for his translation of theScriptures into Gothic, the part which remains being of greatphilological value; was an Arian in theology (311-381). 

ULRICI, HERMANN, German philosopher and literary critic, born inLower Lusatia; professor at Halle; wrote against the Hegelian philosophyas pantheistic, and also studies in Shakespeare (1806-1884). 

ULSTER (1, 617), the northern province of Ireland, is divided intothe nine counties of Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone, and has an area of 8560 sq. M. ; becamean English settlement in 1611, and was largely colonised from Scotland;it is the most Protestant part of the island, though the Catholicspredominate, and is the most enterprising and prosperous part; the landis extensively cultivated, and flax growing and spinning the chiefindustries. 

ULTIMUS ROMANORUM (the last of the Romans), name given by Cæsar toBrutus, as one with whom the old Roman spirit would become extinct;applied to the last of any sturdy race. 

ULTRAMONTANISM, name given to extreme views in the matter of theprerogatives and authority of the Pope, so called in France as prevailingon the other side of the Alps. 

ULUGH-BEG, a Tartar prince, grandson of Tamerlane; astronomy was afavourite study of his, and in the patronage of it he founded anobservatory at Samarcand; after a reign of 40 years conjointly with hisfather and by himself, he was put to death by a son who had rebelledagainst him (1394-1449). 

ULYSSES (i. E. Greek Odysseus), chieftain of Ithaca, one of the Greekheroes in the Trojan War, in which he was with difficulty persuaded tojoin, but in which, however, he did good service both by his courage andhis counsels; he is less famed for what he did before Troy than for whatbefell him in his ten years' wandering homeward after, as recorded byHomer in a separate poem called after him the "ODYSSEY" (q. V. ), whichrelates his stay among the LOTUS-EATERS (q. V. ), his encounter withPOLYPHEMUS (q. V. ), the enchantments of CIRCE (q. V. ), the SIRENS (q. V. ), and CALYPSO (q. V. ), and his shipwreck, &c. Tennyson represents himas impatient of the humdrum life of Ithaca on his return, and as longingto join his Trojan comrades in the Isles of the Blessed. See PENELOPE andTELEMACHUS. 

ULYSSES' BOW, a bow which only Ulysses could wield. 

UMA (the gracious one), the consort of SIVA (q. V. ), andsometimes also of RUDRA (q. V. ). 

UMBALLA (499), a city in the Punjab, 150 m. NW. Of Delhi; is animportant military station and a railway centre; carries on a largetrade. 

UMBRIA, a province of ancient Italy, between Cisalpine Gaul and theterritory of the Sabines; inhabited originally by a powerful Latin race. 

UMLAUT, name given by Grimm to the modification of a vowel in asyllable through the influence of a vowel in the succeeding. 

UNA (i. E. Who is one), the personification of Truth, thecompanion of St. George in his adventures, and who, after variousadventures herself, is at last wedded to him. 

UNCIAL LETTERS, large round characters or letters used in ancientMSS. 

UNCLE SAM, name given to the United States Government, derived froma humorous translation of the initials U. S. 

UNCONSCIOUS, THE, name given to a spiritual supernatural influenceoperating in and affecting the life and character, but which we are notsensible of ourselves, and still less reveal a conscious sense of toothers. 

UNDERSTANDING, THE. See REASON. 

UNDINE, a female spirit of the watery element, naturally without, but capable of receiving, a human soul, particularly after being weddedto a man and after giving birth to a child. 

UNDULATORY THEORY, the theory that light is due to vibrations orundulations in the ether as the medium through which it is transmittedfrom its source in a luminous body. 

UNEARNED INCREMENT, increase in the value of land or any propertywithout expenditure of any kind on the part of the proprietor. 

UNICORN, a fabulous animal like a horse, with a cubit and a halflong horn on the forehead; was adopted by James I. As the symbol ofScotland on the royal arms; is in Christian art a symbol of theincarnation, and an emblem of female chastity. 

UNIFORMITY, ACT OF, an Act passed in England in 1662 regulating theform of public prayers and rites to be observed in all churches, andwhich had the effect of driving hundreds of clergymen from theEstablished Church. 

UNIGENITUS, THE BULL, a bull beginning with this word, issued byPope Clement XI. In 1713 against JANSENISM (q. V. ) in France, and which was in 1730 condemned by the civil authorities in Paris. 

UNION, FEDERAL, name given to a union of several States in defenceor promotion of the common good, while each State is independent of therest in local matters. 

UNION, THE, a name applied in the English history to (1) the Unionof England and Scotland in 1603 under one crown, by the accession ofJames VI. Of Scotland to the throne of England on the death of Elizabeth;(2) the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, under one Parliamentseated at Westminster, into the United Kingdom of Great Britain; and (3)to the Union of the United Kingdom of Great Britain to Ireland in 1801, when the Irish Parliament was abolished, and was represented, as it stillis, in the Imperial. 

UNION JACK, originally the flag of Great Britain, on which thecrosses of St. George and St. Andrew are blended, with which certainwhite streaks were blended or fimbriated after the Union with Ireland. 

UNIONISTS, name given to the Liberal party opposed to Mr. Gladstone's measure to grant Home Rule to Ireland. 

UNITARIANS, a designation applicable to all monotheists in religion, including Jews and Mohammedans, but generally and more specially appliedto those who deny the Church doctrine of the Trinity, and in particularthe divinity of Christ, and who have at different times and in differentcountries assumed an attitude, both within the pale of the Church andoutside of it, of protestation against the opposite orthodox creed in theinterests of rationalistic belief; the name is also employed inphilosophy to designate those who resolve the manifold of being into theoperation of some single principle. 

UNITED BRETHREN, name given to the MORAVIANS (q. V. ). 

UNITED PRESBYTERIANS, a body of Presbyterians in Scotland whodissent from the Established Church on chiefly ecclesiastical grounds, and had their origin in union in 1847 of the Secession Church of 1733with the Relief Church of 1752, bodies previously in dissent as well. Afurther union of the United Presbyterian body with the Free Church is toall appearance about to be consummated. 

UNITED PROVINCES. See HOLLAND. 

UNITED STATES (62, 622), the great Western republic; occupies an areanearly as large as all Europe, bounded on the N. By the Dominion ofCanada, on the E. By the Atlantic, on the S. By Mexico and the Gulf, andon the W. By the Pacific, extending 2700 m. From E. To W. , and on anaverage 1600 m. From N. To S. ; on the coasts are few capes, inlets, andislands, except on that of New England; there are two great mountainsystems, the Appalachians on the E. And the Rockies, the Cascade ranges, &c. , on the W. , which divide the territory into four regions--an eastern, which slopes from the Appalachians to the Atlantic, a manufacturingregion; a central, which slopes S. , formed by the Mississippi Valley, anagricultural and pastoral region; a plateau supported by the Rocky andCascade ranges, a metalliferous region; and a territory with the valleyof the Sacramento, which slopes to the Pacific, of varied resources. Thegreat rivers are in the Mississippi Valley, as also the two largestlakes, the Michigan and Great Salt Lake, though there are importantrivers both for navigation and water-power on the Atlantic and Pacificslopes. The climate is of every variety, from sub-arctic to sub-tropic, with extremes both as regards temperature and moisture, in consequence ofwhich the vegetation is varied. The mineral wealth is immense, andincludes, besides large beds of coal, all the useful metals. Theindustries, too, are manifold, and embrace manufactures of all kinds, with agriculture, grazing, mining, and fishing, while commerce isprosecuted with an activity that defies all rivalry, the facilities inrailway and waterway being such as no other country can boast of, forthere are over 182, 000 miles of railway, not to mention street railwaysand traction lines, with telegraphic and telephonic communication. Thepopulation is mostly of British and German descent, with eight millionnegroes, who are all English-spoken. The Government is a federal republicof 45 States; the legislature consists of two Houses--a Senaterepresenting the States, each one sending two members, and a House ofRepresentatives representing the people, every citizen over 21 having avote, and every 170, 000 voters having a representative--the head of theGovernment being the President, elected for a term of four years, andcommander-in-chief of both army and navy. Religious equality prevailsthrough all the States, though the Protestant section of the Church is inthe ascendant, and education is free and general, though backward insome of the former slave-holding States, the cost being met by State orlocal funds, supplemented by the Federal Government. 

UNITED STATES, PRESIDENTS OF, George Washington (1789-1797); JohnAdams (1797-1801); Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809); James Maddison(1809-1817); James Munroe (1817-1825); John Quincy Adams (1825-1829);Andrew Jackson (1829-1837); Martin Van Buren (1837-1841); John Tyler(1841-1845); John K. Polk (1845-1849); Zachary Taylor (1849-1850);Millard Fillmore (1850-1853); Franklin Pierce (1853-1857); James Buchanan(1857-1861); Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865); Andrew Johnson (1865-1869);Ulysses D. Grant (1869-1877); Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881); James A. Garfield (1881); Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885); Grover Cleveland(1885-1889); Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893); Grover Cleveland (1893-1897);William McKinley (1897-1901); Theodore Roosevelt (1901). 

UNITIES, THREE, name given to the rule laid down by Aristotle that atragedy should be limited to one subject, to one place, and a single day. 

UNIVERSALISTS, a body of Christians who profess to believe in thefinal restoration of all the fallen, angels as well as men; a bodychiefly of American growth, having an ecclesiastical organisation, andembracing a membership of 40, 000; there are many of them Unitarians, andall are more or less Pelagian in their views of sin. 

UNKNOWN, THE GREAT, name given to Sir Walter Scott from withholdinghis name in publishing the Waverley novels. 

UNTERWALDEN (27), a canton of Switzerland S. And E. Of Lucerne, consisting of two parallel valleys 15 m. Long running N. And S. ; anentirely pastoral country, and exports articles of husbandry. 

UNYANYEMBE, a district of German East Africa, with a town of thename, with a settlement of Arabs who cultivate the soil, the fruits ofwhich they export. 

UNYORO (1, 500), a native State of Central Africa, between LakeAlbert Nyanza and the territory of Uganda. 

UPAN`ISHADS (Instructions), a voluminous heterogeneous collection oftreatises connected with the Vedas, and the chief source of our knowledgeof the early metaphysical speculations and ethical doctrines of theHindus; they are to a great extent apocryphal, and are posterior to therise of Buddhism. 

UPAS TREE, a poison-yielding-tree, at one time fabled to exhale suchpoison that it was destructive to all animal and vegetable life for milesround it. 

UPOLU (16), the principal island in the SAMOAN GROUP (q. V. ), is 140 m. In circumference, and rises in verdure-clad terraces froma belt of low land on the shore, with Apia, the capital of the group, onthe N. Border. 

UPPINGHAM, market-town in Rutland, with a famous public school. 

UPSALA (21), the ancient capital of Sweden, on the Sala, 21 m. NW. Of Stockholm, the seat of the Primate, and of a famous university with1900 students, and a library of 250, 000 volumes; its cathedral, built ofbrick in the Gothic style, is the largest in Sweden, contains the tombsof Linnæus and of Gustavus Vasa. 

URAL, a river of Russia, which rises in the E. Of the Urals andforms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia, and falls after acourse of 870 m. By a number of mouths into the Caspian Sea. 

URALS, THE, a range of mountains rich in precious as well as usefulmetals, extending from the Arctic Sea to the Sea of Aral, and separatingEuropean from Asiatic Russia, and is 1330 m. In length, 60 m. In breadth, and 3000 ft. In average height. 

URALSK (26), a town, a Cossack centre, on the Ural River, 280 m. From the Caspian Sea, and a place of considerable trade. 

URANIA, the muse of astronomy, is represented with a globe in herhand, to which she points with a small rod. 

URANUS, a planet, the outermost but one of the solar system, is 1770millions of miles from the sun, takes 30, 686 of our days, or 84 of ouryears, to revolve round it, has four times the diameter of the earth, andis accompanied by four moons; it was discovered in 1781 by Herschel, andcalled by him Georgium Sidus in honour of George III. 

URANUS (Heaven), in the Greek mythology the son of Gaia (the Earth), and by her the father of the Titans; he hated his children, and at birththrust them down to Tartarus, to the grief of Gaia, at whose instigationKronos, the youngest born, unmanned him, and seized the throne of theUniverse, to be himself supplanted in turn by his son Zeus. 

URBAN, the name of eight popes: URBAN I. , Pope from 223 to 230;URBAN II. , Pope from 1088 to 1099, warm promoter of the firstCrusade; URBAN III. , pope from 1185 to 1187; URBAN IV. , Popefrom 1261 to 1264; URBAN V. , Pope from 1362 to 1370, man of anascetic temper; URBAN VI. , Pope from 1378 to 1389, in his reign theschism in the papacy began which lasted 40 years; URBAN VII. , Popein 1590; and URBAN VIII. , Pope from 1623 to 1644, founded theCollege de Propaganda Fide. 

URBINO, an ancient town of Central Italy, 20 m. SW. Of Pesaro; wasonce the capital of a duchy; is the seat of an archbishop, and was thebirthplace of Raphael. 

URI (17), a Swiss canton N. Of Unterwalden; is almost entirelypastoral; is overlooked by Mount St. Gothard; Altdorf is the capital. 

URIM AND THUMMIM, two ornaments attached to the breastplate of theJewish high-priest which, when consulted by him, at times gavemysteriously oracular responses. 

URQUHART, SIR THOMAS, of Cromarty, a cavalier and supporter ofCharles I. , and a great enemy of the Covenanters in Scotland; travelledmuch, and acquired a mass of miscellaneous knowledge, which he was fainto display and did display in a most pedantic style; posed as aphilologist and a mathematician, but executed one classical work, atranslation of Rabelais; is said to have died in a fit of laughter at thenews of the restoration of Charles II. (1605-1660). 

URSA MAJOR, the Greater Bear, a well-known constellation in thenorthern hemisphere, called also the Plough, the Wagon, or Charles'sWain, consists of seven bright stars, among others three of which areknown as the "handle" of the Plough, and two as the pointers, so calledas pointing to the pole-star. 

URSA MINOR, the Lesser Bear, an inconspicuous constellation, thepole-star forming the tip of the tail. 

URSULA, ST. , virgin saint and martyr, daughter of a British king;sought in marriage by a heathen prince, whom she accepted on conditionthat he became a Christian and that he would wait three years till sheand her 11, 000 maidens accomplished a pilgrimage to Rome; this pilgrimagebeing accomplished, on their return to Cologne they were set upon and allsave her slain by a horde of Huns, who reserved her as a bride to Etzel, their king, on the refusal of whose hand she was transfixed by an arrow, and thereby set free from all earthly bonds; is very often representedin art with arrows in her hands, and sometimes with a mantle and a groupof small figures under it, her martyred sisters. 

URSULINES, an order of nuns founded in 1537 by St. Angela Merici ofBrescia in honour of St. Ursula, devoted to the nursing of the sick andthe instruction of the young, and now established in homes in differentcities of both Europe and North America. 

URUGUAY (730), the smallest State in South America and a republic, formerly called Banda Oriental; lies between the Atlantic and the UruguayRiver, and is bounded on the S. By the estuary of the Plata; it covers anarea of over 70, 000 sq. M. , and is little more than one-third the size ofFrance; the mineral wealth is abundant, but little has been done toexploit it; the cultivation of the soil is only begun, and the land ismostly given over to pasture, cattle-rearing and sheep-farming being thechief industries, and the chief products and exports being hides, wool, preserved meats, and similar articles of commerce. The people are mostlynatives of mixed race, with some 30 per cent. Of Europeans; primaryeducation is compulsory; there are numerous schools, and a university, and though the established religion is Roman Catholic, all others aretolerated. Montevideo is the capital. 

URUMIYA (32), a town in Persia, near a lake of the name, SW. Of theCaspian Sea, the seat of a Nestorian bishop and the birthplace ofZoroaster. 

USEDOM (33), island belonging to Prussia, at the mouth of the Oder, with Schwinemünde on the N. 

USHANT, island off the W. Coast of France, in department ofFinisterre, where Howe gained a signal victory over the French in 1794. 

USHER, JAMES, Irish episcopal prelate, born in Dublin of goodparentage, educated at Trinity College, Dublin; took orders and devotedyears to the study of the Fathers of the Church; was in 1607 appointedprofessor of Divinity in his Alma Mater, in 1620 bishop of Meath, and in1621 archbishop of Armagh; in 1640 he went to England, and during therebellion next year his house was broken into and plundered, after whichhe settled in London and was eight years preacher at Lincoln's Inn;adhered to the royal cause, but was favoured by Cromwell, and by himhonoured with burial in Westminster; he was a most saintly man, evangelical in his teaching, and wrote a number of learned works(1581-1656). 

UTAH (207), a territory on the western plateau of the United States, W. Of Colorado, traversed by the Wahsatch range, at the foot of whichlies the Great Salt Lake, is in extent nearly three times as large asScotland, and occupied by a population four-fifths of which are Mormons, a territory rich in mines of the precious and useful metals as well ascoal; originally wholly a desert waste, but now transformed where thesoil has admitted of it, into a fruit-bearing region. SALT LAKECITY (q. V. ) is the capital. 

UTAKAMAND, the summer capital of the Presidency of Madras, India, onthe Nilgherries, 7000 ft. Above the sea-level, and where the temperaturein summer is as low as 60°. 

UTGARD (out-yard), in the Norse mythology a place or circle of rockson the extreme borders of the world, the abode of the giants, the same asJötunheim. 

UTICA, an ancient city of North Africa, founded by the Phoenicianson a site 20 m. NW. Of Carthage; was in alliance with Carthage during thefirst and second Punic Wars, but took part with the Romans in the third, and became afterwards the capital of the Roman province. 

UTICA (56), a city in New York State, U. S. , 232 m. NW. Of New YorkCity; is on the Erie Canal, in the heart of a dairy-farming district; hasa noted market for cheese, and has various manufactures. 

UTILITARIANISM, the theory which makes happiness the end of life andthe test of virtue, and maintains that "actions are right in proportionas they tend to promote happiness, and wrong as they tend to produce thereverse, " a theory characterised by Carlyle, who is never weary ofdenouncing it, as "reducing the infinite celestial soul of man to a kindof hay-balance for weighing hay and thistles on, pleasures and pains on. "The great apostle of this theory was John Stuart Mill, and the greatfather of it Jeremy Bentham. 

UTOPIA (Nowhere), an imaginary island described by Sir Thomas More, and represented as possessing a perfect political organisation, and whichhas given name to all schemes which aim at the like impossibleperfection, though often applied to such as are not so much impossible inthemselves as impracticable for want of the due individual virtue andcourage to realise them. 

UTRAQUISTS (i. E. Both kinders), followers of Huss who maintainedthat the Eucharist should be administered to the people in both kinds, both bread and wine. 

UTRECHT (60), an old town, the capital of a province of the name(224), in Holland, on the Old Rhine, 23 m. SE. Of Amsterdam; it isfortified by strong forts, and the old walls have been levelled intobeautiful promenades; has a number of fine buildings, a Gothic cathedral, St. Martin's, a famous university with 700 students, and a library of160, 000 volumes, besides a town-hall and the "Pope's house" (Pope AdrianVI. , who was born here), &c. ; manufactures iron goods, textiles, machinery, &c. , and trades in butter and cheese; here in 1713 the treatywas signed which closed the Spanish Succession War. Is the name also of aS. Province of the Transvaal. 

UTTOXETER, market-town of Staffordshire, 14 m. NE. Of Stafford; hassundry manufactures and brewing; here Dr. Johnson did public penance, with head uncovered, as a man, for want of filial duty when, as a boy, herefused to keep his father's bookstall in the market-place when he wasill. 

UXBRIDGE, town of Middlesex, 16 m. W. Of London; has two finechurches, and a large corn-market. 

UZBEGS, a race of Tartar descent and Mohammedan creed, dominant inTurkestan, the governing class in Khiva, Bokhara, and Khokand especially;territory now annexed to Russia. 

V

VAAL, a river of South Africa, which rises in the DrakenbergMountains, separates the Free State from the Transvaal, and after acourse of 500 m. In a SW. Direction joins the Nu Gariep to form theOrange River. 

VACCINATION. Inoculation with the matter of cowpox as a protectionagainst smallpox, was introduced 1796-98 by EDWARD JENNER (q. V. ), and at length adopted by the faculty after much opposition on thepart of both medical men and the public. 

VAIGATZ, an island in the Arctic Ocean, 67 m. Long by 26 m. Broad, the "Holy Island" of the SAMOYEDES (q. V. ), an abode of furredanimals, seals, &c. 

VAISHNAVAS, in India, name given to the worshippers of Vishnu. 

VAISYAS. See CASTE. 

VALAIS, a Swiss canton, between Berne on the N. And Italy on the S. , in a wide valley of the Rhône, and shut in by lofty mountains;cattle-rearing is the chief industry. 

VALDAI HILLS, a plateau rising to the height of 1100 ft. Above thesea-level in Russia, forming the only elevation in the Great EuropeanPlain. 

VALENCIA (180), a city of Spain, once the capital of a kingdom, nowof a fertile province of the name; is situated on the shores of theMediterranean, 3 m. From the mouth of the Guadalaviar, in the midst of adistrict called the Huerta, which is watered by the river, and growsoranges, citron, almond, mulberry-trees in richest luxuriance, the fruitsof which it exports; is an archbishop's see, and contains a large Gothiccathedral, a picture gallery, and a university with a large library; hassilk, cloth, leather, cigar, floor-tile manufactures, and exports grainand silk besides fruits. 

VALENCIA (40), a city of Venezuela, in a rich district, on a lake ofthe same name; large numbers of cattle, horses, and mules are reared inthe neighbourhood. 

VALENCIENNES (24), an ancient fortified city in the dep. Nord, France, on the Scheldt, 32 m. SE. Of Lille, with a citadel planned byVauban, a fine town-hall, and a modern Gothic church and other buildings;has textile manufactures, besides iron-works, and was once famous for itslace. 

VALENS, FLAVIUS, Emperor of the East from 364 to 378; nominated byhis brother Valentinian I. Emperor of the West; was harassed all hisreign by the Goths, who had been allowed to settle in the empire, andwhom he drove into revolt, to the defeat of his army in 378, in a battlein which he was himself slain; the controversy between the orthodox andthe Arians was at its height in this reign, and to the latter party bothhe and his victors belonged; _b_. 328. 

VALENTIA, an island in co. Kerry, Ireland, is the European terminusof the Atlantic telegraph system. 

VALENTINE, BASIL, a German alchemist of the 15th century, is said tohave been a Benedictine monk at Erfurt, and is reckoned the father ofanalytical chemistry. 

VALENTINE'S DAY, the 14th of February, on which young people of bothsexes were wont (the custom seems gradually dying out) to sendlove-missives to one another; it is uncertain who the Valentine was thatis associated with the day, or whether it was with any of the name. 

VALENTINIAN I. , Roman emperor from 364 to 375, born in Pannonia, ofhumble birth; distinguished himself by his capacity and valour; waselected emperor by the troops at Nicæa; his reign was spent in repellingthe inroads of the barbarians. 

VALENTINIANS, a Gnostic sect, called after their leader Valentine, anative of Egypt of the 2nd century, regarded heathenism as preparatory toChristianity, and Christ as the full and final development in human formof a series of fifteen stages of emanation from the infinite divine tothe finite divine in Him "the fulness of Him that filleth all in all, "each stage in the process achieved by the union of a male element with afemale, that is, a conceptive and a susceptive. 

VALERIANUS, LUCINIUS, Roman emperor from 253 to 260, elected by thelegions in Rhætia; the empire being assailed on all hands he set out todefend it on the E. ; was defeated at Edessa, taken prisoner, and cruellytreated; when he died his skin, it is said, was stuffed and paraded as atrophy. 

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman writer of the age of Tiberius, whocompiled a collection of the sayings and doings of notable Romans; it isof very miscellaneous character, and is written in a bombastic style, anddedicated to the emperor. 

VALETTA (62), a fortress city, the capital of Malta, on a promontoryon the NE. Coast of the island, between two bays; the streets are steep, and the harbour is strongly fortified; it contains several finebuildings, a cathedral, the palace of the Grand-Masters of the KnightsTemplar, and the hospital of St. John; there is also a university and alarge public library. 

VALETTE, JEAN PARISOT DE LA, grand-master of the order of St. John, famous for his military exploits and for his defence of Malta against theTurks in 1565 (1494-1565). 

VALHALLA, Hall of Odin, the heaven of the brave in the Norsemythology, especially such as gave evidence of their valour by dying inbattle, the "base and slavish" being sent to the realm of Hela, theDeath-Goddess. 

VALKYRS, in the Norse mythology daughters of Odin, who selected suchas were worthy to be slain in battle, and who conducted them toVALHALLA (q. V. ). 

VALLA, LAURENCE, a learned humanist, born in Rome, and a valiantdefender of the claims of scholarship; was a distinguished Latinist(1405-1457). 

VALLADOLID (62), a famous city of Spain, the capital of old Castile, and now of a province of the name, 150 m. N. Of Madrid; is a fortresstown; is the seat of an archbishop; has a university and a number ofchurches; manufactures textile fabrics, iron, and leather. 

VALLOMBROSA (shady valley), a Benedictine abbey 15 m. E. OfFlorence, in a valley of the Apennines, surrounded by forests of beech, firs, &c. ; is a classic spot. 

VALMY, a village of France, 20 m. NE. Of Châlons, where thePrussians, under the Duke of Brunswick, were defeated by the troops ofthe French Republic under Kellermann in 1792. 

VALOIS, an ancient duchy of France, which now forms part of thedepartments of Oise and Aisne, a succession of the counts of whichoccupied the throne of France, beginning with Philippe VI. In 1328 andending with Henry III. In 1574. 

VALPARAISO (Vale of Paradise) (150), the second city and chief portin Chile, over 100 m. NW. Of Santiago, at the head of a bay which looksN. , and where the anchorage is dangerous; is quite a commercial city;exports ores, nitre, wheat, hides, &c. , the business affairs of which arelargely in the hands of foreigners, chiefly English, American, andGermans; it has been on various occasions visited by severe earthquakes;was bombarded by a Spanish fleet in 1866 and suffered in the Civil War of1891. 

VAMBÉRY, ARMINIUS, traveller and philologist, born in Hungary, ofpoor Jewish parentage; apprenticed to a costumier; took to the study oflanguages; expelled from Pesth as a revolutionary in 1848, settled inConstantinople as a teacher, travelled as a dervish in Turkestan andelsewhere, and wrote "Travels and Adventures in Central Asia, " a mostvaluable and notable work; _b_. 1832. 

VAMPIRE, the ghost of a dead person accursed, fabled to issue fromthe grave at night and suck the blood of the living as they sleep, thevictims of whom are subject to the same fate; the belief is of Slavonicorigin, and common among the Slavs. 

VAN (35), a town in the Kurdistan Highlands, on the SE. Shore ofLake Van, and 145 m. SE. Of Erzerum; inhabited by Turks and Armenians. 

VAN BUREN, MARTIN, the eighth President of the United States, bornin New York; devoted from early years to politics, and early made hismark; elected President in 1835, an office which he adorned with honour, though to the sacrifice of his popularity (1782-1862). 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. See TASMANIA. 

VANADIUM, a metallic silver-white elementary body of rareoccurrence, and occurring in very small quantities; discovered first in1801 by Del Rio. 

VANBRUGH, SIR JOHN, dramatist, of uncertain birth; his dramasadaptations from the French of Molière and others; had been a soldier;was Clarencieux King-at-Arms, and is noted as an architect; _d_. 1726. 

VANCOUVER ISLAND (30), a rugged-coasted island on the W. Of NorthAmerica; belongs to British Columbia; is separated from it by a strait ofthe sea; is 278 m. Long and 50 to 65 m. Of average breadth; is coveredwith forests, and only partially cultivated; is rich in minerals, and hasextensive fisheries. 

VANDALS, a fierce nation of the Teutonic race, who, from the NE. OfEurope, invaded Rome on the E. , mutilating and destroying the works ofart in the city. 

VANDERBILT, CORNELIUS, American millionaire, born on Staten Island;began life as a ferryman, acquired his fortune by enterprise in steamshipnavigation, and speculating in railway extensions (1794-1877). 

VANDEVELDT, WILLIAM, the Elder, marine painter, born at Leyden;painted sea-fights; was patronised by Charles II. And James II. (1611-1693). 

VANDEVELDT, WILLIAM, the Younger, marine painter, son of preceding;patronised likewise by Charles II. (1633-1707). 

VANDYCK, SIR ANTHONY, great portrait-painter, born in Antwerp;studied under Rubens, whose favourite pupil he was; visited Italy, anddevoted himself to the study of the great masters; on his return toAntwerp painted "Christ Crucified between Two Thieves"; came to Englandin 1632, and was patronised by Charles I. ; was knighted, and made courtpainter; painted the royal family, the king, queen, and their twochildren, and during the next eight years executed portraits of all thecourt people; his portraits are very numerous, and the most celebratedare in England; died at Blackfriars, and was buried in St. Paul's(1599-1641). 

VANE, SIR HENRY, a notability of the Civil War period in England;was a Puritan of the republican type, born in Kent; studied at Oxford;emigrated for a time to New England, but returned, entered Parliament, took an active part against the Royalists, withstood Cromwell, and wasopenly rebuked by him; his opposition to the Protectorate led to hisimprisonment for a time; at the Restoration he was arrested and beheadedon Tower Hill (1612-1662). 

VAR (288), a department in the SE. Of France; is in partmountainous, with fertile valleys; yields wine, tobacco, and variousfruits. 

VARENNES, a small town near Verdun, in France, where in 1791 LouisXVI. Was intercepted in his attempt to escape from France. 

VARNA (25), a port of Bulgaria, on a bay in the Black Sea; a placeof considerable trade, specially in exporting corn; here the French andEnglish allied forces encamped for four months in 1854 prior to theirinvasion of the Crimea. 

VARNHAGEN, VON ENSE, German memoir writer, and excellent in thatdepartment; a man of many vicissitudes; memorable chiefly as the editorof his wife's letters. See RAHEL. 

VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS, "the most learned of the Romans, " wrote anumber of works both in prose and verse, of which only fragments remain, but enough to prove the greatness of the loss; was the friend of Pompey, then Cæsar, then Cicero, but survived the strife of the time and spenthis leisure afterwards in literary labours (116-27 B. C. ). 

VARUNA, in the Hindu mythology the god of the luminous heavens, viewed as embracing all things and as the primary source of all life andevery blessing. "In connection with no other god, " says M. Barth, "is thesense of the divine majesty and of the absolute dependence of thecreature expressed with the same force. We must go to the Psalms to findsimilar accents of adoration and supplication. " He was the prototype ofthe Greek Uranus, the primeval father of gods and men. 

VARUS, PUBLIUS QUINTILIUS, Roman consul, appointed by Augustusgovernor of Germany; being attacked by Arminius and overpowered with lossof three Roman legions under his command, he committed suicide; when thenews of the disaster reached Rome Augustus was overwhelmed with grief, and in a paroxysm of despair called upon the dead man to restore him hislegions. 

VASARI, GIORGIO, Italian painter and architect, born in Arezzo; wasthe author of biographies of Italian artists, and it is on these, withthe criticism they contain, that his title to fame rests (1511-1574). 

VASSAR COLLEGE, a college 2 m. E. Of Poughkeepsie, New York, foundedby Matthew Vassar, a wealthy brewer, in 1861 for the higher education ofwomen. 

VATHEC, an Oriental potentate and libertine, guilty of all sorts ofcrimes, and hero of a novel of the name by WILLIAM BECKFORD (q. V. ). 

VATICAN, THE, the palace of the Pope in Rome and one of the largestin the world; contains a valuable collection of works of art, and is oneof the chief attractions in the city; it is a storehouse of literarytreasures as well and documents of interest bearing on the history of theMiddle Ages. 

VATICAN COUNCIL, a Church council attended by 764 ecclesiasticsunder the auspices of Pius IX. , which assembled on December 8, 1869, andby a majority of nearly 481 decreed the doctrine of Papal Infallibility. 

VAUBAN, SEBASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE, marshal of France in the reign ofLouis XIV. ; military engineering was his great forte, and as such he"conducted 53 sieges, was present at 104 battles, erected 33 fortresses, and restored the works of 300 old ones"; he was originally in the serviceof Spain, and was enlisted in the French service by Cardinal Mazarin; hewas a political economist as well as engineer, but his animadversionsonly procured for him the royal disfavour (1633-1707). 

VAUCLUSE (valley shut in) (235), department in the SE. Of France;chief industries agriculture, silk-weaving, pottery, &c. , and with avillage of the name, 19 m. E. Of Avignon, famous for its fountain and asthe retreat of Petrarch for 16 years. 

VAUD (247), a canton in the W. Of Switzerland, between Jura and theBernese Alps; is well cultivated, yields wines, and its inhabitantsProtestants; the capital is Lausanne. 

VAUDEVILLE, a light, lively song with topical allusions; also adramatic poem interspersed with comic songs of the kind and dances. 

VAUDOIS, the name given to Waldenses who, driven forth from Franceor Vaud, found refuge and settled down in the mountain fastnesses ofPiedmont. 

VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN, English clergyman, born at Leicester; was apupil of Dr. Arnold's at Rugby; for many years famous as Master of theTemple, a post he resigned in 1894; held in high esteem as a preacher andfor his fine spirit (1816-1897). 

VAUGHAN, HENRY, English poet, self-styled the "Silurist" from theseat of his family in South Wales; studied at Oxford, was a partisan ofthe royal cause; wrote four volumes of poems in the vein of GeorgeHerbert, but was much more mystical and had deeper thoughts, could hehave expressed them; of his poems the first place has been assigned to"Silex Scintillans, " the theme the flinty heart when smelted giving outsparks. "At times, " adds Prof. Saintsbury, "there is in him genuine bloodand fire; but it is not always, or even often, that the flint is kindledand melted to achieved expression" (1622-1695). 

VAUGHAN, HERBERT, CARDINAL, archbishop of Westminster, born atGloucester, son of Lieut. -Colonel Vaughan; educated at Stonyhurst andabroad; succeeded Cardinal Manning as archbishop in 1872, havingpreviously been bishop of Salford; _b_. 1832. 

VAUVENARGUES, MARQUIS DE, celebrated French essayist, born at Aix, Provence, poor, but of an old and honourable family; entered the army at18, served in the Austrian Succession War, resigned his commission in1744, settled in Paris and took to literature; his principal work was"Introduction à la Connaissance de l'Esprit Humain, " followed byreflections and maxims on points of ethics and criticism; he sufferedfrom bad health, and his life was a short one (1715-1747). 

VEDANGA, one of the six commentaries on the Vedas. 

VEDÂNTA, a system of Hindu speculation in interpretation of theVedas, founded on the pre-supposition of the identity of the spiritualworking at the heart of things and the spiritual working in the heart ofman. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindus, of sacerdotal origin andancient date, of which there are four collections, severally denominatedthe Rig-Veda, the Atharva-Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, to each ofwhich are attached Brahmanas in elucidation. 

VEDDAS, the aborigines of Ceylon, of whom some 2000, still in a wildstate, are extant between Kandy and the E. Coast. 

VEGA, LOPEZ DE LA, known as Lope, Spanish dramatist, born in Madrid;began life as a soldier; served in the Armada; was secretary to the Dukeof Alva; took orders, and became an officer of the Inquisition; wrote aheroic pastoral entitled "Arcadia" at the instance of the duke, and the"Dragonica" over the death of Drake as the destroyer of the supremacy ofSpain on the sea; was a man of fertile inventiveness, and is said to havewritten 2000 plays, besides no end of verses, and was called by Cervantesa "Prodigy of Nature" (1562-1635). 

VEHMGERICHTE or FEHMGERICHT, a tribunal in Germany during theMiddle Ages, of which there were several, all powerful, in connectionwith a secret organisation under sanction of the emperor for theenforcement of justice and punishment of crime at a period when theStates severally were too weak to uphold it. These courts were held insecret places at night, and inspired great terror in the 13th and 14thcenturies. 

VEII, an ancient city of Etruria, and in early times a formidablerival of Rome, from which it was only 12 m. Distant. The Romans underCamillus laid siege to it, and it baffled them for 10 years. 

VEIT, PHILIPP, painter of the Romanticist school, born at Berlin;his best-known work is a fresco, "Christianity bringing the Fine Arts toGermany. "

VELASQUEZ, DIEGO DE SILVA, greatest of Spanish painters, born atSeville, of Portuguese family; studied under FRANCISCO HERRERA(q. V. ), who taught him to teach himself, so that but for the hint hewas a self-taught artist, and simply painted what he saw and as he sawit; portrait-painting was his forte, one of his earliest being a portraitof Olivarez, succeeded by one of Philip IV. Of Spain, considered the mostperfect extant, and by others of members of the royal family; specimensof his work are found in different countries, but the best are in Spain, in Madrid, and they include sacred subjects, genre, landscape, and animalpaintings, as well as portraits (1599-1660). 

VENDÉE, LA (442), a dep. Of France, on the Bay of Biscay, S. OfLoire-Inférieure; marshy on the W. , wooded on the N. , and with an openfertile tract in the middle and S. ; it is famous as the seat of astubborn resistance to the Revolution, and for the bloody violence withwhich it was suppressed. 

VENDÉMIAIRE (vintage month), the first month of the FrenchRevolution year, from 22nd September to 21st October. 

VENDETTA, the practice which existed in Corsica and Sicily on thepart of individuals of exacting vengeance for the murder of a relative onthe murderer or one of his relations. 

VENDÔME, LOUISE JOSEPH, DUC DE, French general, born at Paris, great-grandson of Henry IV. ; served in the wars of Louis XIV. , and gainedseveral victories; was defeated by Marlborough and Prince Eugene atOudenarde in 1708, but by his victory at Villaviciosa contributed to therestoration of Philip V. To the Spanish throne in 1711; was a man ofgross sensuality, and has been pilloried by Saint Simon for theexecration of all mankind (1654-1712). 

VENEZUELA (2, 323), a federal republic in South America, founded in1830, over three times as large as Spain, consisting of nine States andseveral territories; composed of mountain and valley, and in great partof llanos, within the basin of the Orinoco; between the Caribbean Sea, Colombo, Brazil, and British Guiana, and containing a population ofIndian, Spanish, and Negro descent; on the llanos large herds of horsesand cattle are reared; the agricultural products are sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, &c. ; the forests yield mahogany, ebony, and dye-wood, while the mines yield iron, copper, &c. , and there are extensivegold-fields, considered the richest in the world; the boundary linebetween the British colony and Venezuela was for long matter of keendispute, but by the intervention of the United States at the request ofthe latter a treaty between the contending parties was concluded, referring the matter to a court of arbitration, which met at Paris in1895, and settled it in 1899, in vindication, happily, of the Britishclaim, the Schomburgk line being now declared to be the true line, andthe gold-fields ours. 

VENGEUR, LE, a war-vessel of the French fabled to have gone downrather than surrender to the English in a battle off Ushant on 1st June1794, the crew shouting "Vive la République, " when it was really a cryfor help. 

VENICE, a city of Italy, in a province of the same name, at the headof the Adriatic, in a shallow lagoon dotted with some eighty islets, andbuilt on piles partly of wood and partly of stone, the streets of whichare canals traversed by gondolas and crossed here and there by bridges;the city dates from the year 432, when the islands were a place of refugefrom the attacks of the Huns, and took shape as an independent State withmagistrates of its own about 687, to assume at length the form of arepublic and become "Queen of the Adriatic Sea, " the doge, or chiefmagistrate, ranking as one of the sovereign powers of the Western world;from its situation it became in the 10th century a great centre of tradewith the East, and continued to be till the discovery of the route roundthe Cape, after which it began to decline, till it fell eventually underthe yoke of Austria, from which it was wrested in 1866, and is now partof the modern kingdom of Italy, with much still to show of what it was inits palmy days, and indications of a measure of recovery from itsdown-trodden state; for an interesting and significant sketch in brief ofits rise and fall see the "SHADOW ON THE DIAL" in Ruskin's "St. Mark's Rest. "

VENTNOR, a town and favourite watering-place on the S. Shore of theIsle of Wight, with a fine beach; much resorted to in winter from itswarm Southern exposure. 

VENUS, the Roman goddess of love, of wedded love, and of beauty(originally of the spring), and at length identified with the GreekAPHRODITÉ (q. V. ); she was regarded as the tutelary goddess ofRome, and had a temple to her honour in the Forum. 

VENUS, an interior planet of the solar system, revolving in an orbitoutside that of Mercury and within that of the earth, nearly as large asthe latter; is 67 millions of miles from the sun, round which it revolvesin 224 days, while it takes 23¼ hours to rotate on its own axis; it isthe brightest of the heavenly bodies, and appears in the sky now as themorning star, now as the evening star, according as it rises before thesun or sets after it, so that it is always seen either in the E. Or theW. ; when right between us and the sun it is seen moving as a black spoton the sun's disk, a phenomenon known as "Transit of Venus, " the lastinstance of which occurred in 1882, and that will not occur again tillafter 105½ years. 

VERA CRUZ (24), a chief seaport of Mexico, on the Gulf of Mexico, 263 m. SE. Of the capital; is regularly built and strongly fortified, butis unhealthily situated, and the yellow and other fevers prevail; tradeis chiefly in the hands of foreigners; exports ores, cochineal, indigo, dye-woods, &c. 

VERDI, GIUSEPPE, Italian composer, born at Roncole, Parma; hismusical talent was slow of recognition, but the appearance of his"Lombardi" and "Ernani" in 1843-44 established his repute, which wasconfirmed by "Rigoletto" in 1851 and "Il Trovatore" and "La Traviata" in1853; _b_. 1813. 

VERDUN (18), a strongly fortified town in the department of Meuse, 35 m. W. Of Metz; capitulated to the Germans in 1870 after a siege of sixweeks. 

VERESTCHAGIN, Russian painter, is realistic to an extreme degree andanti-conventional; _b_. 1842. 

VERGIL, POLYDORE, historian and miscellaneous writer, born atUrbino; was a friend and correspondent of Erasmus; was sent to England bythe Pope as deputy-collector of Peter's pence, and was there promoted toecclesiastical preferments; wrote in Latin an able and painstakinghistory of England, bringing it down to the year 1538 (1470-1555). 

VERIGNIAUD, an eloquent orator of the French Revolution; a man ofindolent temper, but by his eloquence became leader of the Girondins;presided at the trial of the king, and pronounced the decision of thecourt--sentence of death, presided as well "at the Last Supper of hisparty, with wild coruscations of eloquence, with song and mirth, " and wasguillotined next day, the last of the lot (1753-1793). 

VERLAINE, PAUL, French poet, born in Metz; has written lyrics of aquite unique type (1844-1896). 

VERMONT (green mount) (332), an inland New England State, W. Of NewHampshire and a little larger in size, includes large tracts of bothpastoral and arable land; rears live-stock in great numbers, yieldscereals, and produces the best maple sugar in the States, and has largequarries of granite, marble, and slate. 

VERNE, JULES, French story-teller, born at Nantes, inventor andauthor of a popular series of semi-scientific novels; _b_. 1828. 

VERNET, CLAUDE, French marine-painter, born at Avignon; executedmore than 200 paintings, both landscape and sea pieces (1712-1789). CARLO, son of preceding, painter of battle-pieces, born at Bordeaux(1768-1833). HORACE, son of latter, born in Paris, distinguishedalso for his battle-pieces in flattery of French Chauvinism (1789-1863). 

VERNON, DI, the heroine in Sir Walter Scott's "Rob Roy, " anenthusiastic royalist, distinguished for her beauty and talents. 

VERONA (72), an old Italian town on the Adige, in Venetia, 62 m. W. Of Venice; is a fortress city and one of the famous Quadrilateral; hasmany interesting buildings and some Roman remains, in particular of anamphitheatre; has manufactures of silk, velvet, and woollen fabrics, andcarries on a large local trade. 

VERONESE, PAOLO, painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona, whence his name; studied under an uncle, painted his "Temptation of St. Anthony" for Mantua Cathedral, and settled in Venice in 1555, where hesoon earned distinction and formed one of a trio along with Titian andTintoretto; the subjects he treated were mostly scriptural, the mostcelebrated being the "Marriage Feast at Cana of Galilee, " now in theLouvre (1528-1588). 

VERONICA, ST. , according to legend a woman who met Christ on His wayto crucifixion and offered Him her veil to wipe the sweat off His face. See SUDARIUM. 

VERSAILLES (51), a handsome city of France, capital of thedepartment of Seine-et-Oise, 11 m. By rail SW. Of Paris, of which it isvirtually a suburb, and was during the monarchy, from Louis XIV. 's time, the seat of the French court; has a magnificent palace, with a galleryembracing a large collection of pictures; was occupied by the Germansduring the siege of Paris, and in one of its halls the Prussian king wasproclaimed emperor of Germany as William I. 

VERTUMNUS in Roman mythology the god of the seasons, wooed Pomonaunder a succession of disguises, and won her at last. 

VESPASIAN, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, Roman emperor (from 70 to 79)and tenth of the 12 Cæsars, born in the Sabine territory of humbleparentage; rose by his valour to high rank in the army and in favour withit, till at length he was elected by it to the throne; he had waged warsuccessfully in Germany, Britain, and at Jerusalem, and during hisreign, and nearly all through it, the temple of Janus was shut at Rome. 

VESPUCCI, AMERIGO, navigator, born at Florence; made two voyages toAmerica in 1499 and in 1501, and from him the two continents derivedtheir name, owing, it is said, to his first visit being misdated in anaccount he left, which made it appear that he had preceded Columbus(1451-1512). 

VESTA, the Roman goddess of the hearth, identified with the GreekHestia; was the guardian of domestic life and had a shrine in everyhousehold; had a temple in Rome in which a heaven-kindled fire was keptconstantly burning and guarded by first four then six virgins calledVestals, whose persons were held sacred as well as their office, sinceany laxity in its discharge might be disastrous to the city. 

VESTAL VIRGINS. See VESTA. 

VESUVIUS, a flattened conical mountain, 4161 ft. In height, and anactive volcano on the Bay of Naples, 10 m. SE. Of the city; it was byeruption of it that the two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii wereoverwhelmed in 79 A. D. ; its crater is half a mile in diameter, and has adepth of 350 ft. ; there are some 60 eruptions on record, the latest beingin 1891. 

VETURIA, a Roman matron, the mother of Coriolanus. 

VIA DOLOROSA, way leading from the Mount of Olives to Golgotha, which Christ traversed from the Agony in the Garden to the Cross. 

VIATICUM, name given to the Eucharist administered by a priest to aperson on the point of death. 

VICAR OF BRAY. See BRAY. 

VICAR OF CHRIST, title assumed by the Pope, who claims to be theVicegerent of Christ on earth. 

VICENZA (27), a town in the NE. Of Italy, in a province of the name, bordering on the Tyrol, 42 m. W. Of Venice; has fine palaces designed byPalladio, a native of the place; manufactures woollen and silk fabrics, and wooden wares; was a place of some importance under the Lombards. 

VICHY, a fashionable watering-place in Central France, on theAllier, at the foot of the volcanic mountains of Auvergne; has hotalkaline springs, much resorted to for their medicinal virtues. 

VICKSBURG (13), largest city on the Mississippi, on a bluff abovethe river, fortified by the Confederates in the Civil War; after a siegeof over a year surrendered to General Grant, 4th July 1864, with 30, 000men. 

VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian philosopher, born at Naples, wherehe was for 40 years professor of rhetoric; his great work "ScienzaNuova, " by which he became the father of the philosophy of history, whichhe resolved Calvinistically into a spiritual development of the purposeof God (1668-1744). 

VICTOR, CLAUDE PERRIN, marshal of France, served with distinctionall through the wars of Napoleon, and held command, not to his honour, under the Bourbons after his fall (1764-1841). 

VICTOR, ST. , the name of two martyrs, one of Marseilles and one ofMilan, distinguished for their zeal in overthrowing pagan altars. 

VICTOR EMMANUEL II. , king of Sardinia, and afterwards of unitedItaly, born in Turin, eldest son of Charles Albert; became king in 1849on the abdication of his father; distinguished himself in the war againstAustria, adding Austrian Lombardy and Tuscany to his dominions, and bythe help of Garibaldi, Naples and Sicily, till in 1861 he was proclaimedKing of Italy, and in 1870 he entered Rome as his capital city(1820-1878). 

VICTORIA (1, 140), a colony of Great Britain, the smallest and mostpopulous in Australia, lying S. Of New South Wales, from which it wasseparated in 1851; originally settled as Port Phillip in 1834, itdeveloped gradually as a pastoral and agricultural region till, in 1851, the discovery of gold led to an enormous increase in both the populationand the revenue, and the sudden rise of a community, with Melbourne forcentre, which, for wealth and enterprise, eclipsed every other in thesouthern hemisphere of the globe; the wealth thus introduced led to afurther development of its resources, and every industry began toflourish to a proportionate extent; the chief exports are wool, gold, live-stock, bread-stuffs, hides and leather, and the imports are no lessmanifold; the climate is remarkably healthy, and ice and snow are hardlyknown; there is no State religion; 75 per cent. Of the people areProtestants, 22 per cent. Catholics, and ½ per cent. Jews, and everyprovision is made for education in the shape of universities, Stateschools, technical schools and private schools, and the legislativeauthority is vested in a Parliament of two chambers, a LegislativeCouncil of 48, and a Legislative Assembly of 95. 

VICTORIA, ALEXANDRINA, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britainand Ireland and Empress of India, born at Kensington Palace, the onlychild of the Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. , who died in 1820, leaving her an infant eight months old; educated under the eye of hermother with special regard to her prospective destiny as Queen;proclaimed, on the death of William IV. , on 20th June 1837; crowned atWestminster 28th June 1838; married Prince Albert 10th February 1840; in1877 added "Empress of India" to her titles; during 1861 became a widowthrough the death of Prince Albert. Her reign was long and prosperous;1887 being celebrated as her "Jubilee" year, and 1897 as her "DiamondJubilee"; was the mother of four sons and five daughters; hadgrandchildren and great-grandchildren, William II. , Emperor of Germany, being a grandchild, and Nicholas II. , Czar of Russia, being married toanother; _b_. 1819; died at Osborne, Isle of Wight, Jan. 22, 1901. 

VICTORIA CROSS, a naval and military decoration in the shape of aMaltese cross, instituted by Queen Victoria in 1856 for conspicuousbravery in the presence of an enemy. 

VICTORIA NYANZA, a lake in East Central Africa, on the Equator, isabout the size of Ireland, 300 m. Long and 20 m. Broad, at an elevationof 3500 ft. Above the sea-level; discovered by Captain Speke in 1858, andcircumnavigated by Stanley in 1875; is regarded as the head-source of theNile, the waters of it flowing through Albert Nyanza 80 m. To the N. , between which two lakes lies the territory of Uganda. 

VIDAR, in the Scandinavian mythology the god of wisdom and silence, whose look penetrates the inmost thoughts of men. 

VIENNA (1, 364), the capital of the Austrian empire, on a southernbranch of the Danube, in a situation calculated to make it the centralcity of the Continent; it is the residence of the emperor and the seat ofthe government; has noble buildings, a university, and numerous largelibraries, a large promenade called the Prater, and a varied industry, and ample means of both external and internal communication; in the SW. Of it is Schönbrunn, the summer residence of the emperor, amid gardens ofmatchless beauty; it has been the scene of the signing of importanttreaties, and it was here the Congress met to undo the work of Napoleonin 1815. 

VIENNE (22), an ancient town of France, on the Rhône, 19 m. S. OfLyons; was the chief town of the Allobroges in Cæsar's time, andpossesses relics of its connection with Rome; it manufactures silk andwoollen fabrics, paper and iron goods, and has a trade in grain and wine. 

VIGFUSSON, GUDBRAND, Scandinavian scholar, born in Iceland, of goodfamily; well familiar with the folk-lore of his country from boyhood, andotherwise educated at home, he entered Copenhagen University in 1850, occupying himself with the study of his native literature, and of everydocument he could lay his hands on, and out of which he hoped to obtainany light; in 1855 he published a work on the chronology of the sagas, and this was followed by editions of the sagas themselves; after this hecame to Oxford, where he produced an Icelandic-English Dictionary andother works in the same interest, and died and was buried there(1827-1889). 

VIGNY, ALFRED, COMTE DE, French poet of the Romanticist school, bornat Loches; entered the army, but left after a few years for a life ofliterary ease; produced a small volume of exquisitely finished poemsbetween 1821 and 1829, and only another "Poèmes Philosophiques, " whichwere not published till after his death; wrote also romances and dramas, and translated into French "Othello" and "Merchant of Venice"(1798-1864). 

VIGO (15), a seaport in Galicia, NW. Of Spain, on a bay of the name;beautifully situated, and a favourite health resort. 

VIKINGS (creekers), name given to the Scandinavian sea-rovers andpirates who from the 8th to the 10th centuries ravaged the shores chieflyof Western Europe. 

VILLARI, Italian author, born at Naples; professor of History atFlorence; has written the Lives of Savonarola and Macchiavelli; _b_. 1827. 

VILLARS, DUC DE, marshal of France, born at Moulins; one of the mostillustrious of Louis XIV. 's generals, and distinguished in diplomacy aswell as war; served in Germany under Turenne, and in the war of theSpanish Succession; suppressed the Camisards in the Cévennes, but wasdefeated by Marlborough at Malplaquet (1653-1734). 

VILLENAGE, in feudal times the condition of a "villein, " one of thelowest class in a state of menial servitude. 

VILLENEUVE, SILVESTRE, French admiral, born at Vilensoles, Basses-Alpes; entered the navy at 15, became captain at 30; commanded therear at the battle of the Nile; was placed in command at Toulon, steeredhis fleet to the West Indies to draw Nelson off the shores of France, butwas chased back by Nelson and blockaded in Cadiz to the defeat ofNapoleon's scheme for invading England, but felt constrained to risk abattle with the English admiral, which he did to his ruin at Trafalgar(1763-1806). 

VILLEROI, DUC DE, marshal of France; was a courtier but no soldier, being defeated in Italy by Prince Eugene and at Ramillies by Marlborough;was guardian to Louis XV. (1644-1730). 

VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM, reformer, brother of the Earl ofClarendon; bred to the bar; entered Parliament; M. P. For Wolverhampton, which he represented to the end; was an advocate from the first, and oneof the sturdiest, for free trade and poor-law reform, and had a marblestatue raised in his honour at Wolverhampton before his death(1802-1898). 

VILLON, FRANÇOIS, French poet, born in Paris; studied at theuniversity, but led a singular life; had again and again to flee fromParis; was once condemned to death, but set free after a four years'imprisonment into which the sentence was commuted; is the author of twopoems, entitled the "Petit Testament" and the "Grand Testament, " withminor pieces bearing on the swindling tricks of Villon, the name heassumed, and his companions (1431-1485). 

VINCENNES (24), an eastern suburb of Paris, in the famous Bois deVincennes, which contains a large artillery park and training place fortroops; it is a favourite resort for Parisians of the middle class. 

VINCENT, ST. , a Spanish martyr who in 304 was tortured to death; isrepresented with the instruments of his torture, a spiked gridiron forone, and a raven beside him such as drove away the beasts and birds ofprey from his dead body. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, ST. , a Romish priest, born in Gascony, of humbleparents; renowned for his charity; he founded the congregation of theSisters of Charity, and that of the Priests of the Missions, afterwardscalled Lazarites, from the priory of St. Lazare, where they firstestablished themselves, and instituted the Foundling Hospital in Paris;he was canonised by Pope Clement XII. In 1737 (1576-1660). 

VINDHYA MOUNTAINS, a range of hills, 500 m. In length, forming theN. Scarp of the plateau of the Deccan in India, the highest peak of whichdoes not exceed 6000 ft. 

VINEGAR BIBLE, an edition of the Bible printed at Oxford, in whichthe page containing the "Parable of the Vineyard" in Luke xx. Was headed"Parable of the Vinegar. "

VINEGAR HILL, a hill (385 ft. ) near Enniscorthy, co. Wexford, Ireland, where General Lake defeated the Irish rebels on June 21, 1798, to the utter annihilation then and after of almost every man of them. 

VINET, ALEXANDRE RODOLPHE, a Protestant theologian, born nearLausanne, where he studied and ultimately became professor of PracticalTheology; was a zealous defender of the liberty of conscience and of thefreedom of the Church from State connection and control; he was alittérateur as well as an able and eloquent divine (1797-1847). 

VIOTTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, celebrated violinist, born in Piedmont(1753-1824). 

VIRCHOW, RUDOLF, eminent pathologist, born in Pomerania; isdistinguished as a politician as well as a man of science, and is in theformer regard a strenuous Liberal; his services not only in the interestsof medicine but of science generally and its social applications havebeen very great; _b_. 1821. 

VIRGIL, great Latin poet, born near Mantua, author in succession ofthe "Eclogues, " the "Georgics, " and the "Æneid"; studied at Cremona andMilan, and at 16 was sent to Rome to study rhetoric and philosophy, losta property he had in Cremona during the civil war, but recommendedhimself to Pollio, the governor, who introduced him to Augustus, and hewent to settle in Rome; here, in 37 B. C. , he published his "Eclogues, " acollection of 10 pastorals, and gained the patronage of Mæcenas, underwhose favour he was able to retire to a villa at Naples, where in sevenyears he, in 30 B. C. , produced the "Georgics, " in four books, on the artof husbandry, after which he devoted himself to his great work the"Æneid, " or the story of Æneas of Troy, an epic in 12 books, connectingthe hero with the foundation of Rome, and especially with the Julianfamily, and which was finished in 19 B. C. ; on his deathbed he expresseda wish that it should be burned, and left instructions to that effect inhis will; he was one of the purest-minded poets perhaps that ever lived(70-19 B. C. ). 

VIRGIN ISLANDS (45), a group of islands in the West Indies, few ofthem of any size, belonging partly to Denmark, Britain, and Spain. 

VIRGIN QUEEN, appellation popularly given to Queen Elizabeth. 

VIRGINIA (1, 655), one of the United States of America, a Statesomewhat larger than Scotland, between Maryland and North Carolina, sonamed by its founder Sir Walter Raleigh in honour of Queen Elizabeth; isdivided from West Virginia by the Appalachians; it is well watered; thesoil, which is fertile, yields the finest cotton and tobacco, andminerals, particularly coal and iron, are abundant; the largest city isRichmond, with flour-mills. 

VIRGINIA, WEST (762), formed originally one State with thepreceding, but separated in 1861 to join the Federal cause; is nearly thesame in size and resources; is a great mining region, and is rich in coaland iron; its largest city is Wheeling, on the Ohio. 

VISHNU, the Preserver, the second god of the Hindu triad, BRAHMA (q. V. )being the first and SIVA (q. V. ) the third; revealed himself by asuccession of avatars, RÂMA (q. V. ) being the seventh and KRISHNA (q. V. )the eighth; he has had nine avatars, and on the tenth he will come tojudgment; he is extensively worshipped, and his worshippers, theVaishnavas, are divided into a great number of sects. 

VISIGOTHS, a branch of the Goths that settled in the South of Franceand in Spain. 

VISTULA, a central river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathiansand after a course of 600 m. Falls into the Baltic; it is almostnavigable throughout, and carries down great quantities of timber, grain, and other produce to the Baltic ports. 

VITALIS, ST. , a martyr of the 1st century, who was stoned to death, is represented as buried in a pit with stones on his head. 

VITELLIUS, AULUS, Roman emperor; reigned only eight months and somedays of the year 69; was notorious for his excesses, and was murderedafter being dragged through the streets of Rome. 

VITRUVIUS, POLLIO, Roman architect and engineer; wrote onarchitecture, lived in the days of Augustus. 

VITTORIA (127), the capital of Alava, a Basque province in the Northof Spain, famous as the scene of one of Wellington's victories in June1813; has a fine old 12th-century cathedral and extensive manufactures;it is one of the most prosperous towns in Spain. 

VIVES, LUDOVICUS, a humanist, born at Valencia, studied in Paris;wrote against scholasticism, taught at Oxford, and was imprisoned foropposing Henry VIII. 's divorce; died at Bruges (1492-1540). 

VIVIAN, an enchantress in Arthurian legend. See MERLIN. 

VLADIMIR (12), capital of a government in the centre of Russia, 120m. NE. Of Moscow; once practically the capital of the country, with manyremains of its ancient grandeur. 

VLADIMIR I. THE GREAT OR ST. , grand-duke of Russia; converted toChristianity through his wife Anna Romanovna, laid the foundation of theRussian empire; has been canonised by the Russian Church; _d_. 1015. 

VLADIMIR II. , surnamed Monomachus; succeeded to the throne of Russiain 1113, and consolidated it by the establishment and enforcement of justlaws; was married to Gida, a daughter of King Harold of England(1063-1126). 

VOGLER, ABBÉ, composer, born in Würzburg; distinguished once both asa musical performer and teacher; lives only in Browning's "DramatisPersonæ" (1749-1814). 

VOGT, CARL, German naturalist, born at Giessen; a materialist anddisciple of Darwin; has written on geology and anthropology; _b_. 1817. 

VOGULS, a Finnish tribe on the E. Slope of the Urals; areChristianised, but still practise many Shamanist rites; number some20, 000. 

VOLAPÜK, a universal language by Schleyer, a German pastor; as yetpractically limited to its applicability to commercial intercourse. 

VOLGA, a river of European Russia, the largest in Europe, whichrises in the Valdai Hills, and after a course of 2200 m. Falls by a deltawith 200 mouths into the Caspian Sea; it is navigable almost throughout, providing Russia with 7200 m. Of water-carriage, and has extensivefisheries, especially of salmon and sturgeon. 

VOLNEY, French philosopher, born at Craon; travelled in Egypt andSyria; wrote an account of his travels in his "Voyage"; was imprisonedduring the Reign of Terror; patronised and promoted to honour byNapoleon, and by the Bourbons on their return; his principal work, "LES RUINES, OU MÉDITATIONS SUR LES RÉVOLUTIONS DES EMPIRES, " wasan embodiment of 18th-century enlightenment (q. V. ) (1757-1820). 

VOLSUNGS, a race figuring in Norse and German legend of the 12thcentury, and with the fate in whose history it is so widely occupied, andthat of its heroes. 

VOLTA, ALESSANDRINO, Italian physicist, born at Como; professor ofPhysics at Pavia; made electrical discoveries which laid the foundationof what is called after him voltaic electricity; volt, the unit ofelectric motive force, being a term among sundry others in electricscience similarly derived (1745-1827). 

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY, a current of electricity generated by chemicalaction between metals and different liquids as arranged in a voltaicbattery. 

VOLTAIRE, FRANÇOIS MARIE AROUET DE, great French "persifleur" and"Coryphæus of Deism, " born in Paris, son of a lawyer; trained to scoff atreligion from his boyhood, and began his literary career as a satiristand in the production of lampoons which cost him twice over imprisonmentin the Bastille, on his release from which he left France in 1726 andwent to England, where he stayed three years, and got acquainted with thefree-thinking class there; on his return to Paris he engaged in someprofitable commercial speculations and published his "Charles XII. , "which he had written in England, and retired to the château of Cirey, where he lived five years with Madame du Châtelet, engaged in study anddiligent with his pen, with whom he left France and went to Poland, afterher death paying his famous visit to Frederick the Great, with whombefore three years were out he quarrelled, and from whom he was glad toescape, making his head-quarters eventually within the borders of Franceat Ferney, from which he now and again visited Paris, where on his lastvisit he was received with such raptures of adulation that he was quiteovercome, and had to be conveyed home to die, giving up the ghost exactlytwo months after. He was a man of superlative adroitness of faculty andshiftiness, without aught that can be called great, but more than anyother the incarnation of the spirit of his time; said the word which allwere waiting to hear and who replied yea to it--a poor word indeed yet apotent, for it gave the death-blow to superstition, but left religion outin the cold. The general, the great offence Carlyle charges Voltairewith is, that "he intermeddled in religion without being himself in anymeasure religious; that he entered the Temple and continued there with alevity which, in any temple where men worship, can beseem no brother man;that, in a word, he ardently, and with long-continued effort, warredagainst Christianity, without understanding, beyond the mere superficies, what Christianity was" (1694-1778). 

VOLUNTARYISM, the doctrine that the Church should not depend on theState, but should be supported exclusively by the voluntary contributionsof its members. 

VOODOO, name given to a system of magic and superstitious ritesprevalent among certain negro races. 

VORTIGERN, a British prince of the 5th century, who, on thewithdrawal of the Romans, invited the Saxons to aid him against theincursions of the Picts, to, as it proved, their own installation intosovereign power in South Britain. 

VOSGES, a range of mountains in the NE. Of France, since 1871forming the Franco-German frontier by the inclusion of Alsace in Germanterritory; they separate the basin of the Moselle from that of the Rhine. 

VOSS, JOHANN HEINRICH, German poet and scholar, born in Mecklenburg;spent most of his life in Heidelberg; his fame rests chiefly on hisidyllic poem "Luise" and his translations, particularly of Homer(1751-1826). 

VOSSIUS, GERARD, Dutch philologist, born near Heidelberg; wrote ahistory of Pelagianism, which brought him disfavour with the orthodox;was made a prebendary of Canterbury through the influence of Laud; was, on some apology to orthodoxy in 1633, called to the chair of History inthe Gymnasium of Amsterdam; he was a friend of Grotius; he fell from aladder in his library, and was found dead (1577-1649). 

VULCAN, the Roman god of fire and an artificer In metals, identifiedwith the Greek HEPHÆSTUS (q. V. ); had a temple to his honour inearly Rome; was fabled to have had a forge under Mount Etna, where hemanufactured thunderbolts for Jupiter, the Cyclops being his workmen. 

VULGATE, a version of the Bible in Latin executed by ST. JEROME (q. V. ), and was in two centuries after its executionuniversally adopted in the Western Christian Church as authoritative forboth faith and practice, and from the circumstance of its generalreception it became known as the Vulgate (i. E. The commonly-acceptedBible of the Church), and it is the version accepted as authentic to-dayby the Roman Catholic Church, under sanction of the Council of Trent. "With the publication of it, " says Ruskin, "the great deed of fixing, intheir ever since undisturbed harmony and majesty, the canon of Mosaic andApostolic Scripture, was virtually accomplished, and the series ofhistoric and didactic books which form our present Bible (including theApocrypha) were established in and above the nascent thought of thenoblest races of men living on the terrestrial globe, as a direct messageto them from its Maker, containing whatever it was necessary for them tolearn of His purposes towards them, and commanding, or advising, withdivine authority and infallible wisdom, all that it was best for them todo and happiest to desire. Thus, partly as a scholar's exercise andpartly as an old man's recreation, the severity of the Latin language wassoftened, like Venetian crystal, by the variable fire of Hebrew thought, and the 'Book of Books' took the abiding form of which all the future artof the Western nations was to be an hourly expanding interpretation. "

VYASA, the mythical author of the Hindu Mahâbhârata and the Puránas;was the illegitimate child of a Brahman and a girl of impure caste of thefisher class. 

W

WAAL, a S. Branch of the Rhine, in Holland. 

WACE, Anglo-Norman poet, born in Guernsey; author of two metricalchronicles, "Geste des Brétons" and "Roman de Rou, " the latter recordingthe fortunes of the dukes of Normandy down to 1106 (1120-1183). 

WACE, HENRY, Principal of King's College, London; has lectured ablyon Christian apologetics, and written valuable works in defence ofChristianity; _b_. 1836. 

WADE, GEORGE, English general; commanded in Scotland during therebellion of 1715, has the credit of the construction in 1725-35 of themilitary roads into the Highlands, to frustrate any further attempts atrebellion in the north (1668-1748). 

WADMAN, WIDOW, a lady in "Tristram Shandy" who pays court to UncleToby. 

WADY, an Arabic name for the channel of a stream which is flooded inrainy weather and at other seasons dry. 

WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD, the great musical composer, born atLeipzig; showed early a faculty for music, and began the enthusiasticstudy of it under Beethoven; in 1835 became conductor of the orchestra ofthe theatre of Magdeburg, and held the same post afterwards at Riga andKönigsberg; his principal works were "Rienzi" (1840), "The FlyingDutchman" (1843), "Tannhäuser" (1845), "Lohengrin" (1850), "Tristan andIsolde" (1859), "The Mastersingers of Nürnberg" (1859-60), and the "Ringof the Nibelungen, " the composition of which occupied 25 years; this lastwas performed in 1876 at Bayreuth in a theatre erected for the purpose inpresence of the emperor of Germany and the principal musical artists ofthe world; "Parsifal" was his last work; his musical ideas wererevolutionary, and it was some time before his works made their way inEngland (1813-1883). 

WAGRAM, a village, 10 m. NE. Of Vienna, where Napoleon gained agreat victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, on July 5and 6, 1809. 

WAHABIS, a Mohammedan sect which arose among the Nedj tribe inCentral Arabia, whose aims were puritanic and the restoration of Islamismto its primitive simplicity in creed, worship, and conduct; in creed theywere substantially the same as the SUNNITES (q. V. ). 

WAIKATO, the largest river in New Zealand, in the North Island, theoutlet of the waters of Lake Taupo, the largest lake; has a course of 170m. 

WAKEFIELD (37), a borough of Yorkshire, 9 m. S. Of Leeds; has largewoollen and other manufactures. 

WALCHEREN, an island in the province of Zeeland, in the delta formedby the Maas and Scheldt; was the destination of an unfortunate expeditionsent to the help of the Austrians against Napoleon in Antwerp, in which7000 of the army composing it died of marsh fever, from which 10, 000 weresent home sick and the rest recalled. 

WALDECK-PYRMONT (57), two high-lying territories in North Germanyforming one principality and subject to imperial authority; consists ofhill and valley. 

WALDENSES, a Christian community founded in 1170 in the south ofFrance, on the model of the primitive Church, by Peter Walden, a richcitizen of Lyons, and who were driven by persecution from country tocountry until they settled in Piedmont under the name of theVAUDOIS (q. V. ), where they still exist. 

WALES (1, 519), one of three divisions of Great Britain; is 135 m. Inlength and from 37 to 95 m. In breadth, and bounded on the NW. And S. Bythe sea; it is divided into 12 counties, of which 6 form North Wales and6 South Wales; is a mountainous country, intersected by beautifulvalleys, which are traversed by a number of streams; it is largelyagricultural; has mines of coal and iron, lead and copper, as well aslarge slate-quarries, which are extensively wrought; the Church ofEngland is the church established, but the majority of the people areNonconformists; it is represented in Parliament by 30 members; thenatives are Celts, and the native language Celtic, which is still thelanguage of a goodly number of the people. 

WALES, PRINCE OF, title borne by eldest son of the English monarch;first conferred in 1301 on eldest son of Edward I. After subjugation ofWales (1282); since 1901 borne by Prince George, formerly Duke of York;entered the navy in 1877, and attained the post of commander in 1890;became heir of the throne on death of his brother, Duke of Clarence(1892); married Princess Mary of Teck (1893), and has by this marriagefour sons and a daughter; _b_. 1865. 

WALFISH BAY, a dependency of Cape Colony, in the middle of thecoast-line of German South-West Africa. 

WALKER, GEORGE, defender of Londonderry against the army of JamesII. , born in co. Tyrone, of English parents; was in holy orders, and byhis sermons encouraged the town's-people during the siege, which lasted105 days; he afterwards fought in command of his Derry men at the battleof the Boyne, where he lost his life. 

WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL, English naturalist, born at Usk, inMonmouthshire; was devoted to the study of natural history, in theinterest of which he spent four years (1848-52) in the valley of theAmazon, and eight years after (1854-62) in the East India Archipelago, from the latter of which expedition especially he returned with thousandsof specimens of natural objects, particularly insects and birds, andduring his absence he wrought out a theory in the main coincident withDarwin's natural selection in corroboration thereof; he has since devotedmuch of his time to the study of spiritualism, and in spite of himselfhas come to be convinced of its claims to scientific regard; he haswritten on his travels, "Contributions to the Theory of NaturalSelection, " "Miracles and Modern Spiritualism, " &c. ; _b_. 1823. 

WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM, the champion of Scottish independence, born inRenfrewshire, second son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie; was earlyseized with a desire to free his country from foreign oppressors, and erelong began to figure as chief of a band of outlaws combined to defy theauthority of Edward I. , who had declared himself Lord of Scotland, tillat length the sense of the oppression became wide-spread, and he wasappointed to lead in a general revolt, while many of the nobles heldaloof or succumbed to the usurper; he drove the English from onestronghold after another, finishing with the battle of Stirling, and wasinstalled thereafter guardian of the kingdom; such a reverse was morethan the "proud usurper" could brook; he accordingly mustered a largearmy, and at Falkirk literally crushed Wallace and his followers with anoverwhelming force, the craven nobles still standing aloof, one of themin the end proving traitor, and handing Wallace over to the enemy, whocarried him off to London, and had him hanged, beheaded, and quartered. 

WALLACE COLLECTION, a collection of works of art bequeathed to thenation by Lady Wallace, and now being housed in Hertford House, Manchester Square, London. 

WALLENSTEIN, general of the Imperial army in the Thirty Years' War, born in Bohemia, of a Protestant family, but on the death of his parentswas, in his childhood, adopted and educated by the Jesuits, and bred upin the Catholic faith; bent on a military life, he served first in onecampaign and then another; rose in imperial favour, and became a princeof the empire, but the jealousy of the nobles procured his disgrace, tillthe success of Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War and the deathof Tully led to his recall, when he was placed at the head of theimperial army as commander-in-chief; drove the Saxons out of Bohemia, andmarched against the Swedes, but was defeated, and fell again intodisfavour; was deprived of his command, charged with treason, andafterwards murdered in the castle of Egra; he was a remarkable man, greatin war and great in statesmanship, but of unbounded ambition; is thesubject of a drama by Schiller, in three parts (1583-1634). 

WALLER, EDMUND, poet, born in Hertfordshire to great wealth, andeducated at Eton and Cambridge; early gave evidence of his genius forpoetry, which, however, was limited in practice to the production ofmerely occasional pieces; he was in great favour at court; was a memberof the Long Parliament; leant to the Royalist side, though he wrote apanegyric on Cromwell, which, too, is considered his best poem; herevived, or rather "remodelled, " the heroic couplet form of verse, whichcontinued in vogue for over a hundred years after (1605-1687). 

WALLOONS, name given to the descendants of the ancient Belgæ, a raceof a mixed Celtic and Romanic stock, inhabiting Belgium chiefly, andspeaking a language called Walloon, a kind of Old French; in Belgium theynumber to-day two and a quarter millions. 

WALPOLE, HORACE, Earl of Orford, born in London, educated at Etonand Cambridge; travelled on the Continent with Gray, the poet, who hadbeen a school-fellow, but quarrelled with him, and came home alone;entered Parliament in 1741, and continued a member till 1768, but tooklittle part in the debates; succeeded to the earldom in 1791; his tasteswere literary; wrote "Anecdotes of Painting in England, " and inaugurateda new era in novel-writing with his "Castle of Otranto, " but it is by his"Letters" he will live in English literature, which, "malicious, light asfroth, but amusing, retail, " as Stopford Brooke remarks, "with livelinessall the gossip of the time"; he is characterised by Carlyle as "one ofthe clearest-sighted men of his century; a determined despiser andmerciless dissector of cant" (1717-1797). 

WALPOLE, SIR ROBERT, Earl of Orford, Whig statesman, born atHoughton, Norfolk, educated at Eton and Cambridge; entered Parliament in1701, and became member for King's Lynn in 1702; was favoured by the Whigleaders, and promoted to office in the Cabinet; was accused of corruptionby the opposite party when in power, and committed to the Tower; on hisrelease after acquittal was re-elected for King's Lynn; in 1715 becameFirst Lord of the Treasury, and in 1721 became Prime Minister, which hecontinued to be for twenty-one years, but not without opposition onaccount of his pacific policy; on being driven against his will into awar with Spain, which proved unsuccessful, he retired into private life;he stood high in repute for his financial policy; it was he whoestablished the first Sinking Fund, and who succeeded as a financier inrestoring confidence after the bursting of the SOUTH SEA BUBBLE(q. V. ); it is to his policy in defeating the plans of the Jacobitesthat the Hanoverian dynasty in great part owe their permanent occupancyof the British throne; it was a favourite maxim of his. "Every man hashis price, " and he was mortified to find that Pitt could not be bought byany bribe of his (1677-1745). 

WALPURGIS NIGHT, the eve of the 1st May, when the witches hold highrevel and offer sacrifices to the devil their chief, the scene of theirfestival in Germany being the BROCKEN (q. V. ). This annualfestival was in the popular belief conceded to them in recompense for theloss they sustained when by St. Walpurga the Saxons were persuaded torenounce paganism with its rites for Christianity. 

WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS, English statesman, born at Chiselhurst; wasambassador at Paris, and was there during the St. Bartholomew massacre, and was afterwards appointed one of Queen Elizabeth's Secretaries ofState; he was an insidious inquisitor, and had numerous spies in his pay, whom he employed to ferret out evidence to her ruin against Mary, Queenof Scots, and he had the audacity to sit as one of the Commissioners ather trial (1536-1590). 

WALSTON, ST. , patron saint of husbandmen, of British birth; gave upwealth for agriculture, and died at the plough; is represented with ascythe in his hand and cattle near him. 

WALTER, JOHN, London printer; the founder proper, though his fatherwas the projector, of the _Times_ newspaper, and forty years in themanagement of it, under which it became the "leading journal" of the day, a success due to his discernment and selection of the men with theability to conduct it and contribute to it (1773-1847). 

WALTER THE PENNILESS, a famous mob leader, adjutant of Peter theHERMIT (q. V. ) in the first Crusade. 

WALTON, IZAAK, the angler, born in Stafford; settled as alinen-draper, first in Fleet Street and then in Chancery Lane, London;married a lady, a grand-niece of Cranmer, and on her death a sister ofBishop Ken, by whom he had several children; he associated with some ofthe best clergymen of the Church of England, among the number Dr. Donne, and was much beloved by them; on the death of his second wife he went toWinchester and stayed with his friend Dr. Morley, the bishop; hisprincipal work was the "Complete Angler; or, the Contemplative Man'sRecreation, " which was extended by his friend Charles Cotton, and is aclassic to this day; he wrote in addition Lives of Hooker, Dr. Donne, Bishop Sanderson, Sir Henry Wotton, and George Herbert, all done, likethe "Angler, " in a uniquely charming, simple style (1593-1683). 

WANDERING JEW. See JEW, WANDERING. 

WAPENSHAW, originally gatherings of the people of a district inancient times in Scotland, at which every man was bound to appear dulyarmed according to his rank, and make exhibition of his skill in the useof his weapons, against a time of war. 

WARBECK, PERKIN, an impostor who affected to be Richard, Duke ofYork, second son of Edward IV. , alleged to have been murdered in theTower, and laid claim to the crown of England in preference to Henry VII. In an attempt to make good this claim he was taken prisoner, and hangedat Tyburn in 1499. 

WARBURTON, WILLIAM, an English divine, born at Newark; was bishop ofGloucester; was author of the famous "Divine Legation of Moses, "characterised by Gibbon as a "monument of the vigour and weakness of thehuman mind"; is a distracted waste of misapplied logic and learning; asingular friendship subsisted between the author and Pope (1698-1779). 

WARD, ARTEMUS, the pseudonym of C. F. BROWNE (q. V. ). 

WARD, MRS. HUMPHRY, English authoress, born at Hobart Town; is aniece of Matthew Arnold; translated Amiel's "Journal, " a suggestiverecord, but is best known by her romance of "Robert Elsmere, " publishedin 1888, a work which was a help to some weak people and an offence toothers of the same class; _b_. 1851. 

WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE, English theologian; was a zealous promoter ofthe Tractarian Movement, and led the way in carrying out its principlesto their logical issue by joining the Church of Rome; he was abroad-minded man withal, and won the regard of men of every school;became editor of the _Dublin Review_ (1812-1882). 

WARRINGTON (55), a parliamentary borough in Lancashire, on theMersey, 20 m. E. Of Liverpool; an old town, but with few relics of itsantiquity; manufactures iron-ware, glass, soap, &c. ; sends one member toParliament. 

WARS OF THE ROSES, name given to a civil war in England from 1452 to1486, between the Houses of York and Lancaster, so called from the badgeof the former being a _white_ rose and that of the latter being a _red_;it terminated with the accession of Henry VII. , who united in his personthe rival claims. 

WARSAW (465), formerly the capital of Poland, now of the province ofRussian Poland; stands on the left bank of the Vistula, 700 m. SW. Of St. Petersburg; is almost in the heart of Europe, and in a position with manynatural advantages; is about as large as Birmingham, and the thirdlargest city in the Russian empire; it has a university with 75professors and 1000 students, and has a large trade and numerousmanufactures. 

WARTBURG, an old grim castle overhanging EISENACH (q. V. ), where Luther was confined by his friends when it was too hot for himoutside, and where, not forgetful of what he owed his country, he kepttranslating the Bible into the German vernacular, and where they stillshow the oaken table at which he did it, and the oaken ink-holder whichhe threw at the devil's head, as well as the ink-spot it left on thewall. 

WARTON, THOMAS, English poet, born at Basingstoke; was professor ofPoetry at Oxford, and Poet-Laureate; wrote a "History of English Poetry"of great merit, and a few poetic pieces in faint echo of others by Popeand Swift for most part (1728-1790). 

WARWICK (11), the county town of Warwickshire, on the Avon, 21 m. SE. Of Birmingham; it dates from Saxon times, and possesses a greatbaronial castle, the residence of the earls of Warwick, erected in 1394on an eminence by the river grandly overlooking the town; it is the seatof several industries, and has a considerable trade in agriculturalproduce. 

WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF, eldest son of the Earl ofSalisbury, THE KING-MAKER (q. V. ); fought in the "Wars of theRoses, " and was in the end defeated by Edward IV. And slain (1428-1471). 

WARWICKSHIRE (805), central county of England; is traversed by theAvon, a tributary of the Severn; the north portion, which was at one timecovered by the forest of Arden, is now, from its mineral wealth, one ofthe busiest industrial centres of England; it contains the birthplace ofShakespeare; Birmingham is the largest town. 

WASH, THE, an estuary of the E. Coast of England, between thecounties of Norfolk and Lincoln, too shallow for navigation. 

WASHINGTON (278), capital of the United States, in the district ofColumbia, on the left bank of the Potomac, 35 in. SW. Of Baltimore; wasfounded in 1791, and made the seat of the Government in 1800; it isregularly laid out, possesses a number of noble buildings, many of themof marble, the chief being the Capitol, an imposing structure, where theSenate and Congress sit; near it, 1½ m. Distant, is the White House, theresidence of the President, standing in grounds beautifully laid out andadorned with fountains and shrubbery. 

WASHINGTON (340), a NW. State of the American Union, twice the sizeof Ireland; lies N. Of Oregon; is traversed by the Cascade Mountains, thehighest 8138 ft. , and has a rugged surface of hill and valley, but is agreat wheat-growing and grazing territory, covered on the W. By forestsof pine and cedar; Olympia is the capital. Washington is the name ofhundreds of places in the States. 

WASHINGTON, GEORGE, one of the founders and first President of theUnited States, born at Bidges Creek, Westmoreland Co. , Virginia, of afamily from the North of England, who emigrated in the middle of the 17thcentury; commenced his public life in defending the colony against theencroachments of the French, and served as a captain in a campaignagainst them under General Braddock; In the contest between the colonyand the mother-country he warmly espoused that of the colony, and was in1775 appointed commander-in-chief; his first important operation in thatcapacity was to drive the English out of Boston, but the British rallyinghe was defeated at Brandywine and Germantown in 1777; next year, inalliance with the French, he drove the British out of Philadelphia, andin 1781 compelled Cornwallis to capitulate in an attack he made onYorktown, and on the evacuation of New York by the British theindependence of America was achieved, upon which he resigned the command;in 1789 he was elected to the Presidency of the Republic, and in 1793 wasre-elected, at the end of which he retired into private life after payinga dignified farewell (1732-1799). 

WATERBURY (46), a city of Connecticut, U. S. , 88 m. NE. Of New York, with manufactures of metallic wares; world-famous for its cheap watches. 

WATERFORD (21), a town in a county of the same name (98), inMunster, Ireland, at the junction of the Suir and the Barrow; has asplendid harbour formed by the estuary, and carries on an extensiveexport trade with England, particularly in bacon and butter, the chiefindustries of the county being cattle-breeding and dairy-farming. 

WATERLOO, a village 11 m. S. Of Brussels, which gives name to abattle in which the French under Napoleon were defeated by an army underWellington on June 18, 1815. 

WATLING STREET, a great Roman road extending from Dover andterminating by two branches in the extreme N. Of England after passingthrough London, the NE. Branch, by York, and the NW. By or to Chester. 

WATSON, WILLIAM, poet, born in Yorkshire; the first poem whichprocured him recognition was "Wordsworth's Grave, " and his subsequentpoems have confirmed the impression produced, in especial his "LachrymæMusarum, " one of the finest tributes paid to the memory of Tennyson onthe occasion of his death; among his later productions the most importantis a volume entitled "Odes and other Poems, " published in 1894; has alsowritten an admirable volume of essays, "Excursions in Criticism"; _b_. 1858. 

WATT, JAMES, inventor of the modern steam-engine, born in Greenock, son of a merchant; began life as a mathematical-instrument maker, openedbusiness in Glasgow under university patronage, and early began toexperiment on the mechanical capabilities of steam; when in 1703, whileengaged in repairing the model of a Newcomen's engine, he hit upon theidea which has immortalised his name. This was the idea of a separatecondenser for the steam, and from that moment the power of steam in thecivilisation of the world was assured; the advantages of the inventionwere soon put to the proof and established, and by a partnership on thepart of Watts with MATTHEW BOULTON (q. V. ) Watt had thesatisfaction of seeing his idea fairly launched and of reaping of thefruits. Prior to Watt's invention the steam-engine was of little otheruse than for pumping water (1736-1819). 

WATTEAU, ANTOINE, celebrated French painter and engraver, born atValenciennes; his pictures were numerous and the subjects almost limitedto pseudo-pastoral rural groups; the tone of the colouring is pleasing, and the design graceful (1684-1721). 

WATTS, GEORGE FREDERICK, eminent English painter, born in London; isdistinguished as a painter at once of historical subjects, idealsubjects, and portraits; did one of the frescoes in the Poets' Hall ofthe Houses of Parliament and the cartoon of "Caractacus led in Triumphthrough the Streets of Rome"; has, as a "poet-painter, " by his "Love andDeath, " "Hope, " and "Orpheus and Eurydice, " achieved a world-wide fame;he was twice over offered a baronetcy, but on both occasions he declined;_b_. 1817. 

WATTS, ISAAC, Nonconformist divine, born at Southampton, son of aschoolmaster; chose the ministry as his profession, was for a time pastorof a church in Mark Lane, but after a succession of attacks of illness heresigned and went on a visit to his friend Sir Thomas Abney, with whom hestayed for 36 years, at which time his friend died, and he resumedpastoral duties as often as his health permitted; he wrote several books, among which was a book on "Logic, " long a university text-book, and agreat number of hymns, many of them of wide fame and much cherished ashelps to devotion (1674-1748). 

WATTS, THEODORE, critic, born at St. Ives, bosom friend ofSwinburne, who pronounces him "the first critic of our time--perhaps thelargest-minded and surest-sighted of any age"; his influence is great, and it has been exercised chiefly through contributions to theperiodicals of the day; has assumed the surname of Dunton after hismother; _b_. 1836. 

WAUGH, EDWIN, a Lancashire poet, born at Rochdale, bred abookseller; wrote, among other productions, popular songs, full oforiginal native humour, the first of them "Come Whoam to thy Childer andMe" (1817-1890). 

WAYLAND, the smith, a Scandinavian Vulcan, of whom a number oflegends were current; figures in Scott's "Kenilworth. "

WAZIRIS, a tribe of independent Afghans inhabiting the SuleimanMountains, on the W. Frontier of the Punjab. 

WEALTH, defined by Ruskin to be the possession of things inthemselves valuable, that is, of things available for the support oflife, or inherently possessed of life-giving power. 

WEBER, KARL MARIA VON, German composer, born near Lübeck, of a famedmusical family; early gave proof of musical talent; studied at Viennaunder Abbé Vogler, and at Dresden became founder and director of theGerman opera; his first great production was "Der Freischütz, " whichestablished his fame, and was succeeded by, among others, "Oberon, " hismasterpiece, first produced in London, where, shortly after the event, hedied, broken in health; he wrote a number of pieces for the piano, deservedly popular (1786-1826). 

WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD, German physicist, born at Wittenberg;professor at Göttingen; distinguished for his contributions toelectricity and magnetism, both scientific and practical (1801-1891). 

WEBSTER, DANIEL, American statesman and orator, born at NewHampshire; bred to the bar, and practised in the provincial courts;by-and-by went to Boston, which was ever after his home; entered Congressin 1813, where, by his commanding presence and his animated oratory, hesoon made his mark; was secretary for foreign affairs under PresidentHarrison, and negotiated the Ashburton Treaty in settlement of the"boundary-line" question between England and the States; was much admiredby Emerson, and was, when he visited England, commended by him to theregard of Carlyle as a man to "hear speak, " as "_with a cause_ he couldstrike a stroke like a smith"; Carlyle did not take to him; he was toopolitical for his taste, though he recognised in him a "man--never haveseen, " he wrote Emerson, "so much _silent Berserkir-rage_ in any otherman" (1782-1852). 

WEBSTER, JOHN, English dramatist of the 17th century; did a gooddeal as a dramatist in collaboration with others, but some four plays areexclusively his own work, the two best the "White Devil" and the "Duchessof Malfi. "

WEBSTER, NOAH, lexicographer, born at Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. ;bred to law; tried journalism; devoted 20 years to his "Dictionary of theEnglish Language" (1758-1843). 

WEDGWOOD, JOSIAH, celebrated English potter, born at Burslem, son ofa potter; in 1759 started a pottery on artistic lines in his nativeplace; devoted himself first to the study of the material of his art andthen to its ornamentation, in which latter he had at length the goodfortune to enlist Flaxman as a designer, and so a ware known by his namebecame famous for both its substantial and artistic excellence far andwide over the country and beyond; he was a man of varied culture and ofprincely generosity, having by his art amassed a large fortune(1730-1793). 

WEDNESBURY (69), a town in Staffordshire, 8 m. NW. Of Birmingham;iron-ware manufacture the chief industry; has an old church on the siteof an old temple to Woden, whence the name, it is alleged. 

WEDNESDAY, fourth day of the week, Woden's Day, as Thursday isThor's. It is called Midwoch, i. E. Midweek, by the Germans. 

WEEK, division of time of seven days, supposed to have beensuggested by the interval between the quarters of the moon. 

WEEPING PHILOSOPHER, a sobriquet given to HERACLITUS (q. V. )from a melancholy disposition ascribed to him, in contrast withDEMOCRITUS (q. V. ), designated the laughing philosopher. 

WEI-HAI-WEI, a city in a deep bay on the Shantung promontory, China, 40 m. E. Of Chefoo, and nearly opposite Port Arthur, which is situated onthe northern side of the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili; was leased toGreat Britain in 1898, along with the islands in the bay and a belt ofland along the coast; its harbour is well sheltered, and accommodates alarge number of vessels. 

WEIMAR (24), capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, in a valleyon the left bank of the Ilm, 13 m. E. Of Erfurt, and famous as for manyyears the residence of the great Goethe and the illustrious literarycircle of which he was the centre, an association which constitutes thechief interest of the place. 

WEINGARTNER, FELIX, composer and musical conductor, born at Zara, Dalmatia; has composed symphonic poems, operas, and songs; _b_. 1863. 

WEISMANN, AUGUST, biologist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main; studiedmedicine at Göttingen; devoted himself to the study of zoology, thefirst-fruit of which was a treatise on the "Development of Diptera, " andat length to the variability in organisms on which the theory of descent, with modifications, is based, the fruit of which was a series of paperspublished in 1882 under the title of "Studies on the Theory of Descent";but it is with the discussions on the question of heredity that his nameis most intimately associated. The accepted theory on the subject assumesthat characters acquired by the individual are transmitted to offspring, and this assumption, in his "Essays upon Heredity, " he maintains to bewholly groundless, and denies that it has any foundation in fact;heredity, according to him, is due to the continuity of the germ-plasm, or the transmission from generation to generation of a substance of auniform chemical and molecular composition; _b_. 1834. 

WEISS, BERNHARD, German theologian, born at Königsberg; becameprofessor at Kiel and afterwards at Berlin; has written on the theologyof the New Testament, an introduction to it, and a "Leben Jesu, " all ableworks; _b_. 1827. 

WEISSENFELS (23), a town of Prussian Saxony, 35 m. SW. Of Leipzig, with an old castle of the Duke of Weissenfels and various manufactures. 

WEISSNICHTWO (Know-not-where), in Carlyle's "Sartor, " an imaginaryEuropean city, viewed as the focus, and as exhibiting the operation, ofall the influences for good and evil of the time we live in, described interms which characterised city life in the first quarter of the 19thcentury; so universal appeared the spiritual forces at work in society atthat time that it was impossible to say _where_ they were and _where_they were _not_, and hence the name of the city, Know-not-where. 

WEIZSÄCHER, KARL, eminent German theologian; studied at Tübingen andBerlin; succeeded BAUR (q. V. ) as professor at Tübingen; was aNew Testament critic, and the editor of a theological journal, anddistinguished for his learning and lucid style; _b_. 1822. 

WELLDON, JAMES EDWARD COWELL, bishop of Calcutta; educated at Etonand Cambridge; has held several appointments, both scholastic andclerical; has translated several of the works of Aristotle, and wasHulsean Lecturer at Cambridge in 1897; _b_. 1854. 

WELLER, SAM, Mr. Pickwick's servant, and an impersonation of theready wit and best quality of London low life. 

WELLESLEY, a small province, part of Penang Territory, in theStraits Settlements; of great fertility, and yields tropical products inimmense quantities, such as spices, tea, coffee, sugar, cotton, andtobacco. 

WELLESLEY, RICHARD COWLEY, MARQUIS OF, statesman and administrator, born in Dublin, eldest son of the Earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, andeldest brother of the Duke of Wellington, and his senior by nine years;educated at Eton and Cambridge, where he distinguished himself inclassics; in 1781 succeeded his father in the Irish House of Peers;entered Parliament in 1784; was a supporter of Pitt, and in 1797appointed Governor-General of India in succession to Cornwallis, andraised to the English peerage as Baron Wellesley; in this capacity heproved himself a great administrator, and by clearing out the French andcrushing the power of Tippoo Saib, as well as increasing the revenue ofthe East India Company, laid the foundation of the British power inIndia, for which he was raised to the marquisate, and voted a pension of£5000; he afterwards became Foreign Secretary of State and Viceroy ofIreland (1760-1842). 

WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS, Old Testament scholar, born at Hameln; held thepost of professor of Theology at Greifswald, but resigned the post fromconscientious scruples and became professor of Oriental Languages atMarburg in 1885; is best known among us as a biblical critic on the linesof the so-called higher criticism, the criticism which seeks to arrangethe different parts of the Bible in their proper historical connectionand order; _b_. 1844. 

WELLINGBOROUGH (15), a market-town in Northamptonshire, 10 m. NE. OfNorthampton; has some fine buildings; the manufacture of shoes a chiefindustry. 

WELLINGTON (33), the capital of New Zealand, in the North Island, onCook Strait; has a spacious harbour, with excellent accommodation forshipping, a number of public buildings, including government offices, andtwo cathedrals, a Roman Catholic and an Anglican, and a considerabletrade; in 1865 it superseded Auckland as the capital of the whole of NewZealand. 

WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY (or WESLEY), DUKE OF, bornprobably in Dublin, third son of the Earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, educated first at Chelsea, then at Eton, and then at a military school atAngers, in France; entered the army in 1787 as an ensign in the 73rd, andstepped gradually upwards in connection with different regiments, till in1793 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 33rd; sat for a time in theIrish Parliament as a member for Trim, and went in 1794 to theNetherlands, and served in a campaign there which had disastrous issuessuch as disgusted him with military life, and was about to leave the armywhen he was sent to India, where he distinguished himself in the stormingof Seringapatam, and in the command of the war against the Mahrattas, which he brought to a successful issue in 1803, returning home in 1805;next year he entered the Imperial Parliament, and in 1807 was appointedChief Secretary for Ireland; in 1808 he left for Portugal, where he wassuccessful against the French in several engagements, and in 1809 wasappointed commander-in-chief of the Peninsular army; in this capacity hisgeneralship became conspicuous in a succession of victories, in which hedrove the French first out of Portugal and then out of Spain, defeatingthem finally at Toulouse on the 12th April 1814, and so ending thePeninsular War; on his return home he was loaded with honours, and hadvoted to him from the public treasury a grant of £400, 000; on the returnof Napoleon from Elba he was appointed general of the allies against himin the Netherlands and on 18th June 1815 defeated him in theever-memorable battle of Waterloo; this was the crowning feat inWellington's military life, and the nation showed its gratitude to himfor his services by presenting him with the estate of Strathfieldsaye, inHampshire, worth £263, 000, the price paid for it to Lord Rivers, theproprietor; in 1827 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, andin 1828 was Prime Minister of the State; as a statesman he was opposed toParliamentary reform, but he voted for the emancipation of the Catholicsand the abolition of the Corn Laws; he died in Walmer Castle on 1stSeptember 1852, aged 84, and was buried beside Nelson in a crypt of St. Paul's (1769-1852). 

WELLINGTON COLLEGE, a college founded in 1853 at Wokingham, Berks, in memory of the Duke of Wellington, primarily for the education of thesons of deceased military officers; there is a classical school toprepare for the university, and a modern side to prepare for the army, &c. 

WELLS, a small episcopal city in Somersetshire, 20 m. SW. Of Bath;it derives its name from hot springs near it, and is possessed of abeautiful cruciform cathedral in the Early English style, adorned withsome 600 statues of saints, 151 of which are life-size, and some of themcolossal. 

WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH, English poet, born in London; author of adramatic poem entitled "Joseph and his Brethren, " published in 1824, apoem which failed to attract attention at the time, and the singularmerits of which were first recognised by Swinburne in 1875, the authorhaving meantime given up literature for the law, to which he had beenbred (1800-1879). 

WELSH, DAVID, a Scottish divine, a gentlemanly scholarly man, professor of Church History in the University of Edinburgh; was Moderatorof the General Assembly on the occasion of the Disruption of the ScottishChurch (1843), and headed the secession on the day of the exodus(1793-1845). 

WELSH, or WELCH, JOHN, a Scottish divine, a Nithsdale man;became Presbyterian minister of Ayr, and was distinguished both as apreacher and for his sturdy opposition to the ecclesiastical tyranny ofJames VI. , for which latter he suffered imprisonment and exile; he was anancestor of Jane Welsh Carlyle, and was married to a daughter of JohnKnox, who, when the king thought to win her over by offering her husbanda bishopric, held out her apron before sovereign majesty, and threatenedshe would rather kep (catch) his head there than that he should live andbe a bishop; she figures in the chapter in "Sartor" on Aprons, as one ofCarlyle's apron-worthies (1570-1625). 

WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, the largest Nonconformist body inWales, of native growth, and that originated in the middle of the 18thcentury in connection with a great religious awakening; has anecclesiastical constitution on Presbyterian lines, and is in alliancewith the Presbyterian Church of England; it consists of 1330 churches, and has a membership of over 150, 000, that is, on their communion roll, and two theological seminaries, one at Trevecca and one at Bala. 

WELSHPOOL (6), town in Montgomeryshire, North Wales, on the leftbank of the Severn, 19 m. W. Of Shrewsbury, the manufacture of flannelsand woollen goods being the chief industry. 

WENDS, a horde of savage Slavs who, about the 6th century, invadedand took possession of vacant lands on the southern shores of the Baltic, and extended their inroads as far as Hamburg and the ocean, south alsofar over the Elbe in some quarters, and were a source of great trouble tothe Germans in Henry the Fowler's time, and after; they burst in uponBrandenburg once, in "never-imagined fury, " and stamped out, as theythought, the Christian religion there by wholesale butchery of itspriests, setting up for worship their own god "Triglaph, ugliest andstupidest of all false gods, " described as "something like three whales'cubs combined by boiling, or a triple porpoise dead-drunk. " They were atlength "fairly beaten to powder" by Albert the Bear, "and either sweptaway or else damped down into Christianity and keeping of the peace, "though remnants of them, with their language and customs, exist inLusatia to this day. 

WENDT, HANS, German theologian, born in Hamburg, professor at Kieland at Heidelberg; has written an excellent "Leben Jesu" among other ableworks; _b_. 1853. 

WENEGELD, among the old Saxons and other Teutonic races a fine, theprice of homicide, of varying amount, paid in part to the relatives ofthe person killed and in part to the king or chief. 

WENER, LAKE, the largest lake in Sweden, in the SW. , 150 ft. Abovethe sea-level and 100 m. Long by 50 m. Of utmost breadth, containsseveral islands, and abounds in fish. 

WENTWORTH. See STRAFFORD. 

WEREWOLF, a person transformed into a wolf, or a being with aliterally wolfish appetite, under the presumed influence of a charm orsome demoniac possession. 

WERNER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG ZACHARIAS, a dramatist of a mystic stamp, born at Königsberg; is the subject of an essay by Carlyle, and describedby him as a man of a very _dissolute_ spiritual texture; wrote the"Templars of Cyprus, " the "Story of the Fallen Master, " &c. (1768-1823). 

WERTHER, the hero of Goethe's sentimental romance, "THE SORROWSOF WERTHER" (q. V. ). 

WESLEY, CHARLES, hymn-writer, born at Epworth, educated at Eton andOxford; was associated with his more illustrious brother in theestablishment of Methodism; his hymns are highly devotional, and are tobe found in all the hymnologies of the Church (1708-1788). 

WESLEY, JOHN, the founder of Methodism, born at Epworth, inLincolnshire, son of the rector; was educated at the Charterhouse and atLincoln College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow; while there he andhis brother, with others, were distinguished for their religiousearnestness, and were nicknamed Methodists; in 1735 he went on a missionto Georgia, U. S. , and had for fellow-voyagers some members of theMoravian body, whose simple piety made a deep impression on him; and onhis return in two years after he made acquaintance with a Moravianmissionary in London, and was persuaded to a kindred faith; up to thistime he had been a High Churchman, but from this time he ceased from allsacerdotalism and became a believer in and a preacher of the immediateconnection of the soul with, and its direct dependence upon, God's gracein Christ alone; this gospel accordingly he went forth and preached indisregard of all mere ecclesiastical authority, he riding about fromplace to place on horseback, and finding wherever he went the people inthousands, in the open air generally, eagerly expectant of his approach, all open-eared to listen to his word; to the working-classes his visitswere specially welcome, and it was among them they bore most fruit; "thekeynote of his ministry he himself gave utterance to when he exclaimed, 'Church or no Church, the people must be saved. '" Saved or Lost? was withhim the one question, and it is the one question of all genuine Methodismto this hour (1703-1791). 

WESSEL, JOHANN, a Reformer before the Reformation, born atGröningen; was a man of powerful intellect; taught in the schools, andwas called by his disciples _Lux Mundi_ (1420-1489). 

WESSEX, a territory in the SW. Of England, inhabited by Saxons wholanded at Southampton in 514, known as the West Saxons, and who graduallyextended their dominion over territory beyond it till, under Egbert, their king, they became supreme over the other kingdoms of the Heptarchy. 

WEST, BENJAMIN, painter, born near Springfield, Pennsylvania, ofQuaker parentage; was self-taught, painted portraits at the age of 16, went to Italy in 1760, and produced such work there that he was electedmember of several of the Italian academies; visited England on his wayback to America in 1763, where he attracted the attention of George III. , who patronised him, for whom he painted a goodly number of pictures toadorn Windsor Castle; he remained in England 40 years, painting hundredsof pictures, and was in 1792 elected President of the Royal Academy insuccession to Sir Joshua Reynolds; among his paintings were "The Death ofGeneral Wolfe, " "Edward III. At Crécy, " and "The Black Prince atPoitiers" (1738-1817). 

WEST AFRICA, name given to the region SW. Of the Sahara, consistingof low lands with high lands behind, and through the valleys of whichrivers flow down, and including Senegambia, Upper Guinea, and LowerGuinea, the coast of which is occupied by trading stations belonging tothe French, the English, the Germans, the Belgians, and the Portuguese, and who are severally forcing their way into the inland territoryconnected with their several stations. 

WEST AUSTRALIA (161), the largest of the Australian colonies, thoughleast populous, formerly called the Swan River Settlement, 1500 m. Longand 1000 m. Broad, and embracing an area nearly equal to one-third of thewhole Australian continent; great part of it, particularly in the centre, is desert, and the best soil is in the W. And NE. ; emigration to itproceeded slowly at first, but for the last 20 years it has been steadilyincreasing, especially since the discovery of gold, and it is now openingup; in 1890 it received a constitution and became self-governing like theother possessions of Great Britain in Australia; Perth, on the SwanRiver, is the capital, and the chief exports are wool and gold. 

WEST BROMWICH (59), a manufacturing town of the "Black Country, " inStaffordshire, 5 m. NW. Of Birmingham; has important industries connectedwith the manufacture of iron ware; is of modern growth, and has developedrapidly. 

WEST INDIES (3, 000), an archipelago of islands extending in a curvebetween North and South America from Florida on the one side to the deltaof the Orinoco on the other, in sight of each other almost all the way, and constituting the summits of a sunken range of mountains which run ina line parallel to the ranges of North America; they are divided into theGreat Antilles (including Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico), theLesser Antilles (including the Leeward and the Windward Isles), and theBahamas; lie all, except the last, within the Torrid Zone, and embraceunitedly an area larger than that of Great Britain; they yield all mannerof tropical produce, and export sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, spices, &c. ; except Cuba, HAYTI (q. V. ), and Porto Rico, they belong tothe Powers of Europe--Great Britain, France, Holland, and Denmark, andtill lately Spain. The name Indies was applied to them because whenColumbus first discovered them he believed he was close upon India, as hecalculated he would find he was by sailing west. 

WEST POINT, an old fortress, the seat of the United States MilitaryAcademy, on the right bank of the Hudson River, 12 m. N. Of New York; theAcademy is on a plateau 188 ft. Above the road; it was established in1802 for training in the science and practice of military engineering, and the cadets are organised into a battalion of four companies officeredfrom among themselves, all under strictest discipline. 

WEST VIRGINIA. See VIRGINIA. 

WESTCOTT, BROOK FOSS, biblical scholar, born near Birmingham;studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and obtained a Fellowship; tookorders in 1851, and became Bishop of Durham in 1890; edited along withDr. Hort an edition of the Greek New Testament, the labour of years, andpublished a number of works bearing on the New Testament and itsstructure and teachings; _b_. 1825. 

WESTKAPPEL DYKE, one of the strongest dykes in the Netherlands;protects the W. Coast of Walcheren; is 4000 yards long, and surmounted bya railway line. 

WESTMACOTT, SIR RICHARD, sculptor, born in London; studied at Romeunder Canova; acquired great repute as an artist on his return toEngland, and succeeded Flaxman as professor of Sculpture in the RoyalAcademy; he executed statues of Pitt, Addison, and others, and a numberof monuments in Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's; his latest work was thesculptured pediment of the British Museum (1775-1856). 

WESTMACOTT, RICHARD, sculptor and writer on art, born in London, sonof preceding; was distinguished for the grace, simplicity, and purity ofhis style as an artist; succeeded his father as professor of Sculpture inthe Royal Academy, and wrote a "Handbook of Sculpture" (1799-1872). 

WESTMEATH (71), an inland county in Leinster, Ireland; is mostlylevel and gently undulating; the soil in many parts is good, but littlecultivated; the only cereal crop raised is oats, but the herbage ityields supplies food for fattening cattle, which is a chief industry. 

WESTMINSTER, a city of Middlesex, on the N. Bank of the Thames, andcomprising a great part of the West End of London; originally a village, it was raised to the rank of a city when it became the seat of a bishopin 1451, but it was as the seat of the abbey that it developed into abishop's see; the abbey, for which it is so famous, was erected as it nowexists at the same period, during 1245-72, on the site of one founded byEdward the Confessor during 1045-65; in Westminster Parliaments were heldas early as the 13th century, and it is as the seat of the legislativeand legal authority of the country that it figures most in modern times, though the most interesting chapters in its history are connected withthe abbey round which it sprang up. See Dean Stanley's "Memorials ofWestminster. "

WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES, a convocation of divines assembledunder authority of Parliament, at which delegates from England andScotland adopted the SOLEMN LEAGUE AND COVENANT (q. V. ), fixedthe establishment of the Presbyterian form of Church government in thethree kingdoms, drew up the "Confession of Faith, " the "Directory ofPublic Worship, " and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms; it held its firstmeeting on 1st July 1643, and did not break up till 22nd February 1649. 

WESTMINSTER HALL, a structure attached to the Houses of Parliamentat Westminster, built by King William Rufus, and roofed and remodelled byRichard II. ; was the scene of the trials of Wallace, Sir Thomas More, Strafford, Charles I. , Warren Hastings, and others, as well as theinstallation of Cromwell as Lord Protector, and till 1883 the seat of theHigh Courts of Justice; is a place of great historic interest; has a roofcomposed of 13 great timber beams, and one of the largest in the world tobe unsupported. 

WESTMORLAND (i. E. Westmoorland) (60), a northern county ofEngland, 32 m. From N. To S. And 40 m. From E. To W. ; is in the LakeDistrict, and mountainous, with tracts of fertile land and forest land, as well as rich pasture lands. 

WESTON-SUPER-MARE (15), a watering-place in Somersetshire, on theBristol Channel, looking across it towards Wales. 

WESTPHALIA, a German duchy, now a Prussian province; made with otherterritories in 1807 into a kingdom by Napoleon for his brother Jerome, and designed to be the centre of the Confederation of the Rhine; wasassigned to Prussia in 1813 according to the Treaty of Vienna. 

WETSTEIN, JOHANN JACOB, biblical scholar, born at Basel; was devotedto the study of the New Testament text; published a Greek Testament withhis emendations and "Prolegomena" connected therewith; his emendations, one in particular, brought his orthodoxy under suspicion for a time(1693-1754). 

WETTE, DE. See DE WETTE. 

WETTER, LAKE, one of the largest lakes in Sweden, 70 m. Long, 13 m. Broad, and 270 ft. Above the sea-level; its clear blue waters are fed byhidden springs, it rises and falls periodically, and is sometimes subjectto sudden agitations during a calm. 

WETTERHORN (i. E. Peak of tempests), a high mountain of theBernese Oberland, with three peaks each a little over 12, 000 ft. Inheight. 

WEXFORD (111), a maritime county in Leinster, Ireland; is anagricultural county, and exports large quantities of dairy produce; has acapital (11) of the same name, a seaport at the mouth of the riverSlaney. 

WEYDEN, ROGER VAN DER, Flemish painter, born at Tourney; was trainedin the school of Van Eyck, whose style he contributed to spread; his mostfamous work, a "Descent from the Cross, " now in Madrid (1400-1464). 

WEYMOUTH (13), a market-town and watering-place in Dorsetshire, 8 m. S. Of Dorchester; has a fine beach and an esplanade over a mile inlength; it came into repute from the frequent visits of George III. 

WHARTON, PHILIP, DUKE OF, an able man, but unprincipled, who led alife of extravagance; professed loyalty to the existing government inEngland; intrigued with the Stuarts, and was convicted of high-treason, and died in Spain in a miserable condition (1698-1731). 

WHATELY, RICHARD, archbishop of Dublin, born in London; studied atOriel College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow, and had Arnold, Keble, Newman, Pusey, and other eminent men as contemporaries; was a manof liberal views and sympathies, and much regarded for his sagacity andhis skill in dialectics; his post as archbishop was no enviable one; isbest known by his "Logic, " for a time the standard work of the subject;he opposed the Tractarian movement, but was too latitudinarian for theevangelical party (1787-1863). 

WHEATSTONE, SIR CHARLES, celebrated physicist and electrician, bornnear Gloucester; was a man of much native ingenuity, and gave early proofof it; was appointed professor of Experimental Philosophy in King'sCollege, London, and distinguished himself by his inventions inconnection with telegraphy; the stereoscope was of his invention(1802-1875). 

WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a very barbarous mode of inflicting death atone time, in which the limbs of the victim were stretched along thespokes of a wheel, and the wheel being turned rapidly round, the limbswere broken by repeated blows from an iron bar; this is what the French_roué_ means, applied figuratively to a person broken with dissipation, or what we call a rake. 

WHEELING (39), largest city in West Virginia, U. S. , on the OhioRiver, 67 m. SW. Of Pittsburg; contains some fine buildings; is a countryrich in bituminous coal; has extensive manufactures; is a great railwaycentre, and carries on an extensive trade. 

WHEWELL, WILLIAM, professor of the "science of things in general, "born at Lancaster, son of a joiner; studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became successively fellow, tutor, professor, andmaster; was a man of varied attainments, of great intellectual and evenphysical power, and it was of him Sydney Smith said, "Science was his_forte_ and omniscience his _foible_"; wrote "Astronomy and GeneralPhysics in reference to Natural Theology, " the "Philosophy of theInductive Sciences, " the "History of Moral Philosophy, " an essay on the"Plurality of Worlds, " &c. (1794-1866). 

WHICHCOTE, BENJAMIN, Cambridge Platonist, born in Shropshire; was aFellow and Tutor of Emmanuel College; was distinguished for his personalinfluence over his pupils, many of them eminent men; he gave aphilosophical turn to their theological opinions (1609-1683). 

WHIGS, name given at the end of the 17th century to the Covenantersof Scotland, and afterwards extended to the Liberal party in England fromthe leniency with which they were disposed to treat the wholeNonconformist body, to which the persecuted Scottish zealots were of kin;they respected the constitution, and sought only to reform abuses. 

WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOT M'NEILL, painter and etcher, born at Lowell, Massachusetts; studied military engineering at WEST POINT (q. V. ), and art at Paris, and settled at length as an artist in London, where he has exhibited his paintings frequently; has executed some famousportraits, in especial one of his mother, and a remarkable one of ThomasCarlyle, now the property of Glasgow Corporation; paintings of hisexhibited in the Grosvenor Gallery, London, provoked a criticism fromRuskin, which was accounted libellous, and as plaintiff he got a farthingdamages, without costs; very much, it is understood, to his critic'sdisgust, and little to his own satisfaction, as is evident from thecharacter of the pamphlet he wrote afterwards in retaliation, entitled"Whistler _versus_ Ruskin: Art and Art Critics"; _b_. 1834. 

WHISTON, WILLIAM, divine and mathematician, born in Leicestershire;educated at Clare College, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow; gainedreputation from his "Theory of the Earth"; succeeded Sir Isaac Newton asLucasian professor, but was discharged from the office and expelled fromthe university for Arianism; removed to London, where he lived aseparatist from the Church, and died a Baptist; wrote "PrimitiveChristianity, " and translated "Josephus"; he was a crotchety but aconscientious man (1667-1752). 

WHITBY, a seaport and famous bathing-place in the North Riding ofYorkshire, 54½ m. NE. Of York; is situated at the mouth of the Esk, andlooks N. Over the German Ocean; it consists of an old fishing townsloping upwards, and a fashionable new town above and behind it, with theruins of an abbey; Captain Cook was a 'prentice here, and it was inWhitby-built ships, "the best and stoutest bottoms in England, " that hecircumnavigated the globe. 

WHITBY, DANIEL, English divine, born in Northamptonshire; becamerector of St. Edmunds, Salisbury; involved himself in ecclesiasticalcontroversy first with the Catholics, then with the High Church party, and got into trouble; had one of his books burned at Oxford; his mostimportant work "Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament"; died anArian (1638-1726). 

WHITE, ALEXANDER, a Scottish divine, born in Kirriemuir, of humbleparentage; a man of deep religious sympathies and fervid zeal, with aninterest before all in spiritual things; studied the arts in Aberdeen andtheology in Edinburgh, in the latter of which cities he ministers to alarge attached flock; is the author of books, originally for most partaddresses, calculated to awaken in others an interest in divine thingsakin to his own; _b_. 1837. 

WHITE, SIR GEORGE STEWART, English general, has had a brilliantcareer; entered the army in 1853; won the Victoria Cross twice over;served in the Mutiny, in the Afghan Campaign (1879-1880), in the NileExpedition (1885), in the Burmese War (1885-1887), and was madeCommander-in-Chief in India in 1893, Quartermaster-General in 1898, andis now distinguishing himself by his generalship and heroism in the SouthAfrican War; _b_. 1835. 

WHITE, GILBERT, English naturalist, born in the village of Selborne, Hants; educated at Oriel College, Oxford, in which he obtained aFellowship, which he retained all his life; became curate of Selborne, and passed an uneventful life studying the habits of the animals aroundhim, where he "had not only no great men to look on, but not even men, only sparrows and cockchafers; yet has he left us a 'Biography' of these, which, under the title of 'Natural History of Selborne, ' still remainsvaluable to us, which has copied a little sentence or two _faithfully_from the inspired volume of Nature, and so, " adds Carlyle, "is itself notwithout inspiration" (1720-1793). 

WHITE, HENRY KIRKE, minor poet, born at Nottingham; published a bookof poems in 1803, which procured him the patronage of Southey; got asizarship in St. John's, Cambridge; through over-zeal in study underminedhis constitution and died of consumption, Southey editing his "Remains"(1785-1806). 

WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO, man of letters of an unstable creed, born inSeville, of Irish parentage; first ordained a priest; left the CatholicChurch, and took orders in the Church of England; left the English, became a Unitarian, and settled to miscellaneous literary work; left anautobiography which reveals an honest quest of light, but to the last indoubt; he lives in literature by a sonnet "Night and Death" (1775-1841). 

WHITE HORSE, name given to the figure of a horse on a hill-side, formed by removing the turf, and showing the white chalk beneath; themost famous is one at Uffington, in Berkshire, alleged to commemorate avictory of King Alfred. 

WHITE HOUSE, name popularly given to the official residence of thePresident of the United States, being a building of freestone paintedwhite. 

WHITE LADY, a lady dressed in white fabled in popular mediævallegend to appear by day as well as at night in a house before the deathof some member of the family; was regarded as the ghost of some deceasedancestress. 

WHITE MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains in Maine and New Hampshire, U. S. , forming part of the Appalachian system; much frequented by touristson account of the scenery, which has won for it the name of the"Switzerland of America"; Mount Washington, one of the hills, has a hotelon the summit approached by a railway. 

WHITE NILE, one of the two streams forming the Nile, which flows outof the Albert Nyanza, and which unites with the Blue Nile from Abyssinianear Khartoum. 

WHITE SEA, a large inlet of the Arctic Ocean, in the N. Of Russia, which is entered by a long channel and branches inward into three bays;it is of little service for navigation, being blocked with ice all theyear except in June, July, and August, and even when open encumbered withfloating ice, and often enveloped in mists at the same time. 

WHITEBOYS, a secret Irish organisation that at the beginning ofGeorge III. 's reign asserted their grievances by perpetrating agrarianoutrages; so called from the white smocks the members wore in theirnightly raids. 

WHITEFIELD, GEORGE, founder of Calvinistic Methodism, born atGloucester; was an associate of WESLEY (q. V. ) at Oxford, andafterwards as preacher of Methodism both in this country and America, commanding crowded audiences wherever he went, and creating, in Scotlandparticularly, a deep religious awakening, but who separated from Wesleyon the matter of election; died near Boston, U. S. (1714-1770). 

WHITEHAVEN (18), a seaport of Cumberland, 38 m. SW. Of Carlisle, with coal and hematite iron mines in the neighbourhood; hasblast-furnaces, iron-works, and manufactures of various kinds, with aconsiderable coasting traffic. 

WHITELOCKE, BULSTRODE, a statesman of the Commonwealth, born inLondon; studied law at the Middle Temple: sat in the Long Parliament, andwas moderate in his zeal for the popular side; at the Restoration hisname was included in the Act of Oblivion, but he took no part afterwardsin public affairs; left "Memorials" of historical value (1605-1675). 

WHITGIFT, JOHN, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Great Grimsby; waseducated at Cambridge, and became Fellow and Master of Pembroke College;escaped persecution under Queen Mary, and on the accession of Elizabethwas ordained a priest; after a succession of preferments, both as atheologian and an ecclesiastic, became archbishop in 1583; attended QueenElizabeth on her deathbed, and crowned James I. ; was an Anglican prelateto the backbone, and specially zealous against the Puritans;contemplated, with no small apprehension, the accession of James, "interror of a Scotch mist coming down on him with this new Majesty from theland of Knox, or Nox, Chaos, and Company"; his last words were, withuplifted hands and eyes, a prayer for the Church, uttered in King James'shearing (1530-1604). 

WHITHORN, a small town in Wigtownshire, 12 m. S. Of Wigtown, celebrated as the spot where St. Ninian planted Christianity in Scotland, and founded a church to St. Martin in 397. 

WHITMAN, WALT, the poet of "Democracy, " born in Long Island, U. S. , of parents of mingled English and Dutch blood; was a large-minded, warm-hearted man, who led a restless life, and had more in him than hehad training to unfold either in speech or act; a man eager, had he knownhow, to do service in the cause of his much-loved mankind; wrote "Leavesof Grass, " "Drum-Taps, " and "Two Rivulets" (1819-1892). 

WHITNEY, ELI, an American inventor, born in Massachusetts; inventedthe cotton-gin, a machine for cleaning seed-cotton, and became amanufacturer of firearms, by which he realised a large fortune(1765-1825). 

WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT, American philologist, born inMassachusetts; studied at Yale College, where he became professor ofSanskrit, in which he was a proficient, and to the study of which helargely contributed; has done much for the science of language(1827-1894). 

WHITSUNDAY, the seventh Sunday after Easter, a festival day of theChurch kept in commemoration of the descent of the Holy Ghost. 

WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF, the American "Quaker Poet, " born atHaverhill, in Massachusetts, the son of a poor farmer; wrought, likeBurns, at field work, and acquired a loving sympathy with Nature, naturalpeople, and natural scenes; took to journalism at length, and became akeen abolitionist and the poet-laureate of abolition; his poems are fewand fugitive (1807-1893). 

WHITTINGTON, SIR RICHARD, Lord Mayor of London, born at Pauntley, Gloucestershire; came to London, prospered in business, was elected LordMayor thrice over, and knighted; this is the Whittington of the nurserytale, "Dick Whittington and his Cat" (1538-1623). 

WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH, eminent mechanician, born at Stockport; therival of Lord Armstrong in the invention of ordnance; invented artilleryof great range and accuracy; was made a baronet in 1869 (1803-1887). 

WHYTE-MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN, novelist of the sporting-field, born atMount Melville, near St. Andrews; entered the army, and for a time servedin it; met his death while hunting (1821-1878). 

WICK (8), county-town of Caithness, on Wick River, 161 m. NE. OfInverness, is the chief seat of the herring fishery in Scotland; Wickproper, with its suburbs Louisburgh and Boathaven, is on the N. Of theriver, and Pultneytown on the S. ; has a few manufactures, withdistilleries and breweries. 

WICKED BIBLE, an edition of the Bible with the word _not_ omittedfrom the Seventh Commandment, for issuing which in 1632 the printers werefined and the impression destroyed. 

WICKLOW (61), a maritime county, with a capital of the name inLeinster, Ireland; is in great part mountainous and barren; has mines andquarries, and some fertile parts. 

WICLIFFE, JOHN, or WYCLIF, the "Morning Star of the Reformation, " born atHipswell, near Richmond, Yorkshire; studied at Oxford, and became Masterof Balliol in 1361, professor of Divinity in 1372, and rector ofLutterworth in 1375; here he laboured and preached with such faithfulnessthat the Church grew alarmed, and persecution set in, which happily, however, proved scatheless, and only the more emboldened him in the workof reform which he had taken up; and of that work the greatest was histranslation of the Bible from the Vulgate into the mother-tongue, atwhich, with assistance from his disciples, he laboured for some 10 or 15years, and which was finished in 1380; he may be said to have died inharness, for he was struck with paralysis while standing before the altarat Lutterworth on 29th December 1384, and died the last day of the year;his remains were exhumed and burned afterwards, and the ashes thrown intothe river Swift close by the town, "and thence borne, " says AndrewFuller, "into the main ocean, the emblem of his doctrine, which now isdispersed all the world over" (1325-1384). 

WIDDIN (14), a town on the right bank of the Danube, Bulgaria; is acentre of industry and trade; was a strong place, but by decree of theBerlin Congress in 1879 the fortress was demolished. 

WIELAND, CHRISTOPH MARTIN, eminent German littérateur, born nearBiberach, a small village in Swabia, son of a pastor of the pietistschool; studied at Tübingen; became professor of Philosophy at Erfurt, and settled in Weimar in 1772 as tutor to the two sons of the DuchessAmalia, where he by-and-by formed a friendship with Goethe and the othermembers of the literary coterie who afterwards settled there; he wrote inan easy and graceful style, and his best work is a heroic poem entitled"Oberon" (1733-1813). 

WIELICZKA (6), a town in Austrian Galicia, near Cracow, famous forits salt mines, which have been wrought continuously since 1250, thegalleries of which extend to more than 50 m. In length, and the annualoutput of which is over 50, 000 tons. 

WIER, JOHANN, physician, born in North Brabant; was distinguished asthe first to attack the belief in witchcraft, and the barbarous treatmentto which suspects were subjected; the attack was treated as profane, andprovoked the hostility of the clergy, and it would have cost him his lifeif he had not been protected by Wilhelm IV. , Duke of Jülich and Clèves, whose physician he was (1516-1566). 

WIERTZ, ANTOINE, a Belgian painter, born at Dinant, did a greatvariety of pictures on a variety of subjects, some of them on a largescale, and all in evidence of a high ideal of his profession, and anoriginal genius for art (1806-1865). 

WIESBADEN (65), capital of Hesse-Nassau, a famous Germanwatering-place, abounding in hot springs, 5 m. NW. Of Mainz; has a numberof fine buildings and fine parade grounds, picture-gallery, museum, andlarge library; is one of the best-frequented spas in Europe, and isannually visited by 60, 000 tourists or invalids; it was famed for itssprings among the old Romans. 

WIFE OF BATH, one of the pilgrims in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales. "

WIGAN (55), a town in Lancashire, 18 m. NW. Of Manchester, in thecentre of a large coal-field; cottons are the staple manufactures; is aplace of ancient date, and has some fine buildings. 

WIGHT, ISLE OF, an island in the S. Of England, included inHampshire, from which it is separated by the channel of the SOLENT(q. V. ); it is of triangular shape, is 23 m. Of utmost length, andabout 14 m. Of utmost breadth; it is traversed by a range of chalk downsfrom E. To W. ; the soil is fertile, especially in the E. ; the sceneryrich and varied, and the climate charming; Newport is the capital in thecentre; near Cowes is Osborne House, the summer residence of QueenVictoria. 

WIGTOWNSHIRE (36), the most southerly county in Scotland, in the SW. Of which the largest town is Stranraer, and the county town Wigtown; itis an agricultural county, and largely pastoral. 

WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL, English prelate, born at Clapham, third son ofthe succeeding; entered Oriel College, Oxford, at 18, where hedistinguished himself by his powers of debate; took holy orders, and roseto eminence in the Church; was made Bishop of Oxford in 1845, and ofWinchester in 1869; was a High Churchman of the pure Anglican type, andequally opposed to Romanism and Nonconformity; shone in society by hiswit and powers of conversation; Carlyle often "exchanged pleasantdialogues with him, found him dexterous, stout and clever, far from beinga bad man"; "I do not hate him, " he said to Froude one day, "near so muchas I fear I ought to do"; he found him "really of a religious nature, "and secretly in sympathy with himself on religious matters; was killed bya fall from his horse; he was popularly known by the sobriquet of "SoapySam" (1805-1873). 

WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM, eminent philanthropist, born at Hull, son of awealthy merchant; attended St. John's College, Cambridge, at 17;represented his native town in Parliament as soon as he was of age; hewas early and deeply impressed with the inhumanity of the slave-trade, and to achieve its abolition became the ruling passion of his life; withthat object he introduced a bill for its suppression in 1789, but it wasnot till 1801 he carried the Commons with him, and he had to wait sixyears longer before the House of Lords supported his measure and theEmancipation Act was passed; he retired into private life in 1825, anddied three days after the vote of 20 millions to purchase the freedom ofthe West Indian slaves; he was an eminently religious man of theEvangelical school; wrote "Practical View of Christianity" (1759-1833). 

WILD, JONATHAN, an English villain, who for housebreaking wasexecuted in 1725, and the hero of Fielding's novel of the name; he hadbeen a detective; was hanged amid execration on the part of the mob athis execution. 

WILDERNESS, a district covered with brushwood in Virginia, U. S. , the scene of a two days' terrible conflict between the Federals and theConfederates on the 5th and 6th May 1864. 

WILDFIRE, MADGE, a character in the "Heart of Midlothian, " who, being seduced, had, in her misery under a sense of her crime, gone crazy. 

WILFRID, ST. , a Saxon bishop of York, born in Northumbria; broughtup at Lindisfarne; had a checkered life of it; is celebrated in legendfor his success in converting pagans, and is usually represented in theact; _d_. 709. 

WILHELMINA I. , queen of the Netherlands, daughter of William III. , and who ascended the throne on his decease in November 1890; her mother, a sister of the Duchess of Albany, acted as regent during her minority, and she became of age on the 11th August 1898, when she was installed assovereign amid the enthusiasm of her people; _b_. 1880. 

WILHELMSHAVEN (13), the chief naval port of Germany, on Jahde Bay, 43 m. NW. Of Bremen. 

WILKES, CHARLES, American naval officer; made explorations in theSouthern Ocean in 1861; boarded on the high seas the British mail-steamer_Trent_, and carried off two Confederate commissioners accredited toFrance, who were afterwards released on the demand of the BritishGovernment (1798-1877). 

WILKES, JOHN, a notable figure in the English political world of the18th century, born in Clerkenwell, son of a distiller; was elected M. P. For Aylesbury in 1761; started a periodical called the _North Briton_, inNo. 45 of which he published an offensive libel, which led to his arrestand imprisonment in the Tower, from which he was released--on the groundthat the general warrant on which he was apprehended was illegal--amidgeneral rejoicing among the people; he was afterwards prosecuted for anobscene production, an "Essay on Women, " and outlawed for non-appearance;he sought an asylum in France, and on his return was elected forMiddlesex, but instead of being allowed to sit was committed to prison;this treatment made him the object of popular favour; he was elected LordMayor of London, re-elected for Middlesex, and at length allowed to takehis seat in the House; he was for years the cause of popular tumults, thewatchword of which was "Wilkes and Liberty"; the cause of civil libertycertainly owes something to him and to the popular agitations which aninterest in him stirred up (1727-1797). 

WILKIE, SIR DAVID, painter, born at Cults, Fife; executed a greatmany pictures depicting homely subjects, which were very popular, and aregenerally well known by the engravings of them, such as the "Rent Day, ""The Penny Wedding, " "Reading the Will, " &c. , which were followed byothers in a more ambitious style, and less appreciated, as well asportraits (1785-1841). 

WILKINS, JOHN, bishop of Chester, born in Northamptonshire; marriedOliver Cromwell's sister; wrote mathematical treatises, a curious one inparticular, "Discovery of a New World, " and was one of the founders ofthe Royal Society (1614-1672). 

WILKINSON, SIR JOHN, Egyptologist, born In Westmorland; studied atOxford; explored the antiquities of Egypt, and wrote largely on thesubject (1797-1875). 

WILL, FREEDOM OF THE, the doctrine that in and under the dominion ofpure reason the will is free, and not free otherwise; that in thiselement the Will "reigns unquestioned and by Divine right"; only in mindsin which volition is treated as a synonym of Desire does this doctrineadmit of debate. 

WILLEMS, JAN FRANS, Dutch poet and scholar, born near Antwerp;translated "Reynard the Fox" into Flemish, and did much to encourage theFlemings to preserve and cultivate their mother-tongue (1793-1846). 

WILLIAM I. , THE CONQUEROR, king of England, born at Falaise; becameDuke of Normandy by the death of his father; being an illegitimate sonhad to establish his power with the sword; being the cousin of Edward theConfessor was nominated by him his successor to the English throne, whichbeing usurped by Harold, he invaded England and defeated Harold at Senlacin 1066 and assumed the royal power, which he established over the lengthand breadth of the country in 1068; he rewarded his followers with grantsof land and lordships over them, subject to the crown; the DOOMSDAYBOOK (q. V. ) was compiled by his order, and the kingdom broughtinto closer relation with the Church of Rome, his adviser in Churchmatters being LANFRANC, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY (q. V. ); diedby a fall from his horse when suppressing rebellion in Normandy, and wasburied at Caen. He was, as characterised by Carlyle, "in rude outline atrue God-made king, of most flashing discernment, of most stronglion-heart--in whom, as it were, within a frame of oak and iron the godshad planted the soul of 'a man of genius' . .. The essential element, asof all such men, not scorching fire (merely), but shining illuminativelight . .. The most sure-eyed perception of what is what on this God'searth. " His invasion of England is known as the Norman Conquest, and itinvolved the introduction of the feudal system and Norman manners in thehabits and speech of the English people (1027-1087). 

WILLIAM II. , king of England, surnamed Rufus or Ruddy, born inNormandy, third son of William I. ; succeeded his father in 1087; had toface a rebellion, headed by Bishop Odo, in favour of his eldest brother, Robert, Duke of Normandy, which he suppressed by favour of the mass ofthe people, to whom he made promises which he did not keep, for he proveda stern and exacting ruler; his energy was great, but was frequentlyspasmodic; he added Normandy to his dominion by compact with Robert, whowent on Crusade, compelled Malcolm of Scotland to do homage for hiskingdom, conducted several campaigns against the Welsh, and had along-continued wrangle with Archbishop Anselm, virtually in defence ofthe royal prerogative against the claims of the Church, for a humorousaccount of the meaning of which see Carlyle's "Past and Present, " Bookiv. Chap. I. ; he was accidentally shot while hunting in the New Forest byWalter Tirel, and buried in Winchester Cathedral, but without anyreligious service; in his reign the Crusades began, and Westminster Hallwas built (1066-1100). 

WILLIAM III. , king of England, born at The Hague, son of WilliamII. , Prince of Orange, by Mary, the daughter of Charles I. ; during acontest on the part of the United Provinces with Louis XIV. Was, in 1672, elected Stadtholder, and by his valour and wisdom brought the war to anend in 1678; married his cousin Mary, daughter of James II. ; beinginvited to England, landed with a large army at Torbay, and on the flightof James to France, he and Mary were proclaimed king and queen of GreatBritain and Ireland in 1689; the Scotch and the Irish offered resistancein the interest of the exiled monarch, but the former were defeated atKilliecrankie in 1689, and the latter at the battle of the Boyne in 1690;he was an able man and ruler, but his reign was troubled by aninterminable feud with France, and by intrigues on behalf of James bothat home and abroad; he died by a fall from his horse at Kensington justas a great war with France was impending; he was through life theadversary of the covetous schemes of Louis, and before his death he hadprepared the materials of that coalition which, under Marlborough andPrince Eugene, brought Louis to the brink of ruin; his reign forms one ofthe great epochs in the history of England, and is known as theRevolution (1650-1702). 

WILLIAM IV. , king of England, known as the "sailor king, " born inBuckingham Palace, the third son of George III. ; entered the navy in1779; saw service under Rodney and Nelson, but practically retired in1789, as from insubordination he had to do, though he was afterwardspromoted to be Admiral of the Fleet, and even Lord High Admiral, andcontinued to take great interest in naval affairs; after living, as Dukeof Clarence, from 1792 to 1816 with Mrs. Jordan, the actress, by whom hehad 10 children, he married in 1810 Adelaide, eldest daughter of the Dukeof Saxe-Meiningen; on the death of the Duke of York in 1827 becameheir-presumptive, and on the death of George IV. In 1830 succeeded to thethrone; his reign was distinguished by the passing of the first ReformBill in 1832, the abolition of slavery in the colonies in 1833, thereform of the poor-laws in 1834, and the Municipal Reform Act in 1835;died at Windsor, and was succeeded by his niece. Queen Victoria(1765-1837). 

WILLIAM I. , emperor of Germany, born at Berlin, second son ofFrederick William III. Of Prussia, and brother of Frederick William IV. , his predecessor on the Prussian throne; was bred from boyhood to militarylife, having received his first commission at the age of 10; took part inthe war of liberation that preceded the fall of Napoleon, and receivedhis baptism of fire on 14th February 1814; visited England in 1844, andagain in 1848, and returned prepossessed in favour of constitutionalgovernment, which he found the king had already conceded in his absence;in 1858 he was appointed regent owing to his brother's incapacity, and on2nd February 1861 he succeeded to the throne, having previously made theacquaintance of Moltke in 1818 and of Bismarck in 1834; on his accession, while professing all due respect to the representatives of the people, heannounced his intention to maintain to the uttermost all his rights asking, and this gave rise to a threat of insurrection, but a war withDenmark, which issued in the recovery of the German duchies ofSleswick-Holstein, led to an outburst of loyalty, and this was deepenedby the publication of the project of Bismarck to unite all Germany underthe crown of Prussia; this provoked a war with Austria, which lasted onlyseven weeks, and ended with the consent of the latter to the projectedunification of the other States, and the establishment of a confederationof these under the headship of the Prussian king, a unification which wasconsolidated into an Imperial one at the close of the Franco-German War, when, on the 18th January 1871, the Prussian king was proclaimed emperorof Germany in the palace of Versailles; the reign which followed was apeaceful one, and the pledge of peace to the rest of Europe; the emperorwas a man of robust frame, of imposing figure, of temperate habits, offirm purpose, conspicuous courage, and devoted with his whole heart tothe welfare of his people (1797-1888). 

WILLIAM II. , emperor of Germany, born at Berlin, grandson of thepreceding, and son of Frederick III. , whom he succeeded as emperor in1888; was trained from early boyhood for kinghood, and on his accessionto the throne gave evidence of the excellent schooling he had received toequip him for the high post he was called to fill; he showed that the oldHohenzollern blood still flowed in his veins, and that he was minded tobe every inch a king; one of the first acts of his reign was to compelthe resignation of Bismarck, as it was his intention to reign alone; thathe has proved himself equal to his task events since have fullyjustified, and it is hoped it will be seen that his influence on publicaffairs will lead to the advantage of the German people and the peace ofthe world; he is by his mother the grandson of Queen Victoria, and therelationship is full of promise for the union throughout the world of theTeutonic peoples, who have already achieved so much for the good of therace; _b_. 1859. 

WILLIAM THE LION, king of Scotland, grandson of David I. , andbrother of Malcolm IV. , whom he succeeded in 1165, and whose surname issupposed to have been derived from his substitution of the lion for thedragon on the arms of Scotland; was taken captive when invading Englandat Alnwick Castle in 1174; sent prisoner to Falaise, in Normandy, butliberated on acknowledgment of vassalage to the English king, a claimwhich Richard I. Surrendered on payment by the Scots of 10, 000 marks toaid him in the Crusade; was the first king of Scotland to form analliance with France; died at Stirling after a reign of 49 years(1143-1214). 

WILLIAM THE SILENT, Prince of Orange, a cadet of the noble house ofNassau, the first Stadtholder of the Netherlands, a Protestant by birth;he was brought up a Catholic, but being at heart more a patriot than aCatholic, he took up arms in the cause of his country's freedom, and didnot rest till he had virtually freed it from the Spanish yoke, which wasthen the dominant Catholic power; his enemies procured his assassinationin the end, and he was murdered by Belthazar Gerard, at Delft; he wasbrought up at the court of Charles V. , where "his circumspect demeanourprocured him the surname of Silent, but under the cold exterior heconcealed a busy, far-sighted intellect, and a generous, upright, daringheart" (1533-1584). 

WILLIAMS, ISAAC, Tractarian, born in Wales; educated at Oxford; gotacquainted with Keble; wrote religious poetry and Tract LXXX. On "Reservein Religious Teaching" (1802-1865). 

WILLIAMS, JOHN, missionary and martyr, born near London; brought upan ironmonger; offered his services to the London Missionary Society; wassent out in 1816 to the Society Islands; laboured with conspicuoussuccess among the natives; came home in 1834, and after four yearsreturned, but was murdered at Erromango in the New Hebrides, and his bodyeaten by the cannibals (1796-1839). 

WILLIAMS, SIR MONIER MONIER-, Sanskrit scholar, born at Bombay;appointed Boden professor of Sanskrit at Oxford, 1860; author of aSanskrit Grammar and Lexicon, and projected the founding of the IndianInstitute; _b_. 1819. 

WILLIAMS, ROGER, founder of the State of Rhode Island, U. S. , bornin Wales; being a Puritan, fled the country to escape persecution, andsettled in New England, where he hoped to enjoy the religious freedom hewas denied at home, but was received with disfavour by the earliersettlers as, from his extreme views, a "troubler of Israel, " and obligedto separate himself and establish a colony of his own, which he did atProvidence by favour of an Indian tribe he had made friends of, and undera charter from the Long Parliament of England, obtained through Sir HenryVane, where he extended to others the toleration he desired for himself;he was characterised by Milton, who knew him, as "that noble champion ofreligious liberty" (1600-1683). 

WILLIAMS, ROWLAND, English clergyman, born in Flintshire; was aprominent member of the Broad Church party; was condemned, though thejudgment was reversed, by the Court of Arches, for a paper contributed tothe famous "Essays and Reviews"; wrote "Rational Godliness, ""Christianity and Hinduism, " &c. (1817-1870). 

WILLIBROD, ST. , the "Apostle of the Frisians, " born in Northumbria;was the chief of a company of 12 monks who went as missionaries fromIreland to Friesland, where they were welcomed by Pépin d'Héristal, andafterwards favoured by his son, Charles Martel; he founded an abbey nearTrèves; when he was about to baptize the Duke of Friesland, it is saidthe duke turned away when he was told his ancestors were in hell, sayinghe would rather be with them there than in heaven without them (658-739). 

WILLIS, PARKER, American writer and journalist; had travelled muchabroad, and published his experiences; among his writings "Pencillings bythe Way, " "Inklings of Adventure, " "People I have Met, " &c. (1806-1867)

WILLOUGHBY, SIR HUGH, early Arctic voyager; was sent out in 1553with three vessels by a company of London merchants on a voyage ofdiscovery, but the vessels were separated by a storm in the North Seas, and not one of them returned, only Richard Challoner, the captain of oneof them, found his way to Moscow, and opened up a trade with Russia andthis country; the ships, with the dead bodies of their crews, and thejournal of their commander, were found by some fishermen the year after. 

WILLS, WILLIAM JOHN, Australian explorer, born at Totnes;accompanied O'Hara Burke from the extreme S. To the extreme N. Of thecontinent, but died from starvation on the return journey two days beforehis leader (1834-1860). 

WILMINGTON (61), a large and handsome city and port in Delaware, 25m. SW. Of Philadelphia, with extensive manufactures; also the name of thelargest city (20) in North Carolina, with considerable manufactures andtrade; was a chief Confederate port during the Civil War. 

WILSON, ALEXANDER, ornithologist, born at Paisley; son of a weaver, bred to the loom; began his literary career as a poet; imprisoned for alampoon on a Paisley notability, went on his release to Americaunfriended, with only his fowling-piece in his hand, and a few shillingsin his pocket; led an unsettled life for a time; acquired the arts ofdrawing, colouring, and etching, and, so accomplished, commenced hisstudies on the ornithology of America, and prevailed upon a publisher inPhiladelphia to undertake an exhaustive work which he engaged to produceon the subject; the first volume appeared in 1808, and the seventh in1813, on the publication of which he met his death from a cold he caughtfrom swimming a river in pursuit of a certain rare bird (1766-1813). 

WILSON, SIR DANIEL, archæologist, was born in Edinburgh, became in1853 professor of English Literature at Toronto; wrote "Memorials ofEdinburgh, " "Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, " "Prehistoric Man, " &c. (1816-1892). 

WILSON, SIR ERASMUS, English surgeon, a great authority on skindiseases, and devoted much time to the study of Egyptian antiquities; itwas at his instance that the famous Cleopatra's Needle was brought toEngland; he was liberal in endowments for the advance of medical science(1809-1884). 

WILSON, GEORGE, chemist, born in Edinburgh, younger brother of SirDaniel; was appointed professor of Technology in Edinburgh University;was eminent as a popular lecturer on science, and an enthusiast inwhatever subject he took up (1819-1859). 

WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN, Orientalist, born in London; studiedmedicine; went to India as a surgeon; mastered Sanskrit, and became Bodenprofessor at Oxford (1786-1860). 

WILSON, JOHN, Indian missionary, born near Lauder, educated atEdinburgh; missionary at Bombay from 1828 to his death--from 1843 inconnection with the Free Church of Scotland; from his knowledge of thelanguages and religions of India, and his sagacity, was held in highregard (1804-1875). 

WILSON, JOHN, the well-known "Christopher North, " born in Paisley, son of a manufacturer, who left him a fortune of £50, 000; studied atGlasgow and Oxford; a man of powerful physique, and distinguished as anathlete as well as a poet; took up his abode in the Lake District, andenjoyed the society of Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey; wrote twopoems, the "Isle of Palms, " and the "City of the Plague"; lost hisfortune, and came to settle in Edinburgh; was called to the Scottish bar, but never practised; became editor of _Blackwood's Magazine_, and was in1820 elected over Sir William Hamilton professor of moral philosophy inEdinburgh University; his health began to fail in 1840; resigned hisprofessorship in 1851, and received a pension from the Crown of £300; heis described by Carlyle as "a tall, ruddy, broad-shouldered figure, withplenteous blonde hair, and bright blue flashing eyes, and as he walkedstrode rapidly along; had much nobleness of heart, and many traits ofnoble genius, but the central _tie-beam_ seemed always wanting; a good, grand ruined soul, that never would be great, or indeed _be_ anything"(1785-1854). 

WILTON, market-town in Wiltshire, 3 m. NW. Of Salisbury; was theancient capital of Wessex, and gave name to the county; its church, erected by Lord Herbert of Lea in 1844, is a rich Lombardic structure, with a campanile 108 ft. High. 

WILTSHIRE or WILTS (264), an inland county in SW. Of England, with Gloucestershire on the N. And Dorset on the S. , 54 m. From N. To S. And 37 m. From E. To W. ; is largely an agricultural and pastoral county;is flat, rising into hills in the N. , and is broken by downs and richvalleys in the S. , except on Salisbury Plain; sheep-breeding anddairy-farming are the chief industries, and it is famous for cheese andbacon. 

WIMBLEDON (25), a suburb of London, 7½ m. To the SW. , on a commonused by the volunteers from 1860 to 1889 for rifle practice. 

WINCHESTER (19), an ancient city of Hampshire, and the county town, 60 m. SW. Of London, on the right bank of the Itchen; is a cathedralcity, with a noted large public school; was at one time the capital ofEngland; the cathedral dates from the 11th century, but it hassubsequently undergone considerable extensions and alterations; theschool was founded by William of Wykeham in 1387. 

WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM, great art critic, born at Stendal, inPrussian Saxony, of poor parents; was a student from his boyhood, andearly devoted especially to archæology and the study of the antique;became a Roman Catholic on the promise of an appointment in Rome, wherehe would have full scope to indulge his predilections, and becamelibrarian to Cardinal Albani there; his great work was "Geschichte derKunst des Alterthums" (the "History of Ancient Art"), in particular thatof Greece, which proved epoch-making, and the beginning of a new era inthe study of art in general; he was assassinated in a hotel at Trieste onhis way to Vienna by a fellow-traveller to whom he had shown some of hisvaluables, and the German world was shocked (1717-1768). 

WINDERMERE, a lake on the borders of Westmorland and Lancashire, thelargest in England, 10½ m. Long from N. To S. , and 1 m. Broad; is 240 ft. Deep and 134 ft. Above sea-level; is amid beautiful scenery, and near itis Rydal Mount, long the residence of Wordsworth. 

WINDHAM, WILLIAM, English statesman, born of an ancient Norfolkfamily; was opposed to the American War; took part in the impeachment ofWarren Hastings; was Secretary at War under Pitt; advocated the removalof Catholic disabilities, but was opposed to Parliamentary reform; hasbeen described by his contemporaries as the model both physically andmentally of an English gentleman, able and high minded (1780-1810). 

WINDISCHGRÄTZ, PRINCE, Austrian field-marshal; took part in thecampaigns against Napoleon, and in 1848 suppressed the revolution atPrague and Vienna; failed against the Hungarians, and was superseded(1787-1862). 

WINDSOR (12), a town in Berkshire, on the right bank of the Thames, opposite Eton, and about 22 m. W. Of London, with a castle which fromearly Plantagenet times has been the principal residence of the kings ofEngland. 

WINDWARD ISLANDS (150), a group of the West Indies, the LesserAntilles, belonging to Britain, extending from Martinique to Trinidad. 

WINDWARD PASSAGE, a channel leading into the Caribbean Sea, betweenthe islands of Cuba and Hayti. 

WINER, GEORGE BENEDICT, New Testament scholar, born at Leipzig, andprofessor there; best known for his work on the New Testament Greekidioms (1789-1858). 

WINIFRED, ST. , a British maiden who was decapitated by PrinceCaradoc in 650; where her head rolled off tradition says a springinstantly gushed forth, the famous Holywell in Flintshire; is representedin art carrying her head. 

WINKELRIED, ARNOLD VON, a brave Swiss who, on the field of Sempach, on 9th June 1386, rushed on the lances of the opposing Austrians, and soopened a way for his compatriots to dash through and win the day. 

WINKLE. See RIP VAN WINKLE. 

WINNIPEG (25), formerly Fort Garry, the capital of Manitoba, at thejunction of the Assiniboine with the Red River, over 1400 m. NW. OfMontreal; is a well-built town, with several public buildings and allmodern appliances; stands on the Pacific Railway; is a busy tradingcentre, and is growing rapidly. 

WINNIPEG, LAKE, a lake in Manitoba, 40 m. N. Of the city, 280 m. Long, 57 m. Broad, and covering an area of over 8000 sq. M. ; it drains anarea twice as large as France; the Saskatchewan flows into it, and theNelson flows out. 

WINSTANLEY, HENRY, English engineer; erected a lighthouse on theEddystone Rock in 1696, and completed it in four years; it was built oftimber, and had not much strength; he perished in it in a storm in 1703. 

WINT, PETER DE, water-colourist, born in Staffordshire, of Dutchdescent; famed for paintings of English scenery and rustic life(1784-1849). 

WINTER KING, name given by the Germans to Frederick V. , husband ofElizabeth, daughter of James I. , his Winter Queen, who was elected kingof Bohemia by the Protestants in 1619, and compelled to resign in 1620. 

WINTHROP, JOHN, "Father of Massachusetts, " born in Suffolk; studiedat Trinity College; headed a Puritan colony from Yarmouth to Salem, andwas governor of the settlement at Boston till his death; was a pious andtolerant man; left a "Journal" (1581-1649). 

WISCONSIN (1, 686), one of the Central States of North America, nearly as large as England and Wales, and situated between Lake Superiorand Michigan; the surface is chiefly of rolling prairie, and the soilfertile; yields cereals, sugar, hops, hemp, and large quantities oflumber from the forests; lead, iron, copper, and silver are among itsmineral resources; it abounds in beautiful lakes; the Wisconsin and theChippewa are the chief rivers, tributaries of the Mississippi; andMadison (the capital), Milwaukee, and La Crosse are the chief towns. 

WISDOM OF JESUS. See ECCLESIASTICUS. 

WISDOM OF SOLOMON, one of the most beautiful books in the Apocrypha, written at the close of the 2nd century B. C. By one who knew both theGreek language and Greek philosophy, to commend the superiority to thisphilosophy of the divine wisdom revealed to the Jews. Its general aim, ashas been said, is "to show, alike from philosophy and history, as againstthe materialists of the time, that the proper goal of life was not mereexistence, however long, or pleasure of any sort, but something noblyintellectual and moral, and that the pious Israelite was on the surestpath to its attainment. "

WISEMAN, NICHOLAS, cardinal and Roman Catholic Archbishop ofWestminster, born at Seville, of Irish parents; studied at a RomanCatholic college near Durham and the English college at Rome, of which hebecame rector; lectured in London in 1836 on the Doctrines of theCatholic Church, and in 1840 became vicar-apostolic, first in the centraldistrict of England, then of the London district in 1846, and was in 1850named Archbishop of Westminster by the Pope; this was known in England asthe "papal aggression, " which raised a storm of opposition in thecountry, but this storm Wiseman, now cardinal, succeeded veryconsiderably in allaying by a native courtesy of manner which commendedhim to the regard of the intelligent and educated classes of thecommunity; he was a scholarly man, and a vigorous writer and orator(1802-1865). 

WISHART, GEORGE, a Scottish martyr, born in Forfarshire; began lifeas a schoolmaster; was charged with heresy for teaching the Greek NewTestament; left the country and spent some time on the Continent; on hisreturn boldly professed and preached the Reformation doctrines, and hadthe celebrated John Knox, who was tutor in the district, for a discipleamong others; he was arrested in Haddingtonshire in January and burned atSt. Andrews in March 1546; Knox would fain have accompanied him on hisarrest, but was paternally dissuaded by the gentle martyr; "Go home toyour bairns" (pupils), said he; "ane is sufficient for a sacrifice. "

WISMAR (15), a seaport of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Baltic; has anumber of quaint old buildings, various manufactures, and an activetrade. 

WITCH OF ENDOR, a divining woman consulted by King Saul, whoaffected to call up the spirit of Samuel, who foretold his defeat anddoom. 

WITENAGEMOT (assembly of the wise), name given to the nationalcouncil or Parliament of England in Anglo-Saxon times, agreeably to whosedecisions the affairs of the kingdom were managed; it consisted of thebishops, royal vassals, and thanes. 

WITHER, GEORGE, poet, born at Arlesford, in Hampshire, and educatedat Magdalen College, Oxford; was imprisoned for his first poem, a satire, "Abuses Stript and Whipt, " in 1613; his subsequent productions betraytrue poetic inspiration, and special passages in them are much admired;he was a religious poet, and is much belauded by Charles Lamb; in theCivil War he espoused the Puritan side, and in his zeal in its behalfraised a troop of horse (1588-1667). 

WITHERSPOON, JOHN, Scottish theologian, born at Tester; was ministerat Paisley; became president of the college at New Jersey, U. S. ; died atPrinceton; wrote "Ecclesiastic Characteristics" against the Moderates, also on justification and regeneration (1722-1794). 

WITSIUS, HERMANN, Dutch theologian; became professor at Leyden;wrote on what are in old orthodox theology called the "Covenants, " ofwhich there were reckoned two, one of works, under the Mosaic system, and the other of grace, under the Christian (1636-1708). 

WITTEKIND, leader of the Saxon struggle against Charlemagne;annihilated the Frankish army in 783, in retaliation for whichCharlemagne executed 4500 Saxons he had taken prisoners, which roused theentire Saxon people to arms, and led to a drawn battle at Detmold, uponwhich Wittekind accepted baptism, and was promoted to a dukedom by theFrankish king; he fell in battle with Gerold, a Swabian duke, in 807. 

WITTENBERG (13), a town in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of theElbe, 50 m. SW. Of Berlin; was the capital of the electorate of Saxony, and a stronghold of the Reformers; is famous in the history of Luther, and contains his tomb; it was on the door of the Schlosskirche of whichhe nailed his famous 95 theses, and at the Elster Gate of which he burnedthe Pope's bull, "the people looking on and shouting, all Europe lookingon. "

WIZARD OF THE NORTH, name given to Sir Walter Scott, from the magicpower displayed in his writings. 

WODEN, the German and Anglo-Saxon name for ODIN (q. V. ). 

WODROW, ROBERT, Scottish Church historian, born at Glasgow; studiedat the University, became librarian, and settled as minister at Eastwood, Renfrewshire; was diligent with his pen; left 50 volumes of MSS. , onlyone of which was published in his lifetime, "History of the Sufferings ofthe Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution, " the resthaving been in part published by several antiquarian societies since(1679-1734). 

WOFFINGTON, PEG, actress, born in Dublin, where she made her firstappearance in 1737, and in London at Covent Garden in 1740, in a stylewhich carried all hearts by storm; she was equally charming in certainmale characters as in female; her character was not without reproach, butshe had not a little of that charity which covereth a multitude of sins, in the practice of which, after her retirement in 1757, she ended herdays (1720-1768). 

WOIWODE, name at one time of an elective prince among the Slavs, originally one chosen in some emergency; superseded by Hospodar in 1716. 

WOKING (9), a small town in Surrey, 24 m. SW. Of London; contains alarge cemetery with crematorium near it, and not far off is BisleyCommon, with shooting-butts for practice by the Volunteers. 

WOLCOT, JOHN, better known by his pseudonym Peter Pindar, born inDevonshire; bred to and practised medicine; took orders, and held officein the Church; took eventually to writing satires and lampoons, whichspared no one, and could not be bribed into silence; was blind for someyears before he died (1738-1819). 

WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST, great classical scholar, born nearNordhausen; studied at Göttingen; was professor of Philology at Halle;became world-famous for his theory of the Homeric poems; he maintains, inhis "Prolegomena ad Homerum, " that the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" wereoriginally a body of independent ballads handed down by oral tradition, and gradually collected into two groups, which finally appeared each asone, bearing the name of Homer, who, he allows, was _probably_ the firstto attempt to weave them severally into one; the "Prolegomena" waspublished in 1735, and its appearance caused a wide-spread sensation, andgave rise to a controversy which maintains itself to the present time(1759-1824). 

WOLFE, CHARLES, author of the "Burial of Sir John Moore, " born inDublin; became an Irish clergyman; died of consumption (1791-1823). 

WOLFE, JAMES, major-general, born in Kent, son of alieutenant-general, who served under Marlborough; was present at thebattles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, Falkirk, and Culloden, and served in theexpedition against Rochefort, which it was believed proved disastrousbecause his counsel was not followed; this circumstance attracted theattention of Pitt, who appointed him a command in Canada; here hedistinguished himself first at the siege of Louisburg, and then by thecapture of Quebec, where he fell at the moment of victory; he lived tohear the cry "They run, " and eagerly asked "Who run?" and being told theFrench, exclaimed, "I thank God, and die contented" (1727-1759). 

WOLFENBÜTTEL (13), an old town in Brunswick, 7 m. S. Of Brunswick;contains an old building, now rebuilt, being a library of vast extent andrich in MSS. ; has various manufactures. 

WOLFF, JOHANN CHRISTIAN VON, German philosopher and mathematician, born at Breslau; was appointed professor at Halle in 1707, but was in1723 not only removed from his chair, but banished from Prussia byFrederick William on account of his opinions, which, as fatalistic, weredeemed socially demoralising, but was recalled by Frederick the Great onhis accession, and afterwards promoted to the rank of baron of theempire; he was a disciple of Leibnitz, and the father of the philosophythat prevailed in Germany before the time of Kant; his merits as aphilosopher were threefold: he claimed for philosophy the entire field ofknowledge, he paid special attention to method in philosophicalspeculation, and he first taught philosophy to express itself in German, or made German the philosophical language (1679-1754). 

WOLLASTON, WILLIAM, ethical and theological writer, born nearStafford; wrote "Religion of Nature, " a rationalistic work written in anoptimistic spirit (1659-1724). 

WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE, physicist and chemist, born in Norfolk, grandson of preceding; made extensive discoveries in chemistry andoptics; invented the camera lucida and the goniometer. 

WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY. See GODWIN. 

WOLSELEY, GARNET JOSEPH, LORD, field-marshal, born in co. Dublin, ofa Staffordshire family; entered the army in 1852; served in the BurmeseWar of 1852-1853, in the Crimean War, where he was severely wounded, inthe Chinese War of 1860, and afterwards in Canada; commanded in theAshantee War in 1878, and received the thanks of Parliament, with a grantof £25, 000, for "courage, energy, and perseverance" in the conduct of it, and after services in Natal, Egypt, and Ireland was made field-marshal in1894, and commander-in-chief in 1895; _b_. 1833. 

WOLSEY, THOMAS, cardinal, born at Ipswich, son of a well-to-dograzier and wool-merchant; educated at Magdalen College, Oxford; enteredthe Church early; gained the favour of Henry VII. , and was promoted byhim for his services to the deanery of Lincoln; this was the first of aseries of preferments at the hands of royalty, which secured him onebishopric after another until his revenue accruing therefrom equalledthat of the crown itself, which he spent partly in display of his rankand partly in acts of munificence; of his acts of munificence thefounding of Christ Church College in the interest of learning was one, and the presentation of Hampton Court Palace, which he had built, to theking, was another; it was in the reign of Henry VIII. That he rose topower, and to him especially he owed his honours; it was for hisservices to him he obtained the chancellorship of the kingdom, and at hissuit that he obtained the cardinal's hat and other favours from the Pope;this, though not the height of his ambition, was the limit of it, for hesoon learned how frail a reed is a prince's favour; he refused tosanction his master's marriage with Anne Boleyn, and was driven frompower and bereft of all his possessions; finally, though restored to thesee of York, he was arrested on a charge of treason, took ill on the wayto London, and died at Leicester, with the words on his lips, "Had I butserved God as I have served the king, He would not have forsaken me in mygrey hairs" (1471-1530). 

WOLVERHAMPTON (82), a town in Staffordshire, 12½ m. NW. OfBirmingham, in the midst of coal and iron fields; the centre of a groupof towns engaged in different kinds of iron manufacture, locks and keysthe staple, and the metropolis of the Black Country. 

WOMAN'S RIGHTS, claims on the part and in the behalf of women to astatus in society which will entitle them to the legal and socialprivileges of men. 

WOOD, SIR ANDREW, Scottish admiral, born in Largo, Fife; wasdistinguished and successful in several naval engagements, chiefly in theForth, against the English in the reigns of James III. And James IV. ;received for his services the honour of knighthood and the village andlands of Largo in fee; was an eccentric old admiral; is said to have hada canal cut from his house to the church, and to have sailed thither inhis barge every Sunday; _d_. 1540. 

WOOD, ANTHONY, antiquary, born at Oxford, and educated at MertonCollege, Oxford; was a gentleman of independent means; wrote "History andAntiquities of Oxford University, " which appeared in 1674, and "AthenæOxonienses, " which appeared in 1691, being an exact history of all thewriters and bishops educated at Oxford from 1500 to 1690 (1632-1695). 

WOOD, SIR EVELYN, soldier, born in Essex; served in the IndianMutiny War, and received the V. C. , also in the Ashanti, in the Zulu, inthe Transvaal (1880-1881) Wars, and in Egypt in 1882; _b_. 1838. 

WOOD, MRS. HENRY (_née_ Price), novelist, born in Worcestershire;her best novels "The Channings" and "Mrs. Halliburton's Troubles, " thoughher most popular "East Lynne"; she wrote some thirty, all popular, anddeservedly so (1820-1887). 

WOODEN HORSE, a gigantic horse of wood, within which Greek warriorswere concealed, and which the Trojans were persuaded to admit into theircity, to its ruin, on the pretext that it was an offering by the Greeksto Pallas, to atone for their abstraction of her image from the citadel. 

WOODSTOCK, a small market-town on the Glyme, 8 m. NW. Of Oxford, once a royal manor, near which is BLENHEIM PARK (q. V. ). 

WOOLNER, THOMAS, English sculptor, born at Hadleigh, in Suffolk;sympathised with the Pre-Raphaelite movement; did a number of statues(one of Bacon for Oxford), busts of famous contemporaries--Carlyle, Darwin, Tennyson, &c. --and ideal works, such as Elaine, Ophelia, Guinevere, &c. ; was a poet as well as a sculptor (1826-1892). 

WOOLSACK, the seat of the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords, asSpeaker of the House, being a large square cushion of wool covered withred cloth, without either back or arms. 

WOOLSTON, THOMAS, an eccentric semi-deistical writer, born atNorthampton, who maintained a lifelong polemic against the literal truthof the Bible, and insisted that the miraculous element in it must beallegorically interpreted, with such obstinacy that he was in the endsubjected to imprisonment as a blasphemer, from which he was neverreleased, because he refused to recant (1669-1731). 

WOOLWICH (40), a town in Kent, on the S. Bank of the Thames, 9 m. Below London; is the chief military arsenal in the country; contains agun factory, ammunition factory, laboratory, &c. , which employ 12, 000men, besides barracks for artillery, engineers, &c. , covering an area 4m. In circumference. 

WORCESTER (42), the county town of Worcestershire, on the left bankof the Severn, 26 m. SE. Of Birmingham; a very ancient place, and ahandsome city, with a noble old Gothic cathedral; is famous for its blueporcelain ware and other industries, particularly glove-making; was thescene in 1651 of Cromwell's victory over the Royalists, which he calledhis "crowning mercy. "

WORCESTER (118), the second city of Massachusetts, U. S. , a place ofbusy industry, and with a flourishing trade. 

WORCESTER, MARQUIS OF, inventor of the steam-engine, born probablyin the Strand; early gave himself to mechanical studies; was an ardentRoyalist; negotiated with the Irish Catholics on behalf of the king; wasdiscovered and imprisoned on a charge of treason, but his release beingprocured by the king, he spent some time in exile; on his return he wasagain imprisoned and then released; wrote an account of inventionsamounting to a hundred, "A Century of Inventions" as he called it, one ofwhich he described as "an admirable and most forcible way of driving upwater by fire" (1601-1667). 

WORCESTERSHIRE, an agricultural and pastoral county in the valley ofthe Severn, the N. Part of which is the Black Country, rich in coal andiron mines, with Dudley for capital, and the SW. Occupied by the MalvernHills, while the S. Is famous for its orchards and hop-gardens; it hasalso extensive manufactures at Worcester, Kidderminster, Stourbridge, andRedditch. 

WORD, THE, or LOGOS, the name given by St. John to God asexisting from the beginning as in the fulness of time He manifestedHimself in Christ, or as at first what He revealed Himself at last. 

WORDSWORTH, CHARLES, bishop of St. Andrews, born in Lambeth, studiedat Christ Church, Oxford; was private tutor to Gladstone and Manning, Warden of Glenalmond College, Perthshire, and made bishop in 1852; was astudent of Shakespeare, and distinguished as a prelate for his zeal forChurch union in Scotland; he was a nephew of the poet (1805-1892). 

WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM, poet, born at Cockermouth, of a Yorkshirestock; educated at Hawkshead Grammar School and at St. John's College, Cambridge; travelled in France at the Revolution period, and was smittenwith the Republican fever, which however soon spent itself; establishedhimself in the S. Of England, and fell in with Coleridge, and visitedGermany in company with him, and on his return settled in the LakeCountry; married Mary Hutchinson, who had been a school-fellow of his, and to whom he was attached when a boy, and received a lucrative sinecureappointment as distributor of stamps in the district, took up hisresidence first at Grasmere and finally at Rydal Mount, devoting his lifein best of the Muses, as he deemed, to the composition of poetry, withall faith in himself, and slowly but surely bringing round his admirersto the same conclusion; he began his career in literature by publishingalong with Coleridge "Lyrical Ballads"; finished his "Prelude" in 1806, and produced his "Excursion" in 1814, after which, from his home at RydalMount, there issued a long succession of miscellaneous pieces; hesucceeded Southey as poet-laureate in 1843; he is emphatically the poetof external nature and of its all-inspiring power, and it is as such hisadmirers regard him; Carlyle compares his muse to "an honest rusticfiddle, good and well handled, but wanting two or more of the strings, and not capable of much"; to judge of Wordsworth's merits as a poet thestudent is referred to Matthew Arnold's "Selections" (1770-1850). 

WORLD, THE, the name applied in the New Testament to the collectivebody of those who reject and oppose the spirit of Christ, who practicallyaffirm what He denies, and practically deny what He affirms, or turn HisYea into Nay, and His Nay into Yea. 

WORMS (25), an old German town in Hesse-Darmstadt, in a fertileplain on the left bank of the Rhine, 40 m. SE. Of Mainz, with a massiveRomanesque cathedral having two domes and four towers; it was here theDiet of the empire was held under Charles V. , and before which MartinLuther appeared on 17th April 1521, standing alone in his defence on therock of Scripture, and deferentially declining to recant: "Here stand I;I can do no other; so help me God. "

WORSAAE, JANS JACOB, eminent Danish archæologist, born in Jutland;has written on the antiquities of the North, specially in a Scandinavianreference (1821-1885). 

WORTHING (16), a fashionable watering-place on the Sussex coast, 10½m. SW. Of Brighton; has a mild climate, fine sands, and a long wideparade. 

WOTTON, SIR HENRY, diplomatist and scholar, born in Kent; wasambassador of James I. For 20 years, chiefly at Venice; visited Kepler(q. V. ) on one occasion, and found him a very "ingenious person, " andcame under temporary eclipse for his definition of an ambassador, "Anhonest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country"; wasultimately provost of Eton, and was a friend of many good men, amongothers Isaac Walton, who wrote his Life; he wished to be remembered asthe author of the saying, "The itch of controversy is the scab(_scabies_) of the Churches, " and caused it to be insculpt in his epitaph(1568-1630). 

WOUVERMANS, PHILIP, Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, where he livedand died; painted small landscapes, hunting pieces, and battle pieces, from which the picture-dealers profited, while he lived and died poor;had two brothers, whose pictures are, though inferior, often mistaken forhis (1619-1668). 

WRANGEL, FREDERICK, Prussian field-marshal, born at Stettin; servedwith distinction in various campaigns, and commanded in the Danish War of1864, and was present in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, though withoutcommand; was known as Papa Wrangel among the Berliners, who loved him forhis disregard of grammar (1784-1877). 

WRANGLER, name given in Cambridge University to those who haveattained the first rank in mathematics, pure and applied, the one whoheads the list being known as the Senior Wrangler. 

WREDE, PHILIP, field-marshal and prince, born in Heidelberg; servedas a Bavarian general against Austria as the ally of Napoleon at Wagram, and also in the expedition against Russia in 1812, on which occasion hecovered the retreat of the French army to the loss of nearly all thecavalry; fought against the French at Hanau; was defeated, but wasafterwards successful on French soil, and eventually becamecommander-in-chief of the Bavarian army (1767-1838). 

WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER, architect, born at East Knoyle, in Wiltshire;educated at Westminster School and Wadham College, Oxford, and becameFellow of All Souls; was early distinguished in mathematics and formechanical ingenuity, and soon became notable for his skill inarchitecture, and received a commission to restore St. Paul's, London, but on its destruction in 1666 he was appointed to design and erect anentirely new structure; for this he had prepared himself by study abroad, and he proceeded to construct a new St. Paul's after the model of St. Peter's at Rome, a work which, as it occupied him from 1675 to 1710, tookhim 35 years to finish; he died at the age of 90, sitting in his chairafter dinner, and was buried in the cathedral which he had erected, withthis inscription, "Si monumentum requiris, circumspice" (If you inquireafter his monument, look around); Wren was a man of science as well as anartist; he was at one time Savilian professor of Astronomy at Oxford, andone of the founders of the Royal Society (1631-1723). 

WREN, MATTHEW, bishop of Ely; was one of the judges of the StarChamber; assisted in preparing the liturgy for Scotland, which, when readin St. Giles', Edinburgh, roused the ire of JENNY GEDDES (q. V. );was impeached, and confined in the Tower for 18 years, and releasedat the Restoration (1585-1667). 

WREXHAM (12), an important town in Denbighshire, North Wales, 12 m. SW. From Chester, in the centre of a mining district, and famed for itsbreweries. 

WRIGHT, JOSEPH, painter, usually called "Wright of Derby, " from hisbirthplace and place of residence nearly all his life; he excelled inportraits, and in the representation of the effects especially offirelight (1734-1797). 

WRIGHT, THOMAS, antiquary, born in Shropshire, but settled inLondon; wrote or edited a vast number of works bearing on theantiquities, literary and other, of England, and was connected with thefounding of sundry antiquarian societies (1810-1877). 

WRITERS TO THE SIGNET, a body of solicitors in Scotland who had atone time the exclusive privilege of practising in and drawing up casesfor the supreme courts of the country, and whose privileges are nowlimited to the preparation of crown writs. 

WULSTAN, ST. , Saxon bishop of Worcester in the days of Edward theConfessor; being falsely accused by his adversaries, after the king'sdeath, he was required to resign, but refused, and laying his crozier onthe Confessor's shrine called upon him to decide who should wear it; noneof his accusers could lift it, only himself, to his exculpation fromtheir accusations. 

WUNDT, WILHELM MAX, distinguished German physiologist, born inBaden, and professor at Leipzig; distinguished for his studies on theconnection of the physical with the psychical in the human organisation, and has written on psychology as well as physiology; _b_. 1832. 

WUPPERTHAL, a densely-peopled valley in Germany traversed by theriver Wupper, which after a course of 40 m. Enters the right bank of theRhine between Cologne and Düsseldorf, and which embraces the towns ofBarmen and Elberfeld. 

WURMSER, COUNT VON, Austrian general, born in Alsace; took an activepart in the war with France; commanded the respect of Napoleon from hisdefence of Mantua, on the capitulation of which he refused to take himprisoner (1721-1797). 

WÜRTEMBERG (2, 035), a kingdom of South Germany, about one-fourth thesize of Scotland, between Baden on the W. And Bavaria on the E. ; theBlack Forest extends along the W. Of it, and it is traversed nearly E. And W. By the Swabian Alp, which slopes down on the N. Side into thevalley of the Neckar, and on the S. Into that of the Danube; the soil isfertile, and is in great part under cultivation, yielding corn, vines, and fruits, agriculture being the chief industry of the population; thereare only four towns whose inhabitants exceed 20, 000, of which Stuttgartis one, and Ulm, the capital, is the other; the towns are the centres ofvaried manufactures; education is of a high standard; and associated withthe country is a number of famous names-enough to mention the names ofKepler, Schiller, Hegel, Schelling, and Strauss; the government isconstitutional, under a hereditary sovereign. 

WURTZ, CHARLES ADOLPHE, celebrated French chemist, born at Strasburg(1817-1884). 

WÜRZBURG (51), a Bavarian town in a valley of the Main, 70 m. SB. OfFrankfort; its principal buildings are the Royal or Episcopal Palace, thecathedral, and the university, with the Julius Hospital, called after itsfounder, Bishop Julius, who was also founder of the university, which isattended by 1500 students, mostly medical, and has a library of 100, 000volumes; the fortress of Marienberg, overlooking the town, was till 1720the episcopal palace. 

WUTTKE, KARL, theologian, born at Breslau, professor at Halle; wroteon Christian ethics, stoutly maintained the incompatibility ofChristianity with democracy, that a Christian could not be a democrat ora democrat a Christian (1819-1870). 

WYANDOTS, a tribe of North American Indians of the Iroquois stock;were nearly exterminated in 1636, but a feeble remnant of them now occupya small district in the Indian Territory. 

WYATT, RICHARD, sculptor, born in London; studied in Home underCanova, and had Gibson for fellow-student; a man of classical tastes, andproduced a number of exquisitely-modelled, especially female, figures(1795-1850). 

WYATT, SIR THOMAS, English poet, courtier, and statesman, born atAllington Castle, in Kent, and educated at St. John's College, Cambridge;was a welcome presence at court, a friend of Anne Boleyn, in high favourwith the king, and knighted in 1537; did a good deal of diplomatic workin Spain and the Netherlands, and died on his way to meet the Spanishambassador and convoy him to London; he had travelled in Italy, hadstudied the lyric poets of Italy, especially Petrarch, and, along withSurrey, imported their sentiment into English verse, "amourist poetry, "as it has been called, "a poetry extremely personal, and personal asEnglish poetry had scarcely ever been before" (1503-1542). 

WYATT, SIR THOMAS, the younger, only son of the preceding; wasleader of the rebellion that broke out in 1554 in consequence of thesettlement of the marriage between Queen Mary and Philip of Spain, inwhich, being repulsed at Temple Bar, he surrendered, was committed to theTower, and for which he was executed, Lady Jane Grey and her husbandfollowing to the same doom shortly after (1520-1554). 

WYCHERLEY, WILLIAM, dramatist, born in Shropshire, of good birth, and resided for a time in Paris, being admitted to the circle of thePrécieuses, but returned to England at the Restoration, and became afigure at the court; his plays were marked with the coarseness of thetime, and his best were "The Country Wife" (1675) and the "Plain Dealer"(1677); married the Countess of Drogheda for her fortune, a legacy whichcost him only lawsuits and imprisonment for debt; succeeded to hispaternal estate when he was an old man; married again, and diedimmediately after (1640-1715). 

WYCLIFFE, JOHN. See Wicliffe. 

WYCOMBE, HIGH (13), a market-town in Buckinghamshire, on the Wye, 25m. SE. Of Oxford; has a parish church built in the Norman style in 1273and restored in 1887, and several public buildings; the manufacture ofchairs, lace, and straw-plait among the leading industries. 

WYE, a lovely winding river in South Wales, which rises near thesource of the Severn on Plinlimmon, and falls into its estuary atChepstow, 125 m. From its head; rapid in its course at first, it becomesgentler as it gathers volume; barges ascend it as far as Hereford, but ahigh tidal wave makes navigation dangerous at its mouth. 

WYKEHAM, WILLIAM OF, bishop of Winchester, born in Hampshire ofhumble parentage; was patronised by the governor of Winchester Castle andintroduced by him to Edward III. , who employed him to superintend therebuilding of Windsor Castle, and by-and-by made him Privy Seal and LordChancellor, though he fell into disgrace towards the close of Edward'sreign; was restored to favour in Richard II. 's reign and once more madeChancellor; in his later years he founded the New College, Oxford, builtand endowed St. Mary's College, Winchester, and rebuilt the cathedralthere. He was less of a theologian than an architect; was disparaginglyspoken of by John Wickliffe as a "builder of castles, " and his favouritemotto was, "Manners make the man"; (1324-1404). 

WYNNAD, a highland district in the Western Ghâts, Madras Presidency, with extensive coffee plantations, and a wide distribution of auriferousquartz rock, the working of which has been on an extravagant scale, andhas involved the loss of much capital. 

WYNTOUN, ANDREW OF, Scottish chronicler; lived at the end of the14th and beginning of the 15th centuries; was canon regular of St. Andrews and prior of St. Serf, Lochleven; the subject of his "OriginalChronicle, " as he calls it, was Scottish history, introduced by foreignfrom the creation downwards, and it was written in verse that can hardlybe called poetry; it is of value historically and interestingphilologically, and consists of nine books or cantos; it is to him we owe"When Alexander our King was dead. "

WYOMING (60), a North-West State of the American Union, chiefly onthe eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, an elevated region about threetimes the area of Ireland and a comparatively sparse population, settledprincipally along the line of the Union Pacific Railway; it has a veryrugged surface, and abounds in deep cañons and frowning precipices, thelakes also are deep, and there are immense geysers, one, the GreatGeyser, throwing up a volume of water 300 ft. High; it is rich inminerals, yields good crops of various grains, rears large herds ofhorses and cattle, as well as game on its moors, and trout and salmon inits rivers. See YELLOWSTONE PARK. 

WYOMING VALLEY, a fertile valley in Pennsylvania, on the SusquehannaRiver, 20 m. Long by 5 broad; it was the scene of a series of contestsbetween rival settlers, when the last of them were set upon by aninvading force, forced to surrender, and either massacred or driven forthfrom the valley; Campbell's "Gertrude of Wyoming" relates to this lastdisaster. 

WYSS, JOHANN RUDOLF, Swiss littérateur, born at Bern, professor ofPhilosophy there; the author of the "Swiss Family Robinson, " on whichalone his title to fame rests (1781-1830). 

WYVERN, a heraldic device in shape of a dragon with expanded wings, with only two legs and the pointed tail of a scorpion. 

X

XANTHUS, principal city in ancient Lycia, on a river of the samename, celebrated for its temples and works of art; sustained two sieges, the last of which terminated in the self-destruction of its inhabitants;ruins of it exist, and are Cyclopean; also the name of a river in theTroad, called also the Scamander. 

XANTIPPE, the name of the wife of Socrates, a woman of a peevish andshrewish disposition, the subject of exaggerated gossip in Athens, to theexaltation of the temper of her husband, which it never ruffled. She isquaintly described by an old English writer as "a passing shrewde, curste, and wayward woman, wife to the pacient and wise philosopherSocrates. "

XAVIER, ST. FRANCIS, a Jesuit missionary, styled usually the"Apostle of the Indies, " born, of a noble family, in the north of Spain;a student of Sainte Barbe in Paris, he took to philosophy, becameacquainted with Ignatius Loyola, and was associated with him in theformation of the Jesuit Society; was sent in 1541, under sanction of thePope, by John III. Of Portugal to Christianise India, and arrived at Goain 1542, from whence he extended his missionary labours to the EasternArchipelago, Ceylon, and Japan, in which enterprises they were attendedwith signal success; on his return to Goa in 1552 he proceeded toorganise a mission to China, in which he experienced such opposition andso many difficulties that on his way to carry on his work there hesickened and died; he was buried at Goa; beatified by Paul V. In 1619, and canonised by Gregory XV. In 1622 (1506-1552). 

XEBEC, a small three-masted vessel with lateen and square sails, used formerly in the Mediterranean by the Algerine pirates, and mountedwith guns. 

XENIEN, the name, derived from Martial, of a series of stingingepigrams issued at one time by Goethe and Schiller, which created a greatsensation and gave offence to many, causing "the solemn empire of dulnessto quake from end to end. "

XENOCRATES, an ancient philosopher and a disciple of Plato, born inChalcedon, and a successor of Plato's in the Academy as head of it; _d_. 314 B. C. 

XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy, born inAsia Minor; was the first to enunciate the doctrine "all is one, " but"without specifying, " says SCHWEGLER, "whether this unity wasintellectual or moral. .. . Aristotle says he called God the one. " SeeELEATICS. 

XENOPHON, historian, philosopher, and military commander, born atAthens, son of an Athenian of good position; was a pupil and friend ofSocrates; joined the expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes, and on the failure of it conducted the ten thousand Greeks--"the Retreatof the Ten Thousand"--who went up with him back to the Bosphorus, servedafterwards in several military adventures, brought himself under the banof his fellow-citizens in Athens, and retired to Elis, where he spent 20years of his life in the pursuits of country life and in the prosecutionof literature; the principal of his literary works, which it appears haveall come down to us, are the "Anabasis, " being an account in seven booksof the expedition of Cyrus and his own conduct of the retreat; the"Memorabilia, " in four books, being an account of the life and teachingand in defence of his master Socrates; the "Helenica, " in seven books, being an account of 49 years of Grecian history in continuation ofThucydides to the battle of Mantinea; and "Cyropædeia, " in eight books, being an ideal account of the education of Cyrus the Elder. Xenophonwrote pure Greek in a plain, perspicuous, and unaffected style, had aneye to the practical in his estimate of things, and professed a sincerebelief in a divine government of the world (435-354 B. C. ). 

XERES (61), a town in Spain, 14 m. NE. Of Cadiz, a well-built, busytown, and the centre of the trade in sherry wine, which takes its namefrom it, and of which there are large stores. 

XERXES, a king of Persia, son of Darius I. , whom he succeeded on thethrone in 485 B. C. ; in his ambition to subdue Greece, which, aftersuppressing a revolt in Egypt, he in 481 essayed to do with an immensehorde of men both by sea and land, he with his army crossed theHellespont by means of a bridge of boats, was checked for a time atThermopylæ by Leonidas and his five hundred, advanced to Athens to seehis fleet destroyed at Salamis by Themistocles, fled at the sight by theway he came, and left Mardonius with 300, 000 men to carry out hispurpose, but, as it happened, to suffer defeat on the fatal field ofPlatæa in 479, and the utter annihilation of all his hopes; the rest ofhis life he spent in obscurity, and he was assassinated in 465 byArtabanus, the captain of his bodyguard, after a reign of 20 years. 

XESIBELAND, a region in South Africa lying between Griqualand Eastand Pondoland; was annexed to Cape Colony in 1886. 

XIMENES DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO, cardinal and statesman, born inCastile, of a poor but noble family; studied at Salamanca and went toRome, where he gained favour with the Pope, who appointed him to thefirst vacant ecclesiastical preferment in Spain, as the result of whichhe in 1495 became archbishop of Toledo, but not till he was 60 years ofage; in 10 years after this he became regent of Spain, and conducted theaffairs of the kingdom with consummate ability. He was a severe man, andhe was careful to promote what he considered the best and highestinterests of the nation; but he was narrow-minded, and did often moreharm than good; he was intolerant of heresy such as the Church deemed itto be, and contrived by his policy to confer more than sovereign rightsupon the crown. He was to Spain pretty much what Richelieu was to France. 

XINGU, a river in Brazil, which rises in the heart of the country, and after a course of 1300 m. Falls into the Amazon 210 m. W. Of Pará. 

XUCAR or JUCAR, a river of Valencia, in Spain, which rises nearthe source of the Tagus, and after a course of 317 m. Falls diminishedinto the Mediterranean, most of its water having been drained off forpurposes of irrigation in connection with orange-gardens on its way, gardens which yield, it is said, 20 millions of oranges a year. 

Y

YABLONOI MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains which extend NE. From theAltai chain, and run S. Of Lake Baikal, near the frontier of China, dividing the basin of the Amur from that of the Lena. 

YACU-MAMA, a fabulous marine monster, said to haunt the lagoons ofthe Amazon, and to suck into its mouth and swallow whatever comes withina hundred yards of it; before bathing in a lagoon, where he apprehendsits presence, the Indian sounds a horn, the effect of which is to make itreveal itself if it is there. 

YAHOO, name of a race of brutes, subject to the Houyhuhnms (q. V. ), in "Gulliver's Travels, " with the form and all the vices of men. 

YAJUR-VEDA, one of the books of the VEDAS (q. V. ), containing the prescribed formulæ in connection with sacrifices. 

YAKSHA, a species of gnome in the Hindoo mythology. 

YAKUTSK (5), a capital town in East Siberia, on a branch of theLena; occupied chiefly by traders in furs, hides, &c. ; is said to be thecoldest town in the world. 

YALE UNIVERSITY, a well-equipped university at New Haven, Connecticut, U. S. , founded in 1701, which derives its name from ElihuYale, a Boston man, and which was given to it in recognition of hisbenefactions; it occupies a square in the heart of the city, has a staffof 70 professors, besides tutors and lecturers, also 1200 students, and alibrary of 200, 000 volumes; the faculties include arts, medicine, law, theology, fine arts, and music, while the course of study extends overfour years. 

YAMA, in the Hindu mythology "a solar hero who rules over the dead;might have lived as an immortal, but chose to die; was the first totraverse the road from which there is no return, tracing it for futuregenerations; in the remotest extremity of the heavens, the abode of lightand the eternal waters, he reigns in peace and in union withVARUNA (q. V. ); there by the sound of his flute, under thebranches of the mythic tree, he assembles around him the dead who havelived nobly, they reach him in a crowd, convoyed by AGNI (q. V. ), grimly scanned as they pass by two monstrous dogs that are theguardians of the road. "

YAMBO or YAMBU, the port of Medina, in Arabia, on the Red Sea. 

YANAON (5), a small patch of territory belonging to France, on theGodavery, enclosed in the British province of Madras, India. 

YANG-TSZE-KIANG, or the Blue, or Great, River, the largest river inChina and in the East; rises in the plateau of Tibet, and after a courseof 3200 m. , draining and irrigating great part of China by the way, fallsby a wide estuary into the Yellow Sea, terminating near Shanghai; it hasnumerous tributaries, some of great length, and is of great value to thecountry as a waterway; it is navigable 1000 m. From its mouth, and atHankow, 700 m. Up, is a mile in width. 

YANKEE, slang name for a New Englander; applied in England to thecitizens of the United States generally; it is of uncertain derivation. 

YAPURA, an affluent of the Amazon, which rises in Columbia; has acourse of 1750 m. , and is navigable to steamers for 970 m. 

YARKAND (60), the capital or chief city of Eastern Turkestan, 100 m. SE. Of Kashgar; is in the centre of a very fertile district of the vastcontinental basin of Central Asia, abounding also in large stores ofmineral wealth; it is a great emporium of trade, and the inhabitants aremostly Mohammedans. 

YARMOUTH (49), a seaport, fishing town, and watering-place ofNorfolk, 20½ m. E. Of Norwich and some 2 m. Above the mouth of the Yare;is the principal seat of the English herring fishery, and is famous forits herrings, known as bloaters; it has a fine roadstead called YarmouthRoads, a safe anchorage for ships, being protected by sandbanks; has anumber of public buildings, in particular a parish church, one of thelargest in England, and a fine marine parade. 

YARRELL, WILLIAM, naturalist, born at Westminster; wrote "History ofBritish Fishes" and "History of British Birds" (1784-1856). 

YARROW, a famous Scottish stream which rises on the confines of theshires of Peebles, Dumfries, and Selkirk, passes NE. Through the Loch ofthe Lowes and St. Mary's Loch, and joins the Ettrick 2 m. Above Selkirkafter a course of 25 m. 

YATES, EDMUND, journalist, founded _The World_ newspaper; wrote asupremely interesting "Autobiography" (1831-1894). 

YEDDO. See TOKYO. 

YELLOW SEA, or WHANG-HAI, an inlet of the Pacific, on the NE. Coast of China, bounded on the E. By the Corea, including in the NW. TheGulf of Pechili, some 600 m. Long, and its average breadth 300 m. ; isvery shallow, and gradually silting up owing to the quantity of alluviumbrought down by the rivers which fall into it. 

YELLOWSTONE, THE, a river which rises in the NW. Of WYOMING(q. V. ), and falls into the Missouri as one of its chief tributariesafter a course of 1300 m. 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, a high-lying tract of land in the Stateof WYOMING (q. V. ) traversed by the Yellowstone, about the sizeof Kent, being a square about 75 m. In diameter; is set apart by Congressas a great pleasure ground in perpetuity for the enjoyment of the people;it abounds in springs and geysers, and care is taken that it be preservedfor the public benefit, to the exclusion of all private right or liberty. 

YEMEN (3, 000), a province in the SW. Of Arabia, bounded on the N. ByHedjaz, bordering on the Red Sea, and forming the Arabia Felix of theancients; about 400 m. In length and 150 m. In breadth; it is a highlyfertile region, and yields tropical and sub-tropical fruits, inparticular coffee, dates, gums, spices, and wheat. 

YENIKALE or KERTCH, a strait 20 m. Long, connecting the Sea ofAzov with the Black Sea. 

YENISEI, a river which rises in the mountainous region that bordersthe plateau of Gobi, its head-waters collecting in Lake Baikal, and aftera course of 3200 m. Through the centre of Siberia, falls by a longestuary or gulf into the Arctic Ocean; it is the highway of a region richin both mineral and vegetable products, the traffic on which isencouraged by privileges and bounties to the trader at the hands of theRussian government. 

YENISEISK (8), a town of East Siberia, on the Yenisei, in a provinceof the name, and a centre of trade in it. 

YEOMANRY, name given to a cavalry volunteer force the members ofwhich provide their own horses and uniforms, with a small allowance fromthe Government, which is increased when called out. 

YEOMEN, a name given in England to a class of freeholders next inrank to the gentry, and to certain functionaries in royal households. 

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a body of old soldiers of soldierly presence, employed on ceremonial occasions in conjunction with thegentlemen-at-arms, as the bodyguard of the British sovereign; they wereconstituted in 1485, and number besides officers 100 men; the Beef-eaters, as they are called, are the wardens of the Tower, and are a differentcorps. 

YEOVIL (9), a town in Somerset, 4 m. S. Of Bristol, is in the centreof an agricultural district, and the staple industry is glove-making. 

YETHOLM, a village of Roxburghshire, 7 m. SE. Of Kelso; consists oftwo parts, Town Yetholm and Kirk Yetholm, the latter of which has for twocenturies been the head-quarters of the gypsies in Scotland. 

YEZD (40), a town in an oasis, surrounded by a desert, in the centreof Persia, 230 m. SE. Of Ispahân; a place of commercial importance;carries on miscellaneous manufactures. 

YEZIDEES, a small nation bordering on the Euphrates, whose religionis a mixture of devil worship and Ideas derived from the Magi, theMohammedans, and the Christians. 

YEZO or YESSO, the northernmost of the four large islands ofJapan, is about as large as Ireland; is traversed from N. To S. By ruggedmountains, several of them active volcanoes; is rich in minerals, andparticularly coal; its rivers swarm with salmon, but the climate issevere, and it is only partially settled. 

YGGDRASIL. See IGGDRASIL. 

YIDDISH, a kind of mongrel language spoken by foreign Jews inEngland. 

YMIR, a giant in the Norse mythology, slain by the gods, and out ofwhose carcass they constructed the world, his blood making the sea, hisflesh the land, his bones the rocks, his eyebrows Asgard, thedwelling-place of the gods, his skull the vault of the firmament, and hisbrains the clouds. 

YNIOL, an earl of Arthurian legend, the father of Enid, who wasousted from his earldom by his nephew the "Sparrow-Hawk, " but who, whenoverthrown, was compelled to restore it to him. 

YOGA, in the Hindu philosophy a state of soul, emancipation fromthis life and of union with the divine, achieved by a life of asceticismand devout meditation; or the system of instruction or discipline bywhich it is achieved. 

YOGIN, among the Hindus one who has achieved his _yoga_, over whomnothing perishable has any longer power, for whom the laws of nature nolonger exist, who is emancipated from this life, so that death even willadd nothing to his bliss, it being his final deliverance or _Nirvâna_, asthe Buddhists would say. 

YOKOHAMA (130), principal port of entry of Japan, 18 m. SW. Of Tokyo(q. V. ), situated in a spacious bay, the centre of trade with the Westand the head-quarters of foreign trade generally; foreigners arenumerous, and the exports include silk, tea, cotton, flax, tobacco, &c. 

YOKUBA (150), the largest town in Sokoto, in the Lower Soudan, witha large trade in cotton, tobacco, and indigo. 

YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY, popular novelist, born at Otterbourne, Hants;has written "Cameos of History of England, " "Landmarks of History, " &c. ;has edited the _Monthly Packet_ for 30 years; _b_. 1823. 

YONI, a Hindu symbol of the female principle in nature, and as suchan object of worship. See LINGA. 

YONKERS (48), a city of New York, U. S. , on the Hudson River. 15 m. N. Of New York; has factories of various kinds, and some beautiful villasoccupied by New York merchants. 

YONNE (344), a department of the NE. Of France, watered by theYonne, a tributary of the Seine, with forests and vineyards which yieldlarge quantities of wine. 

YORICK, a jester at the court of Denmark, whose skull Hamletapostrophises in the churchyard; also a sinister jester in "TristramShandy. "

YORK (67), the county town of Yorkshire, situated at the confluenceof the Foss with the Ouse, 188 m. N. Of London and 22 m. NE. Of Leeds; isan interesting historic town, the seat of an archbishop, and a greatrailway centre; known among the Romans as Eboracum, it was the centre ofthe Roman power in the North, relics of which as such still remain; itscathedral, known as the Minster, is one of the grandest in England; it isbuilt on the site of a church erected as early as the 7th century, andwas finished as it now exists in 1470; it is 524 ft. In length, and thetransepts 250 ft. , the breadth of the nave 140 ft. , the height of thecentral tower 216 ft. , and of the western one 201 ft. There are otherbuildings of great antiquity, and the Guildhall dates from the 15thcentury. It is the military head-quarters of the northern district ofEngland. 

YORK, CARDINAL, the last of the line of the Stuart royal family, whodied in 1807, 19 years after his brother Charles Edward. 

YORK, DUKE OF, title often given to the second son of the Englishsovereign, and conferred in 1892 upon Prince George, second son of thePrince of Wales (afterwards King Edward VII. ), and held by him till 1901. In that year the Duke and Duchess visited Australia, in order toinaugurate the new Commonwealth. Henry VIII. And Charles I. Were Dukes ofYork, while their elder brothers were alive, and James II. , till hebecame King. 

YORKE, OLIVER, the name assumed by the editor of _Fraser's Magazine_when it first started. 

YORKSHIRE (3, 208), the largest county in England, is divided intothree Ridings (i. E. Thirdings or thirds) for administrative purposes, North, East, and West, with a fourth called the Ainsty, under thejurisdiction of the Lord Mayor and aldermen of York; of these the West isthe wealthiest and the most populous; contains a large coal-field, and isthe centre of the woollen manufacture of the county; the East beingmainly agricultural, with iron-works and shipbuilding-works; and theNorth mainly pastoral, with industries connected with mining andshipping. LEEDS (q. V. ) is the largest town. 

YORKTOWN, a small town in Virginia, U. S. , on the York River, whereLord Cornwallis surrendered to Washington in 1781. 

YOSEMITE VALLEY, the most remarkable gorge in the world, in thecentre of California, 140 m. E. Of San Francisco, 6 m. Long and from ½ to24 m. Broad, girt by perpendicular walls thousands of feet deep andtraversed by the river Merced in a succession of falls of great height, the whole presenting a scene of mingled grandeur and beauty; it wasdiscovered in 1851, and steps are being taken by Congress to preserve itas a place of public resort and recreation. 

YOUGHAL, a seaport in co. Cork, on the estuary of Blackwater, 27 m. E. Of Cork; has some structures of interest, and exports chieflyagricultural produce. 

YOUNG, ARTHUR, writer on agriculture, born at Whitehall; was trainedto mercantile life, which he abandoned in disgust, and took to farming, which he studied at home and abroad and practised on scientific lines, and became Secretary of the Board of Agriculture on its establishment in1793; he elevated agriculture to the rank of a science and imparteddignity to the pursuit of it (1741-1820). 

YOUNG, BRIGHAM, Mormon polygamist chief, born at Whittingham, Vermont, U. S. , son of a small farmer; had no schooling, wrought ascarpenter, fell in with Joe Smith's brother, and embraced Mormonism in1832; became one of the apostles of the Church and a preacher, andfinally the head in 1851 after the settlement of the body at Utah; withall his fanaticism he was a worldly-wise man and a wise manager ofsecular affairs; died rich, leaving his fortune to 17 wives and 56children (1810-1877). 

YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE, tragedian, born in London, made his _début_ in1798; married in 1805 a gifted young actress, Julia Anne Grimani, withwhom he had often played in lover's parts, and whom, after a brilliantpartnership of 16 months on the stage together, he the year after lost ingiving birth to a son; he survived her 50 years, but the love with whichhe loved her never faded from his heart; appeared in the Haymarket, London, in 1807 in the character of Hamlet; played afterwards otherShakespearian characters, such as Iago, Macbeth, and Falstaff in CoventGarden and Drury Lane, and took leave of the stage in 1832 in the samecharacter in which he first appeared on it in London, and died atBrighton (1777-1856). 

YOUNG, EDWARD, poet, born in Hampshire, educated at WestminsterSchool; studied at Corpus Christi, Oxford, and obtained a Fellowship atAll-Souls' College; wrote plays and satires, but is best known to fame asthe author of "Night Thoughts, " which has been pronounced "his best workand his last good work, " a poem which was once in high repute, and isless, if at all, in favour to-day, being written in a mood which is astrain upon the reader; it is "a little too declamatory, " says ProfessorSaintsbury, "a little too suggestive of soliloquies in an inky cloak, with footlights in front"; his "Revenge, " acted in 1721, is pronounced bythe professor to be "perhaps the very last example of an acting tragedyof real literary merit"; his satires in the "Love of Fame; or, TheUniversal Passion, " almost equalled those of Pope, and brought him bothfame and fortune; he took holy orders in 1727, and became in 1730 rectorof Welwyn, in Hertfordshire; his flattery of his patrons was fulsome, andtoo suggestive of the toady (1681-1765). 

YOUNG, JAMES, practical chemist, born in Glasgow; discovered cheapmethods of producing certain substances of value in the chemical arts, and made experiments which led to the manufacture of paraffin(1811-1889). 

YOUNG, ROBERT, a notorious impostor; forged certificates, andobtained deacons' orders and curacies, and could by no penalty bepersuaded to an honest life, and was hanged in the end for coining in1700. 

YOUNG, THOMAS, physicist, born in Somersetshire, of Quaker parents;studied medicine at home and abroad; renounced Quakerism, and beganpractice in London in 1800; was next year appointed professor of NaturalPhilosophy in the Royal Institution, 1802; made Secretary of the RoyalSociety, and was afterwards nominated for other important appointments;his principal work is a "Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and theMechanical Arts, " published in 1807, in which he propounded theundulatory theory of light, and the principle of the interference ofrays; the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt occupied much of hisattention, and he is credited with having anticipated Champollion indiscovering the key to them (1773-1829). 

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION, an association founded in Londonin 1844, for the benefit of young men connected with various dry-goodshouses in the city, and which extended itself over the other particularlylarge cities throughout the country, so that now it is located in 1249centres, and numbers in London alone some 14, 000 members; its object isthe welfare of young men at once spiritually, morally, socially, andphysically. 

YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETY OF CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR, a society establishedin 1881 by Dr. F. E. Clark, Portland, Maine, U. S. , in 1898; has amembership of three and a quarter million; it is undenominational, butevangelical apparently, and its professed object is "to promote anearnest Christian life among its members, to increase their mutualacquaintanceship, and to make them more useful in the service of God. "

YOUNGSTOWN (45), a town in Ohio, U. S. , with large iron factories;is in the heart of a district rich in iron and coal. 

YPRES (16), an old Belgian town in West Flanders, 30 m. SW. OfBruges; was at one time a great weaving centre, and famous for its diaperlinen; has much fallen off, though it retains a town-hall and acathedral, both of Gothic architecture in evidence of what it once was;it was strongly fortified once, and has been subjected to many sieges;the manufacture of thread and lace is now the most important industry. 

YRIARTE, CHARLES, French littérateur, born in Paris, of Spanishancestry; has written works dealing with Spain, Paris, the Franco-GermanWar, Venice, &c. ; _b_. 1832. 

YRIARTE, THOMAS DE, Spanish poet; studied at Madrid; was editor ofthe _Madrid Mercury_; his principal works "Musica, " a poem, and "LiteraryFables" (1750-1790). 

YSTAD, a seaport in the extreme S. Of Sweden, with a commodiousharbour, and a trade chiefly in corn. 

YSTRADYFODWG (88), a township in Glamorgan, in a rich miningdistrict. 

YTTRIUM, a rare metal always found in combination with others, andis a blackish-gray powder; the oxide of it, yttria, is a soft whitishpowder, and when ignited glows with a pure white light. 

YUCATAN, a peninsula in Central America dividing the Gulf of Mexicofrom the Caribbean Sea, and one of the few peninsulas of the world thatextend northwards; is a flat expanse; has a good climate and a fertilesoil, yielding maize, rice, tobacco, indigo, &c. ; abounds in forests ofvaluable wood; forms one of the States of the Mexican Republic; it bearstraces of early civilisation in the ruins of temples and other edifices. 

YUGA, a name given by the Hindus to the four ages of the world, and, according to M. Barth, of the gradual triumph of evil, as well as of thesuccessive creations and destructions of the universe, following eachother in the lapse of immense periods of time. 

YUKON, a great river of Alaska, rises in British territory, andafter a course of 2000 m. Falls, by a number of mouths forming a delta, into the Behring Sea; it is navigable nearly throughout, and its watersswarm with salmon three months in the year, some of them from 80 to 120lbs. Weight, and from 5 to 6 ft. Long. 

YULE, the old name for the festival of Christmas, originally aheathen one, observed at the winter solstice in joyous recognition ofthe return northward of the sun at that period, being a relic in the N. Of the old sun worship. 

YULE, SIR HENRY, Orientalist, born at Inveresk, Mid-Lothian; was anofficer in Bengal Engineers, and engaged in surveys in the East; waspresident of the Royal Asiatic Society; wrote numerous articles forAsiatic societies; his two great works, "The Book of Marco Polo theVenetian" and the "Anglo-Indian Glossary, " known by its other title as"Hobson Jobson" (1820-1889). 

YUMBOES, fairies in African mythology, represented as about two feetin height, and of a white colour. 

YUNG-LING, a mountain range running N. And S. , which forms theeastern buttress of the tableland of Central Asia. 

YUNNAN (4, 000), the extreme south-western province of the ChineseEmpire; is fertile particularly in the S. ; yields large quantities ofmaize, rice, tobacco, sugar, and especially opium, and abounds in mineralwealth, including gold, silver, mercury, as well as iron, copper, andlead; the country was long a prey to revolt against the Chinese rule, butit is now, after a war of extermination against the rebels, the Panthays, the Burmese, reduced to order. 

YUSTE, ST. , called also St. Just, a village in Estremadura, Spain, the seat of a monastery where Charles V. , Emperor of Germany, spent thelast 18 years of his life, and where he died. 

YVES, the patron-saint of lawyers; was a lawyer himself, and usedhis knowledge of the law to defend the oppressed; is called in Brittany"the poor man's advocate. "

YVETOT (7), an old town in the dep. Of Seine-Inférieure, 24 m. NW. Of Rouen, with manufactures of textile fabrics, and a trade inagricultural produce, the seigneurs of which long bore the title of king, "Roi d'Yvetot, " a title satirically applied by Béranger to Napoleon, andoften employed to denote an insignificant potentate with largepretensions. 

Z

ZAANDAM or SAARDAM (15), a town in North Holland, 5 m. NW. OfAmsterdam; intersected with a network of canals, with variousmanufactures, including shipbuilding, and a considerable trade; it washere Peter the Great wrought as a ship carpenter in 1699, and the houseis still preserved in which he lived, with a stone tablet inscribed"Petro Magno Alexievitch. "

ZABISM. See SABIANISM. 

ZACATE`CAS (40), a town of Mexico, capital of an inland province ofthe same name (452), 440 m. NW. Of Mexico City; a great silver-miningcentre, an industry which employs over 10, 000 of the inhabitants; it isin a valley over 6000 ft. Above the sea-level, and has several finechurches, a college, a mint, &c. 

ZACHARIAS, Pope from 741 to 752; succeeded Gregory III. ; set asidethe Merovingian dynasty and sanctioned the elevation of Pepin the Shortto the throne of France, in return for which Pepin twice over saved Romefrom the Lombards. 

ZACOCCIA, a king of Mozambique who, according to the LUSIAD(q. V. ), received Vasco da Gama with welcome, believing him to be aMohammedan, but conceived feelings of bitterest hatred to him when hediscovered he was a Christian, and tried, but all in vain, to allure himto his ruin; the agent he employed to compass it failing, in his despairhe took away his own life. 

ZADIG, name of a famous novel by Voltaire, of a philosophical cast, bearing upon life as in the hands of a destiny beyond our control. 

ZADKIEL, according to the Rabbins, the name of the angel of theplanet Jupiter; also pseudonym assumed by Richard James Morrison, a navalofficer, believer in astrology, and the compiler of an astrologicalalmanac. 

ZAGAZIG (35), a town in the Delta of Egypt, 50 m. NE. Of Cairo; arailway centre, and entrepôt for the cotton and grain grown in thesection of the delta round it, and once a centre of worship, and the siteof two temples; Tel-el-Kebir (q. V. ) lies E. Of it. 

ZAHN, THEODOR, biblical scholar, born in Rhenish Prussia, professorof Theology at Erlangen; distinguished for his eminent scholarship inconnection with the matter especially of the New Testament canon; _b_. 1838. 

ZÄHRINGEN, a village 2 m. N. Of Freiburg, in Baden, with a castlenow in ruins which gives name to the reigning grand-ducal family ofBaden, the founders of which were counts of Breisgau. 

ZAIRE, name for the CONGO (q. V. ) in part of its lowercourse. 

ZAKKUM, a tree, according to Moslem belief, growing in hell, and ofthe bitter fruit of which the damned are compelled to eat so as tointensify their torment. 

ZALEUCUS, law-giver of the ancient Locrians, a Greek people settledin Lower Italy, and who flourished in 700th century B. C. ; had a supremerespect for law, and was severe in the enforcement of it; punishedadultery with the forfeiture of sight; refused to exonerate his own sonwho had been guilty of the offence, but submitted to the loss of one ofhis own eyes instead of exacting the full penalty of the culprit; hadestablished a law forbidding any one to enter the Senate-house armed; didso himself on one occasion in a sudden emergency, was reminded of thelaw, and straightway fell upon his sword as a sacrifice to thesovereignty of the claims of social order. 

ZAMA, a fortified city of ancient Numidea, 100 m. SW. Of Carthage, where HANNIBAL (q. V. ) was defeated by Scipio Africanus, and theSECOND PUNIC WAR (q. V. ) brought to an end, and the fate ofCarthage virtually sealed. 

ZAMBESI, one of the four great African rivers, and the fourthlargest as regards both the volume of its waters and the area it drains, the other three being the Nile, the Congo, and the Niger; itshead-streams being the Lungebungo, the Leeba, and Leeambye; it waters arich pastoral region, and it falls into the Indian Ocean after a courseof nearly 1600 m. , in which it drains 600, 000 sq. M. Of territory, or anarea three times larger than that of France; owing to cataracts andrapids it is only navigable in different stretches; at 900 m. From itsmouth it plunges in a cataract known as the Victoria Falls, and whichrivals in grandeur those even of Niagara. 

ZAMBESIA, a territory on the Zambesi, under British protection, andin the hands of the British South Africa Company, embracing Mashonaland, Matabeleland, and the country of Khama. 

ZAMORA (15), ancient town of Spain, on the right bank of the Douro, 150 m. NW. Of Madrid; now in a decayed state; was a flourishing place inMoorish times; contains interesting ruins; manufactures linens andwoollens, and trades in wine and fruits. 

ZANGWILL, ISRAEL, littérateur, born in London, of Jewish parents inpoor circumstances; practically self-taught; studied at LondonUniversity, where he took his degree with triple honours; became ateacher, then a journalist; has written novels, essays, and poems; amonghis works the "Bachelor's Club, " "Old Maid's Club, " "Children of theGhetto, " "Dreams of the Ghetto, " "The Master, " "Without Prejudice, " &c. ;_b_. 1854. 

ZANGWILL, LOUIS, man of letters, brother of preceding; self-taught;has written several works under the pseudonym of ZZ; distinguishedhimself at one time as a chess-player; _b_. 1869. 

ZANTE (15), one of the Ionian Islands, 9 m. Off the NW. Coast of theMorea, is 24 m. Long and 12 broad; raises currants, the produce of adwarf vine, and exports large quantities annually. Zante (14), thecapital, on a bay on the E. Coast, is a clean and prosperous town, mostso of any in the group of islands. 

ZANZIBAR, a kingdom of East Africa, under British protection, consisting of the islands of Zanzibar (150), with a capital (30) of thesame name, and the island of Pemba (50), and a strip of the coastextending 10 m. Inland from Cape Delgado to Kipini; has a hot unhealthyclimate, and a rich tropical vegetation; its products are cloves chiefly, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, and grain, and the exports ivory, india-rubber, gum, &c. ; the natives are mostly Arab Mohammedans under a sultan. 

ZAPOROGIANS, Cossacks of the Ukraine, who revolted under Mazeppa aschief, and were transported by Catherine II to the shores of the Sea ofAzov. 

ZARA (11), the capital of Dalmatia, and a seaport of Austria, on apromontory on the coast, 129 m. SE. Of Trieste; it was founded by theVenetians, has a spacious harbour, was strongly fortified, and the chiefmanufactures are glass and a liqueur called maraschino. 

ZARAGOZA. See SARAGOSSA. 

ZEA, the ancient Ceos, an island of the Grecian Archipelago; ofgreat fertility; produces wine, honey, silk, and maize. 

ZEALAND, the largest island in the Danish Archipelago, situatedbetween the Cattegat and the Baltic, being 81 m. Long and 67 m. Broad, with COPENHAGEN (q. V. ) on the E. Coast; the surface is nearlyeverywhere fiat, and agriculture and cattle-rearing the chief industries. 

ZEALAND (213), a province of the Netherlands, formed chiefly ofislands, of which WALCHEREN (q. V. ) is one, constituting a deltaas if formed by the Maas and Scheldt; great part of it is reclaimed fromthe sea. 

ZEALAND, NEW. See NEW ZEALAND. 

ZEALOTS, THE, a fanatical party among the Jews in Judea, who rose inrevolt against the Roman domination on the appointment over them of aRoman governor instead of a native prince, which they regarded as aninsult to their religion and religious belief. 

ZEBU, one of the Visaya group of the Philippine Islands, E. OfNegros. 

ZECHARIAH, a Hebrew prophet who appears to have been born in Babylonduring the captivity, and to have prophesied in Jerusalem at the time ofthe restoration, and to have contributed by his prophecies to encouragethe people in rebuilding the temple and reorganising its worship; hisprophecies are divided into two great sections, but the authenticity ofthe latter has been much debated; he is reckoned one of the MinorProphets. 

ZEDLITZ, JOSEPH CHRISTIAN VON, poet, born in Austrian Silesia;entered and served in the army, and did service as a diplomatist; wrotedramas and lyrics, and translated Byron's "Childe Harold" into German(1790-1862). 

ZEEHAN, a township of recent growth on the W. Coast of Tasmania, with large silver-lead mines wrought by several companies, and a sourceof great wealth. 

ZEIT-GEIST (i. E. Time-spirit), German name for the spirit of thetime, or the dominant trend of life and thought at any particular period. 

ZEITUN (20), a town in the province of Aleppo, with iron mines, inhabited chiefly by Armenian Christians; distinguished as having forcenturies maintained their independence under Turkish oppression. 

ZELLER, EDUARD, German professor of Philosophy, born in Würtemberg;studied at Tübingen; was first a disciple of Baur, and then of Hegel;became professor at Berlin, and devoted himself chiefly to the history ofGreek philosophy, and distinguished himself most in that regard; _b_. 1814. 

ZEMINDAR, in India a holder or farmer of land from the government, and responsible for the land-tax. 

ZEM-ZEM, a sacred well in Mecca, and all built round along with theCAABA (q. V. ); has its name from the bubbling sound of thewaters; the Moslems think it the Well which Hagar found with her littleIshmael in the wilderness when he was dying of thirst. 

ZENANA, in India the part of a house reserved for the women amongHindu families of good caste, and to which only since 1860 Christianwomen missionaries have been admitted, and a freer intercourseestablished. 

ZEND, name applied, mistakenly it would seem, by the Europeans tothe ancient Iranian language of Persia, or the language in which theZend-Avesta is written, closely related to the Sanskrit of the Vedas itappears. 

ZEND-AVESTA, the name given to the sacred writings of the Guebres orParsees, ascribed to Zoroaster, of which he was more the compiler thanthe author, and of which many are now lost; they represent several stagesof religious development, and as a whole yield no consistent system. 

ZENITH, name of Arab origin given to the point of the heavendirectly overhead, being as it were the pole of the horizon, the oppositepoint directly under foot being called the Nadir, a word of similarorigin; the imaginary line connecting the two passes through the centreof the earth. 

ZENO, Greek philosopher of the ELEATIC SCHOOL (q. V. ), andwho flourished in 500 B. C. ; was the founder of the dialectic sosuccessfully adopted by Socrates, which argues for a particular truth bydemonstration of the absurdity that would follow from its denial, aprocess of argument known as the _reductio ad absurdum_. 

ZENO, Greek philosopher, the founder of Stoic philosophy, born atCitium, in Cyprus, son of a merchant and bred to merchandise, but losingall in a shipwreck gave himself up to the study of philosophy; went toAthens, and after posing as a cynic at length opened a school of his ownin the Stoa, where he taught to extreme old age a gospel called Stoicism, which, at the decline of the heathen world, proved the stay of many anoble soul that but for it would have died without sign, although it isthus "Sartor, " in the way of apostrophe, underrates it: "Small is it thatthou canst trample the Earth with its injuries under thy feet, as oldGreek Zeno trained thee; thou canst love the Earth while it injures thee, and even because it injures thee; for this a Greater than Zeno wasneeded, and he too was sent" (342-270 B. C. ). See STOICS, THE. 

ZENOBIA, queen of Palmyra and ultimately of the East, whose ambitionprovoked the jealousy of the Emperor Aurelian, who marched an armyagainst her, and after a succession of defeats subdued her and broughther to Rome to adorn his triumph as conqueror, though afterwards hepresented her with a domain at Tivoli, where she spent the rest of herdays in queen-like dignity, with her two sons by her side; she was awoman of great courage and surpassing beauty. See LONGINUS. 

ZEPHANIAH, a Hebrew prophet who prophesied in the interval betweenthe decline and fall of Nineveh and the hostile advance of Babylon;forewarned the nation of the judgment of God impending over them fortheir ungodliness, and exhorted them to repentance as the only way ofaverting the inevitable doom, while he at the same time encouraged thefaithful to persevere in their godly course with the assurance that theday of judgment would be succeeded by a day of glorious deliverance, thatthey would yet become "a name and a praise among the people of theearth. "

ZEPHON (searcher of secrets), name of a cherub sent, along withITHURIEL (q. V. ), by the archangel Gabriel to find out thewhereabouts of Satan after his flight from hell. 

ZEPHYRUS, a personification in the Greek mythology of the West Wind, and in love with Flora. 

ZERMATT, a small village of the canton Valais, in Switzerland, 23in. SW. Of Brieg, a great centre of tourists and the starting-point inparticular for the ascent of the Matterhorn. 

ZERO, a word of Arab origin signifying a cipher, and employed todenote a neutral point in scale between an ascending and descendingseries, or between positive and negative. 

ZEUS, the chief deity of the Greeks, the sovereign ruler of theworld, the father of gods and men, the mightiest of the gods, and towhose will as central all must bow; he was the son of Kronos and Rhea; bythe help of his brothers and sisters dethroned his father, seized thesovereign power, and appointed them certain provinces of the universe toadminister in his name--Hera to rule with him as queen above, Poseidonover the sea, Pluto over the nether world, Demeter over the fruits of theearth, Hestia over social life of mankind; to his dynasty all the powersin heaven and earth were more or less related, descended from it anddependent on it; and he himself was to the Greeks the symbol of theintelligence which was henceforth to be the life and light of men, anidea which is reflected in the name Jupiter given him by the Romans, which means "father of the day"; he is represented as having his thronein heaven, and as wielding a thunderbolt in his right hand, in symbol ofthe jealousy with which he guards the order of the world establishedunder him as chief. 

ZEUSS, JOHANN KASPAR, great Celtic scholar, and the founder ofCeltic philology, born at Voghtendorf, in Upper Franconia, professor atBamberg; his great work, "Grammatica Celtica" (1806-1856). 

ZEUXIS, famous Greek painter, born at Heraclea, and who flourishedfrom 420 B. C. To the close of the century; was unrivalled in renderingtypes of sensuous, specially female, beauty, and his principal works arehis pictures of "Helen, " "Zeus Enthroned, " "The Infant HerculesStrangling the Serpent"; he is said to have given away several of hisworks rather than sell them, as no price could pay him for them. 

ZIDON, an ancient town of Phoenicia, 20 m. N. Of Tyre, and theoriginal capital. 

ZIETHEN, JOHANN JOACHIM VON, Prussian general, born in Russia;entered the army at the age of 15, served as a cavalry officer underFrederick the Great, was one of the greatest of his generals, became hispersonal friend, and contributed to a great many of his victories, all ofwhich he lived through, spending his days thereafter in quiet retirementat Berlin in favour with the people and in honour to the last with theking; is described by Carlyle at 45 as "beautiful" to him, though with"face one of the coarsest, " but "face thrice-honest, intricately ploughedwith thoughts which are well kept silent (the thoughts indeed beingthemselves mostly inarticulate, thoughts of a simple-hearted, much-enduring, hot-tempered son of iron and oatmeal); decidedly ratherlikeable" (1699-1786). See Carlyle's "Frederick. "

ZIG, a giant cock in the Talmud (q. V. ), which stands with itsfoot on the earth, touches heaven with its head, and when it spreads itswings causes a total eclipse of the sun. 

ZILLERTHAL, a valley in the Tyrol, watered by the Ziller, anaffluent of the Inn, some 400 of the inhabitants of which were in 1837obliged to seek a home elsewhere because of their opposition to thepractice of auricular confession, and which they found near Liegnitz, inPrussian Silesia. 

ZIMBABYE, a remarkable ruin in Mashonaland, the remains apparentlyof some enterprising colony of nature-worshippers that settled there inancient times, in the interest of trade presumably. 

ZIMMERMANN, JOHAN GEORG VON, Swiss physician, born at Brugg, in thecanton of Bern; studied at Göttingen, became the friend of HALLER(q. V. ), and settled down to practice in his native town, where hecontinued 16 years, very successful both in medicine and literature, but"tormented with hypochondria, " and wrote his book on "Solitude, " whichwas translated into every European language; wrote also on "MedicalExperiences, " a famed book in its day too, also on "National Pride, " andbecame "famed throughout the universe"; attended Frederick the Great onhis deathbed, and wrote an unwise book about him, "a poor puddle ofcalumnies and credulities" (1728-1795). For insight into the man and hisways see CARLYLE'S "FREDERICK, " a curious record. 

ZINDIKITES, a Mohammedan heretical sect, who disbelieve in Allah, and deny the resurrection and a future life. 

ZINZENDORF, a German count, born in Dresden; studied at Wittenberg, came under the influence of the Pietist Spener, gave himself up toevangelical labours, and established a religious community on his estateat Herrnhut, in Saxony, consisting chiefly of a body of MoravianBrethren, who had been driven out of Bohemia and Moravia on account oftheir religious opinions, and were called Herrnhuters, of which he becameone of the leaders and chief apostles, labouring far and wide in thepropagation of their doctrines and suffering no small persecution by theway; he was an earnest man, the author of religious writings, controversial and devotional; wrote a number of hymns, and died atHerrnhut, from which he was driven forth, but to which he was allowed toreturn before the end (1700-1760). 

ZION, that one of the four hills on which Jerusalem is built, on theSW. Of the city, and the site of the palace of King David and hissuccessors. 

ZIONISM, the name given a movement on the part of the Jews tore-establish themselves in Palestine as a nation. 

ZIRCONIA LIGHT, an intensely brilliant light, similar to theDrummond light, but differing from it chiefly in the employment of conesof zirconium instead of cylinders of lime; it has been superseded by theelectric light. 

ZIRCONIUM, a metallic element often found in connection with silica, commonly in the form of a black powder. 

ZIRKNITZ, LAKE, a high-lying lake in Carniola, 20 m. SW. Of Laybach, the waters of which in the dry season will sometimes disappear altogetherthrough the fissures, and in rainy will sometimes expand into a lake 5 m. Long and 3 m. Broad. 

ZISKA, JOHANN, Hussite leader, born in Bohemia of a noble family;began life as a page at the court of King Wenceslas, but threw up acourtier's life in disgust for a career in arms; fought and distinguishedhimself by his valour against the Teutonic knights at Tannenberg in 1410, to their utter defeat; signalised himself afterwards against the Turks, and in 1413 fought on the English side at Agincourt; failing to rouseWenceslas to avenge the death of HUSS (q. V. ) and of JEROMEOF PRAGUE (q. V. ), he joined the Hussites, organised their forces, assumed the chief command, and in 1420 gained, with a force of 4000 men, a victory over the Emperor Sigismund with an army of 40, 000 mustered tocrush him; captured next year the castle of Prague, erected fortressesover the country, one in particular called Tabor, whence the nameTaborites given to his party; blind of one eye from his childhood, lostthe other at the siege of Ratz, fought on blind notwithstanding, gainingvictory after victory, but was seized with the plague and carried off byit at Czaslav, where his remains were buried and his big mace orbattle-club, mostly iron, hung honourably on the wall close by; that hisskin was tanned and made into the cover of a drum is a fable; he was atough soldier, and is called once and again in Carlyle's "Frederick""Rhinoceros Ziska" (1360-1424). 

ZITTAU (25), a town of Saxony, 71 m. SE. Of Dresden, with amagnificent Rathhaus; stands on a vast lignite deposit; manufacturescotton, linen, machinery, &c. 

ZLATOUST (21), a Russian town near the Urals, 130 m. NE. Of Ufa, with iron and gold mines near; manufactures sword-blades and other steelware. 

ZOAR, a small village of Ohio, U. S. , 91 m. S. Of Cleveland, and theseat of a German Socialistic community. 

ZÖCKLER, OTTO, German theologian, professor at Greifswald; edited a"Handbuch der theologischen Wissenschaft, " and other works; _b_. 1833. 

ZODIAC, the name given to a belt of the heavens extending 8° on eachside of the ecliptic, composed of twelve constellations called signs ofthe zodiac, which the sun traverses in the course of a year. These signs, of which six are on the N. Of the ecliptic and six on the S. , are, commencing with the former, named successively: Aries, the Ram; Taurus, the Bull; Gemini, the Twins; Cancer, the Crab; Leo, the Lion; Virgo, theVirgin; Libra, the Balance; Scorpio, the Scorpion; Sagittarius, theArcher; Capricornus, the Goat; Aquarius, the Water-bearer; and Pisces, the Fishes. The sun enters Aries at the spring equinox and Libra at theautumnal equinox, while the first point of Cancer marks the summersolstice, and that of Capricorn the winter. The name Zodiac is derivedfrom the Greek _zoon_, an animal, and has been given to the belt becausethe majority of the signs are named after animals. 

ZODIACAL LIGHT, a track of light of triangular figure with its baseon the horizon, which in low latitudes is seen within the sun'sequatorial plane before sunrise in the E. Or after sunset in the W. , andwhich is presumed to be due to a glow proceeding from some illuminatedmatter surrounding the sun. 

ZOHAR, a Jewish book of cabalistic commentaries on the OldTestament. 

ZOILUS, a Greek rhetorician who flourished in the 3rd century B. C. ;was distinguished for the bitterness with which he criticised Homer, andwhose name has in consequence become a synonym for a malignant critic, hence the saying, "Every great poet has his Zoilus. "

ZOLA, ÉMILE, a noted French novelist of the realistic school, or ofwhat he prefers to call the naturalist school, born in Paris, of Italiandescent; began literature as a journalist, specially in the criticaldepartment, but soon gave himself up to novel-writing, ultimately onrealistic lines, and an undue catering, as some think, to a morbidinterest on the seamy side of life, to which he addressed himself withgreat vigour and not a little graphic power, but in an entiremisconception of his proper functions as an artist and a man of letters, though, it may be pleaded, he has done so from a strong conviction on hispart that his duty lay the other way, and that it was high timeliterature should, regardless of merely dilettante æstheticism, addressitself to exposing, by depicting it, the extent to which the evil geniusis gnawing at and corroding the vitals of society; and it is not for amoment to be supposed he has done so from any pleasure he takes ingloating over the doings of the ghoul, or that he is in sympathy withthose who do; of his works suffice it to mention here some recent ones, as the story of "Lourdes, " published in 1894, "Rome" in 1896, and "Paris"in 1897; he has recently distinguished himself by his courage inconnection with the Dreyfus affair and his bold condemnation of thesentence under which Dreyfus was condemned; _b_. 1840. 

ZOLAISM, name given to an excessive realism in depicting the worstside of human life and society. See ZOLA. 

ZOLLVEREIN (Customs Union), a union of the German States underPrussia in 1827, and extended in 1867, to establish among them a uniformsystem of customs rates. 

ZONES, the name given to belts of climate on the surface of theearth marked off by the tropical and polar circles, of which the formerare 23½° from the equator and the latter 23½° from the poles, the zonebetween the tropical circles, subject to extremes of heat, being calledthe Torrid Zone, the zones between the polar circles and the poles, subject to extremes of cold, being called respectively the North FrigidZone and the South Frigid Zone, and the zones north and south of theTorrid, subject to moderate temperature, being called respectively theNorth Temperate, and the South Temperate Zone. 

ZOROASTER, ZARATHUSTHRA, or ZERDUSHT, the founder or reformerof the Parsee religion, of whom, though certainly a historical personage, nothing whatever is for certain known except that his family name wasSpitama, that he was born in Bactria, and that he could not haveflourished later than 800 B. C. ; he appears to have been a puremonotheist, and not to be responsible for the Manichean doctrine ofdualism associated with his name, as Zoroastrianism, or the institutionof fire-worship. 

ZOSIMUS, Greek historian; wrote a history of the Roman emperors fromthe time of Augustus to the year 410, and ascribed the decline of theempire to the decay of paganism (408-450). 

ZOUAVES, the name given to a body of light infantry in the Frencharmy wearing the Arab dress, a costume copied from that of Kabyles, inNorth Africa, and adopted since the French conquest of Algiers; someregiments of them consist of French soldiers, some of Algerines, thoughoriginally the two were incorporated into one body. 

ZOUTSPANSBERG, a ridge of mountains on the NE. Of the Transvaal, being a continuation of the Drakensberg. 

ZSCHOKKE, JOHANN HEINRICH, a German writer, born in Magdeburg, livedchiefly at Aarau, in Aargau, Switzerland, where he spent forty years ofhis life, part of them in the service of his adopted country, and wherehe died; wrote histories, and a series of tales, but is best known by his"Stunden der Andacht" (i. E. Hours of devotion), on ethico-rationalisticlines (1771-1845). 

ZUG (23), the smallest canton of Switzerland, and sends only onerepresentative to the National Council; is 12 m. Long by 9 m. Broad; ishilly and pastoral in the SE. , and has cultivated fields and orchards inthe NW. ; all but includes Lake Zug, at the NE. Of which is Zug (5), thecapital, which carries on sundry industries on a small scale. 

ZUIDER ZEE (i. E. South sea), a deep inlet of the North Sea, inthe Netherlands, which includes the islands of Texel, Vlieland, Terschelling, and Ameland, and was formed by irruptions of the North Seainto a lake called Flevo, in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, whenthousands of people were drowned; is 85 m. Long and 45 m. Broad, and isembraced in a circuit of 210 m. ; it was for some time in contemplation toreclaim this area, and after much weighing of the matter the DutchGovernment in 1897 adopted a scheme to give effect to this project;according to the scheme adopted it is reckoned it will take 31 years tocomplete the reclamation at the rate of several thousand acres everyyear. 

ZULEIKA, the bride of Abydos, celebrated by Byron, a pure-souledwoman of great beauty, who, in love with Selim, promises to flee with himand become his bride, but her father shoots him, and she dies of a brokenheart. 

ZULULAND (181), a territory to the NE. Of Natal, from which it isseparated by the Tugela, and of which it was independent till 1898, butit is now an integral part; it is a little larger than Belgium, is wellwatered, is capable of cultivation, and has 140 m. Of seaboard; it isunderstood to possess some mineral wealth, though it has not yet beenwrought. 

ZULUS, a section of the Bantu family which originally occupied theSE. Seaboard of Africa from Delagoa Bay to the Great Fish River; they area race of superior physique and intellectual endowment, as well as moraltemperament, and incline to a quiet pastoral life; they were attackedunder Cetywayo by the English in 1879, but after falling upon an Englishforce at Isandula, and cutting it in pieces, were overpowered at Ulundi, and put to rout. 

ZUMPT, KARL, philologist, born in Berlin, and professor at theUniversity; edited a number of the Latin classics, and is best known byhis Latin Grammar (1792-1849). 

ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO, Spanish painter, born in Estremadura; didmostly religious subjects; his _chef-d'oeuvre_ an altar-piece in Seville, where he lived and worked (1598-1662). 

ZURICH (392), a northern canton in Switzerland, and the secondlargest; is in the basin of the Rhine, with a well-cultivated fertilesoil, and manufactures of cottons and silks, and with a capital (151) ofthe same name at the foot of the Lake of Zurich; a large manufacturingand trading centre; has a Romanesque cathedral and a university, withsilk mills and cotton mills, as well as foundries and machine shops; hereLavater was born and Zwingli was pastor. 

ZUTPHEN (17), manufacturing town in the Dutch province ofGuelderland, in the neighbourhood of which Sir Philip Sidney fell woundedin a skirmish. 

ZWICKAU (50), a town in Saxony, in a division (1, 389) of the samename, 82 m. SW. Of Dresden; it is in the midst of rich beds of coal, andhas a number of manufactures. 

ZWINGLI, ULRICH, the Swiss Reformer, born at Wildhaus, in the cantonof St. Gall, and founder of the Reformed Church; studied at Bern andVienna, afterwards theology at Basel, and was appointed pastor at Glarus;he got acquainted with Erasmus at Basel, and gave himself to the study ofGreek, and in particular the epistles of St. Paul; attached to themonastery of Einsiedeln he, in 1516, attacked the sale of indulgences, and was in 1518 elected to be preacher in the cathedral of Zurich; hispreaching was attended with an awakening, and the bishop of Constancetried to silence him, but he was silenced himself in a public debate withthe Reformer, the result of which was the abolition of the Mass and thedispensation instead of the Lord's Supper; the movement thus begun wenton and spread, and Zwingli met in conference with Luther, but they failedto agree on the matter of the Eucharist, and on that point the Lutheranand the Reformed Churches separated; in 1531 the Catholic cantonsdeclared war against the reformers of Zurich and Bern, but the latterwere defeated at Cappel, and among the dead on the battlefield was theReformer; his last words were, "They may kill the body, but not the soul"(1484-1531). See LUTHERANS. 

ZWOLLE (25), a manufacturing town in the Dutch province ofOberyssel, 50 m. NE. Of Amsterdam; close to it is Agnetenberg, famous asthe seat of the monastery where Thomas à Kempis lived and died. 

ZYME, name of a germ presumed to be the cause of zymotic diseases. 

ZYMOTIC DISEASES, diseases of a contagious nature, presumed to bedue to some virus or organism which acts in the system like a ferment.