[Illustration: RECREATION IS AS COMMON AMONG ANIMALS AS IT IS AMONGCHILDREN. ]

 THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS

 BY ROYAL DIXON AUTHOR OF "THE HUMAN SIDE OF PLANTS, " "THE HUMAN SIDE OF TREES, "

 "THE HUMAN SIDE OF BIRDS, " ETC. 

 _WITH TWO ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLORS AND THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK-AND-WHITE_

 NEW YORK FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY PUBLISHERS

 _Copyright, 1918, by_ FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY

 _All rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages_

 MADE IN U. S. A. 

 TO MARCELLUS E. FOSTER WHO BELIEVED

NOTE

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to hisfellow-naturalist and friend, Mr. Franklyn Everett Fitch, for carefullyreading the entire manuscript and making many scholarly and valuablecriticisms and corrections. 

 CONTENTS

 CHAPTER PAGE

 FOREWORD xiii

 I ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE 1

 II ANIMAL MUSICIANS 18

 III ANIMALS AT PLAY 32

 IV ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS 46

 V MINERS AND EXCAVATORS 61

 VI ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS 88

 VII THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS 99

 VIII IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES 120

 IX SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT 130

 X ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE-BUILDERS 150

 XI FOOD CONSERVERS 170

 XII TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS 181

 XIII ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS 199

 XIV AS THE ALLIES OF MAN 210

 XV THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS 234

 ILLUSTRATIONS

 Recreation is as common among animals as it is among children (_in Colours_) _Frontispiece_

 The Indians claim that the mother bison forced her calf to roll often in a puddle of red clay, so that it might be indistinguishable against its clay background 6

 The zebra is one of the cleverest of camouflagers. The black-and-white stripes of his body give the effect of sunlight passing through bushes 7

 Monkeys are the most musical of all animals. When they congregate for "concerts, " as some of the tribes do, the air is filled with weird strains of monkey-music 20

 Cats, unlike dogs, are very fond of music. And it has been proved that their music-sense can be developed to a remarkable degree 21

 A happy family of polar bears. The young cubs wrestle and tumble, as playfully as two puppies. This play has much to do with their physical and mental development 34

 Dryptosaurus. The prehistoric animals, too, undoubtedly had their play time, with games and "setting up" exercises 35

 The mother opossum is never happier than when she has her little ones playing hide-and-seek over her back 38

 This young fox came from his home in the woods daily to play with a young fox-terrier. He is now resting after a romp 39

 Naosaurus and Dimetrodon, two extinct armour-bearers who should have been well able to protect themselves 50

 An armour-bearer of prehistoric times whose shield was an effective protection against enemy horns 51

 To the polar bear the ice and snow of the Far North means warmth and protection. The mother bear digs herself into a snowbank, where she lives quite comfortably throughout the winter 84

 The sharp claws of the ground squirrel are efficacious tools in digging his cosy underground burrow 85

 The coyote can readily distinguish whether a herd of sheep is guarded by one or more dogs, and will plan his attack accordingly 94

 The zebu, the sacred bull of India, in spite of its domestication, has an agile body and a quick, alert mind 95

 Roosevelt's Colobus. These horse-tailed monkeys chatter together in a language exclusively their own, yet they seem to have no difficulty in making themselves understood by other monkey-tribes 112

 A tamed deer of Texas, whose constant companion and playmate was a rabbit dog. Between the two, there developed, necessarily, a common language 113

 Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly take great pride in their toilets. Their fur is always sleek and clean 122

 Great forest pigs of Central Africa. Like the common domesticated hogs, they will seek a clay bath to heal their wounds 123

 The Rocky Mountain goat has many means of defence, not the least of which is his agility in climbing to inaccessible places 134

 Wild boars are among the most ferocious of animals. By means of their great strength alone they are well able to defend themselves 135

 Brontosaurus. The animals that seemed best equipped to defend themselves are the ones that, thousands of years ago, became extinct 144

 This prehistoric monster was equipped not only with a pair of strong horns but with a shield back of them as well 145

 The beaver is the greatest of all animal architects. His skill is equalled only by his patience (in Colours) 158

 The skunk mother tries to keep on hand a good supply of such delicacies as frogs and toads, so that her young may never go hungry 172

 The porcupine and the hedgehog have a unique method of collecting food for their young. After shaking down berries or grapes, they roll in them, then hurry home with the food attached to their quills 173

 The black bear is not one of the great migrating animals. The thickness of his coat must therefore change with the seasons 188

 Rabbits seem to have a well-devised system in their road-building, running their paths in and out of underbrush in a truly ingenious manner 189

 The mongoose, a scavenger of the worst type, feeding on rats and mice and snakes, and even poultry 202

 Diplodocus. The prehistoric animals, also, undoubtedly had their scavengers and criminals 203

 The Esquimo-dog is man's greatest friend in the Far North 218

 Chipmunks are among the most easily tamed of man's wild friends, and they even seem fond of human companionship 219

 Men cruelly take the lives of these denizens of the wildwood, rejoicing in their slaughter, but the animal soul they cannot kill 244

 Two pals. There is between man and dog a kinship of spirit that cannot be denied 245

FOREWORD

 _"And in the lion or the frog-- In all the life of moor or fen-- In ass and peacock, stork and dog, He read similitudes of men. "_

More and more science is being taught in a new way. More and more menare beginning to discard the lumber of the brain's workshop to get atreal facts, real conclusions. Laboratories, experiments, tables, classifications are all very vital and all very necessary but sometimestheir net result is only to befog and confuse. Occasionally it becomesimportant for us to cast aside all dogmatic restraints and approach thewonders of life from a new angle and with the untrammelled spirit of alittle child. 

In this book I have attempted to bring together many old and newobservations which tend to show the human-like qualities of animals. Thetreatment is neither formal nor scholastic, in fact I do not alwaysremain within the logical confines of the title. My sole purpose is tomake the reader self-active, observative, free from hide-boundprejudice, and reborn as a participant in the wonderful experiences oflife which fill the universe. I hope to lead him into a new wonderlandof truth, beauty and love, a land where his heart as well as his eyeswill be opened. 

In attempting to understand the animals I have used a method a greatdeal like that of the village boy, who when questioned as to how helocated the stray horse for which a reward of twenty dollars had beenoffered, replied, "I just thought what I would do if I were a horse andwhere I would go--and there I went and found him. " In some such way Ihave tried to think why animals do certain things, I have studied themin many places and under all conditions, and those acts of theirs which, if performed by children, would come under the head of wisdom andintelligence, I have classified as such. 

Life is one throughout. The love that fills a mother's heart when shesees her first-born babe, is also felt by the mother bear, only in adifferent way, when she sees her baby cubs playing before her humblecave dwelling. The sorrow that is felt by the human heart when a belovedone dies is experienced in only a little less degree by an African apewhen his mate is shot dead by a Christian missionary. The grandmothersheep that watches her numerous little lamb grandchildren on thehillside, while their mothers are away grazing, is just as mindful oftheir care as any human grandparent could be. One drop of water is likethe ocean; and love is love. 

The trouble with science is that too often it leaves out love. If youagree that we cannot treat men like machines, why should we put animalsin that class? Why should we fall into the colossal ignorance andconceit of cataloging every human-like action of animals under the word"instinct"? Man delights in thinking of himself as only a little lowerthan the angels. Then why should he not consider the animals as only alittle lower than himself? The poet has truly said that "the beast isthe mirror of man as man is the mirror of God. " Man had to battle withanimals for untold ages before he domesticated and made servants ofthem. He is just beginning to learn that they were not created solely tofurnish material for sermons, nor to serve mankind, but that they alsohave an existence, a life of their own. 

Man has long preached this doctrine that he is not an animal, but akinsman of the gods. For this reason, he has claimed dominion overanimal creation and a right to assert that dominion without restraint. This anthropocentric conceit is the same thing that causes one nation tothink it should rule the world, that the sun and moon were made only forthe laudable purpose of giving light unto a chosen few, and that younglambs playing on a grassy hillside, near a cool spring, are just so muchmutton allowed to wander over man's domain until its flavour isimproved. 

It is time to remove the barriers, once believed impassable, which man'segotism has used as a screen to separate him from his lower brothers. Our physical bodies are very similar to theirs except that ours arealmost always much inferior. Merely because we have a superior intellectwhich enables us to rule and enslave the animals, shall we deny them allintellect and all feeling? In the words of that remarkable naturalist, William J. Long, "To call a thing intelligence in one creature andreflex action in another, or to speak of the same thing as love orkindness in one and blind impulse in the other, is to be blinderourselves than the impulse which is supposed to govern animals. Until, therefore, we have some new chemistry that will ignore atoms and theatomic law, and some new psychology that ignores animal intelligencealtogether, or regards it as under a radically different law from ourown, we must apply what we know of ourselves and our own motives to thesmaller and weaker lives that are in some distant way akin to our own. "

It is possible to explain away all the marvellous things the animals do, but after you have finished, there will still remain something over andabove, which quite defies all mechanistic interpretation. An old warhorse, for instance, lives over and over his battles in his dreams. Heneighs and paws, just as he did in real battle; and cavalrymen tell usthat they can sometimes understand from their horses when they aredreaming just what command they are trying to obey. This is only one ofthe myriads of animal phenomena which man does not understand. If youdoubt it, try to explain the striking phenomena of luminescence, hybridization, of eels surviving desiccation for fourteen years, post-matrimonial cannibalism, Nature's vast chain of unities, thesuicide of lemmings, why water animals cannot get wet, transparency ofanimals, why the horned toad shoots a stream of blood from his eye whenangry. If you are able to explain these things to humanity, you will beclassed second only to Solomon. Yet the average scientist explains themaway, with the ignorance and loquaciousness of a fisher hag. 

By a thorough application of psychological principles, it is possibleto show that man himself is merely a machine to be explained in terms ofneurones and nervous impulses, heredity and environment and reactions tooutside stimuli. But who is there who does not believe that there ismore to a man than that?

Animals have demonstrated long ago that they not only have as manytalents as human beings, but that under the influence of the sameenvironment, they form the same kinds of combinations to defendthemselves against enemies; to shelter themselves against heat and cold;to build homes; to lay up a supply of food for the hard seasons. Infact, all through the ages man has been imitating the animals inburrowing through the earth, penetrating the waters, and now, at last, flying through the air. 

When a skunk bites through the brains of frogs, paralysing but notkilling them, in order that he may store them away in his nursery-pantryso that his babes may have fresh food; when a mole decapitatesearth-worms for the same reason and stores them near the cold surface ofthe ground so that the heads will not regrow, as they would under normalconditions, only a deeply prejudiced man can claim that no elements ofintelligence have been employed. 

There are also numerous signs, sounds and motions by which animalscommunicate with each other, though to man these symbols of language maynot always be understandable. Dogs give barks indicating surprise, pleasure and all other emotions. Cows will bellow for days when mourningfor their dead. The mother bear will bury her dead cub and silentlyguard its grave for weeks to prevent its being desecrated. The mothersheep will bleat most pitifully when her lamb strays away. Foxes utterexpressive cries which their children know full well. The chamois, whenfrightened, whistle; they might be termed the policemen of the animalworld. The sentinel will continue a long, drawn-out whistle, as long ashe can without taking a breath. He then stops for a brief moment, looksin all directions, and begins blowing again. If the danger comes toonear, he scampers away. 

In their ability to take care of their wounded bodies, in their readingof the weather and in all forms of woodcraft, animals undoubtedlypossess superhuman powers. Even squirrels can prophesy an unusually longand severe winter and thus make adequate preparations. Some animals actas both barometers and thermometers. It is claimed that while frogsremain yellow, only fair weather may be expected, but if their colourchanges to brown, ill weather is coming. 

There is no limit to the marvellous things animals do. Elephants, forexample, carry leafy palms in their trunks to shade themselves from thehot sun. The ape or baboon who puts a stone in the open oyster toprevent it from closing, or lifts stones to crack nuts, or beats hisfellows with sticks, or throws heavy cocoanuts from trees upon hisenemies, or builds a fire in the forest, shows more than a glimmer ofintelligence. In the sly fox that puts out fish heads to bait hawks, orsuddenly plunges in the water and immerses himself to escape hunters, orholds a branch of a bush over his head and actually runs with it to hidehimself; in the wolverine who catches deer by dropping moss, andsuddenly springing upon them and clawing their eyes out; in the bear, who, as told in the account of Cook's third voyage, "rolls down piecesof rock to crush stags; in the rat when he leads his blind brother witha stick" is actual reasoning. Indeed, there is nothing which man makeswith all his ingenious use of tools and instruments, of which somesuggestion may not be seen in animal creation. 

Great thinkers of all ages are not wanting who believe that animals havea portion of that same reason which is the pride of man. Montaigneadmitted that they had both thought and reason, and Pope believed thateven a cat may consider a man made for his service. Humboldt, Helvitius, Darwin and Smellie claimed that animals act as a definite result ofactual reasoning. Lord Brougham pertinently observes, "I know not why somuch unwillingness should be shown by some excellent philosophers toallow intelligent faculties and a share of reason to the lower animals, as if our own superiority was not quite sufficiently established toleave all jealousy out of view by the immeasurably higher place which weoccupy in the scale of being. "

From the facts enumerated in this book I find that animals are possessedof love, hate, joy, grief, courage, revenge, pain, pleasure, want andsatisfaction--that all things that go to make up man's life are alsofound in them. In the attempt to establish this thesis I have been ledmentally and physically into some of Nature's most fascinating highwaysand hedges, where I have had many occasions to wonder and adore. I willbe happy if I have at least added something to the depth of love andappreciation with which most men look upon the animal world. 

 ROYAL DIXON. 

 New York, April, 1918. 

THE HUMAN SIDE OF ANIMALS

I

ANIMALS THAT PRACTISE CAMOUFLAGE

 _"She was a gordian shape of dazzling line, Vermilion-spotted, golden, green and blue; Striped like a zebra, freckled like a pard, Eyed like a peacock, and all crimson barr'd, And full of silver moons, that, as she breathed, Dissolved, or brighter shone, or interwreathed Their lustres with the glorious tapestries. . . . "_

 --KEATS (_on Lamia, the snake_). 

The art of concealment or camouflage is one of the newest and mosthighly developed techniques of modern warfare. But the animals have beenmasters of it for ages. The lives of most of them are passed in constantconflict. Those which have enemies from which they cannot escape byrapidity of motion must be able to hide or disguise themselves. Thosewhich hunt for a living must be able to approach their prey withoutunnecessary noise or attention to themselves. It is very remarkable howNature helps the wild creatures to disguise themselves by colouring themwith various shades and tints best calculated to enable them to escapeenemies or to entrap prey. 

The animals of each locality are usually coloured according to theirhabitat, but good reasons make some exceptions advisable. Many of themost striking examples of this protective resemblance among animals arethe result of their very intimate association with the surrounding floraand natural scenery. There is no part of a tree, including flowers, fruits, bark and roots, that is not in some way copied and imitated bythese clever creatures. Often this imitation is astonishing in itsfaithfulness of detail. Bunches of cocoanuts are portrayed by sleepingmonkeys, while even the leaves are copied by certain tree-toads, andmany flowers are represented by monkeys and lizards. The winding rootsof huge trees are copied by snakes that twist themselves together at thefoot of the tree. 

In the art of camouflage--an art which affects the form, colour, andattitude of animals--Nature has worked along two different roads. One iseasy and direct, the other circuitous and difficult. The easy way isthat of protective resemblance pure and simple, where the animal'scolour, form, or attitude becomes like that of its habitat. In whichcase the animal becomes one with its environment and thus is enabled togo about unnoticed by its enemies or by its prey. The other way is thatof bluff, and it includes all inoffensive animals which are capable ofassuming attitudes and colours that terrify and frighten. The colours insome cases are really of warning pattern, yet they cannot be consideredmimetic unless they are thought to resemble the patterns of some extinctmodel of which we know nothing; and since they are not found inpresent-day animals with unpleasant qualities, they are not, strictlyspeaking, warning colours. 

Desert animals are in most cases desert-coloured. The lion, for example, is almost invisible when crouched among the rocks and streams of theAfrican wastes. Antelopes are tinted like the landscape over which theyroam, while the camel seems actually to blend with the desert sands. Thekangaroos of Australia at a little distance seem to disappear into thesoil of their respective localities, while the cat of the Pampasaccurately reflects his surroundings in his fur. 

The tiger is made so invisible by his wonderful colour that, when hecrouches in the bright sunlight amid the tall brown grass, it is almostimpossible to see him. But the zebra and the giraffe are the kings ofall camouflagers! So deceptive are the large blotch-spots of the giraffeand his weird head and horns, like scrubby limbs, that his concealmentis perfect. Even the cleverest natives often mistake a herd of giraffesfor a clump of trees. The camouflage of zebras is equally deceptive. Drummond says that he once found himself in a forest, looking at what hethought to be a lone zebra, when to his astonishment he suddenlyrealised that he was facing an entire herd which were invisible untilthey became frightened and moved. Evidently the zebra is well aware thatthe black-and-white stripes of his coat take away the sense of solidbody, and that the two colours blend into a light gray, and thus atclose range the effect is that of rays of sunlight passing throughbushes. 

The arctic animals, with few exceptions, are remarkable for imitatingtheir surroundings; their colour of white blends perfectly with the snowaround them. The polar bear is the only white bear, and his home isalways among the snow and ice. The arctic fox, alpine hare, and erminechange to white in winter only, because during the other seasons whitewould be too conspicuous. The American arctic hare is always whitebecause he always lives among the white expanses of the Far North. Bothfoxes and stoats are carnivorous and feed upon ptarmigan and hares, andthey must be protectively coloured that they may catch their prey. Onthe other hand, Nature aids the prey by providing them with colours thatenable them to escape the attention of their enemies. 

The young of many of the arctic animals are covered with fluffy whitehair, so that while they are too young to swim they may lie with safetyupon the ground and escape the attention of polar bears; but in theantarctic regions, where there are few enemies to fear, the young seals, for instance, are exactly the colour of their parents. 

The most remarkable exception of mimetic colouring among the animals ofthe polar regions is the sable. Throughout the long Siberian winter heretains his coat of rich brown fur. His habits, however, are such thathe does not need the protection of colour, for he is so active that hecan easily catch wild birds, and he can also subsist upon wild berries. The woodchuck of North America retains his coat of dark-brown furthroughout the long, cold winters. The matter of his obtaining food, however, is easy, for he lives in burrows, near streams where he cancatch fish and small animals that live in or near the water. 

A number of the old-school naturalists believed that when an animal'scolouring assumed the snowy-white coat of its arctic surroundings, thiswas due to the natural tendency on the part of its hair and fur toassume the colourings and tints of their habitat. This, however, isabsolutely false; and no better proof of it can be offered than the caseof the arctic musk-ox, who is far more polar in his haunts than even thepolar bear, and is therefore exposed to the whitening influence of thewintry regions more than the bear. Yet he never turns white, but isalways brown. The only enemy of this northern-dweller is the arcticwolf, and against this enemy he is protected by powerful hoofs, thickhair, and immense horns. He does not need to conceal himself, andtherefore does not simulate the colour of his surroundings. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE INDIANS CLAIM THAT THE MOTHER BISON FORCED HER CALF TO ROLL OFTEN INA PUDDLE OF RED CLAY, SO THAT IT MIGHT BE INDISTINGUISHABLE AGAINST ITSRED CLAY BACKGROUND. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE ZEBRA IS ONE OF THE CLEVEREST OF CAMOUFLAGERS. THE BLACK-AND-WHITESTRIPES OF HIS BODY GIVE THE EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT PASSING THROUGH BUSHES. ]

Mimetic resemblances are worked out with great difficulty, except insuch cases as the nocturnal animals, which simply become one with theirsurroundings. Mice, rats, moles, and bats wear overcoats that are veryinconspicuous, and when suddenly approached they appear almostinvisible. Some of the North American Indians claimed that buffaloesmade their calves wallow in the red clay to prevent them from being seenwhen they were lying down in the red soil. 

The kinds of protection from these mimetic resemblances are many andvaried: the lion, because of his sandy-colouring, is able to concealhimself by merely crouching down upon the desert sands; the stripedtiger hides among the tufts of grass and bamboos of the tropics, thestripes of his body so blending with the vertical stems as to preventeven the natives from seeing him in this position. The kudu, one of thehandsomest of the antelopes, is a remarkable animal in several ways. Hiscamouflage is so perfect that it gives him magnificent courage. With hisspiral horns, white face, and striped coat tinted in pale blue, he isalmost invisible when hiding in a thicket. The perfect harmony of hishorns with the twisted vines and branches, and the white colourings withblue tints in the reflected sunlight conceal him entirely. 

The snow-leopard, which inhabits Central Asia, is stony-grey, with largeannular spots to match the rocks among which he lives. This colourationconceals him from the sheep, upon which he preys; while the spotted andblotchy pattern of the so-called clouded tiger, and thepeculiarly-barred skin of the ocelot, imitate the rugged bark of trees, upon which these animals live. 

One of the most unusual and skilled mimics is the Indian sloth, whosecolour pattern and unique eclipsing effects seem almost incredible tothose unfamiliar with the real facts. His home is in the trees, and hehas a deep, orange-coloured spot on his back, which would make him veryconspicuous if seen out of his home surroundings. But he is very clever, and clings to the moss-draped trees, where the effect of theorange-coloured spot is exactly like the scar on the tree, while hishair resembles the withered moss so strikingly that even naturalists aredeceived. 

Henry Drummond must have known the animal world rather well when heremarked that "Carlisle in his blackest visions of 'shams and humbugs'among humanity never saw anything so finished in hypocrisy as thenaturalist now finds in every tropical forest. There are to be seencreatures, not singly, but in tens of thousands, whose every appearance, down to the minutest spot and wrinkle, is an affront to truth, whoseevery attitude is a pose for a purpose, and whose whole life is asustained lie. Before these masterpieces of deception the most ingeniousof human impositions are vulgar and transparent. Fraud is not only thegreat rule of life in a tropical forest, but the one condition of it. "

Many of the larger cats live in trees, and most of them have spotted oroscillated skins, which aid them in hiding among foliage plants. Thepuma who wears a brown coat is an exception, but it must be rememberedthat he does not need the kind of coat his fellow friends wear. Heclings so closely to the body of a tree while waiting for his prey as tobe almost invisible. 

This phenomenon is true throughout the animal world. Everywhere doesNature aid in escape and capture. Only those skilled in the ways of thewild fully realise how conspicuous amidst foliage, for instance, wouldbe a uniform colouration. A parti-coloured pattern is extremelydeceptive and thus protective, and for this reason one seldom sees inNature a background of one colour; and since the large majority ofanimals need concealment, it is necessary for them to be clothed inpatterns that vary. 

These variations are especially noticeable in young animals, and furnishthem with a mantle that is practically invisible to predatory enemiesduring the time they are left unprotected by their parents. Theseprotective mantles often differ strikingly in pattern and colourationfrom those of their parents, and indicate that the young animalspresent the colouration and pattern of their remote forbears. It mighteven be said that "the skins of the fathers are thrust upon thechildren, even unto the third and fourth generation!" In fact, it isquite probable that they give through this varying colouration the"life-history" of their family. 

In all hoofed animals--antelope, deer, horses--the protectivecolouration is also adapted to habitat and environment. Most deer belongto the forest, carefully avoiding the open deserts and staying nearwater. They live chiefly in the jungle or scrub, and are usually spottedwith red and white in such a way as to be almost invisible to a casualobserver; some, however, that live in the very shady places areuniformly dark so as to harmonise with their surroundings. The wildhorses and asses of Central Asia are dun-coloured--corresponding exactlyto their sandy habitat. 

The Shakesperian conception of the human world as a stage may beparalleled in the animal world. Animals, like human beings, have all adefinite rôle to play in the drama of life. Each is given certainequipment in form, colour, voice, demeanour, ambitions, desires, andnatural habitat. Some are given much, others but little. Many havesucceeded well in the art of camouflage while endeavouring to make asuccess in life. This success has brought the desired opportunity ofmating, rearing young, bequeathing to them their special gifts andliving in ease and comfort. 

One of the most successful and striking cases of protective colourationin young animals is found in wild swine. Here there is longitudinalstriping which marks them from head to tail in broad white bands, over abackground of reddish dark brown. The tapirs have a most unique form ofmarking. It is similar in the young of the South American and Malayanspecies. Their bodies are exquisitely marked in snow-white bars. Attheir extremities these bars are broken up into small dots which tend tooverlap each other. During the daytime these young animals seek theshade of the bushes and as the spots of sunlight fall upon the groundthey appear so nearly one with their environment as to pass unnoticed bytheir enemies. The adults, however, vary greatly one from another incolouration. The American species is self-coloured, while the Malayanhas the most unique pattern known to the animal world. Thefore-quarters, the head, and the hind-legs are black, while the rest ofthe body from the shoulders backwards is of a dirt-white colour. 

It has been observed by all students of Nature that bold and gaudyanimals usually have means of defending themselves that make them verydisagreeable to their enemies. They either have poisonous fangs, sharpspines, ferocious claws, or disagreeable odours. There are still othersthat escape destruction because of the bad company with which they areassociated by their enemies. 

The reptiles offer us many good examples of mimicry. Most arboreallizards wear the colour of the leaves upon which they feed; the same istrue of the whip-snakes and the tiny green tree-frogs. A strikingexample of successful camouflage is found in the case of a NorthAmerican frog whose home is on lichen-covered rocks and walls, which heso closely imitates in colour and pattern as to pass unnoticed so longas he remains quiet. I have seen an immense frog, whose home was in adamp cave, with large green and black spots over his body precisely likethe spots on the sides of his home. 

 _Author Note:_ The word "mimicry" as used here implies a particular kind of resemblance only, a resemblance in external appearance, never internal, a resemblance that deceives. It does not imply voluntary imitation. Both the words "mimicry" and "imitation" are used to imply outward likeness. The object of the outward likeness or resemblance is to cause a harmless or unprotected animal to be mistaken for the dangerous one which he oftentimes imitates; or to aid the unprotected animal in escaping unnoticed among the surroundings he may simulate. 

A splendid example of pure bluff is shown in the case of the harmlessAustralian lizard, known scientifically under the name of_chlamydosaurus kingii_. When he is undisturbed he seems perfectlyinoffensive, but when he becomes angry, he becomes a veritablefiend-like reptile. In this condition he stands up on his hind legs, opens his gaping mouth, showing the most terrible teeth, which, by theway, have never been known to bite anything. Besides this forbiddingdisplay he further adds to his terrible appearance by raising the mostextraordinary frill which is exquisitely decorated in grey, yellow, scarlet, and blue. This he uses like an umbrella, and if in this way hedoes not succeed in frightening away his enemy, he rushes at him, andlashes him with his saw-like tail. Even dogs are terrified at suchcamouflage and leave the successful bluffer alone. 

In all parts of the tropics are tree-snakes that lie concealed among theboughs and shrubs. Most of them are green, and some have richly colouredbands around their bodies which look not unlike gaily coloured flowers, and which, no doubt, attract flower-seeking insects and birds. Amongthese may be mentioned the deadly-poisonous snakes of the genus _elaps_of South America. They are so brilliantly provided with bright red andblack bands trimmed with yellow rings that it is not uncommon for aplant collector to attempt to pick them up for rare orchids!

Wherever these snakes are found, are also found a number of perfectlyharmless snakes, absolutely unlike the dangerous ones in habit and life, yet coloured precisely the same. The _elaps fulvius_, for example, adeadly venomous snake of Guatemala, has a body trimmed in simple blackbands on a coral-red ground, and in the same country and always with himis found a quite harmless snake, which is coloured and banded in thesame identical manner. The terrible and much-feared _elaps lemnicatus_has the peculiar black bands divided into divisions of three by narrowyellow rings, thus exactly mimicking a harmless snake, the _plioceruselapoides_, both of which live in Mexico. Presumably, the deadly varietyassumes the colouring of the harmless kind in order to deceive intendedvictims as to his ferocity. 

Surely this is sufficient evidence that colouration and pattern-designis a useful camouflage device of the great struggle for existence. Andit is safe to assert that any animal that has enemies and still does notresort to protective colouration or mimicry in some form is entirelyable to protect itself either by its size, strength, ferocity, or byresorting to safety in numbers. Elephants and rhinoceroses, for example, are too powerful to be molested when grown, except in the rarest cases, and are furthermore thoroughly capable of protecting their young. Hippopotamuses are protected by their immense heads, and are capable ofdefending their young from crocodiles even when in the water. 

The bison and buffalo, which were once so powerful on the plains ofNorth America, were protected by their gregarious habits, whichterrorised their enemies--the wolves. Their nurseries were a feature oftheir wisdom. These were circular pens where the tall grass was trampeddown by expectant mothers for the protection of their young. Thisnatural nursery was protected from the inside by sentinels who wentround and round the pen constantly guarding the young not only from theattack of wolves but also from venturing forth alone too early into theopen unprotected plains. In a similar way the snow-pens of the moose ofthe Far North serve to protect them from the hungry hordes of wolves ofwhich they live in constant danger. This indicates that the annihilationof the bison and buffalo was due, not to lack of wisdom, but to man'sinhumanity; for, taking advantage of their nurseries, the men crouchednear and concealing themselves in the grass killed not only the mothersfor food but even the young in their savage sport. 

The large majority of monkeys are protectively coloured with some shadeof brown or grey, with specially marked faces. Entire packs ofCeylonese species will, at the slightest alarm, become invisible bycrouching on a palm-tree. One of the most strikingly coloured Africanmonkeys is jet black with a white bushy tail, and a face surrounded by awhite ring, or mantle of long silky hair. He thus simulates sostrikingly the hanging white lichens upon the trees that he is rarelyseen by his enemies. 

A book might be written upon the various ways that animals, when closelyassociated with other animals or human beings, imitate them. Darwin saysthat "two species of wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned tobark, as does sometimes the jackall, " and it is well known that certaindogs, when reared by cats, imitate their habits, even to the licking oftheir feet and the washing of their faces. If a mongrel dog associateswith a trained dog for any period of time it is remarkable the progresshe will make. For this same reason young dogs are carried on huntingtrips with trained dogs that they may learn by imitation the art ofhunting. 

In the whole realm of Nature there is nothing more wonderful than thismatter of protective colouration. Animals do not monopolise the art. Itextends through the whole world of living creatures. The fact thatindividual animals have no voluntary control over their own colour iseloquent testimony as to the existence of mysterious life forces andracial evolutions which are still far beyond the grasp of man'sunderstanding. To see a tiny chameleon adapt his colouring to hisenvironment, be it red, green, or yellow, in the twinkling of an eye, isto have seen an argument for God Himself. 

II

ANIMAL MUSICIANS

 _"Nay, what is Nature's self, But an endless strife towards Music, euphony, rhyme?"_

 --WATSON. 

The great thinkers of the age believe that the world is one marvellousblending of innumerable and varied voices. This unison of sound formsthe great music of the spheres, which the poets and philosophers havewritten so much about. Even from a purely scientific point of view, there is no denying that this music exists. Aviators tell us that whenthey listen from a distance to the myriads of noises and sounds thatarise over a great city, these are all apparently lost in a modulatedhum precisely like the vibrations of an immense tuning-fork, andappearing as but a single tone. Thus the immense noise going from ourworld is musically digested into one tone, and the aviator soaring abovethe earth hears only the one sound--the music of the spheres. 

The deep appreciation that animals have for music is becoming agenerally known fact among those who have studied them closely. Everyone must admit that there is much truth in the old saying that "musichath charms to soothe the savage breast. " Music is composed ofvibrations, which act with great power upon the nervous system of menand animals alike. Each is affected according to his particular physicaland mental development. 

Professor Tarchanoff has made a careful study of the influence of musicupon men and animals. He has demonstrated, by means of a machine whichcarefully registers the various activities of the hands and fingers, that when the hands are so tired and fatigued that they cannot make anymarks except a straight line on the cylinder which registers themovements, music will so stimulate the nerves as to cause all fatigue todisappear. And as soon as the fingers again touch the cylinder, theybegin to draw lines of various kinds and heights, thus proving that themusic had rested the fingers and placed them under control. Variouskinds of music were used: that of a melancholy nature had precisely theopposite effect to that of a lively, cheerful character; the nerves ofthe hands could either be contracted or expanded according to the natureof the music. 

Like all real scientists, Professor Tarchanoff does not claim to giveany positive explanation of these facts. He believes, however, that thevoluntary muscles act in the same relation to the music as theheart--that is, that cheerful, happy music affects the excito-motornerves, sets up a vibration in those nerves which produces cheer andgood feeling; while sad, morbid music plays along the depressant nervesand produces sadness and depression. 

In view of these facts, it is easy to see how animals, with theirnervous temperaments and ready response to outside stimuli, are greatlyinfluenced by various kinds of music. It is scientifically recognisedthat music tends to increase the elimination of carbonic acid andincreases not only the consumption of oxygen, but even the activities ofthe skin. There is no doubt that good music at meal time aids thedigestion. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

MONKEYS ARE THE MOST MUSICAL OF ALL ANIMALS. WHEN THEY CONGREGATE FOR"CONCERTS, " AS SOME OF THE TRIBES DO, THE AIR IS FILLED WITH WEIRDSTRAINS OF MONKEY-MUSIC. ]

[Illustration: CATS, UNLIKE DOGS, ARE VERY FOND OF MUSIC. AND IT HASBEEN PROVED THAT THEIR MUSIC-SENSE CAN BE DEVELOPED TO A REMARKABLEDEGREE. ]

Cats have a species of unbeautiful music all their own, generallyproduced at late hours of the night on the house tops, garden walls, andin the alleys of our dwellings. Miss Cat's songs are far too chromaticto be appreciated by human ears; as a result her concertos and solos arerarely spoken of by human critics. However, Nature does sometimesproduce a Tetrazzini, Alice Neilson, or Caruso, in the form of a cat, which really delights in harmonious combinations of sound. I know, forinstance, of a cat called "Nordica" owned by Presson Miller, whoapparently takes the greatest delight in hearing good vocal andinstrumental music. Another well-educated musical cat belongs to afriend who plays a guitar. This cat delights in touching the stringswith his dainty, soft paws, and springs with delight as the notes areproduced. 

The _Animal World_ speaks of five musical cats, which were carried tovarious parts of the world and exhibited as "bell-ringers, " and theirowner made a fortune out of their concerts. Five bells were suspendedfrom a hoop, which hung above the stage, and to each bell was attached asmall rope. At a given signal, each cat would seize a bell and give it apull. This was done with such perfect time and spirit that one mightwell believe it was the work of human musicians and not of cats. 

Cows are responsive to certain kinds of music. A funeral march makesthem sad, and ragtime so disturbs them that they give but little milk. The newspapers claim that Charles W. Ward, who owns a ranch near Eureka, California, says that the right kind of music will increase theproduction of milk, and that he uses a phonograph in the dairy barn. 

A friend, who has travelled much, tells the story of a musical cow. He, in company with two other friends, was coming up a river in a small boatsinging. Just as they turned a bend, they saw a small brown cow, suckling her calf, along with several other cows in a nearby pasture. The cow seemed so fascinated with the music that she plunged into thewater and waded up to her head trying to reach the boat. As they rowedalong, she ran up and down the bank, cutting capers in a mostastonishing manner and lowing and bellowing in testimony of her delightin the music. She would leap, skip, roll on the grass, paw up the earth, like an angry bull, and chase off like a playful kitten, always with alow plaintive bellow as a final farewell. These friends often rowed upthe river just to see if the musical cow was there, and she alwaysgreeted them in the usual appreciative manner. 

Lions and tigers are proverbially fond of music. Professional trainerstell us that these animals, when tamed, will not do their stunts withoutthe accompaniment of music. The story is told of a group of tigers whichrecently refused to perform, because the musicians, while theperformance was going on, went on a strike. At once when the musicceased, the animals returned to their respective seats and no amount ofencouragement would induce them to continue their performance. Noamount of threats would induce them to work without music. The trainerdared not punish them too severely, yet he feared that if they were notforced to perform, they might continue to strike. But such was not thecase, for on the morrow when the musicians returned they acted as neverbefore. 

Sheep, both tame and wild, are exceedingly fond of music, and theshepherds of Scotland have used it with their sheep for ages. When theshepherd plays upon his flute or bagpipe, they gather around him andlisten apparently with great satisfaction; when the music ceases, theywander out to feed, and in the evening he leads them home by the singlestrains of his flute. 

Circus horses are not only fond of music, but are partial to certaintunes, and demand that these be played while they are doing their turn. If for any reason the band changes the tune during a performance, theyimmediately refuse to go on with their stunts. 

The original fountain of all music was based on the various voices andsounds of animals--and each musical instrument was originally devised toimitate these sounds. For all instruments--the bass drum, flute, clarinet, trombone, trumpet, violin, and even pipe organ--an animal maybe mentioned that owns the fundamental tones in its voice, and whichman has imitated. Castanets, for example, were imitations of therattlesnakes; the first musical instruments of any savage tribe of menare made so as to represent the voices of the chief animals of thatparticular locality. 

Every animal of the higher order, with the exception of a few mute dogsthat belong to very hot or cold climates, is possessed of some sort ofmusical tone, expressive of pain or joy, and by means of which he canexpress certain emotions. Darwin claimed that the voice of the gibbon, while extremely loud, was very musical; and Waterhouse said that thismusician sang the scale with considerable accuracy, at leastsufficiently well for a trained violinist to accompany him. 

Often when dogs hear music they howl, or attempt to sing. Some show adecided preference for certain kinds of music, and actually try toimitate it. Gross tells of a friend of his who had a dog with which heoften gave performances. The dog would accompany his master, when hesang in falsetto, with howls that were unmistakably attempts at singing, and which readily adapted themselves to the pitch of the tone. This wasa musical accomplishment of which he was very proud. 

On a subject of which so little is known, there are, of course, diverseopinions. Scheitlin believed that music is actually disagreeable to adog, but he says that it may be questioned whether or not the dog doesnot in some way accompany it. And Romanes, the great animal authority, thought the same thing. He had a terrier, which accompanied him when hesang, and actually succeeded in following the prolonged notes of thehuman voice with a certain approximation to unison. Dr. Higgins, amusician, claimed that his large mastiff could sing to the accompanimentof the organ. 

Alix gives such positive examples that they are really marvellous: "PerePardies cites the case of two dogs that had been taught to sing, one ofthem taking a part with his master. Pierquin de Gembloux also speaks ofa poodle that could run the scale in tune and sing very agreeably a finecomposition of Mozart's _My Heart It Sings at Eve_. " All the scientistsin Paris, according to the same authority, went to see the dog belongingto Dr. Bennati, and hear it sing the scale, which it could do perfectly. 

Monkeys and apes most nearly approximate human musicians. In centralAfrica these animal tribes have musical centres where they congregateregularly for "concerts. " Prof. Richard S. Garner, the noted authorityon apes and monkeys, believes that the time has already come for theestablishment of a school for their education. He would have the coursesbeginning with a kindergarten and advancing through as many grades asthe students required. Prof. Garner furthermore believes that we havelittle understanding of the gorilla, and points out that these animalshave a very happy and harmonious home life, the father being highlydomestic and delighting in the company of his wife and children. It isnot uncommon to find five or six generations in a certain district ofthe jungle. 

Their near kin, the chimpanzees, are equally clannish, but more musical. They come down from the branches of the trees, seating themselves on thedry leaves and assembling like an orchestra. After all are ready, theybegin beating the leaves with their hands, at first very slowly, likethe quiet prelude to a symphony, and gradually increasing in tempo untilthe grand crescendo is reached. Then, as if by the direction of aninvisible leader, the music suddenly ceases. To deny that this is tothem a real concert would lead us into extreme absurdities. In thisconnection it is interesting to note that when a baby is expected in thevillage, all music ceases until after its birth, when they again resumetheir periodic musical festivals. Hensel verifies this observation, andtells us of having seen apes come from their shelter in the earlymorning and congregate for a musical concert. "They repair, " he says, "to the shelter of some gigantic monarch of the forest whose limbs offerfacilities for walking exercises. The head of the family appropriatesone of these branches and advances along it seriously, with elevatedtail, while the others group themselves about him. Soon he gives forthsoft single notes, as the lion likes to do when he tests the capacity ofhis lungs. This sound, which seems to be made by drawing the breath inand out, becomes deeper and in more rapid succession as the excitementof the singer increases. At last, when the highest pitch is reached, theintervals cease and the sound becomes a continuous roar, and at thispoint all the others, male and female, join in, and for fully tenseconds at a time the awful chorus sounds through the quiet forest. Atthe close the leader begins again with the detached sounds. "

Perhaps the most remarkable evidence of animals showing a comprehensiveintelligence of musical pitch is demonstrated by cavalry horses. Thatthey thoroughly understand it is clearly demonstrated by the fact thatthey will obey the calls of the bugle for cavalry evolutions without amoment's hesitation and with no suggestion from outside sources. Thesebugle calls are produced by a combination of four notes, each of adifferent pitch, and it is rarer to find a horse making a mistake in themusical orders given than it is for their masters. 

Rats and mice have a decided liking for music, as is attested by thefact that they appear as uninvited guests and also come as near theperformer as possible. Mice, one would believe, love church music, forthey often build their nests in pipe organs, thus being able to reartheir children in both a musical and religious atmosphere! There is moretruth than imagination in the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, whichillustrates how they respond to the simple charms of music. 

Even donkeys betray tendencies toward musical efforts, and seem to bearoused by music at least temporarily to a higher mental plane thanBalaam was inclined to ascribe to his wise ass. Not all of them singequally well, but in Arizona the donkey is known as the "desert canary. "If you were to spend a few glorious days in the Hopi village of Araibi, you would hear through the still, silent night their long nasal bray orsong, and you would be convinced that the term is quite appropriate. Youmay not exactly like the tune, but you will concede that they sing!

Society is just awakening to the joy and the significance of communityart. This is everywhere indicated by the great growing group of peoplewho come together for a common music, either as a chorus or an orchestraor both. But in this field man has not yet attained such unity ofcommunal effort as have the frogs. In the great swamps of the worldmyriads of them gather from miles around, conscious of one purpose, andby a marvellous understanding and co-operation create for themselves asymphony with beauties and harmonies of its own, and such as to standunrivalled in man's musical world. In the great chorus are voices fromthe lowest bass of the croaking bullfrog, squatting in the marshes, tothe myriads of tiny green tree tenors, between which are millions ofaltos, contraltos, sopranos, coloraturas and other voices not yet in ourmusical vocabulary. These are accompanied by all the sounds of ourorchestra and innumerable others of such delicate shades and gradationsas to defy the ear of man. If we listen to one of these concerts, wewill quickly recognise the tones of every familiar instrument, such asthe drum, pipe, horn, trombone, oboe, piccolo, 'cello, and violin. Thegreatest of these musical festivals directly precedes the mating season, and is a dramatic instance of a manifestation of an inner rhythm whichcorresponds to an external periodicity. 

Among the oldest traditions of the Eastern world are those ofsnake-charming by means of music. I have long been interested in thisstrange phenomenon of Nature, and in company with a brilliant youngviolinist visited a zoological park recently, and after securingpermission from the head keeper, entered the snake-house. The violinistbegan by playing a few most sympathetic chords, first delicate and soft, then sad, then gay, slow or tremulous. Near us, coiled in his immensecage, was a large cobra--the snake which all legend claims is mosteasily influenced by music. Almost immediately after the music began, the cobra raised himself in a listening attitude, steadily gazed at usas though he were viewing the future, spread his immense hood, andslowly began to shake his head from side to side, as if he were tryingto keep time to the music. As soon as the music would change, hisattitude changed accordingly. Only after the music had ceased did heresume his normal position. 

The Indians agree that under the influence of various musicalinstruments, especially bagpipes, snake-charmers are able to get thesnakes to come out from their homes among the old rocks and walls, andwhen they appear they seem perfectly dazed so that they can be easilycaptured. 

It is not well to have any kind of musical instrument played, when in aforest at night where there are dangerous snakes, lest they come to hearit. Snake-hunters always carry with them some kind of musicalinstrument, depending upon the kind of snakes they wish to capture. Itseems that all are not equally fascinated by it. I have experimentedwith little effect upon a large rattler; it may have been that he wasdeaf. But he gave little evidence of being interested. 

We need not feel humiliated, then, for our animal kinspeople with theirprimitive music: we were monkeys, and before them we were reptiles, birds, fishes, even worms. But that was ages ago, and we have grown upand become better musicians. Evolution has chosen us as its favouritesand given us every advantage in the struggle up the ladder of life. Ourmusical rivals of yesterday are as chorus people compared toMetropolitan Opera stars, with us. On this earth we reign supreme, wehave conquered the earth, air, and water, annihilating time anddistance. What more is there for us to learn of Nature's secrets? Onlyan understanding of our lower brothers, the animals. 

III

ANIMALS AT PLAY

 _". . . _About them frisking, played All beasts of the earth, since wild, and of all chase In wood or wilderness, forest or den; Sporting the lion romped, and in his paw Dandled the kid; bears, tigers, ounces, pards, Gambled before them; the unwieldy elephant, To make them mirth, used all his might, and wreathed His light proboscis. "_

 _--Paradise Lost. _

That "one touch of Nature makes the whole world kin" is shown in noclearer way than by the games and play of animals. Recreation is ascommon among them as it is among our own children; and they seem alwaysto be artistic and even skilled in their play. Young goats and lambsskip, jump, run races, throw flips in the air, and gambol; calves haveinteresting frolics; young colts and mules have biting and kickinggames; bears wrestle and tumble; puppies delight in biting and tussling;while kittens chase everything from spools of thread to their owntails. 

But animal children grow up, and stop playing to a certain extent as ageadvances, precisely as human children do. Each settles down into a morepractical condition of life. They dislike to have their games and playdisturbed, and if the mother dog growls because her playful son hascontinuously tumbled over her while she was sleeping, or the cat-motherslaps her kitten because he plays with her tail--it is a display of thesame kind of emotion that prompts a human mother to rebuke her child inthe nursery for making too much noise, or for throwing toys out of thewindow. Animals, like ourselves, feel every sensation of joy, happiness, surprise, disappointment, love, hope, ambition, and through theiryouthful games an entire index of their future lives may be obtained. 

This play has much to do with the physical and mental development of theanimals; and it is strange indeed that so few writers have consideredthe subject of play in the animal world. Most of those who have noticedthe subject at all, drop it with a few remarks, to the effect that it is"highly amusing, " or "very funny, " or "unbelievable, " or "so like theplay of children, " without even a word of explanation of the whys andwherefores of it. 

All animals have some kinds of play. Plutarch speaks of a trainedelephant that often practised her steps when she thought no one waslooking. No one who has ever visited a zoological park and seen thecrowded monkey and baboon cages can have failed to note the wonderfulplay of these animals. Seals seem never to tire of chasing one anotherthrough the water; while even the clumsy hippopotamuses have divinggames. 

Kittens begin to tumble and play before they are two weeks old. Theywill roll and toss a ball, hunting it from the dark corners, lay insilent wait for each other, and suddenly spring upon an unsuspectingfellow-cat-baby's back, just as they will do later in life, when seekingtheir prey. I have seen them play with a catnip mouse for hours at atime, just as the mother cat plays with a real mouse. 

Brehm says that this is noticed in their earliest kittenhood, and thatthe mother cat encourages it in all ways possible, even to becoming achild with her children from love of them, as a human mother does in thenursery with her child. The mother cat begins the play by slowly movingher tail. Gesner considered her tail as the indicator of her moods. Thekittens, while they may not understand what this means, are greatlyexcited by the movement, their eyes sparkle, their ears stand erect, andslowly one after another clutches after the moving tail. Suddenly, one springs over the mother's back, another grabs at her feet, while athird playfully slaps her in the face with his tiny, soft, cushionedpaw. She, patiently and mother-like, lovingly submits to all thistreatment, as it is only play. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

DRYPTOSAURUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, TOO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIR PLAYTIME, WITH GAMES AND "SETTING UP" EXERCISES. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

A HAPPY FAMILY OF POLAR BEARS. THE YOUNG CUBS WRESTLE AND TUMBLE, ASPLAYFULLY AS TWO PUPPIES. THIS PLAY HAS MUCH TO DO WITH THEIR PHYSICALAND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. ]

Many scientists have claimed that this so-called instinct should not beclassed as real play. However, such an authority as Darwin thought itwas play, and Scheitlin said that the cat let the mouse loose many timesin order that she might have the experience of catching it each time. Nomercy is shown the helpless mouse, which is the same to her as the toyball--in the same way as a real beetle and a toy beetle are the same toa small child. Evidently the cat does not play with the mouse for thedelight in torturing it, but purely for practice that she may becomeskilled in the art of catching it. The cat also exercises in springingmovements, and by studying the mouse's probable movements, learns toacquire a knowledge and skill in mouse-ways otherwise impossible. 

The same cruel practice is found among leopards, panthers, and wildcats. Brehm verifies the observation that many members of the cat familypractise torturing their victims in a horrible manner, pretending toliberate them, until the poor creatures at last die from their wounds. Lenz tells of a marten that would play with its prey for hours when nothungry. Especially was this true when marmots chanced to be his victims, and around these he would leap and spring, dealing them terrific blowsfirst with one paw and then with the other. When hungry, however, heproceeded differently, devouring them at once from teeth to tail. 

All the cat family, it seems, are fond of human companionship, and takealmost as much delight in playing with human beings as with their ownkind. This is especially true of the puma. Brehm tells of a tame onethat delighted in hiding at the approach of his master and springing outunexpectedly, just as the lion does. Hudson claimed that the puma, withthe exception of the monkey, was possibly the most playful of allanimals. Travellers tell many interesting tales of the play of theseanimals, especially on the Pampas of South America. 

Gross relates the experience of an Englishman who was compelled to spendthe night outdoors on the Pampas of the La Plata. At about nine o'clock, on a bright moonlight night, he saw four pumas coming toward him, twoadult animals and two young ones. He well knew that these animals wouldnot attack him, so he quietly waited. In a short time they approachedhim, chasing one another and playing hide-and-seek like little kittens;and finally leaped directly over the man several times. The mother catwould run ahead, calling to the little ones to follow her. But she neverdisturbed him. 

At times an animal at play with another uses the same tactics andmethods employed on its prey. Of course, the value of such practice forthe tasks of later-life is evident. Dogs play hide-and-seek, tag, andvarious chasing games for hours without resting. Among the negroes ofthe South it is not uncommon to see a hound playing hide-and-seek withthe little pickaninnies. I have seen a hound peeping in and out among apile of brush to discover where the little ones were hiding, and at thefirst sight of a little black face, he would lay low in anticipation ofa playful spring, or a sudden dash-away, with the expectation of beingchased by his friends. At times he would suddenly disappear toward hishome, and slyly slip around and approach the playground from an oppositedirection. 

Every one who has owned fox terriers knows how they will crouch in theopen grass and remain motionless, with quivering expectation for theother playfellow to arrive, and when the one in ambush sees the othercoming he springs toward him, as though he were going to destroy him!And when the two come together, they attempt to seize each other by thenecks, as they would do in a real conflict. A wrestle and tussle ensuesand when utterly exhausted from this play, the tired dogs, like twofatigued children, run to their homes. 

Dogs are fond of playing ball, and will readily bring a ball or stick totheir master when he has thrown it. They will also go into the water tobring out sticks that may have been tossed in for amusement. EugeneZimmerman had a young fox terrier that would set a ball in motion, whenthere was no one to pitch it for him, by seizing it in his mouth andtossing it up in the air. Monkeys and jaguars will also play ball, andtame bears take great delight in wrestling, playing ball, and fightingmock battles. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE MOTHER OPOSSUM IS NEVER HAPPIER THAN WHEN SHE HAS HER LITTLE ONESPLAYING HIDE-AND-SEEK OVER HER BACK. ]

[Illustration: THIS YOUNG FOX CAME FROM HIS HOME IN THE WOODS DAILY TOPLAY WITH A YOUNG FOX-TERRIER. HE IS NOW RESTING AFTER A ROMP. ]

Beckmann wonderfully describes the play of a badger, whose only playmatewas an exceptionally clever dog, who from his earliest youth had beentaught to live with different kinds of animals. "Together they wentthrough a series of gymnastic exercises on pleasant afternoons, andtheir four-footed friends came from far and near to witness theperformance. The essentials of the game were that the badger, roaringand shaking his head like a wild boar, should charge upon the dog, asit stood about fifteen paces off, and strike him in the side with itshead; the dog, leaping dexterously entirely over the badger, awaited asecond and third attack, and then made his antagonist chase him allround the garden. If the badger managed to snap the dog's hindquarters, an angry tussle ensued, but never resulted in a real fight. If Caspar, the badger, lost his temper, he drew off without turning round, and gotup snorting and shaking and with bristling hair, and strutted about likean inflated turkey-cock. After a few moments his hair would smooth down, and with some head-shaking and good-natured grunts the mad play wouldbegin again. "

Young animals are strikingly like children in their craving foramusement. A young bear will lie on his back and play with his feet andtoes by the hour, while a young pup can have a great game with only adry bone, or by chasing his shadow on the wall. Rabbits come out inevenings on the sand-hills to play hide-and-seek with their young, andsquirrels never weary of this universally popular game. I know of ayoung fox that used to come from a nearby woods every evening to playwith a young fox-terrier. They became great friends and were often seenin the woods together. 

A friend who owns a ranch in Texas once raised two young wolves thatromped and played with the neighbour's dogs just as if they were dogsthemselves. There are other animals, like the weasels, that will alsoplay with strange friends. But they prefer their own kind as playmates. They take the greatest delight in playing with their parents, andnothing is more beautiful or strange than to see several of them playingin a valley on a sunny day. Out pops one little head, with twinklingeyes glancing from side to side, and then as if from nowhere, the littlebrothers and sisters begin to appear, chasing each other as though theywere playing tag. These exercises give them much agility which they willneed in later life. 

I once owned a tame raccoon, and often kept him chained in the backyard. When he could not find a young chicken or duck to torment, hedevised all kinds of schemes to relieve the monotonous hours. He wouldpile up a number of small stones, and carefully await his chance tofling one into a group of young chickens. He seemed to understand thathe was more apt to make a hit when he threw into a crowd than whenaiming at a single chick. At other times he would lie on his back, madlywaving his tail as though he were signalling for some one to come near. If we chanced to pass by without speaking, he would growl or whine insome way to attract attention. After hours of self-amusement he wouldlie down as if life were useless, and wait until something or somebodycame along to amuse him. His greatest delight was in fishing things outof a pan of water, and he would wash every pebble or plaything that heowned and carefully lay it out to dry. One day he pounced upon a roosterwho insulted him by drinking from his water vessel, and plucked a longfeather from his tail so quickly that we could hardly realise what hadtaken place. He then had great fun in attempting to stick the feather inhis head or by planting it upright in the ground. Another day, inwinter, he broke his chain and made straight for the kitchen, where hefound a snug warm place in old Aunt Moriah's kitchen oven. The oldnegress came to cook dinner and when the raccoon suddenly sprang out ofher oven, she vowed, "I'se nevah gwine to cook in dis heah kitchenagain; dis place is hoodooed fo' life!"

Once we gave him a pail of hot milk, and it was evidently hotter than werealised; he started to drink it, and suddenly stopped, and in angergrabbed at a very young puppy that was following us, and before we couldstop him, dipped the puppy's head into the hot milk. Fortunately, however, the milk was not hot enough to injure the puppy. But theraccoon had taken his revenge out on the little animal, and wasevidently satisfied. 

It is interesting to note that all animals seem to play games and takeexercises that will be especially helpful to them in later life. Badgers, for example, delight in turning somersaults; deer like to jumpand leap; foxes and raccoons practise stealing upon one unnoticed;tapirs and crocodiles play in the water as night approaches; mountaingoats, sheep, horses and mules run, leap, jump, and play follow-leader. Animals that live in the high mountains practise all kinds ofhigh-jumps, which would be unnecessary if they lived on level ground, but are highly essential in mountainous countries. 

Brehm claims that in summer the chamois climb up to the everlasting snowand take much delight in playing in it. They will drop into a crouchingposition on the top of a very steep mountain, work their four legs witha swimming motion, and slide down on the surface of the snow for ahundred and fifty metres. As they slide down the snow flies over themlike a fine powder. As soon as they reach the bottom, they jump to theirfeet, and slowly climb up the mountain-side again, while many of theircomrades silently stand by and watch their coasting approvingly, firstone and then another joining in the sport, like human coasters would do. It is not uncommon for a number of them to tumble together at thebottom, like romping children. This coasting is very remarkable, andthrough skill in it, no doubt, the lives of many chamois are saved fromfrightful accidents later in life. Alix tells us that dogs ofmountainous countries are also often skilled in the art of coasting. 

Our tame fawn used to delight in playing with our old rabbit-dog, Nimrod. They were the best of friends, and the fawn would begin thechase by approaching Nimrod as though he were going to stamp him intothe earth, and then suddenly leaping quickly and safely over the dog, hewould run away. At this signal for a game, if Nimrod was in the mood, hechased the fawn, who would delight in jumping over fences and hedges andwaiting for poor Nimrod to get over or under just in time to see hisplaymate leap to the other side. 

Wolves, if taken when quite young, have a most unique way of showingtheir affection at the appearance of their master. They will spring intothe air, tumbling over, with whinnying cries of delight, falling to theground they pretend to bite and snap at everything, until their friendfinally comes very near them. 

Prairie dogs are fond of all kinds of races and jumping games; they willeach appear at the entrance to their underground homes, and will play asimple form of prisoners'-base for long periods of time. With defiantcalls at each other, one finally approaches the home of the other, whichis a signal for the third to attempt to slip into the entrance to thesecond one's home before he can return. Many join in the game and itusually ends in a regular roll-and-tumble for their respective homes. 

Perhaps the strangest of all forms of play is that in which youngduckbills indulge. They are slightly like puppies in their methods ofroll-and-tumble, but the way in which they grab one another with theirstrange bills, as they strike with their fore-paws is quite original. They seem to have an unusually good disposition, and if one littleplayfellow falls in the game, and desires to scratch himself beforearising, the other patiently waits until he arises, when the mock battlebegins anew. 

Antelopes have chase and marching games which are beautiful. They seemrapidly to follow an invisible leader over the plains, suddenly formingthemselves into pairs, fours, eights, sixteens, until the entire herdthus form one line, like an army of soldiers marching. While this gameis progressing, certain of their number stand as sentinels andspectators, and the slightest approach of an enemy is the signal for allplay to cease, and for them to disappear over the plains. 

When we witness these abundant evidences of the need and prevalence ofrecreation in the animal world, we are confronted with one more argumentfor the existence of real mental and moral faculties among ourfour-footed friends. 

IV

ARMOUR-BEARING AND MAIL-CLAD ANIMALS

 _"The spectacle of Nature is always new, for she is always renewing the spectators. Life is her most exquisite invention; and death is her expert contrivance to get plenty of life. "_

 --GOETHE'S _Aphorisms_ (trans. By HUXLEY). 

Civilised nations throughout the world at different times in theircountry's history have protected their soldiers and warriors with coatsof armour or mail. This practice prevailed extensively during the MiddleAges; but it has almost entirely disappeared. The German breastplates ofto-day are an attempted revival. The coats of mail of the ancientwarriors underwent an evolutionary process, until they were indeedbrought to a high pitch of perfection and beauty. It was at this periodthat they were abandoned as too burdensome to be of practical value. 

This protective form of armour has been used by animals since timeimmemorial, and was copied by man from them; and among the various formsof it are found examples of every kind of armour used in the humanworld, from the rough leather shields of hide which the savages use, tothe ornamental suits of mail, like those used by the knights of thefifteenth century. Indeed, some animals have carried the art ofprotection to such an extent that they are veritable movable forts, or"tanks!"

In the early part of the earth's history, animals needed greaterprotection from powerful enemies than they do at present, and theydeveloped a coat of mail, exquisite in appearance and even moreefficient than that used by man. Yet, like mankind, they have foundnewer and more efficient methods of protection, and as a result ofchanged conditions and enemies, have discarded, at least most of them, their coats of mail and armour. Most of those who have held to theold-fashioned ways of fighting and facing the world, have, likeunprogressive peoples, perished; and to-day only a few armour-bearinganimals exist. These classes, however, have never been very large, andconsist of two small families; the pangolins and the armadillos. Theformer live in southern Asia and Africa, while the latter areinhabitants of South America. 

These animals have a great advantage over man, for their armour growsupon their bodies and is a part of them, while man must put his on andtake it off and continually replace the worn-out parts. Again, whilethere are only three distinct kinds of human armour--the chain, scaleand plate armour--there are many kinds of animal armour. What wonderfulopportunities exist to-day in the great museums for studying thedifferent kinds of animal armour, for those who are interested!

The scaly ant-eater, who is at home in Africa and Asia, is one of themost unusual and original types of mail-clad animals. He might becompared to a wolf in outline, covered from head to tail in huge, hornyplates, which look like immense finger-nails overlapping each other. Hishead sharpens out into a long, narrow snout, which contains a sticky, worm-like tongue, and this he can use with great rapidity and effect inraiding an ant-hill. He drops his tongue over the entrance, and the antsattempt to crawl over it and are glued to it. He walks in a very uniqueway by going upon the backs of his feet. This preserves his wonderfulclaws for bursting open ants' nests, as his chief food consists of thesetiny insects and their eggs. 

A cousin of the scaly ant-eater, the great ant-eater of South America, has the same general habits of his near-kinsman. He has an immense bushytail with which some naturalists claim he sweeps up ants. This is nottrue, however; he uses his tail, when he lies down, to cover himself. The hairs of the tail part in such a manner as to fall over the bodylike a thatched roof, protecting it from rain and storm alike. 

A part of the head and under portion of this ant-eater's body areunprotected, and this is why he rolls himself up like a ball when dangeris near. In this position, his scales stand out in such a way as to makea complete row of sharp points, as uninviting as the wires on a barbedwire fence. Yet, it is claimed that certain of his enemies, like theleopard, know his one great weakness--a terror of being wet--and oftenmake him uncoil by rolling him into the water. His coat of hard coveringis really compact masses of hardened hair drawn out to sharp daggerpoints, and might be likened to pine cones endued with power. Throughages of experience, the scaly ant-eater has learned that even hispowerful coat of protection is not altogether a success in life'sbattles, and from time to time his armour has been made lighter andlighter, and because he has been so slow in making the necessarychanges, he is to-day very scarce, and able only by the greatest cautionto drag out a dull existence as a nocturnal and burrowing animal. Itwould seem that with such powerful protection as he originally had, hewould have outlived the puny armadillos, but his fast disappearanceproves that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to thestrong. 

Among the animals which have discarded their old-fashioned coats ofmail, and have successfully protected themselves against all enemies, may be mentioned the frogs, newts, and their kinspeople, the reptiles. These latter, the learned, with their delight in multiplying terms, haveclassed as amphibians. During the period when the coal forests weregrowing over what we now know as England, there were innumerableamphibians, and even to-day their petrified footmarks are found insandstone. The underside of their chests were covered with large bonyplates, and in some cases the rest of the body was covered withscale-like bones. Yet, all the newts and frogs of to-day have wiselydiscarded the old coats of armour used by their forefathers. 

The armadillo has an armour of quite another kind, notwithstanding thefact that pangolins and armadillos belong to the same great family, andeach eats ants. Their plates of armour, or shields, have nothing at allto do with the hair, nor do they have anything to do with theexo-skeleton; they are formed of bone material, which appears in thetrue skin in the form of tiny shields, and each shield is itselfcovered with a hard plate which grows in the outer skin. The actualformation of these shields differs largely in the various species ofarmadillo. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

NAOSAURUS AND DIMETRODON, TWO EXTINCT ARMOUR-BEARERS WHO SHOULD HAVEBEEN WELL ABLE TO PROTECT THEMSELVES. ]

[Illustration: AN ARMOUR-BEARER OF PREHISTORIC TIMES WHOSE SHIELD WAS ANEFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST ENEMY HORNS. ]

It is well to remember that the pangolins and armadillos are the lastsurvivors of a great and ancient family of armour-bearers. Many of theirremote ancestors have been found in the rocks and hills of SouthAmerica, and all of their representatives of to-day are smallanimals--the last of a doomed race--creatures of yesterday. Theglyptodon is known to have been more than eleven feet in length, and hisnear-kinsman, the chlamydothere, was even larger. He was nearly the sizeof our present-day rhinoceros. These extinct giants carried on theirbacks huge domes of bony plates, that must have rivalled our much-fearedtanks, of trench war fame. One would think they were invulnerable, yetthe glyptodon and the chlamydothere, with many other equally wellprotected creatures, have long ago disappeared from the earth, but howand why nobody knows. This total disappearance of these marvellouslyprotected giants, which seemed capable of defending themselves againstany and all kinds of enemies that might have arisen, is one of thestrangest and most unsolvable problems of science. 

Another mail-clad animal of importance is the armadillo of the tropicaland temperate regions of South America. He is nocturnal in habits, sleeping in his underground home during the day, and coming out at nightto seek for food. This underground home is rather large, and the nurseryis well protected from enemies by its location. In it the motherarmadillo rears her young until they are large enough to care forthemselves. 

All species of the armadillos are powerful burrowers, and they are wellequipped for their tunnelling in the earth with strong fore limbs. Theyfeed upon all kinds of insects and animal substances. It is claimed thatthe giant armadillo is a veritable grave-robber and sometimes digs updead bodies for the purpose of eating them. 

These animals are plentiful upon the savannas of South America, and theyfeast upon the bodies of dead cattle. So hard are their coats of armourthat the Gauchos sharpen their Spanish knives, which they always carry, upon them. Should the armadillo be attacked by a man on horseback, hewill burrow so rapidly that only by the quickest movements of the mancan he be caught; and if he is, watch out for his terrible claws!

No animal is better protected by nature from its enemies than thepichiciago, whose scientific name is _chlamyphorus truncatus_. Thisstrange little mantle-bearer wears a coat of mail which is as flexibleas the human-made coats of armour of olden times, and he is as safeunder its cover, which allows him perfect freedom, as if he were underthe ground. He is about the size of the ordinary mole, and his generalhabits are not unlike those of the mole. He is an underground-dweller, with enormous fore-paws, palm-shaped, upon which are five powerfulclaws. These he uses to great advantage in digging in the earth forinsects and for building his home. He has a small snout, reminding oneof that of a pig; while his piercing little eyes are deeply hidden inhis fur. He is a native of Chile, and because of his shy nature andsubterranean habits is rarely seen. 

The most interesting feature about this little creature is the cuirasswhich so perfectly protects his body. Its formation and arrangement isquite unusual; it appears like a number of squared plates of horn, tightly united to short strips of tape, which are sewed together. Thecuirass is not connected with the entire body of the animal, but only onthe top of the head and along the spine. It covers the entire back, andwhen it reaches the tail, turns downward, forming a perfect flap, whichprotects the hindquarters. 

The various species of manis are famed for their powerful coats ofarmour. They, also, belong to the great group of burrowers, and theircoats of mail assume both offensive and defensive characters. Thesemail-bearers are covered with numerous sharp-edged scales, likeminiature horns, which entirely overlap one another, like shingles on ahouse. They are of great hardness, and form a belt which no animal oftheir regions can penetrate. A revolver shot will produce not theslightest effect upon the body of this iron-protected animal. 

These animals are plentiful in India, and when they are molested, theydeliberately wind themselves up, coil their tails over their bodies, andremain in conscious security against the fruitless blows of theirenemies, who soon weary of the wounds caused from the prickly scales ofimpenetrable armour. 

Instead of wearing heavy coats of mail, certain animals, such as thehedgehog and porcupine, prefer to wear coats covered with needles andpins. Of course, a coat of spines is used purely for protection. Andagainst the attacks of such enemies as dogs, it proves all-sufficient, but it is a well-known fact that pumas and leopards will kill and eatporcupines at all times, paying small attention to their spines, as isshown by the number which are sometimes found sticking in the body of aporcupine-eating animal. 

There are several species of this great spine-bearing family; and manyof them, especially the true porcupines and the echidnas, have burrowsin the ground and thus have a double means of protecting themselves. Butothers, such as the hedgehog, depend for their protection upon theirability to roll up into a ball, thus presenting a barbed wireprotection. Still others live largely in the trees and seek by othermeans to protect themselves. 

One of the most interesting coats of armour is that worn by theporcupine ant-eater--oft-times erroneously called porcupine or hedgehog. He is a native of Australia, and is a powerful burrower. He ismarvellously protected by means of a coat of needles or spines whichinflict painful wounds on the dog or other enemy that ventures to attackhim. In case of danger, he curls himself up into a ball, and defies anyone to come near. Not only does he possess the coat of prickles withwhich he defends himself, but he also has a large perforated claw orspur on each hind foot through which pours an ill-smelling liquid, andthese also aid in protecting him. There are several varieties ofporcupines which inhabit Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America. 

When a porcupine wishes to attack an enemy, he rushes at it backwards, and usually leaves the enemy literally covered, like a livingpin-cushion, with his spines. These animals have convex skulls, shorttails, and live chiefly in the warmer regions of the Old World. Those ofAmerica are different in one particular--the soles of their feet arecovered with hard, bone-like tubercles, instead of being soft andsmooth; there are also a number of hairs that are intermingled with thespines. The Canada porcupine has more hairs than the American, and ashorter and stumpier tail. 

Another animal whose methods of defence are by means of his spines, isthe hedgehog. His spines do not terminate in sharp points, like those ofthe porcupine, but end in tiny knobs. These are placed beneath the skin, and are like pins stuck through a cushion. The hedgehog, like theporcupine, rolls himself into a ball when attacked by enemies, and hehas the additional ability of throwing himself down a hillside, like arolling ball, and thus escaping his enemies without injury to himself. It would seem that the hedgehog, rolled into a ball and covered withprickles, would be protected from all enemies. But this is not true, forthe clever fox knows just how to make him unroll. This one secret of thehedgehog's weakness very often causes his loss of life. His weakness isa terror of being wet or dropped into water; and when the fox finds himall rolled up, he carefully rolls him into a pond of water and, when heunrolls, quickly drowns him. Notwithstanding the shortness of thehedgehog's spines, he is the most highly specialised of allspine-bearing animals. In the lower order of animals there are spinymice and spiny rats, and even the horned toad uses his horns as a meansof protection against his enemies. 

One of the most peculiarly armoured animals is the horned lizard, commonly known as the "horned toad" of America. His body is covered withsmall spiny scales, while the chisel-shaped head has a circlet ofminiature horns. These he uses when attacked by enemies to shieldhimself against bites and knocks. The Indians claim that if a snakeswallows the horned lizard whole, the lizard will immediately work hisway through the snake. This would not be without a parallel, however, for it is generally known that box-fishes, when swallowed by sharks, bite their way out!

Nature has been especially kind to horned lizards, and that is thereason there are so many of them. They well know the secret of the Gygesring, and can put on the garment of invisibility in a very short time. They especially frequent the desert regions of the South and West; andthose that dwell in black sandy regions are black; those of red clayregions are red; those of grey regions, grey; those from the variouslycoloured regions of blue and red are precisely the colour of the earth. But not satisfied with all their protections of armour and camouflage, they actually, when hard-pressed by an enemy, feign death, like anopossum! And if the enemy persists in his attack, and Mr. Lizard cannotescape, as a final effort he spurts tears of blood from his eyes. TheMexicans call him the "sacred toad. " The phenomenon of blood-shootinghas been explained in various ways, all of which seem equallyunsatisfactory. So far it is one of Nature's secrets. Perhaps some daywe may understand it. 

The tortoises are among the best examples of creatures which to-dayprotect themselves with armour. They are, of course, reptiles, yet inthe general formation of their armour, they are strikingly likearmadillos. The tortoise has his armour so arranged over his body thatit forms one big box. He draws his head and limbs into this wheneverdanger is near. In Texas recently I found a small land terrapin, and assoon as I came near, he closed his house. I picked him up, and thencarefully laid him upside down on the ground, and stepped behind somenearby bushes to see what he would do. Immediately he poked his headout, and then his feet, and then he began to wave his feet wildly inair, and finally threw himself in the right position and hastened awaythrough the grass. 

The turtle protects himself in the same way, and draws his head, feet, and tail under his own house-roof where nothing can get him. 

Lobsters and crabs are excellent types of armour-bearing animals. Lobsters wear marvellous coats of mail, very similar to those worn byhuman warriors during the age of chivalry. Their jointed structureassures them perfect ease and security. Crabs, however, believe, as thetortoise, in the strong-box protection. When resting, crabs tuck theirlegs beneath them, so as to shelter themselves under the hard covering. Upon crabs Nature has bestowed twin protective characteristics: namely, they are armoured, and also mimic their surroundings. The latterprotection is especially needful, because certain big fishes, like thecod, are in the habit of swallowing crabs whole. In this case the armouris of no use, while the protective resemblance saves the crab. 

To discuss in detail all the various kinds of armour and mail that thedifferent groups of animals have used and developed for offensive anddefensive purposes since the days of the prehistoric giganticarmadillos to the present, would require a book of itself. It issufficient to know that armour and mail and spines are among Nature'smost common forms of protection, and that each age develops new and evermore efficient methods of defence. This simply means that the age-longdrama of evolution is always changing. Everything that is came out ofthat which was, and throughout the ages the ever-evolving organisms havebeen developing out of the past, that they might ever be new. 

V

MINERS AND EXCAVATORS

 _"When the cold winter comes and the water plants die, And the little brooks yield no further supply, Down in his burrow he cosily creeps, And quietly through the long winter sleeps. "_

 --(_The Water Rat. _)

There are many ground-dwellers in the animal world, and foremost amongthem is the mole. This remarkable little creature is not only gifted asa digger of canals and tunnels, but plans and makes the mostextraordinary subterranean homes. Sometimes he unites with his fellowcreatures and establishes whole cities with winding passages, chambers, exits and entrances. In fact, he has not only an exquisitely arrangedhome, but highways and roads that lead to his kingly hunting-groundswhich are as elaborate as that of a modern man of wealth and culture. Indeed his subterranean network of tunnels excels in complexity ourmodern city subways. His engineering calculations never fail, and acave-in of his hallways is unknown. This little gentleman with thevelvet coat is a genius of varied accomplishments!

But this is only true when the mole is in his proper sphere or home. There he can fight like a tiger, catch his prey both below and aboveground, build wells to collect and retain water, swim like a fish, anddo many things which would seem impossible, judging from his awkward andclumsy manner above ground. 

His apparent awkwardness while out of his natural habitat is largely dueto the peculiar formation of his limbs, and the stupid appearance of hissmall half-hidden eyes. These features seem to mark him to the casualobserver as a dull animal, yet in reality he is very active and bright, and when at home displays his marvellous genius in many ways! Hisupturned hands become powerful shovels, and by the aid of an extra bone, the sickle, which belongs to the inside of the thumb, he is enabled towork like an athlete. His velvet-like hair stands straight up, like thepile on velvet, and his tiny eyes are so hidden by hair that they do notget injured. The eyes are not well finished from an optician's point ofview--but they serve admirably all the needs of the mole's life. As dulland stupid as he appears, he is, considering his size, the fiercest andmost active animal in existence. Imagine him the size of a wild cat! Hewould be a beast of exceeding ferocity. Even a lion would find him aformidable antagonist. With such an animal tunnelling in his fields andcellars, man would have a terror hard to exterminate. 

The mole is an engineer and miner who seems to have a strange sense ofdirection practically unknown to many other animals. How he manages toform tunnels and burrows in lines of such unusual straightness isunknown; he always works in darkness, unless it is that he can see inthe dark. His little hills are not deliberate structures; they are onlyshaft ends through which this miner throws out the earth that he hasscooped from subterranean depths, and in most cases smoothed out so thatif an observer examines the burrow he will find only solid earth, and aroad into his tunnel which leads to his real habitation. 

The home of the mole is usually beneath a tree or hillock, and remindsone of a miniature city of tunnels and engineering feats. The main, orcentral, room is shaped like a great dome, the upper part of which islevel with the earth around the hill, and therefore nowhere near itsapex. Mr. Wood has verified the observation that around the keep are twocircular passages, one of which is level with the ceiling, while theother is above. The upper circle is decidedly smaller than the lower;and there are five ascending passages which connect the galleries witheach other. There is only one entrance, however, and from it three roadslead into the upper part of the keep. When a mole enters the house fromone of the tunnels, he must go through the basement in order to get tothe upper part of the house and so descend into the keep. There is stillanother entrance into the keep from below. One passage leads downwarddirectly from the middle of the chamber, then curving upward, leads intoa larger tunnel or subway. 

Throughout the vast network of tunnels every inch of wall space seemsquite smooth and polished. This is due to the continuous pressure of themole's fur against the walls. Thus there is little danger of the wallscollapsing even after a rain-storm. No human being knows just why themole has such a complex system of underground streets and tunnels;perhaps it is because he finds that a greater feeling of safetysurrounds his home when he knows that in case of danger he can escape ina dozen directions. Surely he is the original builder of labyrinths!

How marvellous that so tiny a creature can build such a fortress! Thecomplex chambers and circular galleries do justice to an artist. Thespace of ground covered by a single mole's roads and galleries isalmost unbelievable; in every direction from the fortress they run, andare sunk at various depths, according to the condition of the mole'shunting-grounds, which are really the spaces of ground through which hetunnels. Worms and underground insects are his chief food. Sometimes heploughs along the surface of the ground, and exposes his back as heworks; but if the weather is dry, he ploughs deeply into the earth forworms. He fills his storehouse with earth-worms for winter use, and hefinds it necessary to bite their heads off, which leaves them inert butnot dead. This cannot be done in the summer months without the headsre-growing and the worms crawling away. The mole knows the exacttemperature best suited for keeping his meat fresh!

A most interesting and beautiful family of miner-cousins of the molesare the shrews. They are excavators of great ability, and because oftheir nocturnal habits are rarely seen alive. They are very similar tothe mole, though much more handsome. Their domicile is built of drygrass at the end of a tunnel. 

The shrew mole of North America is a ground-digger of great ingenuity. He is second only to the mole in the extent and pretensions of hisengineering and tunnelling. His eyes are very small and deeply hiddenin his fur. During the day he constantly comes to the surface of theearth, and one may catch him by driving a hoe or spade underneath him. 

Another underground-dweller is the elephant shrew of South America. Hehas a long nose, thick fur, short ears, and, unlike his cousins, heloves to bask in the warm sunshine. At the least signal of alarm hedarts away to his subterranean home. As a mining engineer he isunexcelled; he sinks his tunnels by first boring an almost perpendicularshaft, and then making his burrows at an angle. It is a sad day forearth-worms when he decides to locate in their vicinity!

It is not an easy task to classify the homes of animals. Many of themhave characteristics that entitle them to be placed under severalgroupings. The otter, for example, might be classed as a cave-dweller, as he seeks refuge in caves; yet he also rears his young in undergroundnests as a burrowing animal. But few naturalists believe that he doeshis own digging. This is not surprising when we remember that there aremany other animals that live in caves and grottoes, and like the otter, seek ready-made homes for their convenience. Among these may bementioned three American salamanders, bats, and a few strange mice, whoseek darkness and constant temperature, and therefore find caves bestsuited to their needs. 

The same is true of the weasel, who is thought to be a great burrower, but in fact, like our remote cave-dwelling ancestors, makes his homeonly in caves, in rocky crevices, and under the gnarled roots of oldtrees. He is a bright-eyed little creature, with a slender snake-likeneck and red body. He is a great friend of mankind, as he does moretoward eradicating mice and other nocturnal depredators than all therat-catchers in the land. His home is quite ordinary compared to that ofthe more ambitious underground-dwellers. 

A near cousin of the weasel, and a most ingenious engineer and miner, isthe badger. He is a tenement-dweller and builds his home in the deep, shady woods. His home is rather pretentious with several chambers, and amost delightfully furnished nursery which is warmly padded with drygrass and moss. 

The badger, once so plentiful in England and America, is fast passingaway because of the increase of towns and cities. As soon as the forestin which he dwells is drained and converted into farm land, the badgerdisappears. He is driven from the soil where he once held sway, and isone of those unfortunate animals which are eliminated by man-madecivilisation. 

The fox of the Far North is a famous excavator, and his underground homewhich shelters and protects him from the extreme cold is most spacious. It is a strange fact that these cunning little animals rarely make theirhomes away from others of their kind. Sometimes twenty to thirty arefound in close proximity. And their owners are unquestionably thesmartest, keenest, and quickest creatures that roam the wilds. Whilesome of their deeds are questionable, their quick wits and nimble bodiesexcite our admiration. 

These arctic foxes really build small cities, and their semi-social lifemay be accounted for by the peculiar suitability of the place which theyselect for a habitation. Their homes are usually in a sandy hill, whereit is very easy for them to burrow; and the strangest part of the wholecity is that each burrow is complete and entirely independent in itself. There are many winding paths and tunnels in each house, but each belongsexclusively to its owner and never winds into a neighbour's house. Incase of danger the fox has many directions in which he may escape. 

The nursery is the most carefully arranged of all the rooms. It israther small and is directly connected with the main outer chambersomewhat like the nursery of the mole. So skilfully is it situated thatit sometimes happens a hunter will dig into a fox's burrow and neverdiscover the nest of young, and later the clever mother will return tocarry away her babes, which are usually five to six in number. Adjoiningthe nursery are two or three storage rooms filled with food for thewinter. The number of bones usually found in the basement indicates thata great variety of ducks, fish, hares, lemming, and stoats are regularlyeaten, and that the average fox family does not want for food. 

The arctic fox is not only a beauty in his coat of pure white, but isunusually brainy. Persecuted animals, like persecuted human beings, become very wise. Nature is kind to the fox in his arctic home, and inthe winter turns his coat snow white so that he may easily escape hisenemies--especially men, who seek his beautiful fur and edible body. Heis skilled in his distrust of wires, sticks, guns and strings! No manknows better than he the meaning of foot-tracks in the snow, and howlong they have been there, and which way they lead; thus, those thatsurvive their enemies have acquired extreme wisdom, and keep carefullyaway from everything that is at all suspicious to their eyes andnostrils. 

The Siberian fox is one of those wise creatures that has defied in amost extraordinary way his handicaps, and, refusing to admit them, hasboldly selected the strangest dwelling-place known to the animalworld--the horn of the mountain sheep. This unique dwelling-place hasbeen the home of the Siberian fox for ages, and his ancestors have knownno other. The mountain sheep, which are giants among their kind, havethe longest horns in proportion to their size of any animal inexistence. The argali of Siberia is the largest of all sheep, and isequal in bulk and weight to an average-sized ox, with hornsproportionally large. The horns of these animals are strikingly likethose of the Rocky Mountain sheep of America, except they are muchlarger. They spring up from the forehead, tilt backward, then boldlycurve below the muzzle, before finally again pointing upward andtapering into a sharp and delicate point. They are hollow, thoughexceedingly stout and elastic, and strengthened on the outside by anumber of ridges or horny rings set very close together. They are foundin large numbers in this land of perpetual ice and snow, and it isthought that they break from the sheep's heads very easily. 

It is not uncommon to find them lying in a spot which has been abattlefield, where two sheep in attempting to settle some dispute havefought and fallen. It is not long after they have thus fallen beforethey are utilised by Mr. Fox. He stores himself carefully away in theseroomy horns, one of which Mrs. Fox uses as a nursery, finding it a snug, safe, and warm place to rear her little family. 

The other varieties of foxes, especially the grey and red, are not soskilled in home-making. This may be due to the fact that they do nothave need of such elaborate houses as their arctic cousins. Again, itmay be that the existence of numerous deserted homes of badgers, or evenrabbits, makes it unnecessary for them to spend their time in buildinghomes of their own. It is much easier to enlarge the ready-made burrowof a rabbit than to dig a new tunnel, of course. 

If there is no ready-made burrow to be had, then the wise fox sets towork and scoops out his own. Herein he sleeps all the day, and comesforth only at night. A small chamber from the main room serves as thenursery, and here the babies are born and nurtured. Nothing is morebeautiful than to see the entire family--mother, father, andchildren--come forth at evening to play. The young are as sportive aspups, but they never wander far from home. Their broad heads, greycoats, short tails and awkward appearance would lead no one to thinkthat they were the children of handsome, nimble-limbed, intelligent Mrs. Fox!

Woe to the dog that enters Mrs. Fox's home! She is a pugilist of thefirst order, and knows how to fight far better than the average bullterrier. It requires a very savage dog to kill her, and he is apt to beminus an ear when the battle is over. 

Red and grey foxes are similar in intelligence, but differ in many otherways: the former are like the gipsies in always moving about from placeto place, while the latter stick to one general locality, although theirhunting-grounds may range for several miles in all directions. Red foxesseem actually to enjoy being hunted by dogs; in most cases they willoutrun the dogs, and rarely seek protection from caves or rocks. 

The grey fox, on the other hand, cares little for racing, but seeksprotection among rocky cliffs where the dogs are at a disadvantage. Herenone but the smallest canines may enter the holes and crannies, and theyare usually wise enough to stay out. Hunters are thoroughly familiarwith the tactics of the fox family, and therefore select the red onesfor their sport. 

The foxes are truly famed for their cunning, and when other animals tryto play tricks on them, the trick usually turns out in the foxes'favour. During the winter season these wise creatures are sometimes hardpressed for food. Birds and small animals are hard to catch, and thefarmers' chicken houses are closed. It is then that the wise fox needsall his wit and wisdom, for he oftentimes becomes the hunted as well asthe hunter. His chief enemies are the puma and the timber wolf, but theyare seldom able to get him. 

The prairie-dog is so talented that he might be classed under severalheadings; he is sociable, a burrower, and especially gifted in the artof constructing underground "dog towns. " He is rarely called by hisIndian name, _Wish-ton-wish_, and we know him only as the prairie-dog. Evidently he was given this name because of his yelping bark, whichresembles the cry of a young domestic dog. 

He is a good-looking but rather curious little animal. He has a round, flat head, and garish-red fur, and a stout little body. He makes anaffectionate pet, and loves the society of human beings. When he decidesto start a town, he usually succeeds, for he is an exceedingly prolificanimal, and his extensive burrows seem to have no ends. They are ratherlarge, and run to great depths. In the western part of the UnitedStates, especially on the big prairies, the prairie-dog towns oftencover large areas. They are usually dug in a sloping direction, anddescend four to six feet in depth, and then suddenly rise upward again. Hundreds of these little tunnels are dug in such close proximity to eachother that it is quite unsafe for cattle and horses to pass over them. This is the chief reason why ranchmen do not like the otherwise harmlesslittle animals of the prairies. 

These dog towns are most curious, and a visit to one of them well repaysthe traveller. Strangely enough, the prairie-dog is exceedinglyinquisitive and this very quality often costs the little animal hislife. Mr. Wood, in describing the prairie-dog's habits, says that thiswise little Westerner, when perched on the hillocks which we havealready described, is able to survey a wide extent of territory and assoon as he sees a visitor, he gives a loud yelp of alarm, and dives intohis burrow, his tiny feet knocking together with a ludicrous flourish ashe disappears. In every direction similar scenes are enacted. Thewarning cry has been heard, and immediately every dog within a hundredyards repeats the cry and leaps into his burrow. Their curiosity, however, cannot be suppressed, and no sooner have they vanished fromsight than their heads are seen protruding from their burrows. Sometimeshundreds of them will be peeping from their homes at one time, theirbeautiful eyes sparkling as they cautiously watch the enemy's everymovement. 

The prairie-dog is truly a tenement dweller, and his home is occupiednot only by his own kind, but by owls and rattlesnakes. Most naturalistsbelieve that these incongruous families live in perfect harmony; but itis a well-known fact that the snake occasionally devours the youngprairie-dogs, and he must be considered by them as an intruder whoprocured board and lodging without their consent. The owls, on the otherhand, are supposed to do no harm, although it may be that they alsooccasionally feast on a tender young pup. 

The magnificent little animals known to scientists as vizcachas, andwhose homes are on the pampas of South America, are the most skilledbuilders of underground cities in the animal world. Their villages orcities are called "vizcacheras" and are provided with from ten to twentymouths or subway entrances, with one entrance often serving for severalholes. If the ground is soft, it is not uncommon to find twenty tothirty burrows in a vizcachera; but if the ground is rocky and hard, only four or five burrows are found. These wide-mouthed, gaping burrowsare dug close together, and the entire town usually covers from onehundred to two hundred square feet. 

The vizcacheras are different from other underground animal cities; someof the burrows are large, others are small. Most of them open into asubterranean main-street at from four to six feet from the entrance;from this street other streets wind and turn in all directions, like aman-made subway, and many of them extend clear into other streets orsubways, thus forming a complete network of underground passageways. Allthe tunnelled-out dirt is brought to the surface and forms a large moundto prevent the water from entering the cities. 

According to W. H. Hudson, in _The Naturalist in La Plata_, "in somedirections a person might ride five hundred miles and never advance halfa mile without seeing one or more of them. In districts where, as far asthe eye can see, the plains are as level and smooth as a bowling-green, especially in winter when the grass is close-cropped, and where therough giant-thistle has not sprung up, these mounds appear like brown ordark spots on a green surface. They are the only irregularities thatoccur to catch the eye, and consequently form an important feature inthe scenery. In some places they are so near together that a person onhorseback may count a hundred of them from one point of view. "

Unlike some burrowing animals, the vizcacha does not select a spot wherethere is a bank or depression in the soil, or roots of trees, or eventall grass; knowing that they only attract the opossum, skunk, armadillo, and weasel, he chooses an open level plot of ground where hecan watch in all directions for enemies while he works. 

The great or main entrance to some of these underground cities issometimes four to six feet in diameter. A small man stands shoulder deepin them. The going and coming of these little vizcachas would almostlead one to believe that they have a primitive city government, and areruled according to definite laws. Their cities stand for generations, and many of the old human inhabitants tell of certain vizcacheras aroundthem which existed when their parents were living. The founder of a newvillage is usually a male; and he goes only a short distance from theother villages to establish his new colony. 

These cities are by no means occupied by their builders alone, but havetheir undesirables within their borders. The unique style of burrowingwhich the vizcachas employ benefits several kinds of birds, especiallythe Minerva, and one species of the swallows, which build their nests inthe bank-like holes in the sides of the vizcacha's cities. Severalinsects, among which may be mentioned a large nocturnal bug, with redwings and shiny black body, also seek the same shelter; another foreigninhabitant is a night-roaming cincindela, with dark green wing-cases andpale red legs, which remind one of oriental jewels. There are also noless than six species of wingless wasps, beautifully coloured in red, black, and white. Dozens of spiders and smaller insects that live in andnear the vizcacheras, which are everywhere sprinkled over the pampas, pass in and out among the streets recognising their respective friendsand enemies. 

The home life in these communities is most interesting. The burrowersremain indoors until late in the evening during the winter, but insummer appear before the sun sets. One of the larger males is the firstto appear, as if to see if everything is safe from danger; if it is, others immediately pop up and take their places at the entrance to theburrow. The females are smaller than the males, and stand up that theymay see everything that happens. Curiosity struggling within them formastery is often the cause of their death. Tiny swallows hover over theentrances, like myriads of large moths, with never-ending low, mournfulcries. 

Of all the incongruous inhabitants of the vizcacheras, the fox is themost dreaded and the least welcome. To appease his growls and snarls thevizcachas are sometimes forced to let him occupy one of their rooms fora season, or even permanently. During a part of the year he appearsquite unassuming and indifferent to the general affairs of thehousehold, and he really goes quite unnoticed, even though he may besitting on the mound in the family group. But when the vizcachas appearin the spring, the fox begins to become interested in the nursery and assoon as the older animals are away he devours the young. Occasionally, if the fox is hungry, or if he has another friend to aid him, he willhunt the vizcachera from end to end, battling with the old, and usuallykilling all the young. It often happens that the mother vizcacha, whenher babes are large enough to follow her, will take them away to anotherplace that is safer. 

The language of these city-builders is most unusual; the malesfrequently utter the most varied and astonishing cries. They are jarringin the extreme, and are produced in the most leisurely manner, growinglouder and louder and finally ending with a slow quaver. At other times, they grunt like small pigs. Hudson says that any quick noise, like thereport of a gun, produces a most startling effect among these littleanimals. As soon as the report is broken on the stillness of the night aperfect furore of cries issues forth from every direction. In a fewseconds it ceases for a momentary lull, and then suddenly breaks forthagain, louder than before. The tones of the different ones are sodifferent that the cries of nearby individuals may be plainlydistinguished amidst the babel of voices coming from the distance. Itsounds as if thousands upon thousands of them were striving to expressevery emotion with their tiny tenor voices. No words can describe theeffect that these sounds produce. One of the most peculiar calls is thespecial alarm-note, which is sharp, sudden, and shrill. It is reportedfrom one to another until every vizcacha is safe in his burrow. 

But with all the kind and sociable qualities of these little animals, they have characteristics which seem rather paradoxical, and chief amongthese is their resentment of any intrusion of neighbours into theirburrows. Although a number of individuals may reside in adjoiningcompartments in the same burrow, yet if one enters a burrow not hisown--woe is he! Even when pursued by fierce dogs a vizcacha will rarelyenter a room of another. If he does, he is immediately pounced upon bythe angry owner, and is usually driven clear out of the burrow. Theseanimals are undoubtedly far the most versatile and intelligent rodentsin the world. 

A most unusual miner and underground dweller is the pocket gopher ofNorth and Central America. He is a rat-like animal, and is mostplentiful on the plains of the Mississippi region. He is unusual inappearance, dressed in brown and grey fur, with tiny white feet, smalleyes and ears, and a short stubby tail. His feet are wonderfully strong, and his fore-paws are armed with strong, curved claws. But he is famedfor his wonderful fur-lined pouches which open inside his cheeks andserve a peculiar use. 

His entire life, with rare exceptions, is spent underground. There hemakes long tunnels for the purpose of securing tender roots for food;these tunnels are about twelve to eighteen inches below the surface, andusually wind under the foot of a tree where a sinking passage goes downfour to five feet further and leads to a large living-room. This is thefamily nest and nursery, lined with grass and soft fur which Mrs. Gopherhas taken from her own body. Adjoining the living-room is a storage binfilled with nuts, dried bits of roots, tobacco, and potatoes. 

Much that is exaggerated has been said in regard to the adaptability ofthe gopher for his work. But it is a fact that he is of all the diggersbest suited for his task. He uses his strong teeth, like a trench-diggeruses a pick, to loosen the earth; and while his fore-feet are keptconstantly at work in digging and pressing the dirt back under the body, the hind feet also aid in shovelling it still farther back. When asufficient amount has heaped up behind him, he performs the strangest ofall his feats--he turns around, and places his hands vertically againsthis chin, thus forcing himself backwards, pushing the dirt ahead ofhimself until it is forced out of the tunnel. At the outer end of thetunnel is formed a little hillock. 

Dr. Merriam has made a special study of the gopher, and in speaking ofthe strange habit of running backwards, he says that even in carryingfood to one of his barns or storehouses the gopher rarely turns roundbut usually runs backwards and forwards, over and over again like ashuttle on its track. 

The gopher uses his pouches for carrying food, not dirt. When he haseaten a sufficient amount of food, he fills his pouches. If a potato istoo large to be carried in this way, he trims it off to the right size. His method of emptying his pouches is most interesting; with his twotiny paws he delicately presses the food from his cheeks. 

The woodchuck is an American basement-dweller of considerable renown. His peculiar whistling cry has won for him from the French the name of_siffleur_; and we sometimes call him by the very inappropriate name ofground-hog. He is a skilled weather prophet, and his appearance in theearly spring signifies that the winter is over. He never shows himselfuntil the cold is gone. 

The home of the woodchuck is usually found under a hill, with asheltering rock to protect the entrance, which leads into a tunnel, fromtwenty to thirty feet in length, finally ending by entering his homeproper. The tunnel descends obliquely for several feet, and again risestowards the surface. His nest is rather large, and nicely lined with drygrass and leaves, which serve as a carpet for the young woodchucks whenthey come into the world. The young remain in the underground home untilthey are about five months old, then they go out into the world forthemselves. 

The ground squirrel long ago decided that he would rather have adwelling under the ground than in the tree-tops, for in an undergroundhome he would have more protection, a better place for storing food, and a far safer nursery for rearing his precious babes. So snug, cosyand hidden are the tiny quarters to which his runs or subways lead thathis family is quite safe against most enemies. The ingenuity and skillshown in the construction of his home entitles him to rank among theleading animal miners and excavators. 

The most unusual of all the underground and basement dwellers is thepolar bear. This wise inhabitant of the Far North has long ago learnedthat no animal needs to freeze to death in the snow. To him the snow isa constant means of warmth and protection, and as winter approaches, heseeks a position, usually near a big rock, where he digs out a hole ofsmall dimensions, and allows the snow to cover his body. Strangelyenough it is only the female bear that seeks this permanent snow hut;the males do not care to spend so much time in seclusion. The same istrue of the unmated females. But the mated females always have snow hutsin which they give birth to their young, and where they reside untilearly spring; then the mother bear comes forth with them to seek foodand teach them the ways of the world. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

TO THE POLAR BEAR THE ICE AND SNOW OF THE FAR NORTH MEAN WARMTH ANDPROTECTION. THE MOTHER BEAR DIGS HERSELF INTO A SNOWBANK, WHERE SHELIVES QUITE COMFORTABLY THROUGHOUT THE WINTER. ]

[Illustration: THE SHARP CLAWS OF THE GROUND SQUIRREL ARE EFFICACIOUSTOOLS IN DIGGING HIS COSY UNDERGROUND BURROW. ]

There is no danger that the bears will stifle for air under the snow, because the warmth of their breath always keeps a small hole open atthe top of the snow-cell. This snow-house increases as time goes on, theheat exhaled from their bodies gradually melting the snow. Often Mrs. Bear's home is discovered by means of the tiny hole in the roof aroundwhich is collected quantities of hoar frost. 

Hibernation is one of the strangest phenomena of the animal world, andbears, especially the white bear of the polar regions, the black bear ofNorth America, and the brown bear of Europe, agree in the curious habitof semi-hibernation. In the late fall of the season, the bears begin toeat heavily and soon become enormously fat, preparatory for the longwinter of semi-sleep. 

During the winter, at least for three months, the polar bear takes nofood, but lives entirely upon the store of fat which her body hadaccumulated before she went into retirement. The same is true of manyhibernating animals, but in case of the bears it is more remarkablebecause the mother bear must not only support herself but nourish heryoung for a long period without taking any food for herself. 

Another good example of a ground-dweller is the aard vark of SouthernAfrica. He is as curious as his name, and scoops out immense quantitiesof earth to form his home. This dwelling might be termed a cave, as heheaps up the earth in the shape of a mammoth artificial ant-hill; onone side is the entrance, which is so skilfully formed that it looks farmore like the work of man than of an animal. 

His name is Dutch and means earth-hog. It is applied to him because hishead looks somewhat like that of a pig. His claws are powerful andenormous, and with them he is able to dig into the hardest soil, and todestroy the giant ant-hills which are dotted over the plains of SouthAfrica, and which can withstand the weight of a dozen men. 

This strange creature sleeps during the day, and comes forth at eveningto seek his food. The first thing he does is to burst a hole in thestony side of an ant-hill, to the utter dismay of its tiny inhabitants. As they run among the ruins of their fallen city, he throws out hisslimy tongue and catches them by the hundreds. In a short time only theshell of a half-destroyed wall remains. 

These once stately ant-homes metamorphosed into caves, form homes forthe jackals and large serpents of the plains. The Kaffirs of Africa usethem as vaults into which are thrown their dead. The aard varkoutrivals, with his great claws, the most skilled burrowing tools ofman. These animals are therefore rarely captured. It is not uncommon fora horse to fall into their excavations and be killed. 

Miners, excavators, and underground dwellers teach us the great lessonthat, while many of them sought the ground as a protection, and foundthere many difficulties to overcome, they not only have won in the greatstruggle of life but have so skilfully adapted themselves to theirenvironment and surroundings as to become entire masters, even artists, in their methods of living. 

VI

ANIMAL MATHEMATICIANS

 _"But what a thoughtless animal is man, -- How very active in his own trepan!"_

 --PRIOR. 

Among the special senses of animals none seems more human than theirknowledge of mathematics. A recognition of this quality in animals isencouraging because the new scientists are earnestly trying to build upa true knowledge of animal behaviour by studying them in the light ofthe new psychology. This will fill the place of the vast amount ofmisinformation which those skilled only in book-knowledge, withoutreally knowing the ways of Nature, have builded. It will also record allthe strange and curious facts about animals and their ways withoutinsisting too much on rigid explanation. These new scientists are fardifferent from their predecessors who tried to explain everything theydid not understand about an animal's behaviour in terms of the scantyinformation gained by studying a few museum specimens. We might as wellattempt to explain human nature from the study of an Egyptian mummy. Thenew method is simply to give the facts about an animal, and franklyadmit that in many cases, such as are found in their knowledge ofcounting and numbers, we must leave complete explanation to the futurewhen we shall have a greater fund of scientific data on which to baseour conclusions. 

It is an established fact that some animals can count, and that theyhave the faculty of close observation and keen discrimination. Theylearn to count quickly, but they do not fully appreciate the value ofnumerical rotation. Most of the arithmetical feats of trained animalsare hoaxes regulated by their sense of smell, sight, touch and taste. But no one doubts their ability to count. I have known a monkey thatcould count to five. He played with a number of marbles, and I would askfor two marbles, one marble, four marbles, as the case might be, and hewould quickly hand the number requested. 

Another incident that will illustrate the point is the case of a muleowned by an old negro near Huntsville, Texas. The regular routine workof this mule was to cart two loads of wood to the town every day. Oneday the negro wished to make a third trip, but was unable to do so. Whenasked the reason, he replied, "Dat fool mule, Napoleon, done decided wehad hauled enough wood fo' one day!"

Prantl claims that the time-sense is totally absent in animals, and thatit belongs only to man, as one of the attributes of his mentalsuperiority. However, many facts go to show that animals have not only aspecific time-sense, but also a sense of personal identity which reachesback into the past. 

Time-sense is very highly developed in dogs, cats, hogs, horses, goats, and sheep. They apparently are able to keep an accurate account of thedays of the week and hours of the day and night, and even seem to knowsomething of numerical succession and logical sequence. A friend inTexas had an old coloured servant, whose faithful dog had been trainedto know that just at noon each day he was expected to carry lunch to hismaster. I have seen the dog on more than one occasion playing withchildren in the streets, suddenly break away without any one callinghim, or any suggestion on our part as to the time, and rush for thekitchen just at the proper moment. No one could detain him from hisduty. This same dog, however, would on Sundays continue to play at thenoon hour. Surely, if any explanation is to be offered in such a case asthis, it will imply as strict a sense of time as it does of duty. 

A friend relates a case of a dog that went each evening to meet a trainon which his master returned from the city. On one occasion the trainwas delayed two hours, and it was exceedingly cold, but the devotedcompanion remained until his master arrived. Innumerable instances ofsuch all-absorbing affection, showing at the same time a sense of time, might be cited. 

Dr. Brown gives a most remarkable example of a dog's ability todistinguish time. The story is of a female dog, though named Wylie, which was purchased by Dr. Brown when he was a young man, from an oldshepherd who had long been in his employment. Wylie was brought to hisfather's, "and was at once taken, " he says, "to all our hearts; andthough she was often pensive, as if thinking of her master and her workon the hills, she made herself at home, and behaved in all respects likea lady. . . . Some months after we got her, there was a mystery about her;every Tuesday evening she disappeared; we tried to watch her, but invain; she was always off by nine P. M. , and was away all night, comingback next day wearied, and all over mud, as if she had travelled far. This went on for some months, and we could make nothing of it. Well, oneday I was walking across the Grass-market, with Wylie at my heels, whentwo shepherds started, and looking at her, one said, 'That's her;that's the wonderful wise bitch that naebody kens. ' I asked him what hemeant, and he told me that for months past she had made her appearanceby the first daylight at the 'buchts' or sheep-pens in thecattle-market, and worked incessantly, and to excellent purpose, inhelping the shepherds to get their sheep and lambs in. The man said in asort of transport, 'She's a perfect meeracle; flees about like aspeerit, and never gangs wrang; wears, but never grups, and beats a' oordowgs. She's a perfect meeracle, and as soople as a mawkin'. ' Shecontinued this work until she died. "

Another most striking instance, showing animals' sense of time, is thatrelated by Watson in which he tells of two friends, fathers of families, one living in London and the other at Guilford. For many years it wasthe custom of the London family to visit their friends in Guilford, always accompanied by their spaniel, Cćsar. After some years amisunderstanding arose between the two families. The usual Christmasvisits were discontinued; not, however, so far as the spaniel wasconcerned. His visits continued as before. On the eve of the firstChristmas following the misunderstanding, the Guilford family wereastonished to find at their door their London friend, Cćsar. Naturally, they expected that he had come in advance of the family, and were happyin the thought of this unexpected reconciliation. All evening theyawaited their friends, but none arrived. Nor did they the next day. Cćsar had come of his own accord at the accustomed time, and remainedwith his friends for the usual number of days. This naturally led to acorrespondence between the families, who thereupon resumed their formerfriendly relations. We do not believe, of course, that this dog countedthe exact number of days to know when to start to Guilford, but hedoubtless saw something to remind him of the past. 

Sir John Lubbock once related before the British Association at Aberdeenhow cards bearing the ten numerals were arranged before a dog, and thedog given a problem, such as to state the square root of nine, or ofsixteen, or the sum of two numbers. He would then point at each card insuccession, and the dog would bark when he came to the right one. Thedog never made a mistake. If this was not evidence of a mentality atleast approaching that of men, we do not know what to call it. 

If there is any difference between an animal and a human mathematician, it depends upon special training. The animal never has the sameopportunities to learn as the man. Many savages, for example, cannotcount beyond three or four. Sir John Lubbock gives an anecdote of Mr. Galton, who compared the arithmetical knowledge of certain savages ofSouth Africa and a dog. The comparison proved to the advantage of thedog. 

There is no reason that a dog should not be taught arithmetic. And ifone wishes to do so, it might be well to begin by making the dogdistinguish one from two, allowing him to touch both once at the wordone, and twice at the word two. Then he might pass on to six or seven. After he had progressed to ten, he might begin addition. At least theexperiment would be interesting and conducive to learning the truth. Surely a knowledge of mathematics is no more wonderful than that of theordinary pointer dog's ability to distinguish different kinds of birds. Certain of those wise dogs are trained to hunt only quail, while othershunt several varieties of game. 

It should be remembered that all degrees of arithmetical aptitude arefound in the human races, from the genius of a Newton and a Laplace tothe absolute inability of certain of the Hottentots to count to three. These inequalities in the mathematical notions of different peopleshould make us very cautious about saying that animals cannot count andhave no sense of numbers. It is extremely probable that if we had a wayof choosing those animals with a special gift for arithmetic, theywould surprise us with their learning. 

[Illustration: THE COYOTE CAN READILY DISTINGUISH WHETHER A HERD OFSHEEP IS GUARDED BY ONE OR MORE DOGS, AND WILL PLAN HIS ATTACKACCORDINGLY. ]

[Illustration: THE ZEBU, THE SACKED BULL OF INDIA, IN SPITE OF ITSDOMESTICATION, HAS AN AGILE BODY AND A QUICK, ALERT MIND. ]

No one denies that animals are capable of distinguishing relative sizesand even quantities. They are not so skilled as the average human beingin making these distinctions, yet when mentally compared to the state ofBushmen, Tasmanians, and Veddahs, who can count only two, and call itmany, there is not such a vast gulf between them and mankind. 

The zebu, or sacred bull of India, shows his mathematical qualities to apronounced degree. When he grows attached to a small group of his kin, he will often refuse to leave them unless the entire group accompanyhim. When driven from his pen, if by chance one of his party is leftbehind he refuses to go--thus indicating that he is able to tell thatthe exact number is not with him. His affectionate and gentledisposition, not to mention his love of his offspring, would entitle himto rank among the most human of animals. No wonder he is worshipped inIndia, where the human side of animal life is understood and appreciatedto a degree quite unknown to the Western world!

The fox and the wolf, and even the coyote, can readily distinguishwhether a herd of sheep or cattle is guarded by three or four dogs, andwhether there is one herdsman or two. They cannot tell the exact numberof sheep, however; neither could a man without first counting them. Their knowledge of geometry is remarkable. They can orient themselves tothe surrounding woods, measure distances, figure out the safest way ofescape, and the power of the enemy even better than savage man. Yet inmost of these problems, definite notions of number or figures havelittle part. A dog, when hunting, for example, on a prairie where he hasto leap over ditches or quickly turn around a large tree, is able by asecond's thought to do so without danger. He clears the wire fence, leaps the ditch, dashes through a closing gate, or escapes an infuriatedenemy at a moment's notice. This natural wisdom is exercisedspontaneously in him, it is the result of inborn theorems of which hemay not even be aware, but which he uses with a sureness that defies thebook-learning of all our teachers of mathematics. He uses speed, force, space, mass, and time with so small an effort, and by the quickest andshortest routes. 

Suppose a wolf or a wild hog could not tell how many dogs were attackingit? There would be no way for it to defend itself. If four dogs attackit, they are counted and the tactics used that would be useless in othercases. If four dogs attack, two on each side, it retreats, with facetoward the enemy. If a dozen dogs are in the attacking force, the hogbecomes confused, loses all idea of number, and wildly bites at anyenemy that comes nearest. Man in a similar condition would usepractically the same tactics. 

Cats undeniably count their kittens. If the mother loses one of three orfour, she searches for it immediately. When dogs are chasing a hare, ifthey raise another, they become very confused, as if they did not knowwhich to follow. Many shepherd dogs know if a sheep is missing from theflock and go to hunt it. 

The efforts of scientific investigators, who work with so many learnedtheories, have been less successful in discovering the real facts aboutanimals than of laymen, largely because the scientists have not yetlearned that arithmetical notions are more difficult than geometricalones. Our industrial civilisation has caused us to lose the idea of theinsignificance that number has in animal life compared to the idea ofsize. Most animals have a remarkable sense of size; they measure timeand distance better than civilised man. A hyena, for example, knows justhow near he dare approach an unarmed man. 

A sense of time is common among animals that daily eat at fixed hours. A donkey was accustomed to being fed at six o'clock in the morning, andwhen on one occasion his master did not appear on time, he deliberatelykicked in the door to the barn and proceeded to feed himself. 

Animals are capable of measuring lapses of time in which they areparticularly interested. Houzeau claims that a female crocodile remainsaway from her eggs in the sand for twelve to twenty days, according tothe species, but returns to the place exactly on the day they hatch. 

Although we should hesitate to affirm that all animals have an extensiveknowledge of figures and numbers, yet it can hardly be denied that theelephant, donkey, horse, dog, and cat, if given the proper training, become good mathematicians. It is undeniable that they have a love ofmental acquisition, and it seems that the Creator has given to everyanimal, as a reward for its limitations in other respects, a definiteinnate knowledge and desire to advance educationally. There is in thebreast of every animal an irresistible impulse which urges it to advancein the scale of knowledge. Where the animal is blessed with other mentalpowers, there is found a perfect harmony--of tact, intuition, insight, and genius--all that man himself possesses. 

VII

THE LANGUAGE OF ANIMALS

 _"Who ever knew an honest brute At law his neighbours prosecute, Bring action for assault and battery Or friends beguile with lies and flattery?"_

The fact that all animals possess ideas, no matter how small those ideasmay be, implies reason. That these ideas are transmitted from one animalto another, no one can doubt in the light of our present scientificknowledge. "Be not startled, " says the distinguished animal authority, Dr. William T. Hornaday, "by the discovery that apes and monkeys havelanguage; for their vocabulary is not half so varied and extensive asthat of the barnyard fowls, whose language some of us know very well. "The means by which ideas are transmitted from one animal to another canbe rightly described by no other term than _language_. 

It is evident that there are many kinds of language: the written; thespoken; the universal, which implies the motion, sign, and formlanguage; the language of the eye, by which ideas are exchanged withoutwords or gestures; and lastly, a mode of expression little known to thehuman world, but universal among animals. This language is spoken by noman, but is understood by every brute from the tiniest hare to thelargest elephant; it is the language whereby spirit communicates withspirit, and by which it recognises in a moment what it would take anentire volume to narrate. In its nature it differs essentially from allother languages, yet we are justified in thinking of it as a languagebecause its function is to transmit ideas from one animal to another. Every form of language is used by animals, and each has its own peculiarlanguage or "dialect" common to its tribe only, though occasionallylearned by others. All the emotions--fear, caution, joy, grief, gratitude, hope, despair--are disclosed by some form of language. 

It would be interesting to know how the use of the word "dumb" everbecame applied to animals, for in reality there are very few dumbanimals. Doubtless the word was originally employed to express a largeridea than that of dumbness, and implied the lack of power in animals tocommunicate successfully with man by sound or language. The real troublelies with man, who is unable to understand the language spoken oruttered by the animals. 

The gesture language is commonly used by many of the tribes of SouthernAfrica, and some of the Bushmen are unable to converse freely afterdark, because their visible gestures are needed as an aid to theirspoken words. Only a few years ago there were almost as many differentlanguages among the North American Indians as there were differenttribes, and yet each tribe had a sign-language which any Indian in anypart of the world might understand. In fact it was so simple that itmight be practically mastered in a few hours, and through it one mightconverse with the Indians of the world without knowing a single word oftheir spoken language. And this is exactly what the animals do withtheir universal language. 

Who does not understand the meaning of a dog when he approaches hismaster, after receiving a reprimand for some misdemeanor, with downcasthead and lowered tail? Or who could fail to interpret the glee when hehas done a noble deed and been praised by his master? His is thelanguage of gesture and look, and is very similar to that in use by ourdeaf-and-dumb men throughout the world. 

The Hindoos invariably talk to their elephants, and it is astonishinghow they understand. Bayard Taylor says that "the Arabs govern theircamels with a few cries, and my associates in the African deserts werealways amused whenever I addressed a remark to the dromedary who was myproperty for two months; yet at the end of that time the beast evidentlyknew the meaning of a number of simple sentences. Some years ago, seeingthe hippopotamus in Barnum's museum looking very stolid and dejected, Ispoke to him in English, but he did not even open his eyes. Then I wentto the opposite corner of the cage, and said in Arabic, 'I know you;come here to me. ' I repeated the words, and thereupon he came to thecorner where I was standing, pressed his huge, ungainly head against thebars of the cage, and looked in my face with a touch of delight while Istroked his muzzle. I have two or three times found a lion whorecognised the same language, and the expression of his eyes, for aninstant, seemed positively human. "

Every one familiar with the habits of dogs believes that they have alanguage. Certain shepherds are quite particular about the company theirdogs keep. This story is told of a couple of shepherds meeting in amarket-place in Scotland, each accompanied by his dog, one of which wasa sheep-murderer, the other a faithful and respectable dog. They seemedto strike up a great friendship, "and soon assumed so remarkable ademeanour in their conversation that their owners consulted together ontheir own account, and agreed to set a watch upon them. On that veryevening both dogs started from their homes at the same hour, joined eachother, and set off after the sheep. " It is unquestionable that thesedogs had a sufficiency of language to understand each other. Thecriminal had invited his innocent young friend to join him in hismischief, and they agreed upon the time to meet and each kept hisappointment. It is likely that there was not an audible sound utteredduring their conversation, but that they used the language of look andgesture, and while it was not understood by their masters, it wasentirely comprehended by themselves. 

Another instance of canine language is given by John Burroughs, who saysthat a certain tone in his dog's bark implies that he has found a snake. 

There is an old maxim which says: "The empty wagon makes the mostnoise, " and it is interesting to note that the loudest-mouthed and mostloquacious of all the animals are the lemurs, who are the leastintelligent members of their great family. They chatter, scream, squeak, and grunt from morning till night, and two of them can make more noisethan a cageful of apes and monkeys. The orangs and chimpanzees, on theother hand, exceptionally wise and gifted linguists, seldom utter a wordor cry, except under extraordinary circumstances, and then briefly. 

Prof. Richard L. Garner, who has spent much time in studying thelanguage of animals, has attracted a great amount of attention throughhis special study of the anthropoid apes. He has lived among theseanimals in a steel cage in their native haunts and has used a phonographto record their language. Prof. Garner told recently of an exceptionallyintelligent ape, named Susie, whose home used to be at the ZoologicalPark, under the care of the Zoological Society, and he claimed thatSusie could speak "in her own language" at least five words. They were"yes, " "no, " "protest, " "satisfaction" and "contempt. "

Mr. George Gladden, writing in the _Outlook_ on the chimpanzee's voice, did not exactly commit himself as to his belief regarding this matter, but he says: "Now, although Mr. Engeholm (for four years in charge ofthe Primates House in the New York Zoological Park) has not been able todiscover that his apes use any language, correctly speaking, he isconfident that the chimpanzees Susie, Dick, and Baldy comprehend thedefinite meaning of many words, and that their minds react promptlywhen these words are addressed to them in the form of commands. Thiscapacity is more highly developed in Susie than in any other of the apesin this particular group. . . . 

"It is difficult, of course, to determine from the commands which ananimal will obey precisely how many words employed in these commands areplainly understood; but I have endeavoured to do this tentatively in thecase of Mr. Engeholm's commands to Susie, all of which I have seen herobey repeatedly and promptly. "

Mr. Gladden enumerates about forty-three commands which he claims tohave seen Susie obey promptly. And he further states that the beliefwhich many students of animal psychology hold that an animal gets moreof the meaning of a command from the gesture which accompanies thecommand than he does from the actual words by which he is commanded, isfalse, and he adds, "as to this, I can testify that of the forty-threecommands . . . Thirty-six may be, and generally are, unaccompanied by anygesture whatever. How, then, does Susie comprehend those commands unlessthrough her understanding of the meaning of the words in which they areconveyed?"

The distinguished phrenologist Gall had a dog whose memory wasremarkable, and he thoroughly understood words and phrases. "On thissubject I have made, " says Gall, "the following observations: I haveoften spoken intentionally of things which might interest my dog, avoiding the mention of his name, and not letting any gesture escape mewhich would be likely to arouse his attention. He always exhibitedpleasure or pain suitable to the occasion, and by his conduct afterwardsshowed that he understood perfectly well. "

Col. W. Campbell in his _Indian Journal_ gives two remarkable instancesof language and unity of work among animals which he saw at RaneeBennore, while he was on a hunting trip. He witnessed, one morning, astriking case of wolfish generalship, which in his belief proved thatanimals are endowed to a certain extent not only with reason but areable to communicate their ideas to others. He was scanning the horizonone morning to see if any game was in sight when he discovered a smallherd of antelopes feeding in a nearby field. In another remote corner ofthe field, hidden from the antelopes, he saw six wolves sitting withtheir heads close together as though they were in deep conversation. 

He knew at once that they were also seeking venison for breakfast and hedetermined to watch them. He concealed himself behind a clump ofbushes, and the wolves who had evidently already decided upon their modeof attack began their manoeuvres: one remained stationary, while theother five crept to the edge of the field and one by one took the mostadvantageous positions, the fifth concealing himself in a deep furrow inthe centre of the field. 

The sixth, which had made no previous movements, dashed at theantelopes. The swift, graceful creatures, trusting in their incomparablespeed, tossed their heads as if in disdain of so small an enemy andgalloped away as though they were riding on the winds with their enemyfar behind. But as soon as they reached the edge of the field, one ofthe hiding wolves sprang up and chased them in an opposite direction, while his fatigued accomplice lay down to recuperate. Again thelight-heeled herd darted across the field, evidently hoping to escape onthe opposite side, but here again they met another crafty wolf whochased them directly toward another of the pack. The chase had begun inearnest, the persecuted antelopes were driven from place to place, afresh enemy springing up at every turn, till at last they became soterrorised with fear that they crowded together in the center of thefield and began running around in diminishing circles. 

During all this performance, the wolf which was hidden in a furrow inthe centre of the field had not moved, although the antelopes had passedaround and over him dozens of times. He well realised his time foraction had not yet come and crouched closer and closer awaiting a signalfrom his fellow hunters to spring into their midst, and down one of theweakened antelopes. 

At this point Col. Campbell shot one of the wolves, and the other fiveran away and allowed the antelopes to escape. Surely no humancombination could have shown greater reason and concerted action thanwas shown by the wolves under such conditions. Each had a particularpost assigned, and evidently some means of communication was used inindicating their respective locations. Each had a definite part to playin the complex scheme--so that their language quite evidently expressedabstract ideas. That these ideas were carried out shows that the wolveswere capable not only of laying ambitious plans for capturing prey, butof carrying them out as well. 

"That beasts possess a language, which enables them to communicate theirideas, " says Thomas Gentry, "has been clearly shown. It is just asapparent that they can act upon the ideas so conveyed. We have now tosee whether they can convey their ideas to man, and so bridge over thegulf between the higher and the lower beings. Were there no means ofcommunicating ideas between man and animals, domestication would beimpossible. Every one who has possessed and cared for some favouriteanimal must have observed that they can do so. Their own languagebecomes, in many instances, intelligible to man. Just as a child that isunable to pronounce words, can express its meaning by intimation, so adog can do the same by its different modes of barking. There is the barkof joy or welcome, when the animal sees its master, or anticipates awalk with him; the furious bark of anger, if the dog suspects that anyone is likely to injure himself or master, and the bark of terror whenthe dog is suddenly frightened at something which he cannot understand. Supposing, now, that his master could not see the dog, but could onlyhear his bark, would he not know perfectly well the ideas which werepassing through the animal's mind?"

There is no doubt that animals understand something of our humanlanguage. They may not be able to comprehend the exact words used, butit is evident they get the meaning to a certain extent. I once had asmall Mexican dog sent me from Mexico; he seemed not to understand whatwas said to him, until a friend called who spoke to him in Spanish, whereupon he showed his delight and became at once a friend to the manwho spoke his own language. 

The Rev. J. G. Wood tells the following incident, which forciblyillustrates the ability possessed by animals to commune with each other. "While I was living in the country with a friend, a most interestingincident was observed in the history of the dog. My friend had severaldogs, of which two had a special attachment to, and an understandingwith, each other. The one was a Scotch terrier, gentle and ready tofraternise with all honest comers. The other was as large as a mastiff, and looked like a compound between the mastiff and the large roughstag-hound. He was fierce, and required some acquaintance before youknew what faithfulness and kindness lay beneath his rough andsavage-looking exterior. The one was gay and lively, the other, sternand thoughtful. 

"These two dogs were often observed to go to a certain point together, when the small one remained behind at a corner of a large field, whilethe mastiff took a round by the side of the field, which ran up-hill fornearly a mile, and led to a wood on the left. Game abounded in thosedistricts and the object of the dogs' arrangement was soon seen. Theterrier would start a hare, and chase it up the hill towards the largewood at the summit, where they arrived somewhat tired. At this point, the large dog, who was fresh and had rested after his walk, darted afterthe animal, which he usually captured. They then ate the hare betweenthem and returned home. This course had been systematically carried onsome time before it was fully understood. "

Every animal has a definite language which is quite sufficient toexpress the desires and emotions of its nature, and to make themintelligible, not only to its own species, but also to other animals andsometimes to human beings. Those which do not actually speak by means ofa voice, make signs or mimic understood things so as to be perfectlyintelligible. If animals had no language, they could not instruct theiryoung. The young of animals in a civilised country are far wiser thanthe old ones in wild, uninhabited countries. This can be explained onlyby the knowledge which the young receive from their parents. 

It is not uncommon for animals belonging to widely different species tospeak the same language, and thus become great friends. A friend inTexas once owned a cow whose sole companion was a small black goat. Oneday the young goat followed the cow home from her grazing place, andfrom that time on they were constant companions, even occupying the samestall in winter, sharing the same food, and always sleeping near eachother. 

If one shoots a monkey in South Africa, and wounds it, allowing it toescape, there usually come droves of its kinspeople, screaming andchattering the most diabolical language, seeking to revenge the wrongdone their tribe. Nothing demonstrates plainer that they have a commonlanguage; otherwise, how could they understand that one of their numberhad been wounded? It is because of the communication of ideas by acommon language among animals that hunters so fear to allow a woundedanimal to escape at the beginning of their hunting season in certainlocalities. A wounded bear who escapes, for example, will spoil theentire season for hunters by spreading the alarm among his people. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

ROOSEVELT'S COLOBUS. THESE HORSE-TAILED MONKEYS CHATTER TOGETHER IN ALANGUAGE EXCLUSIVELY THEIR OWN, YET THEY SEEM TO HAVE NO DIFFICULTY INMAKING THEMSELVES UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER MONKEY-TRIBES. ]

[Illustration: A TAMED DEER OF TEXAS, WHOSE CONSTANT COMPANION ANDPLAYMATE WAS A RABBIT DOG. BETWEEN THE TWO THERE DEVELOPED, NECESSARILY, A COMMON LANGUAGE. ]

Near our country home in Texas my sister found a very young red deer onemorning just outside the garden, and bringing it into the yard, soon hada wonderful pet in this dainty spotted child of the woods. We knew thatits mother was not far away, and so we placed salt and food just wherethe baby was found, to attract the mother's attention. In a few days, we saw the mother, and shortly afterwards five grown deer were seeneating the food we had placed for the mother. Evidently the news hadbeen carried through the pine forests that it was safe for deer to comenear our home. My sister's pet grew rapidly, and became a great friendof our yard dog. They often played by running races together, the deerwould leap over the fence and the dog would chase him with greatdelight. Surely, they must have had a spoken common language!

No one claims that in the language of animals there are principles ofconstruction such as we find in the human languages. The term Barbarianmeans those whose language is only a "bar-bar, " and this is really allthat the sound of an unknown tongue implied to the cultured Athenians. The neighing of horses, the howling of dogs and wolves, the mewing ofcats, the bleating of sheep, the lowing of cows, the chattering ofmonkeys and baboons is nothing more nor less than their language. And itis quite as intelligible to us as is the chattering of the Hottentots ofAfrica. Because we do not speak the languages of our animal friends doesnot take away from the genuineness of the languages; we might as wellclaim that because our horse does not comprehend what we are saying, that we are not speaking a language!

Animals and men, under normal conditions, have been friends andcompanions since the beginning of time; and in order that they mayconvey ideas to each other, it is necessary for them to have some sortof means of communication. 

As a matter of fact, animal language is quite often intelligible to man. Their language might be likened to that of a young child that cannotpronounce distinctly the words we commonly use; and yet we get themeaning from the intonation and gesture. 

Any man who has ever owned a horse understands the meanings of hisvarious actions and vocal expressions. There is the neigh of joy, uponreturning home after a hard day's work, the neigh of distress, when hehas strayed from his companions, the neigh of salutation that passesbetween two horses when they meet, and the neigh of terror when enemiesare near. There is also the neigh of affection that is often given tohis master when they first meet in the morning. Thus, spoken words arenot necessary to express elemental feelings. 

Elephants readily understand most of the words uttered by their masters. Menault tells of an elephant that was employed to pile up heavy logs. The manager, suspecting the keeper of stealing the grain set aside forthe elephant, accused him of theft, which he denied most vehemently inthe presence of the elephant. The result was remarkable. The animalsuddenly laid hold of a large wrapper which the man wore round hiswaist, and tearing it open, let out some quarts of rice which the fellowhad stowed away under the voluminous covering. 

Animals have the power to make themselves understood by man, especiallywhen they are in distress and wish man to help them. And they oftencombine to help one another. I was on a sheep ranch in western Texasonce when one of the sheep came bleating up to the camp late in theafternoon. She uttered the most distressing calls. A friend, whom I wasvisiting, assured me that something unusual was wrong. Together wefollowed the sheep back to where she had been feeding in the pasture, she going forward in short spurts and continually looking back to see ifwe were coming. She finally led us to an old well, and we heard theplaintive voice of her young lamb that had fallen in. As the well had nowater in it, and was only about six feet deep, we secured a ladder andin a few minutes the lamb was restored to its mother. She seemeddelighted at the successful outcome of the accident. She had come andtold us her troubles and got aid. 

Cats are gifted linguists. By mewing they can just as plainly express adesire to have a door opened or closed as if they requested it in somany words. A friend has furnished me with an interesting account of hercat's ability to make herself understood. It seems that the cat, withher three small kittens, at one time slept in a box prepared for her inthe kitchen. But one night when it was particularly cold, some one leftthe kitchen window open, and late in the night the cat went to hermistress's bed and mewed continuously until her mistress arose and wentto the kitchen and closed the window. The cat was perfectly satisfied, as she had made her great need understood. 

The ability that animals have to make their own language understood byman is not the only linguistic power they possess; as already mentioned, they are also capable of understanding something of human speech. Thereis no doubt that all domesticated animals understand the human language;the horse, dog, ox, and sheep comprehend a large part of what is said tothem, though of course they may not understand the precise words used. 

I once owned a rabbit dog, "Nimrod, " and if he never understood anotherword of the English language, there is no doubt that he knew what theword "rabbit" meant. No matter in what manner or way I used the word, Nimrod was ready for a hunt, and yelped with glee at the thought of thechase that he was to have. I tested him over and over again by saying"rabbit hunt" gently; it thrilled him with delight, and while he was notvery well educated in other things, he always lived up to his name. 

The Rev. J. G. Wood speaks of the great individuality of character whichhe has observed in dogs, and that they unquestionably understand thehuman language. "There was in my pet greyhound 'Brenda, ' there was in mydear lurcher 'Smoker, ' and there is now in my dear lurcher 'Bar, ' and inmy three setters 'Chance, ' 'Quail, ' and 'Quince, ' a refinement offeeling and sagacity infinitely beyond that existing in multitudes ofthe human race, whether inhabiting the deserts or the realms ofcivilisation. 

"I cannot better define it than by saying that, if I give these dogs ahastily angered word in my room, though they have never been beaten, they will, with an expression of the most dejected sorrow, go into acorner behind some chair, sofa, or table, and lie there. Perhaps I mayhave been guilty of a hasty rebuke to them for jogging my table or elbowwhile I was writing, and then continued to write on. Some time after, not having seen my companions lying on the rug before the fire, I haveremembered the circumstance, and, in a tone of voice to which they areused, I have said, 'There, you are forgiven. ' In an instant thegreyhound Brenda would fly into my lap, and cover me with kisses, herheart tumultuously beating. After she grew old, her joy at my returnhome after a long absence has at times nearly killed her; and when I wasaway, the bed she loved best was one of my old shooting-jackets, butnever when I was at home. "

The impassable gulf which the writers of old created between mankind andthe animal kingdom was based mainly upon the belief that animals had nolanguage, but this has been proved a mistake and no longer exists. Inthe light of modern knowledge and a better understanding of themarvellous theory of evolution, we are thoroughly convinced that thereis no break whatever in the long chain of living beings. Man has no art, has developed no thing whatever, no mode of language or communication, that is not to be found in some degree among animals. They are capableof feeling the same emotions as human beings, and are therefore subjectto the same general laws of life. No science has been more beneficialthan psychology in proving that they are human in all ways; no discoverymade by the human mind is so poetical and of such value as that whichleads mankind to recognise some part of himself in every part ofNature, even in the language of animals. 

This knowledge of all life is recognised by thinking men the world over, removing forever that artificial barrier by which, in his ignorance andprejudice, he has separated himself from his lower brothers, theanimals, denying unto them even a means of intelligent communication. This recognition of the existence of a common language will go fartoward establishing the universal brotherhood of all living creatures. 

VIII

IN THEIR BOUDOIRS, HOSPITALS AND CHURCHES

 _"Never stoops the soaring vulture On his quarry in the desert, On the sick or wounded bison, But another vulture, watching From his high aerial look-out, Sees the downward plunge and follows, And a third pursues the second, Coming from the invisible ether, First a speck and then a vulture Till the air is dark with pinions. "_

Many animals show a surprising knowledge of medical and sanitary laws, but these laws vary in the different species as much as they do amonghumans. Animals are divided into as many classes and social castes asare mankind; and those that have advanced beyond the nomadic life, andhave fixed homes with servants and luxuries, naturally are more refinedin the matter of their personal care. 

Science may yet prove that the old legend of the mermaid sitting on arock, with a glass and comb in her hand, was not so far from truth aswe imagine. No doubt, the bright-eyed seals looked like sea-maidens tomany ancient mariners. The originator of the mermaid stories hadpossibly seen seals making their toilettes. These beautiful andaffectionate human-like creatures of the water, wear, attached to theirfront flipper, a handsome comb-like protuberance. When they rest on therocks, they use this little comb to brush the fur on their faces; andthe Northern fur-seals, when the weather is warm, use their flippers asfans. The secret of teaching seals to play tambourines is due to theirdesire to comb their fur and fan themselves!

Members of the cat family are, perhaps, the cleanest of all animals, with the exception of some of the opossums. Lions, panthers, and pumasdress themselves very much as the domestic cat performs her toilette. They use their feet, dipped in water, as wash cloths, and their tonguesas combs and brushes. Hares also use their feet to wash their faces, andthis they do very often, to keep their exquisite hair in perfectcondition. Dogs enjoy wiping their coats against green grass and shrubs. 

Certain animals are so fastidious that they have communitybeauty-parlours! Goats, deer, giraffes, and antelopes, for example, arevery particular about their personal neatness and cleanliness, and theycome together to assist each other in making toilettes. One of thereasons that animals suffer so much in captivity, especially when alone, is that they have no one to help them dress, and some of them, such asthe giraffe, cannot reach all parts of their bodies. I have seen a youngguinea pig that had been rescued from a mud puddle being cleaned by bothof his parents. Water-loving animals, like the beavers, seemingly takegreat pride in their toilettes, and in this respect they show more humantraits than any other animal. 

It is a general belief that animals are quite care-free, and that whenthey awake in the morning there is nothing for them to do but play orwander about. This is a mistaken belief, for they have to dressthemselves, and this not only means a bath in many cases, but asmoothing out of their fur and hair. Some are shy and seek the darkestplaces to dress themselves, others, like the dog and cat, seek thehearth. Every one has possibly seen a cow and horse licking each other, and it is generally believed that this implies special friendshipbetween the two, but this idea is incorrect; it only implies mutual aidin making their toilettes. They have a beauty parlour, and thus aid eachother. In no way are animals better prepared to teach man than in theirmethods of personal cleanliness, and this means health. Theirutilisation of clay, dust, mud, water, and even sunshine to keep theirhealth, far exceeds that of mankind. In fact, man's first knowledge ofsimple, natural health remedies came from animals. This wisdom they haveacquired by ages of instinct and reason, for theirs has been the normallife, whereas man's is often abnormal. Each animal is his ownspecialist. However, when an animal becomes too ill to doctor himself, he is treated by another. I have seen a horse licking the wound of oneof his fellows to stop the pain. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

WATER-LOVING ANIMALS, LIKE THE BEAVERS, SEEMINGLY TAKE GREAT PRIDE INTHEIR TOILETTES. THEIR FUR IS ALWAYS SLEEK AND CLEAN. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

GREAT FOREST PIGS OF CENTRAL AFRICA. LIKE THE COMMON DOMESTICATED HOGS, THEY WILL SEEK A CLAY BATH TO HEAL THEIR WOUNDS. ]

Animals know better than man what kind of food they need, for the simplereason that their tastes are natural, while man has allowed his tobecome perverted. In times of sickness absurd practices have beenobserved. Ice-cream and buttermilk, for example, were for ages refusedto typhoid fever patients, while to-day they are generally used undersuch circumstances. But the natural desire for sour and cold things wasalways in evidence; animals have always depended upon these desires. 

Among them are skilled dietitians, who restrict their diet in case ofillness, keep quiet, avoid all excitement, seek restful places wherethere is plenty of fresh air and clean water. If a dog loses hisappetite, he eats "dog grass, " while a sick cat delights in catnip. Deer, goats, cows, and sheep, when sick seek various medicinal herbs. When deer or cattle have rheumatism, they invariably seek a healthresort where they may bathe in a sulphur spring and drink of the healingmineral waters. They also know the full value of lying in the warm sun. 

Cats are skilled physicians, and have various home remedies, such asdipping a feverish foot into cold water, or lying before a warm fire, ifthey have a cold. Many animals know how to treat a sore eye--by lying inthe dark, and repeatedly licking their paws and placing them over theafflicted member. 

How wonderful would the human race become, if it had the strength of alion, the power of a bear, the wisdom of an elephant, the cleverness ofa fox, and the health of the wild boar! But these qualities are foundchiefly among the animals because of the marvellous knowledge of thelaws of health and self-preservation. 

John Wesley claimed, in his directions on the art of keeping well, thatmany of the medicines which were used among the common people of histime were first discovered by watching animals in their medicalpractices to cure their ills and pains. "If they heal animals, they willalso heal men, " he claimed. The American Indians learned most of theircures from watching animals, especially the cure of such diseases asfever, rheumatism, dysentery, and snake-bites. A rheumatic old wolfwould bathe in the warm waters of a sulphur spring; a sick and feverishdeer would eat the fresh leaves of healing ferns, while a wounded hog orbear would always seek a red-clay bath to heal the wounds. Sick dogswill invariably eat certain weeds, and an unwell cat will seek healingmints and grasses. 

Old hunters tell us that a deer after having been chased for severalhours by dogs, and after having escaped them by swimming a cold stream, will, upon reaching safety, lie down in the ice and snow. If a man didsuch a thing, he would immediately die. But not so with the deer, for hewill arise about every hour and move around to exercise himself, and onthe morrow he is perfectly well. The same animal, shut up in a warm barnfor the night, as has many times been demonstrated with circus animals, will be dead by morning. 

From this natural method of healing, mankind may learn much, andespecially as it pertains to the treatment of extreme heat, cold, exhaustion, and paralysis of the muscles, and most especially sores andwounds. I have seen a wounded hog that had been badly bitten by a dog, wallow in rich red mud to stop the flow of blood. 

It is a common practice for a raccoon actually to amputate a diseasedleg, or one that has been wounded by a gunshot, and wash the stub incool flowing water. When it is healing, he licks it with his tongue tomassage it, and also to stop the pain and reduce the swelling. Thiswisdom is often classed by the unknowing under the term instinct, whereas it displays no less skill and knowledge than that of our modernsurgery. The intelligence of the raccoon stands very high in the animalworld. 

Foxes, when caught in a trap, will very often gnaw off a limb. Thisrequires a special power and a moral energy that few men possess. 

William J. Long, in the _Outlook_, tells of an unusual proof of animalsurgery in the case of an old muskrat that had cut off both of hisforelegs, probably at different times, and had grown very wise inavoiding man-made traps, and when found, had covered the wound with asticky vegetable gum from a pine tree. "An old Indian who lives andhunts on Vancouver Island told me recently, " said Mr. Long, "that he hadseveral times caught beaver that had previously cut their legs off toescape from traps, and that two of them had covered the wounds thicklywith gum, as the muskrat had done. Last spring the same Indian caught abear in a deadfall. On the animal's side was a long rip from some otherbear's claw, and the wound had been smeared thickly with soft spruceresin. This last experience corresponds closely with one of my own. Ishot a bear years ago in northern New Brunswick that had received agunshot wound, which had raked him badly and then penetrated the leg. Hehad plugged the wound carefully with clay, evidently to stop thebleeding, and then had covered the broken skin with sticky mud from theriver's brink, to keep the flies away from the wound and give it achance to heal undisturbed. It is noteworthy here that the bear useseither gum or clay indifferently, while the beaver and muskrat seem toknow enough to avoid the clay, which would be quickly washed off in thewater. "

Animals not only know how to doctor themselves when they are sick, butsome of them, such as the fox, have learned how to make artificial heatby covering green leaves with dirt. And while they do not make fire, their homes are often heated in this practical way, and thus sicknessavoided. Domestic horses and dogs wear hats in summer, and possibly inthe future they will learn the enormous importance of wearing clothes!Trained monkeys already take great delight in dressing up, and dogslike smart suits. 

Monkeys show the greatest interest and brotherly love when one of theirnumber is injured. Watson tells of a female monkey that was shot andcarried into a tent. Several of her tribe advanced with frightfulgestures, and only stopped when met with a gun. The chief of the tribethen came forward, chattering and remonstrating vigorously. But as hecame nearer, there was every evidence of grief and supplication for thebody. As he was given the body, he affectionately took it in his armsand slowly moved to his companions, and like a silent funeral processionthey all walked away. 

Nor does their interest cease with life, for we are told by no lessauthority than Col. Theodore Roosevelt of a large grizzly bear that wasdiscovered lying across the trail in the woods. The hunter shot her asshe was preparing to charge him, and later he examined the spot whereshe was lying, and found that it was the newly made grave of her cub. Evidently some animal had killed the cub in her absence, and she, in hergrief, was determined to avenge the wrong by lying in wait for theenemy. 

Public meetings for civic council and religious worship are not confinedto man alone. In Macgrave's _History of Brazil_ we are told of aspecies of South American monkey known as the ouraines, which thenatives call preachers of the woods. These highly intelligent creaturesassemble every morning and evening, when the leader takes a place apartfrom the rest and addresses them from his pulpit or platform, Havingtaken his position, he signals to the others to be seated, after whichhe speaks to them in a language loud and rapid, with the gestures of aBilly Sunday, the audience listening in profound silence. He thensignals again with his paws, when all cry out together in apparentlyconfused noises, until another signal for silence comes from theirleader. Then follows another discourse, at the close of which theassembly disperses. Macgrave attempts no explanation as to the object ofthese addresses; but if his accounts be true, surely they must have asmuch meaning for the monkeys as many of our public lectures and churchservices have for us! No doubt much of the advice imparted concerns thepersonal and collective welfare of the tribe members. 

IX

SELF-DEFENCE AND HOME-GOVERNMENT

 _"In the days of yore, when the world was young, Sages of asses spoke, and poets sung; In God's own book we find their humble name, Some enrolled upon the scroll of fame. "_

There is no phase of animal life which is more interesting than thatthrough which Nature governs and protects her children. Each and everyspecies of animal possesses the method of self-defence and protectionbest adapted to it. Most of the larger animals are of themselves sopowerful that they need no protection other than that afforded by theirstrength, while most of the weaker and less aggressive animals areprovided with some special method of defence. 

The tiger, lion, panther, and wolf have formidable claws and teeth;while the shark has such immense jaws that he can sever the head of agoat at one bite. And most of them are in reality tyrants. They rule bytyranny--the oppression of the weak by the strong, whether that strengthbe physical or mental, --a trait as common in animals as in man. Amongthe animals it takes the commonest form, and they not only oppress theweak, but actually kill and eat them, even though they oftentimes aremembers of the same family. They are exactly like human cannibals, nobetter and no worse. 

Flight is perhaps the simplest and most natural method of defence. Theswifter animals, however, such as deer, gazelles, and hares, which mayeasily escape by running their fastest, do not always use this method, but have other means so ingenious as to be real arts. Wolves, when theysee that they are outnumbered, will sometimes escape by following theexact tracks of a single leader through the snow, and from allappearances only one has passed the way over which a hundred may havegone. Hares will separate and run in opposite directions, whilegazelles, if too closely pursued, will jump to one side and lie flat onthe earth to escape notice, and as soon as the enemies have passed, runin the opposite direction. 

It oftentimes happens that aggressively disposed animals, like cowardlymen, are apt to try battle with the unlikeliest adversaries. Amissionary from India tells the story of an alligator who was enjoying anoonday sleep on the bank of a river, when an immense tiger emergedfrom the jungle, made straight for the sleeping saurian until withinleaping distance, when he sprang on the alligator's back, and gained astrangle hold before the sleeping monster could awake. At first thetiger was master, for the alligator could not bring his huge jaws intoaction, and while lashing viciously at the tiger with his tail, he wasdragged into the jungle. What happened there no one could see, but in afew moments the tiger dashed out of the jungle and disappeared in thecane brakes, and the alligator reappeared and crawled into the water. 

The ape and the baboon are the most skilled of all animals in makingtheir flight. They use every method known to man, and because of theirswiftness of action excel man in certain ways. Like man, in the face ofdanger, they show great bravery and never lose their presence of mind. The ape is fast disappearing before man, but against other animals andNature he can well protect himself. He is even braver than the lion, whoin captivity allows himself to be petted, but rarely is this true of theape, and then only when conditions seem insurmountable. 

In making his escape from an enemy, the ape directs his flight in themost self-possessed and human-like way, never losing his head, andtaking advantage of the first shelter or protection that he meets; ifthe young, or females, or aged linger behind, a strong army of malesbravely returns to rescue them at the danger of losing their own lives. Many of their brave deeds, if recorded in history, would comparefavourably with those of mankind! Too often has a poor, sickly ape, which by his very feebleness allowed himself to be captured and placedin a zoo, been compared to human beings. Even in spirit and movements hehas been considered as a human caricature and heaped with ridicule. Wehave continually considered his defects, without noticing his betterqualities. We would have a much higher idea of his great family, if wewould take a human derelict and compare him to an ape ruler! Thiscomparison would be more just. 

Certain of the baboon tribes which live among the rocks of highmountains and cliffs, if pursued by enemies, protect themselves byingeniously rolling immense stones down upon their foes. They also hurlwith great force small stones about the size of one's hand. As thesetribes have each from one hundred to three hundred members, theyconstitute a formidable grenade army!

In addition to their skilled methods of flight, the baboons, apes, andmonkeys come next to certain of the cat tribes as the greatest fightersin the animal world. This is astonishing when we remember that theseanimals are not professional warriors, nor do they have to fight toobtain their food. Their greatest defence is their quickness and powersof biting. When they are attacked by a dog, they usually bite off a footor an ear, or leave him minus a tail!

One of the bravest and fiercest of fighters is the bull-dog. Three ofthese animals together have been known to capture and hold a large bull. Deer, when fighting among themselves, often play more than anything, andare not serious. Red deer seldom injure one another with their longantlers, but they could easily kill a dog or even a man. Stags, however, often fight to death, in some instances locking horns and tumbling overa precipice. 

The most ingenious of all the horned fighters is the sable antelope, whose clever system of self-defence might well be taught in war-schools. His horns are long, sharp-pointed, and bend backwards. When wounded, orattacked by wolves or dogs, he lies down, and scientifically covers hisback by rapid fencing with his pointed horns. He can quickly kill anydog that attacks him in this way. 

Occasionally great battles take place between a buffalo and a lion, ormore often two or three lions attack a buffalo, who rarely escapes them. The strength of a lion is almost beyond our comprehension when weremember that one can actually carry a cow over an ordinary-sized fence. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT HAS MANY MEANS OF DEFENCE, NOT THE LEAST OFWHICH IS HIS AGILITY IN CLIMBING TO INACCESSIBLE PLACES. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

WILD BOARS ARE AMONG THE MOST FEROCIOUS OF ANIMALS. BY MEANS OF THEIRGREAT STRENGTH ALONE THEY ARE WELL ABLE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES. ]

A most unique fighter is the giraffe. He has neither claws nor sharpteeth with which to defend himself; so, if he gets angry with one of hiskind, he deliberately uses his long neck like a pile driver would use asledge hammer. Swinging it round and round, he lets his head descendupon his adversary like a heavy ax! The two animals use the same kind oftactics, and bracing themselves so as to stand the blows, they fightuntil one has to give in. Their heads are furnished with two smallknob-like horns which only protect them from the heavy blows withoutserving as offensive weapons. 

Most singular and amusing of all methods of self-defence are those whichentirely depend for their efficiency upon bluff, or pretence. Thechameleon, for example, erects his snake-like hood, though he isharmless, and at the most could scarcely injure the smallest animal. Equally curious are the methods of skunks and polecats, which projectagainst enemies a highly disagreeable fluid. 

Passive modes of defence are as many and varied as are the active; oneof the strangest and most inexplicable of these is that known asspontaneous amputation, technically termed autotomy. The lizard, forexample, when captured, will abruptly break loose his tail in order toescape; and certain wood rats, when caught, loosen the skin on theirtails and deliberately slip away. Autotomy not only permits flight, butalso defends the animal against the most adverse conditions. Nearestakin to this--defence by means of amputation--is the practice of bearsand raccoons of amputating their limbs when caught in steel traps. 

Mimicry, which is treated under another chapter, comes under the head ofpassive defence, and form and colour play an important part in it. Strangely enough, animals which have never resorted to mimicry as ameans of protection, when associated with others who practice it, takeon the habit themselves. This may possibly be due to the fact that newenemies are constantly arising. 

As human sharpshooters dress in garments of the same colour as the woodsin which they hunt, so many animals use this principle of imitation. Thecolour of most animals is very similar to their surroundings. Thisenables them to lie in wait for prey, a practice as old as the hillsideswith animals. They have learned the extreme value of silence, and thatthey must remain at times motionless. This is especially noticeable withcrocodiles, which wait for whole days without moving, concealed in thewater or deep grass, until their prey comes within striking distance, when they pounce upon it. The same is true of the python snake, whichhangs from a tree so immovable that he appears like a vine or a branchof the tree. If an animal attempts to pass, he drops upon it. 

Perhaps the most unique and successful method of passive defence is thefeigning of death, or "playing 'possum" met with in several animals, such as the red fox, the opossum, occasionally the elephant, and severalof the snakes. On many occasions I have been 'possum hunting in theSouth and found my dog barking at an apparently dead 'possum. As soon asthese animals are approached by larger and stronger enemies, they dropabsolutely motionless on the ground and close their eyes as though theywere dead. Here they remain until the enemy either destroys them, carries them away, or leaves them alone. If left alone for a fewmoments, they immediately spring to their feet and make their escape. 

Elephants often feign death when captured, in order to gain theirliberty. Animal catchers tell many interesting tales of elephantsfeigning weakness from which they fall to the earth and later apparentlydie. In many instances the fastenings are removed from their legs andhead and the carcass is abandoned as useless, when to the utterastonishment of all--before the captors get out of sight--the animalsprings up and dashes away to the forest, screaming with joy at thetriumph of its deception. 

Many animals deliberately assume a frightful, terrifying or grotesqueappearance. This they do by inflating their bodies, by erecting hair, skin, or folds, or by unusual poses. Darwin speaks of the hissing ofcertain snakes, the rattle of the rattle-snake, the grating of thescales of the echis, each of which serves to frighten or terrify theenemy. 

Bluffing is another form of defence that many animals use. The cobra, for example, when disturbed, raises its immense hood in a mostterrifying attitude! Many of the lizards use the same tactics; while thehorned toads of America when disturbed actually eject blood from theireyes. Every one is familiar with the cat's habit of raising the fur onhis back when molested by a dog. All bluffing animals, when in danger, try to assume a pose that will make them look most dangerous andimpressive to their enemies, and there is little doubt that in mostcases they succeed very well, for we have all seen a dog slink away froma menacing cat. 

The elk or moose, whose home is in the northern part of America andEurope, is a powerful and large animal, sometimes seven feet in height, and is able to endure much cold. He has many enemies among animals andmankind, and during the summer season he is quite able to protecthimself, but in winter there is considerable danger from hordes ofwolves. This is especially true just after a heavy snowstorm, if thesnow is wet and melting. When it is dry and frozen, he can travel overit with great speed, and this he does by a most unusual trot whichcarries him along much faster than the trotting gait of a horse. Thus heis able to escape the hungry, carnivorous wolves, whose courageincreases with appetite. If crowded too close, he is able also toprotect himself by the most terrific blows of his fore-feet. 

But when the spring weather sets in, and the snows begin to meltunderneath, leaving the upper crust sufficiently strong to support theweight of lighter and smaller animals, such as wolves, especially whenthey travel swiftly, he is in great danger. For with every step he sinksto the belly in the snow, while his enemies can walk right up to hishead and shoulders without his being able to strike or paw them with hisdangerous hoofs. The advantage seems to be with the wolves, and if everthey bring the moose to bay in the snow, his life is doomed. For theycare little for his arrow-like horns, but boldly jump at his throat andkill him. Herein comes the elk's wisdom--he deliberately sets to work, before the snow melts, and builds for himself and family an elk-yard, which is nothing more than a large space of ground on which the snow issmoothed or trampled down until it becomes a hard surface on which hecan walk; it is also surrounded by a high wall of snow, through whichare certain exits that allow him to pass out, if he desires. All theenclosed space is not smoothed down, but parts of it only are cut upinto roads through which he may pass very swiftly. Woe unto the daringwolves that enter his snowy fortification--his "No Man's Land"--- forsure death awaits them!

A sense of law, order, government; the sacredness of family ties--allthese aid in the protection of animals. Family life with them originatedjust as it did in the human world. The social instinct and the moralsentiments which arise from social relations in man and animal are thesame. Moral obligations, especially in relation to family ties andconjugal unions of animals, are in many cases sacred binders to suchties. The bear, for example, is proverbial for his conjugalfaithfulness. The married life of most animals is strictly moral, andmost of them are monogamists and have reached the highest form of familyassociation and life. 

In those places where they live promiscuously, it gives them the sameprotection in herds as it does among our lower savages. Cattle, sheep, and horses unite for mutual protection; wolves band together in packs;and after they have been domesticated there is still not only a strongdesire to band together for social purposes, but also to hold courts ofjustice. It sometimes happens that an angered husband takes the law inhis hands, like uncivilised men, and beats his wife. 

In the development and organisation of social and civil life the horseand the goat hold the foremost position. It corresponds to that of manamong the lower animals. They do not believe in monarchies, but strictlyin republics, or rather, a democracy where all power comes from theworking class. The claims of the working class to the exercise ofsupreme control in all political affairs are practically realised. Amonga herd of wild Arabian horses, the leading stallion, or so-called king, is really only the father of the tribe; his functions are paternalrather than regal. If he may be said to reign in a certain sense, thetrue workers rule, and his scouts and sentinels obey his wishes whichthe workers have influenced and formulated. 

The existence of but one king leaves no room for dynastic troubles andrivalries which disturb, so often, our human countries and empires withsuch dreadful results. If two rival kings arise at the same time in aherd of horses, instead of forming factions in the state which end incivil war, they fight it out personally until one of them is killed ordefeated. Once in a great while the other horses intervene, and drivethe less desirable, or the false-claimant of power, away from the herdand its grazing territory. In these troubles the real king has little orno power, all activities are carried on by the workers. 

If by chance he dies or is captured, another king, chosen by the herd, immediately assumes the kingship. It is a well-known fact that if theking of a herd of wild horses is caught, it is not uncommon for his herdto remain as near him as possible, and in their attempt to release himare often trapped themselves. The king has no heirs, either apparent orpresumptive, and no right of succession is recognised. Any member of theherd, provided the workers choose him, may become the king, as everyAmerican school boy is a possible president of the United States. 

Among many animals there is a perfect social and industrial organisationin which the division of labour is far better adjusted than in manyhuman organisations. This, of course, is the result of gradual growthand evolution just as it is in the human species. This can easily beproved among animals by their more primitive and savage habits. Monkeys, for example, in civilised monkey communities, differ very greatly fromthose of wilder and less trained districts. They are constantly changingtheir habits, becoming more and more civilised by improving theirmethods of work and their moral and religious life as well. In manycases they have ceased to kill members of their own tribe for smalloffences for which they used to kill, and the cleanness and beauty oftheir home lives seem to increase with the years. 

It oftentimes happens, however, that powerful ape and baboon coloniesrelapse into barbarism, and roam, plunder, rob and murder, like a packof uncivilised wolves or hyenas. They seem all at once to forget theirpeaceful industries and lose all desire for clean and right living. Andstrangely enough, when they once turn bad, they seldom reform. Somenaturalists believe that they are led astray by a wicked king or rulerwho comes into power; the natives believe the evil spirits have suddenlytaken possession of them. 

There is unquestionably, in the life of many tribal animals, a definitehistorical connection between the mother tribe and its colonies. Thisrelation extends to the tribes of tribes, and thus there is aninternational relationship between the various members of a large numberof tribes. These communities share the same likes, dislikes, hatreds, and aspirations. A missionary friend told of his experience with monkeyfolk, and how once, when hunting, his gun was accidentally discharged, instantly wounding a large semi-tame baboon near his home. He hastenedto help the injured animal, but saw that the relatives had crowdedaround and were terrorised, as they thought it was intentional. They notonly followed him to his home, but returned in the night and actuallytore his fence down. For months he was afraid to leave his wife aloneduring the day. And the natives reported that large tribes of monkeyfolk immediately came into the community from remoter regions and weredistinctly on the war path. It was evident that their unjust antipathywas extended to all the kinspeople. 

This is evidence of hereditary enmity, such as is common among families, tribes, and clans, and it often takes the form of feuds, which are stillin vogue in the mountainous counties of the South. The baboons hadsuffered wrongs and never forgot it, and it was transmitted to theiroffspring. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

BRONTOSAURUS. THE ANIMALS THAT SEEMED BEST EQUIPPED TO DEFEND THEMSELVESARE THE ONES THAT, THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO, BECAME EXTINCT. ]

[Illustration: THIS PREHISTORIC MONSTER WAS EQUIPPED NOT ONLY WITH APAIR OF STRONG HORNS, BUT WITH A SHIELD BACK OF THEM AS WELL. ]

The ability to use weapons, tools, and war instruments is notexclusively human. Even fish are capable of reaching their prey at along distance. The _toxotes jaculator_, which lives in the rivers ofIndia, and feeds upon insects, cannot afford to wait until the insectswhich thrive upon the leaves of aquatic plants fall into the water. Soas he cannot leap high enough to catch them, he fills his mouth withwater and squirts it at an insect with such aim and force that he rarelyfails to knock the insect into the water where he can easily catch it. Many other animals squirt various liquids, occasionally in attack, butmost times in defence. The fish makes a veritable squirt-gun of hismouth. 

Beavers use sticks, chips, and even stones in building their dams; andtheir engineering abilities are astounding. They are also capable ofmeeting emergencies, as shown by the following incident. A farmer inMichigan discovered one morning, just after a flood, that all his potatosacks, which had been hung on a back fence to dry, had suddenlydisappeared. A few days later he found them in a nearby beavers' colony, used in rebuilding their dam, which had suddenly overflowed. The beaverswasted no time, when they discovered their danger, in meeting theemergency by using the sacks to prevent the destruction of their home. 

Monkeys make skilled use of clubs and stones in capturing their prey andfighting their enemies. 

The skill with which some of them throw pebbles would lead us to believethey have already reached the degree of civilisation that many tribes ofsavages had reached only a few years ago, when they learned to use theboomerang and lasso. Some naturalists claim that monkeys actually setpitfalls for their enemies and lie in wait for them to be caught, justas a hunter would do. 

Elephants also know the value of clubs in warfare, and will often use abroken limb of a dead tree as a weapon of defence. The story is told andvouched for by Mr. William B. Smith that on his farm, near MountLookout, a few years ago a donkey grazed in the same pasture with aferocious bull. He was frequently attacked by the bull, and always gotthe worst of the fight. His feet were no match for the bull's horns, butone day the mule grabbed a long pole in his mouth, and, whirling itabout, almost killed the bull, and henceforth the two lived on the bestof terms in the same pasture. 

I have a friend who owns a cow that knows exactly how to lift an ironlatch to the barn door with her tongue and open the door. Innumerabletimes she has opened a gate in the same way to permit her calf to gofree with her. So skilled is she in the manipulation of doors andlatches that we are tempted to believe in some previous state ofexistence she was a professional lock-picker!

Cats and dogs are famed for their ability to open doors by pullinglatch-strings. And not a few cats show a strong desire to study music bywalking up and down the keyboard of a piano!

Monkeys who live near the seashore show wonderful aptness in openingoysters and shell-fish with sharp stones, exactly as a man would do. Monkeys have already reached the degree of civilization where theyselect the stones best suited for their work, and from their progress inthe past it is reasonable to believe that in the near future they willnot only be able to make their own tools--thus placing themselves on amental footing with our flint-chipping ancestors of the early stoneage, --but will also learn the use of fire and eventually the use of gunsand ammunition, which marks one of the most important epochs in theevolution of the human species. 

The chimpanzees, gorillas, and apes of the African forests have manytimes been observed in the act of piling brushwood upon the fires leftby travellers, and though they do not know how to kindle a fire, theyhave learned how to keep it burning. The tame ones soon learn how toignite matches, and often do great harm by starting forest fires. 

But they show quite as much intelligence about the use of fire as theaverage small child. In fact, it has been thought by a number of greatscholars that man had not yet made his appearance upon the earth in themiocene age, and that all the marvellous chipped flints of that agebelong to semi-human pithecoid apes of wonderful intelligence. There issurely nothing in the facts of natural history, nor in Darwin's theoryof evolution, that makes such a supposition unbelievable. 

Baboons use poles as levers, stones as hammers, and seem to understandthe more simple mechanical devices. Prantl claims that man is the onlyanimal capable of using fire but not a few baboons know how to strike amatch, heap dried leaves over the blaze to make it burn, and then heapon dead wood to feed the fire. This knowledge with them, exactly as withprimitive peoples, is a product of long experience and does not show anymathematical truths or principles any more than making a direct cutacross a field implies "knowledge of the relation of a hypothenuse tothe two other sides of a right-angled triangle. " This is what Prantlcalls "spontaneous mathematical thinking. "

I knew of a tame ape in Chicago that learned to swing from the end of aclothes-line and seemed to enjoy it very much. The line was just theright length and properly hung so as to allow the ape to swing out froma kitchen window and touch the ground. Just for fun, some one cut apiece from the line so that he could not reach the ground; immediatelythe ape hunted another piece of cord, tying it to the end of his line soas to increase its length, and much to his delight, continued to swingon the line. 

The distinctive features of animal protection and home government, especially in the higher groups, may compare favourably with any of themethods used by civilised man. This is true both of their offensive anddefensive contrivances and for their monarchies and republics. They useshells, scales, plates of every kind, with innumerable modifications forvarious purposes--spines and allied armaments--all shapes and sizes;poisonous secretions, deadly odours, strong claws and teeth wielded bystrong muscles, and form colonies that are more than a gregariousassociation. In most cases, they have communities composed ofindividuals living individual lives, yet which act in cases of need asone unit. 

X

ANIMAL ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, AND HOUSE BUILDERS

 _"The heart is hard that is not pleased With sight of animals enjoying life, Nor feels their happiness augment his own. "_

The most popular and perhaps the most interesting department ofnatural-history study is that which treats of the manner in whichanimals utilise the various materials of the universe for purposes ofprotection, for war and defence, for raiment, food, and even theluxuries of life. Man, by his superior power of adaptation, excels thelower animals in providing for the comforts of life; but, on the otherhand, in such practical arts as engineering and domestic architectureman frequently finds himself an amateur in comparison. With all man'sinventions he has not been able to equal some of the remarkable resultsproduced by some animals. The beaver, for example, shows a more profoundknowledge of hydraulics than man himself. The power possessed by thesecraftsmen, not only in felling trees, but in duly selecting the bestplaces for making homes and in appropriating substances suitable fortheir needs, is a never-ending marvel!

Nowhere can we find a greater animal-workman than the beaver. He belongsto the great burrowing family, and is also extremely graceful in thewater. Long ago he learned the advantages of co-operation, and he uniteswith his fellows in building dams of felled trees, which have been cutup into suitable length for use in damming up water places. These areskilfully placed, and with the aid of mud, control the level of thewater in selected places as efficiently as man could do. As a socialanimal, the beaver should be ranked among the first; of course, thevarious marmots are extremely sociable, but they ordinarily live quiteindependently of each other, except in cases where they chance tocongregate because of favourable conditions. The beavers, on the otherhand, thoroughly understand the benefits of united labour, and worktogether for the good of the community. 

Beavers, if their skill were generally known, would have a greatreputation among their human friends. Recently, at the New YorkZoological Gardens, a visitor was pointing out different animals to hislittle son, and when he came to the beaver pond, referred to two ofthese dam-builders and tree-cutters, which were swimming through thewater with large sticks in their mouths, as big rats!

Young beavers make their appearance in May, and there are usually fromfour to eight to a family. These kittens, as they are called, are oddlooking little fellows, with big heads, large sharp teeth, flat tails, like little fat paddles, and delicate, soft, mouse-like fur, not at allcoarse like that of their parents. If taken at an early age they makenice pets and are easily domesticated. In the early days of Americanhistory it was not uncommon to see one running around an Indian lodge, playing like a child with the little Indians, and frequently receivingwith the papoose nourishment from the mother's breast. Strangely enough, the cry of the young beaver is exactly like that of the baby child. Oneof my friends in Michigan recently stopped at an Indian's house to see areal live baby beaver. "He cry all same as papoose, " remarked the squaw, as she brought the young beaver out of the house, giving him a littleslap to start him crying--and cry he did!

The body of a grown beaver is usually about thirty inches long, andsomething over eleven inches wide; it weighs about sixty pounds. Thefore-paws are quite small in comparison with the rest of the body; thehind feet are larger, webbed like a duck's feet, and are the principalmotive power in swimming. The most unique feature of the animal's bodyis the famous mud-plastering tail, which is oft-times a foot long, fiveinches in width, and an inch in thickness. The colour of the beavervaries; there are black beavers, white beavers, and brown beavers. Theblack are the best known. 

The beaver is well equipped for defending himself, and for carrying outhis architectural schemes. His jet black tail, which is like a largepaddle, covered with horny scales, he uses in many ways. With it heturns the body in any desired direction while swimming and diving, and, in time of danger, employs it as a sound board, or paddle. When alarmedat night, he dives into the water, and, by means of his tail, splashesso violently as to give warning to all beavers within a half-miledistance. The stroke of the tail sounds not unlike a pistol shot. Assoon as a beaver sounds the alarm all others dive underneath the water. His teeth are expressly suited by nature for cutting and chiselling outtrees. 

The dam is the beaver's masterpiece. In the alder or birch swamps, wherehe usually lives, he oft-times builds from six to eight little dams fromknoll to knoll, and in this way makes a pond sufficiently large for hispurposes. The average beaver dam is from twenty to thirty feet long; butthey differ greatly in size. There is one on a branch of Arnold's Riverin Canada, where the stream is twenty-one feet wide and two feet deep, which is especially well built. The dam is seven feet high, and risesfive to six feet above the pool. It is constructed mainly of alderpoles, which are arranged side by side, and their length is parallelwith the direction of the current. To create a pond for himself andprovide against drought is the chief aim of the beaver in building hisdam. 

Just how these dams are built; who plans the job; who sees that it iscarried out; whether each works under his own impulse or whether theyco-operate; when they begin and how they finish; all these things areunknown to man. The investigation of such questions is almostimpossible. It is generally believed, however, that beavers work ingangs under a common "boss" or "overseer, " and it is a known fact thatthey work only at night. During a dark, rainy night they accomplishtwice as much as on a moonlight night. No doubt the darkness gives thema sense of security which aids their work. Anyway, in the completed job, we see the evidences of a skilled engineer and architect, and one whoknew thoroughly what he was about. 

The size of a dam depends entirely upon the wishes of its builders andlocation and general conditions of land and water. Sometimes the moreambitious beavers build a dam a quarter of a mile in length. They employexactly the same principle as is used in making a mill-dam. Beavers, however, were building dams long before millers came into existence, andtheir methods are fully as scientific as those of man. Mill-dams usuallyrun straight across a stream, while beaver-dams are so curved that thewater is gently turned to each side. In this way the beaver-dams arecapable of resisting immense quantities of water which in its impetuousrush would carry away the ordinary mill-dam. Many scientific thinkersclaim that the beaver employs this principle of construction withoutknowing it. How absurd! Who can be sure that he doesn't know it?Scientists of the old school desire proof before they will acceptanything as a fact, yet they themselves repeatedly make wild statementswithout proper substantiation. 

It is not unusual for a beaver family to select a home on the bank of apond, lake, or stream whose waters are sufficiently deep and abundantfor all their needs. In such a case dams are not needed, and regulationbeaver houses are rarely constructed. Instead, apartment houses arehollowed out from the banks. But in the ease of a town-site on shallow, narrow waters, dams are absolutely necessary to insure sufficient depthto conceal the beavers, and to prevent obstruction by ice. The entranceto the beaver's home is almost always under the water. This arrangementsafeguards the home from predatory enemies. 

During the summer months, beavers are inclined to live alone, exceptwhen a new home occupies their attention; but when autumn comes, thevarious families of a neighbourhood meet and remain together through thefollowing spring. In the latter part of August the busy season begins, and each and every beaver, old and young, aids in repairing the dam anddwellings, which have been allowed to fall into decay. The cutting andfelling of trees is the first important work to be done. 

These interesting "tree-cutters" usually work in pairs, and aresometimes assisted by younger beavers; thus the family works together incutting and felling the trees, but in other forms of labour it seemsthat several families work together. If only two are engaged in fellinga tree, they work by turns, and alternately keep guard; this is awell-known practice of many animals both in work and play. As soon asthe tree begins to bend and crack, they cease cutting and make sure oftheir definite direction of escape, then they continue to gnaw until itbegins to fall, whereupon they plunge into the stream, usually, wherethey remain for some time lest the noise of the falling tree attract theattention of enemies. 

Their next work is to cut up the tree into sections which they canremove. If the tree is not too large and has already fallen in thewater, they take it as it is, otherwise it must be cut up and conveyedto the dam. No professional lumberman better understands how totransport lumber to a desired place than beavers. They realise the valueof water transportation and thoroughly appreciate that trees can only beremoved downhill. From tame beavers we have learned that they removesmaller limbs by seizing them with their teeth, throwing the loose endover their shoulder, and then dragging them to their destination. 

These water-loving animals rely mainly upon their native element for themovement of lumber and food, and to aid this they employ engineeringskill that is rivalled only by their feats of tree-cutting anddam-building. This constructive faculty is shown largely in theircanal-digging. From one small stream to another, or from one lake toanother, they excavate canals from three to four feet in width, with awater depth of two feet, and occasionally one hundred and fifty to twohundred feet in length. The amount of labour they perform is almostunbelievable; every particle of dirt is carried away between their chinand fore-paws. This earth is sometimes used in plastering up a nearbydam or repairing their winter home. Small and tender twigs aretransported to the vicinity of their lodges, and then sunk for winterfood. 

Mr. Morgan has made a close study of these canals, and in speaking ofthem he says that when he first saw them, and heard them called canals, he doubted their artificial origin; but upon examination he found thatthey were unquestionably beaver excavations. He considers theseartificial canals, by means of which the beavers carry their wood totheir lodges, the supreme act of intelligence on the part of these wiseanimals. Even the dam, remarkable as it is, does not show evidence ofgreater skill than that displayed in the making of these canals. No onewho has ever understood the ways of the beaver can believe that he isnot exceedingly intelligent. The banks of these canals soon becomecovered with growing plants and moss, and they look not unlike slowsluggish streams winding through the marshy lands. 

[Illustration: THE BEAVER IS THE GREATEST OF ALL ANIMAL ARCHITECTS. HISSKILL IS EQUALLED ONLY BY HIS PATIENCE. ]

The beaver huts, or "lodges" as they are usually called, look not unlikebeehives, somewhat broader at the base, with thick walls and roof, four to six feet in thickness. They are formed of numbers of poles, twigs, and small branches of trees, woven together and plastered withmud, in the same way that the dams are made. Inside the house arecircular chambers formed of mud, which have been smoothed and polishedlike waxed floors by the feet of the occupants. Around the outer borderof each polished floor is dry grass used for Mrs. Beaver's nursery, andhere the young beavers sleep and play. 

From the outside these beaver huts resemble Esquimaux snow-houses, beingalmost circular in form, and domed. The walls are quite thick enough tokeep out the cold, but with all the beaver's ingenuity, he is helplessagainst trappers. Summer and winter they are hunted, until now they arefast becoming extinct. How few people seem fully to realise and carewhat is being done to wild animals! They do not seem to know that it isa crime to take the life of a being unnecessarily. Only human life issacred to them! To realize the wonderful work of beavers, and then toact as we do toward them is unworthy of our civilisation. 

An interesting cousin of the beaver, the musquash or muskrat, and calledby the Indians the beaver's "little brother, " is also a house-builderand engineer of no mean abilities. He is at home throughout the greaterpart of North America, and, like the beaver, frequents the regions ofslowly flowing streams and large, reed-bordered ponds. Here he minglesin groups of his own kin, and together they build houses, work and play, dive and swim, with almost as much skill as their big beaver brothers. 

The muskrat is a skilled engineer, and delights in tunnelling. His homeconsists of a large rounded chamber which is reached by a long burrowfrom the side of a stream. From his main living-room are oftentimesfound a number of smaller chambers or galleries, and these are used tostore food in the form of delicate roots and bits of bark. Some of themore ambitious muskrats build large houses on piles of mud which riseout of the water. These houses are usually made of heaps of dead grassand weeds which are cemented together with mud and clay; at other timesthey contain no mud or clay, and seem to be only piles of tender rootsand swamp grasses to be used for food during the long, cold winters. 

From his physical appearance, the muskrat is well prepared to do hiswork: he is stoutly built, with a body about a foot in length, notincluding the tail; has small eyes, and tiny ears, partly covered withfur. In the winter, as food gets scarce, he begins to eat even thewalls of his house, and by the time his home is gone--spring hasarrived!

A most unusual family of skilled house-builders are the brush-tailedrat-kangaroos, or Jerboa kangaroos of Australia and Tasmania. They areno larger than an ordinary rabbit, but they have cousins who are aslarge as a man. These rat-kangaroos have most interesting tails, coveredwith long hair which forms itself into a crest near the tip. Their homesare found among small grassy hills, where there are a few trees andbushes. They scratch out a small hole in the ground, near a tuft of tallgrass, and so bend the grass as to form a complete roof to the house, which is rather poorly constructed, and whose chief interest lies in theunusual way the kangaroos have of carrying all the building materials, like tiny bundles of hay, held compactly in their tails. There is noother workman among the animals that employs quite this method oftransporting materials. 

The rat-kangaroos have a dainty little brown cousin that lives inAfrica, and who is occasionally seen jumping around on the ground, underneath bushes, and near damp springs. He is very small, not overthree inches in length, and is like a miniature kangaroo, except for hislong tail. Like their great cousins--the kangaroos--Mrs. Jerboa oftencarries her babies on her back when she goes out to seek food. 

In the Great Sahara Desert, parched and dry, are found numerous citiesof these little animals. With the exception of a few birds, reptiles, jackals and hyenas, they are the only inhabitants of this barren anddesolate land. From the Arabs we learn that these little animals haveextensive and intricate burrows, consisting of innumerable passagestunnelled out in the hard, dry soil. And these tunnels are the result ofcombined labour on the part of the entire community. The least alarmcauses them to scuffle away into their underground homes. 

One of the larger species of Central Asia employs a stratagem that isremarkable. Like their cousins of Africa, they live in a greatunderground city which is a perfect network of burrows which end in alarge central chamber. From this chamber a long winding tunnelterminates very near the surface of the ground, and it is a longdistance from the other burrows. No sign of its existence appears fromabove the surface of the earth, but if an enemy invades the burrow, awaythe jerboas rush for this secret exit and break through to the surfaceout of reach of the trouble, and escape. 

These African jerboas are exceedingly odd in appearance, and they aretwo-legged in their habits of walk, and never go on all-fours. They walkby placing one hind foot alternately before the other; and they run inthe same way. They can leap an extraordinary distance. 

Frogs and toads, as a class, are not so skilled in house-building assome of their higher relations, but there is one of their number--the_Hyla faber_--that is remarkably gifted in building mud houses. He livesin Brazil, and the natives call him the _ferreiro_, or smith, and he isindeed the master-builder of his family. Mrs. Hyla is really the giftedmember of the tribe, and it is during the breeding season that shediligently dives underneath the water, digs up handfuls of mud, andbuilds on the bottom a small circular wall, which encloses a space aboutten to fourteen inches in diameter. This wall is continued until itreaches about four inches above the surface of the water. It looks notunlike a small volcano, and the inside is skilfully smoothed. This hasbeen done by Mrs. Frog's artistic hands. When the house is entirelycompleted, Mrs. Frog lays a great number of eggs, and here they arequite safe from enemies both as eggs and baby tadpoles. 

Mr. Frog seems little concerned in the building of the home, but he doestake pleasure in croaking for Mrs. Frog while she works. Perhaps thisis to her heart genuine music, and his faithful attention to theirchildren makes up for his love of idleness!

Perhaps the strangest animal engineer in the world is found inMadagascar and Australia. It is the duckbill or duckmole, and isscientifically known as the _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. The natives ofAustralia call it by several names: _Mallangong_, _Tambreet_, and not afew call it, _Tohunbuck_. 

This odd little aquatic engineer digs long tunnels of great intricacy inthe bands of lazy rivers, and because of its paradoxical nature andappearance has caused many strange stories to originate about its habitsand methods of propagation. It has the beak of a duck and waddles notunlike this bird, but, like other mammals, it gives birth to its young, and does not lay eggs, as is so often claimed for it. When swimming itlooks like a bunch of floating weeds or grass. 

Its home is always on the banks of a stream, and is always provided withtwo entrances: one below the surface of the water, and the other above. This insures escape in case of enemies. The main tunnel or road to thehome is sometimes fifty feet in length, and no engineer could devise amore deceptive approach; it winds up and down like a huge serpent, tothe right, and to the left, and is so annoyingly variable in its sinuouscourse that even the natives have great trouble in digging the duckbillout of its nest. 

The nest is oval in form, and is well-carpeted with dry weeds and grass. Here the young reside on soft beds until they are large enough to carefor themselves. There are from one to four in each nest. 

There are no greater architects in the universe than may be found amongthe coral-polypes. These interesting little animals of the deep havebeen much misunderstood, and have sometimes had the erroneousdesignation of "insect" bestowed upon them. The word "insect" has beenapplied in a very loose and general sense in other days; but naturalistsand scientists should see to it that the use of this term be correctedin reference to these wonderful coral-architects, and that no informedperson refer to them except as animals. Even poets have been guilty ofpropagating the most erroneous ideas about the nature and works of thesesea-builders. Montgomery, in his _Pelican Island_, makes statements thatare shocking to an intelligent thinker, and which no scientist canexcuse on the ground of poetical license. "The poetry of this excellentauthor, " says Dana, "is good, but the facts nearly all errors--ifliterature allows of such an incongruity. " Think of coral-animals asbeing referred to as shapeless worms that "writhe and shrink theirtortuous bodies to grotesque dimensions"! These deep-sea buildersmanufacture or secrete from their own bodies the coral substance out ofwhich the great reefs are built. It is a part of their life work andnature, as a flower produces its own colours and shapes; it is amusingto know that it has only been about one hundred and fifty years since itwas discovered not to be a plant but an animal! Even Ovid states thepopular belief of the classic period when he speaks of the coral as aseaweed "which existed in a soft state as long as it remained in thesea, but had the curious property of becoming hard on exposure to theair. "

These strange coral-producing animals of the deep demand two especiallyimportant conditions only under which they will thrive: namely, acertain depth of water and a certain temperature. Thus it is seen thatthe warmth of the sea determines the distribution of the corals; thegeography of these animals is defined by degrees of temperature. Only inequatorial seas may reef-building corals be found; and if we select the"Equator as a natural centre of the globe, and measure off a band of1800 miles in breadth on each side of that line, " we will find that itwill include the chief coral regions of the earth. 

The work of the corals is most interesting. Small as are these tinyworkmen, each and every one does his bit and, speck by speck, adds hisminute contribution to the growing mass of coral until entire islandsare surrounded by extensive reefs. Tahiti, for example, is surrounded bya barrier reef which is really an immense wall. The large barrier reefon the northeast coast of Australia extends in a continuous line for1, 000 miles, and varies from 10 to 90 miles in breadth. Some reefs aremere fringes which simply skirt the coast lands, and seem to be mereextensions of the beach. Still another variety of reef is known as the"atoll" or "lagoon" reef. This latter form is seen in circular rings ofcoral of various breadths which enclose a body of still water--thelagoon. There are many of these coral islands in the Indian and PacificOceans. Keeling or Cocos Atoll, of the Indian Ocean, is 9-1/2 miles inits greatest width; Bow Island is 30 miles in length, and 6 miles wide;while in the Maldive Archipelago one island measures 88 geographicalmiles in length, and in some places is 20 miles wide. When one beholds alarge coral ring, covered with rich soil and tropical vegetation, and"protecting a quiet lake-haven from the restless ocean without, it islittle to be wondered at that the earlier voyagers recorded theirsurprise that the apparently insignificant architects of such anerection are able to withstand the force of the waves and to preservetheir works among the continual attacks of the sea. " As Pyrard de Lavaltruly said, "It is a marvel to see each of these atollons surrounded onall sides by a great bank of stone--walls such as no human hands couldbuild on the space of earth allotted to them. . . . Being in the middle ofan atollon, you see all around you this great stone bank, whichsurrounds and protects the island from the waves; but it is a formidableattempt, even for the boldest, to approach the bank and watch the wavesroll in, and break with fury upon the shore. "

As to the explanation of the modes of formation of these coral-reefs, the scientists have long been propounding theories which are sometimesamusing. Strangely enough they have nearly all explained thatcoral-polypes aggregate themselves in the forms of atolls andbarrier-reefs by a mysterious "instinct, " mediocrity's only term forscreening its ignorance, and which is also given as the cause for theirsecreting lime. Flinders says that they form a great protecting reef inorder that they may be protected by its shelter, and that the leewardaspect of the reef forms a nursery for their infant colonies. 

Thus we see that these same scientists are accrediting these littlearchitects with the possession of a great intelligence, and they arethought to co-operate together in a manner expressive of the greatestdegree of efficiency and brotherly feeling. Each of these scientistsgives a theory that leaves untouched the essential question of thecauses for coral-reefs assuming their various shapes; and it isreasonable to believe that they work according to a divine wisdom andplan, and that mankind does not yet understand their strange ways, whichgive us a higher conception of the universe than that held by theancients. Science has come to the point where it must recognise theperfect unity of all life, and that our fellow-architects, engineers, and house-builders in the animal world also fill an important place inNature's great scheme. 

XI

FOOD CONSERVERS

 _"He prayeth well who loveth well Both man and bird and beast. He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all. "_

 --COLERIDGE. 

It can almost be said that there is no industry or profession of thehuman world that is not carried on with equal skill in the animal world. This is especially true of merchandising and store-keeping; animals, however, have different methods of merchandising than men, althoughthese methods are none the less real. They give and take instead of buyand sell and have co-operative shops which they operate with greatsuccess. They unite for a desired end, and demonstrate their ability towork together in a common enterprise in a way that might teach man agood lesson. 

Food and shelter are the first needs of animals. In order to obtainthese, they group themselves into foraging parties in the most ingeniousmanner. Like mankind, they sometimes co-operate for dishonest ends; theyform "trusts" and organise into gangs for purposes of mutual aid. 

Deer, monkeys, rabbits, foxes, and numerous others conduct theirdining-rooms on a co-operative principle. Some watch and wait whileothers dine. The same is true where they go to watering places to drinkand bathe. 

Perhaps the most unique and clever food conserver is the Americanpolecat. He not only provides for himself, but prepares a larder for hisyoung, so that they will have plenty of food. The nursery is usuallycomfortably embedded in a cave, and is lined with soft, dry grass. Adjoining this nursery is a larder, which often contains from ten tofifty large frogs and toads, all alive, but so dexterously bittenthrough the brain as to make them incapable of escaping. Mr. And Mrs. Pole-cat can then visit or hunt as they please, so long as theirchildren have plenty of fresh meat at home!

Another interesting food conserver is the chipping squirrel, orchipmunk, so named because his cry sounds like the chirp of littlechickens. His method of dress is most unusual; he is brownish grey incolour, with five stripes of black and two of pale yellow running alongthe back of his coat; the throat and lower part of his body is snowywhite. These colours occasionally vary, when the grey and yellow aresuperseded by black. 

His home is underground, usually under an old wall, near a rock fence, or under a tree; his burrow is so long and winding that he can easilyescape almost any enemy, except the weasel, which is not easilyoutwitted. His nursery and living-room is quite pretentious, but hislateral storeroom is a marvel! He is a miser indeed, and stores up everyacorn and nut he can find, even many times more than he can ever eat. His variety of food is almost unending--he loves buckwheat, beaked nuts, pecans, various kinds of grass seeds, and Indian corn. In carrying foodto his home he first fills his pouches to overflowing and then takesanother nut in his mouth; he thus reminds the classical reader ofAlemćon in the treasury of Croesus. 

The hedgehog is a regular Solomon in her methods of collecting fruit. Plutarch had a very high opinion of her. He says that when grapes areripe, the mother hedgehog goes under the vines and shakes them untilsome of the grapes fall; she then literally rolls over them until manyare attached to her spines, and marches back to her babies in thecave. "One day, " says Plutarch, "when we were all together, we had thechance of seeing this with our own eyes--it looked as if a bunch ofgrapes was shuffling along the ground, so thickly covered was the animalwith its booty. "

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE SKUNK MOTHER TRIES TO KEEP ON HAND A GOOD SUPPLY OF SUCH DELICACIESAS FROGS AND TOADS, SO THAT HER YOUNG MAY NEVER GO HUNGRY. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE PORCUPINE AND THE HEDGEHOG HAVE A UNIQUE METHOD OF COLLECTING FOODFOR THEIR YOUNG. AFTER SHAKING DOWN BERRIES OR GRAPES, THEY ROLL INTHEM, THEN HURRY HOME WITH THE FOOD ATTACHED TO THEIR QUILLS. ]

Alpine mice not only form comfortable winter homes in the earth, butcombine into small winter colonies, each colony numbering about ten totwelve inhabitants, all of whom are under the direction of a leader. Thus organised, they proceed to lay up provisions for the winter. Theyuse their mouths as scythes and their paws as rotary machines. Surelytheir wisdom and foresight call forth our greatest admiration. Thejerboas or jumping mice are not only skilled athletes in the art ofjumping, but they are gifted food conservers and producers as well. Theylay up complete storehouses of food, which they do not consumealtogether as their appetite may direct; but conserve it carefully forthe times when nothing can be obtained from the fields. Then, and thenonly, do they open the closed magazines. Such acts of intelligencecannot be recorded under the head of "instinct"! They demonstrate theability to plan for the future, and meet all emergencies. 

Certain food hoarders and robbers, like the vole, are so very greedy andbecome such misers that they often threaten total destruction to largeareas of grain. They were so plentiful in the classic land of Thessaly, the vale of Tempe, and the Land of Olympus that the old Greeksestablished what they called an Apollo Smintheus, the Mouse-destroyingGod. In the early spring, according to Professor Loeffler, who has madea special study of their invasions, they begin to come down from theirhomes in the hills to the cultivated fields. They seem to follow regularroads, and often travel along the railroad embankment. They travel veryslowly, and when at home live somewhat on the order of prairie dogs, that is, in underground dwellings with numerous winding passages andtunnels. 

These wise little food conservers are nocturnal in habit, and are rarelyseen except by careful observers. When they once determine to rob afield, they do it with amazing rapidity and completeness. In a singlenight hordes of these workers go into a cornfield and by daylight not astalk of corn remains. The field is as empty as if a cyclone had struckit. They work with great system, and while a part of their number cutthe stalks down, others cut it up into movable sizes, while still otherssuperintend its systematic removal. Storehouses are usually providedbefore the grain is even cut. They make long voyages throughout acountry, storing away tons of grain and food in these variousgranaries. To these they come for supplies whenever necessary. Allpoverty-stricken voles are also fed from these storehouses, since it isthe product of the community as a whole. Aristotle wrote at length abouttheir wise and destructive ways. 

Not the least ingenious of food conservers are the hamsters, members ofthe great rodent family. They have made their dwellings most comfortableand even luxurious in arrangement and furnishings. Like wealthy farmers, they are not satisfied with comfortable dwellings only, but they toomust have spacious barns adjoining their homes. Their home, or burrowproper, consists of two openings: one, which is used as an entrance, andwhich sinks vertically into the ground; the other, which is used as anexit, with a winding slope. The central room is beautifully carpetedwith straw, moss, and dry leaves, which makes it a very pleasantliving-room and bedroom. A third small winding tunnel leads from thisroom to the barns and storehouse. Thus, Mr. And Mrs. Hamster and thechildren have no need to go forth in the cold and wet weather to seekfood--they can remain at home perfectly protected and well-fed. They arevery liberal, and in case of need or poverty, will always share theirfood with their neighbours. 

I once found the nest of a harvest mouse, which was woven of plaitedblades of straw of the oats and wheat. It was perfectly round, with theaperture so ingeniously closed that I could scarcely tell to what partof the nest it belonged. It was as round as a marble and would actuallyroll when placed on a table, although within its walls were six tinymice, naked and blind. As they increased in size day by day, the elasticwall of their small home expanded, and thus served their need until suchtime as they were old enough to live independent of this speciallyprovided shelter. 

There is a larger animal, known as a "rat-hare" or the harvest rat, which gathers piles of hay for winter use, sometimes to the height ofsix or eight feet in diameter. They begin harvesting in the early partof August, and after having cut the grass, they carefully spread it outto dry before placing it in their barns. These barns are usually locatedin holes or crevices of mountains. They are found in immense numbers inthe Altai Mountains. 

The California woodrat is not only a food hoarder but a notable thiefand robber. A nest was found that was a veritable tool chest and pawnshop! It contained fourteen knives, three forks, six small spoons, onelarge soup spoon, twenty-seven large nails, hundreds of small tacks, twobutcher knives, three pairs of eye-glasses, one purse, one string ofbeads, one rubber ball, two small cakes of soap, one string of redpeppers, several boxes of matches, with numerous small buttons, needles, and pins. Apparently these woodrats are as ambitious for unnecessary anduseless possessions as is man himself. Their big storeroom did, however, contain a larder in which they had some of their favourite food, such asseeds and nuts. 

Some animals have learned not only to acquire, but also to defend andprotect, all their property. We see in the human world how strong is theimpulse to collect, and children will invariably collect anything frompebbles to peach-pits, if they see other children doing the same thing. 

Most animals that do not hoard are those that forage for food, or fish, and rarely have permanent homes. The orang-outangs, for example, areregular gipsies, and go from place to place wherever food is plentiful. They take life easy, and sometimes during their journeys select asuitable spot near the seashore and have a real picnic. A scout hasalready discovered the right spot for getting big oysters, of which theyare exceedingly fond, and when they have assembled, certain ones proceedto dig up the oysters, which they hand to others on the shore and they, in turn, place them on big stones, and proceed to open them for thefeast. If one of the fishermen-monkeys discovers an oyster open, he willnot insert his hand to remove the meat until first placing a stonebetween the valves. This assures him protection against the closing ofthe oyster. In most cases, they open the oysters by first placing themon stones and then using another stone as a hammer. These facts arevouched for by no less authorities than Gamelli Carreri, Dampier, andWafer. 

It is only a matter of time until many animals will understand the useof man-made tools. Some have already learned to use such tools as theymake and shape for themselves. Monkeys and apes are already gifted inthis art. Of course, under domestication, they use knives, forks, spoons, and dishes not so much from intelligence as from imitation. This, however, might be said of many human beings. I have seen animmense chimpanzee sit in a chair, set his own dinner table, use hisknife and fork correctly when eating, and take great delight in the useof his napkin, which he always carefully refolded when his meal wasover. 

The human-like qualities of apes and monkeys, however, need scarcely betold. They are so very similar to man in most ways that there are fewthings they cannot do. Aelian tells of an ape which learned to drivehorses skilfully. He knew just when and how to use the whip, how muchslack to allow in the reins, and when to tighten them! They greatlyresent any intrusion on their hunting-grounds, and make use of sticksand clubs to protect them. The chief is always armed with a club, and isthoroughly skilled in the use of it. It sometimes happens that anelephant will come to the same tree to seek food that apes frequent, andalthough they have no enmity towards each other, they like the same kindof food. As soon as the ape sees the elephant reaching his trunk amongthe branches, he immediately slips near the elephant, and when anopportunity presents itself, he whacks him over the trunk with his club!The infuriated elephant runs away in terror!

A story is told of a party of foraging apes who went into a cornfieldwith the purpose of robbing it, and discovered two men. They immediatelyrushed upon them and attempted to poke their eyes out with sticks andwould have succeeded but for the intervention of two other men whochanced to be near. The extreme cleverness of apes in applying theirreason and judgment is shown in Vosmaer's account of the femaleorang-outang, who tried to open the padlock of her chain with a smallstick. She had seen her master open it with a key, and she exactlyimitated the motion of his hands in the attempt. 

Man shows a disposition to deny animals all traits and characteristicswhich are similar to his own. This reminds us of a remark that CardinalNewman once made that men know less of animals than they do of angels. Why should we show such foolish pride and delusion, and try to baffleone of God's great facts? When men attempt to extinguish the idea ofanimal intelligence and sentiment by referring to it as instinct, we arereminded of the desert ostrich, which buries its head in the sand andthinks it cannot be seen. We should proudly acknowledge the wonderfulhuman-like methods of these food conservers of the animal world, andrecognise in all this a guiding Providence who provides for and protectsall his creatures, be they great or small. 

XII

TOURISTS AND SIGHT-SEERS

 _"Every night we must look, lest the down slope Between us and the woods turn suddenly To a grey onrush full of small green candles, The charging pack with eyes flaming for flesh. And well for us then if there's no more mist Than the white panting of the wolfish hunger. "_

The desire to travel and see the great world is by no means peculiar tothe human race. It is found among animals to such a degree that groupsof them will often leave their homes in one country and journey toanother. These strange wanderlust habits are noticed even by the casualobserver, and no special insight is required to see that these wisecreatures have their annual tours excellently arranged and marked out. Their route is possibly as definitely arranged before starting, as isthe route of a human traveller. They have their selected eating placesarranged, know every danger spot and the enemies they are likely toencounter. 

The members of these co-operative tours take life tickets, and each tourlasts about one year. One of the most unusual instances of suchco-operation is that of the lemmings of the Scandinavian countries. These are animals of the mouse tribe, which live in the mountainousdistricts. They live upon roots and grasses. They breed very rapidly. Atcertain times they go from the centre of Norway to the east and west, crossing valley, hill, and river in great masses. Many are destroyed bybirds and beasts of prey, but finally the survivors reach the Atlanticon the Gulf of Bothnia and, for some strange unknown reason, plunge inand die. Only enough remain from one season to another to propagate thespecies. It is an immense co-operative suicide society. 

Rivers and valleys are sometimes effectual barriers. On the plains ofthe Amazon great numbers of animals are found on one side of the riveronly; these have not been able to cross to the other. On the north sideof the Rio Negro are two varieties of monkeys, the _brachiurus conxion_and the _jacchus bicolor_, which are unknown on the south side. Ofcourse, water-loving animals, such as seals, whales, and porpoises areat home in the water and can swim for days without stopping. Quite a fewanimals can swim for a short distance, but comparatively few for longdistances. In the early days in North America it was not uncommon forbuffalo to swim across the Mississippi River. Rats and squirrels oftenmigrate in great numbers. It oftentimes happens that Arctic animalstravel from one place to another on floating ice. In the South Americanwaters it is a common sight to see floating islands covered with plantsand trees upon which there are live animals; and while these animals arelikely to perish, they are oftentimes carried safely to land. Eagleshave often been instrumental in bringing new species of animals toislands where they had previously been unknown, their purpose being toprovide food for their own young. Some of these animals would escape andhenceforth become citizens of their new habitation. 

An interesting division of migrants is that of the casual travellers, like the men and women who always remain at home except when specialbusiness calls them away. Sudden climatic changes, or the scarcity offood, often cause stay-at-home animals to make tours into newterritories. As a good instance, I might cite the case of three wolves, which I saw entering Jackson Park in Chicago, during very severe weatherwhen Lake Michigan was frozen over. The morning papers stated thatbecause of forest fires in Michigan, and the extreme cold, which notonly made food scarce for the wild animals of Michigan, but froze theLake, many of them had come across the ice into the great Chicago parksseeking food and shelter. 

The subject of animal travel is full of interesting and difficultproblems, and not the least interesting nor the least difficult is thequestion of just how they find their way to and from various places. Many naturalists tell us that these animals are led by inheritedinstinct along the migration lines followed by their forefathers. Buteven if this were true, what made them originally follow such a course?

Wild horses when travelling always have a leader as well as severalsentinels for each herd. By some unknown code this leader makes knownhis wishes and directs the movements of the herd. No human army couldhave greater order or more perfect obedience to commands; and under himthere is absolute unity by means of which the carnivorous animals, suchas the wolf, the jaguar, and the puma, are repelled. Wild deerinvariably have a leader, and while we do not know how he obtains hisposition, nor how he directs his followers, we do know he is highlysuccessful in his efforts. 

No act in the animal world bespeaks more intelligence than that ofplacing sentinels, especially during a journey. Horses show strikingskill and ingenuity in the choosing and placing of their sentinels. Anyone who has been fortunate enough to have seen them travelling in theforests of South America, where the wild horses are gregarious, andtravel in herds of five hundred to a thousand, has noticed thatsentinels are always stationed around the herd. These animals are notwell prepared for fighting, and experience has taught them that theirgreatest safety is in flight, and so, when they graze or sleep, sentinels are always on the look-out for enemies. If a man approaches, the sentinel at first walks toward him, as if to make sure what theenemy is, and what he desires, if the man goes nearer to the herd, thesentinel neighs in a most peculiar tone. Immediately the herd isaroused, and gallops away, not in confusion, but perfect order, asthough its members were human soldiers. 

The same is true of the white-legged peccaries, so plentiful in Guiana. They congregate by the thousands, choose a leader whose position isalways at the front, and travel for hundreds of miles through the greatforests. If they come to a river, the leader halts, as if to make surethat all is well for crossing, then he plunges into the water and isfollowed by his immense army. The sureness of the leader would suggestthat he has been over the same route many times before--perhaps this iswhy he has been chosen! If an enemy appears, or any form of danger isapproached, they carry on an immense amount of chattering and proceedonly when they have talked it out. Any hunter that should be foolishenough to attack them, unless he were already up a tree, would be tornto pieces with their terrible teeth and tusks. They are as bloodthirstyas the wild boars of the Black Forest of Germany, and will sometimesactually tear down a tree up which an enemy has escaped, that they maykill him. 

The African apes have an interesting way of sending their sentinel tothe top of an adjacent rock or tree, that he may look over thesurrounding valleys and plantations before they go to plunder a gardenor field. If he sees any danger, he utters a loud shriek, and the entiretroop immediately runs away. The monkeys of Brazil post a guard whilethey sleep; the same is true of the chamois and other species of wildantelope. 

A few years ago, many of the sheep in the northern part of Wales hadbecome quite wild, and they usually grazed in parties of twelve totwenty, always having a sentinel so stationed as to command a prominentview of the surrounding territory. If any animal or person came near, hewould give a peculiar hiss or whistle, repeating it two or three times, at which the whole herd would scamper away to places of safety. 

One of the most striking facts about migration is its never-failingregularity and success. Most animals migrate at the recurrence of thebreeding season. Of these, the great sea-turtle, which seeks the shallowwater and deep sandy hills when ready to lay her eggs, is well known. Notwithstanding the great risks that practically all travelling animalsassume, they are successful as a whole in their travels, and many returnto bear testimony to a successful trip even across continents andsometimes the ocean. They migrate, for a variety of reasons. When it isnot for a more desirable climate, nor more food, nor even betterbreeding grounds, we must either believe it is because of the naturaldesire to travel, or frankly admit that we do not understand it. 

The Icelandic mice have probably the most curious methods of travellingof all migratory animals. Dr. Henderson, an authority on Iceland, notonly verifies the fact himself, but gives the names of many prominentinvestigators who have seen the mice crossing small rivers and streamson thin pieces of dry board, dragging them to the water, launching them, and then going aboard their little rafts. They then turn their heads tothe centre, and their tails, which hang in the water, are used aspaddles and rudders until they reach the destined shore. 

Among travellers none are more famed than the camels. In their sphereand use they are supreme, and Nature has prepared them especially fortravelling on the dry, hot, and barren deserts. They are truly the"ships of the desert" for they travel on a sea of sand, and theirpad-like feet, so poorly adapted for travel on moist soil, is admirablysuited to the desert sands. They are capable of travelling many dayswithout food or water, and are used extensively in the desert regions ofthe East not only as beasts of burden but for their milk, which is animportant article of diet in those countries where the camel is at home. 

Animals that do not migrate, especially those living in cold climates, change their clothing at regular intervals. Their hair or fur increasesin thickness in winter. If we compare the Indian and African elephantsof to-day, whose delicate thin hair is scarcely noticeable, with thegreat extinct mammoth, which had an enormous amount of woolly fur, wereadily see the great difference in their clothing. Yet these animalsare members of the same great family. The same difference may benoted with horses: the Arabian horse, for example, has short, glistening fur, while those of Iceland and Norway have very thick fur;the same is true of Northern and Southern sheep. Animals which live intemperate regions, put on much thicker coats in winter, and shed them assummer approaches. 

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

THE BLACK BEAR IS NOT ONE OF THE GREAT MIGRATING ANIMALS. THE THICKNESSOF HIS COAT MUST THEREFORE CHANGE WITH THE SEASONS. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

RABBITS SEEM TO HAVE A WELL-DEVISED SYSTEM IN THEIR ROAD-BUILDING, RUNNING THEIR PATHS IN AND OUT OF UNDERBRUSH IN A TRULY INGENIOUSMANNER. ]

The love of their original homes is one of the most striking features ofcertain animal travellers. The fierce struggle for existence and theterritory required for an animal's home largely determine the amount ofeffort they make to seize and hold certain possessions. A pair ofwildcats, for example, require a comparatively small hunting ground. Butthis they will defend against invasion even to the point of death. Thereare many more evidences showing the animals' love of home, and that theyalso know the meaning of home-sickness. 

Not a few animals have learned definitely to lay out and obtainrecognition for the boundaries of their respective ranging-grounds. Thisis amply proven by their respect and recognition of rights of way. Animals of certain farms seem to know the exact boundaries of theirgrazing lands and pastures, and to teach this knowledge to their young. In addition they often police their lands and pastures againstintruders. Woe unto any traveller found on the wrong highway! It is notuncommon for the transgressor to be pushed from a right of way to therocks below. More than once a court's decision regarding disputableterritory has been based on the sheep's recognition of boundary; thosesheep slain in battle or otherwise injured while trying to invade thequestionable territory have been paid for by the owner of thetransgressing sheep. 

It is easy to understand how sheep can recognise their rights of way, but somewhat difficult to account for their knowledge of boundaries. Sheep and goats have for ages been the greatest mountain-path androad-makers. Whether or not they have engineers, we are not sure, butthey seem to select the shortest, easiest, and best route across thetrackless hills, and never seem to change the way. In these localities, the sheep are almost in a primitive condition, and "not the leastinteresting feature of their conduct in this relapse to the wild life isthat, in spite of the highly artificial condition in which they liveto-day, they retain the primitive instincts of their race. "

That this "peremptory and path-keeping" instinct is shown by the habitsof the musk-ox, is clear. He is as much akin to the sheep as to cattle, and in habits more like those of the great prehistoric sheep as weimagine these to have been. The musk-ox naturally assembles in largeflocks, and is migratory, just as the domesticated flocks of Spain are, and those of Thrace and the Caspian steppe. These flocks always returnfrom the barren lands in the far north by the same road, and crossrivers by the same fords. Nothing but too persistent slaughter at thesepoints by the enemies who beset them, induces them to desert theirancient highways. Pictures and anecdotes of the migrations of theseanimals, and of the bison in former days, represent them as moving on abroad front across the prairie or tundra. The examples of all movingmultitudes suggest that this was not their usual formation on the march, and their roads prove that they moved on a narrow front or in file. Onthe North American prairie, though the bison are extinct, their greatroads still remain as evidence of their former habits. These trails arepaths worn on the prairie, nearly all running due north and south (theline of the old migration of the herds), like gigantic rabbit tracks. They are hard, the grass on them is green and short, and, if followed, they generally lead near water, to which a diverging track runs from thehighway. 

How interesting must have been the life on this great animal highway, before the Indian made the deadly arrow to destroy these nature-lovingtravellers! There is no doubt but that, in their own way, these animalsfelt all the emotions known to a human traveller; that they enjoyed theflowery road, rested and played when weary, looked forward with joy totheir favourite watering and bathing places, and recognised old wateringplaces that they had visited for years. 

The great roads and highways made by graminivorous animals, from thosewhich the hippopotamus cuts through the mammoth canes and reeds of theAfrican streams, to the smaller rabbit highways of England and America, all tell their own story of how these animals live and travel. Theprincipal roads of rabbits over hills are as permanent as sheep andbuffalo roads. These roads, however, should not be confused with thelittle trails that lead to their play and feeding grounds. 

My friend and fellow-naturalist, Ralph Stuart Murray, in writing to mefrom Quebec, says: "In speaking of animal road builders, I might saythat the rabbit or hare of the north woods deserves much attention, forgreatly interesting are his highways. The life of the north woods bringsone constantly in touch with these roads, which, after generations upongenerations of constant use, are worn deep and smooth into the moosegrass and muskeg through which they run. At places, several distinctpaths intersect, and it is curious to note that while these roads windin and out underneath the low hanging evergreens, the 'cross-roads' willinvariably be located in a clear open space, often on the top of somesmall hillock. 

"The great age of these roads is very evident when compared with thenewer, shallower paths of more recent years. So deep are the old ones, in fact, that the quiet watcher in the woods will occasionally see twolarge, upright ears--unmistakably those of a rabbit, seemingly stickingout of a hole in the ground--yet moving at a rapid pace, and all thewhile no rabbit in view. For all the world these vertical ears belongingto an unseen owner resemble in use and appearance the periscope of asubmarine--the difference being that the rabbit uses his 'periscopes'for hearing, in order to locate and avoid his foe, the submarine itsperiscope to locate and attack its enemy. "

The sheep terraces, which are so common on the sides of hills, thoughmade by sheep, are not roads, but feeding grounds. Sheep, when walkingon a hillside, invariably graze on the upper side, as they cannot reachthe lower grass. Therefore they walk backwards and forwards on theslope, just as a reaping machine is driven over a hillside wheat-field. As the sheep takes a "neck's length" each time, the little ridges orroads correspond exactly with the measurements of the sheep's neck. 

There are as many kinds of roads and terminals in the animal world asthere are in the human, and lest our pride make us forget, we shouldremember that even the Panama Canal is dug according to the plan of acrawfish's canal, such as may be seen near any muddy stream. It isstrange that no animal has learned to build elevated roads, thoughanimals that live in trees, like flying squirrels, monkeys, and flyingfoxes, are very skilled in going from one tree to another. They haveregular aerial highways, and some of the tree frogs are veritablewonders in the accuracy of their leaps from tree to tree. Even moreskilled than these are the agamid lizards of India, whose chief means oftravel is a folding parachute, which at a moment's notice can be erectedand carry to another tree its lucky possessor. In Borneo is an aviatortree-snake which is able to so spread his ribs and inflate his body thathe can actually sail from branch to branch in the tree-tops. 

There are night travellers as well as day travellers; in fact, there aremore animals that roam around in a great forest at night than in thedaytime. They sleep during the day, when the day animals are roamingabout, and go forth to roam when it is night. It is then they seek forprey, and are much feared by day animals. They see well in the dark, andtravel so lightly that their footsteps cannot be heard. 

On the Island of Java are found a family of strange, dwarfish littlebeings, which are called by the natives malmags, or hobgoblins. And theyare well named, for they look like creatures of a distorted imaginationmore than real, living animals. They travel only at night, and sosuperstitious are the natives of their evil influence that if one ofthese uncanny little creatures appears near their rice fields, theplantation is immediately abandoned. However, these small creatures areno larger than squirrels, and are perfectly harmless. They are very rareeven in their native lands--the Oriental Archipelago and the PhilippineIslands. They rear their young in the hollow roots of bamboo trees, andto disturb their nests means to incur the evil of all the land. 

Night animals do not go forth to travel and seek prey until the night isfar advanced, and their prey is soundly sleeping. They seem to know theexact time of the night, as if they had watches or clocks, and theyusually go forth to hunt about midnight and return to their homes aboutfour o'clock. Only in cases of extreme hunger do they vary from thisrule. 

How marvellously skilled are they in finding their way! They passthrough a crowded forest as though it were daytime, and strangely enoughknow just how to return to their lairs. This special sense or gift isnot possessed by man; he must have marks and signs to return to adefinite place. 

These night-travellers number among their lot bats, flying squirrels, leopards, and prowling snakes. 

Bats are not only the most interesting of the night-travellers, but byfar the most curious and wonderful animals in the world. They arehideously ugly, reminding one more of a miniature, closed-up umbrellathan an animal! They are coarse, awkward, when not in flight, andrepellent; yet they have such highly developed senses that they have norivals in the animal world. They excel most birds in flight, are able tomake long nightly journeys, in which they use their wings not only forflight, but as air-bags in which they catch all kinds of flying insects. Their sense of touch as we know it is really a combination of touch, sight, and hearing. 

A bat is a paradox par excellence! Nature seems to have started to makea little bear or fox, and suddenly forgot how and changed it into awinged freak, with tail, claws, fur, sharp teeth, small ears that standup, and tiny, half-buried eyes. Its queer angular-edged wings look likean umbrella, with the cloth stretched over steel ribs; but in the caseof the bat, this framework is made of delicate bones which are coveredwith a thin skin. The skin contains numerous little sense organs dottedover its surface, which give the bat his strange power. 

Bats look more like mice than they do like birds, and they are sometimescalled flittermice. But they are mammals, and the young are fed withmilk by the mother, just as a cow feeds her calf. There is no dangerthat a bat will ever fly against you in the dark; for they can avoid allmishap even when their eyes are put out. They have special sense organsthat tell them when they are nearing an object, and can fly at headlongspeed with the accuracy of a rifle bullet directly into a small opening. This power is all due to the mysterious sense located in their wings andears, which causes even man to consider his senses weak in comparison. 

Bats are sociable creatures and huddle together and sleep in vastnumbers during the day, but when night comes on they come forth fortheir nocturnal travels and sport by the millions. I have seen themleaving caves just at dusk in such numbers as to look like one immensevolume of smoke, twenty to thirty feet wide, and lasting for more thanfive minutes. Mrs. Bat often takes her babies with her on these nightlytravels. I found one with two young clinging to her breast. How theymust enjoy these lovely trips!

There are many kinds and varieties of bats, ranging in size from theflying foxes of the tropical world, with wings five feet in length, tothe wood bat of North America, which is not over six inches long. Theseinteresting friends of man are his greatest scavengers of the air. Theyare doing much to check the mosquitoes throughout the regions of theworld, and in more civilized communities man makes shelters for them, that they may eradicate mosquitoes. 

XIII

ANIMAL SCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS

 _"A warning from these pages take, And know this truth sublime-- Each creature is a criminal When he commits a crime. "_

No more remarkable creatures exist in the animal world than those thatplay the rôle of Nature's scavengers and criminals. They are as numerousand varied in their methods of working as they are interesting. The onlythings they have in common are their profession and their appetites. Asindividuals they are ugly, unattractive and apparently void ofpersonality and charm. Nevertheless, they have an important part to playin the scheme of things. 

One of the most noted of these scavengers is the jackal--the Bohemian ofthe desert--whose territory extends from the Gulf of Persia to theStrait of Gibraltar. He is equally at home in Arabia, Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Egypt, and the entire North Coast of Africa, and no country fromBarbary to the Cape of Good Hope is ever out of reach of his ghostlyand uncouth howls. He travels only by night, and very rapidly. 

When suffering with extreme hunger, he will attack man, but this he willdo only in very rare cases. As he lives entirely upon dead animals, heis more of a thief and glutton than a robber and murderer. He dependsmostly upon flight and darkness for his protection, and rarely venturesa direct attack. With all his unlikable habits he is truly valuable asan agent of public salubrity, and an important officer of the desert"commission of highways. "

These public scavengers, while especially fond of carcasses and putridflesh, are not averse to a little fresh meat occasionally. The jackal istruly the follower or purveyor for the lion, and oftentimes they worktogether. Jackals will gather in large numbers near a lion's den andhowl and scream until the lions come forth to disperse them. As soon asa lion appears they stop their noise, but when he is out of sight, theyimmediately begin again. This is done because game is near, and the wisejackals wish the lion to kill the game. When this is done, and the lionshave eaten all except the bones, the jackals have their small feast ofscraps. 

These weird night prowlers have ways all their own, as any one who hasspent a night in a tropical desert can attest. Imagine yourself on theSyrian plains between Bagdad and Damascus; a small white tent, and astarry sky: the silence is appalling, and you are just about to haveyour first sleep in the desert. Away, away from the distance comes amournful, ghostly cry. Suddenly it ceases and like myriads of echoes itis repeated in hideous intensity--a babel of cries weird beyonddescription--so fierce and screeching as to be almost blood-curdling. Itseems to come from all directions and distance out of measure! Vibratingover the sands and through the rocks, filling the immense void, cryingout as it were for the sphinx, a veritable _de profundis_ of the wastes. The vultures, who hold the fort during the day have given way to thenight shift, the jackals. These come from all directions; from the cavesin the earth, from among the rocks, from here, there, and fromeverywhere to take up their hygienic services where it has been left offby the day scavengers. 

If you were near an oasis in the desert at the close of day, you wouldsuddenly hear from the hot, barren sands a deep and peculiar sound. Itswells and grows as an approaching wind, growing louder and louder as itcomes nearer. Suddenly by the light of the camp fire, you see myriads ofhorrid green eyes, like ghost torches in a graveyard, and hear gnashingteeth, greedy in anticipation of the garbage you have thrown away. 

These hyena hordes are frightfully ugly, but rarely dangerous to man. They visit every oasis settlement in immense numbers, howling, yelping, and fighting for any bit of offal they may find. Not a particle ofgarbage remains. At the first sign of dawn, they disappear like ratsfrom a burning building, and seek their caves to digest their ignoblebanquets. 

No human street-cleaner could ever excel their work. No matter how largethe garbage pile, no matter how many dead dogs, cats, and donkeys in avillage street, no matter how unspeakable the offal, it all vanishes ascompletely as though it had been burned. Not a piece of bone, not asingle chicken feather remains. The natives have no fear of the hyena; asmall child armed with a stick can put to flight a dozen of them. Theyare the lowest of cowards, and will flee from their own shadows. 

[Illustration: THE MONGOOSE IS A SCAVENGER OF THE WORST TYPE, FEEDING ONRATS AND MICE AND SNAKES, AND EVEN POULTRY. ]

[Illustration: _American Museum of Natural History, New York_

DIPLODOCUS. THE PREHISTORIC ANIMALS, ALSO, UNDOUBTEDLY HAD THEIRSCAVENGERS AND CRIMINALS. ]

In spite of their valuable services, mankind hates the hyenas. This isprobably because of their absolute cowardice, for they will never attacka living creature unless it is weak from illness. Sometimes they steal ababy, never killing it outright, but carrying it away to their dens tostarve it to death before mutilating its body. If the courage of thisbeast equalled his strength, he would be the despot of the desert. Buthe is like his fellow workman, the jackal, cowardly to the last degree. 

Neither of them ever attempts to put an enemy to flight by legitimatemeans. They resort to fakery: one howls, and the other wrinkles his facein great anger. The jackal's greatest asset and protection, when hemeets with an enemy, is bluff. He raises his ugly mane, lifts hisungainly shoulders and assumes the look of a Jason, while in reality heis as harmless as a mouse, and the smallest child could drive him awaywith a twig. His bravery is all pose--a make-believe game--which heplays over and over again with every one he meets. 

A noted American scavenger is the peccary, a species of wild hog, whosehome ranges from Texas to the Pampas of South America. He is a devourerof creatures more obnoxious than himself. He moves with great rapidity, is always on the alert, and stops at nothing from mountains to a flowingriver. When he attacks an enemy he makes short work of him. 

Bands of these hogs are led by a chief, who is the swiftest and fiercestof the herd. This aggressive leader is followed by successive lines ofmales, behind which come the strong females, while the rear is broughtup by the old, the sick, and the young. In marching, they have thediscipline of a trained army, and turn neither to the right nor to theleft but go straight ahead. If the leader, for any cause, decides tochange his route, the fact is quickly made known in some way to hisfollowers, and the turn is made at a direct angle, with the accuracy ofa surveyor, and the peccaries go forward again directly toward their newdestination. This is another evidence of a special sense unknown to man. 

But whenever a stop is made, or wherever they go, they do their work asscavengers. Fallen fruits, dead animals, insects, snakes, and worms aretheir prey. Thus they are valuable forest sweepers. 

Strangely enough, in the animal world, as in the human, the lowerprofessions are filled with those of less mentality than the higher, andas a result we find scavengers are nearest allied to criminals. The ideaof one creature killing and eating another seems terrible. Yet they do, and most often do human beings commit the same crime. Cannibalism amongwild animals is a common occurrence. The demand for food usually causesone animal to kill and devour another. But in captivity there are othercauses for cannibalism: fear and excitement will oftentimes cause amother to destroy her offspring. 

It is a case of dog eat dog! Badgers often kill and devour their young. Wolves, in cases of extreme hunger, will eat their puppies; and Arctictravellers, when food for their dogs is scarce, have to guard constantlyagainst the stronger eating the weaker. I once caught a mother fieldmouse with her two young and placed them in a cage; the next day theyoung had strangely disappeared, but I am not sure that the mother hadeaten them. Hogs, cats, and rabbits will sometimes kill and eat theiryoung even when food is plentiful. Crocodiles show an occasionalcannibalistic tendency, while water-shrews are very pugnacious andoftentimes fight until one is killed. The victorious one eats his enemy!Thus it appears that Nature does not entirely disapprove of cannibalism, or she would not allow so many of her creatures to practise it. 

Theft is a common vice among these various criminals. Monkeys andbaboons form regular bands to rob and plunder. They have a chief whosees that a sentinel is posted at each dangerous post. The plunderersthen line up in a long row, and the leader gets the booty and passes italong the line until it reaches the last of the band--the receiver. Hedeposits it in a safe place. If the sentry sounds an alarm, they allflee away, each with as much booty as he can grab. If the enemy pressestoo close, all booty is thrown away. 

Passion, especially of love, causes much crime among animals as it doesamong men. Jealousy burns fiercely even in the breast of a beast. It isa common heritage of the fiercest lion and the gentle gazelle alike, andis capable of perpetrating the most dreadful crimes. 

There are types of ugly dispositioned animals, who are always in aferocious mood, just like certain ill-tempered human beings, who believeeverything and everybody is trying to injure them. The common shrew, forexample, is noisy, bold and fussy. He seems to delight in callingattention to himself by his grunty, squeaky voice. He advertises himselfas a bad animal; and bad he is, for his terrible odour prevents otheranimals from coming near. Horses and mules are at times quite ferocious, and kick and bite, with no idea of obedience or kindness. They, ofcourse, like our human criminals, are mentally unbalanced. Skilled horsetrainers can detect at a glance a criminally inclined horse. 

Rogue elephants are common in India. Even their trumpeting shows aferocity and unbalance that terrifies the natives. Often these criminalelephants are sufferers of mental ailments. A respectable, law-abidingelephant herd will not allow a thug or rogue to live in their midst. They recognise him as dangerous for their society, and combine to forcehim entirely away from their homes. 

Certain criminal animals have a strange antipathy for members of theirown tribe, or for other kinds of animals. Such is common among monkeys, cats, horses, and dogs, and many terrible crimes are committed becauseof these antipathies. Every one has witnessed the terror of a dog thathas been insulted, and elephants will carry an old grudge for fiftyyears and finally seek the most terrible revenge. 

Often violent outbursts of temper on the part of a tame animal arecaused by a change in the temperature or atmosphere. Even animals havedays when they feel ugly and grouchy. Those that live in very hotclimates are especially subject to fits of rage and anger. The approachof an electrical storm causes many of them to lose their self-control:herds of cattle often stampede just preceding a cyclone. They, likehuman savages, seem terrorised at the unknown. Not a few wild animalshave actually run in the way of an automobile or passing train toattempt to stop it. Fear and rage are often caused by the appearance ofa curious object. A bull, for example, when he sees a red rag, willmadly rush at it, seemingly altogether oblivious of the man holding it. The matadors are safe only because the bull is insane from rage. 

Many scientists of fame, like Lombroso, have demonstrated that strongdrink is the cause of much crime among animals, the same as it is amongmen. In the pastures of Abyssinia the sheep and goats get on regular"drunks" by eating the beans of the coffee plants. They fight andcarouse at such times like regular topers. Elephants are incorrigiblewhen drunk, while dogs and horses have to be put in strait-jackets toprevent them from killing themselves. 

Wicked animals always seek their own kind, and often band together forevil purposes. Figuier tells of three beavers that built for themselvesa nice little home near a stream, and they had as a neighbour arespectable hermit beaver. The three called on their neighbour one day, and he received them cordially, and hastened to return their visit, whenthey pounced upon him and slew him, like human murderers, who hadtrapped their victim. 

From all these we learn that Nature is filled with life-saving andlife-furthering adaptations. Just as in the human drama we find deceit, disguise, mask, trickery, bunco and bluff, all forms of cheating andclever deceptions, so it is precisely the same in the animal world, though man is little informed on Nature's real ways. 

XIV

AS THE ALLIES OF MAN

 _"Who, after this, will dare gainsay That beasts have sense as well as they? For me--could I the ruler be-- They should have just as much as we, In youth, at least. In early years, Who thinks, reflects, or even fears? Or if we do--unmeaning elves-- 'Tis scarcely known e'en to ourselves. Thus by example clear and plain, We for these poor creatures claim Sure sense to think, reflect, and plan, And in this action rival man: Their guide--not instinct blind alone, But reason, somewhat like our own!"_

The wonderful world in which we live is full of animal life. In thegreat forests, under the ground, on the steep mountainsides, in thedepths of the oceans, rivers, streams, from the frigid north to thetorrid south, in the parched deserts, are animals of every size, colour, and form, all of which are, in their general form, adapted to theirpeculiar places in nature. Their lives and habits undeniably demonstrateproofs of divine wisdom, intelligence, and beneficence. In fact theyshow an aptitude in many arts and sciences second only to that shown inman. 

The reason that animals are often held in such low esteem by the worldof science, is because people are apt to look upon them as naturalmechanisms and overlook what they are doing and feeling. The propoundersof false statements which attribute every act of an intelligentanimal--second only to man and his faithful ally--as due to instinctonly, deal with metaphysical reasoning. They have never considered theinnumerable and irrefutable facts of animal life which no acuteness ofanalysis and pure thinking can ever explain. Most of these narrow, bookish men deny to animals capabilities which every country schoolboyknows they possess. It is no exaggeration to say that animals existwhich sing, dance, play, speak a language, build homes, go to school andlearn, wage warfare, protect their homes and property, marry, make laws, build moral codes, in fact, do everything that is generally attributedto man. 

In comparing man and animals scientists are prone to ascribe to man as awhole the faculties which only the best trained and most talentedpossess. They fail to consider our cannibal brethren, such as are foundamong the Dyaks on the Island of Borneo, whose chief articles ofadornment in the house are heads of murdered men, and whose savage andfiendish ways would put to shame a civilised animal. They forget howlong man lived on this earth before he even learned to make fire bychipping flints. 

Since the beginning of time animals have been the friends and allies ofman. From the very earliest ages they have in innumerable ways beenassociated with historical events, and with the laws, customs, superstitions, and religions of all nations of the universe. Love, devotion, gratitude, the sense of duty, as well as all the lowerpassions of hatred, revenge, distrust and cunning are their heritage. Only an egotist who has known them in books only, and knows nothing oftheir mentality and brain power, would dare say that they are governedsolely by instinct. Cases of animal suicide, following some deepdisgrace among them, are not uncommon. 

From the Bible we learn that God frequently employed animals as agentsto dispense His providence. Bullocks, sheep, goats were used by the Jewsin their religious services, while a disobedient prophet was killed by alion. Balaam was rebuked for his cruelty by an ass; and David evencalled upon the animals to aid in praising Jehovah! That we may learnreal gratitude for common mercies Isaiah says: "The ox knoweth hisowner, and the ass his master's crib, " etc. When the city of Nineveh wasthreatened, God had pity on it, because there were many cattle there. The Saviour compared his own earthly condition with that of certainanimals: "The foxes have holes, " etc. He called himself the 'GoodShepherd, ' and his followers were sheep who knew his voice. John theBaptist referred to Him as the 'Lamb of God'; while John, the beloveddisciple, when on the Isle of Patmos, saw the "throne of God in heaven, and before it a lion, a calf, a man, and a flying eagle. "

The first beginnings of co-operation between men and animals must havebegun by the approach of certain less timid animals, which felt thatbetter conditions for them and more food could be obtained near humanhabitations, and perhaps, more protection from dangerous animals. Or itmay have begun through the stupidity of certain animals who failed torealize the danger of man's proximity. 

It seems that the secret ambition of all animals is to become the alliesof man. This is demonstrated by the fact that most of them have gonenear the villages and towns, and, consequently, there are comparativelyfew remaining in the heart of the big forests. Under the true state ofconditions man should live in harmony with these animal brothers, withmutual trust and respect existing between them. That would mean, ofcourse, that man would have to show a little more kindness to them. Forwhile he is their true sovereign, he abuses the privileges of hissovereignty in untold ways, and up to the present time only a fewanimals, like the dog and horse, have been fully recognized as hisallies. 

All the others, with few exceptions, have shown a desire to become moreclosely united with man, and yet during the thousands of years of man'srulership over the beasts, he has been able to make allies of only aboutsixty. This regrettable fact speaks for itself--showing that man haslong abused his trust. 

Warfare, as it is waged to-day, demonstrates that notwithstanding man'svast number of scientific aids, animals are still invaluable. Theinnumerable mechanical and electrical devices unknown ten years ago, such as enormous rapid-firing guns, walking "Willies, " wirelessmachines, traction engines, smokeless and noiseless powder, silent-sleepers and tear-bombs, all of these have greatly increasedman's power of offence and defence, yet with all these ultra-modernimprovements, animals are absolutely essential in waging a successfulwar. 

In military circles there is an ever-increasing demand for well-trainedarmy horses, sound in mind and body and educated in modern campaigning. Above all, an army horse must be dependable, must love hissoldier-master and must know absolute obedience to orders. Every armyhorse has to pass an examination and prove his worth before he isenlisted into the service. 

The largest of the mountain guns used in Italy against the Austrianswere drawn up the steep mountains by mules. Another 75-millimetre gunfor mountain warfare is taken to pieces, into four parts, and each pieceis separately packed on a mule. 

The United States cavalry has the best trained war horses in the world;many of them actually understand the complicated commands of theirmasters. These horse soldiers have the insignia, U. S. , branded on thehoof of the left forefoot, and the other animals in camp, on theshoulder. 

When a horse arrives at a regiment he is assigned to a troop accordingto colour, size, weight and mental efficiency, and later he ispermanently assigned to a man. Under no conditions is he interchanged oreven ridden by another than his master, and it is astonishing thetremendous affection that oft-times springs up between the two; in manyinstances horses have been known to seek out their masters amonghundreds of soldiers. 

On the European battlefields, near which there are few or no railroads, animals have been the principal means of transportation, elephants, camels, horses, mules and oxen being chiefly used for this purpose. TheItalian armies have used numerous teams of mountain-trained bullocks todraw loads up the mountains, and, while they cannot ascend roads assteep as those which the mules climb, they are very valuable for heavyloads. These bullocks work faster than an army mule, for a mule willnever hurry. As the old darkey once said, "De mule warn't born fer tohurry; not even a torpedo would make him move one step farster!"

Elephants have been used to a small degree in the armies of Europe. While they are splendid workmen, they are dangerously subject tostampede, and one stampeding elephant can do much harm in an army. 

The British army has used quite a few trained elephants from India intheir ranks. They are especially employed to rout the enemy from smallforests. Breaking through bushes, crushing underbrush, and pulling upsmall trees is their specialty. They make splendid bulwarks forsoldiers, and when an army is marching through a forest, are invaluablein clearing the way. A British officer declared that one trainedelephant is more valuable than a half-dozen traction engines. 

Far the most interesting and curious use to which an animal is subjectedis the use of camels chosen and trained because of their strangecolouring and height. Small groups of them have been stationed amongclumps of acacia trees with a spy mounted on the animal's neck. This isthe safest place a person could be, for the camel or, in like manner, the giraffe, standing with only his head above the small trees, looksprecisely like a bit of the foliage in the distance. 

Camels are especially good for desert warfare, because they can gowithout water so long and can easily carry loads weighing from 400 to500 pounds. In the last Afghan campaign the British lost over 50, 000camels and in the Great War they have had more than 60, 000 in armyservice in Egypt. Camels are especially used for transportationpurposes. The British capture of Jerusalem was greatly aided by thesedesert allies. Large numbers of oxen have been used in the French army. They do not balk at autos and know no fear of shells. 

One of the greatest allies of the animal kingdom in warfare is the dog. These allies are trained to aid relief parties on the battlefields, andmany of the ambulance men have their splendidly trained dogs for seekingout wounded soldiers among the dead. They are also trained as guards andwatch-dogs and they become marvellously clever when used near the firinglines. They carry water in the trenches and are trained in packs todismount enemy motorcyclists by pulling them from their machines. Dogsalso make splendid scouts, and excellent and reliable messengers whennot required to go too far. 

These faithful friends of man, according to Buffon, are far more easilytaught than man, and more easily led "than any of the other animals, fornot only does the dog become educated in a short time, but even adaptshimself to the habits of those who control him. " According tocircumstances, a dog may become a soldier, messenger, water-carrier, orguard. 

[Illustration: THE ESQUIMO-DOG IS MAN'S GREATEST FRIEND IN THE FARNORTH. ]

[Illustration: American Museum of Natural History, New York

CHIPMUNKS ARE AMONG THE MOST EASILY TAMED OF MAN'S WILD FRIENDS, ANDTHEY EVEN SEEM FOND OF HUMAN COMPANIONSHIP. ]

Not the least among the uses of war dogs is the curious practice ofsending them into the enemies' lines of cavalry to convey fire in orderto terrorise the horses and throw them into confusion. This practice hasbeen quite common in the past. Each dog is dressed in a cuirass ofleather and on his back is carefully strapped a pot of boiling, blazingtar. Nothing so terrorises horses as the sight of approaching fire. 

A small but valuable ally to man is the ferret. This little creature hascome into prominence more particularly during recent years, when the ratinfested trenches have made his services invaluable. These Hun-likerats, devouring and devastating in their thirst for human blood, wouldhave forced the abandonment of many a front line trench but for the aidof these trained ferrets, thousands of which have been daily employed onthe battle fronts. 

The immense services rendered by carrier pigeons in the battle of theMarne, not only to the military authorities, but also to the public atlarge, will cause the civilised world to pay more attention to theimportance of these birds in the future. They carried all kinds ofmessages to and from Paris during this memorable battle; in fact, theyhave been used in all the battles as invaluable messengers. 

Small animals, such as mice, canary birds, guinea pigs and rabbits areused in trench warfare, because they are more sensitive than man topoisonous gases. It sometimes happens that hundreds of men must berescued from a trench by three or four men. Each rescuer carries withhim a canary bird in a small cage attached to his shoulder. And as longas these birds show no signs of distress the men are safe from gaspoison. The birds soon become attached to their masters and seem to likethe adventure of the trenches. 

As time goes on, it is to be hoped that we will understand our animalbrothers better, and that our old attitude toward the so-called "brutes"will be entirely changed. Heretofore we have greatly abused the zebra, for example, because of his wild disposition, ferocious humour, distrustof all power except that in his own legs, and his pronounced aversion towork. 

Why should we reproach him for his wildwood philosophy? It is perfectlynatural that any animal of his experience with man, and with sufficientbrains, would have only contempt for all mankind. His native home is inAfrica, and his human associates, if they are human, have been theHottentots, the Namaquois or the Amazoulons--the most impossible andhideous people on the earth. Since his babyhood days he has seen nothingbut cannibalism and carnage among the savages; and since histransportation to Europe by a strange occurrence of horriblecircumstances, he has been the subject for all kinds of barbarouspunishments which man has seen well to heap upon him. The zebra is notof the mental calibre to be suddenly seized with love for the humanspecies and its civilisations! And the human species is astounded andthinks the zebra stupid and wicked. He may be both, but his wisdom isundeniable when it comes to trusting humanity, and his wickedness issmall in comparison to man's terrible cruelties. He should be awarded amedal for wisdom! For man is far the greater ass of the two!

He roams the wild prairies where the fields need no ploughing. There hefinds an abundance of grass and fresh water along the streams. No loudcursing and swearing ever greets his ears, nothing but the sweet song ofthe wild birds. And his children romp and play with him, free as thewinds that blow. Of course, he has enemies even there, and so he usescamouflage by painting himself in attractive stripes, so no one can seehim at a distance. Even Solomon should have praised his wisdom!

In the beginning God created man, and not long after gave him as hispoliceman, the dog. And the obedience, friendship and devotion of thedog to his master has been unending. The dog discusses no questions ofright or wrong, his only duty is to obey. This he does without a murmur. He is the greatest testimony to man's civilisation, the first and thegreatest element of human progress. Through his co-operation man waselevated from the savage to the state of the civilised. He made theherd possible. Without him there could have been no herd, no assuredsubsistence of food and clothing, no time to study and improve the mind, no astronomical observations, no science, no arts, no automobiles, noairships, no wireless telegraphy--nothing. The East is the home ofcivilisation, because the East is the home of the dog. 

A young hound knows more about tracking game or scenting the enemy aftersix months' practice than the most skilled savage after fifty years ofstudy. The dog has so aided mankind as to give him more time for studyand self-improvement. Thus began the arts and sciences. An interesting, and we believe original observation, of the influence of the dog onpeoples is that wherever the dog is found, especially among the shepherdpeoples, such as the Chaldeans, Egyptians, Arabs, Tartars, and Mongols, cannibalism is unknown. This is due to the fact that the dog enablesthem to maintain the herds which supply them with milk, food, andclothing, thus preserving them from the criminal temptation of hunger. 

The Indians of North America never refrained from roasting their enemiesuntil they made allies of the horse and dog. Humboldt proves the livelyregret held by one of the last surviving chief lieutenants of thewar-like Tecumseh whom he asked about a certain American officer whotook part in the fight. "Uh!" replied the Indian, "I eat some of him. ""Do you still eat your enemies?" asked Humboldt. "No, " replied theIndian. "Big dog catch heap meat for me!"

Surely no animal could be more uncivilised or cannibalistic in itsdesires than man! Spinoza believed, however, that benevolence in animalsconsisted only in their kindliness and friendly feeling for each otherand that we should expect nothing more of them. A good cow, so hethought, was one that was kind to her calf, however ferocious she mightbe toward human children. But we do not accept this standard ofgoodness, nor believe that animals' kindness extends only to their owntribes. Their lowest standard of life is no worse than the cannibalismexisting among the lower tribes of uncivilised man, which is one of thehighest ideals of tribal life. The greatest hero among our savages isthe one that can put the most enemies to death. 

Many animals seem to have a social instinct and a moral sentiment towardman. They try to break the old bonds of distrust between their masterand themselves. This is especially true of the puma, second to thelargest of the big cats of the Americas, which seems to love the societyof man, and seeks not only to be near him, but to protect him from theattacks of the much-dreaded jaguar. A civil engineer tells the story ofan experience he had while journeying up one of the big South Americanrivers by boat. At their nightly encampments one of the passengers onboard was an old miner who insisted on sleeping in a hammock suspendedbetween two small trees. His weight was sufficient to bring the hammockalmost to the ground at its lowest curve. One morning, his friendsinquired how he had slept, and he complained that "the frogs and smallanimals had made so much noise under the hammock that he could notsleep. " One of the Indian servants roared with laughter, as he said, "Uh, 'tiger' sleep with old man last night. He watch him!"--tiger beingthe Indian term for the puma. Careful searching revealed the footprintsof an immense puma, and that he had evidently lain directly under thehammock. The noise which had kept the old man from sleeping was thepurring of the animal, pleased over the privilege of sleeping so near aman. These Guiana Indians know the ways of the forests, and have aspecial liking for wild animals. This entire absence of fear in the pumais the same as exhibited by the tame house cat. 

Many animals seem fond of human companionship, and are easily tamed. Mysister raised a small red deer in Texas, and he became so perfectlytame that he would follow her wherever she went, and would even takefood from her hand. In Yellowstone Park the deer are so tame they willcome into the yards to get food, while the brown bears approach thehotels like tramps, and many of the smaller animals are perfectlyfearless. At the Bronx Zoological Gardens, and the London Zoo, theanimals have lost all fear. They seem to realise that they have no powerto escape and depend entirely upon man for their daily food. But, ofcourse, their conditions are artificial, hence such conclusions as wemay draw as to their normal attitude toward man do not necessarilyindicate the innate character of their wild kinsmen. We occasionallyfind, for instance, that in unsettled regions like parts of Mexico andSouth America, where animals are plentiful and man's influence largelyabsent, they are found to be particularly ferocious, yet even then lionsand leopards rarely attack men unless disturbed in some unusual way. 

Quite a few naturalists and scientists believe that the animals' lovefor man was acquired and not natural. But if this be true, how did thevery early tribes of men escape destruction at the hands of the wildbeasts which were far more numerous than at present? The animal kingdomwas evidently impressed by the power of man at a very early stage ofits development, but in just what manner or what period of time thiscame to pass is not known. 

If we regard the conflict as merely between two great groups of animals, surely the animals should have won, and man would have disappeared fromthe face of the earth. The fact that he did not, and that he becamemaster of the animals, is presumptive evidence that man exceeded theanimals in intelligence. 

Primitive man could have lived in no other way than by "his wits. " Forhe was not nearly so well equipped for defence as are the monkeys ofto-day. Their greatest power is in the ability to use their arms andhands in swinging rapidly from branch to branch. This gives them anadvantage over all tree-climbing cats. They are very proficient inthrowing stones and other missiles. This is dumbfounding to otheranimals. Of course, their intelligent and quick-witted methods ofdefence, menace, guard-duty, and loyalty to tribe makes them greatwarriors, and enables them to survive even the onslaughts of theirgreatest enemy and nightmare of every non-carnivorous animal--the harpyeagle!

Through the necessary adjustments growing out of the close relationshipsof men to animals, the mental faculties of both have been greatlystimulated and advanced. The least developed races seem to be in suchplaces as Tierra del Fuego, where there are no savage animals, and, therefore, no inducement for man to arm and defend himself. The Pygmiesof Central Africa are mighty hunters, otherwise they could not survive. Even the Esquimaux are masters of the great polar bears and othernorthern animals. 

In the wilds of Africa, where animals have had a terrible struggle forexistence, not only against disagreeable climatic conditions, but allkinds of fellow-foes as well, we find the nkengos have attained acivilisation that almost equals that of our savage brothers. And thesepale-faced little beings, with their wrinkled, care-worn, parchment-likeskins, remind one of ill-treated, white, human-dwarfs. Their name, nkengo, means wild animal-men, and when tamed they actually makeexcellent family servants for men. 

These closest allies of man live in tall bamboo trees, and are socuriously human that when seen walking around hunting berries, nuts, andfruits, talking in guttural, chattering tones, like old fisher-women, noone could doubt even their kinship to man. 

Their children assemble in groups to romp and play under theguardianship of either one of their mothers or grandmothers; while themen forage for food, and watch for enemies. It is not uncommon to seean aged, half-decrepit nkengo lying on a bed of sticks in a tall tree. Here he eats only green leaves and bits of fruit brought him by somekind friend, being far too weak to hunt for food himself, andfurthermore, fearing an attack from his mortal enemy, the leopard. 

If the colony decides to move to other territory, either because ofenemies or the scarcity of food, they all assemble and hold a farewellgathering in which there is much mourning and apparent grief at foreverleaving their aged kin to the fate of the wilds. If they are possiblyable to walk, they are given patient assistance in travelling along. Sometimes, when they are deserted, sympathetic friends return for dayswith berries and koola nuts, until at last the colony has gone so faraway that none dare return alone, in which event these helplesssuperannuated members are left to die in their lone tree-top beds. 

Many of these beds are as well made as the tree-beds of human beings, and even better than the beds of the savage Dyaks of Borneo. They areusually located in tall trees, inaccessible to leopards and out of reachof their most dreaded of all enemies, the terrible hordes of war-ants. From these nothing escapes--not even elephants and tigers. 

The arrival of a baby to these nkengos is of far more importance intheir tree-top village, than in a human city. Each of the femalerelatives, and also the aged males, takes special interest in thenew-comer, and they chatter around his little grape-vine cradle withmuch enthusiasm, shaking their heads and delicately handling his tinyhands and toes as though he were the baby of a king. 

This baby is much stronger and quicker to learn than human babies; forwhen he is only two days old he is able to cling to his mother, so thatshe can carry him with her on her hunting trips. If he becomes too noisyfrom sheer delight when she is travelling through the forest with him, she slaps him, in an attempt to quiet him, lest the leopards get him. 

At night he sleeps snugly by his mother's side in the great tree-bed, and she never allows him to crawl out of her arms for fear that he fallto the depths below. She loves him dearly, and watches with humaneagerness for his first tooth. He loves his mother and will stand forhours while she dresses his hair; or lie on her breast as she rubs hislittle back. 

These wild-children are always ill-tempered and self-willed. No humanmother has to show more patience and love than does the nkengo mother. She takes the greatest delight in his first efforts at climbing andhunting, and for hours she and his admiring relatives will watch himattempting to climb a cocoanut tree. Sometimes she will climb justbehind him to catch him if he falls or becomes frightened. 

His arms soon become very powerful, for he is constantly swinging, climbing, and exercising by hanging from a bough with one hand while hepulls himself up with the great power of his muscles. He is able togather koola nuts long before his jaws are strong enough to crack them;so his fond mother cracks them for him until his hands and mouth arestronger. Like all babies, his ambition is to be big and strong like hisfather. 

Some of the apes are most intelligent and human, and, as allies to man, are more desirable than certain of the human savages. Dr. Livingstone, in his _Last Journals_, describes one he first discovered. "Theirteeth, " he says, "are slightly human, but their canines show the beastby their large development. The hands, or rather the fingers, are likethose of the natives. They live in communities consisting of about adozen individuals, and are strictly monogamous in their conjugalrelations, and vegetarian, or rather frugivorous, in their diet, theirfavourite food being bananas. " The natives where these apes live arecannibals, and Dr. Livingstone says, "they are the lowest of the low. "One of their number, who had committed a great murder, offered hisgrandmother "to be killed in expiation of his offence, and thisvicarious punishment was accepted as satisfactory. "

Thus it is evident that certain of these wild-creatures--like thesokos--have a more correct conception of justice than their humanassociates, the savages. At least the animals do not make the innocentsuffer for the guilty, and give their lives unjustly. Should a soko tryto take another's wife he is publicly punished by the tribe. Theseanimals have a great sense of humour and fully enjoy a practical joke. Strangely enough, they never attack women and children, but if any manapproaches them with a spear or gun, they try to rush upon him, often atthe expense of their own life, and wrest the weapon from him. Most ofthem are exceedingly kind and civilised in their actions, and nativesalways say, "Soko is a man, and nothing bad in him. "

Often they kidnap babies and carry them up into trees. But these arenever harmed and the apes are ever ready to exchange them for bananas. The robbery is, no doubt, for the purpose of extortion. If perchance oneof their children is stolen, the entire forest sets up a scream andwail until it is returned. Old hunters and travellers say that theywould rather steal the child of a native savage than to take one of thesokos. If one of the soko children disappears, and they do not know whatbecame of it, they immediately send out detectives throughout thecountry to seek for it. And woe be the home where a stolen soko baby isfound!

But man has one great power--a far more potent ally than he has in hisanimal friends--the use of fire. Unquestionably to the minds of animalsit is a supernatural power. They cannot create it, understand it, and itis very doubtful if they can yet use it to advantage. How marvellous isthis thing--fire! That great blazing pillar of cloud that destroys all, and leaves nothing to show where it has taken its enemies! To animals itsprings up wherever man rests his head, and protects him while hesleeps. It is always with him, and its presence for untold ages hasbrought terror to all of them. 

Not a few reports tell us that certain of our animal allies among themonkeyfolk of South Africa use fire. This may not be true; but it isprobable that the time is near at hand when the wild baboon-men of thewoods will learn to make and use fire just as we have done. 

Enough instances could be shown illustrating animals as man's allies tofill an entire book, but a sufficient number have been adduced to showhow truly they are our allies, helpers, and protectors just as we aretheirs, only their mode of manifesting it is different. We have shownthe absolute fallacy of the old belief that animals lack mentality, andthat all their acts of kindness are based upon self-love and personalgain, and have seen that in proportion to their opportunities in life, they have quite as much mentality and brotherly love for each other andmankind as is found among our lower savages. We have seen that amonganimals as among men, individuals will give their lives for theirfellows, serve the weak and timid, and demonstrate the highest andholiest feelings of which true souls can be capable, and always shareequally with man the burdens that fall upon themselves and their humanallies. And the time is already here when man should protect his animalfriends more, and teach them through human kindness not to fear him. Butthis can only be done when he is willing to treat them as fellow beingsonly a little below him in the scale of existence. 

CHAPTER XV

THE FUTURE LIFE OF ANIMALS

 _"Ah, poor companion! when thou followedst last Thy master's parting footsteps to the gate Which closed forever on him, thou didst lose Thy best friend, and none was left to plead For the old age of brute fidelity. But fare thee well. Mine is no narrowed creed; And He who gave thee being did not frame The mystery of Life to be the sport Of merciless man. There is another world For all that live and move--a better one! Where the proud bipeds, who would fain confine Of their own charity, may envy thee. "_

 --SOUTHEY (on the death of his dog). 

The old belief is still prevalent that the Bible teaches that of allliving creatures man alone is immortal. This erroneous belief springsout of man's egotism, however, and is not substantiated by theScriptures. Among many of the Old Testament writers we find thatimmortality was assured for neither man nor animals; whereas, with thelarger revelation of the New Testament, immortality is no longerquestioned for any living creature. 

There are, of course, many supposedly intelligent people who deny toanimals the power of reason, and attribute all their marvellous powersand abilities to blind instinct. It is, therefore, not the least bitsurprising that the vast majority of people believe that when an animaldies, its life principle dies also. The animating power, they believe, is destroyed, and the body returns to the dust. 

These mistaken conclusions are largely, if not wholly, due to twopassages of Scripture, one of which is in the Psalms and the other inEcclesiastes. The one most often quoted, from the Psalms, runs in theauthorised version: "Nevertheless, man being in honor, abideth not; heis like the beasts that perish. " This verse is frequently quoted asdecisive of the whole question. The other passage, which is found inEcclesiastes, reads: "Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth?"

It is upon the authority of these two passages that we are supposed tobelieve that when an animal dies, its life has gone forever, departed, expired. In this new age of thought and discovery, we do not attempt toexplain a passage of Scripture, no matter how simple it may appear tobe, without referring to the original text, that we may see if thetranslator has kept the true sense of the words and adequately expressedtheir significance, remembering that words often change their meaning, and that the original use of a word may have conveyed exactly theopposite meaning to that which we at present attach to it. 

But if we accept the passage just as it stands, with the literal meaningof the words as is usually understood, there is but oneconclusion--animals have no future life. Death ends all for them. But, on the other hand, if we are to take the literal interpretation of theBible only, we are forced to believe that man, as well as the animals, has no life after death. Surely the book of Psalms is full of examplesto support this literal interpretation. For example, "In death there isno remembrance of thee: in the grave, who shall give thee thanks?"Again, "The dead praise not the Lord, neither any that go down intosilence. " Or, "His breath goeth forth, he returneth to his earth; inthat very day his thoughts perish. " These quotations could be greatlyadded to, and if taken in their literal sense, we would reach but oneconclusion--death ends all for every living creature! Nothing in all theliterature of the earth could be more gloomy and discouraging thanthese quotations with numerous others that contemplate death. Yet, vainman takes one little passage that seemingly denies a future life toanimals from the same book that many times over denies a future life tomankind; in fact, there are five times as many Scripture passagesclaiming for man that all ends in death as there are for animals. Overand over we are told that those who have died have no remembrance ofGod, and cannot praise Him. The Bible speaks of death as the "land offorgetfulness, "--the place of darkness, where all man's thoughts perish. Nothing more than this could be said of the "animals that perish!"

Other Biblical writers referred to mankind as those who "dwell in housesof clay, " and Job says: "They are destroyed from morning to evening;they perish forever, without any regarding it. " In another place hesays: "As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away, so he that goethdown to the grave shall come up no more. " Again he speaks of "the landof darkness and the shadow of death, " and says: "Man dieth, and wastethaway: yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he? As the waters failfrom the sea, and the flood decayeth and drieth up: so man lieth down, and riseth not. " Job laments the pitiable conditions of his life, andcomplains that life was ever granted to him, and that even death canbring nothing to him except extinction. 

Yet, if we examine Ecclesiastes, the book in which we find the singlepassage upon which many people base a belief in the non-future existenceof animals, there are passages which are really no more positive as tothe future of mankind. For example, "I said in my heart concerning theestate of the sons of men, that God might manifest them, and that theymight see that they themselves are beasts. For that which befalleth thesons of men befalleth beasts; even one thing befalleth them. As the onedieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a manhas no pre-eminence over a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto oneplace; all are of the dust, and all turn to the dust again. " Again it issaid: "For the living know that they shall die, but the dead know notanything, neither have they any more a reward, for the memory of them isforgotten;" and "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thymight; for there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom inthe grave whither thou goest. "

By interpreting these words literally, there is but one conclusionrelative to a future spiritual life, namely, that there is absolutelyno distinction between man and his "lower brother" animals, and thatwhen they die they all go to the same place. It is emphatically saidthat after death man knows nothing, receives no reward, and can do nowork. Job has the same gloomy strain running through his writings, andEcclesiastes gives a most morbid and gloomy view of death. 

However, no modern Biblical scholar accepts these passages in thisliteral light, for it is known that they were written symbolically, oras parables, and were not intended to be literally interpreted. Theyhave a spiritual significance. We are, however, not interested here somuch with this spiritual sense as we are with the literal implication ofthe translation. Therefore, according to this literal meaning of the twotexts, if we accept them to prove that animals have no future life, weare forced to believe by at least fourteen passages, of equal if notgreater power, that man shares their same fate after death. No man has aright to select certain passages from the same book of the Bible and saythat they shall be accepted literally, and that other passages of equalmerit shall be interpreted otherwise. They must all be treated the same. 

All scholars are familiar with that remarkable eleventh book of Homer'sOdyssey, known as the Necromanteia, or Invocation of the Dead, and in itUlysses descends into the regions of the departed spirits to invoke themand obtain advice as to his future adventures. One commentator says: "Hesails to the boundaries of the ocean, and lands in the country of theCimmerians, who dwell in perpetual cloud and darkness, and in whosecountry are the gates leading to the regions of the dead. " All isdarkness, discontent, hunger; nothing is said of virtue, wisdom, beauty, happiness. Only bitter gloom! No wonder this heathen poet considered, with such views of a future life, sensual pleasures as the chief objectof this life. 

The following dialogue between the inhabitants of the earth and thedweller in the regions of the dead--between Ulysses and Achilles--isremarkable for its horrible depiction of the future life:

 "Through the thick gloom his friend Achilles knew, As he speaks the tears dissolve in dew. 'Comest thou alive to view the Stygian bounds, Where the wan spectres walk eternal rounds; Nor fear'st the dark and dismal waste to tread, Thronged with pale ghosts familiar with the dead?' To whom with sighs, 'I pass these dreadful gates To seek the Theban, and consult the Fates; For still distressed I roam from coast to coast, Lost to my friends and to my country lost. But sure the eye of Time beholds no name So blessed as thine in all the rolls of fame; Alive we hailed thee with our guardian gods, And, dead thou rulest a king in these abodes. ' 'Talk not of ruling in this dolorous gloom, Nor think vain words (he cried) can ease my doom. Rather I'd choose laboriously to bear A weight of woes and breathe the vital air, A slave for some poor hind that toils for bread, Than reign the sceptered monarch of the dead. '"

Yet, even this outpouring of hopeless words by the heathen poet isencouraging when compared to the writings of the Psalmist, of Solomon orJob, for those who have gone beyond the grave still have memory, aninterest in their friends on earth, love and desire. But no such hopeexists for man, if we are to accept literally all the passages ofScripture which have been quoted. By such interpretation, man passesafter death into eternal darkness, forgetfulness, silence, "where thereis no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom--where even his verythoughts perish. " If these particular passages are to be accepted asfinal on the subject, there is no future life for either man or animal. They are too definite to admit of any interpretation that might softenor alter their meaning. 

It may be shocking to some to compare the belief of an ancient Greek andthe teachings of a Latin Epicurean with the sacred writings of theBible. Yet, it may be even more startling to point out that some of theteachings of the Epicurean sensualist are quite as good as some of thoseof the writers of the sacred texts, and that those of the Greek poet arefar better and more spiritual! There is no denying that these are thefacts, if we are to be bound by literal interpretation, unless we throwto the winds all reason and common-sense. 

This leads us back to the point previously mentioned; and we mustdetermine if the authorised version gives a full and truthfulinterpretation of the Hebrew original. Even a man who does not pretendto scholarship knows that it does not. The word "perish, " for example, is not found at all in the Hebrew text, nor is the idea expressed; thewords which our translation twice renders as "beasts that perish, " is, in the original Hebrew, "dumb beasts. " By comparing a number of thetranslations of the Psalms, into various languages--Psalm XLIX, forexample--we find that few, if any, of them suggest the idea of"perishing" in the sense of annihilation. First, let us consider theJewish Bible, which is acknowledged to be the most accurate translationin the English language, and carefully read it. In verses 12 and 20 ofthe above Psalm, where the passage is found, the translation reads:"Man that is in honour, and understandeth this not, is like the beaststhat are irrational. " In a footnote the word "dumb" is offered as analternative for "irrational. " Brunton's translation of the Septuagint issimilar, and reads: "Man that is in honour understands not, he iscompared to the senseless cattle, and is like them. " Wycliffe's Bible, which is translated from the Vulgate, reads thus: "A man whanne he wasin honour understood it not; he is compared to unwise beestis, and ismaad lijk to tho. " The "Douay" Bible, put forth by the English CatholicCollege of Douay and which is received by the Catholic Church inEngland, gives the passage: "Man, when he was in honour, did notunderstand; he hath been compared to senseless beasts, and made like tothem. " Many other versions might be cited, and very few of them evensuggest the idea of annihilation. If, for argument's sake, we supposethat the word "perish" has been correctly translated, it by no meansfollows that annihilation is signified. Read, for example, the tenthverse of the same Psalm in our authorised translation: "For he seeththat wise men die, and likewise the fool and the brutish person perish, and leave their wealth to others. " Certainly no intelligent person wouldinterpret this passage as declaring that the wise and the foolish andthe brutish have no life after the body dies. 

It is plain, therefore, that we may dismiss forever the idea that thePsalmist believed the beasts had no future life, and the citation may berejected as absolutely irrelevant to the subject, and the only one thatappears to make any definite statements as to the future life of thelower animals. Every student of the Bible will at once recognise hownecessary it is that the original meaning of the Hebrew text should beknown, and that the Psalmist should not be accused of setting forth adoctrine of such great importance, whether true or false, when he maynever even have thought or suggested it. 

[Illustration: MEN CRUELLY TAKE THE LIVES OF THESE DENIZENS OF THEWILDWOOD, REJOICING IN THEIR SLAUGHTER, BUT THE ANIMAL SOUL THEY CANNOTKILL. ]

[Illustration: TWO PALS. THERE IS BETWEEN MAN AND DOG A KINSHIP OFSPIRIT THAT CANNOT BE DENIED. ]

Having disposed of the possibility of a misunderstanding of the realmeaning of the "beasts that perish, " let us consider the quotation fromEcclesiastes, the only one that refers to the future state of animals. "Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of thebeast that goeth downward to the earth?" We find an admission here that, whether the spirit ascends or descends, man and beasts alike have theimmortal spark. The Hebrew version is precisely the same as ourauthorised translation. Read, not an isolated verse, but the entirepassage:

"I said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of man, that Godmight manifest them, and that they might see that they themselves arebeasts. 

"For that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts; even the onething befalleth them; as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, theyhave all one breath; so that a man hath no pre-eminence above a beast:for all is vanity. 

"All go to one place; all are of the same dust, and all turn to dustagain. 

"Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward, and the spirit of thebeast that goeth downward to the earth?

"Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better than that a manshould rejoice in his own works; for that is his portion; for who shallbring him to see what shall be after him?"

These verses tell their own story. It matters little whether Solomonwrote this book in his later years; it is, in any event, the confessionof one who has had all the good things of this world, and who saw theemptiness of them all, and who sums up life with the words "Vanity ofvanities, all is vanity. " Finally the author ironically advises hisreaders to trust only in the good of their labour. 

Thus it is shown that the quotation from the Psalms in no way justifiesthe belief in the annihilation of beasts, and that the one fromEcclesiastes has been entirely and wrongfully misunderstood andinterpreted. In no way do the Scriptures deny future life to the loweranimals, but in all ways, if intelligently understood, imply that manand beasts have, equally, a share in a future life beyond the grave. 

As we have found out that the Scriptures, contrary to the popularbelief, do not deny a future life to our lower brethren, the animals, let us see if they actually declare a future world for them in the sameway that they do for man. Man's immortality, as we know, is taught inthe Old Testament rather by inference than by direct affirmation. Thisis possibly due to the fact that the writers of the manifold books, which were at a late date selected from a large number and made into onebig volume which forms our Bible, thought as a matter of course that manlived on after death, and never thought it necessary to assert thatwhich every one knew. 

But if we accept the teachings of the Old Testament, inference givesmuch stronger testimony to the immortality of animals than it does tothe immortality of man, for while in neither case is there a directassertion of a future life, yet there is no direct denial of future lifeto the animals, as has been shown to be the case with man. 

All Divine Law includes a protection for the beasts, and the laws ofthe Sabbath were in essence a spiritual and not only a physicalordinance. The ancient Scriptures have innumerable provisions againstmistreating or giving unnecessary pain to the lower animals; and theseprovisions stand side by side in the Divine Law with those which speakof man. Note, for example, the prohibition of "seething a kid in itsmother's milk. " Again, there is a statement that the ox in treading outthe corn is not to be muzzled, lest he suffer hunger in the presence offood which he may not eat. 

In the following sentences from the Book of Jonah, it is plainly seenthat the Deity has not failed to take notice of the animals: "And shouldI not spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six scorethousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and theirleft hand; and also much cattle?" Again, in the Psalms, "Every beast ofthe forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. I know all thefowls of the mountains: and the wild beasts of the field are mine. "Other passages that proclaim God as the protector of beasts, as well asman, might be cited, for the Bible makes frequent mention of them. Eachof these Scriptures unquestionably proves that God has an interest inall His creatures, and that each shares His universal love. 

No one can deny that Genesis, ninth chapter and fifth verse, refers to afuture life for beasts as well as man; it is a part of the law which wasgiven to Noah and which was the forerunner of the fuller law handed downthrough Moses: "Surely, your blood of your lives will I require; at thehand of every beast will I require it, and at the hand of every man; atthe hand of every man's brother will I require the life of man. "According to the Mosaic law, an ox which kills a man is subject todeath, exactly as a human murderer. Why should the animal be punished bydeath, if he has no soul to be forfeited?

It should be remembered that while there are no Scriptural passages thatdefinitely promise immortality to animals, there are many which inferit. Moreover, we should not expect to gain definite information on thesubject from the Bible, for it was written for human beings and not foranimals. If there are few direct references to the future life of man, surely there must be still fewer to that of animals!

But just as man has for countless ages had within himself an everlastingwitness to his own immortality, so do we find that all who have reallybecome acquainted with the lower animals, with their unselfishness, parental love, devotion to duty, generosity, wonderful mentality, andself-sacrifice--all those who know them realise that they are subject tothe same moral law as man and share with him a future life. 

Lamartine beautifully expresses a future hope for his faithful dog:

 "I cannot, will not, deem thee a deceiving, Illusive mockery of human feeling, A body organized, by fond caress Warmed into seeming tenderness; A mere automaton, on which our love Plays, as on puppets, when their wires we move. No! when that feeling quits thy glazing eye, 'Twill live in some blest world beyond the sky. "

Who can say that from the depths of the wide ocean, from regionsunknown, and lands unexplored by man; from the remotest islands of thesea, and even from the far icy North, there are not animal voices everrising in praise of our common Creator? The Bible says: "The Lord isgood to all, and His tender mercies are over all His works, " and, "AllThy works shall praise thee, O Lord, "--surely these endorse the abovestatements. And why should man define the limit of God's goodness, Hislove, care, and attention to the wants and needs of all His creatures?

The distinguished animal authority, Dr. Abercrombie, admitted thatanimals have an "immaterial principle" in them, which is distinct frommatter. But he does not say that this principle, or soul, will liveafter death, as it is supposed to in man. However, many scholars both ofancient and modern times hold this opinion. Broderip, in his _ZoologicalRecreations_ devotes much space in referring to ancient philosophers andpoets, Christian Fathers, and Jewish Rabbis that have believed in theimmortality of animals. The heroes of Virgil have horses to drive in theElysian fields; the Greek poets gave to Orion dogs. Rabbi Manesseh, speaking of the resurrection, says, "brutes will then enjoy a muchhappier state of being than they experienced here, " and a number ofscholars, like Philo Judćus, believe that ferocious beasts will in afuture state lose their ferociousness. Among more recent scholars whohold this belief is Dr. John Brown, who boldly says: "I am one of thosewho believe that dogs have a next world; and why not?" The Rev. J. G. Wood said: "Much of the present heedlessness respecting animals iscaused by the popular idea that they have no souls, and that when theydie they entirely perish. Whence came that most preposterous idea?Surely not from the only source where we might expect to learn aboutsouls--not from the Bible, for there we distinctly read of 'the spiritof the sons of man, ' and immediately afterwards of 'the spirit of thebeasts, ' one aspiring, the other not so. And a necessary consequence ofthe spirit is a life after the death of the body. Let any one wait in afrequented thoroughfare for one short hour, and watch the sufferings ofthe poor brutes that pass by. Then, unless he denies the DivineProvidence, he will see clearly that unless these poor creatures werecompensated in a future life, there is no such quality as justice. "

Eugene T. Zimmerman says: "I cannot help but think that my faithful dog, and playmate of my younger days, will have some form of a future life. "

We do not recognise an absolute spiritual barrier of separation betweenman and animals. Man is an animal--the first of animals; but it does notof necessity follow that he will always continue to be so. By what rightdoes he presume to deny a soul and a continued spiritual existence tolower animals? Are we not all of us fellows and co-workers, partakers ofthe same universal life, sharing alike a common source and destiny? Thishas always been the faith and insight of the child, whose simple wisdomwe ever turn to for truth and guidance. And in our clearer realisationof the oneness of all life, we will extend to all creatures the GoldenRule, showing them the love and consideration we would have shown tous. 

 * * * * *

The HUMAN SIDE of BIRDS. 

By ROYAL DIXON With 4 illustrations in color and 32 in black-and-white. Cloth, 8vo. 

With every statement based on fact, and every fact of unusual interest, the author shows that many qualities of and occupations in the humanworld have their parallels in the bird world. 

 _Here is bird study from a new angle--instead of treating our bird neighbors as labeled specimens to be described in scientific terms, they are treated as friends, and a careful study is made of their disposition, character, emotions and "thought processes. "_

Mr. Dixon tells of birds who are policemen, athletes, divers, bakers;birds who maintain courts of justice and military organizations and manyother curious types. 

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