_THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES. _

EDITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS. 

THE INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. 

THE INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. 

BY

FRÉDÉRIC HOUSSAY. 

WITH 44 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

LONDON:WALTER SCOTT, LTD. , 24 WARWICK LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1893. 

NOTE. 

The English edition of this book has been revised throughout andenlarged, with the author's co-operation. Numerous bibliographicalreferences have also been added. The illustrations, when not otherwisestated, are in most cases adapted from Brehm's _Thierleben_. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION

The naturalists of yesterday and the naturalists of to-day--Naturalhistory and the natural sciences--The theory of Evolution--The chiefindustries of Man--The chief industries of Animals--Intelligence andinstinct--Instinctive actions originate in reflective actions--Theplan of study of the various industries. 

CHAPTER II. 

HUNTING--FISHING--WARS AND EXPEDITIONS

The Carnivora more skilful hunters than the Herbivora--Differentmethods of hunting--Hunting in ambush--The baited ambush--Hunting inthe dwelling or in the burrow--Coursing--Struggles that terminate thehunt--Hunting with projectiles--Particular circumstances put toprofit--Methods for utilising the captured game--War andbrigandage--Expeditions to acquire slaves--Wars of the ants. 

CHAPTER III. 

METHODS OF DEFENCE

Flight--Feint--Resistance in common by social animals--Sentinels. 

CHAPTER IV. 

PROVISIONS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Provisions laid up for a short period--Provisions laid up for a longperiod--Animals who construct barns--Physiological reserves--Stagesbetween physiological reserves and provisions--Animals who submit foodto special treatment in order to facilitate transport--Care bestowedon harvested provisions--Agricultural ants--Gardening ants--Domesticanimals of ants--Degrees of civilisation in the same species ofants--Aphis-pens and paddocks--Slavery among ants. 

CHAPTER V. 

PROVISION FOR REARING THE YOUNG

The preservation of the individual and the preservation of thespecies--Foods manufactured by the parents for their young--Specieswhich obtain for their larvæ foods manufactured by others--Carcassesof animals stored up--Provision of paralysed living animals--The causeof the paralysis--The sureness of instinct--Similar cases in which thespecific instinct is less powerful and individual initiativegreater--Genera less skilful in the art of paralysing victims. 

CHAPTER VI. 

DWELLINGS

Animals naturally provided with dwellings--Animals who increase theirnatural protection by the addition of foreign bodies--Animals whoestablish their home in the natural or artificial dwellings ofothers--Classification of artificial shelters--Holloweddwellings--Rudimentary burrows--Carefully-disposed burrows--Burrowswith barns adjoined--Dwellings hollowed out in wood--Wovendwellings--Rudiments of this industry--Dwellings formed ofcoarsely-entangled materials--Dwellings woven of flexiblesubstances--Dwellings woven with greater art--The art of sewing amongbirds--Modifications of dwellings according to season and climate--Builtdwellings--Paper nests--Gelatine nests--Constructions built ofearth--Solitary masons--Masons working in association--Individualskill and reflection--Dwellings built of hard materials united bymortar--The dams of beavers. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE DEFENCE AND SANITATION OF DWELLINGS

General precautions against possible danger--Separation of females whilebrooding--Hygienic measures of Bees--Prudence of Bees--Fortificationsof Bees--Precautions against inquisitiveness--Lighting up the nests. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CONCLUSION

Degree of perfection in industry independent of zoologicalsuperiority--Mental faculties of the lower animals of like nature toMan's. 

APPENDIX

INDEX

THE INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

 THE NATURALISTS OF YESTERDAY AND THE NATURALISTS OF TO-DAY--NATURAL HISTORY AND THE NATURAL SCIENCES--THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION--THE CHIEF INDUSTRIES OF MAN--THE CHIEF INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS--INTELLIGENCE AND INSTINCT--INSTINCTIVE ACTIONS ORIGINATE IN REFLECTIVE ACTIONS--THE PLAN OF STUDY OF THE VARIOUS INDUSTRIES. 

_The naturalists of yesterday and the naturalists of to-day. _--Thestudy of animals, plants, rocks, and of natural objects generally, wasformerly called "natural history"; but this term is tending todisappear from our vocabulary and to give place to the term "naturalsciences. " What is the reason of this change, and to what does itcorrespond? for it is rare for a word to be modified in so short atime if the thing designated has not itself varied. 

Exterior forms have certainly changed, and the naturalist of yesterdaymakes upon us the impression of a legendary being. I refer to theperson described in George Sand's romances, marching vigorously overhills and valleys in search of a rare insect, which he pricked withdelight, or of a plant difficult to reach, which he triumphantly driedand fixed on a leaf of paper bearing the date of the discovery and thename of the locality. A herbarium became a sort of journal, recallingto its fortunate possessor all the wanderings of the happy chase, allthe delightful sounds and sights of the country. Every naturalistconcealed within him a lover of idylls or eclogues. Assuredly all thepreliminary studies which resulted from these excursions werenecessary; we owe gratitude to our predecessors, and we profit fromtheir labours, sometimes regretting the loss of the picturesquefashion in which their researches were carried out. 

The naturalist of to-day usually lives more in the laboratory than inthe country. Occasional expeditions to the coast or dredgings are theonly links that attach him to nature; the scalpel and the microtomehave replaced the collector's pins, and the magnifying glass givesplace to the microscope. When the observer begins to pursue hisstudies in the laboratory he no longer cares to pass the threshold. Hehas still so much to learn concerning the most common creatures thatit seems useless to him to waste his time in seeking those that arerarer, unless he takes into account the unquestionable pleasure oframbling through woods or along coasts;--but such a consideration doesnot belong to the scientific domain. 

A change of conditions of this nature does not suffice to create ascience. To take away from a study all that rendered it pleasant andeasy, and to make it the property of a small coterie, when it wasformerly accessible to all, is not sufficient to render it scientific. It is a fatality rather than a triumph to have undergone such achange. The change is an effect rather than a cause. 

When little or nothing was known it was necessary to begin byexamining the phenomena which first met the eyes of the observer, suchas the customs of animals and the characters which distinguished themfrom each other. Their differences and resemblances were studied; theywere formed into groups, classed and arranged in an order recalling asmuch as possible their natural relations. In classifying it isimpossible to consider all the facts or the result would be chaos; itis necessary to choose the characters and to give preponderance tocertain of them. This sorting of characters has been executed with thesagacity of genius by the illustrious naturalists of the last centuryand the beginning of the present. But the frames which they havetraced are fixed and rigid; nature with her infinite plasticityescapes from them. We render a great homage to the classifiers when wesay that they have confined the facts as closely as it is possible todo. The catalogues which they have prepared are of a utility which isunquestionable, although their _rôle_ is to be useful only; we cannotpretend to make them the expression, the symbol, the formula in whichall natural phenomena are to be enclosed. To confound classificationwith science is to confound the lever with the effect which we expectfrom it. 

Curiosity, moreover, always impels towards that which is least known. External appearances having been studied, the form and function ofinternal organs were investigated. Physiology and comparative anatomywere born and developed; researches abounded and observers abandonedthe field for the laboratory. 

The difference in methods of research and the pushing of precision toits extreme limits--an inevitable result of the different nature ofthe observations to be made--did not however yet render legitimate theclaim for natural studies to be called "science. "

_Natural history and the natural sciences. _--A more important eventhas taken place. The ancient naturalists, like their contemporaries, had firm beliefs which they used as unquestionable principles for thecomprehension of all facts. The explanation of an observation wasready in advance. The study of facts invariably brought to the pen ofthe writer the same enthusiastic admiration of the marvellous partplayed by Providence in nature. [1] The phenomena in which this actionwas not strikingly apparent were merely described without any attemptto relate them with each other, or with the other facts. A hypothesiswhich left a great number of facts without explanation was necessarilyinsufficient. The descriptions, in spite of all their individualinterest, did not constitute a homogeneous whole, a science. They weremerely a collection of more or less natural histories. 

 [1] See, for example, Réaumur, _Mémoires pour l'histoire des Insectes_, t. I. , pp. 23-25. 

Science only begins on the day when we have found the simple theorywhich binds together all the facts at that time known, without ofcourse prejudicing the future. As the number of acquired factsincreases, if the theory in question continues to explain the new asit explained the old, the science becomes more firmly established. Ifwe can imagine a time arriving when all the possible phenomena areknown, and the existing hypothesis still explains them, nothinghenceforth can overturn it, the science is completed. That is thesimple case in which a theory has been victorious; but if it iscontradicted by a single well-authenticated fact it must fall orbecome modified. The more things a theory explains in the present themore chance it has of success in the future. It is still only a matterof chances, for the theory is always at the mercy of unforeseenobservation, which may rudely overthrow it. 

There is no theory which must not be modified constantly, at least inits details. To render it more and more general by successiveimprovements is the aim to be pursued. A collection of studiesconstitutes a science when a hypothesis has arisen alreadysufficiently strong to oblige us to refer to it all new acquisitions, and to compel us to see if they fortify or oppose it. 

It would indeed be a narrow conception if we were to consider asscientific the partisans of the theory alone; more than anywhere elsediscussion is fruitful in the natural sciences; and if it is necessaryto be constantly preoccupied with the general ideas of the day, it isnot at all necessary to adhere to them servilely. The naturalists ofto-day are in possession of a formula with which we must alwayspreoccupy ourselves; in other words, there are natural sciences. 

_The theory of Evolution. _--This hypothesis which comes before allothers is the theory of evolution. This is not the place to expoundit, to go over the proofs which have been amassed to build it up, northe criticisms which have been directed against it. It has to-day comeout of the struggle victoriously. A prodigious quantity of facts, ofcomparative anatomy and of embryology, inexplicable without it, emergefrom the chaos and constitute a whole, truly and marvellouslyhomogeneous. Issued from the natural sciences, the doctrine ofevolution now overflows them and tends to embrace everything thatconcerns man: history, sociology, political economy, psychology. Themoralists seek, and will surely find, compromises permitting ethicallaws to endure the rule of this overwhelming hypothesis. 

Without going too far back into history, let us look towards the endof the last century and the beginning of this. Cuvier, Lamarck, [2] andGeoffroy Saint-Hilaire, [3] all preoccupied with general ideas, wereeach trying to build up a doctrine. The theory of evolution was bornbeneath the pen of Lamarck, but immediately fell under the attacks ofCuvier. [4] It is to Darwin that the honour belongs of having rescuedit from oblivion and of having initiated the movement which to-dayrules the natural sciences. Studies in embryology and anatomy arerising without number beneath this impulse; and perhaps it may be saidthat these new sciences, so fruitful in results, absorb a little toomuch attention and leave in the shade subjects longer known, butwhich, however, gain new interest by the way they fit into presentscientific theories. 

 [2] _Philosophie zoologique_, 2e édition, Paris, 1830; _Histoire des Animaux sans Vertèbres_, Introduction, 1835. 

 [3] _Philosophie anatomique_, 1818; _Zoologie générale_, 1841. 

 [4] _Le Règne Animal_, 1829; _Leçons d'Anatomie comparée_, 2e édition, 1835-46. 

I wish to speak of the manners of animals; the facts regarding themare of sufficient interest if we consider them one by one, and theybecome much more interesting when we attempt to show the close way inwhich they are bound together. Volumes would not suffice to exhaustthe subject; but if the entire task is too considerable, I may atleast hope to accomplish a part of it by treating of those facts whichmay be brought together under the common title of Animal Industries. Taken separately, they may be reproached with a certain anecdotalcharacter, but we cannot fail to agree that taken altogether theyconstitute an important chapter in the sciences of life. 

_The chief industries of Man. _--Let us first throw a rapid glance atthe various stages which the civilisation and industry of Man havegone through before arriving at their present condition. To make clearthese phases we might either follow the state of civilisation in anygiven country by tracing back the course of centuries, or else at agiven epoch find out in different parts of the earth all the stages ofhuman evolution. The savage men of to-day are not further advanced intheir evolution than our own ancestors who have now gone to fossil. However it may be, Man, at first frugivorous, as his dentition showsas well as his zoological affinities, in consequence of a famine offruit or from whatever other cause, gradually began to nourish himselfwith the flesh of other animals. To search for this fleeing preydeveloped in him the art of hunting and fishing. His intelligence, still feeble, was entirely concentrated on this one point: to seize onan animal and to feed on it, although neither his nails nor his teethnor his muscles make it natural to him. To hunt, to fish, to defendhis territory against the wild beasts who attacked it and himself, todrive back tribes of his fellows who would diminish his provisions, these were the first rudiments of the industry of Man. Having becomemore skilful, he obtained in an expedition more game than he couldconsume at once; he then kept near him living beasts in order tosacrifice them when hunger came. His reserve of animals increased;they became accustomed to live near him; and he took care of hislarder. A flock was gradually constituted, and the owner learnt toprofit from all the resources which it offered him, from milk to wool. Henceforth he became economical with his beasts, and moved about inorder to procure for them abundance of grass and water. He was stillalways hunting and fighting; but there were now accessory industries, and he was especially occupied in the domestication of animals. Thenit happened that he acquired a taste for a graminaceous grain--corn. To seek the blades one by one is not a very fruitful labour, anddecidedly troublesome. Man collected a supply of them, cultivatedthem, possessed fields which he sowed and harvested. He was henceforthobliged to renounce his herds, which had become immense; for he couldnot leave the soil where his corn was ripening, if he wished to gatherit himself, and his cattle were lacking pasture. The number of beastsdiminished; bread had killed milk. Man only kept near him a smallflock capable of feeding on a moderate territory. He abandoned histemporary shelters, tents of skin or of woven wool, and since he musthenceforth live on the same piece of land, he constructed there afixed dwelling. Such is, taken altogether, the genesis of the industryof the dwelling connected with the culture of the soil; to earlierperiods corresponded the natural or hollowed cave and the woven tent. 

_The chief industries of Animals. _--In a more or less perfect degreewe find the same industries among animals generally. In order to makejust comparisons, we ought especially to consider the methods of thosewho are not endowed with specially appropriated organs, for in thiscase their task is rendered too simple. To take an example. The Lionis certainly an incomparable hunter; but his whole organisation tendsto facilitate the capture of living prey. His agility and the strengthof his muscles enable him to seize it at the first leap before it canescape. With his sharp claws he holds it; his teeth are so keen andhis jaw so strong that he kills it immediately; with such naturaladvantages what need has he of ingenuity? But in the case of the Wolfor the Fox it is quite another matter; they hunt with a veritable artwhich Man himself has not disdained, since he has taken as hisassociate their relative, the Dog. It is the same with the Eagle andthe Crow. The latter, in order to seize the prey which he desires, needs much more varied resources than the great bird of rapine forwhom nature has done everything. 

We find among animals not only hunting and fishing but the art ofstoring in barns, of domesticating various species, of harvesting andreaping--the rudiments of the chief human industries. Certain animalsin order to shelter themselves take advantage of natural caverns inthe same way as many races of primitive men. Others, like the Fox andthe Rodents, dig out dwellings in the earth; even to-day there areregions where Man does not act otherwise, preparing himself a lodgingby excavations in the chalk or the tufa. Woven dwellings, constructedwith materials entangled in one another, like the nests of birds, proceed from the same method of manufacture as the woollen stuffs ofwhich nomad tribes make their tents. The Termites who construct vastdwellings of clay, the Beavers who build huts of wood and of mud, havein this industry reached the same point as Man. They do not build sowell, no doubt, nor in so complex a fashion as modern architects andengineers, but they work in the same way. All these ingenious artisansoperate without organs specially adapted to accomplish the effectwhich they reach. It is with such genuine industries that we have todeal, for the most part neglecting other productions, more marvellousin certain ways, which are formed by particular organs, or areelaborated within the organism, and are not the result of theintelligent effort of the individual. To this category belong thethreads which the Spider stretches, and the cocoon with which theCaterpillar surrounds himself to shelter his metamorphosis. 

_Intelligence and instinct. _--By attentive observation it is possibleto find in animals all the intermediate stages between a deliberatereflective action and an act that has become instinctive and soinveterate to the species that it has re-acted on its body, and thusprofoundly modified it so as to produce a new organ in such a way thatthe phenomena are accomplished as a simple function of vegetativelife, in the same way as respiration or digestion. 

If an individual is led to reproduce often the same series of actionsit contracts a _habit_; the repetition may be so frequent that theanimal comes to accomplish it without knowing it; the brain no longerintervenes; the spinal cord or the chain of ganglia alone govern thisorder of acts, to which has been given the name of _reflex actions_. Areflex may be so powerful as to be transmitted by heredity to thedescendants; it then becomes an _instinct_. 

Thus by its nature instinct does not differ from intelligence, but isintimately connected with it by a chain of which all the links may becounted. The most intelligent of beings, Man, performs actions thatare purely mechanical; many indeed can with justice be calledinstinctive; and, on the other hand, an animal for whom an innatehereditary instinct is sufficient in ordinary life will give proof ofintelligence and reflection if circumstances in which his instinct isgenerally efficacious become modified so that he can no longer profitby them. Among other ingenious experiments to show the supposeddifference between instinctive and reflective acts, Fabre bringsforward the following[5]:--The _Chalicodoma_, a hymenopterous relativeof the Bees, constructs nests composed of cells formed of mudagglutinated with saliva. The cell once constructed, the insect beginsto fill it with honey before laying an egg there. He returns with hisbooty and wishes to disburse himself in the nest, finds the cellulewhich he has to fill, and proceeds always in the same order: first, heplunges his head in the cell and disgorges the honey which fills hiscrop; secondly, he emerges from the cell, turns round, and lets fallthe pollen which remains attached to his legs. Suppose that an insecthas just disgorged his honey, the observer touches his belly with astraw; the little animal, disturbed in his operation, returns to ithaving only the second act to perform. But he re-commences the wholeof his operations though having nothing more to disgorge; he againplunges his head into the cell and goes through a pretence ofdisgorging, then turns round and frees himself from the pollen. Although touched twice, thrice, or more frequently, he always repeatsthe first action before executing the second. It is, says Fabre, almost like the movement of a machine of which the wheelwork will notact until one has begun to turn the wheel which directs it. 

 [5] J. H. Fabre, _Souvenirs entomologiques_, Paris, 1879, pp. 275 _et seq. _

It is incontestable; but I would add, as this conscientious observerdoes not, that that does not prove that the intelligence of the insectdiffers essentially from ours; it is a simple question of degree. Lookat a boy who is going to jump over a ditch: he begins by spitting intohis hands and rubbing them one against the other before taking hisspring. In what has this served him? It is not more intelligent thanthe gesture of the bee who first plunges his head in the cell beforefreeing his claws, although the first gesture is useless. [6]

 [6] It should perhaps be added that while the boy's action is not consciously intelligent, it is by no means purposeless, and is therefore not quite parallel with the insect's. By vigorously irritating the sensory nerves of the hand the boy imparts a stimulus to his muscular system. His act belongs to a large group which has been especially studied by Féré. See his _Sensation et Mouvement_ (1887), and _Pathologie des Emotions_ (1892). 

And, from another side, if nothing is more instinctive than the mannerin which domestic Bees construct their cells of wax with geometricregularity, there are other circumstances in which these same insectsgive proof of remarkable reflection, sagacity, and intelligence inco-ordinating their actions in the presence of an event to which theyare not accustomed, and in attaining an end which has presented itselfby accident. Such are, for example, the arrangements which they maketo defend their honey against the attacks of a great nocturnal Moth, the Death's Head. I shall have to revert to these facts. 

We must not then regard instinct, as has often been done, as arudiment of intelligence, susceptible or not of development; but muchrather as a series of intelligent acts at first reasoned, then bytheir frequent repetition become habitual, reflex, and at last, byheredity, instinctive. 

What the individual loses in individuality and in personal initiative, heredity restores to him in the form of instinct which is, as it were, the condensed and accumulated intelligence of his ancestors. Hehimself no longer needs to take thought either to preserve his life orto assure the perpetuation of his race. The qualities which hereceived at birth render reflection less necessary; thus speciesendowed with some powerful instinct seem not to be intelligent whenthey live sheltered from unforeseen events. 

From one point of view instinct appears to be a degradation ratherthan a perfecting of intelligence, because the acts which proceed fromit are neither so spontaneous nor so personal; but from another pointof view they are much better executed, with less hesitation, with aslighter expenditure of cerebral force and a minimum of musculareffort. A habitual act costs us much less to execute than a deliberateand reflective act. It is thus that the constructions of bees are moreperfect than those of ants; the former act by instinct, the latterreason their acts at each step. 

_Instinctive actions originate in reflective actions. _--No doubt itmay be said: It is a pure hypothesis thus to consider instinct asderived from intelligence; why not admit as well that instinctive actshave been such from the beginning--in other words, that species havebeen created such as we see them to-day? The preceding explanation, however, has the advantage of being in harmony with the general theoryof evolution, which, whether true or not, so well explains the mostcomplicated facts that for the present it must be accepted. For therest, if it is not possible to appraise the psychic facultiespossessed by the ancestors of existing animals we may at least observecertain facts which put us on the road of explanation. 

An interesting member of the Hymenoptera, the _Sphex_, assures foodfor the early days of the life of its larvæ in a curious way. [7]Before laying its eggs it seizes a cricket, paralyses it with twostrokes of its sting--one at the articulation of the head and theneck, the other at the articulation of the first ring of the thoraxwith the second--each stab traversing and poisoning a nervousganglion. The cricket is paralysed without being killed; its fleshdoes not putrefy, and yet it makes no movement. The _Sphex_ places anegg on this motionless prey, and the larva which emerges from itdevours the cricket. Here assuredly is a marvellous and certaininstinct. One cannot even object that the strokes of the sting areinevitably directed to these points because the chitinous envelope ofthe victim offers too much resistance in other spots for the dart topenetrate, because here is the _Ammophila_, a near relative of the_Sphex_, which chooses for its prey a caterpillar. It is free tointroduce its sting into any part of the body, and yet with extremecertainty it strikes the two ganglions already mentioned. [8]

 [7] "Étude sur l'Instinct et les Metamorphoses des Sphégiens, " _Ann. Sc. Nat. _, iv. Série, t. 6, 1856. 

 [8] P. Marchal, "Observations sur _l'Ammophila affinis_, " _Arch. De Zool. Expér. Et génér. _, ii. Série, t. 10, 1892. 

We cannot suppose that the insect has anatomical and physiologicalknowledge to inform it of what it is doing. The act is distinctlyinstinctive, and seems imprinted by a fatality involving no possibleconnection with intelligence. But let us suppose that the ancestors ofthese Hymenoptera have thus attacked crickets and killed (notparalysed) them with one or more wounds at any point. By chance someof these insects, either in consequence of their manner of attackingthe prey or from any other cause, happen to deliver their blows at thepoints in question. Their larvæ on this account are placed in morefavourable conditions than those of their relatives whom chance hasless well served; they will prosper and develop sooner. They inheritthis habit, which gradually becomes through the ages that which weknow. It is possible; but why, it may be asked, this hypothesis, apparently gratuitous, of strokes of the sting given at random? Arethere any facts which render this explanation plausible? Assuredly. Thus the _Bembex_, which especially attacks Diptera to make them theprey of its larvæ, throws itself suddenly on them and kills them withone blow in any part of the body. It is unable in this way to amass inadvance sufficient provision for its larvæ; the corpses would putrefy. It is obliged to return from time to time bearing new pasture. [9]Again, M. Paul Marchal, taking up the study of instinct in the_Cerceris ornata_, [10] has shown that in this species at least of_Sphegidæ_ the stings have not so considerable an effect. This insectattacks a wild bee, the _Halictus_. He strikes his victim with two orthree strokes of the sting beneath the thorax, but the paralysis isnot definite, perhaps on account of the nature of the venom, which isnot identical in all species. The tortured creature may regain life atthe end of some hours. Thus the _Cerceris_ is obliged to destroy theupper part of the neck by repeated malaxation of that part for severalminutes at a time. The effect of this second act, by injuring thecerebroid ganglia, is to render impossible the return of action;moreover, it permits the aggressor to satisfy personal gluttony, andto feed on the liquids of the organism of the vanquished, which iseasy, because the dorsal blood-vessel passes at this level. It canthus satisfy a personal need while thinking of the future of the race. 

 [9] J. H. Fabre, _Souvenirs entomologiques_, pp. 225 _et seq. _

 [10] "Étude sur l'Instinct du _Cerceris ornata_, " _Archives de Zoologie expérimentale_, ii. Série, t. 5, 1887. 

It has been said in this connection that in such cases the sureinstinct with which these species were originally endowed has beendistorted, but that is to admit some degree of variation; thehypothesis of degeneration is as gratuitous as the other, and if we goso far as to risk a hypothesis, it would be better to use it toexplain facts and not to entangle them. 

_Plan of study of the various industries. _--The different industriescarried on by animals may be divided into a certain number of groups. In the case of each of these categories I propose to arrange the factsin such a way as to bring forward first those animals which, having nospecial organs, are obliged to exercise the greatest ingenuity, andthen to indicate the facts which show how variations have arisen whichenable other species to accomplish these acts with marvellous ease. 

We will first examine the simplest industries: hunting and fishing, those industries of which the object is the immediate search for prey;and to these may be added those which are related to them as re-actionis to action--that is to say, the industries of which the effect is toprovide for the immediate safety of the individual. 

Then in an exposition parallel to the march of progress followed byhuman civilisations, we shall study among animals the art ofcollecting provisions, of domesticating and exploiting flocks, ofreducing their fellows to slavery. 

Finally, we shall investigate the series of modifications which thedwelling undergoes, and we shall see how certain species, after havingconstructed admirably-arranged houses, know how to make them healthy, and how to defend them against attacks from without. 

CHAPTER II. 

HUNTING--FISHING--WARS AND EXPEDITIONS. 

 THE CARNIVORA MORE SKILFUL HUNTERS THAN THE HERBIVORA--DIFFERENT METHODS OF HUNTING--HUNTING IN AMBUSH--THE BAITED AMBUSH--HUNTING IN THE DWELLING OR IN THE BURROW--COURSING--STRUGGLES THAT TERMINATE THE HUNT--HUNTING WITH PROJECTILES--PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES PUT TO PROFIT--METHODS FOR UTILISING THE CAPTURED GAME--WAR AND BRIGANDAGE--EXPEDITIONS TO ACQUIRE SLAVES--WARS OF THE ANTS. 

_The Carnivora more skilful hunters than the Herbivora. _--The searchfor food has necessarily been the cause of the earliest industriesamong animals. It is easy to understand that the herbivora need littleingenuity in seeking nourishment; they are so superior to their preythat they can obtain it and feed on it by the sole fact of anorganisation adapted to its assimilation. They are, it is true, at themercy of circumstances over which they have no control, and which leadto famine. The carnivora also may have to suffer from the absence ofprey, but even in the most favourable seasons, and in the regionswhere the animals on which they live abound, it is necessary to themto develop a special activity to obtain possession of beings who aresuspicious, prompt in flight, and as fleet as themselves. Thus it isamong these that we expect to find the art of hunting most cultivated;especially if we put aside the more grossly carnivorous of them, whosewhole organisation is adapted for rapid and effective results. 

_Different methods of hunting. _--Like Man, some animals hunt in ambushor by coursing; others know how to overturn the desired victim bythrowing some object at it. These profit by all the exteriorcircumstances which are capable of frightening the game, of stunningit, and of rendering capture easy. But it is by studying each separatefeature that we shall best be able to observe the close way in whichthese industries are related to our own. It is impossible to bringforward all the facts relating to the search for prey among animals;we can only take a few as signposts which mark the road. 

_Hunting in ambush. _--The most rudimentary method of hunting in ambushis simply to take advantage of some favourable external circumstanceto obtain concealment, and then to await the approach of the prey. Some animals place themselves behind a tuft of grass, others thrustthemselves into a thicket, or hang on to the branch of a tree in orderto fall suddenly on the victim who innocently approaches theperfidious ambush. The Crocodile, as described by Sir Samuel Baker, conceals himself by his skill in plunging noiselessly. On the bank agroup of birds have alighted. They search the mud for insects orworms, or simply to approach the stream to drink or bathe. In spite ofhis great size and robust appetite the Crocodile does not disdain thisslight dish; but the least noise, the least wrinkle on the surface ofthe water would cause the future repast to vanish. The reptileplunges, the birds continue without suspicion to come and go. Suddenlythere emerges before them the huge open jaw armed with formidableteeth. In the moment of stupor and immobility which this unforeseenapparition produces a few imprudent birds have disappeared within thereptile's mouth, while the others fly away. In the same sly and brutalmanner he snaps up dogs, horses, oxen, and even men who come to theriver to drink. 

One of the most dangerous ambushes which can be met on the road byanimals who resort to a spring is that prepared by the Python. Thisgigantic snake hangs by his tail to the branch of a tree and letshimself droop down like a long creeper. The victim who comes withinhis reach is seized, enrolled, pounded in the knots which the snakeforms around him. It is not necessary to multiply examples of thissimple and widespread method of hunting. 

Not content with utilising the natural arrangements they meet with, there are animals which construct genuine ambushes, acting thus likeMan, who builds in the middle or on the edge of ponds, cabins in whichto await wild ducks, or who digs in the path of a lion a hole coveredwith trunks of trees, at the bottom of which he may kill the beastwithout danger. Certain insects practise this method of hunting. TheFox, for instance, so skilful a hunter in many respects, constructs anambush when hunting hares. [11]

 [11] C. St. John, _Wild Sports, etc. _, chap. Xx. 

The larva of the Tiger Beetle (_Cicindela campestris_) constructs ahole about the size of a feather quill, disposed vertically, and of adepth, enormous for its size, of forty centimetres. It maintainsitself in this tube by arching its supple body along the walls at aheight sufficient for the top of its head to be level with the surfaceof the soil, and to close the opening of the hole. (Fig. 1. ) A littleinsect--an ant, a young beetle, or something similar--passes. As soonas it begins to walk on the head of the larva, the latter letting goits hold of the wall allows itself to fall to the bottom of the trap, dragging its victim with it. In this narrow prison it is easily ableto obtain the mastery over its prey, and to suck out the liquidparts. [12]

 [12] Lamarck, _Histoire des Animaux sans Vertèbres_, 2e édition, 1835, p. 676. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1. ]

The _Staphilinus Cæsareus_ acts with still greater shrewdness; notonly is his pit more perfect, but he takes care to remove all tracesof preceding repasts which might render the place obviously one ofcarnage. He chooses a stone, beneath which he hollows acylindro-conical hole with extremely smooth walls. This hole is not toserve as a trap, that is to say that the proprietor has no intentionof causing any pedestrian to roll to the bottom. It is simply a placeof concealment in which he awaits the propitious moment. No creatureis more patient than this insect, and no delay discourages him. Assoon as some small animal approaches his hiding-place he throwshimself on it impetuously, kills it, and devours it. Near his ditch hehas hollowed a second of a much coarser character, the walls of whichhave not been smoothed with the same care. One here sees elytra andclaws piled up; they are the hard and horny parts which he has notbeen able to eat. The heap in this ditch is not then an alimentarystore. It is the _oubliette_ in which the _Staphilinus_ buries theremains of his victims. If he allowed them to accumulate around hishole all pedestrians would come to fear this spot and to avoid it. Itwould be like the dwelling of a Polypus, which is marked by thenumerous carapaces of crabs and shells which strew the neighbourhood. 

The ambuscade of the Ant-lion is classic; it does not differ greatlyfrom the others. He excavates a conical pitfall, in which he concealshimself, and seizes the unfortunate ants and other insects whomill-chance causes to roll into it. [13]

 [13] See _e. G. _ Tennent, _Ceylon_, vol. I. P. 252. Also Réaumur, _Mémoires pour d'histoire des Insectes_, t. I. P. 14, and t. Vi. P. 333. 

_The baited ambush. _--A variety of ambush which brings this method ofhunting to considerable perfection lies in inciting the prey toapproach the hiding-place instead of trusting to chance to bring itthere. In such circumstances Man places some allurement in theneighbourhood--that is to say, one of the foods preferred by thedesired victim, or at least some object which recalls the form of thatfood, as, for example, an artificial fly to obtain possession ofcertain fishes. 

It is curious to find that fish themselves utilise this system; it isthe method adopted by the Angler and the _Uranoscopus_. [14] The_Uranoscopus scaber_ lives in the Mediterranean. At the end of hislower jaw there is developed a mobile and supple filament which he isable to use with the greatest dexterity. Concealed in the mud, withoutmoving and only allowing the end of his head to emerge, he agitatesand vibrates his filament. The little fishes who prowl in theneighbourhood, delighted with the sight of this apparent worm, regarding it as a destined prey, throw themselves on to it, but beforethey are able to bite and recognise their error they have disappearedin the mouth of the proprietor of the bait. 

 [14] Lacepède, _Histoire des Poissons_, 1798-1803. 

The Angler (_Lophius piscatorius_) has not usurped his ratherparadoxical name. He retires to the midst of the sea-weed and algæ. Onhis body and all round his head he bears fringed appendages which, bytheir resemblance to the leaves of marine plants, aid the animal toconceal himself. The colour of his body also does not contrast withneighbouring objects. From his head arise three movable filamentsformed by three spines detached from the upper fin. He makes use ofthe anterior one, which is the longest and most supple. Working in thesame way as the _Uranoscopus_, the Angler agitates his threefilaments, giving them as much as possible the appearance of worms, and thus attracting the little fish on which he feeds. 

In these two examples we see a special organ utilised for a particularfunction; it is one of the intermediate cases, already referred to, between the true industries involving ingenuity and the simplephenomena due to adaptations and modifications of the body. 

_Hunting in the dwelling or in the burrow. _--All these methods ofhunting or of fishing by surprise are for the most part practised bythe less agile species which cannot obtain their prey by superiorfleetness. Midway between these two methods may be placed that whichconsists in surprising game when some circumstance has rendered itmotionless. Sometimes it is sleep which places it at the mercy of thehunter, whose art in this case consists in seeking out its dwelling. Sometimes he profits by the youth of the victim, like allbird-nesters, whose aim is to eat the eggs or to devour the youngwhile still incapable of flying. The animals who eat birds' eggs arenumerous both among mammals and reptiles, as well as among birdsthemselves. 

The Alligator of Florida and of Louisiana delights in this chase. Heseeks in particular the Great Boat-Tail (_Quiscalus major_) whichnests in the reeds at the edge of marshes and ponds. When the younghave come out and are expecting from their parents the food which thechances of the hunt may delay, they do not cease chirping and callingby their cries. But the parents are not alone in hearing theseappeals. They may also strike the ears of the alligator, who furtivelyapproaches the imprudent singers. With a sudden stroke of his tail hestrikes the reeds and throws into the water one or more of the hungryyoung ones, who are then at his mercy. (Audubon. )

The animals who feed on species living in societies either seize ontheir prey when isolated or when all the members of the colony areunited in their city. A search for the nest is necessary in the caseof creatures who are very small in comparison with the hunter, as inthe case of ants and the Ant-eater. But the ant-eater possesses a verylong and sticky tongue, which renders the capture of these insectsextremely easy; when he finds a frequented passage it is enough tostretch out his tongue; all the ants come of their own accord andplace themselves on it, and when it is sufficiently charged hewithdraws it and devours them. The African _Orycteropus_ (Fig. 2), whois also a great eater of ants and especially of termites, is equallyaided by a very developed tongue; but he has less patience than theant-eater, and he adds to this resource other proceedings which renderthe hunt more fruitful and enable him to obtain a very large number ofinsects at one time. Thanks to his keenness of scent he soon discoversan ant-path bearing the special and characteristic odour which theseHymenoptera leave behind them, and he follows the track which leads totheir nest. On arriving there, without troubling himself about thescattered insects that prowl in the neighbourhood, he sets himself topenetrate into the midst of the dwelling, and with his strong clawshollows out a passage which enables him to gain access. On the way hepierces walls, breaks down floors, gathering here and there somefugitives, and arrives at last at the centre, in which millions ofanimals swarm. He then swallows them in large mouthfuls and retires, leaving behind him a desert and a ruin in the spot before occupied bya veritable palace, full of prodigious activity. 

[Illustration: FIG. 2. ]

The colonies are not only exposed to the devastations of those whofeed on their members; they have other enemies in the animals whocovet their stores of food. The most inveterate robber of bees is thenocturnal Death's Head Moth. When he has succeeded in penetrating thehive the stings of the proprietors who throw themselves on him do nottrouble him, thanks to his thick fleece of long hairs which the stingcannot penetrate; he makes his way to the cells, rips them open, gorges himself with honey, and causes such havoc that in Switzerland, in certain years when these butterflies were abundant, numbers ofhives have been found absolutely empty. [15] Many other marauders andof larger size, such as the Bear, also spread terror among theselaborious insects and empty their barns. No animal is more crafty thanthe Raven, and the fabulist who wished to make him a dupe was obligedto oppose to him the very cunning Fox in order to render the talefairly life-like. A great number of stories are told concerning theRaven's cleverness, and many of them are undoubtedly true. There is nobolder robber of nests. He swallows the eggs and eats the little onesof the species who cannot defend themselves against him; he even seeksthe eggs of Sea-gulls on the coast; but in this case he must usecunning, for if he is discovered it means a serious battle. On thecoast also the Raven seeks to obtain possession of the Hermit-crab. This Crustacean dwells in the empty shells of Gasteropods. At theleast alarm he retires within this shell and becomes invisible, butthe bird advances with so much precaution that he is often able toseize the crab before he has time to hide himself. If the raven failshe turns the shell over and over until the impatient crustacean allowsa claw to emerge; he is then seized and immediately devoured. 

 [15] Huber, _Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles_, t. Ii. P. 291. 

If there is a question of hunting larger game like a Hare, the Ravenprefers to take an ally. They start him at his burrow and pursue himflying. In spite of his proverbial rapidity the hare is scarcely ableto flee more than two hundred yards. He succumbs beneath vigorousblows on his skull from the beaks of his assailants. During winter, inthe high regions of the Alps, when the soil is covered with snow, thischase is particularly fruitful for ravens. The story is told of thatunfortunate hare who had hollowed out in the snow a burrow with twoentrances. Two of these birds having recognised his presence, oneentered one hole in order to dislodge the hare, the other awaited himat the other opening to batter his head with blows from his beak andkill him before he had time to gain presence of mind. [16]

 [16] F. Von Tschüdi, _Les Alpes_, Berne and Paris, 1859. 

Rooks sometimes hunt in burrows by ingeniously-concerted operations. Mr. Bernard[17] has described the interesting way in which the Rookhunts voles or field-mice in Thuringia. His curiosity was excited bythe way in which numerous rooks stood about a field cawing loudly. Ina few days this was explained: the field was covered with rooks; theoriginal assemblage had been calling together a mouse-hunt, whichcould only be successfully carried out by a large number of birdsacting in conjunction. By diligently probing the ground and blockingup the network of runs, the voles, one or more at a time, weregradually driven into a corner. The hunt was very successful, and nomore voles were seen in that field during the winter. 

 [17] _Zoologist_, October 1892. 

_Coursing. _--Other animals are not easily discouraged by the swiftnessof their prey; they count on their own resistance in order to tire thegame; some of them also manage their pursuit in the most intelligentway, so as to preserve their own strength while the tracked animal'sstrength goes on diminishing until exhaustion and fatigue place him attheir mercy. 

Mammals especially, such as Dogs, Wolves, and Foxes, exercise thiskind of chase; it is, exactly, the coursing which Man has merely hadto direct for his own benefit. Wild dogs pursue their prey united inimmense packs. They excite each other by barking while they frightenthe game and half paralyse his efforts. No animal is agile and strongenough to be sure of escaping. They surround him and cut off hisretreat in a most skilful manner; Gazelles and Antelopes, in spite oftheir extreme nimbleness and speed, are caught at last; Boars arerapidly driven into a corner; their vigorous defence may cost the lifeof some of the assailants, but they nevertheless become the prey ofthe band who rush on to the quarry. In Asia wild dogs do not fear evento attack the tiger. Many no doubt are crushed by a blow of theanimal's paw or strangled in his jaws, but the death of comrades doesnot destroy either the courage or the greediness of the survivingaggressors. Their number also is such that the great beast, covered byagile enemies who cling to him and wound him in every part, must atlast succumb. 

Wolves hunt also in considerable bands. Their audacity, especiallywhen pressed by hunger in the bad season, is well known. In time ofwar they follow armies, to attack stragglers and to devour the dead. In Siberia they pursue sledges on the snow with terrible perseverance, and the pack is not delayed by the massacre of those who are shot. Afew stop to devour at once their fallen comrades, while the otherscontinue the pursuit. 

Besides these brutal chases wolves seem able to exercise a genuinefeint. Sometimes it is a couple who hunt in concert. If they meet aflock, as they are well aware that the dog will bravely defend theanimals entrusted to him, that he is vigilant, and that his keen scentwill bring him on them much sooner than the shepherd, it is with himthat they first occupy themselves. The two wolves approach secretly;then suddenly one of them unmasks and attracts the attention of thedog, who rushes after him with such ardour that he fails to perceivethat in the meantime the second thief has seized the sheep and draggedit into the wood. The dog finally renounces his pursuit of thefugitive and returns to his flock. Then the two confederates join eachother and share the prey. In other circumstances it is a wolf whohunts with his female. When they wish to obtain possession of a deer, whose robust flight may last a long time, one of the couple, the malefor example, pursues him and directs his chase in such a way that thegame must pass by a place where the female wolf is concealed. She thentakes up the chase while the male reposes. It is an organised systemof relays. The strength of the deer becomes necessarily exhausted; hecannot resist the animation shown by his active foe, and is seized andkilled. Then the other wolf calmly approaches the place of the feastto share his part of the booty. 

The small but bold Hawk called the Merlin also courses in relays inexactly the same manner. These birds pursue a Lark or a Swallow in themost systematic manner. First one Merlin chases the bird for a shorttime, while his companion hovers quietly at hand; then the latterrelieves his fellow-hunter, who rests in his turn. The victim is soontired out and caught in mid-air by one of the Merlins, who flies awaywith him, leaving his companion to hunt alone, while he feeds theyoung brood. [18]

 [18] C. St. John, _Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands_, chap. Xi. 

The Fox also successfully uses this method of coursing with relays. There are indeed few animals who possess so many tricks of all kindsto gain possession of their prey. Constantly prowling about thefields, he neglects no propitious circumstance, and profits by all theadvantages furnished by the situation of places or the habits of thegame he is seeking. He pursues tired or wounded animals whom he meets, and easily masters them. If he finds a burrow, he quickly hollows ahole and brings to light the young rabbits who thought themselves insafety in the bowels of the earth; he robs nests placed in thethickets, and devours the young birds. Beehives are not protectedagainst his greediness by the stings of the swarms; he rolls on theearth, crushes his assailants, and finally triumphs over thediscouraged insects and gorges himself with honey. 

[Illustration: FIG. 3. ]

Birds of prey also invent ingenious combinations to reach a goodflier. Most of the great rapacious birds of rapid flight or withpowerful talons are so well organised for the chase that they have noneed of cunning. To see the prey, to seize it and devour it, are actsaccomplished in a moment by the single fact of their naturalorganisation. It is rather among those who are less well endowed thatone finds real art and frequent ruses. The Goshawk (_Asturpalumbarius_, Fig. 3) is sufficiently strong and flies sufficientlywell to seize small birds; but in order to obtain a copious repast atone snatch he prefers to attack pigeons. Generally the strength oftheir wings promptly places them in safety. He therefore hides himselfin the neighbourhood of the pigeon-house, ready to fall on thosepigeons who pick up food around. But the pigeons are suspicious, andif they recognise his presence they remain hidden in their dwellings. In this case it has sometimes been found that the Goshawk has quietlyflown up to their house and alighted on its summit; there, byviolently beating his wings, he gives a succession of sudden blows tothe roof. Startled and frightened by this unaccustomed noise, theinhabitants dart out, and the bird of prey can then profit by theiralarm to seize one or two. [19]

 [19] Wodzicki, "Ornithologische Miscell. , " _Journ. F. Ornithol. _, 1856. 

The _Pseudaetus_ is also obliged to have recourse to a subterfuge inorder to gain birds that fly well. He easily destroys fowls, and huntsthem so successfully that in Spain, in certain isolated farms, it hasbeen necessary to give up rearing fowls in consequence of thesenumerous depredations. But to seize pigeons is not so easy a matter. Generally, according to Jerdon, two birds unite to attack a band. Oneof the aggressors pretends to wish to seize them from below. This is avery unusual method, for birds of prey always rise above the game inorder to throw themselves down on it. This puts out the pigeons, andthey fear the manoeuvre all the more because they are unaccustomed toit. During this instant of confusion the second assailant passesunperceived above them, plunges into the midst and seizes a pigeon;there is a new panic, by which the first aggressor profits in order torise rapidly in his turn and seize a second victim. 

_Struggles that terminate the hunt. _--It is not always sufficient forthe hunter to find game and to reach it. If the game is of large sizeit may be able to hold its own, and the pursuit may end in a violentstruggle, in which both skill and cunning are necessary to obtainconquest. 

The Bald Eagle of North America (_Haliäetus leucocephalus_) hideshimself on a rock by the edge of a stream and awaits the passing of aswan. This eagle is brave and strong, but the palmiped is vigorous, and though inferior in the air, he has an advantage on the water, andmay escape death by plunging. The eagle knows this advantage, so hecompels the swan to remain in the air by attacking him from below andrepeatedly striking his belly. Weakened by the flow of blood, andobliged to fly, not being able to reach the water without finding thesharp beak which strikes him, the swan succumbs in this unequalcombat, which has been vividly described by Audubon. 

[Illustration: FIG. 4. ]

The bird who displays the most remarkable qualities in this strugglewhich terminates the chase, exhibiting indeed a real fencing match, isthe Secretary Bird (_Gypogeranus reptilivorus_. Fig. 4. ) He is themore interested in striking without being himself struck since thefangs with which his prey, the snake, is generally armed might at thefirst blow give him a mortal wound. In South Africa he pursues everysnake, even the most venomous. Warned by instinct of the terribleenemy he has met, the reptile at first seeks safety in flight; theSecretary follows him on foot, and the ardour of the chase does notprevent him from being constantly on guard. This is because the snake, finding himself nearly overtaken, suddenly turns round, ready to usehis defensive weapons. The bird stops, and turns in one of his wingsto protect the lower parts of his body. A real duel then begins. Thesnake throws himself on his enemy, who at each stroke parries with theend of his wing; the fangs are buried in the great feathers whichterminate it, and there leave their poison without producing anyeffect. All this time with the other wing the Secretary repeatedlystrikes the reptile, who is at last stunned, and rolls over on theearth. The conqueror rapidly thrusts his beak into his skull, throwshis victim into the air, and swallows him. [20]

 [20] The combat was minutely described by Le Vaillant (_Hist. Nat. Des Oiseaux d'Afrique_, Paris, 1798, t. I. P. 177), whose account has been confirmed by many subsequent observers. 

[Illustration: FIG. 5. ]

_Hunting with projectiles. _--It has often been repeated that Man isthe only creature sufficiently intelligent to utilise as weaponsexterior objects like a stone or a stick; in a much greater degree, therefore, it was said, was he the only creature capable of strikingfrom afar with a projectile. Nevertheless creatures so inferior asfish exhibit extreme skill in the art of reaching their prey at adistance. Several act in this way. There is first the _Toxotesjaculator_, who lives in the rivers of India. His principal food isformed by the insects who wander over the leaves of aquatic plants. Towait until they fell into the water would naturally result in butmeagre fare. To leap at them with one bound is difficult, not tomention that the noise would cause them to flee. The _Toxotes_ knows abetter trick than that. He draws in some drops of water, and, contracting his mouth, projects them with so much force and certaintythat they rarely fail to reach the chosen aim, and to bring into thewater all the insects he desires. [21] (Fig. 5. ) Other animals alsosquirt various liquids, sometimes in attack, but more especially indefence. The Cephalopods, for example, emit their ink, which darkensthe water and allows them to flee. Certain insects exude bitter orfoetid liquids; but in all these cases, and in others that are similar, the animal finds in his own organism a secretion which happens to bemore or less useful to his conservation. The method of the _Toxotes_is different. It is a foreign body which he takes up, and it is anintended victim at which he takes aim and which he strikes; hismovements are admirably co-ordinated to obtain a precise effect. 

 [21] Cuvier et Valenciennes, _Hist. Nat. Des Poissons_, Paris, 1831, t. Vii. P. 231. 

Another fish, the _Chelinous_ of Java, also acts in this manner. Hegenerally lives in estuaries. It is therefore a brackish water whichhe takes up and projects by closing his gills and contracting hismouth; he can thus strike a fly at a distance of several feet. Usuallyhe aims sufficiently well to strike it at the first blow, butsometimes he fails. Then he begins again until he has succeeded, whichshows that his movements are not those of a machine. He knows what heis doing, what effect ought to be produced, and whether this desiredresult has happened, and he perseveres until the insect has fallen. These facts are unquestioned; the Chinese preserve these curious fishin jars, and amuse themselves by making them carry on this littleexercise. Many observers have witnessed and described it. 

_Particular circumstances put to profit. _--In the various kinds ofhunting which we have been passing in review, it is certain that theanimals in question generally exercise them nearly always in the samemanner. If an animal has carried out a ruse successfully he does notabandon it, but reproduces it as often as it is efficacious. When, however, conditions happen to change, animals are prompt to profit bythem, and one sees how all these acts are derived from reflection. This is the clearer the more the favourable circumstance is accidentaland unforeseen, when it is not possible to consider the animals asaccustomed to profit by it. 

In the wild regions of Africa it happens that from some reason oranother, perhaps from the effect of lightning on immense forests, dense thickets or plains covered by tall plants become the prey ofgigantic fires which spread as long as they find food on their road. The heat as of a furnace arises above and around; an acrid smoke veilseverything, and the frightened animals flee before the scourge. Travellers who have witnessed these magnificent scenes often insist onthe panics thus produced, and describe the inoffensive lion fleeing inthe midst of a herd of gazelles. All are seized by the same fear, because all are exposed to the same danger. But birds, whose wings cancarry them at will afar from the furnace, preserve greater presence ofmind, and profit by the public calamity and general anxiety to make asuccessful hunt and copious feasts. One may see the birds of preyflying in front of the fire and seizing easy victims. Certain birds ofAfrica are the most furious hunters during a fire. Legions of insectsflee far from the tall dried plants, and clouds of birds arrive tothrow themselves on them. They pursue them with incredible audacitythrough the smoke close to the flames and always retire in time toavoid singeing. A member of the Crow family who inhabits India, _Anomalocorax splendens_, enjoys a deserved reputation of astutenessand allows no opportunity to escape without seizing it by theforelock. In ordinary times his food is composed of very variedsubstances--crabs, insects, worms, etc. ; but if he perceives afar anascending cloud he immediately abandons his small researches, knowingthere is something better to be done over there. He is not selfish, and he calls a few comrades and they all put themselves into positionto await events. They know very well the relation that exists betweenthis smoke and the prey they covet. The fire indicated by the smokecan have no other reason in this hot country than the cooking of food. A Hindoo family are in fact installed and preparing their repast. Thebirds see all this and observe. The Hindoos are accustomed to throwoutside the remains of their meals, and the _Anomalocorax_, who havecome together from afar to await patiently this result, then throwthemselves on the quarry. (Jerdon. )

Tennent narrates a singular trick which was twice, to his knowledge, played on a dog by two of these small glossy crows of Ceylon. The dogwas gnawing a bone and would not be disturbed from the pure delight ofsucking the marrow of which he was the legitimate proprietor. A crowapproached the scene of the feast, and conceived the design of takingpossession of it; he began by hopping around the dog, going andcoming, trying to attract the animal's attention and ready to profitby the first distraction. His gambols remaining without result, heunderstood that he would not succeed and he flew away; but it was onlyto return accompanied by a friend possessing as little respect ashimself for the property of others. The associate perched on a brancha few steps away, while the first crow renewed his attempts by flyingaround the bone and the dog; but the latter remained impassive. Thenthe second personage, whose part had hitherto been to remaincontemplative, flew off his branch, threw himself on the dog and gavehim a formidable blow on the spine. Seized with indignation, the dogturned round to punish the author of this unjustifiable aggression;but the bird was already far away, and in the meanwhile from the otherside the first _Anomalocorax_ seized the long-coveted bone and alsotook flight. The feelings of the sheepish dog who saw both hisvengeance and his repast flying away in the air may be better imaginedthan described. [22]

 [22] Tennent, _Ceylon_, vol. I. P. 171. 

All the birds, indeed, of this family know how to reach their ends. Ihave already spoken of certain hunts of the Raven; it is even saidthat in Iceland he knows when a ewe is going to give birth to young, and awaits this moment with immense patience. As soon as the lambappears the Raven alights on him, digs out his eyes, and devours them. 

The Quelelis or Guadaloupe Caracara (_Polyborus lutosus_), aCalifornian bird of prey, is a cruel enemy to animals like the goatwhen they are about to bring forth their young. No sooner is one kidborn, and while the mother is yet in labour with the second, than thebirds pounce upon it, and should the mother be able to interfere, sheis assaulted also. If there are a number of young kids together, thebirds unite their forces and with great noise and flapping of wingssucceed in separating the weakest and killing it. [23]

 [23] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_, 1892, p. 319. 

Dr. J. Lowe has recently called attention to a very curious method ofattracting prey adopted by the Blackcap (_Sylvia atricapilla_) atOrotava, Teneriffe. [24] This bird has discovered that the juice exudedby certain flowers (_Hibiscus Rosa sinensis_ and _Abutilon frondosum_)is attractive to the insects upon which he preys; he thereforepunctures the petals of these flowers in order to promote theexudation of this viscid secretion. 

 [24] Linnæan Society, 1st June 1893. 

Many of us in our schooldays have admired the intelligence of Jackdawshaving their nests in some old tower or belfry. They are able todistinguish according to the hour the significance of the variousschool bells. Most of these clangs do not move them, and they continueto attend to their affairs without paying attention. Their attentionis only attracted by the ringing which marks the beginning and the endof recreation time. At the sound of the first they all flee andabandon the courts before even a single pupil has yet appeared. Thebell, on the contrary, which marks the end of recreation time invitesthem to descend in a band to collect the crumbs of lunch. They arrivein a hurry, so as to be the first to profit by the repast, not waitingeven until the place is abandoned; they know very well that the youngpeople still there are not to be feared, having no time now to beoccupied with them. 

In this class of facts, there are a certain number which may beconsidered as more marked by custom and perhaps less marked byspontaneous reflection. Such, for example, is the custom of Sharks andSeagulls to follow ships. 

In the seas where Dog-fish are abundant, one or more of them becomeattached to a ship, and quit it neither night nor day. One may believesometimes that they are not there; but if any object is thrown intothe sea, the fin of one of these monsters appears at the surface;everything which is thrown overboard disappears in their largejaws--kitchen refuse, bottles, etc. When a dead body is thrown intothe sea it is soon seized by the shark, while living men who fall intothe water have great difficulty in escaping, and are often drawn uphorribly mutilated and half dead. 

Sea-gulls also follow vessels when they approach the coast. It is apleasant sight to see the noisy band animating the monotonoussplendour of the ocean; they arrive as soon as a vessel is one or twodays' journey from land. Henceforth they do not leave her, flyingbehind and plunging in her wake; they profit by the disturbanceproduced by the gigantic machine to capture the stunned fishes. 

On land exactly the same kind of chase is carried on by Rooks, Crows, and Magpies, who follow the plough to seize the worms which theploughshare turns up in the open earth. In autumn they cover thefields, animated and active, pilfering as the furrow is hollowed out. 

Certain rapacious birds who are awkward in hunting, especially Kites, make up for their lack of skill by audacious impudence. Constantly onthe watch for better hunters like the Falcon, they throw themselves onhim as soon as he has seized his prey. The proud bird, though muchmore courageous, stronger, and more skilful than these thieves, usually abandons the prey either because the burden embarrasses him inthe struggle, or else because he knows that he can easily findanother. These highway robbers of the air often unite to gainpossession of a prey already taken and killed, and ready to be eaten. A handsome Falcon of the Southern States of North America, theCaracara Eagle (_Polyborus cheriway_), frequently steals fish from theBrown Pelicans on the coast of Texas. When the Pelicans are returningfrom their expeditions with pouches filled with fish, the Caracarasattack them until they disgorge, and then alight to devour the stolenprey. They do not attack the outgoing birds, but only the incomingones, and they wait until they reach the land (so that the contents ofthe pouches may not fall into the water) before pouncing on them. [25]

 [25] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_, p. 315. 

Among other animals a habit has been formed from some specialcircumstance. As an extreme case in this group we meet with parasitesof whom some cannot live outside a particular nest, and are evenabsolutely transformed by this kind of life. But between these andindependent hunters there are an extreme number of intermediatestages, of which it is sufficient to mention a few. [26]

 [26] For a discussion of this subject, see P. Van Beneden, _Commensaux et Parasites_, Paris, 1875. 

The _Fierasfer_, a little fish of the Mediterranean, installs himselfin the respiratory cavity of a Holothurian; he does not live at theexpense of his host's flesh, but contents himself with levying a taxon the foods which enter the cavity. It is a case of commensalism ofwhich there are very numerous examples. Other cases may be mentionedwhich are still further removed from parasitism. Among these may bementioned the birds who relieve large mammals of their vermin. 

One of them, the Red-beaked Buffalo bird (_Buphaga erythrorhyncha_), lives in Abyssinia. This bird is insectivorous. He has remarked thatthe ruminants constitute baits for flies; therefore he never leavesthese animals, hops about on their backs and delivers them fromannoying parasites; the buffaloes, who recognise this service, allowthe bird to wander quietly over their hide. The _Buphaga_, who giveshimself up entirely to this kind of chase, is often called theBeef-eater. He is only found in the society of flocks, of camels, buffaloes, or oxen. He settles on the back, legs, and snouts of theseliving baits. They remain passive even when he opens the skin in orderto draw out the flies' larva; they know the benefit of this littleoperation. The patience of the oxen is certainly due to custom, for itis observed that herds which are not used to this bird manifest greatterror when he prepares to alight on them, so that they even takeflight from this small aggressor. 

Sometimes it is not easy to understand the advantages derived by theanimal from the conditions in which he is usually found. Thus, forexample, there is a fish, the _Polyprion cernium_, which accompaniesdriftwood on which Barnacles have fixed themselves. Yet the remains ofthese Crustaceans are never found in his stomach, and it is known onthe contrary that he lives exclusively on other small fish. It ispossible that these find their food in fragments of wood at theexpense of the barnacles, and that therefore the _Polyprion_ whichhunts them is always near driftwood thus garnished. 

_Methods of utilising the captured game. _--Frequently it is not enoughfor the animal to obtain possession of his prey. Before making hismeal it is still necessary to find a method of making use of it, either because the eatable parts are buried in a thick shell which heis unable to break, or because he has captured a creature which rollsitself into a ball and bristles its plumes. Here are some of the morecurious practices followed in such cases. 

Sometimes it is a question of carrying off a round fruit which offersno prominence to take hold of. The Red-headed Melanerpes (_Melanerpeserythrocephalus_) of North America is very greedy with regard toapples, and feeds on them as well as on cherries. It takes him aconsiderable time to consume an apple, and as he is well aware of thedanger he runs by prolonging his stay in an orchard, he wishes tocarry away his booty to a safe and sheltered spot. He vigorouslyplunges his open beak into the apple; the two mandibles enterseparately, and the fruit is well fixed; he detaches it and flies awayto the chosen retreat. Apes are very skilful in utilising their booty. Cocoa-nuts are rather hard to open, but Apes do not lose any part ofthem; they first tear off the fibrous envelope with their teeth, thenthey enlarge the natural holes with their fingers, and drink the milk. Finally, in order to reach the kernel they strike the nut on some hardobject exactly as Man would do. The Baboons (_Cynocephali_), whosecourage is prodigious, since they will fight in a band against a packof dogs or even against a leopard, are also very prudent and veryskilful. They know that courage is no use against the sting of avenomous snake, and that the best thing is to avoid being bitten. Thescorpion, whose dart is perfidious, also inspires their distrust, butas they like eating him they endeavour to catch him. This is notindeed very difficult if one carefully observes his movements, and itis possible to seize him suddenly by the tail, as I have often done, without being stung. Apes employ this method, pull out his sting, andcrunch the now inoffensive Arachnid. They also like ants, but fearbeing bitten by them; when they wish to enjoy them, they place an openhand on an ant-hill and remain motionless until it is covered byinsects. They can then absorb them at one stroke without fear. 

One would not think that an animal so well defended as the Hedgehogneed fear becoming the prey of the Fox. Rolled in a ball, bristlingwith hard prickles which cruelly wound an assailant's mouth, nothingwill induce him to unroll so long as he supposes the enemy still inthe neighbourhood. It is vain to strike him or to rub him on theearth; he remains on the armed defensive. Only one circumstancedisturbs him to the point of making him quit his prudent posture; itis to feel himself in the water, or even simply to be moist. The foxis acquainted with this weakness, therefore as soon as he has captureda hedgehog he rolls him in the nearest marsh to strangle him as soonas his head appears. It may happen that there is no puddle in theneighbourhood suitable for this bath; it is said that in this case thefox is not embarrassed for so small a matter, and provides from hisown body the wherewithal to moisten the hedgehog. 

The combination is complicated, and approaches more nearly the methodsemployed by Man when the animal makes use of a foreign body, as a toolor as a fulcrum, to achieve his objects. A snake is very embarrassedwhen he has swallowed an entire egg with the shell; he cannot digestit in that condition, and the muscles of his stomach are not strongenough to break it. The snake often finds himself in this condition, and is then accustomed either to strike his body against hard objectsor to coil himself around them until he has broken the envelope of theeggs he contains. 

The Snake himself is treated in this way in South America. The SulphurTyrant-bird picks up a young snake by the tail, and, flying to abranch or stone, uses it like a flail until its life is batteredout. [27]

 [27] W. H. Hudson, _Naturalist in La Plata_, p. 73. 

It would be a paradox to attribute great intelligence to Batrachians;yet certain facts are recorded which show them to be capable ofreflection. Among others the case is quoted of a green frog whoobtained possession of a small red frog, and who proposed to swallowhim. The other was naturally opposed to the realisation of this schemeand struggled with energy. Seeing that he would not succeed, the greenfrog went towards the trunk of a tree and, still holding his victim, struck him many times vigorously against it. At last the red frog wasstunned, and could then be swallowed at leisure. 

Gasteropods are not always protected by their calcareous shells anymore than tortoises are by their carapaces; for certain birds knowvery well how to break them. Ravens drop snails from a height, andthus get possession of the contents of the shell. 

The most celebrated breaker of shells is the Bearded Vulture orLammergeyer (_Gypäetos barbatus_). This rapacious bird is very commonin Greece, where he does not usually live on large prey. If hesometimes carries away a fowl, it is exceptional; he prefers to liveon carrion or bones, the remains of the feasts of man or of the truevulture. He rises very high carrying these bones in his talons andallows them to fall on a stone, swallowing the fragments after havingsucked out the marrow. He is also greedy of tortoises, and uses thesame method to break their carapaces, eating the soft parts. Thesefacts have been many times observed by Brehm and other trustworthynaturalists. It is even said that in Greece every Lammergeyer choosesa rock on which he always comes to execute the tortoises he hascaptured. It was no doubt beneath one of these birds so occupied that, according to the story, mischance conducted Æschylus. 

Neither the beak nor the claws of the Shrike or Butcher-bird (_Laniusexcubitor_) are strong enough to enable him to tear his prey easily. When he is not too driven by hunger he installs himself in acomfortable fashion for this carving process, places on a thorn or ona pointed branch the victim he has made, and when it is thus fixedeasily devours it in threads. 

The _Lanius collurio_, an allied bird, uses this method still morefrequently. He even prepares a small larder before feasting. One maythus see on a thorny branch spitted side by side Coleoptera, crickets, grasshoppers, frogs, and even young birds, which he has seized whenthey were in flight. [28] (Fig. 6. )

 [28] Naumann, _Naturgeschichte der Vögel Deutschlands, etc. _, Stuttgart, 1846-53. 

[Illustration: FIG. 6. ]

Of all these well-attested facts that which perhaps best shows howanimals in certain circumstances may take advantage of a foreign bodyto utilise the product of the chase, is the following, the observationof which is due to Parseval-Deschênes. [29] He followed during severalhours an ant bearing a heavy burden. On arriving at the foot of alittle hillock the animal was unable to mount with his load, andabandoned it--a very extraordinary fact for one who knows theinconceivable tenacity of insects. The abandonment therefore left hopeof return. The ant at last met one of his companions, who was alsocarrying a burden. They stopped, took counsel for an instant, bringingtheir antennæ together, and started for the hillock. The second antthen left his burden, and both together then seized a twig andintroduced its end beneath the first load which had been abandonedbecause of its weight. By acting on the free extremity of the twigthey were able to use it exactly as a lever, and succeeded almostwithout trouble in passing their booty on to the other side of thelittle hillock. It seems to me that these ants who invented the leverare worthy of admiration, and that their ingenuity does not yield toour own. 

 [29] Gratien de Semur, _Traité des erreurs et des préjugés_, Paris, 1848, p. 70. 

I will, finally, give an example of the methods of surmounting adifficulty of another order in utilising captured prey. It is notenough to capture prey, or even to possess the means of utilising theprey when captured. It is sometimes also necessary to prevent thebooty being taken possession of by some other member of the samespecies as the hunter. Spiders are specially liable to this danger, because their victims are noisy when caught. Hudson has described aningenious device made use of by a species of _Pholcus_--a quietinoffensive Spider found in Buenos Ayres--to escape this risk. Thisspider, though large, is a weak creature, and possesses little venomto despatch a fly quickly. The task of killing it is therefore longand laborious, and the loud outcries of the victim may be heard for along time, sometimes for ten or twelve minutes. The other spiders inthe vicinity are naturally excited by this noise, and hurry out fromtheir webs to the scene of conflict, and the strongest or most daringsometimes succeeds in carrying away the fly from its rightful captor. Where, however, a large colony have been long in undisturbedpossession of a ceiling, when one has caught a fly he rapidly throws acovering of web over it, cuts it away, and drops it down to hangsuspended by a line at a distance of two or three feet from theceiling. The other spiders arrive on the scene, but not finding thecause of the disturbance retire to their own webs again. When thecoast is thus clear, our spider proceeds to draw up the captive fly, now exhausted by its struggles. [30]

 [30] W. H. Hudson, _Naturalist in La Plata_, 1892, p. 189. 

_War and brigandage. _--When Man attacks animals of another species, either to kill them and feed on their flesh, or to steal theprovisions which they have amassed for themselves or their young, thisis called "hunting, " and is considered as perfectly legitimate. Whenmen turn to beings of their own species either to kill them or to robthem, several different cases are distinguished. If the assailants arefew in number, it is called "brigandage, " and is altogetherreprehensible; but if both assailant and assailed are considerable innumber, the action is called "war, " and receives no reprobation. 

There are hunters among animals as well as among ourselves, and wehave seen their various methods of procedure; but there are alsobrigands and warriors, and our superiority even in this department isnot so absolute as might be imagined. 

Independently of ordinary brigandage, which is a brutal and simpleform of the struggle for life, manifested every time the animals findthemselves before a single repast, there are interesting facts to benoted concerning robbers who act in a manner that Man himself wouldnot disavow. It is worthy of remark that it is the most sociableanimals who furnish us with the most characteristic examples. 

Bees have a just renown as honest and laborious insects; there are, however, some who depart from the right road, and they do not do it byhalves. [31] Among Hymenoptera the lazy profess the theory that pollenbelongs to all bees, and that stored-up honey does not constituteprivate property. Therefore, to protest against work and economy, slymethods are employed by a few to utilise as their own private propertythe resources which Nature has made for all; they adopt the plan ofplundering the working insects, and carrying away for themselves thepollen which the others had had the audacity to seek among theflowers. 

 [31] L. Büchner, _Aus d. Geistesleben d. Thiere_, Berlin, 1879. 

To arrive at these ends these clever Hymenoptera employ cunning, andendeavour to pose as workers. They place themselves at the approachesto a hive, and when a worker arrives laden with its burden theyadvance towards it, caress it with their antennæ, take possession ofits pollen as if to relieve it of a burden, and then fly away to theirown hive. 

Others adopt less diplomatic proceedings. Some unite to intrude in abadly-guarded hive, and gorge themselves with the honey to which theyhave no right. Following up this success, they bring accomplices; averitable band of brigands is organised, who have no other industrythan to seize honey already manufactured in order to fill their owncells. Their audacious enterprises are not always crowned withsuccess; they are repulsed in populous and well-organised hives, butthey are successful in the weaker ones. Sometimes they act withviolence, and to reduce a swarm they first fall on the queen and killher with their stings. Disconcerted by her death, the bees allow thepillage of their dwelling, and the cells are robbed from top tobottom. In some cases the deprived proprietors, in their turn carriedaway by this insanity of rapine, even go over themselves to theassailing party, and carry their own honey to the house of thebandits. Henceforth they unite their fortune to that of the others, and share in their easy and adventurous life. [32]

 [32] P. Huber, _Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis indigènes_, Paris and Genève, 1810, chap. Ix. 

Bates has given a vivid description of the armies of the SouthAmerican Foraging Ants (_Eciton_). They are carnivorous hunters whomarch in large armies, and are found on the banks of the Amazon, especially in the open campos of Santarem. The _Eciton legionis_chiefly carry off the mangled larvæ and pupæ of other ants. They willattack the nests of a bulky species of the genus _Formica_; they liftout the bodies of these ants and tear them in pieces, as they are toolarge for a single _Eciton_ to carry off, a number of carriers seizingeach fragment. They seem to divide into parties, one party excavatingand the other carrying away the grains of earth to a distance from thehole just sufficient to prevent them rolling back into it. There is, however, no rigid distribution of labour, the miners sometimesbecoming carriers, and then again assuming the office of carrying offthe prey. In marching off they form a broad and compact column, sixtyor seventy yards in length, those who may be empty-handed assistingheavily-laden comrades. The _Eciton drepanophora_ attacks and carriesoff all kinds of insects, especially wingless species, such asmaggots, caterpillars, larvæ of cockroaches, etc. An eyelessspecies, [33] the _Eciton erratica_, rapidly forms covered passagesunder which to advance, and shows great skill in fitting the keystoneto these convex arcades. [34]

 [33] Belt points out that blindness is an advantage in the particular mode of hunting adopted by these ants, enabling them to keep together. Those species of _Eciton_ which hunt singly have very well developed eyes. 

 [34] Bates, _Naturalist on the Amazons_ (edition of 1892), pp. 355-363. 

Belt has also made some extremely interesting observations on the_Ecitons_, whom for intelligence he places first among the ants ofCentral America, and as such at the head of the Articulata. [35]

 [35] See _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 1888, pp. 17-29. 

_Expeditions to acquire slaves. _--In order to reduce one's own speciesto slavery, it seems at first that an intelligence is required asdeveloped as that of Man. It is necessary in fact to attack beingsnearly equally well endowed from an intellectual and physical point ofview. The enterprise evidently presents every possible difficulty; butin case of success, the result more than compensates for the effort. The master in future need not trouble to work, for he possesses a toolcapable of doing everything as well as himself, since by means oflanguage he can easily impress his will on the acts of the other; adomestic animal is only an auxiliary, the slave entirely replaces hisowner in every labour. 

Several species of ants thus obtain slaves. The best known of these isthe _Polyergus rufescens_. We shall see in another chapter in what waythey take advantage of slaves, and what relations they have with them. At present it is only necessary to say how the slaves are obtained. The expeditions organised for this purpose are simply a perfectedchase, both by the way in which they are conducted, and by the resultto which they are to lead. It is not a question of brutally seizing aprey to be devoured immediately. The captured animal must be carefullymanaged, carried away alive and in such a condition that it has notyet known a free life, and can accustom itself to new conditions. Whenthe _Polyergus_ or Amazon ants desire to increase their band ofslaves, one first remarks extreme excitement in the neighbourhood ofthe nest. They all come out helter-skelter, but this disorder lastsonly for a short time; they soon form in line, and a regular serriedcolumn is formed, longer or shorter according to the swarm; it hasbeen found to measure more than five metres long by fifteencentimetres broad. The Amazons advance, often changing their directionlike a dog who is seeking a scent: this is exactly what they aredoing, they smell the ground with their antennæ in order to recognisetraces of the _Formica fusca_. In this march the eminently republicaninstinct of the ants comes out. The band has no chief; those who areat the head go forward smelling the ground; this slackens their pace, so that they are passed by those in the ranks behind. Little by littlethey fall into single file, and this continuing during the wholecourse of the march, a particular ant may sometimes be at the head ofthe column, sometimes in the middle, sometimes in the rear. At the endof a longer or shorter period the expedition discovers a scent, whichit follows up to the nest of the _Formica fusca_. The alarm isimmediately given in the threatened ant-hill; the approach isannounced of a band of slavers, and they all rush out, some to facetheir terrible adversaries while the others take up the nymphs andeggs in their mandibles and flee in all directions to save as many aspossible of their offspring. The small ants endeavour with theirburdens to climb to the summits of blades of grass; those who succeedare in safety with the eggs that they carry, for the Amazons do notclimb. In the meanwhile a fierce battle is going on in theneighbourhood of the nest between the _Formica fusca_, who have made asortie, and the slavers. It is an unequal struggle, because the latterare armed with formidable jaws, strong and sharp, borne by a largehead with powerful muscles. The defenders of the nest are seized andplaced _hors de combat_. They flee discouraged, and the assailantsforce the entry of the dwelling. They then take possession of thelarvæ and nymphs and come out again holding them in their mandibles. The _Polyergus_ thus laden flee as fast as possible, escaping as wellas they can from the bereaved parents, who endeavour to save theiroffspring. The band returns to the nest by the same road that it came, although not the shortest, for these insects seem to lack the sense ofdirection and are guided by smell, so that they have to retrace allthe windings of the road. The march is slackened by the weight of thebooty (Fig. 7), and each travels according to his fancy, withoutfollowing the regular order of the departure. At last the ants regaintheir household. The slaves, warned of the return of the victoriousarmy, rush out to meet it and relieve the arrivals of their burdens, some in their zeal even carrying at the same time both the master andhis burden. The nymphs transported into the ant-hill are henceforthcared for by their fellow-slaves; the _Polyergus_ do not troublethemselves further. 

[Illustration: FIG. 7. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 8. ]

_Wars of the ants. _--As sociable as man, the manners of ants presentmore than one resemblance to his. Slave-hunting expeditions are amongthese; the wars that these insects undertake also resemble human wars. The causes of the quarrel are of various nature, most often theyresult from the close proximity of two ant swarms. The rival coloniesare always meeting in the same regions and seeking the same material;their mutual rivalry strains their relations. A moment comes when oneof them is decidedly in the way of the other. At such a period, whichis almost a diplomatic crisis, great excitement is observed in the twocamps; there is a continual coming and going. One fine day, as theresult of some unknown act, --some mysterious _casus belli_ ordeclaration of war, --two armies place themselves on the march againsteach other. They advance in serried ranks. All ants do not follow thesame tactics; some throw themselves out in a thicker line, whileothers form in squares. But as soon as action commences the individualregains his rights. It is a series of duels, of fierce hand-to-handstruggles. Legs are torn away, heads are cut off by strokes of thejaws, abdomens are disembowelled; a terrible fury animates thecombatants, and nothing will disturb them from the battle. (Fig. 8. )By-and-by victory remains with the fiercest or the strongest; thevanquished draw in, carrying away as far as possible their wounded andtheir dead. Nothing more is seen on the field of carnage but separatedlimbs or heads which strew the ground like a multitude of small blackpoints. Often the enmity is not extinguished after a battle, andseveral defeats are necessary before the weaker swarm is destroyed orforced to emigrate. [36]

 [36] P. Huber, _Moeurs des Fourmis indigènes_, chap. Ix. Many of the chief observations--given in the words of the original observers--as well as a summary of the facts known regarding the social activities of ants generally, will be found in the useful volume by Romanes in the International Scientific Series, _Animal Intelligence_, 1882. 

CHAPTER III. 

METHODS OF DEFENCE. 

 FLIGHT--FEINT--RESISTANCE IN COMMON BY SOCIAL ANIMALS--SENTINELS. 

Studying the animal kingdom in the manner here adopted, that is to sayby passing in review the various manifestations of zoological life, weare necessarily led to find certain industries which are opposed toothers. We have seen the various methods of hunting; but attack callsforth defence. In the struggle for life we find the action of beingson other beings, and the re-action of these latter; the final resultis the expression of the difference between the two according as oneor the other is stronger. 

_Flight. _--Just as the most rudimentary method of attack is simplepursuit, so the most simple and natural method of defence is flight;but if very fleet animals like hares, gazelles, and deer can escape bysimply exerting their maximum rapidity, it is not always thus, andcertain species exercise in flight perfected methods appropriate tocircumstances, and so raise this method of defence to an art. 

Of all animals the Ape most skilfully directs his flight. There is noquestion that in his intelligence we may find every rudiment of ourown; but of all his qualities none more nearly approximates him to usthan his courage. There are no animals, not even the great beasts ofprey, who are so brave as Man and the Ape, and who are capable of somuch presence of mind. It is perhaps this bravery which, joined to hissociability, has most contributed to assure the supremacy of the one. As to the other, the road has been barred to him by his better-endowedcousin; he is disappearing before Man, and not before nature or otheranimals. In thinly-inhabited regions he is still the king. It isgenerally considered that the Lion is the incarnation of courage, buthe is the strongest and the best armed; there is none before whom heneed tremble. In captivity he allows himself to be struck by thetamer, which the most miserable ape would never suffer. The Lion willstruggle with extreme energy without calculating the difference ofstrength between his opponent and himself, and will resist as long ashe is able to move. The Ape directs all his courage and presence ofmind to order his flight when he has recognised a danger that isinsurmountable. He does not act like those infatuated beasts who losetheir head and rush away trembling, in their precipitation paralysinga great part of their resources. A band of apes in flight utilises allobstacles that can be interposed between themselves and the pursuer;they retire without excessive haste and take advantage of the firstshelter met with; a female never abandons her young, and if a youngone remains behind, and is in danger of being taken, the old males ofthe troop go back boldly to save it at the peril of their lives. Inthis connection many heroic facts have been narrated. This animal hastoo frequently been judged by comparison with ourselves; he has beenregarded as a human caricature and covered with ridicule. We obtain avery much higher idea of him if we compare him with other animals. Always and everywhere there has been a prejudiced insistence on hisdefects; we perceive them so easily because they are an exaggerationof our own; but he also possesses qualities of the first order. 

As an example of flight arranged with intelligence, we have alreadyseen how the _Formica fusca_ profits by the difficulty experienced bythe _Polyergus_ in climbing. It hastily gains the summit of a blade ofgrass, to place there in safety the larvæ which the others wish tocarry away. The ruses adopted in flight are as varied as those ofattack. Every animal tries to profit as much as possible by all hisresources. 

Larks, a feeble race of birds, rise higher in the air than anyrapacious bird, and this is often a cause of safety. Their greatestenemy is the Hobby (_Hypotriorchis sublutes_). They fear him greatly, so that as soon as one appears singing ceases, and each suddenlycloses his wings, falls to the earth and hides against the soil. Butsome have mounted so high to pour out their clear song that theycannot hope to reach the earth before being seized. Then, knowing thatthe bird of prey is to be feared when he occupies a more elevatedposition from which he can throw himself on them, they endeavour toremain always above him. They mount higher and higher. The enemy seeksto pass them, but they mount still, until at last the Hobby, heavier, and little accustomed to this rarefied air, grows tired and gives upthe pursuit. [37]

 [37] _Naturgeschichte der Vögel Deutschlands_, etc. 

The Gold-winged Woodpecker of the United States (_Colaptes auratus_)often escapes Falcons either by throwing himself into the first holethat he finds, or if he cannot find one, through seizing the trunk ofa tree with his claws. As he is a very good climber, he describesrapid spirals around it, and the falcon cannot in flying trace suchsmall circles. By this method the _Colaptes_ usually escapes. [38]

 [38] Audubon, _Ornithological Biography_, New York and Edinburgh, 1831-49. 

The Fox, who is so ingenious in hunting, is not less so when his ownsafety is concerned. He knows when it is best to flee or to remain; heis suspicious in a surprising degree, not only of man but also of theengines which man prepares against him. He recognises them or smellsthem. Certain facts almost lead us to suspect that he understandstheir mechanism. When one of them has been surprised in his hole, andthe trap has been placed before every opening, he will not emerge fromthe burrow. If hunger becomes too imperious, he recognises thatpatience will only change the manner of his death, and then he decidesto dare fate; but previously he had done everything to flee withoutpassing over the snare. As long as he had claws and strength hehollowed out the earth to form a new issue, but hunger rapidlyexhausted his vigour and he was not able to complete the work. Foxesthus trapped have recognised immediately when one of these engineswent off, either owing to another animal being caught or from someother reason. In this case the captive understands very well that themechanism has produced its effect, that it is no longer to be dreaded, and he boldly emerges. 

It has happened that foxes have been caught in a trap by a paw or elseby the tail, when delicately endeavouring to extract the bait. Recognising the manner in which they are retained prisoners, certainof them have had the intelligence and the courage to cut off withtheir teeth the part engaged in the trap, and to escape thusmutilated. St. John knew a fox who thus escaped by amputating a paw, and who was able to earn his living for three or four yearssubsequently, when he was finally caught. 

In Australia great kangaroo hunts are organised. Generally the captureis sufficiently easy, and the dogs are able to seize the kangaroo, butsometimes he makes a long and rather original defence. If possible, hedirects his flight towards a river. If he reaches it he enters, and, thanks to his great height, he is able to go on foot to a depth wherethe dogs are obliged to swim. Arrived there, he plants himself on histwo posterior legs and his tail, and, up to his shoulders in thewater, awaits the arrival of the pack. With his anterior paws heseizes by the head the first dog who approaches him, and, as he ismore solidly balanced than his assailant, he holds the dog's nosebeneath the water as long as he can. Unless a second dog speedilycomes to the rescue the first is inevitably drowned. If a companionarrives to free him, he is so disturbed by this unexpected bath thathe regains the bank as quickly as possible, and has no further desireto attack this suffocating prey. A strong and courageous old male canthus hold his own against twenty or thirty dogs, drowning some andfrightening others, and the hunter is obliged to intervene and put anend to this energetic defence by a bullet. [39]

 [39] J. Gould, _The Mammals of Australia_, London, 1845-60. 

_Feint. _--Many animals, when they cannot escape danger by flight, seeksafety by various feints. The device of feigning death is especiallywidespread. 

Many coleopterous insects and Spiders simulate death to perfection, although it has been ascertained that they do not always adopt theattitude which members of their species fall into when really dead. But they remain perfectly motionless; neither leg nor antenna stirs. McCook, who has devoted such loving study to Spiders, remarks in hismagnificent work, that the Orbweavers, especially, possess this habit. "One who touches an Orbweaver when hanging upon its web will often besurprised to see it suddenly cast itself from the snare, or appear todrop from it, as though shot off by some unseen force. Unless heunderstands the nature of the creature he will be utterly at a loss toknow what has become of it. In truth it has simply dropped upon theground by a long thread which had been instantaneously emitted, andhad maintained the Aranead in its remarkable exit, so that its fallwas not only harmless, but its return to the web assured. The legs aredrawn up around the body, and to the inexperienced eye it has theexternal semblance of death. In this condition it may be handled, itmay be turned over, it may be picked up, and, for a little while atleast, will retain its death-like appearance. " Preyer, who has studiedthis phenomenon in various animals, comes to the conclusion that it isusually due to unconsciousness as the result of fright. [40] McCook isunable to accept this theory of kataplexy, so far as Spiders areconcerned. "I have frequently watched Spiders in this condition, " heobserves, "to determine the point in question, and their behaviouralways impressed me as being a genuine feigning of death, andtherefore entirely within their volition. The evidence is of suchindefinite nature that one can hardly venture to give it visibleexpression, but my conviction is none the less decided. I may say, however, that my observations indicate that the Spiders remained inthis condition as long as there seemed to be any threatened danger;now and again the legs would be relaxed slightly, as though thecreature were about getting ready to resume its normal condition, butat the slightest alarm withheld its purpose and relapsed intorigidity. The slight unclasping of the legs, the faint quiveringindications of a purpose to come to life, and then the instantsuppression of the purpose, were so many evidences that the power ofvolition was retained, and that the Aranead might have at oncerecovered if it had been disposed to do so. Again, I think that I havenever noticed anything like that gradual emergence from thekataplectic condition which one would naturally expect if the act werenot a voluntary one. On the contrary, the spider invariably recovered, immediately sprang upon its legs, and hoisted itself to its snare, orran vigorously away among the grasses. "[41]

 [40] _Sammlung physiologischer Abhandlungen_, Zweite Reihe, Erster Heft, 1878. 

 [41] H. C. McCook, _American Spiders_ (1889, etc. ), vol. Ii. Pp. 437-445. Romanes has an interesting discussion of the habit of feigning death among animals, and cautiously reaches the conclusion that it is very largely due, not to kataplexy, but to intelligent action. --_Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 303-316. And for some remarks on this subject by Darwin in his Essay on Instinct, see the same volume, pp. 365, 366. Also Alix, _Esprit de nos Bêtes_, 1890, pp. 543-548. 

Among fish, the Perch and the Sturgeon feign death; according toCouch, [42] the Landrail, the Skylark, the Corncrake adopt the samedevice. Among mammals, the best-known example is probably the Opossum. 

 [42] _Illustrations of Instinct_, 1847. 

An Opossum (_Didelphys azaræ_) of South America enters farms todevastate the poultry yards. When he is discovered he runs away, butis soon caught, and blows from sticks rain upon him. Seeing that hecannot escape correction he seeks at least to save his life. Lettinghis head fall and straightening his inert legs he receives the blowswithout flinching. Often he is considered dead, and abandoned. Thecunning little beast, who desires nothing better, arises, shakeshimself, and rather bruised, but at all events alive, takes his wayback to the wood. 

The Argentine Fox (_Canis azaræ_), when caught in a trap or run downby dogs, though it fights savagely at first, after a time drops downand apparently dies. "When in this condition of feigning death, " Mr. W. H. Hudson remarks, "I am quite sure that the animal does notaltogether lose consciousness. It is exceedingly difficult to discoverany evidence of life in the opossum, but when one withdraws a littleway from the feigning fox, and watches him very attentively, a slightopening of the eye may be detected; and, finally, when left tohimself, he does not recover and start up like an animal that has beenstunned, but slowly and cautiously raises his head first, and onlygets up when his foes are at a safe distance. Yet I have seen_guachos_, who are very cruel to animals, practise the most barbarousexperiments on a captive fox without being able to rouse it intoexhibiting any sign of life. This has greatly puzzled me, since, ifdeath-feigning is simply a cunning habit, the animal could not sufferitself to be mutilated without wincing. I can only believe that thefox, though not insensible, as its behaviour on being left to itselfappears to prove, yet has its body thrown by extreme terror into thatbenumbed condition which simulates death, and during which it isunable to feel the tortures practised on it. The swoon sometimesactually takes place before the animal has been touched, and even whenthe exciting cause is at a considerable distance. "[43]

 [43] W. H. Hudson, _Naturalist in La Plata_, p. 203. 

It is probably a measure of prudence which impels certain birds toimitate successively the cries of neighbouring animals, in order topersuade their enemies that all the beasts in creation are broughttogether in this spot except themselves. It is perhaps going a littletoo far to suppose so reflective and diplomatic a motive, but it isnot doubtful that in certain cases this custom can be very useful tothem by putting their enemies on the wrong scent. In North Americanearly all the species of the Cassique family have this custom. Ifthey wish to deceive the ears of the great Falcons who watch them--oris it simple amusement?--they interrupt their own song to introducethe most varied melodies. If a sheep bleats, the bird immediatelyreplies to the bleating; the clucking of a turkey, the cackling of agoose, the cry of the toucan are noted and faithfully reproduced. Thenthe Cassique returns to his own special refrain, to abandon it anew onthe first opportunity. [44]

 [44] Waterton, _Wanderings in South America_ (First Journey), ch. Iii. 

Not only do animals thus feign death in order to secure their ownsafety, but the female sometimes endeavours to attract an enemy'sattention and feigns to be wounded in order to decoy him away from heryoung. This trick is adopted especially by birds. In illustration ofthis it will be sufficient to quote from Bendire's _Life Histories ofNorth American Birds_ some observations by Mr. Ernest Thompson ofToronto, regarding the Canadian Ruffled Grouse (_Bonasa umbellustogata_), commonly called the Partridge by Canadians:--"Every fieldman must be acquainted with the simulation of lameness, by which manybirds decoy or try to decoy intruders from their nests. This is aninvariable device of the Partridge, and I have no doubt that it isquite successful with the natural foes of the bird; indeed it is oftenso with Man. A dog, as I have often seen, is certain to be misled andduped, and there is little doubt that a mink, skunk, racoon, fox, coyote, or wolf would fare no better. Imagine the effects of thebird's tactics on a prowling fox: he has scented her as she sits; heis almost upon her, but she has been watching him, and suddenly, witha loud 'whirr, ' she springs up and tumbles a few yards before him. Thesuddenness and noise with which the bird appears cause the fox to betotally carried away; he forgets all his former experience, he neverthinks of the eggs, his mind is filled with the thought of the woundedbird almost within his reach; a few more bounds and his meal will besecured. So he springs and springs, and very nearly catches her, andin his excitement he is led on, and away, till finally the bird fliesoff, leaving him a quarter of a mile or more from the nest. 

"If instead of eggs the Partridge has chicks, she does not await thecoming of the enemy, but runs to meet and mislead him ere yet he is inthe neighbourhood of the brood; she then leads him far away, andreturning by a circuitous route, gathers her young together again byher clucking. When surprised she utters a well-known danger-signal, apeculiar whine, whereupon the young ones hide under logs and amonggrass. Many persons say they will each seize a leaf in their beaks andthen turn over on their backs. I have never found any support for thisidea, although I have often seen one of the little creatures crawlunder a dead leaf. "[45]

 [45] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_ (_Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_, vol. Xxviii. ), 1892, p. 64. 

_Resistance in common by social animals. _--If neither flight nor feinthas saved an animal from the hunter, he naturally fights as long as hecan, but this struggle _in extremis_ is rarely crowned with success. Certain species, especially those which live in society, are ablenevertheless, by uniting their efforts, to resist enemies who wouldeasily triumph over them if they were isolated. 

Among tribes of Apes mutual assistance, as described by Brehm, iscommon. When by chance a bird of prey, such as an eagle, has thrownhimself on a young ape who is amusing himself far from the maternaleye, the little one does not let himself be taken without resistance;he clings to the branches and utters shrill and despairing cries. Hisappeals are heard, and in an instant a dozen agile males arrive tosave him; they throw themselves on the imprudent ravisher and seizehim, one by the claw, another by the neck, another by a wing, pullinghim about and harassing him. The bird struggles as well as he can, distributing around him blows from talons and beak. But he is oftenstrangled, and when his temerity does not receive this extremepunishment, the feathers which fall from him when he flies away bearwitness that he has not emerged unscathed from the scuffle. 

Animals like Buffaloes resist by a common defence the most terribleCarnivora. Even the Tiger is their victim, although if one of them metthat wild beast alone he would surely become its prey. Being veryagile, the tiger can reach by one leap the back of the ruminant, whosebrutal and massive force cannot thus be exercised; but the feline whofalls into the midst of a troop fares very badly. One buffalo falls onhim with lowered horns, and with a robust blow of the head throws himinto the air. The tiger cannot regain his senses, for as soon as hereaches the ground, and often even before, he is again seized andthrown towards other horns. Thus thrown from one to another like aball, he is promptly put to death. 

The less terrible Carnivora give Buffaloes no trouble. Wolves do notdare to attack them when they are united; they await in ambush thepassage of some strayed calf, and rapidly gain possession of it beforethe rest of the flock are aware, or they would dearly pay for theirattack. 

The Bisons of North America, near relatives of the Buffaloes, alsorepulse Wolves in common; and if Man succeeds better against them itis owing to the skill which he shows in hiding himself and notattracting their attention. Every one knows how Indians hunt the Bisonwith arrows, and his pursuit is very risky to the hunter, for he mustnot be discovered by the game, as he would then be trodden underfootor disembowelled. In the immense prairies where these ruminants feed, a few Indians covered by bisons' skins advance on all fours, so thatnothing betrays their presence. The victims fall one by one beneathsilent blows, and their companions, who can see nothing suspicious inthe neighbourhood, are not disturbed, supposing them, no doubt, to bepeacefully resting. 

It is not only against other animals that these great mammals have todefend themselves; they are much afraid of heat, and they areaccustomed, especially in the south of Persia, to ruminate while lyingin the water during the hot hours of the day. They only allow the endof the snout, or at most the head, to appear. It is a curiousspectacle when fording a river to see emerge from the reeds the greatheads and calm eyes of the Buffaloes, who follow with astonishment allthe movements of the horsemen, although nothing will disturb theirsweet and fresh siesta. 

But let us return to defences arranged in common. Horses are extremelysociable, and in the immense pampas of South America those who becomewild again live in large troops. In difficult circumstances they helpone another. If a great danger threatens them all the colts and maresassemble together, and the stallions form a circle round the group, ready to drive back the assailant. But they do not accomplish thismanoeuvre in the presence of an enemy of small importance. When a wolfappears on the plain all the males run after him, seeking to strikehim with their feet and kill him, unless prompt flight delivers himfrom their blows. 

The sociable humour of these horses makes them compassionate towardstheir fellows who are enslaved by man, and if a harnessed cart meetson its road a free band, it is a serious matter to the owner. They runup and surround the enslaved horse, saluting him with their cries andgambols, having the air of inviting him to throw his harness to thewinds and follow them on the plain, where grass grows for all withoutwork. Naturally the driver endeavours to preserve his noble conquest, and distributes blows with the whip to those who wish to debauch it. Then the wild horses become furious, and throw themselves on thevehicle; they break it with their feet and cut their comrade's traceswith their teeth to enable him to share their own free life. Theenterprise satisfactorily concluded, they gallop away neighing intriumph. 

It is owing to their union in large bands that Crows have so little tofear from diurnal birds of prey; if one approaches, they do nothesitate to throw themselves on him altogether. The Great Horn Owl, however, causes many ravages among them; for when asleep at night theCrow is without defence against the ravisher, for whom, on thecontrary, obscurity is propitious. Thus they recognise him as ahereditary enemy, and never allow an opportunity of revenge to passwithout profiting by it. If by chance an owl appears by day and one ofthem perceives him, immediately a clamour arises--a veritable cry ofwar; all those who are in the neighbourhood fly to the spot, andbusiness ceases; the nocturnal bird of prey is assaulted, riddled withblows from beaks, stunned, his feathers torn out, and, notwithstandinghis defence, he succumbs to numbers. 

In all the preceding examples the social species unite for the commonsecurity the forces and effects which they can derive from their ownorgans. 

I have spoken of the Apes and described how they defend themselveswith their hands and teeth; but in certain cases they use weapons, employing foreign objects like a club or like projectiles. 

Acts of this nature are considered to indicate a high degree ofdevelopment, and it has often been repeated that they are the appanageof man alone; we have, however, seen the _Toxotes_, who, like allfishes, is not particularly intelligent, squirt water on to hisvictims. It is not easy to understand how a greater intellectualeffort is required to throw a stone with the hand than to projectwater with the mouth. This is what the apes do, throwing on theirassailants from the heights of trees everything which comes to hand:cocoa-nuts, hard fruits, fragments of wood, etc. 

Baboons (_Cynocephali_) who usually live in the midst of rocks protecttheir retreat by rolling very heavy blocks on to their aggressors, orby forcibly throwing stones about the size of the fist. As these bandsmay contain from a hundred to one hundred and fifty individuals, it isa veritable hail of stones of all sizes which they roll down from theheights of the mountains where they find shelter. 

_Sentinels. _--Not only do Apes know how to face danger or to avoid itby a prudent flight, but they also seek to foresee it, and to avoidexposing themselves to it. A troop of Apes, according to Brehm, generally places the leadership in the hands of a robust andexperienced male. This primitive royalty is founded partly on theconfidence inspired by an old chief, and partly by the fear inspiredby his muscular arms and ferocious canine teeth. (Fig. 9. ) He giveshimself a great deal of trouble for the security of his subjects, anddoes not abuse the authority which he possesses. Always at the head, he leaps from branch to branch, and the band follows him. From time totime he scales a tall tree, and from its heights scrutinises theneighbourhood. If he discovers nothing suspicious a particularguttural grunt gives information to his companions. If, on thecontrary, he perceives some danger he warns them by another cry, andall draw in ready to follow him in his retreat, which he directs inthe same way as he guided the forward march. 

Apes are not alone in relying on the experience of one of theirmembers. Many other animals act in the same way: antelopes, gazelles, elephants, who advance in troops always conducted by an old male orfemale who knows all the forest paths, all the places favourable topasture, and all the regions which must be avoided. 

[Illustration: FIG. 9. ]

Others, more democratic, instead of giving up the care of their safetyto one individual, which cannot be done without abdicating some degreeof individual independence, dispose around the place which they occupya certain number of sentinels charged to watch over the common safety. This custom exists among prairie dogs, moufflons, crows, paroquets, and a great many other animals. The sentinels of the crows are notonly always on the watch, but they are extremely discriminating; theydo not give a warning at the wrong time. It is certain that thesebirds can distinguish a man armed with a gun from another who merelycarries a stick, and they allow the second to approach much nearer thanthe first before giving the alarm. 

Paroquets of all species live in joyous and noisy bands. After havingpassed the night on the same tree they disperse in the neighbourhood, not without having first posted watchers here and there, and they arevery attentive to their cries and indications. 

The great Aras or Macaws, the large and handsome parrots of the Andes, act with much prudence when circumstances make it advisable, and theyknow when they ought to be on their guard. When they are in the depthsof the forest, their own domain, they gather fruits in the midst of adeafening noise; each one squalls and cries according to his ownhumour. But if they have resolved to pillage a field of maize, asexperience has taught them that these joyous manifestations would thenbe unseasonable and would not fail to attract the furious proprietor, they consummate the robbery in perfect silence. Sentinels are placedon the neighbouring trees. To the first warning a low cry responds; onthe second, announcing a nearer danger, all the band fly away withvociferations which need no longer be restrained. The common Crane(_Grus cinerea_), still more far-seeing to avoid a possible futuredanger, despatches scouts who are thus distinct from sentinels whoinform their fellows of present danger. [46]

 [46] E. Poppig, _Fragmenta zoologica itineris Chilensis_, 1829-30. 

When these birds have been disturbed in any spot, they never returnwithout great precautions. Before arriving, they stop; a few only gocircumspectly forward, examining everything, and coming back to maketheir report. If this is not satisfactory the troop remainssuspicious, sending new messengers. When they are at last assured thatthere is really nothing to fear, the rest follow. 

Thus by the most varied methods animals endeavour to save theirthreatened lives, and succeed to some extent in attaining safety. Destruction and the chase on one side, conservation and flight on theother: these are the two chief acts which occupy living beings. Many, however, less threatened, succeed in perfecting their manner of life, and employ their industry in less pressing occupations than eatingothers or preventing others from eating them. 

CHAPTER IV. 

PROVISIONS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

 PROVISIONS LAID UP FOR A SHORT PERIOD--PROVISIONS LAID UP FOR A LONG PERIOD--ANIMALS WHO CONSTRUCT BARNS--PHYSIOLOGICAL RESERVES--STAGES BETWEEN PHYSIOLOGICAL RESERVES AND PROVISIONS--ANIMALS WHO SUBMIT FOOD TO SPECIAL TREATMENT IN ORDER TO FACILITATE TRANSPORT--CARE BESTOWED ON HARVESTED PROVISIONS--AGRICULTURAL ANTS--GARDENING ANTS--DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF ANTS--DEGREES OF CIVILISATION IN THE SAME SPECIES OF ANTS--APHIS-PENS AND PADDOCKS--SLAVERY AMONG ANTS. 

The industries of the chase which are derived immediately from themost imperious of needs--that of assuring the existence of theindividual--never arrive at a very extraordinary degree of perfection;or at all events, as they are indispensable to existence, we are notsurprised at their development. It is unquestionable that an industrymarks a higher degree of civilisation not only by its development, butstill more by its reference to the less necessary things of life; inevery species the importance of the place given to the superfluous isa mark of superiority. The animals who, foreseeing a hard season, orfearing the days when hunting will not be productive, lay upprovisions to utilise in such times of famine, rise a degree higherthan even the most skilful hunters. Not all amass with the samesagacity, and we shall find different examples of foresight, from themost rudimentary to the highest, very near what we may observe in Man. 

The provisions harvested by animals have more than one destination:some are for the individual himself who has gathered them; others, onthe contrary, are to serve as the food for his young at the age whenthey are not yet capable of seeking their own food. I will deal withthese latter in another chapter, and propose at present only to speakof those animals who provision barns with the intention of themselvesprofiting by them. 

The foresight of the animal is so much the greater the more remote thefuture for which he prepares. The Carnivora live from day to day andlay up no stores; it is the Rodents, certain frugivorous birds, andinsects who exhibit the most complicated acts of economy. 

_Provisions laid up for a short period. _--As a rudimentary example ofthe art of preserving food in view of possible famine, I may mentionthe case of the _Lanius collurio_. I have already spoken of this birdand of his custom in days of abundance of spitting on thorns all thecaptures he has made. One may see side by side Coleoptera, crickets, grasshoppers, frogs, and small birds. It is evident that thesereserves cannot be preserved for more than a day, or at most two days. The bird amasses just enough to show us his apprehensions of thepossible future lack of success in hunting, and his thought ofpreserving the surplus of the present in view of privations tocome. [47]

 [47] Naumann, _Naturgeschichte der Vögel Deutschlands_, etc. 

The Fox, a very skilful hunter, has no trouble in finding game; of allthe Carnivora he is, however, the only one who is truly foreseeing. The others in presence of abundant food gorge themselves, and abandonthe rest at the risk of suffering to-morrow. The fox is not socareless. If he has had the good fortune to discover a poultry yard, well supplied but ill watched, he carries away as many fowls as he canbefore dawn and hides them in the neighbourhood of his burrow. Heplaces each by itself, one at the foot of a hedge, another beneath abush, a third in a hole rapidly hollowed out and closed up again. Itis said that he thus scatters his treasures to avoid the risk oflosing all at one stroke, although this prudence complicates his taskwhen he needs to utilise his provisions. The fox, however, losesnothing, and knows very well where to find his stores. The very natureof the game prevents him from keeping it more than a few days. 

_Provisions laid up for a long period. _--The Rodents, who live on dryfruits or grains, can on the other hand preserve them for a long timein their barns. The Squirrel, who may be seen all the summer leapinglike a little madman from branch to branch, and who seems to have nocares except to exhibit his red fleece and show off his tail, is, contrary to appearance, a most sensible and methodical animal. Heknows that winter is a hard time for poor beasts, and that fruits arethen rare or hidden beneath the snow; in the autumn, therefore, whenall the riches of the earth are abundant, and beech-nuts, acorns, andchestnuts have ripened, he harvests quantities of them and hides themwherever he can. Making use of the cavities he is acquainted witharound his domain, hollow trees, holes that he makes in the earthbeneath bushes, etc. , he fills them with fruits, and when winter hascome he extracts them to munch. 

_Animals who construct barns. _--The Field Rat of Hungary and Asia(_Psammomys_) gathers wheat during the summer. He cuts the blades andtransports them to his home, where he stores them up in veryconsiderable quantities; and during rigorous winters when famineappears also among men, gleaners of another species appear on thescene and seek for corn under the earth in the nests of the_Psammomys_. A single rat can store up more than a bushel. Those whoare skilful in finding their holes can thus in a day glean a goodharvest, to the detriment of the rats who are thus in their turnreduced to beggary. 

The Hamster also makes provision of grain, but he introduces twoimprovements: the first at the harvest by only taking the edible partof the ear, and the second by constructing barns distinct from hishome. Each possesses a burrow composed of a sleeping chamber, aroundwhich he has hollowed one or two others communicating with the firstby passages, and intended to serve as barns. The old and moreexperienced animals prepare even four or five of these storehouses. The end of summer is their season for work. They scatter themselves inthe fields of barley or wheat, pull down the stalks of the cerealswith their anterior paws, and then cut off the ear with their teeth. This done, they set about thrashing their wheat--that is to say, theyseparate the grain from the straw by turning the ear round and roundbetween their paws. When the grains come out they pile them up intheir cheeks, and thus transport them to one of the chambers alreadymentioned; they then return to exploit the field and continue theselabours until they have completed the stores for winter. 

A certain Vole (_Arvicola economus_) acts in much the same way as theHamster, though he harvests a different class of objects. It is notwheat which he collects but roots. He has to find these roots, to digthem up, to cut them into fragments of suitable dimensions fortransport, and finally to pile them up in rooms disposed to receivethem. This species, which inhabits Siberia, measures about twelvecentimetres in length, but during summer and autumn Voles accomplishan amount of work which is surprising having regard to their size. Themoment having arrived to think about winter, the Voles spreadthemselves about the steppe. Each hollows little pits around the rootshe wishes to extract. After having bared them he cleans them whilestill in position, so as not to encumber his storehouses with uselessearth. This preparatory labour having been completed, he divides theroot into slices of a weight proportioned to his strength, and carriesaway the fragments one by one. Seizing each with his teeth, he walksbackwards drawing it after him, and thus traverses a long road, crossing paths, going round tufts of grass or other obstacles, notletting himself be rebuffed by the difficulty and length of the task. Arrived at his hole, he enters this also backwards, drawing his burdenthrough all his galleries. His dwelling, though the entrance is rathermore complicated, resembles that of the Hamster. Like the latter, itis composed of a central room placed in communication with the outsideby a maze of passages, which cross one another. That is thesleeping-room, the walls of which are well formed, and which iscarpeted with hay. From this various underground passages start whichlead to the storerooms, which are three or four in number. It is tothese that the Vole bears his harvest. Each compartment is largeenough to contain four or five kilogrammes of roots, so that thelittle rodent finds himself at the end of the season the proprietor ofabout fifteen kilogrammes of food in reserve. He would have enough toenable him to revel in abundance if he were able to reckon without hisneighbours. This diligent animal has in fact one terrible parasite. This is Man, who will not allow him to enjoy in peace the fruits ofhis long labour and economy. In Siberia, a long and severe winterfollows a very hot summer; in this season the inhabitants often lackprovisions. A moment comes when they are glad to make up for want ofbread by edible roots; but the search for these is long andtroublesome, and should indeed have been thought of during summer. Man, during the fine weather less foreseeing than the rodent, does nothesitate when famine has come to turn to him for help. As he is theweaker, the Vole is obliged to submit to this vexatious tax. Accordingto Pallas, [48] the inhabitants seek these nests full of provisions anddig them up. The conqueror takes all he pleases, and abandons the restto the unfortunate little beast, who, whether he likes it or not, hasto be content. In this region the burrows of the Vole abound;therefore this singular tithe ensures a considerable revenue to thosewho levy it, as may be understood when we remember the extent of thestores amassed by the animal. 

 [48] Pallas, _Ueber d. Am Volgastrome bemerkten Wanderungen der grossen Wassermäuse (Arvicola amphibius), Nord­-Beitr. _, vol. I. , 1781, p. 335. 

A Vole resembling the _Arvicola arvalis_, but larger, paler, and morerat-like, with large shining eyes and very short tail, overran in1892-93 the classic land of Thessaly, the land of Olympus, and theVale of Tempe. It has always inhabited this region, and the old Greekshad an Apollo Smintheus, or Myoktonos, the Mouse-destroying God. "Atthe beginning of March, " according to Prof. Loeffler, who has given anaccount of this invasion, [49] "the Voles were only beginning to troopfrom the slopes of the hills and the fallow-lands to the cultivatedfields. It was frequently observed that they followed regular pathsduring their inroads. Thus they advanced along the railway embankment. Their progress seemed to be rather slow. Perhaps they do not advancefurther till the inhabitants of one of their strongholds or so-calledcastles have become too numerous. The runs which they excavate are ata depth of about twenty to thirty centimetres below the surface of theground. The extent of their runs varies, and we found them extendingin length from thirty to forty metres and more. These runs areconnected with the surface by vertical holes of about five centimetresin diameter. In many places four, five, and more holes have led to thesame run. In such cases there is generally, not far off, anenlargement for the nest, lined with finely-ground vegetable material, where the young are produced and reared. In front of newly-openedholes the earth, which has been thrown far out, forms smooth hillocks. There were many well-defined and well-trodden paths on the ground, bywhich the Voles pass from one hole to another. They are never seen outof their holes by day, not even in places where the entire ground isriddled with holes like a sieve. They do not come out in search offood till the evening; even then not many are to be seen, but thepeculiar squeaking noise they make is to be heard everywhere. Next dayall sorts of freshly-severed plants are to be found in the holes. Stalks of corn they manipulate by standing on their hind legs andgnawing through the stalk; when this is bitten off they drag it intotheir holes to devour it there, sometimes making it smaller. They dotheir work with amazing rapidity. One evening a field was visitedwhich was to be mowed next day, but when the labourers came in themorning they found nothing to cut. The Voles had destroyed the entirecrop in a single night. A miller in the neighbourhood of Velestinoreported that he went to his field early one morning, cut a measure ofcorn, loaded it on his ass, and brought it to his mill. When hereturned to his mill with a second load he found scarcely a vestige ofthe first remaining. Thinking it had been stolen he kept watch for thethief; but suddenly, to his great astonishment, hosts of Volesappeared and set to work to carry off the second load. " Such facts asthese recorded by Loeffler are by no means a merely recent phenomenon;Aristotle was familiar with the devastations of the Voles, and wrotethat "some small farmers, having one day observed that their corn wasready for harvest, when they went the following day to cut their corn, found it all eaten. " Other ancient writers record similar facts. [50]

 [49] _Centralblatt f. Bak. U. Parasitenkunde_, July 1892, and _Zoologist_, September 1892. 

 [50] _Zoologist_, May 1893. It may be added that the Scottish Vole, which was so destructive about the same time, does not burrow to a depth like the Thessaly Vole, but lives in shallow runs amongst the roots of herbage. Its exploits are recorded in a Report on the Plague of Field-Mice in Scotland, made by a committee appointed by the President of the Board of Agriculture, 1893. 

Two birds of North America, belonging to the Woodpecker family, prepare their provisions for the bad season with consummate art; notonly do they harvest them and place them in shelter, but they arrangethem in such a manner that at the right moment they can utilise themin the most convenient manner. 

One of them which is common in California, the _Melanerpesformicivorus_, nourishes himself, as his name indicates, by insects, and especially ants. All the summer he gives himself up to this hunt, but at the same time he collects acorns, which he does not touch, however, so long as he can find other food. He amasses them in thefollowing ingenious manner: he chooses a tree and hollows out in itstrunk a cavity just capable of receiving one acorn. He then carries afruit and introduces it forcibly into the hole he has just made. Thusburied, the acorn can neither fall nor become the prey of anotheranimal. In the domain of these birds trees may be found which areriddled like a sieve with holes stopped up by an acorn as by a plug. When the hunting of insects ceases to be fruitful, the _Melanerpes_visits his barns. If an ordinary bird wished to eat one of thesefruits, at each stroke of his beak, on account of the polish andconvexity of the acorn's surface, it would escape him, and only by aseries of reiterated efforts would the interior be exposed; but forthe American woodpecker the task is simplified; each acorn beingmaintained firmly in the bark, it is sufficient to break the envelopeand the pulp is easily seized. [51]

 [51] See, for instance, _Nature_, 20th July 1871; also A. L. Heermann, "Notes on the Birds of California, " _Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia_, 2nd Series, vol. Ii. , 1853, p. 259. 

A relation of this bird, the _Colaptes mexicanus_, does not yield tohim in economy and skill. He places his barn in the interior of aplant which is very abundant in the zone he inhabits. Insectivorousduring a part of the year, he is forced to renounce this diet duringthe dry season. In the regions of Mexico where this bird is found thedry period is so absolute that he would die of hunger for want ofinsects or fruits if he had not taken the precaution of laying upstores during spring. His store consists of acorns. He has not time tofix them one by one, like the _Melanerpes_, and only thinks at firstof rapidly collecting a large quantity. But it is in deciding thequestion as to where they are to be laid up that the _Colaptes_ showshis remarkable intelligence. In the forests where he lives are to befound aloes, yuccas, and agaves. When the agaves have flowered, theflower-bearing stem, two or three metres in length, shrivels, butremains standing for some time. Its peripheral portion is hardened bythe heat, while the sap in the interior almost entirely disappears. Ahollow cylinder with a well-sheltered cavity is thus formed, and the_Colaptes_ proposes to utilise it as a storehouse. His acorns willthere be well protected against external influences and against thebirds whose beaks are too weak to pierce the agave. It is then aquestion of filling the tube. The animal first pierces the walltowards the base of the stalk; through this hole he introduces acornsuntil he has filled the lower part of the cavity. This done, he makesa new hole rather above the first, and fills the interval between thetwo, continuing this process until he has arrived at the top of thestalk and filled the whole interior. (Figs. 10 and 11. ) The bird seemsat first to take unnecessary trouble by boring so many holes. He wouldreach his end as well, it would seem, by making a single hole at thetop to fill his storehouse, and another at the bottom to empty it. Butwe must not thus accuse him of lack of judgment. The interior of thetube is just large enough for the passage of an acorn; but at certainpoints the sap is not entirely absorbed, and there might easily be animpediment which would leave a large part of the cavity empty. Hencethe necessity for a number of openings. When the sun has scorched upplants, and provisions are rare, he turns to his barns of abundance. Now and every time that he has need he can utilise the method that hasbeen employed by his cousin the _Melanerpes_. In order to feed on eachacorn without too much trouble, or allowing it to slip from his beak, the bird places it in a vice. He hollows a hole in the trunk of atree, introduces the fruit there forcibly, and eats it at hisease. [52]

 [52] Henri de Saussure, "Observations sur les moeurs de divers oiseaux du Mexique, " _Arch. Sci. Phys. Et natur. _, 1859, pp. 21-41. 

[Illustration: FIG. 10. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 11. ]

The provisions collected by these two birds reveal a remarkable fact. They possess indeed two distinct diets; they do not preserve for theperiod of famine the overplus of the foods which they consume in theperiod of abundance. They chase insects and feed on them as long asthey can find them, while they gather up in their storehouses anentirely different food. 

_Physiological reserves. _--All the animals of which I have just spokenplace their provisions for the future in barns in the same manner asMan. Those who have not this foresight are either able to nourishthemselves in all seasons by the chase, or else, after having feastedone half of the year, they fast during the other half. In the lattercase they consume during the fasting period a portion of their ownsubstance, and use up materials placed in reserve in their organism, in the form of fat for example. This arrangement, which allows them toprolong life, though growing thin, until the next season ofprosperity, is not under the control of the will. It is a complicationof physiological phenomena resulting from the functioning of differentparts of the organism. 

_Stages between physiological reserves and provisions. _--Betweenphysiological reserves and industrial stores we may place as anintermediate stage the interesting case of the Honey Ants. [53]

 [53] H. C. McCook, _The Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods, and the Ants of the American Plains_, Philadelphia, 1882. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 13. ]

These insects (_Myrmecocystus_) live in Texas, and form colonies inwhich certain individuals play a very special part They exaggerate toan extreme point the power of preserving provisions in their crops. These materials are not assimilated; they do not form part of theanimal's body, and although placed inside it cannot be compared tophysiological reserves. It is especially curious that they are not tobe utilised only by the animal itself, but also by the other membersof the colony who are not able to form such stores. Among the_Myrmecocystus_ there are workers of two sorts; the first kindresemble other ants with some differences of detail, and build andhollow the earth nest which shelters the community. The second kind isquite different; the abdomen in these workers is enormously distendedso as to constitute a voluminous sphere, which may become four or fivetimes larger than the thorax and head together. (Fig. 12. ) On thisdistended receptacle appear several darker plates; these are theremains of the chitinous parts of the primitive wings. In the fineseason these ants go out in a band and collect a sweet liquor whichforms pearly drops on certain galls of oak leaves. These drops, elaborated into honey, gradually fill the crop, distending it andpushing back neighbouring organs until it receives its globular form. When they have arrived at this obese condition, the heavy honey antsno longer leave the nest. They remain without movement, hanging bytheir legs to the roof or lying against the walls of a room. Theworkers who have remained slender come and go, attending to theirusual occupations, and pass near the others without paying attentionto them or going out of the way to lend assistance to their impotentsisters when one of them has rolled over on the ground and can nolonger arise unaided. (Fig. 13. ) They only cease to be indifferentwhen impelled by the selfish sentiment of hunger, and then it is toask and not to give assistance. The fat ants in fact could notthemselves consume all the honey that they have elaborated; the othersin times of famine approach them, caress them with their antennæ, andobtain by solicitation a drop of honey which the large ones disgorgefrom the crop. Here, then, is a colony in which the division of labourhas reached a remarkable degree of polymorphism. Some of the membersaccomplish the work of engineers and masons, while the othersfabricate for the community a store of honey. Instead of depositingthese provisions in cells like bees, they preserve them in their owndigestive tube. This custom has re-acted to such an extent on the formof their bodies that at first sight they seem to belong to a differentspecies. 

[Illustration: FIG. 14. ]

_Animals who submit foods to special preparation in order tofacilitate transport. _--Not content with collecting materials as theyare found in nature, certain animals submit them to preparation withvarious aims, either to render transport easier or that they may notdeteriorate when stored. Among those of whom I have just spoken, somecollect with the view of utilising their stores in a more remotefuture than others. The _Ateucus sacer_ intends to consume theprovisions he prepares almost immediately. Yet he acts in so careful amanner that I cannot pass him in silence. This beetle is the sacredScarabæus so venerated by the Egyptians, who have everywherereproduced his image in porphyry and granite. He is a most singularinsect. The celebrated Fabre has given a complete and very picturesquehistory of his customs. [54] I have myself had an opportunity of seeinghim at work. It was in Persia, in the plain of Susiana, on a hotmorning in March. We had passed the night in the open air, proposingto continue our journey in the early morning, but our mules, renderedrather lively by the fresh grass brought out by the spring weather, had decided otherwise. They had all decamped to take a ramble on theirown account. In order to pass away the hours taken up by the muleteersin searching for the strayed animals, the Scarabæus would, I thought, furnish me with an amusing and instructive spectacle. During the nightthe mules had not failed to leave here and there the relics of theirdigestion. The aroma, borne on the morning breeze, had struck theScarabæus on awaking. It was his favourite dish. From all points ofthe sky their heavy silhouettes could be seen against the blue. It wasstill fresh, the sun having only risen about an hour before; the heatwould soon become oppressive, and the sybaritic beetle, withoutattending to his morning appetite, which his fresh meal could not failto excite, nourishes the bourgeois dream of making his little pile inorder to enjoy himself sheltered from the hot rays. Immediately onarriving on the scene of the accident each began to display feverishactivity. All set to work. With their heads, the anterior edge ofwhich is flat and supplied with six strong spines, they raised theirprovisions; with their anterior feet, which are large and also armedwith spines, they moulded the paste and placed it beneath the abdomenbetween the four other legs, giving it a rounded form. Little bylittle the sphere increased and acquired the size of a small apple. That was sufficiently large, and besides it was already becoming hot. The insect set about carting away his prize to a sheltereddining-room. He placed his four posterior legs on the ball; with thetwo last, which were continually moving, he made certain of theequilibrium of the mass; then resting his head and two anterior feeton the ground he pushed backwards, and with extreme rapidity. (Fig. 14. ) There was enough for all; each worker could find the just rewardfor his labour; I witnessed none of the regrettable facts narrated byFabre. It happens sometimes, according to this ingenious observer, that a cunning Scarabæus, who has taken no part in the laboriouslabour of moulding the paste, arrives when it is on the road to aidthe convoy, or even simply to pretend to help, in order that when themoment has come he may claim a share in the coveted meal, or evencarry it all away if he can profit by a momentary inattention on thepart of the lawful proprietor. I followed one of these Coleoptera formore than five metres from the place where his labour began. Afterhaving deposited his ball he began to dig up the earth around it;[55]but the mules had returned and I was obliged to depart. 

 [54] J. H. Fabre, _Souvenirs entomologiques_, 1879. 

 [55] In captivity also, as Mrs. Brightwen found, the Scarabæus always attempts to bury its ball in the earth. 

I have no doubt that subsequent events were not exactly the same asnarrated by Fabre for the Scarabæus of Provence. The insect havingmade his hole, buries himself in it for a _tête à tête_ with theprecious sphere. He immediately sets about passing the whole throughhis body. Without haste but without rest, for a week or a fortnight, as long as there is any of it left, he eats continuously, andcontinuously digests. He does not stop for a moment, his jaws areworking the whole time; and Fabre has called attention to the factthat from the opposite extremity of the animal a continuous threademerges without breaking, and becomes coiled up. 

_Care bestowed on harvested provisions. _--Among the animals who takeparticular care of the provisions they have amassed, special mentionmust be made of certain species of Ants. It was formerly believed thatthese industrious Hymenoptera are not accustomed to store up in barnsfor the winter. This opinion long prevailed owing to the authority ofHuber, so competent in these matters, although the ancients were wellacquainted with the storehouses of ants. [56] But it was founded on anexclusive study of these insects in northern countries, in which, during the cold season, they become torpid and buried in theirhybernal sleep. Naturally they have no need of food during thisperiod, but it was incorrect to generalise from this fact. The ants ofthe south are active all the year round. An English naturalist, Moggridge, who passed several winters at Mentone, has placed this factout of doubt. Suffering from an incurable disease, he occupied thelast years of his life in observing and setting down for theinstruction of others the habits of these insects. He found that antsof the species _Atta barbara_ store up grains. They utilise plants ofvarious kinds, but usually fumitory, oats, nettle, various species of_Veronica_, etc. They procure these grains towards the end of autumn, collecting them on the soil, or even, when they do not fall insufficient quantities, climbing up the plants and gathering them inposition. An ant will, for instance, ascend the stem of a fruitingplant, of shepherd's-purse, let us say, and select a well-filled butgreen pod, mid-way up the stem, those below being ready to shed theirseeds at a touch. Then seizing it in its jaws, and fixing its hindlegs firmly as a pivot, it contrives to turn round and round, and soto strain the fibres of the fruit-stalk until they snap; it thenpatiently backs down the stem. Sometimes two ants combine theirefforts; one, at the base of the peduncle, gnaws at the point ofgreatest tension, while the other hauls upon it and twists it. Andsometimes the ants drop the capsules to their companions below, corresponding with the curious account given by Ælian of the way thespikelets of corn are thrown down "to the people below. " In thislabour they display the activity usual in their race, and do not stopuntil they have carried away to their barns the amount of provisionthey desire. When their wealth is stored up in the nest, the ants pileup the grains in some hundred little rooms designed for this purpose, each measuring from seven to eight centimetres in diameter, and threeor four in height; the average granary being about the size of agentleman's gold watch. Adding up the quantities of grain dividedbetween these different barns, it is found that they may be estimatedat about 500 or 600 grammes, which represents a very large number ofmeals for such small appetites, and must cost colossal labour if wetake into consideration the size of the workers. But when the harvestis completed, the _Atta barbara_ have not completed their task; theyare too ingenious to limit themselves to waiting with crossed legs forthe moment to come when they may enjoy their labour, withoutconsidering the damage that may arise. Their first care is to preventthe grains from germinating for some weeks. How they obtain thisresult is not exactly known, but it is certain that germination doesnot take place, although all the conditions of heat and moistureoffered by the interior of the ant-hill are favourable to it; it isnot less certain that this arrest is due to the ants. This is shown ina very simple manner. It is sufficient to prevent the access of theinsects to one of these chambers to cause the grains to germinateimmediately. We can only suppose some direct action of the ants, everyother hypothesis falling before this single fact: the arrestedphenomenon is produced as soon as the _Atta barbara_ no longer acts onit. Therefore they arrest germination without rendering it impossible, and when the moment arrives for utilising the accumulated stores, their first care is to allow the grains to follow the normal course ofevolution. The envelope breaks, the little plant makes its appearance;radicle and stalk come to light. But the ants do not permit thedevelopment to go too far. The little plant, in order to grow, digeststhe starch which is associated with the albumen, for it is not yetable to draw its nourishment direct from the soil. To be absorbed andassimilated this starch must first be transformed into sugar. Thischemical transformation being effected, the grain is in the conditionin which the ants prefer it. Like a wine-grower who watches over thefermentation in his vat, and stops it before the wine turns sour, theystop the digestion of the starch at this stage. If we do not know howthey retard germination, we know at all events how they render itimpossible at this later stage. It is the young plant which absorbsthe glucose, and which must therefore be destroyed; they cut off theradicle with their mandibles, and gnaw the stalk; the germ is thussuppressed. They have not yet finished their manipulations, which mustenable them to preserve without further alteration the provisionswhich they have already rendered palatable. They bring out all theirprovisions to the sun, dry them, and take them back to the barns. Aslong as winter lasts they feed on this sweet flour. An anatomicalpeculiarity enables them to make the most of it; their mouth is soarranged that they can absorb solid particles and eat the albuminouspowder. In this they differ from their northern kin, who are obligedto feed exclusively on juices. 

 [56] See chapter on "The Ancient Belief in Harvesting Ants, " in McCook's _Agricultural Ants_. 

I have compared the labours of these ants to those of the wine-grower. Both of them in fact utilise the chemical phenomena going on in livingmatter; both of them know how at a given moment to prevent thetransformation from going further. Neither of them for the rest takeinto account the part played by diastasis and ferments. The ancestorsof one as of the other have by chance found out the method, and theytransmit it from generation to generation. [57]

 [57] J. Treherne Moggridge, _Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders_, London, 1873, pp. 16-60. 

_Agricultural Ants. _--The art of amassing stores is still more highlyperfected by an Ant which inhabits North America. It is called the_Pogonomyrmex barbatus_, or, on account of its customs, theAgricultural Ant. It carries out a certain number of preparatory acts, and pushes foresight further than any other animal, since it looksafter its property while still growing. It is grain which theseinsects collect, but only a single species of graminaceous grain. Thischoice leads them to spend great trouble on their preferred plant. They act in such a way that in the case of men we should say, purelyand simply, that they were cultivating. The art of treating the earthwith a view of augmenting the products which it yields is certainly ofall the manifestations of human activity that which we should leastexpect to find among animals. It is, however, impossible otherwise todescribe the conduct of Agricultural Ants. The field which theyprepare is found in front of their ant-hill; it is a terrace in extentabout a square metre or more; there they will allow no other plant togrow but that from which they propose to gather fruit. This latter(_Aristida stricta_) is rather like a grain of oats, and in tasteresembles rice; in America it is called ant rice. This culturerepresents for these insects a much more important property than awheat field for man. It is, in relation to their size, a forestplanted with great trees, in comparison with which baobabs andsequoias are dwarfs. It is not known if the _Pogonomyrmex_ sow theirrice; Lincecum asserted that the ants actually sow the seeds, that hehad seen the process going on year after year; "there can be nodoubt, " he concludes, "of the fact that this particular species ofgrass is intentionally planted, and in farmer-like manner carefullydivested of all other grasses and weeds during the time of itsgrowth. "[58] McCook is not able to accept this unqualified conclusion. "I do not believe that the ants deliberately sow a crop, as Lincecumasserts, but that they have, for some reason, found it to theiradvantage to permit the _Aristida_ to grow upon their disks, whilethey clear off all other herbage; that the crop is seeded yearly in anatural way by droppings from the plant, or by seeds cast out by theants, or dropped by them; that the probable reason for protecting the_Aristida_ is the greater convenience of harvesting the seed; but, finally, that there is nothing unreasonable, nor beyond the probablecapacity of the emmet intellect, in the supposition that the crop isactually sown. Simply, it is the Scotch verdict--Not proven. "[59]However it may be, they certainly allow no other plant to grow in theneighbourhood of their grain, to withdraw the nourishment which theywish to reserve entirely for it. Properly speaking, they weed theirfield, cutting off with their jaws all the troublesome plants whichappear above the soil. They pursue this labour very diligently, and nostrange shoot escapes their investigations. Thus cared for, theirculture flourishes, and at the epoch of maturity the grains arecollected one by one and carried within. Like all harvesters, theseHymenoptera are at the mercy of a shower that may fall during theharvest. They are well aware that in this case their provisions wouldbe damaged, and that they would run the risk of germination or decayin the barns. Therefore, on the first sunny day all the ants, asobserved by Lincecum and Buckley, may be seen carrying their grainsoutside, only bringing them back when they have been thoroughly dried, and always leaving behind those that have sprouted. [60]

 [58] Lincecum's most important published paper on the habits of the _Myrmica molefaciens_ appeared in the _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_, vol. Xviii. , 1866, p. 323-331. See also Darwin, _Proceedings of the Linnæan Soc. _, 1861. 

 [59] H. C. McCook, _Natural History of the Agricultural Ants of Texas_, Philadelphia, 1879, pp. 33-39. 

 [60] McCook, _Agricultural Ants of Texas_, pp. 105-107. 

_Gardening Ants. _--The Leaf-cutting Ants (_Oecodoma_) of tropicalAmerica are often alluded to by travellers on account of their ravageson vegetation; and they are capable of destroying whole plantations oforange, mango, and lemon trees. They climb the tree, stationthemselves on the edge of a leaf and make a circular incision withtheir scissor-like jaws; the piece of leaf, about the size of asixpence, held vertically between the jaws, is then borne off to theformicarium. This consists of low wide mounds, in the neighbourhood ofwhich no vegetation is allowed, probably in order that the ventilationof the underground galleries may not be interfered with. 

For a long time there was considerable doubt as to the use to whichthe leaf-cutting ants put the leaves; some naturalists supposed theyare used directly as food, others that the ants roof their undergrounddwellings with them. The question was set at rest by Fritz Müller, whoobserved these ants in Brazil, [61] and independently by Belt, whostudied them in Nicaragua, and has written an interesting account oftheir proceedings. [62] The real use of the leaves is as manure onwhich to grow a minute species of fungus; these ants are, in reality, mushroom growers and eaters. Belt several times exposed theunderground chambers to observation and found that they were alwaysabout three parts filled with "a speckled, brown, flocculent, spongy-looking mass of a light and loosely-connected substance. "Scattered throughout these masses were the pupæ and larvæ, togetherwith the smallest division of workers who do not engage inleaf-carrying, but whose duties appear to be to cut up the leaves intosmall fragments and to care for the young. On examination the massesproved to be composed of "minutely sub-divided pieces of leaves, withered to a brown colour, and overgrown and lightly connectedtogether by a minute white fungus that ramified in every directionthroughout it. " That they do not eat the leaves themselves was shownby the fact that near the tenanted chambers were found deserted onesfilled with the refuse of leaves that had been exhausted as manure, and which served as food for the larvæ of various beetles. There arenumerous holes leading up from the underground chambers, and these areopened out or closed up, apparently in order to regulate thetemperature below. Great care is also taken that the nest should beneither too dry nor too damp; if a sudden shower comes on the leavesare left near the entrance, and carried down when nearly dry; duringvery hot weather, on the other hand, when the leaves would be parchedin a very short time, the ants only work in the cool of the day andduring the night. Occasionally, inexperienced ants carry in grass andunsuitable leaves; these are invariably brought out again and thrownaway. [63]

 [61] _Nature_, 11th June 1874. And see Appendix. 

 [62] _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 2nd edition, 1888, pp. 71-84. 

 [63] For a brief discussion of the relation of ants to plants generally, see Lubbock's _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, 1882, chap. Iii. 

_Domestic animals of Ants. _--Following through different species theperfection reached in the art of laying up provisions for the future, we have gradually arrived at methods resembling those of Man. But aforesight still greater and nearer to his is manifested by those antswho breed and keep near them animals of different species, not for thesake of their flesh, but for certain secretions, just as man utilisesthe milk of the cow or the goat. Ants have true domestic animalsbelonging to a variety of species, but the most widely spread are the_Claviger_ and the Aphides or plant-lice. To keep these insects attheir disposal, Hymenoptera act in various ways: some, who are alittle experienced, are content to take advantage of a free aphiswhich chance may put in their way; others shut up their cattle instables situated in the midst of the ant-hill, or else pen them in thecountry at a spot where they can best find their food. These factshave long since been carefully studied and leave no room for doubt. 

The _Claviger testaceus_ is a small beetle, often met in the dwellingsof ants. Nature has not been very generous on its behalf. It is blind, and its eyes are indeed altogether atrophied. The elytra are solderedat the median edge, so that it cannot spread its wings to fly. It isan animal predestined to the yoke; and for the rest its masters treatit with extreme kindness. The yellow ants, according to Müller, [64]have reduced this outcast beetle to domesticity, and it is almost apiece of good fortune for him to have lost his freedom and to havegained in exchange a shelter and a well-furnished trough. Theseinsects are in fact cared for by their masters, who feed them bydisgorging into their mouths the sweet liquids they have gathered hereand there. If a nest is disturbed the ants hasten to carry their eggsand larvæ out of danger; they display the same solicitude with regardto the _Claviger_, and carefully bear them to the depth of theirgalleries. It must not be believed that the practical insect takes somuch care in order to repair the injustice of nature towards thebeetle; the part of a devoted sick nurse would not suit him; he caresfor the _Claviger_ because it is his property, a capital which bringsin interest in the shape of excellent sweet little drops which aregood to suck. [65]

 [64] Ph. W. J. Müller, "Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der Gattung _Claviger_, " _Germer u. Zincken's Magaz. D. Entomol. _, iii. , 1881, pp. 69-112. 

 [65] There is little doubt, however, that some species of Aphides and allied Coccidæ would be liable to extermination if not protected by their ant masters. See, for instance, Forel, _Bull. Soc. Vaud. _, 1876. Mr. Cockerell in Jamaica has noted an interesting Coccid, _Icerya rosæ_, which is protected by ants; "at the present moment some of these _Iceryæ_ are enjoying life, which would certainly have perished at my hands but for the inconvenience presented by the numbers of stinging ants. "--_Nature_, 27th April 1893. Mr. Romanes (_Nature_, 18th May 1893) quotes as follows from a letter addressed to him by the Rev. W. G. Proudfoot:--"On looking up I noticed that hundreds of large black ants were going up and down the tree, and then I saw the aphides. . . . But what struck me most was that the aphides showered down their excretions independently of the ants' solicitations, while at other times I noticed that an ant would approach an aphis without getting anything, and would then go to another. I was struck with this, because I remembered Mr. Darwin's inability to make the aphides yield their secretion after many experiments. A large number of hornets were flying about the tree, but seemed afraid of the ants; for when they attempted to alight, an ant would at once rush to the spot, and the hornet would get out of its way. "

A yellow ant, who wishes to enjoy the result of the cares given to hispensioner, approaches it and gently caresses it with his antennæ; theother shows signs of pleasure at this visit, and soon a pearly dropappears on the tuft of hairs at the edge of its elytra, and this theant hastens to lick. The beetle is thus exploited and tickled by allthe members of the community to which he belongs who meet him on theirroad. But when it has been milked two or three times it ceases tosecrete. A solicitous ant arriving at this moment finds its efforts invain, but still behaves like a good shepherd; it shows no impatienceor anger towards its exhausted beast, knowing well that it is onlynecessary to come back a little later or to go to another member ofthe herd. Nor are his cares lessened by finding the source dried up. He foresees that it will still be good after repose, and if it ishungry he disgorges food for it. 

_Degrees of civilisation in the same species of Ants. _--These factsare sufficiently marvellous in themselves, but are more surprisingwhen we recollect that they cannot be regarded as an innate andunreflecting instinct with which all the individuals of the samespecies are endowed. The art of domesticating the _Claviger_ is astage of civilisation reached by some tribes and not by others. Lespès[66] has placed this out of doubt in the following manner. Hehad specimens of _Lasius niger_ who exploited a flock of Coleoptera. Having met ants of the same species who possessed no flocks, hebrought them some. At the sight of the little insects they threwthemselves on them, killed them, and devoured them. If we comparethese facts with those which pass in human societies, it will seem tous that these latter Hymenoptera behave like a horde of hunters in thepresence of a flock of sheep, while the first have already arrived atthe sheep-herding stage. 

 [66] "Recherches sur quelques Coleoptères aveugles, " _Ann. Sc. Nat. _, v. Série, t. Ix. , 1868, p. 71. 

_Aphis-pens and paddocks. _--Ants can also keep Aphides in their homes. In this case, fearing that the adult beasts may not be able to adopt achange of surroundings and food, they bring the eggs to their nestsand care for them at the same time as their own children. In time theycome out and constitute a flock easy to tame. Other ants, still moreintelligent, have discovered a method of holding the Aphides captive, while allowing them to enjoy their accustomed life, and to feed atwill on the foods they prefer on their own favourite spots. It issufficient for this purpose to establish barriers around a group ofcattle who have themselves fixed the place of their sojourn. The_Lasius niger_, a skilful architect, constructs vaulted passages fromhis dwelling into the country. These covered roads, built with earthmoistened with saliva, have various ends; some have been made in orderto reach remote work sheltered from the sun, or to give concealmentfrom enemies. Many lead to the pens of the Aphides; they reach fromthe anthill as far as the foot of a plant where these insects areabundant. In order to have their milkers at their disposal, withoutremoving them from pasture, the ants make tunnels along the stalk, andenclose within it all the Aphides they meet. They thus prevent anydesire for a distant ramble. But in order that the flock may not betoo closely confined, the _Lasius niger_ enlarge the galleries inplaces, and make a sort of chamber or stable in which the beasts maydisport themselves at ease. These halls, which are proportionatelyvery vast, are supported against the branches and leaves of the plantwhich bears up the walls and the vaults. The captives find themselvesthen with all the advantages of material life, and may be milked withevery facility. [67]

 [67] P. Huber, _Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis indigènes_, pp. 176-200. 

An allied species of ant, the _Lasius brunneus_, lives almost entirelyon the sweet secretion of large Aphides in the bark of oaks and walnuttrees. The ants construct around these insects cabins made offragments of wood, and wall them in completely so as to keep them attheir own disposal. 

The _Myrmica_ also forms similar pasture lands; its system is ratherless perfect than that of the _Lasius_, as it does not form coveredgalleries to reach its stables. It is content to build large earthhuts around a colony. A large hole, which allows the passage of theants, but not the escape of the flock, is formed so that they may cometo milk their cows. They use the same methods we have seen practisedon the _Claviger_, caressing the insect with their antennæ until thesugared drop appears. [68]

 [68] In Central America, Belt has described how the Leaf-hoppers are milked for their honey by various species of Ants, and also by a Wasp. He considered that some species of Leaf-hopper would be exterminated if it were not for the protection they received from Ants. --_Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 1888, pp. 227-230. 

An example is quoted which shows still greater intelligence andforesight in Ants. They have been known to repopulate theirterritories after an epidemic, or at least after the destruction oftheir Aphides. The proprietor of a tree, finding it covered with theseexploited beasts, cleared it of its inconvenient guests by repeatedwashes; but the dispossessed Hymenoptera, considering that thispasture close to their nest was very convenient for a flock, resolvedto repopulate it, and for some time these tenacious insects could beseen bringing back among the foliage Aphides captured elsewhere. [69]

 [69] P. Huber, _Recherches_, etc. , pp. 210-250; Lubbock, "On the Habits of Ants, " _Wiltshire Arch. And Nat. Hist. Mag. _, 1879, pp. 49-62. 

_Slavery among Ants. _--The custom of making slaves is widely spread inthe ant world; I have already described the expeditions organised toobtain them. We will now consider the relations of these insects amongthemselves. 

The _Formica sanguinea_ takes possession of the eggs of the _Formicafusca_ and rears them with its own. When the slaves reach the adultcondition they live beside their masters and share their labours, forthe latter work, are skilful in all tasks, and can by their ownactivity construct an ant-hill and keep it going. If they desireservants, it is not in order to throw all the work on them, but tohave intelligent assistants. This is the primitive form of slavery asit first existed among men. It was not until later that it becamemodified, to become at last an institution against which the sentimentof justice arose. Other species of Ants have pushed the exploitationof slaves to a point Man has never reached. But the _Formicasanguinea_ are companions to their helpers rather than masters, andeven show them great consideration. When the colony emigrates one maysee the owners of the nest, who are of larger size than the _Formicafusca_, take these up in their jaws and carry them the entire way. 

The Amazons (_Polyergus rufescens_) act otherwise. Very skilful inobtaining slaves and powerfully armed for triumphant raids, theirnests always contain legions of servants, and the custom of beingwaited upon has become so impressed on the race by heredity that it isan instinct stronger even than personal preservation. The master anthas not only lost the taste and the idea of work, but even the habitof feeding himself, and would die of hunger beside a pile of honey orsugar if a grey ant was not there to put it into his mouth. ThusHuber, the earliest accurate observer of these ants, enclosed thirtyAmazons with several pupæ and larvæ of their own species, and twentynegro pupæ, in a glass box, the bottom of which was covered with athick layer of earth; honey was given to them, so that, although cutoff from their auxiliaries, the Amazons had both shelter and food. Atfirst they appeared to pay some little attention to the young; thissoon ceased, and they neither traced out a dwelling nor took any food;in two days one-half died of hunger, and the other remained weak andlanguid. Commiserating their condition, he gave them _one_ of theirblack companions. This little creature, unassisted, formed a chamberin the earth, gathered together the larvæ, put everything intocomplete order, and preserved the lives of those which were about toperish. 

All their industry is expended in the acquisition of captives. The_Polyergus_ avoid introducing into their houses adults who would notbecome reconciled to the loss of liberty, and would prefer to dierather than work for others. They carry off the larvæ of _Formicafusca_ and _Formica cunicularia_. When brought into the ant-hill theselarvæ are placed in the jaws of slaves of their own species, who carefor them; they are born captives, and have neither the regret nor theidea of a free life. Among the Amazons the slaves undertake everylabour; it is they who build and who care for the larvæ of theirmasters, as well as those carried away in expeditions. They have alsocomplicated personal services towards the _Polyergus_. They bring themfood, lick off the dust from their hairs, clean them, carry them fromone place to another, if there is need to emigrate, although theythemselves are much smaller. The masters, by force of losing interestin work, lose also their votes when it is a question of taking aresolution concerning the whole colony. The servants act on their owninitiative and their own responsibility, direct constructionsaccording to their own ideas, and even in grave concerns, such asemigration, the idle masters do not seem to be consulted. The workersdeliberate among themselves, and having come to a decision, proceed toexecute it. They transport the household goods, the eggs, the futureof the city, and the Amazons who have become its parasites. It is amost curious fact that the slaves should submit to this precariousfate when their masters are absolutely dependent on them. It is justto add that the robust mandibles of the latter may contribute topreserve the position they enjoy. [70]

 [70] Lubbock has a brief discussion on the relations of Ants to their domestic animals and to their slaves, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, chap. Iv. 

CHAPTER V. 

PROVISION FOR REARING THE YOUNG. 

 THE PRESERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE SPECIES--FOODS MANUFACTURED BY THE PARENTS FOR THEIR YOUNG--SPECIES WHICH OBTAIN FOR THEIR LARVÆ FOODS MANUFACTURED BY OTHERS--CARCASSES OF ANIMALS STORED UP--PROVISION OF PARALYSED LIVING ANIMALS--THE CAUSE OF THE PARALYSIS--THE SURENESS OF INSTINCT--SIMILAR CASES IN WHICH THE SPECIFIC INSTINCT IS LESS POWERFUL AND INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE GREATER--GENERA LESS SKILFUL IN THE ART OF PARALYSING VICTIMS. 

_The preservation of the individual and the preservation of thespecies. _--In the previous chapter we have seen animals preparing forthe future, and amassing materials for their own subsistence. In othercases these provisions are destined to feed the young. It is the sameindustry, sometimes exercised for the preservation of the individual, sometimes for the perpetuation of the race. We must expect to findacts of the last kind more instinctive and less reflective than thoseof the first, and this agrees well with what we know of naturalselection. If we now see living beings display so many resources andcalculate with such certainty all that will favour the healthydevelopment of their descendants, we must not necessarily concludethat the species possess these instincts from the beginning. They arenot to be regarded as mechanisms artfully wound up and functioningsince the appearance of life on the earth with the same inevitableregularity. The qualities which we find in them were weak at first;they have developed in the course of ages, and have finally, byheredity, been impressed upon the creatures to manifest themselves bynecessary acts from which there is no longer any escape. There is noneed for surprise if we meet to-day, I do not say among all, but amonga very large number of animals, this foresight for offspring in awell-marked form. It is easy to understand that the species that firstacquired and fixed an instinct propitious to the increase of the racehas rapidly prospered, stifling beneath its extension those that areless favoured from this point of view, which is of capital importancein a struggle for a place beneath the sun. At the present day if thestruggle of animal life offers few facts of lack of foresight for therearing of young, it is because this defect has killed the races whowere subject to it; they have disappeared, or have only been saved byqualities of another order. 

For the rest, if it is difficult to reconstitute except in imaginationthe different stages through which, in time, and in a determinedspecies, acts at first imperfect, but designed, have become perfectand instinctive, we can at least find in space different degrees ofthe same instinct in allied genera which lead us by a succession oftransitions from mechanical action to reflective action. 

As I cannot quote all the facts showing this care for the future, Iwill select a few. It must be said at first that a considerable numberof animals show nothing of the kind. Let us leave aside all theinferior beings to speak of those among whom we may expect some degreeof method. Crustacea, fish, Batrachians, and many others lay theireggs, are contented to conceal them a little so that they may notbecome a too easy prey, and are altogether indifferent as to what mayhappen afterwards. As soon as they come out, the young obtain theirown food from day to day; myriads are destroyed, and if the racesremain so strong numerically it is because they are saved by theinnumerable quantity of eggs produced by a single female. If it werenot for this prodigious fecundity these species would havedisappeared. Birds make no provision for their young; but, on theother hand, as long as the latter are weak and unable to obtain theirown prey, the parents feed them every day by hunting both forthemselves and the brood. 

I will not insist on those beings who, like mammals, producephysiological reserves, not for their own use, but for the profit oftheir young. The females of these animals elaborate materials fromtheir own organism and store them up in the form of milk to nourishthe young. This fact is related to foresight, with a view tooffspring, exactly in the same way as the Honey Ants show atransformation of foresight for the individual. In both cases industryis replaced by the function of a specially adapted organ. 

_Foods manufactured by the parents for the young. _--It is especiallyinsects with whose industries we are here concerned, and they are moreor less instinctive in various cases. Every one knows how theHymenoptera prepare honey from the pollen of flowers, to some extentfor themselves, but especially in order that their young may at themoment of appearance possess a food which will enable them to undergotheir first metamorphosis sheltered from the inclemencies outside. These foods are enclosed with great art, according to the species, either in skilfully-constructed cells of wax, as by Bees, or in nestsof paper or cardboard which the Wasps fabricate, or again in hutsbuilt of earth in the manner of the _Chalicodoma_. 

_Species which obtain for their larvæ foods manufactured byothers. _--Other insects have not this taste for lengthy labours, anddo not know how to execute them; but they do not intend that theiryoung shall be the victims of maternal lack of skill, and they displaymarvellous resources to enable them to profit by the foresight ofothers. 

[Illustration: FIG. 15. ]

The _Sitaris muralis_, a beetle whose customs have been described byFabre in a remarkable manner, [71] may be counted among the cleverestin assuring to its larvæ the goods of others. It puts them in aposition to profit by it, and when they are installed they knowsufficiently well what to do. The species has so long perpetuateditself by this process that it has become, both in mother andoffspring, highly automatic. It is a hymenopterous insect which thisfamily, whose first vital manifestation is theft, thus levies acontribution on. It is called the _Anthophora pilifera_, and duringthe fine weather it makes a collection of honey intended to beabsorbed by its own larvæ, if it had not the misfortune to be watchedby one of these intriguing Coleoptera. Wherever in Provence there is aperpendicular wall, natural or artificial, a little cliff, a slopingditch, or the wall of one of those caves which the people of thecountry use for putting their tools in, the _Anthophora_ hollows outgalleries, at the bottom of which he builds a certain number ofchambers. He fills each of them with honey, places in it an egg whichfloats in the midst of this little lake of nectar, and closes it allup. The _Sitaris_ covets this honey to nourish its offspring, and thechamber to shelter it. After having discovered one of the galleries ofwhich I have spoken, the female _Sitaris_ comes about the beginning ofSeptember to lay her eggs, which are numerous, being not generallyfewer than two thousand. In the following month the larvæ appear; theyare black, and swarm in a little heap mixed up with the remains ofegg-shells. They vegetate in this condition for a long time, and maystill be found there in May. At this period they have become moreactive, and, in order to complete their development, are thinking ofprofiting by their favourable situation near the entrance to a galleryof the Hymenoptera; when a male _Anthophora_ comes within reach, twoor three of them catch hold of him and climb on to his thorax. Theymaintain themselves there by clinging to the hairs. At the moment offertilisation the male, thus burdened, comes in contact with thefemale; the coleopterous larvæ then pass on to her, so that, accordingto Fabre's expression, the meeting of the sexes brings death and lifeto the eggs at the same time. Henceforth fixed on this laying insect, the little _Sitaris_ remain quiet, and have only to wait; their futureis assured. The _Anthophora_ has made her chambers, and with thegreatest care has filled each of them with honey. Then in the midstshe deposits an egg, which remains floating on the surface like alittle boat; when her task is accomplished, the mother passes to a newcell to confide to it another of her descendants. During this time theparasite larva hastily descends the abdominal hairs and allows itselfto fall on the egg of the _Anthophora_, to be then borne upon it asupon a raft; its fall must take place at the precise instant whichwill enable it to embark without falling into the honey, in which justnow it would be glued fast, and perish. This series of circumstancesresults only in the introduction of a single _Sitaris_ into a chamber;the moment which must be profited by is too short for many of them toseize. If the female _Anthophora_ carries others hidden in her hairs, they are obliged to await a new hatching to let themselves glide off. Thus enclosed with the egg of the _Anthophora_ and its provision ofhoney, the larva has no other rival to fear, and may alone utilise thewhole store. This parasitism has to such an extent become a habit withthe species, that the larva's organisation has become modified by it. At the moment when it falls into the cell it cannot feed on honey. Itis indispensable for its development that it should first devour theegg on which it floats; it can at this period be nourished by no otherfood. In acting in this way it also frees itself from a voraciousbeing who would require much food. This first repast lasts about eightdays, at the end of which it undergoes a moult, takes another form, and begins to float on the honey, gradually devouring it, for at thisstage it becomes able to assimilate honey. Slowly its development iscompleted, with extremely interesting details with which we need notnow concern ourselves. The larva of _Sitaris_ is then in conditionsexceptionally favourable for growth; but, in spite of appearances, there is no reason for admiring the marvellous foresight andextraordinary sureness of instinct; nearly everything depends on afortuitous circumstance, a chance. This becomes very evident if westudy another related beetle; it is called the _Sitaris colletis_, andlives at the expense of the hymenopterous _Colletes_, as its relativeat the expense of the _Anthophora_. But these two species of the samegenus are very unequally aided by chance. The one whose history wehave just traced attaches itself to an insect whose egg floats above astore of honey; the second chooses a victim who attaches its egg tothe walls of a chamber. (Fig. 15. ) This almost insignificantdifference has a considerable influence on the parasite's evolution. In the first case it is alone, and may develop with certainty; in thesecond, on the contrary, several _Sitaris_ penetrate the chamber andclimb up to attack the egg, which in this case also must be theirfirst food. This rivalry causes a struggle to the death. If one of thelarvæ is notably more vigorous than its rivals, it may free itselffrom them and survive. Let us consider the fate in store for the twospecies. The first is much more favoured, since a happy chance permitseach germ to produce an individual; in the second, each individualwhich completes its evolution deprives several of its brothers oflife. And even this only happens in the most favourable cases, for itmay be that not one _Sitaris_ in the chamber may reach the adultstate. If the first arrival begins to absorb the egg of the_Colletes_, a second hungry one may kill it in the midst of its repastand take its place. But the conqueror finds the provisions alreadyreduced and insufficient to enable it to reach the moulting stage, atthe end of which it could profit by the honey. Ill-nourished andweakened, it cannot support this crisis, and its corpse falls besidethat of its fellow whom it had sacrificed. Three or four parasites maythus succeed to the same feast, and the victory of the last is uselessto him. His first struggle for life and his first triumph are followedby irreparable defeat. These two examples show very well how a slightdifference may favour a species, and how a happy quality is capable ofbeing perpetuated by heredity, since by its very nature it is destinedto be extended to more numerous beings. 

 [71] "Hypermetamorphoses et Moeurs des Meloïdes, " _Ann. Sc. Nat. _, iv. Série, t. 7, 1857, p. 299; also "Nouvelles observations sur l'hypermetamorphose et les Moeurs des Meloïdes, " _ibid. _, t. 9, 1858, p. 265. 

[Illustration: FIG. 16. ]

_Carcasses of animals stored up. _--These insects lay up for theiroffspring stores manufactured by themselves or by others. The class weare now about to consider makes provision of animals either dead or ina torpid condition, with more or less art and more or less sureinstinct. Most people have seen the _Necrophorus_ or Burying Beetleworking in fields or gardens. These are large Coleoptera who feed onabandoned carrion; everything is good to them--bodies of smallmammals, birds, or frogs; they are very easy to please, and as long asthe beast is dead that is all they require. When they have found suchremains, and consider only how to satisfy their hunger, they do nottake much trouble, and gnaw the prey on the spot where they have foundit. They are not alone at the feast, and in spite of their diligencenumerous rivals come up to dispute it; it is necessary to share with agreat number of noisy and voracious flies and insects. In the adultstate they come out well from this competition; but as good parentsthey wish to save their larvæ from it, as in a feeble condition thesemight suffer severely. They desire to lay up a carcass for their youngalone, and with this object they bury it in the earth. The eggs alsowhich will thus develop in the soil have more chance of escapingdestruction by various insectivorous animals. If these diggers find arat (Fig. 16) or a dead bird, three or four unite their efforts, glidebeneath it, and dig with immense activity, kicking away with theirhind legs the earth withdrawn from the hole. They do not pause, andtheir work soon perceptibly advances. The rat gradually sinks in thepit as it grows deeper. When they have the good fortune to find theearth soft they can sink the prey in less than two hours to a depth ofthirty centimetres. At this level they stop, and throw back into thehole the earth they have dug out, carefully smoothing the hillockwhich covers the grave. Thus stored up, the carcass is ready toreceive the _Necrophorus_ eggs. The females enter the soil and lay onthe buried mammal; then they retire, satisfied to leave their littleones, when they appear, face to face with such abundant nourishment. When they emerge from the envelope the young larvæ find themselves inthe presence of this stored food, which has been softened byputrefaction and rendered more easy of digestion. If the treasure hasnot fallen on a spot easy to dig, the _Necrophorus_ quickly recognisethe fact, and do not waste time in useless labour. Endowed withconsiderable strength relatively to their size, three or four of themcreep beneath the prey, and co-ordinating their efforts they transportit several metres off to a spot which they know by experience to besuitable for their labours. It may happen that soft earth is too faraway, and transport becoming too difficult a task, they renounce it. But as good food should never be wasted, they utilise it by feedingthemselves, awaiting a more manageable god-send for their offspring. 

Many observers have studied these beetles, and all are surprised attheir sagacity, and the way in which their various operations areadapted to circumstances; genuine reflection governs their acts, whichare always combined to produce a definite effect. 

_Provision of paralysed living animals. _--It is unnecessary to say howmuch better it would be for the young larva to have at its disposalinstead of a carcass a living animal, but paralysed and renderedmotionless by some method. It is difficult to believe the thingpossible, yet nothing is better established. There is a hymenopterousrelative of the Wasp called the _Sphex_. Instead of laying up honeythey store animal provisions for their larvæ. Fabre has studied one ofthem, the _Sphex flavipennis_. [72] It is in September that this wasplays her eggs; during this month to shelter her little ones shehollows out a dozen burrows and provisions them. She has then todevote about three days' work to each of them, for there is much todo, as may be imagined. For each of these hiding-places the _Sphex_first pierces a horizontal gallery about two or three inches long;then she bends it obliquely so that it penetrates deeply into theearth, and it is again continued in this direction for about threeinches. At the end of this passage three or four chambers are made, usually three; each of these is meant to receive one egg. The insectinterrupts its mining task, not forming the three chambersconsecutively; when the first is completed she provisions it--we shallsoon see in what manner--and lays an egg there; then she blocks it up, suppressing all communication between this cell and the gallery; thisdone she bores a second passage, provisions it, and lays another egg, closes up the orifice, and proceeds to prepare the third. This work ispushed on with great activity, and when completed the _Sphex_ entirelyfills up the subterranean passage, and completely isolates the hope ofthe race at a depth sufficient to shelter it well. A last precautionis taken: before leaving, the rubbish in front of the obstructedopening is cleared away, and every trace of the operation disappears. The nest is then definitely abandoned, and another one prepared. 

 [72] "Étude sur l'instinct et les metamorphoses des Sphégiens, " _Ann. Sci. Nat. _, 1856. 

The chambers in which the larvæ are enclosed--hastily made with littlecare, and with rough unsmoothed walls--are not very solid, and couldnot last long without slipping; but as they only have to last for asingle season they possess sufficient resistance for the insect'spurpose. The larva also knows very well how to protect itself againstthe roughness of the walls, and overlays them with a silky secretionproduced by its glands. 

We have now to consider the nature of the provisions placed by the_Sphex_ near the egg. Each cell must contain four crickets. That isthe amount of food necessary for a larva during its evolution, andthese insects are in fact large enough to supply a considerable amountof nourishment. When the _Sphex_ interrupts digging operations it isto fly on a hunting expedition. It soon returns with a cricket it hasseized, holding it by one antenna which it turns round in its jaws. Itis a heavy burden for the slender _Sphex_ to bear. Sometimes on foot, dragging its burden after it, sometimes flying, and carrying thesuspended cricket always in a passive condition, the burrow isgradually reached, not without difficulty. In spite of appearances, the cricket is not dead; it cannot move, but if kept for several daysit will not putrefy, and its joints remain supple. It is simply thevictim of a general paralysis. 

_The cause of the paralysis. _--It was evidently of the greatestinterest to know how the _Sphex_ contrived this capture, and whatmethod it used to suppress the movements of the prey. In order toobtain the solution of this problem, Fabre during a long periodaccumulated experiments and observations, and at last discovered inevery detail how the thing was done. In order to compel the _Sphex_ toact in his presence, he placed himself in front of the orifice of agallery in which the insect was working; he soon saw it returning witha paralysed cricket. Arrived at the burrow, the insect placed the preyon the ground for a moment and disappeared in the passage to see thateverything was in order, and that no damage had taken place since itsdeparture. Everything was going well, and it reappeared, took up itsburden, and again entered the subterranean passage, drawing the victimalong. It brought it into the chamber for which it was destined, placing it on its back, the head down and the feet towards the door. Then it set out hunting again until it had ranged four crickets sideby side. Before attempting a decisive experiment, the observer felthis way. At the moment when the _Sphex_ was buried in the earthexamining the chamber, Fabre withdrew the prey a short distance andawaited events. Having made the domiciliary visit, the _Sphex_ thenwent straight to the place where it had left its insect, but could notfind it. It was naturally very perplexed, and examined theneighbourhood with extreme agitation, not knowing what had happened, and evidently regarding the whole affair as very extraordinary; atlast it found the victim it was seeking. The cricket still preservedthe same immobility; its executioner seized it by an antenna and drewit anew to the entrance of the hole. In the interior of thesubterranean domain everything is in good order; the insect had justassured itself of the fact, and we should expect to see it enter withits prey; not at all, it entered alone, and only decided to introducethe prey after it had made a fresh inspection. This fact issurprising, and it is still more surprising that if the practical jokeof removing the cricket is repeated several times in succession, the_Sphex_ drags it anew every time to the entrance of the burrow andfirst descends alone; forty times over this experiment succeededwithout the insect deciding to renounce the habitual manoeuvre. Fabreinsists on this fact, and rightly, for nothing should be neglected; hemakes it a text to show how automatic instinct is, and how the actswhich proceed from it are invariably regulated so as to succeed oneanother always in the same order. In their nature these acts are quiteindistinguishable from intelligent acts; only the creature is notcapable of modifying them to bring them into harmony with unforeseencircumstances. All this is correct, but where it becomes excessive isin endowing animals alone with instinct and separating them from thispoint of view from Man. It is incontestable that the custom ofvisiting the burrow before introducing a victim into it has become soimperious in the _Sphex_ that it cannot be broken, even when it is ofno use. It is a mechanical instinct. But we may see an exactlyparallel manifestation of human intelligence. In face of danger manutters cries of distress; they are heard and assistance comes. Butthese appeals are not intelligent and appropriate to the end; they areinstinctive. Place the same individual in a situation where he knowsvery well that his voice cannot be heard; this will not hinder himfrom reproducing the same acts if he finds himself in the presence ofdanger. It is thus that the _Sphex_ proceeds, guided by instincts, andit is no reason for despising it. And even in the course of thislittle experiment the insect gives proof of judgment. When it findsits cricket, it is perfectly aware that it is the same cricket whichit brought, that there is no life in it, and that there is no need tore-commence the struggle; it sees too that it is not an ordinarycorpse liable to putrefaction, but the very same cricket, and it doesnot hesitate to utilise it at once. 

These habits being ascertained, Fabre proceeded to find out how theparalysis is produced. He awaited near a burrow the _Sphex's_ arrival, dragging a victim by an antenna, and while the insect was occupied inthe subterranean survey he substituted a living cricket for that whichthe _Sphex_ had left, expecting to find it on the spot where it hadbeen placed. On emerging it perceives the cricket scampering away; nota moment was to be lost, and without reflection it leapt on therefractory victim. A lively struggle followed, a duel to the deathamong the blades of grass; it was a truly dramatic spectacle, theagile assailant whirling around the Cricket, who kicked violently withhis hind legs. If a blow were to reach the _Sphex_ it would bedisembowelled; but it avoids the blows skilfully without ceasing itsown violent attack. At last the combat ends; the cricket is brought toearth, turned on to its back, and maintained in this position by the_Sphex_. Still on its guard, the latter seizes in its jaws one of thefilaments which terminate the abdomen of the vanquished, placing itslegs on the belly; with the two posterior legs it holds the headturned back so as to stretch the under side of the neck. The cricketis unable to move and the conqueror's sting wanders over the hornycarapace seeking a joint, feeling for a soft place in which it canenter to give the finishing stroke. The dart at last reaches, betweenthe head and the neck, the spot where the hard portions articulate, leaving between them a space without covering. The joint in the armouris found. The _Sphex's_ abdomen is agitated convulsively; the stingpenetrates the skin, piercing a ganglion situated just beneath thispoint; the venom spreads and acts on the nervous cells, which can nolonger convey messages to the muscles. That is not all; the stingwanders over the cricket's belly, this time seeking the joint betweenthe neck and the thorax; it finds it, and is again thrust in withfury; a second ganglion of the nervous chain is thus perforated andpoisoned. After these two wounds the victim is completely paralysed. 

As already mentioned, several facts enable us to recognise that theCricket is by no means dead. It is simply incapable of movement, aswould happen after an injection of curare. This poison kills asuperior animal, for it hinders the muscular movements of the chestand diaphragm, necessary to respiration; but if a frog, which canbreathe through its skin, is thus acted on it comes to life again atthe end of twenty-four or forty-eight hours if the dose has not beentoo strong. The cricket is in a similar condition; it neither eats norbreathes; being incapable also of movement, there is no vitalexpenditure; it remains in a sort of torpor, or latent life, awaitingthe tragic fate that is reserved for it. When it has been deposited inthe little mortuary chamber the _Sphex_ lays an egg on its thorax. Thelarva will soon come out to penetrate the body of the prey byenlarging the hole left by the sting. It thus finds for its firstmeals a food which unites the flavour of living flesh with theimmobility of death. Nothing can be more convenient. When the firstbody is eaten it proceeds to the second, and thus devours successivelythe four victims stored up by maternal foresight. 

In order not to interrupt the description and interfere with thesuccession of the acts, I have passed without remark the experiment inwhich Fabre substituted a living animal for the _Sphex's_ alreadyparalysed captive. It seems to me, however, that in this circumstancethe insect showed judgment, and knew how to act in accordance with newrequirements. It was evidently the first time in insect memory inwhich so surprising a phenomenon had been seen as a victim at the lastmoment again taking the field. We cannot make instinct intervene here. If the _Sphex's_ acts are so automatic as we are sometimes led tobelieve, in accordance with facts which are perfectly accurate, weought always to observe the following succession of acts: first, hollowing of the burrow; second, the chase; third, the blows of thedart; fourth, the different manoeuvres for placing the victim in thesarcophagus. Now in the present case the insect had accomplished thefirst three series of actions, and had even begun the fourth; it oughtnext to drag the cricket into the burrow without listening to therecriminations which the latter had no business to make, since it wasto be regarded as having received the two routine doses of poison. Butthe _Sphex_ sees its victim come to life, understands this fact, andwithout seeking to fathom the cause judges that a new struggle and newblows of the sting are necessary; he understands that it is necessaryto begin afresh, since the usual result has not been attained. He isthen capable of reflection, and the series of acts which heaccomplishes are not ordained with such inflexibility that it isimpossible for him to modify them in order to conform them to varyingcircumstances. 

The _Sphex occitanica_ acts in the same manner as its relative in thiscomplicated art of laying up provisions for the family. Thedifferences are only in detail. Instead of hollowing the burrow firstand then setting out on the chase to fill it, it does not devoteitself to the labour of digging until a successful expedition hasalready assured the victim. (Fig. 17. ) Instead of attacking cricketsit seeks a larger orthopterous insect, the _Ephippigera_. The struggleis no doubt more difficult, but the result is proportionately greater, and the pursuit does not need to be so often renewed; a single captiveis sufficient for its larva. [73]

 [73] For some remarks on the action of the _Sphex_, and for Darwin's opinion on the matter, see Romanes' _Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 299-303. 

[Illustration: FIG. 17. ]

_The sureness of instinct. _--It is not doubtful that a sure inheritedinstinct conducts the _Sphex_ to prick its victim in the situation ofthe nervous ganglia, which will be wounded in the act. It may be saidthat the lesion results from the position in which the hymenopterousinsect maintains its victim; for the sting is on the median line, andcan only penetrate at the soft points; the two points attacked arethen rigorously determined by physical circumstances. But thesearguments have no bearing if we consider the method of procedureadopted by the _Ammophila_, [74] a hymenopterous insect related to thepreceding, which paralyses caterpillars. It is free in this case toinsert its sting at any portion of the body; yet it knows how to turnover and arrange the captive so that the dart shall penetrate bothtimes at two points where ganglia will be poisoned and immobilitywithout death be induced. It must then be agreed that there is here aninstinct much too sure to be called mechanical; but these facts, whichconsidered alone seem simply marvellous, become much less so, and lendthemselves to evolutionary interpretation, when it is recognised thatthey are related by insensible degrees to other facts of the sameorder, much more intelligent and at the same time less sure. 

 [74] Paul Marchal, "Observations sur _l'Ammophila affinis_, " _Arch. De Zool. Exp. Et génér. _, ii. Série, t. X. , 1892. 

_Similar cases in which the specific instinct is less powerful andindividual initiative greater. _--Here is, for instance, the case ofthe _Chlorion_, where each animal possesses more considerableinitiative. [75] It attacks the Cockroach. These insects are of anextremely varied size, according to age, and as they are also veryagile the _Chlorion_ is not certain of being always able to obtainvictims of the same dimension. The orifice of its burrow, which ithollows in walls between the crevices of the stones, is calculated onthe average size of its victims. It has also the habit of paralysingthe cockroach by stinging it on the nervous chain. These preliminaryoperations do not impede it, but it is embarrassed when it wishes tointroduce through the entrance of its gallery an insect which is toolarge. It pulls at first as much as it can, but seeing the failure ofits efforts it does not persevere in this attempt, and comes out tosurvey the situation. Decidedly the victim is too large and cannotpass through. The _Chlorion_ begins by cutting off the elytra, whichmaintain it rigid and prevent it from being compressed. This done, itharnesses itself anew and re-commences its efforts. But this is notsufficient, and the victim still resists. The insect returns, andagain examines the situation. Now it is a leg which is placedcross-ways and opposes the introduction of the body; strong diseasesneed strong remedies, and our _Chlorion_ sets itself to amputate thisencumbering appendage. It triumphs at last; the cockroach yields toits efforts, and little by little penetrates the hole. As may be seen, the labour is laborious and painful, and may present itself beneathvarious aspects which call for a certain ingenuity on the part of theanimal. 

 [75] Réaumur, _Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des Insectes_, Paris, 1742, t. Vi. , pp. 282-284. 

Up to recent years the _Cerceris_ was considered to act with as muchcertainty as the _Sphex_, and to obey an infallible instinct whichalways guided it for the best in the interests of its offspring. Theinsects it attacks belong to the genus _Buprestis_. It consumes themin considerable numbers. Its manner of action, as described by LéonDufour, [76] much resembles that of the _Sphex_, and it would besuperfluous to describe it. The only fact which I wish to mention, andwhich has been put out of doubt by the illustrious naturalist, isthis: the _Buprestis_ are paralysed, not dead; all the joints of theantennæ and legs remain flexible and the intestines in good condition. He was able to dissect some which had been in a state of lethargy forat least a week or a fortnight, although, under normal conditions, these insects in summer decay rapidly, and after forty-eight hourscannot be used for anatomical purposes. Another observer, PaulMarchal, took up this question afresh, and the results which heobtained seemed to indicate an instinct much less firm than earlierstudies tended to show. [77]

 [76] "Histoire des _Cerceris_, " _Ann. Sc. Nat. _, ii. Série, t. Xv. , 1841, pp. 353-370. 

 [77] _Arch. De Zool. Exp. _, 1887. 

_Genera less skilful in the art of paralysing victims. _--Theseresearches show us that in the _Cerceris_ instinct is still subject todefect. In some neighbouring genera we can seize it, as it were, inprocess of formation. The way in which the _Bembex_, or Sand Wasp, provisions burrows by maternal foresight is much less mechanical thanthat of the _Sphex_. It is again Fabre who has described with mostcare the customs of this hymenopterous insect. [78] It hollows out foreach egg a chamber communicating with the air by a gallery, andperforms this work with little care and very roughly. Less skilfulthan the others, it does not amass at once all the provisions whichits larvæ will need during the period of evolution. When the offspringhas absorbed the last prey brought, it is necessary to bring a newvictim. This insect is scarcely more advanced than birds, who feedtheir young from day to day. And it is a great labour to re-open everytime the gallery which leads to the nursery; on all these visits, infact, the _Bembex_ fills it up on leaving, and causes thedisappearance of all revealing traces. It is obliged to take so muchtrouble, because it has not inherited from its ancestors the receiptfor the paralysing sting; it throws itself without care on its victim, delivers a few chance blows, and kills it. Necessarily it cannot, under these conditions, lay up provisions for the future; they wouldcorrupt, and the larvæ would not be benefited; hence the obligation offrequently returning to the nest, and of a perpetual hunt to feeddescendants whom nature has gifted with an excellent appetite. According to the age of the offspring, the mother chooses prey ofdifferent sizes; at first she brings small Diptera; then, when it hasgrown, she captures for it large blow-flies, and lastly gadflies. [79]It will be seen, then, that if we suppose the instinct of the _Sphex_to be slowly developed by being derived from a sting given at random, we make a supposition which is quite admissible and rests onascertained facts. However this may be, the _Bembex_, returning to itsburrow, is able to find it again with marvellous certainty, in spiteof the care taken to hide it by removing every trace that might revealits existence. It is guided by an extraordinary topographic instinct, which men not only do not possess, but cannot even understand thenature of. 

 [78] _Souvenirs entomologiques_, 1879, pp. 225 _et seq. _

 [79] A Wasp found in La Plata, the _Monedula punctata_, as described by Hudson (_Naturalist in La Plata_, pp. 162-164), is an adroit fly-catcher, and thus supplies her grub with fresh food, carefully covering the mouth of the hole with loose earth after each visit; as many as six or seven freshly-killed insects may be found for the use of one grub. 

It would appear that certain Hymenoptera, fearing to kill their victimwith the sting, and not knowing the art of skilful lesions, attempt toimmobilise them by wounds of another sort. This is the case with the_Pompilius_, according to Goureau, [80] who has studied it. This insectnourishes its larvæ with spiders; it seems certain that in most casesthe spider is not pricked. Victims who have been taken from theinterior of provision burrows can live for a long time in spite oftheir wounds; they cannot, therefore, have received venom byinoculation. The author already quoted believes that the Pompiliusseizes its captive by the pedicle which unites the abdomen to thecephalothorax, and that it triturates this point between its jaws. From this either death or temporary immobility may follow. The_Pompilius_ also makes up for its relative ignorance by considerableingenuity. Thus sometimes, when it fears a return to life of thevictim destined for its larvæ, it cuts off the legs while it is stillpassive. Goureau has found in the nest of this insect living spiderswith their legs cut off. 

 [80] "Observations pour servir à l'histoire de quelques Insectes, " _Ann. Soc. Entomol. De France_, t. 8, 1839, p. 541. 

CHAPTER VI. 

DWELLINGS. 

 ANIMALS NATURALLY PROVIDED WITH DWELLINGS--ANIMALS WHO INCREASE THEIR NATURAL PROTECTION BY THE ADDITION OF FOREIGN BODIES--ANIMALS WHO ESTABLISH THEIR HOME IN THE NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL DWELLINGS OF OTHERS--CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFICIAL SHELTERS--HOLLOWED DWELLINGS--RUDIMENTARY BURROWS--CAREFULLY-DISPOSED BURROWS--BURROWS WITH BARNS ADJOINED--DWELLINGS HOLLOWED OUT IN WOOD--WOVEN DWELLINGS--RUDIMENTS OF THIS INDUSTRY--DWELLINGS FORMED OF COARSELY-ENTANGLED MATERIALS--DWELLINGS WOVEN OF FLEXIBLE SUBSTANCES--DWELLINGS WOVEN WITH GREATER ART--THE ART OF SEWING AMONG BIRDS--MODIFICATIONS OF DWELLINGS ACCORDING TO SEASON AND CLIMATE--BUILT DWELLINGS--PAPER NESTS--GELATINE NESTS--CONSTRUCTIONS BUILT OF EARTH--SOLITARY MASONS--MASONS WORKING IN ASSOCIATION--INDIVIDUAL SKILL AND REFLECTION--DWELLINGS BUILT OF HARD MATERIALS UNITED BY MORTAR--THE DAMS OF BEAVERS. 

Animals construct dwellings either to protect themselves from thecold, heat, rain, and other chances of the weather, or to retire to atmoments when the search for food does not compel them to be outsideand exposed to the attacks of enemies. Some inhabit these refugespermanently; others only remain there during the winter; others, again, who live during the rest of the year in the open air set updwellings to bring forth their young, or to lay their eggs and rearthe offspring. Whatever the object may be for which these retreats arebuilt, they constitute altogether various manifestations of the sameindustry, and I will class them, not according to the uses which theyare to serve, but according to the amount of art displayed by thearchitect. 

In this series, as in those which we have already studied, we shallfind every stage from that of beings provided for by nature, andendowed with a special organ which secretes for them a shelter, up tothose who are constrained by necessity to seek in their ownintelligence an expedient to repair the forgetfulness of nature. Theseproductions, so different in their origin, can only be compared fromthe point of view of the part they play; there are analogies betweenthem but not the least homology. 

_Animals naturally provided with dwellings. _--Nearly all the Molluscaare enveloped by a very hard calcareous case, secreted by theirmantle: this shell, which is a movable house, they bear about withthem and retire into at the slightest warning. 

Caterpillars which are about to be transformed into chrysalides weavea cocoon, a very close dwelling in which they can go through theirmetamorphosis far from exterior troubles. It is an organic form ofdwelling, or produced by an organ. It is not necessary to multiplyexamples of this kind; they are extremely numerous. In the samecategory must be ranged the cells issuing from the wax-glands whichsupply Bees with materials for their combs in which they enclose theeggs of the queen with a provision of honey. 

I do not wish to insist on creations of this kind which areindependent of the animal's will and reflection. Near these facts mustbe placed those in which animals, still using a natural secretion, yetendeavour to obtain ingenious advantages from it unknown by relatedspecies. 

[Illustration: FIG. 18. ]

There is, for example, the _Macropus viridi-auratus_, orParadise-fish, which blows air bubbles in the mucus produced from itsmouth. This mucus becomes fairly resistant, and all the bubblesimprisoned and sticking aside by side at last form a floor. It isbeneath this floating shelter that the fish suspends its eggs for itslittle ones to undergo their early development. 

_Animals who increase their natural protection by the addition offoreign bodies. _--Certain tubicolar Annelids, whose skin furnishesabundant mucus which does not become sufficiently hard to form anefficacious protection, utilise it to weld together and unite aroundthem neighbouring substances, grains of sand, fragments of shell, etc. They thus construct a case which both resembles formations by specialorgans and manufacture by the aid of foreign materials. The larvæ of_Phryganea_, who lead an aquatic life, use this method to separatethemselves from the world and prepare tubes in which to dwell. (Fig. 18. ) All the fragments carried down by the stream are good for theirlabours on condition only that they are denser than the water. Theytake possession of fragments of aquatic leaves, and little fragmentsof wood which have been sufficiently long in the water to havethoroughly imbibed it and so become heavy enough to keep themselves atthe bottom, or at least to prevent them from floating to the surface. It is the larva of _Phryganea striata_ which has been best studied;those of neighbouring species evidently act much in the same way, withdifferences only in detail. The little carpenter stops a fragmentrather longer than his own body, lies on it and brings it in contactwith other pieces along his own sides. He thus obtains the skeleton ofa cylinder. The largest holes are filled up with detritus of allkinds. Then these materials are agglutinated by a special secretion. The larva overlays the interior of its tube with a covering of softsilk which renders the cylinder watertight and consolidates theearlier labours. The insect is thus in possession of a safe retreat. Resembling some piece of rubbish, it completes its metamorphosis inpeace, undisturbed by the carnivora of the stream. There is herealready a tendency towards the dwellings of which I shall speak lateron, and which are entirely formed of the external environment. 

_Animals who establish their home in the natural or artificialdwellings of others. _--Between the beings whom nature has endowed witha shelter and those who construct it by their own industry, we mayintercept those who, deprived of a natural asylum and not having theinclination or the power to make one, utilise the dwellings of others, either when the latter still inhabit them, or when they are empty onaccount of the death or departure of the owner. In the naturalsciences there is no group of facts around which may be traced a clearboundary; each of them is more or less closely related to a groupwhich appears at first of an entirely different nature. Thus it doesnot enter into our plan to speak of parasites. Yet, if among thesesome turn to a host to demand of him both food and shelter, if eventhey can come to be so modified and so marked by parasitism that theycan live in no other way, there are others who ask for lodging onlyfrom an animal better protected than they are themselves. It is thesewhose customs we are called upon to consider. In the interior of thebranchial chamber of many bivalvular Mollusca, and especially theMussel, there lives a little crustaceous commensal called the Pea-crab(_Pinnoteres pisum_). He goes, comes, hunts, and retires at the leastalarm within his host's shell. The mussel, as the price of itshospitality, no doubt profits by the prizes which fall to the littlecrab's claws. It is even said that the crab in recognition of thebenefits bestowed by his indolent friend keeps him acquainted withwhat is passing on around, and as he is much more active and alertthan his companion he sees danger much farther away, and gives noticeof it, asking for the door to be shut by lightly pinching the mussel'sgill. But this gratitude of the Crustacean towards a sympatheticbivalve is merely a hypothesis; we do not exactly know what passes inthe intimacy of these two widely-differing natures. 

For birds like the Cuckoo and the _Molothrus_ it is not possible toplead attenuating circumstances. They occupy a place in an inhabitedhouse without paying any sort of rent. Every one knows the Cuckoo'saudacity. The female lays her eggs in different nests and troublesherself no further about their fate. She seeks for her offspring ashelter which she does not take the trouble to construct, and moreoverat the same time assures for them the cares of a stranger in place ofher own. 

In North America a kind of Starling, the _Molothrus pecoris_, commonlycalled the Cow-bird, acts in the same careless fashion. It lives inthe midst of herds, and owes its specific name to this custom; itfeeds on the parasites on the skin of cattle. This bird constructs nonest. At the moment of laying the female seeks out an inhabiteddwelling, and when the owner is absent she furtively lays an eggthere. The young intruder breaks his shell after four days'incubation, that is to say, usually much before the legitimatechildren; and the parents, in order to silence the beak of thestranger who, without shame, claims his share with loud cries, neglecttheir own brood which have not yet appeared, and which they abandon. Their foster children repay them, however, with the blackestingratitude. As soon as the little _Molothrus_ feels his body coveredwith feathers and his little wings strong enough to sustain him hequits his adopted parents without consideration. These birds show alove of independence very rare among animals, with whom conjugalfidelity has become proverbial; they do not unite in couples; unionsare free, and the mother hastens to deliver herself from the cares ofbringing up her young in the manner we have seen. Two other species of_Molothrus_ have the same habit, as have the American Cuckoo and theGolden Cuckoo of South Africa. 

The habits of the _Molothrus bovariensis_, a closely allied ArgentineCow-bird, have been carefully studied by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who hasalso some interesting remarks as to the vestiges of the nestinginstinct in this interesting parasitical bird, which now is constantlydropping eggs in all sorts of places, even on the ground, most of thembeing lost. "Before and during the breeding-season the females, sometimes accompanied by the males, are seen continually haunting andexamining the domed nests of the _Dendrocolaptidæ_. This does not seemlike a mere freak of curiosity, but their persistence in theirinvestigations is precisely like that of birds that habitually makechoice of such breeding-places. It is surprising that they never doactually lay in such nests, except when the side or dome has beenaccidentally broken enough to admit the light into the interior. Whenever I set boxes up in my trees, the female Cow-birds were thefirst to visit them. Sometimes one will spend half a day loiteringabout and inspecting a box, repeatedly climbing round and over it, andalways ending at the entrance, into which she peers curiously, andwhen about to enter starting back, as if scared at the obscuritywithin. But after retiring a little space she will return again andagain, as if fascinated by the comfort and security of such an abode. It is amusing to see how pertinaciously they hang about the ovens ofthe Oven-birds, apparently determined to take possession of them, flying back after a hundred repulses, and yet not entering them evenwhen they have the opportunity. Sometimes one is seen following a Wrenor a Swallow to its nest beneath the eaves, and then clinging to thewall beneath the hole into which it disappeared. That it is arecurrence to a long-disused habit I can scarcely doubt. I may mentionthat twice I have seen birds of this species attempting to buildnests, and that on both occasions they failed to complete the work. Souniversal is the nest-making instinct that one might safely say the_M. Bovariensis_ had once possessed it, and that in the cases I havementioned it was a recurrence, too weak to be efficient, to theancestral habit. " Mr. Hudson suggests that this bird lost thenest-making instinct by acquiring the semi-parasitical habit, commonto many South American birds, of breeding in the large covered nestsof the _Dendrocolaptidæ_, although, owing to increased severity in thestruggle for the possession of such nests, this habit wasdefeated. [81]

 [81] P. L. Sclater and W. H. Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, 1888, vol. I. Pp. 72-86. A brief summary of the facts regarding parasitism among birds will be found in Girod's _Les Sociétés chez les Animaux_, 1891, pp. 287-294. 

The _Rhodius anarus_, a fish of European rivers, also ensures a quietretreat for his offspring by a method which is not less indiscreet. Atthe period of spawning, a male chooses a female companion and withgreat vigilance keeps off all those who wish to approach her. When thelaying becomes imminent, the _Rhodius_, swimming up and down at thebottom of the stream, at length discovers a _Unio_. The bivalve isasleep with his shell ajar, not suspecting the plot which is beingformed against him. It is a question of nothing less than oftransforming him into furnished lodgings. The female fish bearsunderneath her tail a prolongation of the oviduct; she introduces itdelicately between the Mollusc's valves and allows an egg to fallbetween his branchial folds. In his turn the male approaches, shakeshimself over it, and fertilises it. Then the couple depart in searchof another _Unio_, to whom to confide another representative of therace. The egg, well sheltered against dangers from without, undergoesdevelopment, and one fine day the little fish emerges and frisks awayfrom his peaceful retreat. 

Other animals, more respectful of property, avoid using another'sdwelling until it is abandoned by its proprietor, and no reproach ofindelicacy can be addressed to the _Gobius minutus_, a fish whichlives on our coasts at the mouth of rivers. The female lays beneathoverturned shells, remains of Oysters, or Cardium shells. The valve isburied beneath several centimetres of sand, which supports it like avault. It forms a solid roof, beneath which the eggs undergo theirevolution. Sometimes the male remains by the little chamber to watchover their fate. It is possible to distinguish the two holes ofentrance and exit which mark his habitual passage. 

[Illustration: FIG. 19. ]

The Hermit-crab perhaps knows best how to take advantage of oldclothes. (Fig. 19. ) He collects shells of Gasteropods, abandonedflotsam, the first inhabitant of which has died. The Hermit-crab(_Pagurus Bernhardus_) is a Decapod Crustacean--that is to say, heresembles a very small Crab. But his inveterate habit during so manygenerations of sheltering his abdomen in a shell prevents this partfrom being encrusted with lime and becoming hard. The legs and thehead remain in the ordinary condition outside the house, and theanimal moves bearing it everywhere with him; on the least warning heretires into it entirely. But the Crustacean grows. When young he hadchosen a small shell. A Mollusc, in growing, makes his house grow withhim. The Hermit-crab cannot do this, and when his dwelling has becometoo narrow he abandons it for one that is more comfortable. At firstenclosed in the remains of a _Trochus_, he changes into that of a_Purpura_; a little later he seeks asylum in a Whelk. Beside theshelter which these shells assure to the Crustacean, they serve tomask his ferocity, and the prey which approaches confidently what ittakes to be an inoffensive Mollusc, becomes his victim. 

The Great Horned Owl likewise does not construct a nest; but takespossession of the dwellings abandoned by others. These birds utilisefor laying their eggs sometimes the nest of a Crow or a Dove, sometimes the lair which a Squirrel had considered too dilapidated. The female, without troubling about the bad state of these ruins, ortaking pains to repair them, lays her eggs here and sits on them. 

_Classification of artificial shelters. _--It is time to turn toanimals who have more regard for comfort, and who erect dwellings forthemselves or their offspring. These dwellings may be divided intothree groups: (1) Those which are hollowed in earth or in wood; (2)those which in the simplest form result from the division of materialof any kind; then, as a complication, of materials bound together;then, as a last refinement, of delicate materials, such as blades ofgrass or threads of wool woven together; such are the nests of certainbirds and the tents of nomads; (3) those which are built of moistearth which becomes hard on drying; the perfection of this methodconsists of piling up hard fragments, pieces of wood or ashlar, themoist earth being only a mortar which unites the hard parts together. Animals exercise with varying success these different methods, all ofwhich Man still practises. 

_Hollowed dwellings--Rudimentary burrows. _--We will first occupyourselves with the dwelling hollowed in the earth. It is the leastcomplicated form. The number of creatures who purely and simply burythemselves thus to obtain shelter is incalculable; I will only mentiona few examples, and pass on from simple combinations to the moreperfected industries, of which they present the first sketch. 

It is known that at a certain epoch of the year Crabs abandon theirhard carapaces. This phenomenon is known by the name of the moult;they remain in this condition for some time; it is the period duringwhich they grow; then their integuments are encrusted anew with limeand again become resistant. While they are thus deprived of theirordinary protection they are exposed to a crowd of dangers, and theyare so well aware of this that they remain hidden beneath rocks andpebbles. A crab of Guadeloupe, called _Gecarinus ruricola_, escapesthe perils of this situation, thanks to its kind of life and its habitof hollowing out a burrow to live in while it is deprived of itshabitual defence. This Crustacean lives on the earth, at a distance ofabout ten or twelve kilometres from the sea-shore, and nourishesitself on animal and vegetable remains. It approaches the water onlyat the period of laying eggs, turning towards the coast in the monthsof February and March. This migration does not take place, like someothers, in compact bands; each follows the road in independence, andpreserves a certain amount of liberty with regard to the path and theepoch of the journey. They lead an aquatic life till May or June; thenthe female abandons her little ones, who had begun their developmentattached to her claws, and they return to land. The moult takes placein August. At the approach of this dreaded crisis each hollows a holebetween two roots, supplies it with green leaves, and carefully stopsup the entrance. These labours accomplished, the crab is entirelysheltered; it undergoes the moult in safety, and does not emerge fromits retreat until it is again capable of facing enemies, and ofseizing food with its claws, which have become hard again. Thisseclusion appears to last a month. Here is, then, an example of atemporary dwelling rendered necessary by special conditions of defectfor external life. We are here still in the infancy of the art. 

Speaking generally, birds are accomplished architects. Certain of themare, however, content with a rudimentary cavern. There is no questionhere of those who retire to clefts in the rock or in trunks of trees, for in these cases the cavity is only the support of the true house, and it is in the construction of this that the artist reveals histalent. I wish to speak of animals which remain in a burrow withoutmaking a nest there. A Parroquet of New Zealand called the _Kakapo_(_Strigops habroptilus_) thus dwells in natural or hollowedexcavations. It is only found in a restricted portion of the islandand leads a miserable life there, habitually staying in the earth andpursued by numerous enemies, especially half-wild dogs. It tries tohold its own, but its wings and beak do not suffice to protect it, andthe race would have completely disappeared if these birds were notable to resist, owing to the prudence with which they stay withintheir dwellings. They profit by a natural retreat, or one constructedin rocks or beneath roots of trees; they only come out when impelledby hunger, and return as soon as they can in case of danger. 

A large number of animals also hollow out shelters for their eggs, with the double object of maintaining them at a constant temperatureand of concealing them. Most reptiles act in this manner. The way inwhich a Tortoise, the _Cistudo lunaria_, prepares its nest isextremely curious. When the time for this labour arrives, the tortoisechooses a site. It commences by boring in the earth with the end ofits tail, the muscles of which are held firmly contracted; it turnsthe tail like a gimlet and succeeds in making a conical hole. Gradually the depth of the hole becomes equal to the length of thetail, and the tool then becomes useless. The _Cistudo_ enlarges thecavity with the help of its posterior legs. Using them alternately itwithdraws the earth and kicks it away, then piles up this rubbish onthe edge of the hole, arranging it so as to form a circular rampart. Soon the posterior members can take nothing more from the too distantbottom. The moment for laying has now come. As soon as the egg arrivesat the cloaca one of the feet seizes it and lowers it gently into thenest, while the second foot seizes another egg, which during this timehad appeared at the orifice. This manipulation lasts until the end ofthe operation, when the tortoise buries all its family, and to flattenthe prominence which results she strikes it repeatedly with herplastron, raising herself on her legs. 

It is not only land animals which adopt this custom of living in theearth, and there sheltering their offspring. Fish also make retreatson the bank or at the bottom. To mention only one case, the Bullhead(_Cottus gobio_) of our rivers, which spawns in the Seine in May, June, and July, acts in this manner. Beneath a rock in the sand itprepares a cavity; then seeks females and brings them to lay eggs inits little lodging. During the four or five weeks before they come outit watches the eggs, keeping away as far as possible every dangerwhich threatens them. It only leaves its position when pressed byhunger, and as soon as the hunt is concluded, returns to the post ofduty. 

Other animals when digging have a double object; they wish to shelterthemselves, and at the same time to find the water which they need forthemselves or for the development of their young. 

It is well known that Frogs and Toads generally go in the spring tolay their eggs in streams and ponds. A Batrachian of Brazil and thehot regions of South America, the _Cystignathus ocellatus_, no doubtfearing too many dangers for the spawn if deposited in the open water, employs the artifice of hollowing, not far from the bank, a hole thebottom of which is filled by infiltration. It there places its eggs, and the little ones on their birth can lead an aquatic life whilebeing guaranteed against its risks. 

A terrestrial Crab, the _Cardisoma carnifex_, found in Bengal and theAntilles, acts in the same manner; but in this case it has in view itsown convenience and not care for its offspring. Its habitat isespecially in low-lying spots near the shore, where water may be foundat a trifling depth beneath the soil. To establish its dwelling, theCrustacean first buries itself until it reaches the liquid level. Arrived at this point, it makes a large lair in the soft soil, andeffects communication with the outside by various openings. It canthus easily come and go and retire into its cave, where it findssecurity and a humidity favourable for branchial respiration. Fromtime to time it cleans out the dirt and rubbish which accumulate inthe hole. It makes a little pile of all the refuse which it finds, and, seizing it between its claws and abdomen, carries it outside. Executing several journeys very rapidly, it soon clears out itsdwelling. 

The dipnoid _Protopterus_, which inhabits the marshes of Senegal andGambia, is curious in more than one respect. Firstly, it can breatheoxygen, whether, like other fish, it finds it dissolved in water or inthe atmospheric air. When during the summer the marshes in which itlives dry up, it takes refuge in the mud at the bottom, which hardensand imprisons it, and it thus remains curled up until the time whenthe water after the rainy season has softened the earth whichsurrounds it. This fact had been known for some time; travellers hadbrought back lumps of dried earth of varied size, the largest about asbig as two fists. On opening them the same fish was always foundwithin, and the chamber in which it is contained was lined with a sortof cocoon, having the appearance of dry gelatine. Duméril was able toobserve one of these animals in captivity. At the period correspondingto the dry period of its own country, the _Protopterus_ buried itselfin the mud which had been placed at the bottom of the aquarium. Inorder to realise the conditions found in nature, the water whichcovered it was gradually withdrawn. The earth hardened in drying, andwhen broken the recluse was seen surrounded by hardened mucus, exactlylike those which came from Senegal. 

_Carefully-disposed burrows. _--All the cases which we have consideredshow us the industry of the hollowed dwelling in its primitive state;but other animals know how to furnish it with greater luxury. I willcontinue in the same order of increasing complication. Many beingslive permanently in a burrow; Reptiles--Snakes or Lizards--are to beplaced among these. Among others, the _Lacerta stirpium_ arranges anarrow and deep hole, well hidden beneath a thicket, and retires intoit for the winter, when cold renders it incapable of movement and atthe mercy of its enemies. Before giving itself up to its hybernalsleep, it is careful to close hermetically the opening of the dwellingwith a little earth and dried leaves. When spring returns and the heatawakens the reptile, it comes out to warm itself and to hunt, butnever abandons its dwelling, always retiring into it in case of alarmand to pass there cold days and nights. 

Darwin has observed and described[82] how a little Lacertilian, the_Conolophus subcristatus_, conducts its work of mining and digging. Itestablishes its burrow in a soft tufa, and directs it almosthorizontally, hollowing it out in such a way that the axis of the holemakes a very small angle with the soil. This reptile does notfoolishly expend its strength in this troublesome labour. It onlyworks with one side of its body at a time, allowing the other side torest. For instance, the right anterior leg sets to work digging, whilethe posterior leg on the same side throws out the earth. Whenfatigued, the left legs come into play, allowing the others to repose. 

 [82] _Voyage of the Beagle_. 

Other animals, without building their cavern with remarkable skill, show much sagacity in the choice of a site calculated to obtaincertain determined advantages. In Egypt there are dogs which havebecome wild. Having shaken off the yoke of man, which in the Eastaffords them little or no support, they lead an independent life. During the day they remain quiescent in desert spots or ruins, and atnight they prowl about like jackals, hunting living prey or feeding onabandoned carcasses. There are hills which have in a manner become theproperty of these animals. They have founded villages there, and allowno one to approach. These hills have an orientation from north tosouth, so that one slope is exposed to the sun from morning to mid-dayand the other from mid-day to evening. Now, dogs have a great horrorof heat. They fear the torrid heat of the south as much as in ourclimate they like to lie warmed by gentle rays; there is no shadow toodeep for their siesta. Therefore, on these Egyptian hills every doghollows out a lair on both slopes. One of these dwellings is thusturned towards the east, the other towards the west. In the morning, when he returns from his nocturnal expeditions, the animal takesrefuge in the second, and remains there until mid-day, sunk inrefreshing sleep. At that hour the sun begins to reach him, and toescape it he passes over to the opposite slope; it is a curious sightto see them all, with pendent heads and sleepy air, advance withtrailing steps to their eastern retreat, settle down in it, andcontinue their dream and their digestion till evening, when they againset forth to prowl. We never grow tired of admiring the intelligenceof their domesticated fellows, but this trait seems to me worthy ofremark; it proves a very developed power of observation andreflection. 

[Illustration: FIG. 20. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 21. ]

The Trap-door Spiders of the south of Europe construct burrows whichhave been studied with great care and in much detail by Moggridge. [83]He found that there were four chief types of burrow, shown in theaccompanying illustration (Fig. 20) at about one-third the actual size(except C1 and D1, which are of natural size). While A and B have onlyone door, C and D, besides the surface door, have another a short wayunder ground. The whole burrow as well as the door are lined withsilk, which also forms the hinge. The great art of the Trap-doorSpider lies in her skilful forming of the door, which fits tightly, although it opens widely when she emerges, and which she frequentlyholds down when an intruder strives to enter, and in the manner withwhich the presence of the door is concealed, so as to harmonise withsurrounding objects. Perhaps in no case is the concealment morecomplete than when dead leaves are employed to cover the door. In somecases a single withered olive leaf is selected, and it serves to coverthe entrance; in other cases several are woven together with bits ofwood or roots, as in the accompanying illustration, which representssuch a door when open and when shut. (Fig. 21. )

 [83] J. T. Moggridge, _Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders_, contained in two elaborately illustrated volumes, London, 1873-74. 

The Trap-door Spider (_Mygale henzii_, Girard), which is widelydiffused in California, forms a simple shaft-like burrow, but, likethe European Trap-door Spider, it is very skilful in forming an entranceand in concealing its presence. Its habits have lately been describedby D. Cleveland of San Diego. [84] In the adobe land hillocks arenumerous; they are about a foot in height, and some three or four feetin diameter. These hillocks are selected by the spiders--apparentlybecause they afford excellent drainage, and cannot be washed away bythe winter rains--and their stony summits are often full of spiders'nests. These subterranean dwellings are shafts sunk vertically in theearth, except where some stony obstruction compels the miner todeflect from a downward course. The shafts are from five to twelveinches in depth, and from one-half to one and a half inches indiameter, depending largely upon the age and size of the spider. 

 [84] _Science_, 20th January 1893. 

When the spider has decided upon a location, which is always in clay, adobe or stiff soil, he excavates the shaft by means of the sharphorns at the end of his mandibles, which are his pick and shovel andmining tools. The earth is held between the mandibles and carried tothe surface. When the shaft is of the required size, the spidersmoothes and glazes the wall with a fluid which is secreted by itself. Then the whole shaft is covered with a silken paper lining, spun fromthe animal's spinnerets. 

The door at the top of the shaft is made of several alternate layersof silk and earth, and is supplied with an elastic and ingenioushinge, and fits closely in a groove around the rim of the tube. Thisdoor simulates the surface on which it lies, and is distinguishablefrom it only by a careful scrutiny. The clever spider even glues earthand bits of small plants on the upper side of his trap-door, thusmaking it closely resemble the surrounding surface. 

The spider generally stations itself at the bottom of the tube. When, by tapping on the door, or by other means, a gentle vibration iscaused, the spider runs to the top of his nest, raises the lid, looksout and reconnoitres. If a small creature is seen, it is seized anddevoured. If the invader is more formidable, the door is quicklyclosed, seized and held down by the spider, so that much force isrequired to lever it open. Then, with the intruder looking down uponhim, the spider drops to the bottom of his shaft. 

It has been found by many experiments that when the door of his nestis removed, the spider can renew it five times--never more than that. Within these limitations, the door torn off in the evening was foundreplaced by a new one in the morning. Each successive renewal showed, however, a greater proportion of earth, and a smaller proportion ofsilk, until finally the fifth door had barely enough silk to hold theearth together. The sixth attempt, if made, was a failure, because thespinnerets had exhausted their supply of the web fluid. When the poorpersecuted spider finds his domicile thus open and defenceless, he iscompelled to leave it, and wait until his stock of web fluid isrenewed. [85]

 [85] The Trap-door Spiders of various parts of the world have been carefully studied, and the gradual development of their skill traced through various species, by Eugène Simon; see, for example, _Actes de la Soc. Lin. De Bordeaux_, 1888. 

Skilful diggers prepare burrows with several entrances; some evenarrange several rooms, each for a special object. The Otter seeks itsfood in the water, and actively hunts fish in ponds and rivers. Butwhen fishing is over, it likes to keep dry and at the same timesheltered from terrestrial enemies. Its dwelling must also present aneasy opening into the water. In order to fulfil all these conditions, its house consists first of a large room hollowed in the bank at alevel sufficiently high to be beyond reach of floods. From the bottomof this keep a passage starts which sinks and opens about fiftycentimetres beneath the surface of the water. It is through here thatthe Otter noiselessly glides to find himself in the midst of hishunting domain without having been seen or been obliged to make anoisy plunge which would put the game to flight. If this were all, thehermetically-closed dwelling would soon become uninhabitable, as therewould be no provision for renewing the air, so the Otter proceeds toform a second passage from the ceiling of the room to the ground, thusforming a ventilation tube. In order that this may not prove a causeof danger, it is always made to open up in the midst of brushwood orin a tuft of rushes and reeds. 

Marmots also are not afraid of the work which will assure them a warmand safe refuge in the regions they inhabit, where the climate isrough. In summer they ascend the Alps to a height of 2, 500 to 3, 000metres and rapidly hollow a burrow like that for winter time, which Iam about to describe, but smaller and less comfortable. They retireinto it during bad weather or to pass the night. When the snow chasesthem away and causes them to descend to a lower zone, they think aboutconstructing a genuine house in which to shut themselves during thewinter and to sleep. Twelve or fifteen of these little animals unitetheir efforts to make first a horizontal passage, which may reach thelength of three or four metres. They enlarge the extremity of it intoa vaulted and circular room more than two metres in diameter. Theymake there a good pile of very dry hay on which they all installthemselves, after having carefully protected themselves against theexternal cold by closing up the passage with stones and calking theinterstices with grass and moss. 

In solitary woods or roads the Badger (_Meles_), who does not likenoise, prepares for himself a peaceful retreat, clean and wellventilated, composed of a vast chamber situated about a metre and ahalf beneath the surface. He spares no pains over it, and makes itcommunicate with the external world by seven or eight very longpassages, so that the points where they open are about thirty pacesdistant from one another. In this way, if an enemy discovers one ofthem and introduces himself into the Badger's home, the Badger canstill take flight through one of the other passages. In ordinary timesthey serve for the aëration of the central room. The animal attachesconsiderable importance to this. He is also very clean in his habits, and every day may be seen coming out for little walks, having anobject of an opposite nature to the search for food. This praiseworthyhabit is, as we shall see, exploited by the Fox in an unworthy manner. 

The Fox has many misdeeds on his conscience, but his conduct towardsthe Badger is peculiarly indelicate. The Fox is a skilful digger, andwhen he cannot avoid it, he can hollow out a house with several rooms. The dwelling has numerous openings, both as a measure of prudence andof hygiene, for this arrangement enables the air to be renewed. Heprepares several chambers side by side; one of which he uses forobservation and to take his siesta in; a second as a sort of larder inwhich he piles up what he cannot devour at once; a third, in which thefemale brings forth and rears her young. But he does not hesitate toavoid this labour when possible. If he finds a rabbit warren he triesfirst to eat the inhabitants, and then, his mind cleared from thisanxiety, arranges their domicile to his own taste, and comfortablyinstalls himself in it. In South America, again, the Argentine Foxfrequently takes up permanent residence in a vizcachera, ejecting therightful owners; he is so quiet and unassuming in his manners that thevizcachas become indifferent to his presence, but in spring the femalefox will seize on the young vizcachas to feed her own young, and ifshe has eight or nine, the young of the whole village of vizcachas maybe exterminated. 

The Badger's dwelling appears to the Fox particularly enviable. Inorder to dislodge the proprietor he adopts the following plan. Knowingthat the latter can tolerate no ordure near his home, he chooses as aplace of retirement one of the passages which lead to the chamber ofthe peaceful recluse. He insists repeatedly, until at last the Badger, insulted by this grossness, and suffocated by the odour, decides tomove elsewhere and hollow a fresh palace. The Fox is only waiting forthis, and installs himself without ceremony. 

The Vizcacha (_Lagostomus trichodactylus_) is a large Rodentinhabiting a vast extent of country in the pampas of La Plata, Patagonia, etc. Unlike most other burrowing species, the Vizcachaprefers to work on open level spots. On the great grassy plains it iseven able to make its own conditions, like the Beaver, and is in thisrespect, and in its highly-developed social instinct, among the two orthree Mammals which approach Man, although only a Rodent, and even inthis order, according to Waterhouse, coming very low down by reason ofits marsupial affinities. 

The Vizcacha lives in small communities of from twenty to thirtymembers, in a village of deep-chambered burrows, some twelve orfifteen in number, with large pit-like entrances closely groupedtogether, and as the Vizcachera, as this village is called, enduresfor an indefinitely long period, the earth which is constantly broughtup forms an irregular mound thirty or forty feet in diameter, and fromfifteen to thirty inches above the level of the road; this moundserves to protect the dwelling from floods on low ground. A clearingis made all round the abode and all rubbish thrown on the mound; theVizcachas thus have a smooth turf on which to disport themselves, andare freed from the danger of lurking enemies. 

The entire village occupies an area of one hundred to two hundredsquare feet of ground. The burrows vary greatly in extent; usually ina Vizcachera there are several that, at a distance of from four to sixfeet from the entrance, open into large circular chambers. From thesechambers other burrows diverge in all directions, some runninghorizontally, others obliquely downwards to a maximum depth of sixfeet from the surface; some of these galleries communicate with thoseof other burrows. 

On viewing a Vizcachera closely, the first thing that strikes theobserver is the enormous size of the entrances to the central burrowsin the mound; there are usually several smaller outside burrows. Theentrance to some of the principal burrows is sometimes four to sixfeet across the mouth, and sometimes it is deep enough for a tall manto stand in up to the waist. 

It is not easy to tell what induces a Vizcacha to found a newcommunity, for they increase very slowly, and are very fond of eachother's society. It is invariably one individual alone who founds thenew village. If it were for the sake of better pasture he would removeto a considerable distance, but he merely goes from forty to sixtyyards off to begin operations. Sooner or later, perhaps after manymonths, other individuals join the solitary Vizcacha, and they becomethe parents of innumerable generations in the same village: old men, who have lived all their lives in one district, remember that many ofthe Vizcacheras around them existed when they were children. 

It is always a male who begins the new village. Although he does notalways adopt the same method, he usually works very straight into theearth, digging a hole twelve or fourteen inches wide, but not so deep, at an angle of about 25° with the surface. After he has progressedinwards for a few feet, the animal is no longer content merely toscatter the loose earth; he cleans it away in a straight line from theentrance, and scratches so much on this line, apparently to make theslope gentler, that he soon forms a trench a foot or more in depth, and often three or four feet in length. This facilitates theconveyance of the loose earth as far as possible from the entrance ofthe burrow. But after a while the animal is unwilling that earthshould accumulate even at the end of this long passage, and proceedsto form two additional trenches, making an acute or right angleconverging into the first trench, so that the whole when completedtakes a Y shape. These trenches are continually deepened andlengthened in this manner, the angular segment of earth between thembeing scratched away, until by degrees it gives place to one largedeep irregular mouth. The burrows are made best in the black and redmoulds of the pampas; but even in such soils the entrances may bevaried. In some the central trench is wanting, or so short that thereappear to be but two passages converging directly into the burrow, orthese two trenches may be so curved inwards as to form the segment ofa circle. Usually, however, the varieties are only modifications ofthe Y-shaped system. 

On the pampas a wide-mouthed burrow possesses a distinct advantageover the more usual shape. The two outer trenches diverge so widelyfrom the mouth that half the earth brought out is cast behind insteadof before it, thus creating a mound of equal height about theentrance, by which it is secured from water during great rainfalls, while cattle avoid treading over the great pit-like entrances, thoughthey soon tread and break in the burrows of the Armadillo and otherspecies when these make their homes on perfectly level ground. 

The Vizcachas do not usually leave their burrows until dark, but insummer they come out before sunset. Usually one of the old males firstappears, and sits on some prominent place on the mound, apparently inno haste to begin his evening meal. Other Vizcachas soon begin toappear, each quietly taking up his position at the burrow's mouth. Thefemales, known by their smaller size and lighter colour, sit uprighton their haunches, as if to command a better view; they are alwayswilder and sprightlier in their gestures than the males. They view ahuman stranger with a mixture of fear and curiosity, sometimesallowing him to come within five or six paces of them; in desertregions, however, where enemies are numerous, the Vizcacha is verytimid and wary. 

These animals are very sociable, and their sociability extends beyondtheir own vizcachera. On approaching a vizcachera at night, usuallysome of the Vizcachas on it scamper off to distant burrows. These areneighbours merely come to pay a friendly visit. The intercourse is sofrequent that little straight paths are formed from one village toanother. Their social instinct leads members of one village to assistthose of another when in trouble. Thus, if a vizcachera is coveredover with earth in order to destroy the animals within, Vizcachas fromdistant burrows will subsequently be found zealously digging out theirfriends. The hospitality of the Vizcacha does not, however, extend tohis burrow; he has a very strong feeling with regard to the sanctityof the burrow. A Vizcacha never enters another's burrow, and if bychance driven into one by dogs will emerge speedily, apparentlyfinding that the danger within is greater than the danger without. Inconnection with the sociability of the Vizcacha, we must take intoconsideration the fact that Vizcachas possess a wonderfully varied andexpressive language, and are engaged in perpetual discussion all nightlong. [86]

 [86] The Vizcacha has been carefully studied by Mr. W. H. Hudson, whose account has here been closely followed, _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, 1872, and _Naturalist in La Plata_, 1892, pp. 289-313. 

_Burrows with barns adjoined. _--Certain Rodents have carried hollowdwellings to great perfection. Among these the Hamster of Germany(_Cricetus frumentarius_) is not the least ingenious. To hisdwelling-room he adds three or four storehouses for the amassedprovisions of which I have already had occasion to speak. The burrowpossesses two openings: one, which the animal prefers to use, whichsinks vertically into the soil; the other, the passage of exit with agentle and very winding slope. The bottom of the central room iscarpeted with moss and straw, which make it a warm and pleasant home. A third tunnel starts from this sleeping chamber, soon forking andleading to the wheat barns. Thus during the winter the Hamster has nopressing need to go out except on fine days for a little fresh air. Hehas everything within his reach, and can remain shut up with nothingto fear from the severity of the season. 

_Dwellings hollowed out in wood. _--It is not only the soil which mayserve for retreat; wood serves as an asylum for numerous animals, whobore it, and find in it both food and shelter. In this class must beplaced a large number of Worms, Insects, and Crustaceans. One of theselast, the _Chelura terebrans_, a little Amphipod, constitutes a greatdanger for the works of man. It attacks piles sunken to supportstructures, and undermines them to such a degree that they eventuallyfall. Wood is formed of concentric layers alternately composed oflarge vessels formed during the summer, and smaller vessels formedduring the winter. The latter zones are more resistant, the former aresofter. When one of these Crustaceans attacks a pile, it first bores alittle horizontal passage, stopping at a layer of summer-growth. Itthere hollows a large grotto, leaving here and there pillars ofsupport. It lays in this space. The new generation working around theparents increases the space and feeds on the wood removed. A secondgeneration is produced, and the inhabitants become pressed for space. The new-born pierce numerous passages and penetrate towards theinterior of the pile as far as the next summer layer. There theyspread themselves, always boring; they construct new rooms like thefirst, and arrange pillars here and there. Their descendants gain thesubjacent zone, and so the process goes on. During this time the earlyancestors who hollowed the surface dwellings have died, and the holeswhich they made are no longer habitable; but they have all contributedto diminish the resistance of the wood, and this continues as long asthe race which they produced makes its way towards the centre of thestake. 

[Illustration: FIG. 22. ]

An insect, the _Xylocopa violacea_ (Fig. 22), related to ourHumble-bee, from which it differs in several anatomical characters, and by the dark violet tint of its wings, brings an improvement to theformation of the shelter which it makes in wood for its larvæ. Insteadof hollowing a mere retreat to place there all its eggsindiscriminately, it divides them into compartments, separated byhorizontal partitions. It is the female alone who accomplishes thistask, connected with the function of perpetuating the race. Shechooses an old tree-trunk, a pole, or the post of a fence, exposed tothe sun and already worm-eaten, so that her labour may be lightened. She first attacks the wood perpendicularly to the surface, thensuddenly turns and directs downwards the passage, the diameter ofwhich is about equal to the size of the insect's body. The _Xylocopa_thus forms a tube about thirty centimetres in length. Quite at thebottom she places the first egg, leaving beside it a provision ofhoney necessary to nourish the larva during its evolution; she thencloses it with a partition. This partition is made with fragments ofthe powder of wood glued together with saliva. A first horizontal ringis applied round the circumference of the tube; then in the interiorof this first ring a second is formed, and so on continuously, untilthe central opening, more and more reduced, is at last entirely closedup. This ceiling forms the floor for the next chamber, in which thefemale deposits a new egg, provided, like the other, with abundantprovisions. The same acts are repeated until the retreat becomestransformed into a series of isolated cells in which the larvæ caneffect their development, and from which they will emerge either bythemselves perforating a thin wall which separates them from daylight, or by an opening which the careful mother has left to allow them toattain liberty without trouble. [87]

 [87] Réaumur, _Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des Insectes_, pp. 97 _et seq. _

_Woven dwellings. _--The second class of habitation, which I havecalled the woven dwelling, proceeds at first from the parcelling up ofsubstances, then of objects capable of being entangled like wisps ofwood or straw, then of fine and supple materials which the artisan canwork together in a regular manner, that is to say by felting orweaving. Facts will show us the successive stages of improvement whichhave been introduced into this industry. I will begin with the morerudimentary. 

_Rudiments of this industry. _--There are, first, cases in which thewill of the animal does not intervene, or at least is very slightlymanifested. The creature is found covered and protected by foreignbodies which are often living beings. Spider-crabs (_Maïa_), forexample, have their carapaces covered with algæ and hydroids of allsorts. Thus garnished, the Crustaceans have the advantage of not beingrecognised from afar when they go hunting, since beneath this fleecethey resemble some rock. H. Fol has observed at Villefranche-sur-Mer a_Maïa_ so buried beneath this vegetation that it was impossible atfirst sight to distinguish it from the stones around. Under theseconditions the animal submits to a shelter rather than creates it. Yetit is not so passive as one might at first be led to suppose. When thealgæ which flourish on its back become too long and impede or delayits progress, it tears them off with its claws and thoroughly cleansitself. The carapace being quite clean, the animal finds itself toosmooth and too easy to distinguish from surrounding objects; ittherefore takes up again fragments of algæ and replaces them wherethey do not delay to take root like cuttings and to flourish anew. This culture is therefore intentional; the crab directs it and arrestsits exuberance; it is no more the victim of it than the gardener isthe slave of the vegetables which he waters day by day. Fromgeneration to generation this crab has acquired the habit, theinstinct if one prefers, of thus covering itself so that it may beconfused with neighbouring objects. Naturally it is ignorant ofbotany, and knows nothing of cuttings. If placed in an aquarium withlittle fragments of paper it will seize them and place them on itsback, as it would have done with algæ, without troubling as to whetherthey become fixed or not. In spite of this lack of judgment, we cannotfail to recognise in this _Maïa_ a certain ingenuity inself-concealment. 

[Illustration: FIG. 23. ]

The Sponge-crab (_Dromia vulgaris_) also practises this method ofshelter. It seizes a large sponge and maintains it firmly over itscarapace with the help of the posterior pair of limbs. The spongecontinues to prosper and to spread over the Crustacean who has adoptedit. (Fig. 23. ) The two beings do not seem to be definitely fixed toeach other; the contact of a sudden wave will separate them. When thedivorce is effected, the _Dromia_ immediately throws itself on itscherished covering and replaces it. M. Künckel d'Herculais tells ofone of these curious crustaceans which delighted the workers in thelaboratory of Concarneau. The need for covering themselves experiencedby these Crabs is so strong that in aquariums when their sponge istaken away they will apply to the back a fragment of wrack or ofanything which comes to hand. A little white cloak with the arms ofBrittany was manufactured for one of these captives, and it was veryamusing to see him put on his overcoat when he had nothing elsewherewith to cover himself. [88]

 [88] Brehm, édition Française, _Crustacés_, p. 738. 

In these two cases which I have brought forward to exhibit therudiments of this industry, the animals' reflection and will play buta small part; even in the _Dromia_ custom is so inveterate in the racethat it has reacted on the animal's organisation, and its fourposterior legs are profoundly modified for the purpose of firmlyholding the sheltering sponge; they no longer serve for swimming orwalking. The animals of which I have now to speak possess moreinitiative; although all do not act with the same success, or showthemselves equally skilful. Let us turn first to the leastexperienced. 

An Australian bird, the _Catheturus Lathami_, as described by Gould, is still in the rudiments, and limits itself to preparing an enormouspile of leaves. It begins its work some weeks before laying its eggs;with its claws it pushes behind it all the dead leaves which fall onthe earth and brings them into a heap. The bird throws new material onthe summit until the hole is of suitable height. This detritusferments when left to itself, and a gentle heat is developed in thecentre of the edifice. The _Catheturus_ returns to lay near thiscoarse shelter; it then takes each egg and buries it in the heap, thelarger end uppermost. It places a new layer above, and quits itslabour for good. Incubation takes place favoured by the uniform heatof this decomposing mass, hatching is produced, and the young emergefrom their primitive nest. 

[Illustration: FIG. 24. ]

Birds are not alone in constructing temporary dwellings in which tolay their eggs; some Fish are equally artistic in this kind ofindustry, and even certain Reptiles. The Alligator of the Mississippiwould not perhaps at first be regarded as a model of maternalforesight. Yet the female constructs a genuine nest. She seeks a veryinaccessible spot in the midst of brushwood and thickets of reeds. With her jaw she carries thither boughs which she arranges on the soiland covers with leaves. She lays her eggs and conceals them with carebeneath vegetable remains. Not yet considering her work completed, shestays in the neighbourhood watching with jealous eye the thicket whichshelters the dear deposit, and never ceases to mount guardthreateningly until the day when her young ones can follow her intothe stream. 

A hymenopterous relative of the Bees, the _Megachile_, cuts out inrose-leaves fragments of appropriate form which it bears away to asmall hole in a tree, an abandoned mouse nest or some similar cavity. There it rolls them, works them up, and arranges them with much art, so as to manufacture what resemble thimbles, which it fills with honeyand in which it lays. [89] (Fig. 24. )

 [89] Réaumur, _Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des Insectes_, pp. 97 _et seq. _

The _Anthocopa_ acts in a similar manner, carpeting the holes of whichit takes possession with the delicate petals of the corn poppy. 

The retreats of nocturnal birds of prey do not differ in method ofconstruction from these two kinds of nests. They are holes in trees, in ruins, in old walls, and are lined with soft and warm material. These dwellings are related, not to the type of the hollowed cave, butto that of the habitation manufactured from mingled materials. Theyconstitute an inferior form in which the pieces are not firmly boundtogether but need support throughout. The cavity is the support whichsustains the real house. 

_Dwellings formed of coarsely-entangled materials. _--Diurnal birds ofprey are the first animals who practise skilfully the twining ofmaterials. Their nests, which have received the name of eyries, arenot yet masterpieces of architecture, and reveal the beginning of theindustry which is pushed so far by other birds. Usually situated inwild and inaccessible spots, the young are there in safety when theirparents are away on distant expeditions. The abrupt summits of cliffsand the tops of the highest forest trees are the favourite spotschosen by the great birds of prey. The eyrie generally consists of amass of dry branches which cross and mutually support one another, constituting a whole which is fairly resistant. 

Even these primitive nests are not, however, without more complicateddetails of interest. Thus Mr. Denis Gale wrote to Bendire concerningthe Golden Eagle in America: "Here in Colorado, in the numerous gladesrunning from the valleys into the foothills, high inaccessible ledgesare quite frequently met with which afford the Eagles secure sites fortheir enormous nests. I know of one nest that must contain twowaggon-loads of material. It is over seven feet high, and quite sixfeet wide on its upper surface. In most cases the cliff aboveoverhangs the site. At the end of February or the beginning of March, the needful repairs to the nest are attended to, and the universalbranch of evergreen is laid upon the nest, seemingly for any purposesave that of utility. This feature has been present in all the nests Ihave examined myself, or have had examined by others; it would seem tobe employed as a badge of occupancy. "[90] This curious feature is alsofound in the nests of the Bald or American Eagle. Thus Dr. W. L. Ralphfurnished Bendire with the following observations made in Florida onthe dwellings of this, the national bird of the United States:--"Thenests are immense structures, from five to six feet in diameter, andabout the same in depth, and so strong that a man can walk around inone without danger of breaking through; in fact, my assistant wouldalways get in the nest before letting the eggs down to me. They arecomposed of sticks, some of which are two or three inches thick, andare lined with marsh grass or some similar material. There is usuallya slight depression in the centre, where the eggs are placed, but theedge of the nest extends so far beyond this that it is almostimpossible to see the bird from below, unless it has its head well up. I have frequently found foreign substances in their nests, usuallyplaced on the edges of it, the object of which I cannot account for. Often it would be a ball of grass, wet or dry, sometimes a greenbranch from a pine tree, and again a piece of wood, bark, or othermaterial. It seemed as if they were placed in the nests as if to markthem. From its frequent occurrence, at least, it seemed to me as ifdesignedly done. "[91]

 [90] _Life Histories of North American Birds_, 1892, p. 265. 

 [91] _Life Histories of American Birds_, p. 275. 

The abodes of Squirrels, though exhibiting more art, are constructionsof the same nature; that is to say, they are formed of interlacedsticks. This animal builds its home to shelter itself there in the badseason, to pass the night in it, and to rear its young. Very agile, and not afraid of climbing, it places its domicile near the tops ofour highest forest trees. Rather capricious also, and desiring changeof residence from time to time, it builds several of them; at leastthree or four, sometimes more. The materials which it needs arecollected on the earth among fallen dead branches, or are torn awayfrom the old abandoned nest of a crow or some other bird. The Squirrelfirsts builds a rather hollow floor by intermingling the fragments ofwood which it has brought. In this state its dwelling resembles amagpie's nest. But the fastidious little animal wishes to be betterprotected and not thus to sleep in the open air. Over this foundationhe raises a conical roof; the sticks which form it are very skilfullydisposed, and so well interlaced that the whole is impenetrable torain. The house must still be furnished, and this is done withoriental luxury; that is to say, the entire furniture consists of acarpet, a carpet of very dry moss, which the Squirrel tears from thetrunks of trees, and which it piles up so as to have a soft and warmcouch. An entrance situated at the lower part gives access to theaërial castle; it is usually directed towards the east. On theopposite side there is another orifice by which the animal can escapeif an enemy should invade the principal entrance. In ordinary timesalso it serves to ventilate the chamber by setting up a slight currentof air. The Squirrel greatly fears storms and rain, and during badweather hastens to take refuge in his dwelling. If the wind blows inthe direction of the openings, the little beast at once closes themwith two stoppers of moss, and keeps well shut in as long as the stormrages. 

The great Anthropoid Apes have found nothing better for shelter thanthe Squirrels' method. It must, however, be taken into account thatthey have much more difficulty in arranging and maintaining muchheavier rooms, and in building up a shelter with larger surface. 

The Orang-outang, which lives in the virgin forests of the SundaArchipelago, does not feel the need of constructing a roof against therain. He is content with a floor established in the midst of a tree, and made of broken and interlaced branches. He piles up on thissupport a considerable mass of leaves and moss; for the Orang does notsleep seated like the other great apes, but lies down in the manner ofMan, as has often been observed when he is in captivity. When he feelsthe cold he is ingenious enough to cover himself with the leaves ofhis couch. 

In Upper and Lower Guinea the Chimpanzee (_Troglodytes niger_) alsoestablishes his dwelling on trees. He first makes choice of a largehorizontal branch, which constitutes a sufficient floor for the agileanimal. Above this branch he bends the neighbouring boughs, crossesthem, and interlaces them so as to obtain a sort of framework. Whenthis preliminary labour is accomplished, he collects dead wood orbreaks up branches and adds them to the first. Before commencing hehad taken care when choosing the site that the whole was so arrangedthat a fork was within reach to sustain the roof. He thus constructs avery sufficient shelter. These apes are sociable and prefer to live ineach other's neighbourhood. They even go on excursions in rather largebands. Notwithstanding this, more than one or two cabins are neverseen on the same tree; perhaps this is because the complicatedconditions required for the construction are not likely to be realisedseveral times on the same tree; perhaps also it is a desire forindependence which impels the Chimpanzees not to live too near to eachother. [92]

 [92] Savage, "Observations on the External Characters and Habits of the _Troglodytes niger_, " _Boston Journal Nat. Hist. _, 1843, pp. 362-376. 

The _Troglodytes calvus_, a relative of the preceding, inhabiting thesame regions, as described by Du Chaillu, shows still more skill inraising his roof. A tree is always chosen for support. He breaks offboughs and fastens them by one end to the trunk, by the other to alarge branch. To fix all these pieces he employs very strong creepers, which grow in abundance in his forests. Above this framework, whichindicates remarkable ingenuity, the animal piles up large leaves, forming in layers well pressed down and quite impenetrable to therain. The whole has the appearance of an open parasol. The ape sits ona branch beneath his handiwork, supporting himself against the trunkwith one arm. He has thus an excellent shelter against the mid-day sunas well as against tropical showers. Male and female each possess adwelling on two neighbouring trees, the principle of conjugalcohabitation not being admitted in this species. As to the child, itappears that it sleeps near its mother, until it is of age to lead anindependent life. 

There exists in Australia, the country of zoological singularities, abird with very curious customs. This is the Satin Bower-bird. The artdisplayed in this bird's constructions is not less interesting thanthe sociability he gives evidence of, and his desire to have for hishours of leisure a shelter adorned to his taste. The bowers which heconstructs, and which present on a small scale the appearance of thearbours in our old gardens, are places for re-union and for warblingand courtship, in which the birds stay during the day, when no anxietyleads them to disperse. They are not, properly speaking, nests builtfor the purpose of rearing young; for at the epoch of love each coupleseparates and constructs a special retreat in the neighbourhood of thebower. These shelters are always situated in the most retired parts ofthe forest, and are placed on the earth at the foot of trees. Severalcouples work together to raise the edifice, the males performing thechief part of the work. At first they establish a slightly convexfloor, made with interlaced sticks, intended to keep the placesheltered from the moisture of the soil. The arbour rises in thecentre of this first platform. Boughs vertically arranged areinterlaced at the base with those of the floor. The birds arrange themin two rows facing each other; they then curve together the upperextremities of these sticks, and fix them so as to obtain a vault. Allthe prominences in the materials employed are turned towards theoutside, so that the interior of the room may be smooth and the birdsmay not catch their plumage in it. This done, the little architects, to embellish their retreat, transport to it a number of conspicuousobjects, such as very white stones from a neighbouring stream, shells, the bright feathers of the parroquet, whatever comes to their beak. All these treasures are arranged on the earth, before the two entriesto the bower, so as to form on each side a carpet, which is notsmooth, but the varied colours of which rejoice the eye. The prettiesttreasures are fixed into the wall of the hut. These houses ofpleasure, with all their adornments, form a dwelling very much to thetaste of this winged folk, and the birds pass there the greater partof the day, preening their feathers and narrating the news of theforest. Bower-birds' clubs are drawing-rooms raised at the commonexpense by all who frequent them. The Spotted Bower-bird, the_Chlamydera maculata_, which also lives in the interior of Australia, exercises this method of construction with equal success. The bowersbuilt by these birds may be one metre in length; this is on a veryluxurious scale, the animal itself only measuring twenty-fivecentimetres. In this species, as among other Bower-birds, the bowersare not the labour and the property of a single couple; they are theresult of the collaboration of several households, who come togetherto shelter themselves there. These birds feed only on grains, so thatit is to a very pronounced taste for collecting that we must attributethis mania of piling up before the entrance of the bower white stones, shells, and small bones. (Fig. 25. ) These objects are intended solelyfor the delight of these feathered artists. They are very careful alsoonly to collect pieces which have been whitened and dried by thesun. [93]

 [93] Gould first accurately described the habits of the Bower-birds, _Proceed. Zool. Soc. _; _London_, 1840, p. 94; also _Handbook to the Birds of Australia_ (1865), vol. I. Pp. 444-461. See also Darwin's _Descent of Man_ (1881), pp. 381 and 413-414. 

Certain Humming-birds also, according to Gould, decorate theirdwellings with great taste. "They instinctively fasten thereon, " hestated, "beautiful pieces of flat lichen, the larger pieces in themiddle, and the smaller on the part attached to the branch. Now andthen a pretty feather is intertwined or fastened to the outer sides, the stem being always so placed that the feather stands out beyond thesurface. "[94]

 [94] Gould, _Introduction to the Trochilidæ_, 1861, p. 19. 

_Dwellings woven of flexible substances. _--In spite of their lack ofskill and the inadequacy of their organs for this kind of work, Fishare not the most awkward architects. The species which construct nestsfor laying in are fairly numerous; the classical case of theStickleback is always quoted, but this is not the only animal of itsclass to possess the secret of the manufacture of a shelter for itseggs. 

A fish of Java, the Gourami (_Osphronemus olfax_), establishes anovoid nest with the leaves of aquatic plants woven together. It makesits work about the size of a fist, takes no rest until it iscompleted, and is able to finish it in five or six days. It is themale alone who weaves this dwelling; when it is ready a female comesto lay there, and generally fills it; it may contain from six hundredto a thousand eggs. 

[Illustration: FIG. 25. ]

In the sea of Sargasso lives a fish which has received the name of the_Antennarius marmoratus_. Its flattened and monstrous head gives it astrange aspect, and it is marbled with brown and yellow. These coloursare those of the tufts of floating seaweed around it, and, thanks tothis arrangement, it can easily hide itself amid them without beingrecognised from afar. This animal constructs for its offspring afairly safe retreat. The materials which it employs are tufts ofSargasso so abundant in this portion of the Atlantic. It collects allthe filaments, and unites them solidly by surrounding them withviscous mucus which it secretes and which hardens. When its work issufficiently firm not to be destroyed by the waves it lays its eggs init, and the floating nest is abandoned to its fate. The little onescome out and find within it a sufficient protection for their earlyage. These dwellings thus floating on the surface of the sea arerounded and about the size of a cocoa-nut. 

In Guiana and Brazil another species, the _Choestostomus pictus_, isfound, which is equally skilful. With aquatic plants it constructs aspherical nest and arranges it in the midst of the reeds, level withthe water. At the lower part a hole is left, through which the femalecomes to lay. After fertilisation, the couple, as is rarely foundamong fish, remain in the neighbourhood of their offspring to assistthem if necessary. This praiseworthy sentiment is often the cause oftheir ruin. The inhabitants of the banks speculate on the love ofthese fish for their offspring to gain possession of them. It issufficient to place a basket near the entrance of the dwelling, whichis then lightly struck. The animal, threatened in its affections, darts furiously forward with bristling spines and throws itself intothe trap. 

It is scarcely necessary to recall the skilful art with which theStickleback which inhabits all our streams plaits its nest and remainssentinel near it. (Fig. 26. ) This fish has indeed monopolised ouradmiration, and is considered as the most skilful, if not the onlyaquatic architect. Yet, besides those which I have already mentioned, there is one which equals the Stickleback in the skill it displays inconstructing a shelter for its spawn. This is the _Gobius niger_ meton our coasts, especially in the estuaries of rivers. The maleinterlaces and weaves the leaves of algæ, etc. , and when he hasfinished his preparations, he goes to seek females, and leads them oneby one to lay in the retreat he has built. Then he remains in theneighbourhood until the young come out, ready to throw himselffuriously with his spines on any imprudent intruders. 

[Illustration: FIG. 26. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 27. ]

_Dwellings woven with greater art. _--Without doubt the class of Birdsfurnishes the most expert artisans in the industry of the wovendwelling. In our own country we may see them seeking every day toright and left, carrying a morsel of straw, a pinch of moss, a hairfrom a horse's tail, or a tuft of wool caught in a bush. Theyintermingle these materials, making the framework of the constructionwith the coarser pieces, keeping those that are warmer and moredelicate for the interior. These nests, attached to a fork in a branchor in a shrub, hidden in the depth of a thicket, are littlemasterpieces of skill and patience. To describe every form and everymethod would fill a volume. But I cannot pass in silence those whichreveal a science sure of itself, and which are not very inferior towhat man can do in this line. The Lithuanian Titmouse (_Ægithaluspendulinus_), whose works have been well described by Baldamus, livesin the marshes in the midst of reeds and willows in Poland, Galicia, and Hungary. Its nest, which resembles none met in our own country, isalways suspended above the water, two or three metres above thesurface, fixed to a willow branch. [95] All individuals do not exhibitthe same skill in fabricating their dwelling; some are more carefuland clever than others who are less experienced. Some also are obligedby circumstances to hasten their work. It frequently happens thatMagpies spoil or even altogether destroy with blows of their beaks oneof these pretty nests. The unfortunate couple are obliged torecommence their task, and if this accident happens two or three timesto the same household, it can easily be imagined that, discouraged anddepressed by the advancing season, they hasten to build a shelteranyhow, only doing what is indispensable, and neglecting perfection. However this may be, the nests which are properly finished have theform of a purse, twenty centimetres high and twelve broad. (Fig. 27. )At the side an opening, prolonged by a passage which is generallyhorizontal, gives access to the interior. Sometimes another opening isfound without any passage. Every nest in the course of constructionpossessed this second entry, but it is usually filled up when the workis completed. When the bird has resolved to establish its retreat, itfirst chooses a hanging branch presenting bifurcations which can beutilised as a rigid frame on which to weave the lateral walls of thehabitation. It intercrosses wool and goat's hair so as to form twocourses which are afterwards united to each other below, andconstitute the first sketch of the nest, at this moment like aflat-bottomed basket. This is only the beginning. The whole wall isreinforced by the addition of new material. The architect piles updown from the poplar and the willow, and binds it all together withfilaments torn from the bark of trees, so as to make a whole which isvery resistant. Then a couch is formed by heaping up wool and down atthe bottom of the nest. 

 [95] Baldamus, _Beiträge zur Oologie und Nidologie_, 1853, pp. 419-445. 

The American Baltimore Oriole, also called the Baltimore Bird, is adistinguished weaver. With strong stalks and hemp or flax, fastenedround two forked twigs corresponding to the proposed width of nest, itmakes a very delicate sort of mat, weaving into it quantities of loosetow. The form of the nest might be compared to that of a ham; it isattached by the narrow portion to a small branch, the large part beingbelow. An opening exists at the lower end of the dwelling, and theinterior is carefully lined with soft substances, well interwoven withthe outward netting, and it is finished with an external layer ofhorse-hair, while the whole is protected from sun and rain by anatural canopy of leaves. 

The Rufous-necked Weaver Bird, as described by Brehm, shows itselfequally clever. Its nest is woven with extreme delicacy, and resemblesa long-necked decanter hung up with the opening below. From the bottomof the decanter a strong band attaches the whole to the branch of atree. (Fig. 28. ) The Yellow Weaver Bird of Java, as described byForbes, constructs very similar retort-shaped nests. [96]

 [96] H. O. Forbes, _A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago_, 1885, pp. 56-58. 

These birds have no monopoly of these careful dwellings; aconsiderable number of genera have carried this industry to the samedegree of perfection. 

[Illustration: FIG. 28. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 29. ]

When animals apply themselves in association to any work, they nearlyalways exhibit in it a marked superiority over neighbouring speciesamong whom the individuals work in isolation. The construction ofdwellings is no exception, and the nests of the Sociable Weaver Birdsof South Africa are the best constructed that can be found. Thesebirds live together in considerable colonies; the members of anassociation are at least two hundred in number, and sometimes rise tofive hundred. The city which they construct is a marvel of industry. They first make with grass a sloping roof; giving it the form of amushroom or an open umbrella, and they place it in such a way that itis supported by the trunk of a tree and one or two of the branches. (Fig. 29. ) This thatch is prepared with so much care that it isabsolutely impenetrable to water. Beneath this protecting shelter eachcouple constructs its private dwelling. All the individual nests havetheir openings below, and they are so closely pressed against oneanother that on looking at the construction from beneath, thedivisions cannot be seen. One only perceives a surface riddled withholes like a skimmer; each of these holes is the door of a nest. Thework may endure for several years; as long as there is room beneaththe roof the young form pairs near their cradle; but at last, as thecolony continues to increase, a portion emigrate to found a new townon another tree in the forest. [97]

 [97] An early description of this bird is to be found in W. Paterson's _Narrative of Four Journeys into the Country of the Hottentots_, 1789; also in Le Vaillant's _Second Voyage dans l'intérieur de l'Afrique_, 1803, t. Iii. , p. 322. 

[Illustration: FIG. 30. ]

The industry of the woven dwelling does not flourish among mammals;but there is one which excels in it. This is the Dwarf Mouse (_Musminutus_), certainly one of the smallest Rodents. It generally livesamidst reeds and rushes, and it is perhaps this circumstance which hasimpelled it to construct an aërial dwelling for its young, not beingable to deposit them on the damp and often flooded soil. This retreatis not used in every season; its sole object is for bringing forth theyoung. It is therefore a genuine nest, not only by the manner in whichit is made, but by the object it is intended to serve. The mousechooses in the midst of its usual domain a tuft with leaves more orless crossed; but not too inextricable, so that there may remain inthe midst an empty space, in the centre of which the work will bearranged. Great ingenuity is shown in the preliminaries; the mousesimplifies its task by utilising material within its reach instead ofgoing afar to collect them with trouble. The little animal examinesthe thicket, and on reflection chooses some thirty leaves which appearsuitable. Then, without detaching them, it tears each into seven oreight threads which are held together by the base, and remain attachedto the reeds. It is a clever idea to avoid losing a natural point ofsupport. The little bands being thus prepared, they are interlaced andcrossed with much art, the animal comes and goes, placing first one ofthem, then another above, taken from a different leaf. It has soonwoven a ball about the size of the fist, and hollowed out theinterior. (Fig. 30. ) Delicate materials are not lacking around to makea soft bed. The mouse gleans and constantly brings in the light downof the willow, grains with cottony crests, and the petals of flowers. This is all carefully fitted, and when the edifice is completed thefemale retires into it to bring forth her young, which are there wellsheltered against the dangers without, and the caprices of storms andfloods. The nest is made with as much delicacy as that of any bird, and no other mammal except Man is capable of executing such weaver'swork. 

_The art of sewing among birds. _--There are birds which have succeededin solving a remarkable difficulty. Sewing seems so ingenious an artthat it must be reserved for the human species alone. Yet the TailorBird, the _Orthotomus longicauda_, and other species possess theelements of it. They place their nests in a large leaf which theyprepare to this end. With their beaks they pierce two rows of holesalong the two edges of the leaf; they then pass a stout thread fromone side to the other alternately. With this leaf, at first flat, theyform a horn in which they weave their nest with cotton or hair. (Fig. 31. ) These labours of weaving and sewing are preceded by the spinningof the thread. The bird makes it itself by twisting in its beakspiders' webs, bits of cotton, and little ends of wool. Sykes foundthat the threads used for sewing were knotted at the ends. [98] It isimpossible not to admire animals who have skilfully triumphed over allthe obstacles met with in the course of these complicatedoperations. [99]

 [98] _Catalogue of Birds, etc. _, p. 16. 

 [99] Tristram, "On the Ornithology of Northern Africa, " _Isis_, 1859-60. 

[Illustration: FIG. 31. ]

Certain Spiders, while they do not actually sew in the sense that theyperforate the leaves they use to build their nest, and draw the threadthrough them, yet subject the leaves to an operation which cannot wellbe called anything else but sewing it. [100]

 [100] McCook describes, and gives good illustrations of, these nests in various stages of progress, _American Spiders_, vol i. P. 302. 

_Modifications of dwellings according to season and climate. _--Acertain number of facts show that these various industries are notfixed and immutable instincts imposed on the species. Certain Birdschange the form of their dwelling according to the climate, oraccording to the season in which they inhabit it. For example, theCrossbill, _Loxia tænioptera_ (Fig. 32), does not build its nestaccording to the same rules in Sweden as in France. It builds in everyseason. The winter shelter is spherical, constructed with very drylichens, and it is very large. A very narrow opening, just sufficientfor the passage of the owner, prevents the external cold frompenetrating within. The summer nests are much smaller, in consequenceof a reduction in the thickness of the walls. There is no longer needto fear that the cold will come through them, and the animal givesitself no superfluous trouble. 

[Illustration: FIG. 32. ]

Again, the Baltimore Oriole, which inhabits both the Northern andSouthern States of North America, knows very well how to adapt hismanner of work to the external circumstances in which he lives. Thus, in the Southern States the nest is woven of delicate materials unitedin a rather loose fashion, so that the air can circulate freely andkeep the interior fresh; it is lined with no warm substance, and theentrance is turned to the west so that the sun only sends into it theoblique evening rays. In the north, on the contrary, the nest isoriented to the south to profit by all the warm sunshine; the wallsare thick, without interstices, and the dwelling is carpeted in thewarmest and softest manner. Even in the same region there is greatdiversity in the style, neatness, and finish of the nests, as well asin the materials used. Skeins of silk and hanks of thread havefrequently been found in the Baltimore Bird's nest, so woven up andentangled that they could not be withdrawn. As such materials couldnot be obtained before the introduction of Europeans, it is evidentthat this bird, with the sagacity of a good architect, knows how toselect the strongest and best materials for his work. Many other factsmight be quoted, but these suffice to show that the species is notanimated by an inevitable instinct, but that each individual, skilfulno doubt by heredity, can modify the methods transmitted to him by hisancestors, according to his own experience and his own judgment. 

_Built dwellings. _--The built dwelling, the expression of the highestcivilisation, still remains to be studied. Man has only known how toconstruct this kind of shelter at a comparatively late period in hisevolution; and among animals we do not find it widely spread, muchless so, certainly, than the two foregoing methods, especially thefirst. The difficulty of this work is greater, and it only arrives atconsiderable development among very sociable species, since the unitedefforts of a great number of individuals are needed to carry it on. 

There are, however, masons who operate separately; but theirconstructions are rudimentary. The characteristic of all these worksis that they are manufactured with some substance to which the animalgives a determined form while it is still soft, and that in drying itpreserves this form and acquires solidity. The matter most usuallyemployed is softened and tempered earth--mortar; but there are animalswho use with success more delicate bodies. Two examples will sufficeto indicate the nature of these exceptions: the labours of Wasps andthose of certain Swallows. 

[Illustration: FIG. 33. ]

_Paper nests. _--Certain Wasps, by the material of their dwellings, approach the Japanese; they build with paper. This paper or cardboardis very strong and supplies a solid support; moreover, being a badconductor of heat, it contributes to maintain an equable temperaturewithin the nest. The constructions of these insects, though they donot exhibit the geometric arrangement of those of Bees, are not lessinteresting. The paper which they employ is manufactured on the spot, as the walls of the cells develop. Detritus of every kind enters intoits preparation: small fragments of wood, sawdust, etc. ; anything isgood. These Hymenoptera possess no organ specially adapted to aidthem; it is with their saliva that they glue this dust together andmake of it a substance very suitable for its purpose. The dwellingsoften reach considerable size, yet they are always begun by a singlefemale, who does all the work without help until the moment when thefirst eggs come out; she is thus furnished with workers capable oftaking a share in her task. The _Vespa sylvestris_ builds a paper nestof this kind, hanging to the branch of a tree, like a great greysphere prolonged to a blunt neck. (Fig. 33. ) The Hornet's nest issimilar in construction. 

_Gelatine nests. _--These are made by certain Swallows who nest ingrottoes or cliffs on the edge of the sea. After having collected fromthe water a gelatinous substance formed either of the spawn of fish orthe eggs of Mollusca, they carry this substance on to a perpendicularwall, and apply it to form an arc of a circle. This first depositbeing dry, they increase it by sticking on to its edge a new deposit. Gradually the dwelling takes on the appearance of a cup and receivesthe workers' eggs. (Fig. 34. ) These dwellings are the famous swallows'nests, so appreciated by the epicures of the extreme East, which areedible in the same way as, for example, caviare. 

_Constructions built of earth--Solitary masons. _--Certain animals, whose dwelling participates in the nature of a hollow cavern, makeadditions to it which claim a place among the constructions with whichwe are now occupied. 

[Illustration: FIG. 34. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 35. ]

The _Anthophora parietina_ is in this group; it is a small bee whichlives in liberty in our climate. As its name indicates, it prefers tofrequent the walls of old buildings and finds a refuge in theinterstices, hollowing out the mortar half disintegrated by time. Theentrance to the dwelling is protected by a tube curved towards thebottom, and making an external prominence. (Fig. 35. ) The owner comesand goes by this passage, and as it is curved towards the earth theinterior is protected against a flow of rain, while at the same timethe entry is rendered more difficult for _Melectes_ and _Anthrax_. These insects, in fact, watch the departure of the _Anthophora_ toendeavour to penetrate into their nests and lay their eggs there. Thegallery of entry and exit has been built with grains of sand, the_débris_ produced by the insect in working. These grains of sand gluedtogether form, on drying, a very resistant wall. [101]

 [101] Latreille, "Observations sur l'abeille parietine (_Anthophora parietina_), " _Annales du Muséum d'Hist. Nat. _, t. Iii. , 1804, p. 257. 

The other animals of which I have to speak are genuine masons, whoprepare their mortar by tempering moistened earth. Every one has seenthe Swallow in spring working at its nest in the corner of a window. It usually establishes its dwelling in an angle, so that the threeexisting walls can be utilised, and to have an enclosed space there isneed only to add the face. It usually gives to this the form of aquarter of a sphere, and begins it by applying earth more or lessmixed with chopped hay against the walls which are to support theedifice. At the summit of the construction a hole is left for entryand exit. During the whole of its sojourn in our country the Swallowuses this dwelling, and even returns to it for many years insuccession, as long as its work will support the attacks of time. Thefaithful return of these birds to their old nest has been many timesproved by attaching ribbons to their claws; they have always returnedwith the distinctive mark. 

[Illustration: FIG. 36. ]

The _Chalicodoma_, whose name of Mason Bee indicates the industry itexercises, is a hymenopterous relative to our Bees, long sincecarefully studied by Réaumur. It does not live in societies like thelatter, and exhibits individual initiative and skill as great as theswallows. The females accomplish the work which I am about todescribe. The little cells which they build are arranged, to thenumber of eight or ten together, in the most various places; sometimeson a pebble, sometimes on a branch, or, again, on a stone wall. (Fig. 36. ) The insect collects earth as fine as possible, such as the dustof a trodden path, and tempers it with its own saliva. It places sideby side these little balls of mortar and the work soon takes the formof a cupola, to the edge of which it constantly adds new deposits. Thesun quickly dries the hole and gives it the necessary consistence. When the cell has acquired sufficient height, the _Chalicodoma_abandons its occupation of mason, and visits flowers for pollen andnectar wherewith to fill the little chamber. It goes back to the nest, disgorges its supply, and returns to the field, until the little cupof earth is full to the edge. When the dwelling is thus prepared andprovisioned, the insect lays an egg there and closes the upper partwith a vault, built by successive deposits over the opening, which ismore and more narrowed until it is finally shut up. Having completed achamber, it passes on to the next, and so on until it has assured thefate of all its descendants. 

This hymenopterous insect certainly shows in its acts as an artisan aninevitable instinct: hereditary intelligence has become less personaland less spontaneous. In certain cases, however, the instinct losesits rigidity and automatism. Thus, when a _Chalicodoma_, at the momentof preparing to accomplish its task, finds an old nest, still capableof repair although dilapidated, it does not hesitate to takepossession of it and to silence its assumed innate instinct ofbuilding. It profits by the work already done, and is content to fillup the cracks or to re-establish the masonry where defective; then itprovisions the renewed cells with honey, and lays its eggs in them. Incertain circumstances it shows itself still more sparing of trouble, and boldly rebels against the law which seems to be imposed on it bynature. If it feels itself sufficiently strong, the _Chalicodoma_throws itself on one of its fellows, a peaceful constructor that hasalmost completed its work; it chases it away, and takes possession ofits property to shelter its own eggs. Instead of manufacturing thecell from bottom to top, it has only to complete it. Such actsevidently show the reflection appearing through instinct. 

Besides the Swallows, of which I have already spoken, birds offer usseveral types of skilful construction with tempered earth. 

The Flamingo, which lives in marshes, cannot place its eggs on theearth nor in the trunks of trees, which are often absent from itsdomain. It builds a cone of mud, which dries and becomes veryresistant, and it prepares at the summit an excavation open to theair; this is the nest. The female broods by sitting with her legshanging over the sides of the hillock on which her little familyprospers above the waters and the damp soil. 

A Perch in the Danube also manufactures a dwelling of dried earth. Itgives it the form of an elliptic cupola, and prepares a semicircularopening for entry and exit. 

The bird which shows itself the most skilful mason is probably theOven-Bird (_Furnarius rufus_) of Brazil and La Plata. Its name isowing to the form of the nest which it constructs for brooding, andwhich has the appearance of an oven. It is very skilful and knows howto build a dome of clay without scaffolding, which is not altogethereasy. Having chosen for the site of its labours a large horizontalbranch, it brings to it a number of little clay balls more or lesscombined with vegetable _débris_, works them altogether, and makes avery uniform floor, which is to serve as a platform for the rest ofthe work. When this is done, and while the foundation is drying, thebird arranges on it a circular border of mortar slightly inclinedoutwards. This becomes hard; it raises it by a new application, thistime inclined inwards. All the other layers which will be placed abovethis will also be inclined towards the interior of the chamber. As thestructure rises, the circle which terminates it above becomes more andmore narrow. Soon it is quite small, and the animal, closing it with alittle ball of clay, finds itself in possession of a well-made dome. Naturally it prepares an entrance; the form of this is semicircular. But this is not all. In the interior it arranges two partitions: onevertical, the other horizontal, separating off a small chamber. Thevertical partition begins at one of the edges of the door, so that theair from without cannot penetrate directly into the dwelling, which isthus protected against extreme variations of temperature. It is in thecompartment thus formed that the female lays her eggs and broods, after having taken care to carpet it with a thick layer of smallherbs. 

"In favourable seasons, the Oven-birds begin building in the autumn, "Hudson tells us, "and the work is resumed during the winter wheneverthere is a spell of mild, wet weather. Some of their structures arefinished early in winter, others not until spring, everythingdepending on the weather and the condition of the birds. In cold, dryweather, and when food is scarce, they do not work at all. The sitechosen is a stout horizontal branch, or the top of a post, and theyalso frequently build on a cornice or the roof of a house; andsometimes, but rarely, on the ground. The material used is mud, withthe addition of horse hair or slender fibrous rootlets, which make thestructure harder and prevent it from cracking. I have frequently seena bird engaged in building first pick up a thread or hair, then repairto a puddle, where it was worked into a pellet of mud about the sizeof a filbert, then carried to the nest. When finished the structure isshaped outwardly like a baker's oven, only with a deeper and narrowerentrance. It is always placed very conspicuously, and with theentrance facing a building, if one be near, or if at a roadside itlooks towards the road; the reason for this being, no doubt, that thebird keeps a continuous eye on the movements of people near it whilebuilding, and so leaves the nest opened and unfinished on that sideuntil the last, and then the entrance is necessarily formed. When thestructure has assumed the globular form with only a narrow opening, the wall on one side is curved inwards, reaching from the floor to thedome, and at the inner extremity an aperture is left to admit the birdto the interior or second chamber, in which the eggs are laid. A man'shand fits easily into the first or entrance chamber, but cannot betwisted about so as to reach the eggs in the interior cavity, theentrance being so small and high up. The interior is lined with drysoft grass, and five white pear-shaped eggs are laid. The oven is afoot or more in diameter, and is sometimes very massive, weighingeight or nine pounds, and so strong that, unless loosened by theswaying of the branch, it often remains unharmed for two or threeyears. A new oven is built every year, and I have more than once seena second oven built on the top of the first, when this has been placedvery advantageously, as on a projection and against a wall. "[102]

 [102] P. L. Sclater and W. H. Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, 1888, vol. I. Pp. 168, 169. See also Burmeister, "Ueber die Eier und Nester einiger brasilianischen Vögel, " _Cabani's Journal für Ornith. _, 1853, pp. 161-177. 

_Masons working in association. _--Ants have already furnished us withnumerous proofs of their intelligence and their prodigious industry. So remote from Man from the anatomical point of view, they are of allanimals those whose psychic faculties bring them nearest to him. Sociable like him, they have undergone an evolution parallel to hiswhich has placed them at the head of Insects in the same way as he hasbecome superior to all other Mammals. The brain in Ants as in Man hasundergone a disproportionate development. Like Man, they possess alanguage which enables them to combine their efforts, and there is nohuman industry in which these insects have not arrived at a highdegree of perfection. If in certain parts of the earth human societiesare superior to those of Ants, in many others the civilisation of Antsis notably superior. No village of Kaffirs can be compared to a palaceof the Termites. The classifications separate these insects (sometimescalled "White Ants") from the Ants, since the latter are Hymenoptera, while the former are ranked among the Neuroptera, but theirconstructions are almost alike, and may be described together. Thesesmall animals, relatively to their size, build on a colossal scalecompared to Man; even our most exceptional monuments cannot be placedbeside their ordinary buildings. (Fig. 37. ) The domes of trituratedand plastered clay which cover their nests may rise to a height offive metres; that is to say, to dimensions equal to one thousand timesthe length of the worker. The Eiffel Tower, the most elevated monumentof which human industry can boast, is only one hundred andeighty-seven times the average height of the worker. It is threehundred metres high, but to equal the Termites' audacity, it wouldhave to attain a height of 1, 600 metres. 

[Illustration: FIG. 37. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 38. 1. King before wings are cast off; 2. Worker(neuter); 3. Queen with abdomen distended with eggs; 4. Soldier(neuter); 5. Young (resembling adults). ]

The different species of Termite are not equally industrious. The _T. Bellicosus_ seems to have carried the art of construction to thehighest point. All the individuals of the species are not alike; thereexists a polymorphism which produces creatures of three sorts: 1, the_soldiers_, recognised by their large heads and long sharp mandibles, moved by powerful muscles; it is their mission to defend the wholecolony against its adversaries, and the wounds they can produce, fatalto creatures of their own size, are painful even to man; 2, the_workers_, who labour as navvies and architects, and take charge ofthe pupæ: they form the great majority of the community; 3, the _king_and _queen_. (Fig. 38. ) To each nest there is usually only a singlefertile and lazy couple. These two personages do absolutely nothing;the soldiers and the workers care for them and bring them food. Theyhave both possessed wings, but these fall off. The queen reigns butdoes not govern; she lays. The king is simply the husband of thequeen. The internal administration of the palace is bound up with theparts played by these three kinds of beings. 

[Illustration: FIG. 39. ]

The lofty nest, or Termitarium, constitutes a hillock in the form of acupola. The interior arrangement is very complicated, and at the sametime very well adapted to the life of the inhabitants. There are fourstoreys in all, covered by the general exterior walls. (Fig. 39. ) Thewalls of the dome are very thick; at the base they measure from sixtyto eighty centimetres. The clay in drying attains the hardness ofbrick, and the whole is very coherent. The sentinels of herds of wildcattle choose these tumuli as observatories and do not break themdown. The walls of this exterior _enceinte_ are hollowed by galleriesof two kinds: some horizontal and giving access from outside to allthe storeys; the others mounting spirally in the thickness of the wallto the summit of the dome. When the colony is in full activity, afterthe construction is completed, these little passages have no furtheruse. They served for the passage of the masons when building thecupola; and they could be utilised again if a breach should be made inthe wall. At the lower part these galleries in the wall are very wide, and they sink into the earth beneath the palace to a depth of morethan 1 metre 50. 

These subterranean passages (_c_) are the catacombs of the Termites, and have a very close analogy with those of old and populous humancities. Their origin is similar; they are ancient quarries. Theinsects hollowed them in obtaining the necessary clay for theirlabours. Later, when the rains come, they serve as drains to carry offthe water which might threaten to invade the dwelling. 

Such is the external wall within which a busy population swarms. Onpassing to the interior let us first enter the ground-floor. In thecentre is found the royal chamber (_r_). The walls are extremelystrong and are supplied with windows for ventilation, and with doorsto enable the Termites to render their services. It is necessary torenew the air in this chamber, which constantly contains more than twothousand insects. The openings are large enough for the passage of theworkers, but the queen cannot pass through them. She is therefore aprisoner, as immured as a goddess in her temple. The chain which holdsher is the prodigious development of her abdomen. As a virgin shecould enter, when fertilised she cannot henceforth go out. Shecontinuously elaborates eggs; every moment one appears at the orificeof the oviduct. The king remains near her, to give his assistance whenoccasion arises; hence he has received the title, absolutely justifiedunder the circumstances, of Father of the People. Around the couplezealous attendants crowd. There are about two thousand of them, workers and soldiers, licking the two royal captives to remove anydust from their hairs, and bringing them food. As soon as the queenlays an egg, one of the workers hastens to take it gently between itsjaws; it is the property of the state, and is carefully carried off tothe second storey where the state nursery is situated. 

The centre of the ground-floor, therefore, is occupied by the royalapartment; around this, and communicating with it by means of numerousentrances, are a number of cells used by the attendants on the queen(_s_). These little chambers are surrounded by a labyrinth ofpassages. The central room and its dependencies constitute a solidmass, around which other chambers are grouped. The whole space betweenit and the general wall is filled by vast storehouses, divided intomany very spacious compartments. Within them are piled up theprovisions which the Termites harvest every day; they consistespecially of gums and the juices of plants, dried and pulverised soas to form a fine powder. Access to this property is given by means oflarge corridors which cross one another, and conduct to the outsidethrough the horizontal galleries traversing the wall. 

Above the whole of this ground-floor rests a thick vault of clay, which forms a strong floor for the first storey (B). This is composedof only a single room; it is put to no use, unless to isolate andsupport the apartments of the second floor, in the arrangement ofwhich great care is exercised. There are no partitions on this floor, nothing but massive columns of clay to support the ceiling. Thesecolumns are more than a metre in height. It is a gigantic cathedral inwhich the lilliputian architects have displayed considerable art. Bymeans of this immense empty chamber a huge reservoir of air is placedin the very centre of the construction; through the galleries in theexternal wall it is sufficiently renewed for the purposes ofrespiration without too great a change in temperature. 

The second storey rests on the first. To this the eggs are brought, and here the larvæ go through their evolution. Partitions of claydivide the space into a few large halls (_a_); these are againsubdivided, this time not by earth, which is employed throughout therest of the building, but by materials of a more delicate kind, whichare, moreover, very bad conductors of heat (_b_). It is a question, infact, of maintaining these little chambers at an almost constanttemperature, favourable for the development of the eggs. Thesubstances utilised for this purpose are fragments of wood and of gum. The Termites glue them together and thus form the walls of theseimportant cells. 

The arrangement of the top storey (D) is also disposed with a view ofprotecting the young who are the future of the city. It constitutesthe attic, situated just beneath the cupola, and contains absolutelynothing; it simply serves to interpose beneath the summit of theedifice and the storey below a layer of air, which is a bad conductorof heat. The chamber devoted to the young is thus placed between twogaseous layers, a precaution which, combined with the choice ofmaterial, places it in the very best conditions for protection againstthe alternation of cold at night and torrid heat during the day. 

It is difficult to know which to admire most--the audacity andvastness of the labour undertaken by these insects, or the ingeniousforesight by which they ensure to their delicate larvæ a comfortableyouth. There can be no doubt that these animals show themselves verysuperior to Man, taking into consideration his enormous size comparedto theirs, in the art of building. Pillars, cupolas, vaults--nothingis too difficult or too complicated for these small and patientlabourers. [103]

 [103] The earliest comprehensive account of the Termites and their industries was by Smeathman in the _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society_, vol. Lxxi. , 1781, pp. 139-192. Later they were studied by Lespès: "Recherches sur l'organisation et les moeurs du Termite lucifuge, " _Ann. Des Sci. Nat. _, 4me Série, t. V. , fasc. 4 and 5, Paris, 1856. For a description of the South American Termitarium see also Bates's _Naturalist on the Amazons_ (unabridged edition, 1892), pp. 208-214; and for the African Termites of Victoria Nyanza, a chapter in H. Drummond's _Tropical Africa_, 1888, pp. 123-158; while Forbes has briefly described them in Java, _Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago_, pp. 73, 74. 

The Ants of our own lands do not yield to the Termites in thisindustry, and their dwellings are models of architecture. As they havebeen more carefully studied we know more exactly how they work, andthe considerable sum of intelligence and initiative which they revealin the accomplishment of their task. At the foot of hedges, on theoutskirts of woods, they raise their frail monuments. The species arenot equally skilful, and such differences as we have found in otherindustries may also be found here. In a general manner it was soonfound that Ants do not, like Bees, obey a rigid instinct which ordainsthe line of conduct under every circumstance, and impels eachindividual to act so that his efforts are naturally combined andharmonised with those of his neighbours in the workshop. One soonperceives when observing an ant-hill that any individual insectfollows, when working, a personal idea which it has conceived, andwhich it realises without troubling itself about the others. Oftenthese latter are executing a quite contradictory plan. It is rather ananarchistic republic. Happily Ants are not obstinate, and when theysee the idea of one of them disengaging itself from the labourcommenced, they are content to abandon their own less satisfactoryidea and to collaborate in the other's work. They are able, for therest, to concert plans; the movements of their antennæ are a verycomplicated language containing many expressions, and the worker whodesires the acceptance of his own point of view is not sparing intheir use. [104] It sometimes happens that his efforts are vain, andthat his companions manoeuvre to thwart his schemes. In the presence ofsuch resistance those who are determined to obtain the adoption oftheir own plans destroy the labours of their opponents; fiercestruggles ensue, and here it is the strongest who becomes thearchitect-general. 

 [104] For a discussion of the methods of communication among Ants, tending to the conclusion that these methods "almost amount to language, " see Lubbock's _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, chap. Vi. And for a general discussion of language among animals, see Alix, _L'esprit de nos Bêtes_, pp. 331-367. 

The _Formica fusca_ constructs its nest of plastered earth. Thedifferent superimposed storeys have been added one by one to the upperpart of the old dwelling when the latter became too small for thegrowing colony. In opening an ant-hill, they are found to be quitedistinct from each other; each is divided by a large number ofpartitions into vaulted compartments. In the larger ones pillars ofearth support the ceiling. The rooms communicate with one another bymeans of bull's-eye passages formed in the separating walls. The wholeis small, proportioned to the size of the works, but excellentlyarranged. 

When, in the council of the republic, it has been resolved to raise acommon habitation, the workers operate in a singular manner. All theants scatter themselves abroad, and with extreme activity takefragments of earth between their mandibles and place them on thesummit of the dwelling. After some time the result of thismicroscopical work appears. The ancient roof, strengthened by all thismaterial, becomes a thick terrace which the insects first cover veryevenly. The earth, having been brought in grain by grain, is soft andeasy to dig. The construction of the new storey begins at first by thehollowing out of a number of trenches. The ants scrape away in placesthe terrace which they have just made. They thus diminish thethickness of the layer at the spots where rooms, corridors, etc. , areto be formed, and with the material thus obtained they form walls, partitions, and pillars. Soon the entire plan of the new storey may beperceived. It differs essentially from that which Man would adopt; inthe latter case the walls would be shown by the hollowing out of thefoundations; the work of these Hymenoptera, on the contrary, showsthem in relief. These first arrangements made, the six-footedarchitects have only to complete their constructions by new depositsfrom without. Gradually the storey reaches a sufficient height. Itremains to cover it, and this is not the easiest part of the business. The ceiling is formed of vaults going from one wall to another, orfrom a wall to a column. When one of these vaults is to be small, somemillimetres at the most, the _Formica fusca_ constructs it with thehelp of two ledges, which are made facing each other on the tops oftwo partitions. These prominences, formed of materials glued togetherby saliva, are enlarged by additions to their free edges. They advanceto meet each other and soon join; it is wonderful to see each insect, following its individual initiative, profit by every twig or fragmentcapable of bearing any weight, in order to enlarge the overhangingledges. 

_Individual skill and reflection. _--This personality in work, whichreveals the intelligent effort of each, has certainly itsinconveniences for the common work. Badly-concerted operations may notsucceed, and Huber witnessed an accident due to this cause. [105] Twowalls facing each other were to be united by an arch. A foolish workerhad begun to form a horizontal ledge on the summit of one of the wallswithout paying attention to the fact that the other wall was very muchhigher. By continuing the project the ceiling would have come againstthe middle of the opposite ceiling instead of resting on its summit. Another ant passes, examines affairs with an intelligent air, andevidently considers that this sort of work is absurd. Withoutconsideration for the _amour-propre_ of its unskilful fellow-citizen, it demolishes its work, raises the wall that is too low, and re-makesthe construction correctly in the presence of the observer. If thisincident reveals inconceivable thoughtlessness in one of the membersof this serious republic, it also brings to light the judgment, reflection, and decision of which they are capable, as well as afreedom which cannot be found in the works of instinct. 

 [105] _Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis indigènes_, pp. 47, 48. 

This _Formica fusca_ sometimes finds itself in the presence of otherdifficulties. It may happen that the hall to be roofed is too largeand the arch too considerable to allow of the cohesion of thematerials employed. The insects soon become aware of the existence ofthis embarrassing state of things and remedy it in various ways, eitherby hastily constructing pillars in the centre of the too large room, or by some other method. Ebrard describes an artifice he has seenemployed, which shows to what an extent ants can quickly appreciateand take advantage of the most unforeseen circumstances. [106] A workerwas labouring to cover a large cell; two prominences, parts ofopposite walls, were advancing towards each other, but there was stilla space of from twelve to fifteen millimetres between them, and itseemed no longer possible to burden the two sides without risking ageneral downfall. The little mason was much disturbed. A graminaceousplant was growing near. The ant seemed anxious to take advantage ofit, for it went to it and climbed up the stalk. After having examinedand devised, it set about curving it in the direction of the edifice. To attain this object, it placed a little mass of moist earth on theextremity of the leaf, and fixed it there. Under the influence of thisweight flexion was produced, but only at the end. This could notsatisfy the insect; it became a question of decreasing the resistanceat the base. The ant gnawed a little at this spot; the desired resultwas attained, and the whole length of the leaf became bent over thebuilding in course of construction. To prevent it bending back, and toensure its remaining adherent to the roof, the worker returned to theplant and placed earth between the sheath and the stalk. This time alldifficulties were surmounted, and there was a solid scaffolding tosupport the materials for the roof. 

 [106] Ebrard, _Études de Moeurs_, Genève, 1864, p. 3. 

Among the _Lasius niger_ the independence of the workers is perhapsstill greater; no doubt they do their best to concert their efforts, but they do not succeed so well as if an inevitable instinct impelledthem. Notwithstanding the irregularities of the construction, it ispossible to recognise in it a whole formed of hollowed, concentrichalf-spheres; they have been added one after the other to the surfaceto increase the dwelling. The interval between these clay spheresconstitutes a storey, cut up by the partitions which divide it intochambers and communicating galleries; the roofs of the largest hallsare supported by numerous pillars. (Fig. 40. )

[Illustration: FIG. 40. ]

These ants, as Huber has shown, are highly accomplished in the art ofconstructing a cupola. When they wish to increase their nest by a newlayer, they take advantage of the first wet day, the rain serving toagglutinate and unite the materials. They operate in almost the sameway as the _Formica fusca_, though exhibiting more skill and resourceas architects; they know better how to calculate beforehand the numberof pillars required in a hall of a determined size. As soon as therain has given the signal for work, they spread themselves abroad andprepare a very thick terrace on the external surface of the dwellingwhich has become too small. They carry to it small balls of earthground very fine by their jaws, and then lightly piled up so as topulverise afresh; these are then spread over the construction with theanterior legs. Then, by hollowing out, the ants trace the plan of thenew storey, leaving the walls, partitions, and columns in relief. After having raised these parts to a sufficient height, all worktogether to cover them with a general ceiling, each ant applyingitself to one small corner of the work. 

The vaulting is executed by the method already described; horizontalledges, slanting from the summit of pillar or wall, are formed to meetone another. The insects are intelligent enough to begin their labourat the spots best fitted to give strong support to the overhangingmaterials, as for instance, at the angle of two walls. There is somuch activity among the workers, and they are so anxious to takeadvantage of the damp, that the storey is sometimes completelyfinished in seven or eight hours. If the rain suddenly stops in thecourse of the work, they abandon operations, to complete them as soonas another shower falls. 

I have already had occasion to speak of the covered passages andAphis-pens built by Ants outside their dwellings. Besides theseconstructions, they also make roads in the fields, tearing up thegrass and hollowing out the earth so as to form a beaten path freefrom the lilliputian bushes in which there would be danger of becomingentangled, on returning to the nest laden with various and oftenembarrassing burdens. 

Nor are Ants by any means alone in exhibiting the results ofindividual skill and reflection. It will, however, be sufficient tomention only one other example, that furnished by Spiders. McCook, inhis great work, after elaborately describing and carefullyillustrating the skill exhibited in individual cases by Spiders intheir aërial labours, considers himself justified in concluding asfollows:--"The manner in which the ends of the radii which terminateupon the herb are wrapped roundabout and braced by the notched zone;the manner in which the wide non-viscid scaffold lines are woven inorder to give vantage ground from which to place the close-lying andpermanent viscid spirals, upon which the usefulness of the orbdepends--all these, to mention no other points, seem to indicate avery delicate perception of those modes (shall I also say principles?)of construction which are continually recognised in the art of thebuilder, the architect, and the engineer. "[107]

 [107] _American Spiders_, vol. I. P. 228. 

_Dwellings built of hard materials united by mortar. _--Among mammalsfew animals have become so skilful in the art of building houses asthe insects we have just been considering. There are, however, two whoequal if they do not surpass them--the Musk-rat and its relative, theBeaver. 

The Musk-rats of Canada live in colonies on the banks of streams ordeep lakes, and construct dwellings which are very well arranged. Intheir methods we find combined the woven shelter with the house ofbuilt earth. Their cabins are established over the highest level ofthe water and look like little domes. In building them the animalsbegin by placing reeds in the earth; these they interlace and weave soas to form a sort of vertical mat. They plaster it externally with alayer of mud, which is mixed by means of the paws and smoothed by thetail. At the upper part of the hut the reeds are not pressed togetheror covered with earth, so that the air may be renewed in the interior. A dwelling of this kind, intended to house six or eight individualswho have combined to build it, may measure up to 65 centimetres indiameter. There is no door directly opening on to the ground. Asubterranean gallery starts from the floor and opens out beneath thewater. It presents secondary branches, some horizontal, through whichthe animal goes in search of roots for food, while others descendvertically to pits specially reserved for the disposal of ordure. 

But it is, above all, the Beaver (_Castor fiber_) who exhibits thehighest qualities as an engineer and mason. This industrious andsagacious Rodent is well adapted to inconvenience the partisans ofinstinct as an entity, apart from intelligence, which renders animalssimilar to machines and impels them to effect associated acts, withoutthemselves being able to understand them, and with a fatality anddetermination from which they can under no circumstance escape. 

Beavers now only live in Canada. A few individuals may, however, stillbe found on the banks of the lower Rhône, in Camargue, and on a fewother European rivers. Several centuries ago they existed in theneighbourhood of Paris in considerable numbers. The Bièvre gained itsname from the old French word for Beaver, and its resemblance to theEnglish name, as well as to the German (_Biber_), is striking. In thesixteenth century, according to Bishop Magnus of Upsala, the Beaverwas still common on the banks of the Rhine, the Danube, and on theshores of the Black Sea, and in the North it still exercised great artin its constructions. In the twelfth century it was found in Scotlandand Wales. If we go back to ancient times, we find that Herodotusmentions that the Budini who lived in the neighbourhood of the BlackSea used the skins of the Beavers, which abounded there, on theborders of their garments; and in the time of Pliny the Beaver was socommon there that he speaks of it as the Pontic Beaver. Fossil remainsof the Beaver have also been found throughout Europe in conjunctionwith those of the Mammoth and other extinct animals. 

But the civilisation of the Beaver has perished in the presence ofMan's civilisation, or rather of his persecution. In regions where itis tracked and disturbed by Man the Beaver lives in couples, and iscontent to hollow out a burrow like the Otter's, instead of showingits consummate art. It merely vegetates, fleeing from enemies who aretoo strong for it, and depriving itself of a dangerous comfort. Butwhen the security of solitude permits these animals to unite insocieties, and to possess, without too much fear, a pond or a stream, they then exhibit all their industry. 

They build very well arranged dwellings, although at first sight theylook like mere piles of twigs, branches, and logs, heaped in disorderon a small dome of mud. At the edge of a pond each raises his ownlodge, and there is no work by the colony in common. If, however, there is a question of inhabiting the bank of a shallow stream, certain preliminary works become necessary. The rodents establish adam, so that they may possess a large sheet of water which may be offair depth, and above all constant, not at the mercy of the rise andfall of the stream. A sudden and excessive flood is the one dangerlikely to prove fatal to these dykes; but even our own constructionsare threatened under such circumstances. 

When the Beavers, tempted by abundance of willows and poplars, ofwhich they eat the bark and utilise the wood in construction, havechosen a site, and have decided to establish a village on the edge ofthe water, there are several labours to be successively accomplished. Their first desire is to be in possession of a large number of felledtrunks of trees. To obtain them they scatter themselves in the forestbordering the stream and attack saplings of from twenty to thirtycentimetres in diameter. They are equipped for this purpose. Withtheir powerful incisors, worked by strong jaws, they can soon gnawthrough a tree of this size. But they are capable of attacking trees, even more than 100 cc. In circumference and some forty metres inheight, with great skill and adaptability; "no better work could beaccomplished by a most highly-finished steel cutting tool, wielded bya muscular human arm" (Martin). They operate seated on their hindquarters, and they make their incision in the wood with a featheredge. It was once supposed that they always take care so to directtheir wood-cutting task that the tree may fall on the water-side, butthis is by no means the case, and appears to be simply due, as Martinpoints out, to the fact that trees by the water-side usually slopetowards the water. The austerity of labour alternates, it may beadded, with the pleasures of the table. From time to time the Beaversremove the bark of the fallen trees, of which they are very fond, andfeed on it. 

Mr. Lewis H. Morgan studied the American Beaver with great care andthoroughness, more especially on the south-west shore of LakeSuperior; he devotes fifty pages to the dams, and it is worth while toquote his preliminary remarks regarding them. "The dam is theprincipal structure of the beaver. It is also the most important ofhis erections as it is the most extensive, and because its productionand preservation could only be accomplished by patient andlong-continued labour. In point of time, also, it precedes the lodge, since the floor of the latter and the entrances to its chamber areconstructed with reference to the level of the water in the pond. Theobject of the dam is the formation of an artificial pond, theprincipal use of which is the refuge it affords to them when assailed, and the water-connection it gives to their lodges and to their burrowsin the banks. Hence, as the level of the pond must, in all cases, risefrom one to two feet above these entrances for the protection of theanimal from pursuit and capture, the surface-level of the pond must, to a greater or less extent, be subject to their immediate control. Asthe dam is not an absolute necessity to the beaver for the maintenanceof his life, his normal habitation being rather natural ponds andrivers, and burrows in their banks, it is, in itself considered, aremarkable fact that he should have voluntarily transferred himself, by means of dams and ponds of his own construction, from a natural toan artificial mode of life. 

"Some of these dams are so extensive as to forbid the supposition thatthey were the exclusive work of a single pair, or of a single familyof beavers; but it does not follow, as has very generally beensupposed, that several families, or a colony, unite for the jointconstruction of a dam. After careful examination of some hundreds ofthese structures, and of the lodges and burrows attached to many ofthem, I am altogether satisfied that the larger dams were not thejoint-product of the labour of large numbers of beavers workingtogether, and brought thus to immediate completion; but, on thecontrary, that they arose from small beginnings, and were built uponyear after year, until they finally reached that size which exhaustedthe capabilities of the location; after which they were maintained forcenturies, at the ascertained standard, by constant repairs. So far asmy observations have enabled me to form an opinion, I think they wereusually, if not invariably, commenced by a single pair, or a singlefamily of beavers; and that when, in the course of time, by thegradual increase of the dam, the pond had become sufficiently enlargedto accommodate more families than one, other families took up theirresidence upon it, and afterwards contributed by their labour to itsmaintenance. There is no satisfactory evidence that the Americanbeavers either live or work in colonies; and if some such cases havebeen observed, it will either be found to be an exception to thegeneral rule, or in consequence of the sudden destruction of a workupon the maintenance of which a number of families were at the timedepending. 

"The great age of the larger dams is shown by their size, by the largeamount of solid materials they contain, and by the destruction of theprimitive forest within the area of the ponds; and also by the extentof the beaver-meadows along the margins of the streams where dams aremaintained, and by the hummocks formed upon them by and through theannual growth and decay of vegetation in separate hills. These meadowswere undoubtedly covered with trees adapted to a wet soil when thedams were constructed. It must have required long periods of time todestroy every vestige of the ancient forest by the increasedsaturation of the earth, accompanied with occasional overflows fromthe streams. The evidence from these and other sources tends to showthat these dams have existed in the same places for hundreds andthousands of years, and that they have been maintained by a system ofcontinuous repairs. 

"At the place selected for the construction of a dam, the ground isusually firm and often stony, and when across the channel of a flowingstream, a hard rather than a soft bottom is preferred. Such places arenecessarily unfavourable for the insertion of stakes in the ground, ifsuch were, in fact, their practice in building dams. The theory uponwhich beaver-dams are constructed is perfectly simple, and involves nosuch necessity. Soft earth, intermixed with vegetable fibre, is usedto form an embankment, with sticks, brush, and poles embedded withinthese materials to bind them together, and to impart to them therequisite solidity to resist the effects both of pressure and ofsaturation. Small sticks and brush are used, in the first instance, with mud and earth and stones for down-weight. Consequently these damsare extremely rude at their commencement, and they do not attain theirremarkably artistic appearance until after they have been raised to aconsiderable height, and have been maintained, by a system of annualrepairs, for a number of years. "[108]

 [108] L. H. Morgan, _The American Beaver and his Works_, Philadelphia, 1868, pp. 82-86. 

There are two different kinds of beaver-dams, although they are bothconstructed on the same principle. One, the stick-dam, consists ofinterlaced stick and pole work below, with an embankment of earthraised with the same material upon the upper or water face. This isusually found in brooks or large streams with ill-defined banks. Theother, the solid-bank dam, is not so common nor so interesting, and isusually found on those parts of the same stream where the banks arewell defined, the channel deep, and the current uniform. In this kindthe earth and mud entirely buries the sticks and poles, giving thewhole a solid appearance. In the first kind the surplus waterpercolates through the dam along its entire length, while in thesecond it is discharged through a single opening in the crest formedfor that purpose. 

The materials being prepared in the manner I have previouslydescribed, the animals make ready to establish their dyke. Theyintermix their materials--driftwood, green willows, birch, poplars, etc. --in the bed of the river, with mud and stones, so making a solidbank, capable of resisting a great force of water; sometimes the treeswill shoot up forming a hedge. The dam has a thickness of from threeto four metres at the base, and about sixty centimetres at the upperpart. The wall facing up-stream is sloping, that directed down-streamis vertical; this is the best arrangement for supporting the pressureof the mass of water which is thus expended on an inclined surface. Incertain cases Beavers carry hydraulic science still further. If thecourse of the water is not very rapid, they generally make an almoststraight dyke, perpendicular to the two banks, as this is thensufficient; but if the current is strong, they curve it so that theconvexity is turned up-stream. In this way it is much better fitted toresist. Thus they do not always act in the same way, but arrange theiractions so as to adapt them to the conditions of the environment. 

The embankment being completed, the animals construct their lodges. Fragments of wood, deprived of the bark, are arranged and united byclay or mud which the Beavers take from the riverside, transport, mix, and work with their fore-paws. During a single night they can collectas much mud at their houses as amounts to some thousands of theirsmall handfuls. They thus plaster their houses with mud every autumn;in the winter this freezes as hard as a stone and protects them fromenemies. These cabins form domes from three to four metres in diameterat the base, and from two to two and a half metres in height. Thefloor is on a level with the surface of the artificial pond. A passagesinks in the earth and opens about one and a half metres below thelevel of the water, so that it cannot be closed up by ice during thesevere winters of these regions. 

Within, near the entry, the beavers form, with the aid of a partition, a special compartment to serve as a storehouse, and they there pile upenormous heaps of nenuphar roots as provisions for the days when iceand snow will prevent them from barking the young trunks. 

A dwelling of this kind may last for three or four years, and theanimal here tranquilly enjoys the fruits of its industry, as long asman fails to discover the retreat; for the beaver can escape byswimming from all carnivorous animals excepting, perhaps, the Otter. During floods the level of the water nearly reaches the hut; if theinundation is prolonged and the animal runs the risk of beingasphyxiated beneath his dome, it breaks through the upper part withits teeth and escapes. When the water returns to its bed the beavercomes back, makes the necessary repairs, and resumes the usualpeaceful course of its life. [109]

 [109] The Beaver has been fully studied by Lewis H. Morgan, _The American Beaver_, 1868. See also Horace T. Martin's recent work, _Castorologia, or the History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver_, 1892; in an appendix to this work will be found Samuel Hearne's classical account of the Beaver, written nearly two hundred years ago, and free from the many exaggerations and superstitions which have grown up around this animal. 

We have thus seen, from a shapeless hole to these complex dwellings, every possible stage; we have found among animals the rudiments of thedifferent human habitations, certain animals, indeed, having arrivedat a degree of civilisation which Man himself in some countries hasnot yet surpassed, or even indeed yet attained. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE DEFENCE AND SANITATION OF DWELLINGS. 

 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS AGAINST POSSIBLE DANGER--SEPARATION OF FEMALES WHILE BROODING--HYGIENIC MEASURES OF BEES--PRUDENCE OF BEES--FORTIFICATIONS OF BEES--PRECAUTIONS AGAINST INQUISITIVENESS--LIGHTING UP THE NESTS. 

The building of comfortable dwellings is not the last stage reached bythe industry of animals. There are among them some who show genuineskill in rendering them healthy and defending them against invasionsfrom without. 

_General precautions against possible danger. _--Some animals show, even during the construction of the nest, extreme prudence inpreventing its site from being discovered. Several authors refer tothe stratagem of the Magpie, who begins several nests at the sametime; but only one is intended to receive the brood, and that only iscompleted. The aim of the others is merely to distract attention. Itis around these latter that the bird shows ostentatious activity, while it works at the real nest only for a few hours during the day, in the morning and evening. 

The Crane takes equally ingenious precautions in order that itsconstant presence at the same spot may not arouse suspicion. It nevercomes or goes flying, but always on foot, concealing itself alongtufts of reeds. De Homeyer even reports that the female at the time oflaying covers her wings and back with mud. When dried this gives theanimal a red tone, which causes it to be confused with neighbouringobjects; this is intentional mimicry. 

The Linnet (Fig. 41) again, wrongly accused of wanting judgment, iswell aware that a pile of excrement at the foot of a tree announces anest in the branches. It is careful to suppress this revealing sign, and every day takes it away in its beak to disperse it afar. 

[Illustration: FIG. 41. ]

Birds will sometimes take the trouble to remove the eggs or the nestaltogether, when the latter has been discovered, in order to avoidfurther risks of danger. The American Sparrow Hawk has been observedto do this, and the following incident is quoted by Bendire, fromMacFarlane's _Manuscript Notes on Birds Nesting in British America_, concerning the Pigeon Hawk (_Falco columbarius_):--"On May 25, 1864, atrusty Indian in my employ found a nest placed in a thick branch of apine tree at a height of about six feet from the ground. It was ratherloosely constructed of a few dry sticks and a small quantity of coarsehay; it then contained two eggs; both parents were seen, fired at, andmissed. On the 31st he revisited the nest, which still held but twoeggs, and again missed the birds. Several days later he made anothervisit thereto, and, to his surprise, the eggs and parents haddisappeared. His first impression was that some other person had takenthem; but after looking carefully around he perceived both birds at ashort distance, and this led him to institute a search which soonresulted in finding that the eggs must have been removed by the parentbirds to the face of a muddy bank at least forty yards distant fromthe original nest. A few decayed leaves had been placed under them, but nothing else in the way of lining. A third egg had been added inthe interim. There can hardly be any doubt of the truth of theforegoing facts. "[110]

 [110] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_, 1892, p. 301. 

_Separation of females while brooding. _--The Hornbill of Malacca[111]assures the protection of its nest and of the female while she isbrooding in a singular manner. She lays in the hollow of a tree; assoon as she begins to sit on her eggs, the male closes the openingwith diluted clay, only leaving a hole through which the captive canpass her beak to receive the fruits which he brings her in abundance. If the lady is thus cloistered as closely as in the most jealousharem, her lord and master at least expends on her the most attentivecares. 

 [111] Bernstein, "Ueber Nester und Eier einiger Javaschen Vögel, " _Cabani's Journ. F. Ornith. _, 1859. 

What can be the object of this strange custom? It has been assertedthat during incubation the female loses her feathers and becomesunable to fly. The male would thus only wall her up as a precautionfor fear of seeing her fall from the nest; because if this deplorableaccident happened she would not be able to get back again. It seems tome that the effect is here taken for the cause, and that the fallingoff of feathers and torpidity must be the result rather than themotive of cloistration. One is tempted to believe that the maledesires by this method to guarantee his female and her offspringagainst the attacks of squirrels or rapacious birds. 

_Hygienic measures of Bees. _--Among the animals who expend industry onhygiene and the protection of their dwellings, we must place Bees inthe first line. It may happen that mice, snakes, and moths may findtheir way into a hive. Assaulted by the swarm, and riddled withstings, they die without being able to escape. These great corpsescannot be dragged out by the Hymenoptera, and their putrefactionthreatens to cause disease. To remedy this scourge the insectsimmediately cover them with _propolis_--that is to say, the pastewhich they manufacture from the resin of poplars, birches, and pines. The corpse thus sheltered from contact with the air does not putrefy. In other respects Bees are very careful about the cleanliness of theirdwellings; they remove with care and throw outside dust, mud, andsawdust which may be found there. Bees are careful also not to defiletheir hives with excrement, as Kirby noted; they go aside to expeltheir excretions, and in winter, when prevented by extreme cold or theclosing of the hive from going out for this purpose, their bodiesbecome so swollen from retention of fæces that when at last able to goout they fall to the ground and perish. Büchner records theobservations of a friend of his during a season in which a severeepidemic of dysentery had broken out among the bees, which interferedwith the usual habits of the insects; on careful examination of a hiveit was found that a cavity in the posterior wall of the hive, containing crumbled clay, had been used as an earth closet. Manymammals are equally careful in this respect; thus, for example, theBeaver, as Hearne observed, always enters the water, or goes out onthe ice, to urinate or defæcate; the fæces float and are soondisintegrated. 

Animals are also careful about aëration. Thus, among Bees, in a hivefull of very active insects the heat rises considerably and the air isvitiated. A service for aëration is organised. Bees ranged in filesone above the other in the interior agitate their wings with afeverish movement; this movement causes a current of air which can befelt by holding the hand before the opening of the hive. When theworkers of the corps are fatigued, comrades who have been resting cometo take their place. These acts are not the result of a stupidinstinct which the Hymenoptera obey without understanding. If we placea swarm, as Huber did, in a roomy position where there is plenty ofair, they do not devote themselves to an aimless exercise. This onlytakes place in the narrow dwellings which Man grants to his wingedguests. 

The attention of Ants to public hygiene is more than equalled by theirattention to personal hygiene. Without going into the question oftheir athletic exercises, which have attracted considerable attention, it is sufficient to quote one observer as to their habits ofcleanliness. McCook remarks:--"The Agricultural Ants--and the remarkapplies to all other Ants of which I have knowledge--is one of theneatest of creatures in her personal habits. I think I have never seenone of my imprisoned harvesters, either _Barbatus_ or _Crudelis_, inan untidy condition. They issue from their burrows, after the mostactive digging, even when the earth is damp, without being perceptiblysoiled. Such minute particles of dust as cling to the body arecarefully removed. Indeed, the whole body is frequently and thoroughlycleansed, a duty which is habitually, I might almost venture to sayinvariably, attended to after eating and after sleep. In this processthe Ants assist one another; and it is an exceedingly interestingsight which is presented to the observer when this general 'washingup' is in progress. "[112]

 [112] H. C. McCook, _Agricultural Ants of Texas_, 1879, chapter on "Toilet, Sleeping, and Funeral Habits, " p. 125. 

_Prudence of Bees. _--Certain species exhibit very great prudence, especially the _Melipona geniculata_, which lives in a wild state inSouth America. They place their combs in the hollow of a tree or thecleft of a rock; they fill up all the crevices and only leave a roundhole for entry. And even this they are accustomed to close everyevening by a small partition, which they remove in the morning. Thisdoor is shut with various materials, such as resin or even clay, whichthe bees bring on their legs as those of our own country bring pollen. 

All these facts were observed with great exactness in a swarm given in1874 by M. Drory (who during a long period of years studied everyBrazilian species of _Melipona_ at Bordeaux) to the Jardind'Acclimatation. It was even seen that the door might be put up undercertain circumstances in open day, as for example, when a storm orsudden cold delays the appearance of the workers. If one of themhappened to be late it had to perforate the partition, and the holewas then stopped up again. 

[Illustration: FIG. 42. ]

_Fortifications of Bees. _--As these facts take place always they maybe called instinctive; but that is not the case with regard todefences elevated with a view to a particular circumstance, and whichdisappear when the danger to which they correspond disappears. Suchare the labours of the bees to repel the invasions of the largenocturnal Death's-head Moth. (Fig. 42. ) He is very greedy of honey, and furtively introduces himself into the hives. Protected by the longand fluffy hairs which cover him, he has little to fear from stings, and gorges himself with the greatest freedom on the stores of theswarm. Huber, in his admirable investigations, [113] narrates that oneyear in Switzerland numbers of hives were emptied, and contained nomore honey in summer than in the spring. During that year Death's-headMoths were very numerous. The illustrious naturalist soon becamecertain that this moth was guilty of the thefts in question. While hewas reflecting as to what should be done, the bees, who were moredirectly interested, had invented several different methods ofprocedure. Some closed the entrance with wax, leaving only a narrowopening through which the great robber could not penetrate. Othersbuilt up before the opening a series of parallel walls, leavingbetween them a zigzag corridor through which the Hymenopterathemselves were able to enter. But the intruder was much too long toperform this exercise successfully. Man utilises defences of thiskind; it is thus at the entrance of a field, for example, he places aturnstile, or parallel bars that do not face each other; the passageis not closed for him, but a cow is too long to overcome the obstacle. In years when the Death's-head Moth is rare the bees do not set upthese barricades, which, indeed, they themselves find troublesome. Fortwo or three consecutive years they leave their doors wide open. Thenanother invasion occurs, and they immediately close the openings. Itcannot be denied that in these cases their acts agree withcircumstances that are not habitual. [114]

 [113] Huber, _Nouvelles observations sur les Abeilles_. 

 [114] These facts have recently been observed and recorded afresh by Mr. Clifford in _Nature Notes_, January 1893. 

_Precautions against inquisitiveness. _--I will finally quote a fact ofdefence which took place under circumstances that were absolutelyexceptional, and which therefore exhibits genuine reflection in theseinsects. During the first exhibition of 1855 an artificial hive wasset up, one face of which was closed by a glass pane. A wooden shutterconcealed this pane, but passers-by opened it every moment tocontemplate the work of the small insects. Annoyed by thisinquisitiveness, the bees resolved to put an end to it, and cementedthe shutter with _propolis_. When this substance dried it was nolonger possible to open the shutter. The bees were visible to nobody. 

[Illustration: FIG. 43. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 44. ]

_Lighting up the nests. _--An improvement of another nature in thecomfort of the dwelling is introduced by the _Baya_, and if the factsnarrated are correct they are the most marvellous of all. It is aquestion of lighting up a nest by means of Glow-worms. The_Melicourvis baya_ inhabits India; it is a small bird related to the_Loxia_, already spoken of in this book. Like the latter it constructsa nest that is very well designed and executed. (Fig. 43. ) It suspendsit in general from a palm tree, but sometimes also from the roofs ofhouses. In these shelters, woven with extreme art, are always to befound little balls of dry and hardened clay. Why does the bird amassthese objects? Is it impelled by a collector's instinct less perfectthan that of the Bower-bird? There is no reason to suppose this. Nordoes it appear that he wishes to make the nest heavier and prevent itby this ballast from being blown about by every breeze when the coupleare out, and the young not heavy enough to ensure the stability of theedifice. The part played by these little balls is much moreremarkable, if we may trust the evidence of the natives, as confirmedby competent European observers. Thus Mr. H. A. Severn writes:--"Ihave been informed on safe authority that the Indian Bottle-birdprotects his nest at night by sticking several of these glow-beetlesaround the entrance by means of clay; and only a few days back anintimate friend of my own was watching three rats on a roof-rafter ofhis bungalow when a glow-fly lodged very close to them; the ratsimmediately scampered off. "[115] These observations are confirmed byCaptain Briant, as reported by Professor R. Dubois. [116] In tropicalregions luminous insects give out a brilliant light, of which theGlow-worms of northern countries can only give a feeble idea. Theseflying or climbing stars are the constellations of virgin forests. InSouth America the Indians utilise one of these insects, the _Cucujo_, by fastening it to the great toe like a little lantern, and profit byits light to find their road or to preserve their naked feet fromsnakes. The first missionaries to the Antilles, lacking oil for theirlamps, sometimes replaced them by Fire-flies to read matins by. [117]The _Melicourvis baya_ had already discovered this method of lighting, and the mysterious little balls of clay were nothing more thancandlesticks in which these birds set Glow-worms, when they are fresh, to act as candles. The entrance to the nest is thus luminous. (Fig. 44. ) Apparently this lighting up is a defensive measure, for the birdshave nothing to do at night except to sleep, and must be ratherincommoded than cheered by this light. But the terrible enemy of allbroods, the Snake, is, it is said, frightened by this illumination, which is able to penetrate the meshes of the nest, and will not dareto enter. The system is ingenious, and the Roman Emperors, when theyused burning Christians as torches, were only plagiarising from thislittle bird, which paves with martyrs the threshold of its house oflove. 

 [115] "Notes on the Indian Glow-fly, " _Nature_, 23rd June 1881. 

 [116] _Science et Nature_, t. Iv. (1885), No. 94, p. 232. 

 [117] P. Dutertre, _Hist. Des Antilles française_, 1667. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

 DEGREE OF PERFECTION IN INDUSTRY INDEPENDENT OF ZOOLOGICAL SUPERIORITY--MENTAL FACULTIES OF THE LOWER ANIMALS OF LIKE NATURE TO MAN'S. 

_Degree of perfection in industry independent of zoologicalsuperiority. _--As the result of our study we see the fundamentalindustries of Man dispersed throughout the animal kingdom, though not, indeed, all of them, nor the more subtle, which were only bornyesterday. We may remark the extent to which intellectualmanifestations of this sort are independent of the more or lesselevated rank assigned to species in zoological classification. Thelatter, as it should be, brings together or separates beings accordingto their physical character. But intelligence does not depend on thewhole body; its superior or inferior development is related to acertain corresponding complexity in the surface, volume, andhistologic structure of the nervous centres. 

It happens with the cerebral as with the other functions. An animal'ssuperiority is not exhibited in all his organs nor in all hisqualities; it results from a certain grouping of characters in whichthere may be weak points. The highest in organisation are notnecessarily the swiftest or the strongest, any more than they arenecessarily the most intelligent. It may happen; it happens in thecase of Man; but it as easily fails to happen. In organisation theHorse is nearer to Man than the Ant; but it is far otherwise asregards intellectual development. 

For this reason, when following the progress of any industry, I havetaken my examples first in one group, then in another far-removedgroup, to return afterwards to the first. There are not, and cannotbe, bonds between a solitary function of the being and its place inclassification--a place which has been determined by the form of allthe organs, without even taking into account their methods ofactivity. 

Comparative anatomy has long since removed the barriers, once thoughtimpassable, raised by human pride between Man and the other animals. Our bodies do not differ from theirs; and moreover, such glimpses aswe are able to obtain allow us to conclude that their psychicfaculties are of the same nature as our own. Man in his evolutionintroduces no new factor. 

The industries in which the talents of animals are exerciseddemonstrate that, under the influence of the same environment, animalshave reacted in the same manner as Man, and have formed the samecombinations to protect themselves from cold or heat, to defendthemselves against the attacks of enemies, and to ensure sufficientprovision of food during those hard seasons of the year when the earthdoes not yield in abundance. 

It must only be added, to avoid falling into exaggeration, that Manexcels in all the arts, of which only scattered rudiments are foundamong the other animals; and we may safeguard our pride by affirmingthat we need not fear comparison. If our intelligence is notessentially different from that of animals, we have the satisfactionof knowing that it is much superior to theirs. 

APPENDIX. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

_Brehm's Thierleben_ is the great repository of facts concerning thesocial lives of the higher animals. The third edition, in ten largevolumes, fully illustrated, and edited by Pechuel Lösche, has latelyappeared (Leipzig und Wien, Bibliog. Institute, 1890-92). It is, indeed, as Virchow has lately termed it, "a sort of zoologicallibrary, " popular in character, and almost purely descriptive. (Thereis a French edition of this work in nine volumes, but, with theexception of one fragment, it has not appeared in English. The nearestapproach to Brehm's work in England is Cassell's _New NaturalHistory_, and in America the _Riverside Natural History_. ) It isimpossible to enumerate the numberless works by travellers and otherson which the knowledge of animal industries is founded. The works ofHuber, Fabre, Audubon, Le Vaillant, C. St. John, Belt, Bates, Tennent, are frequently quoted in the course of this work. Many of the mostimportant and detailed studies of animal industries are scatteredthrough the pages of the scientific periodicals of all countries. References to a few of the chief of these studies will be found in thetext. 

For a scientific discussion of the phenomena of animal skill andintelligence we may perhaps best turn to Professor C. Lloyd Morgan, whose work is always both acute and cautious. In _Animal Life andIntelligence_ (1890) he has furnished an excellent introduction to thesubject. In his _Introduction to Comparative Psychology_ (shortly toappear in the Contemporary Science Series) he discusses thefundamental problems of mental processes in animals, and thetransition from animal intelligence to human intelligence. Romanes'_Mental Evolution in Animals_ (1883) and other works by this writer, dealing with the same subject, but proceeding on a different method, should also be studied; and his _Animal Intelligence_ (InternationalScience Series) is an excellent critical summary of the facts. Büchner's _Aus dem Geistesleben der Thiere_ (Berlin, 1877) andHouzeau's _Facultés Mentales des Animaux_ (Brussels, 1877) may also bementioned, and Espinas' _Sociétés Animales_ (1877), though dealingprimarily with sociology, is an original and suggestive study of greatvalue. 

As a general introduction, of a popular but not unscientificcharacter, to all the various aspects of animal life, J. ArthurThomson's little book, _The Study of Animal Life_ (UniversityExtension Manuals, 1892), may be recommended. At the end of Mr. Thomson's volume will be found a useful classified list of the "BestBooks" on animal life. 

GARDENING ANTS. 

The operations of various species of Gardening Ants have recently beenvery thoroughly investigated at Blumenau by Herr Alfred Möller, nephewof Dr. Fritz Müller ("Die Pilzgärten einiger südamerikanischerAmeisen. " Heft 6 of Schimper's "Botanische Mittheilungen aus denTropen. " Jena: G. Fischer, 1893. Herr Möller's work is clearlysummarised by Mr. John C. Willis in "The Fungus Gardens of certainSouth American Ants, " _Nature_, 24th August 1893). 

The ants of Blumenau chiefly differ from those described by Belt inthat they form very narrow streets, in which they travel only insingle file, and also that their nests occur both in the forest and inthe open. The commonest species is the _Atta_ (_Acromyrmex_)_discigera_, Mayr, and the workers are never more than 6. 5 mm. Long. There are other species of _Atta_ which have very similar streets;one, the _Atta hystrix_, Latr. , appears to work only at night. Aminute description is given of a street of _A. Discigera_, which was26 metres long and about 1. 5 cm. Wide and high, roofed in in partswherever possible. It led to a number of small Cupheas, whose leavesthe ants were cutting. In the street could be seen a procession ofloaded ants going towards the nest, and others empty-handed, going inthe opposite direction. Some of the large workers run up and down theroad unloaded, and act as road-menders if any accident happens to apart of the track. Other very small workers, which do not cut leaves, may also be seen carried upon the backs or even upon the loads of theactual leaf-cutters. An ant carrying a peculiarly shaped piece of leafwas watched from end to end of the track, and travelled the 26 m. In70 minutes. The load was twice as heavy as itself. 

The plants attacked by the ants were found to be very numerous, andthe ants seemed to be very capricious in this respect, one daystripping a plant and the next day leaving it untouched. 

The jaws of the ants are very strong, with serrated edges, and clashtogether laterally. The ant begins at the edge of a leaf, and cuts outa piece in about five minutes, revolving on one of its hind legs as acentre. When the piece is almost freed, the ant goes on to the mainportion of the leaf, cuts through the last piece uniting it with thesevered portion, drags up the latter, balances it on edge between itsforelegs, and then, grasping it with its jaws, lifts it up above itshead, so that the centre of gravity of the load is above the antitself. It then marches off, down the stem, to the base, over theground to the end of the street, and along this to the nest, travelling at a very uniform speed, and never letting go its load. Theweight thus carried was found, on an average, to be twice that of theant; but many were found carrying heavier loads, even as much as tentimes their own weight!

The nests are usually below the surface of the soil, but covered, wherever necessary, with a thick mass of withered pieces of leaves andtwigs, etc. They may be as much as 1-1/2 metres in diameter. In thenests of all species examined there is found, filling up the interior, a curious grey spongy mass, full of chambers, like a coarse sponge, inwhich the ants may be seen running about, and in which, here andthere, occur eggs, larvæ, and pupæ. This is the fungus garden. It isseparated from the roof and lateral walls of the nest by a clearspace. The walls and roof are much thicker in winter than in summer;one nest examined had a roof 25 cm. Thick and wall 40 cm. The gardenconsists of two parts, differently coloured, but not very sharplymarked off from each other. The older part is yellowish-red in colour;the newly-built portions, forming the surface of the garden, are of ablue-black colour. It is this part which is of the greater importanceto the ants. 

The garden is found, on examination, to consist of an immenseconglomeration of small round particles of not more than . 5 mm. Indiameter, of a dark green colour when quite fresh, then blue-black, and finally yellowish-red. They are penetrated by, and enveloped in, white fungus hyphæ, which hold the particles together. These hyphæ aresimilar throughout the nest. 

Strewn thickly upon the surface of the garden are seen round whitebodies about . 25 mm. In diameter; they always occur in the nests, except in the very young portion of the gardens. They consist ofaggregations of peculiar swollen hyphæ, and are termed by Möller the"Kohl-rabi clumps. " The hyphæ swell out at the ends into largespherical thickenings, filled with richly vacuolated protoplasm likethe ordinary hyphæ. These clumps of "Kohl-rabi" are only found on thesurface of the garden, and form the principal food of the ants; theyhave no doubt reached their present form under the cultivation andselection of the ants. The fungus was found to belong to the genus_Rozites_, and the species was named _R. Gongylophora_. A microscopicexamination of the particles of which the garden is composed showsthat they contain remains of leaves; bits of epidermis, stomata, spiral vessels, etc. , occur in them. 

If a nest is broken into and the fungus garden scattered, the antscollect it as quickly as possible, especially the younger parts, taking as much trouble over it as over the larvæ. They also cover itup again as soon as possible to protect it from the light. A nest, 1metre × 50 cm. , was opened, and in twenty-four hours the ants had puton a new roof 10 cm. Deep. 

Some ants' nests were placed under a bell jar and supplied withleaves; they made no use of them and presently died. If they weresupplied with a piece of "garden, " they rebuilt it and covered it sofar as they could. It was seen to shrink from day to day, the antsbringing out the old pieces and adding them to the wall; finally itwas exhausted and the ants died. Others were starved for five days, and then supplied with a bit of garden; they at once began to eat theKohl-rabi clumps. Finally, by supplying the ants with bits of garden, a damp sandy floor, and fresh leaves, they were induced to build incaptivity. The dish in which they worked was covered by a glass lid, and when this was covered with a dark cloth or otherwise kept dark, the ants built under it without covering the garden. In this way thewhole process was observed. An ant bringing in a piece of leafproceeds to cut it into halves, repeating the process till it has gota very small piece left, which it holds between its fore feet andturns round, crushing it in its jaws until the whole is reduced to around ball of pulp about . 25 mm. Thick. This it then takes and adds tothe garden. So well is the kneading performed that no single cellremains uninjured, and it was observed that the hyphæ of the fungusgrew through and round one of these particles within a few hours. Beltsupposed that this process was performed by the small workersabove-mentioned, but it is not so, as we have just seen. The smallworkers perform the function of weeding the garden, and this is sowell done that a portion of it removed and grown in a nutrientsolution gives a perfectly pure culture, not even containing bacteria!

In the course of these investigations it was found that somewhatsimilar fungus gardens occur in the nests of the hairy ant, _Apterostigma_, but the fungus appeared to belong to a differentgenus, and the hairy ants, who live in decaying wood and have smallgardens built of bits of wood-fibre, beetle-dung, etc. , have notsucceeded in cultivating and selecting Kohl-rabi to the same highdegree. An allied genus of ants, _Cyphomyrmex_, were also found to befungus-growers. 

This elaborate study, which is illustrated by beautiful plates andphotographs of the mushroom gardens, constitutes, as Mr. Willis (whosesummary has here been followed) remarks, one of the most fascinatingcontributions to our knowledge of mycology and of animal industrieswhich have been made for many years. 

INDEX. 

 _Ægithalus pendulinus_ Ælian Alix Alligator as a hunter; its nest Ambush, hunting in; baited _Ammophila affinis_ Angler's baited ambush _Anomalocorax splendens_ Ant, foraging; wars; honey; harvesting; agricultural; gardening; domestic animals; aphis-pens and paddocks; slaves; masons; attention to personal hygiene _Antennarius marmoratus_ _Anthocopa_ _Anthophora parietina_ _Anthophora pilifera_ Ape Aphis-pens of ants Aras Aristotle _Arvicola_ _Astur palumbarius_ _Ateucus sacer_ _Atta barbara_ Audubon Baboon Badger Baited ambush Baker, Sir S. Baldamus Baltimore bird Bates Bear Beaver Bee Beef-eater Belt _Bembex_ Bendire Beneden Bernard Bernstein Bison Blackcap _Bonasa togata_ Bower-birds Brehm Briant Brightwen, Mrs. Büchner Buffalo Buffalo-bird Bullhead _Buphaga_ Burmeister Burying-beetle

 _Cam's azaræ_ Caracara, Guadeloupe _Cardisoma carnifex_ Cassique _Castor fiber_ _Catheturus Lathami_ _Cerceris ornata_ _Chalicodoma_ _Chelinous_ _Cheliura terebrans_ _Chlamydera maculata_ _Chlorion_ _Choestostomus pictus_ _Cicindela campestris_ _Cisludo lunaria_ _Claviger testaceus_ Cleveland, D. _Colaptes auratus_ _Colaptes Mexicanus_ _Conolophus subcristatus_ _Cottus gobio_ Couch Coursing by animals Cow-bird Crab Crane _Cricetus frumentarius_ Crocodile as a hunter Crossbill Crows Cuckoo _Cucujo_ Cuvier _Cystignathus ocellatus_

 Darwin Death, feigning Death's-head Moth Defence of dwellings _et seq. _ _Didelphys azaræ_ Dog; wild Dog-fish _Dromia vulgaris_ Drory Drummond, H. Dubois, R. Dufour Duméril Dutertre Dwellings of animals _et seq. _

 Eagle, Bald; Caracara; Golden Ebrard _Eciton_ Espinas Evolution, the theory of

 Fabre Falcon Feint Féré Flamingo Flights, methods of Fol, H. Foraging ants Forbes, H. O. _Formica_ Fox Frog _Furnarius rufus_

 _Gecarinus ruricola_ Gelatine nests Girod Glow-worm _Gobius minutus_ _Gobius niger_ Goshawk Gould Gourami Goureau Grouse _Grus cinerea_ _Gypäetos barbatus_ _Gypogeranus reptilivorus_

 _Haliäetus leucocephalus_ Hamster Hearne, S. Hedgehog Heermann Hermit-crab Hobby Hornbill Hornet's nest Horse Houzeau Huber Hudson, W. H. Humming-bird Hunting _et seq. _; in ambush; in the burrow Hygiene among animals _et seq. _ Intelligence and instinct _et seq. _

 Jackdaw Jerdon

 Kakapo Kangaroo Kataplexy Kirby Kite

 _Lacerta stirpium_ Lacepède _Lagostomus trichodactylus_ Lamarck Lammergeyer _Lanius_ Lark _Lasius_ Latreille Le Vaillant Lespès Lighting up nests Lincecum Linnet Loeffler _Lophius piscatorius_ Lowe, J. _Loxia_ Lubbock

 Macaw _Macropus viridi-auratus_ _Maïa_ Magpie Man's industries Marchal, P. Marmot Martin, H. T. Mason-bee McCook _Megachile_ _Melanerpes erythrocephalus_ _Melanerpes formicivorus_ _Meles_ _Melicourvis baya_ _Melipona geniculata_ Merlin Moggridge _Molothrus_ _Monedula punctata_ Morgan, C. L. Morgan, L. H. Mouse Müller, Fritz Müller, P. W. J. _Mus minutus_ Musk-rat _Mygale henzii_ _Myrmecocystus_ _Myrmica_

 Natural history and the natural sciences Naturalist of yesterday and to-day Naumann _Necrophorus_ Nests _et seq. _

 _Oecodoma_ _Opossum_ _Orthotomus longicauda_ _Orycteropus_ _Osphronemus olfax_ Otter Oven-bird Owl

 _Pagurus Bernhardus_ Pallas Paradise-fish Parroquet Parseval-Deschênes Paterson, W. Pea-crab Pelican, Brown Perch _Pholcus_ _Phryganea striata_ Physiological reserves _Pinnoteres pisum_ _Pogonomyrmex barbatus_ _Polyborus lutosus_ _Polyborus cheriway_ _Polyergus rufescens_ _Pompilius_ Poppig Preyer Projectiles, hunting with _Protopterus_ _Psammomys_ _Pseudaetus_ Python's ambush

 Quelelis _Quiscalus major_

 Raven Réaumur _Rhodius anarus_ Romanes Rook

 Saint-Hilaire, G. St. John, C. Sand-wasp Sanitation of dwellings _et seq. _ Saussure, H. De Scarabæus Sea-gulls Secretary-bird Sentinels Severn, H. A. Sewing among birds Shrike Simon, Eugène _Sitaris muralis_ _Sitaris colletis_ Slavery among ants Smeathman Snake Sparrow-hawk _Sphex_ Spider Spider-crab Sponge-crab Squirrel _Staphilinus Cæsareus_ Stickleback _Strigops habroptilus_ Sturgeon Swallow's nest Sykes _Sylvia atricapilla_

 Tailor-bird Tennent Termites Thomson, J. A. Tiger-beetle Titmouse Toad Tortoise _Toxotes jaculator_ Trap-door spider Tristram _Troglodytes calvus_ Tschüdi Tyrant-bird

 _Uranoscopus scaber_

 _Vespa sylvestris_ Vizcacha Vole

 Wasp Waterton Weaver-bird Wodzicki Wolves Woodpecker Woven dwellings

 _Xylocopa violacea_

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NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 

 1. THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES. 2. THE SCARLET LETTER. 3. MOSSES FROM AN OLD MANSE. 4. THE NEW ADAM AND EVE. 5. TWICE-TOLD TALES. 6. LEGENDS OF THE PROVINCE HOUSE. 7. THE SNOW IMAGE. 8. OUR OLD HOME. 9. TANGLEWOOD TALES. 10. THE BLITHEDALE ROMANCE. 11. TRUE STORIES FROM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 12. A WONDER-BOOK FOR GIRLS AND BOYS. 

A. S. HARDY. 

 13. BUT YET A WOMAN. 

THEO. WINTHROP. 

 14. CECIL DREEME. 15. JOHN BRENT. 16. EDWIN BROTHERTOFT. 17. CANOE AND SADDLE. 

O. W. HOLMES. 

 18. AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. 19. PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. 20. POET AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. 21. ELSIE VENNER. 22. A MORTAL ANTIPATHY. 

WASHINGTON IRVING. 

 23. THE SKETCH BOOK. 24. CHRISTMAS

In ordering, it is sufficient to note the numbers to the above titles. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 WORKS BY GEORGE MOORE. 

 _Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3s. 6d. Each. _

TWENTIETH EDITION. 

A MUMMER'S WIFE. 

"'A Mummer's Wife' is a striking book--clever, unpleasant, realistic. . . . No one who wishes to examine the subject of realism infiction, with regard to English novels, can afford to neglect 'AMummer's Wife. '"--_Athenæum_. 

"'A Mummer's Wife, ' in virtue of its vividness of presentation andreal literary skill, may be regarded as in some degree arepresentative example of the work of a literary school that has oflate years attracted to itself a great deal ofnotoriety. "--_Spectator_. 

EIGHTH EDITION. 

A MODERN LOVER. 

"It would be difficult to praise too highly the strength, truth, delicacy, and pathos of the incident of Gwynnie Lloyd, and theadmirable treatment of the great sacrifice she makes. "--_Spectator_. 

SEVENTH EDITION. 

A DRAMA IN MUSLIN. 

"Mr. George Moore's work stands on a very much higher plane than thefacile fiction of the circulating libraries. . . . The characters aredrawn with patient care, and with a power of individualisation whichmarks the born novelist. It is a serious, powerful, and in manyrespects edifying book. "--_Pall Mall Gazette_. 

_Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 6s. _

VAIN FORTUNE. 

With Eleven Illustrations by MAURICE GREIFFENHAGEN. 

_A few Large-Paper Copies on Hand-made Paper, Price One Guinea net. _

A VOLUME of ESSAYS by GEORGE MOORE. 

_Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 6s. _

MODERN PAINTING. 

_Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 5s. _

THE STRIKE AT ARLINGFORD. 

PLAY IN THREE ACTS. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 BOOKS AT 3/6. 

THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL. A Russian Comedy, by NIKOLAI V. GOGOL. Translated by ARTHUR A. SYKES. 

THE CAREER OF A NIHILIST. By STEPNIAK. 

ANNA KARÉNINA. By COUNT TOLSTOÏ. Translated by N. H. DOLE. 

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT. By F. DOSTOIEFFSKY. 

A DRAMA IN MUSLIN. By GEORGE MOORE. 

THE MUMMER'S WIFE. By GEORGE MOORE. 

A MODERN LOVER. By GEORGE MOORE. 

THE NEW BORDER TALES. By SIR GEORGE DOUGLAS, BART. (Illustrated. )

FROM AUSTRALIA AND JAPAN. A collection of Short Stories. By A. M. (Illustrated. )

FOR LUST OF GOLD: A NARRATIVE OF ADVENTURE. By AARON WATSON. (Illustrated. )

SCOTTISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES. By SIR GEORGE DOUGLAS, BART. (Illustrated. )

ENGLISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES. Edited by E. SIDNEY HARTLAND. (Illustrated. )

IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES. Edited and Selected by W. B. YEATS. (Illustrated. )

DRAMATIC ESSAYS. Edited by WILLIAM ARCHER and ROBERT W. LOWE. 3 Vols. 

 The First Series contains the criticisms of LEIGH HUNT. The Second Series contains the criticisms of WILLIAM HAZLITT. The Third Series contains hitherto uncollected criticisms by JOHN FORSTER, GEORGE HENRY LEWES, and others. 

IBSEN'S PROSE DRAMAS--Edited by WM. ARCHER. 

 VOL. I. "A DOLL'S HOUSE, " "THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH, " and "THE PILLARS OF SOCIETY. "

 VOL. II. "GHOSTS, " "AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE, " and "THE WILD DUCK. " With an Introductory Note. 

 VOL. III. "LADY INGER OF ÖSTRÅT, " "THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND, " "THE PRETENDERS. "

 VOL. IV. "EMPEROR AND GALILEAN. " With an Introductory Note by WILLIAM ARCHER. 

 VOL. V. "ROSMERSHOLM, " "THE LADY FROM THE SEA, " "HEDDA GABLER. "

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 BOOKS AT 6/-. 

VAIN FORTUNE. By GEORGE MOORE. With Eleven Illustrations by MAURICEGREIFFENHAGEN. 

MODERN PAINTING. A Volume of Essays. By GEORGE MOORE. 

PEER GYNT: A DRAMATIC POEM. By HENRIK IBSEN. Translated by WILLIAM andCHARLES ARCHER. 

AMONG THE CAMPS; OR, YOUNG PEOPLE'S STORIES OF THE WAR. By THOMASNELSON PAGE. (Illustrated. )

THE MUSIC OF THE POETS: A MUSICIANS' BIRTHDAY BOOK. Edited by ELEONORED'ESTERRE KEELING. 

THE GERM-PLASM: A THEORY OF HEREDITY. By AUGUST WEISMANN, Professor inthe University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 THE SCOTT LIBRARY. 

 Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1s. 6d. Per Volume. 

VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED--

1 MALORY'S ROMANCE OF KING ARTHUR AND THE QUEST OF THE HOLY GRAIL. Edited by Ernest Rhys. 

2 THOREAU'S WALDEN. With Introductory Note by Will H. Dircks. 

3 THOREAU'S "WEEK. " With Prefatory Note by Will H. Dircks. 

4 THOREAU'S ESSAYS. Edited, with an Introduction, by Will H. Dircks. 

5 CONFESSIONS OF AN ENGLISH OPIUM-EATER, ETC. By Thomas De Quincey. With Introductory Note by William Sharp. 

6 LANDOR'S IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS. Selected, with Introduction, byHavelock Ellis. 

7 PLUTARCH'S LIVES (LANGHORNE). With Introductory Note by B. J. Snell, M. A. 

8 BROWNE'S RELIGIO MEDICI, ETC. With Introduction by J. AddingtonSymonds. 

9 SHELLEY'S ESSAYS AND LETTERS. Edited, with Introductory Note, byErnest Rhys. 

10 SWIFT'S PROSE WRITINGS. Chosen and Arranged, with Introduction, byWalter Lewin. 

11 MY STUDY WINDOWS. By James Russell Lowell. With Introduction by R. Garnett, LL. D. 

12 LOWELL'S ESSAYS ON THE ENGLISH POETS. With a new Introduction byMr. Lowell. 

13 THE BIGLOW PAPERS. By James Russell Lowell. With a Prefatory Noteby Ernest Rhys. 

14 GREAT ENGLISH PAINTERS. Selected From Cunningham's _Lives_. Editedby William Sharp. 

15 BYRON'S LETTERS AND JOURNALS. Selected, with Introduction, byMathilde Blind. 

16 LEIGH HUNT'S ESSAYS. With Introduction And Notes by Arthur Symons. 

17 LONGFELLOW'S "HYPERION, " "KAVANAH, " AND "The Trouveres. " WithIntroduction by W. Tirebuck. 

18 GREAT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. By G. F. Ferris. Edited, withIntroduction, by Mrs. William Sharp. 

19 THE MEDITATIONS OF MARCUS AURELIUS. Edited by Alice Zimmern. 

20 THE TEACHING OF EPICTETUS. Translated From the Greek, withIntroduction and Notes, by T. W. Rolleston. 

21 SELECTIONS FROM SENECA. With Introduction by Walter Clode. 

22 SPECIMEN DAYS IN AMERICA. By Walt Whitman. Revised by the Author, with fresh Preface. 

23 DEMOCRATIC VISTAS, AND OTHER PAPERS. By Walt Whitman. (Published byarrangement with the Author. )

24 WHITE'S NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE. With a Preface by RichardJefferies. 

25 DEFOE'S CAPTAIN SINGLETON. Edited, With Introduction, by H. Halliday Sparling. 

26 MAZZINI'S ESSAYS: LITERARY, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS. WithIntroduction by William Clarke. 

27 PROSE WRITINGS OF HEINE. With Introduction by Havelock Ellis. 

28 REYNOLDS'S DISCOURSES. With Introduction by Helen Zimmern. 

29 PAPERS OF STEELE AND ADDISON. Edited BY Walter Lewin. 

30 BURNS'S LETTERS. Selected and Arranged, with Introduction, by J. Logie Robertson, M. A. 

31 VOLSUNGA SAGA. William Morris. With Introduction by H. H. Sparling. 

32 SARTOR RESARTUS. By Thomas Carlyle. With Introduction by ErnestRhys. 

33 SELECT WRITINGS OF EMERSON. With Introduction by Percival Chubb. 

34 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF LORD HERBERT. Edited, with an Introduction, byWill H. Dircks. 

35 ENGLISH PROSE, FROM MAUNDEVILLE TO THACKERAY. Chosen and Edited byArthur Galton. 

36 THE PILLARS OF SOCIETY, AND OTHER PLAYS. By Henrik Ibsen. Edited, with an Introduction, by Havelock Ellis. 

37 IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES. Edited And Selected by W. B. Yeats. 

38 ESSAYS OF DR. JOHNSON, with Biographical Introduction and Notes byStuart J. Reid. 

39 ESSAYS OF WILLIAM HAZLITT. Selected and Edited, with Introductionand Notes, by Frank Carr. 

40 LANDOR'S PENTAMERON, AND OTHER IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS. Edited, with a Preface, by H. Ellis. 

41 POE'S TALES AND ESSAYS. Edited, with Introduction, by Ernest Rhys. 

42 VICAR OF WAKEFIELD. By Oliver Goldsmith Edited, with Preface, byErnest Rhys. 

43 POLITICAL ORATIONS, FROM WENTWORTH TO MACAULAY. Edited, withIntroduction, by William Clarke. 

44 THE AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. By Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

45 THE POET AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. By Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

46 THE PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE. By Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

47 LORD CHESTERFIELD'S LETTERS TO HIS SON. Selected, withIntroduction, by Charles Sayle. 

48 STORIES FROM CARLETON. Selected, with Introduction, by W. Yeats. 

49 JANE EYRE. BY CHARLOTTE BRONTË. Edited by Clement K. Shorter. 

50 ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND. Edited by Lothrop Withington, with a Prefaceby Dr. Furnivall. 

51 THE PROSE WRITINGS OF THOMAS DAVIS. Edited by T. W. Rolleston. 

52 SPENCE'S ANECDOTES. A SELECTION. Edited, with an Introduction andNotes, by John Underhill. 

53 MORE'S UTOPIA, AND LIFE OF EDWARD V. Edited, with an Introduction, by Maurice Adams. 

54 SADI'S GULISTAN, OR FLOWER GARDEN. Translated, with an Essay, byJames Ross. 

55 ENGLISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES. Edited by E. Sidney Hartland. 

56 NORTHERN STUDIES. BY EDMUND GOSSE. With a Note by Ernest Rhys. 

57 EARLY REVIEWS OF GREAT WRITERS. Edited by E. Stevenson. 

58 ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. With George Henry Lewes's Essay on Aristotleprefixed. 

59 LANDOR'S PERICLES AND ASPASIA. Edited, with an Introduction, byHavelock Ellis. 

60 ANNALS OF TACITUS. Thomas Gordon's Translation. Edited, with anIntroduction, by Arthur Galton. 

61 ESSAYS OF ELIA. By Charles Lamb. Edited, with an Introduction, byErnest Rhys. 

62 BALZAC'S SHORTER STORIES. Translated by William Wilson and theCount Stenbock. 

63 COMEDIES OF DE MUSSET. Edited, with an Introductory Note, by S. L. Gwynn. 

64 CORAL REEFS. By Charles Darwin. Edited, with an Introduction, byDr. J. W. Williams. 

65 SHERIDAN'S PLAYS. Edited, with an Introduction, by Rudolf Dircks. 

66 OUR VILLAGE. By Miss Mitford. Edited, with an Introduction, byErnest Rhys. 

67 MASTER HUMPHREY'S CLOCK, AND OTHER STORIES. By Charles Dickens. With Introduction by Frank T. Marzials. 

68 TALES FROM WONDERLAND. By Rudolph Baumbach. Translated by Helen B. Dole. 

69 ESSAYS AND PAPERS BY DOUGLAS JERROLD. Edited by Walter Jerrold. 

70 VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN. By Mary Wollstonecraft. Introduction by Mrs. E. Robins Pennell. 

71 "THE ATHENIAN ORACLE. " A SELECTION. Edited by John Underhill, withPrefatory Note by Walter Besant. 

72 ESSAYS OF SAINTE-BEUVE. Translated and Edited, with anIntroduction, by Elizabeth Lee. 

73 SELECTIONS FROM PLATO. From the Translation of Sydenham and Taylor. Edited by T. W. Rolleston. 

74 HEINE'S ITALIAN TRAVEL SKETCHES, ETC. Translated by Elizabeth A. Sharp. With an Introduction from the French of Théophile Gautier. 

75 SCHILLER'S MAID OF ORLEANS. Translated, with an Introduction, byMajor-General Patrick Maxwell. 

76 SELECTIONS FROM SYDNEY SMITH. Edited, WITH an Introduction, byErnest Rhys. 

77 THE NEW SPIRIT. By Havelock Ellis. 

78 THE BOOK OF MARVELLOUS ADVENTURES. From the "Morte d'Arthur. "Edited by Ernest Rhys. [This, together with No. 1, forms the complete"Morte d'Arthur. "]

79 ESSAYS AND APHORISMS. By Sir Arthur Helps. With an Introduction byE. A. Helps. 

80 ESSAYS OF MONTAIGNE. Selected, with a Prefatory Note, by PERCIVALCHUBB. 

81 THE LUCK OF BARRY LYNDON. By W. M. Thackeray. Edited by F. T. Marzials. 

82 SCHILLER'S WILLIAM TELL. Translated, with an Introduction, byMajor-General Patrick Maxwell. 

83 CARLYLE'S ESSAYS ON GERMAN LITERATURE. With an Introduction byErnest Rhys. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 GREAT WRITERS. 

 A NEW SERIES OF CRITICAL BIOGRAPHIES. 

Edited by ERIC ROBERTSON and FRANK T. MARZIALS. 

A Complete Bibliography to each Volume, by J. P. ANDERSON, BritishMuseum, London. 

Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1/6. 

VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED--

LIFE OF LONGFELLOW. By PROF. ERIC S. ROBERTSON. 

 "A most readable little work. "--_Liverpool Mercury_. 

LIFE OF COLERIDGE. By HALL CAINE. 

 "Brief and vigorous, written throughout with spirit and great literary skill. "--_Scotsman_. 

LIFE OF DICKENS. By FRANK T. MARZIALS. 

 "Notwithstanding the mass of matter that has been printed relating to Dickens and his works . . . We should, until we came across this volume, have been at a loss to recommend any popular life of England's most popular novelist as being really satisfactory. The difficulty is removed by Mr. Marzials's little book. "--_Athenæum_. 

LIFE OF DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. By J. KNIGHT. 

 "Mr. Knight's picture of the great poet and painter is the fullest and best yet presented to the public. "--_The Graphic_. 

LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON. By COLONEL F. GRANT. 

 "Colonel Grant has performed his task with diligence, sound judgment, good taste, and accuracy. "--_Illustrated London News_. 

LIFE OF DARWIN. By G. T. BETTANY. 

 "Mr. G. T. Bettany's _Life of Darwin_ is a sound and conscientious work. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF CHARLOTTE BRONTË. By A. BIRRELL. 

 "Those who know much of Charlotte Brontë will learn more, and those who know nothing about her will find all that is best worth learning in Mr. Birrell's pleasant book. "--_St. James' Gazette_. 

LIFE OF THOMAS CARLYLE. By R. GARNETT, LL. D. 

 "This is an admirable book. Nothing could be more felicitous and fairer than the way in which he takes us through Carlyle's life and works. "--_Pall Mall Gazette_. 

LIFE OF ADAM SMITH. By R. B. HALDANE, M. P. 

 "Written with a perspicuity seldom exemplified when dealing with economic science. "--_Scotsman_. 

LIFE OF KEATS. By W. M. ROSSETTI. 

 "Valuable for the ample information which it contains. "--_Cambridge Independent_. 

LIFE OF SHELLEY. By WILLIAM SHARP. 

 "The criticisms . . . Entitle this capital monograph to be ranked with the best biographies of Shelley. "--_Westminster Review_. 

LIFE OF SMOLLETT. By DAVID HANNAY. 

 "A capable record of a writer who still remains one of the great masters of the English novel. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF GOLDSMITH. By AUSTIN DOBSON. 

 "The story of his literary and social life in London, with all its humorous and pathetic vicissitudes, is here retold, as none could tell it better. "--_Daily News_. 

LIFE OF SCOTT. By PROFESSOR YONGE. 

 "This is a most enjoyable book. "--_Aberdeen Free Press_. 

LIFE OF BURNS. By PROFESSOR BLACKIE. 

 "The editor certainly made a hit when he persuaded Blackie to write about Burns. "--_Pall Mall Gazette_. 

LIFE OF VICTOR HUGO. By FRANK T. MARZIALS. 

 "Mr. Marzials's volume presents to us, in a more handy form than any English or even French handbook gives, the summary of what is known about the life of the great poet. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF EMERSON. By RICHARD GARNETT, LL. D. 

 "No record of Emerson's life could be more desirable. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF GOETHE. By JAMES SIME. 

 "Mr. James Sime's competence as a biographer of Goethe is beyond question. "--_Manchester Guardian_. 

LIFE OF CONGREVE. By EDMUND GOSSE. 

 "Mr. Gosse has written an admirable biography. "--_Academy_. 

LIFE OF BUNYAN. By CANON VENABLES. 

 "A most intelligent, appreciative, and valuable memoir. "--_Scotsman_. 

LIFE OF CRABBE. By T. E. KEBBEL. 

 "No English poet since Shakespeare has observed certain aspects of nature and of human life more closely. "--_Athenæum_. 

LIFE OF HEINE. By WILLIAM SHARP. 

 "An admirable monograph . . . More fully written up to the level of recent knowledge and criticism than any other English work. "--_Scotsman_. 

LIFE OF MILL. By W. L. COURTNEY. 

 "A most sympathetic and discriminating memoir. "--_Glasgow Herald_. 

LIFE OF SCHILLER. By HENRY W. NEVINSON. 

 "Presents the poet's life in a neatly rounded picture. "--_Scotsman_. 

LIFE OF CAPTAIN MARRYAT. By DAVID HANNAY. 

 "We have nothing but praise for the manner in which Mr. Hannay has done justice to him. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF LESSING. By T. W. ROLLESTON. 

 "One of the best books of the series. "--_Manchester Guardian_. 

LIFE OF MILTON. By RICHARD GARNETT, LL. D. 

 "Has never been more charmingly or adequately told. "--_Scottish Leader_. 

LIFE OF BALZAC. By FREDERICK WEDMORE. 

 "Mr. Wedmore's monograph on the greatest of French writers of fiction, whose greatness is to be measured by comparison with his successors, is a piece of careful and critical composition, neat and nice in style. "--_Daily News_. 

LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT. By OSCAR BROWNING. 

 "A book of the character of Mr Browning's, to stand midway between the bulky work of Mr. Cross and the very slight sketch of Miss Blind, was much to be desired, and Mr. Browning has done his work with vivacity, and not without skill. "--_Manchester Guardian_. 

LIFE OF JANE AUSTEN. By GOLDWIN SMITH. 

 "Mr. Goldwin Smith has added another to the not inconsiderable roll of eminent men who have found their delight in Miss Austen. . . . His little book upon her, just published by Walter Scott, is certainly a fascinating book to those who already know her and love her well; and we have little doubt that it will prove also a fascinating book to those who have still to make her acquaintance. "--_Spectator_. 

LIFE OF BROWNING. By WILLIAM SHARP. 

 "This little volume is a model of excellent English, and in every respect it seems to us what a biography should be. "--_Public Opinion_. 

LIFE OF BYRON. By HON. RODEN NOEL. 

 "The Hon. Roden Noel's volume on Byron is decidedly one of the most readable in the excellent 'Great Writers' series. "--_Scottish Leader_. 

LIFE OF HAWTHORNE. By MONCURE CONWAY. 

 "It is a delightful causerie--pleasant, genial talk about a most interesting man. Easy and conversational as the tone is throughout, no important fact is omitted, no valueless fact is recalled; and it is entirely exempt from platitude and conventionality. "--_The Speaker_. 

LIFE OF SCHOPENHAUER. By PROFESSOR WALLACE. 

 "We can speak very highly of this little book of Mr. Wallace's. It is, perhaps, excessively lenient in dealing with the man, and it cannot be said to be at all ferociously critical in dealing with the philosophy. "--_Saturday Review_. 

LIFE OF SHERIDAN. By LLOYD SANDERS. 

 "To say that Mr. Lloyd Sanders, in this little volume, has produced the best existing memoir of Sheridan, is really to award much fainter praise than the work deserves. "--_Manchester Examiner_. 

LIFE OF THACKERAY. By HERMAN MERIVALE and P. T. MARZIALS. 

 "The monograph just published is well worth reading. . . . And the book, with its excellent bibliography, is one which neither the student nor the general reader can well afford to miss. "--_Pall Mall Gazette_. 

LIFE OF CERVANTES. By H. E. WATTS. 

 "We can commend this book as a worthy addition to the useful series to which it belongs. "--_London Daily Chronicle_. 

LIFE OF VOLTAIRE. By FRANCIS ESPINASSE. 

 George Saintsbury, in The _Illustrated London News_, says:--"In this little volume the wayfaring man who has no time to devour libraries will find most things that it concerns him to know about Voltaire's actual life and work put very clearly, sufficiently, and accurately for the most part. "

LIFE OF LEIGH HUNT. By COSMO MONKHOUSE. 

 LIBRARY EDITION OF "GREAT WRITERS, " Demy 8vo, 2s. 6d. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 SELECTED THREE-VOL. SETS

 IN NEW BROCADE BINDING. 

6s. Per Set, in Shell Case to match. May also be had bound in Roan, with Roan Case to match, 9s. Per Set. 

_THE FOLLOWING SETS CAN BE OBTAINED--_

POEMS OF

 WORDSWORTH KEATS SHELLEY

 LONGFELLOW WHITTIER EMERSON

 HOGG ALLAN RAMSAY SCOTTISH MINOR POETS

 SHAKESPEARE BEN JONSON MARLOWE

 SONNETS OF THIS CENTURY SONNETS OF EUROPE AMERICAN SONNETS

 HEINE GOETHE HUGO

 COLERIDGE SOUTHEY COWPER

 BORDER BALLADS JACOBITE SONGS OSSIAN

 CAVALIER POETS LOVE LYRICS HERRICK

 CHRISTIAN YEAR IMITATION of CHRIST HERBERT

 AMERICAN HUMOROUS VERSE ENGLISH HUMOROUS VERSE BALLADES AND RONDEAUS

 EARLY ENGLISH POETRY CHAUCER SPENSER

 HORACE GREEK ANTHOLOGY LANDOR

 GOLDSMITH MOORE IRISH MINSTRELSY

 WOMEN POETS CHILDREN OF POETS SEA MUSIC

 PRAED HUNT AND HOOD DOBELL

 MEREDITH MARSTON LOVE LETTERS

 BURNS'S SONGS BURNS'S POEMS LIFE OF BURNS, BY BLACKIE

 SCOTT'S MARMION, &c. SCOTT'S LADY OF LAKE, &c. LIFE OF SCOTT, BY PROF. YONGE

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LTD. , 24 Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row. 

 SELECTED THREE-VOL. SETS

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 _6s. PER SET, IN SHELL CASE TO MATCH. _

 Also Bound in Roan, in Shell Case, Price 9s. Per Set. 

_O. W. Holmes Set--_

 Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table. Professor at the Breakfast-Table. Poet at the Breakfast-Table. 

_Landor Set--_

 Lando's Imaginary Conversations. Pentameron. Pericles and Aspasia. 

_Three English Essayists--_

 Essays of Elia. Essays of Leigh Hunt. Essays of William Hazlitt. 

_Three Classical Moralists--_

 Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Teaching of Epictetus. Morals of Seneca. 

_Walden Set--_

 Thoreau's Walden. Thoreau's Week. Thoreau's Selections. 

_Famous Letters Set--_

 Letters of Byron. Letters of Chesterfield. Letters of Burns. 

_Lowell Set--_

 My Study Windows. The English Poets. The Biglow Papers. 

_Heine Set--_

 Life of Heine. Heine's Prose. Heine's Travel-Sketches. 

_Three Essayists--_

 Essays of Mazzini. Essays of Sainte-Beuve. Essays of Montaigne. 

_Schiller Set--_

 Life of Schiller. Maid of Orleans. William Tell. 

_Carlyle Set--_

 Life of Carlyle. Sartor Resartus. Carlyle's German Essays. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LTD. , 24 Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row. 

 Crown 8vo, about 350 pp. Each, Cloth Cover, 2s. 6d. Per vol. 

 Half-polished Morocco, gilt top, 5s. 

 COUNT TOLSTOÏ'S WORKS. 

The following Volumes are already issued--

 A RUSSIAN PROPRIETOR. THE COSSACKS. IVAN ILYITCH, AND OTHER STORIES. MY RELIGION. LIFE. MY CONFESSION. CHILDHOOD, BOYHOOD, YOUTH. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF WAR. ANNA KARÉNINA 3s. 6d. WHAT TO DO? WAR AND PEACE. (4 VOLS. ) THE LONG EXILE, AND OTHER STORIES FOR CHILDREN. SEVASTOPOL. THE KREUTZER SONATA, AND FAMILY HAPPINESS. 

Uniform with the above. 

 IMPRESSIONS OF RUSSIA. By DR. GEORG BRANDES. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 Warwick Lane. 

 IBSEN'S PROSE DRAMAS. 

 EDITED BY WILLIAM ARCHER. 

 Complete in Five Vols. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3/6 each. 

 Set of Five Vols. , in Case, 17/6; in Half Morocco, in Case, 32/6. 

 "_We seem at last to be shown men and women as they are; and at first it is more than we can endure. . . . All Ibsen's characters speak and act as if they were hypnotised, and under their creators imperious demand to reveal themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before: it is too terrible. . . . Yet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong and learned to face the naked--if necessary, the flayed and bleeding--reality. _"--SPEAKER (London). 

Vol. I. "A DOLL'S HOUSE, " "THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH, " and "THE PILLARS OFSOCIETY. " With Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introductionby WILLIAM ARCHER. 

Vol. II. "GHOSTS, " "AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE, " and "THE WILD DUCK. " Withan Introductory Note. 

Vol. III. "LADY INGER OF ÖSTRÅT, " "THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND, " "THEPRETENDERS. " With an Introductory Note and Portrait of Ibsen. 

Vol. IV. "EMPEROR AND GALILEAN. " With an Introductory Note by WILLIAMARCHER. 

Vol. V. "ROSMERSHOLM, " "THE LADY FROM THE SEA, " "HEDDA GABLER. "Translated by WILLIAM ARCHER. With an Introductory Note. 

The sequence of the plays _in each volume_ is chronological; thecomplete set of volumes comprising the dramas thus presents them inchronological order. 

"The art of prose translation does not perhaps enjoy a very highliterary status in England, but we have no hesitation in numbering thepresent version of Ibsen, so far as it has gone (Vols. I. And II. ), among the very best achievements, in that kind, of ourgeneration. "--_Academy_. 

"We have seldom, if ever, met with a translation so absolutelyidiomatic. "--_Glasgow Herald_. 

 LONDON: WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, 24 WARWICK LANE. 

 THE CANTERBURY POETS. 

 EDITED BY WILLIAM SHARP. IN 1/- MONTHLY VOLUMES. 

 Cloth, Red Edges 1s. Cloth, Uncut Edges 1s. Red Roan, Gilt Edges, 2s. 6d. Pad. Morocco, Gilt Edges, 5s. 

 THE CHRISTIAN YEAR By the Rev. John Keble. COLERIDGE Edited by Joseph Skipsey. LONGFELLOW Edited by Eva Hope. CAMPBELL Edited by John Hogben. SHELLEY Edited by Joseph Skipsey. WORDSWORTH Edited by A. J. Symington. BLAKE Edited by Joseph Skipsey. WHITTIER Edited by Eva Hope. POE Edited by Joseph Skipsey. CHATTERTON Edited by John Richmond. BURNS. Poems Edited by Joseph Skipsey. BURNS. Songs Edited by Joseph Skipsey. MARLOWE Edited by Percy E. Pinkerton. KEATS Edited by John Hogben. HERBERT Edited by Ernest Rhys. HUGO Translated by Dean Carrington. COWPER Edited by Eva Hope. SHAKESPEARE'S POEMS, Etc. Edited by William Sharp. EMERSON Edited by Walter Lewin. SONNETS OF THIS CENTURY Edited by William Sharp. WHITMAN Edited by Ernest Rhys. SCOTT. Marmion, etc. Edited by William Sharp. SCOTT. Lady of the Lake, etc. Edited by William Sharp. PRAED Edited by Frederick Cooper. HOGG Edited by his Daughter, Mrs. Garden. GOLDSMITH Edited by William Tirebuck. LOVE LETTERS, Etc. By Eric Mackay. SPENSER Edited by Hon. Roden Noel. CHILDREN OF THE POETS Edited by Eric S. Robertson. JONSON Edited by J. Addington Symonda. BYRON (2 Vols. ) Edited by Mathilde Blind. THE SONNETS OF EUROPE Edited by S. Waddington. RAMSAY Edited by J. Logie Robertson. DOBELL Edited by Mrs. Dobell. DAYS OF THE YEAR With Introduction by William Sharp. POPE Edited by John Hogben. HEINE Edited by Mrs. Kroeker. BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER Edited by John S. Fletcher. BOWLES, LAMB, &c. Edited by William Tirebuck. EARLY ENGLISH POETRY Edited by H. Macaulay Fitzgibbon. SEA MUSIC Edited by Mrs Sharp. HERRICK Edited by Ernest Rhys. BALLADES AND RONDEAUS Edited by J. Gleeson White. IRISH MINSTRELSY Edited by H. Halliday Sparling. MILTON'S PARADISE LOST Edited by J. Bradshaw, M. A. , LL. D. JACOBITE BALLADS Edited by G. S. Macquoid. AUSTRALIAN BALLADS Edited by D. B. W. Sladen, B. A. MOORE Edited by John Dorrian. BORDER BALLADS Edited by Graham R. Tomson. SONG-TIDE By Philip Bourke Marston. ODES OF HORACE Translations by Sir Stephen de Vere, Bt. OSSIAN Edited by George Eyre-Todd. ELFIN MUSIC Edited by Arthur Edward Waite. SOUTHEY Edited by Sidney R. Thompson. CHAUCER Edited by Frederick Noël Paton. POEMS OF WILD LIFE Edited by Charles G. D. Roberts, M. A. PARADISE REGAINED Edited by J. Bradshaw, M. A. , LL. D. CRABBE Edited by E. Lamplough. DORA GREENWELL Edited by William Dorling. FAUST Edited by Elizabeth Craigmyle. AMERICAN SONNETS Edited by William Sharp. LANDOR'S POEMS Edited by Ernest Radford. GREEK ANTHOLOGY Edited by Graham R. Tomson. HUNT AND HOOD Edited by J. Harwood Panting. HUMOROUS POEMS Edited by Ralph H. Caine. LYTTON'S PLAYS Edited by R. Farquharson Sharp. GREAT ODES Edited by William Sharp. MEREDITH'S POEMS Edited by M. Betham-Edwards. PAINTER-POETS Edited by Kineton Parkes. WOMEN POETS Edited by Mrs. Sharp. LOVE LYRICS Edited by Percy Hulburd. AMERICAN HUMOROUS VERSE Edited by James Barr. MINOR SCOTCH LYRICS Edited by Sir George Douglas. CAVALIER LYRISTS Edited by Will H. Dircks. GERMAN BALLADS Edited by Elizabeth Craigmyle. SONGS OF BERANGER Translated by William Toynbee. HON. RODEN NOEL'S POEMS. With an Introduction by R. Buchanan. SONGS OF FREEDOM. Selected, with an Introduction, by H. S. Salt. 

 NEW EDITION IN NEW BINDING. 

 In the new edition there are added about forty reproductions in fac-simile of autographs of distinguished singers and instrumentalists, including Sarasate, Joachim, Sir Charles Hallé, Paderewsky, Stavenhagen, Henachel, Trebelli, Miss Macintyre, Jean Gérardy, etc. 

_Quarto, cloth elegant, gilt edges, emblematic design on cover, 6s. May also be had in a variety of Fancy Bindings. _

 THE MUSIC OF THE POETS:

 A MUSICIANS' BIRTHDAY BOOK. 

EDITED BY ELEONORE D'ESTERRE KEELING. 

This is a unique Birthday Book. Against each date are given the namesof musicians whose birthday it is, together with a verse-quotationappropriate to the character of their different compositions orperformances. A special feature of the book consists in thereproduction in fac-simile of autographs, and autographic music, ofliving composers. Three sonnets by Mr. Theodore Watts, on the "Fausts"of Berlioz, Schumann, and Gounod, have been written specially for thisvolume. It is illustrated with designs of various musical instruments, etc. ; autographs of Rubenstein, Dvorâk, Greig, Mackenzie, VilliersStanford, etc. , etc. 

 London: WALTER SCOTT, LTD. , 24 Warwick Lane

Transcriber's Note: The list of books that comprise _The ContemporaryScience Series_ has been moved from the front of the book to after theindex.