THE ECONOMIST

By Xenophon

Translation by H. G. Dakyns

 Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land and property in Scillus, where he lived for many years before having to move once more, to settle in Corinth. He died in 354 B. C. 

 The Economist records Socrates and Critobulus in a talk about profitable estate management, and a lengthy recollection by Socrates of Ischomachus' discussion of the same topic. 

PREPARER'S NOTE

 This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon, " a four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is doubt about some of these) is:

 Work Number of books

 The Anabasis 7 The Hellenica 7 The Cyropaedia 8 The Memorabilia 4 The Symposium 1 The Economist 1 On Horsemanship 1 The Sportsman 1 The Cavalry General 1 The Apology 1 On Revenues 1 The Hiero 1 The Agesilaus 1 The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2

 Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The diacritical marks have been lost. 

The Economist

by Xenophon

Translation by H. G. Dakyns

THE ECONOMIST [1]

A Treatise on the Science of the Household in the form of a Dialogue

INTERLOCUTORS

Socrates and Critobulus

At Chapter VII. A prior discussion held between Socrates and Ischomachusis introduced: On the life of a "beautiful and good" man. 

In these chapters (vii. -xxi. ) Socrates is represented by the authoras repeating for the benefit of Critobulus and the rest certainconversations which he had once held with the beautiful and goodIschomachus on the essentials of economy. It was a tete-a-tetediscussion, and in the original Greek the remarks of the two speakersare denoted by such phrases as {ephe o 'Iskhomakhos--ephen egio}--"said(he) Ischomachus, " "said I. " (Socrates) To save the repetition ofexpressions tedious in English, I have, whenever it seemed help to doso, ventured to throw parts of the reported conversations into dramaticform, inserting "Isch. " "Soc. " in the customary way to designate thespeakers; but these, it must be borne in mind, are merely "asides"to the reader, who will not forget that Socrates is the narratorthroughout--speaking of himself as "I, " and of Ischomachus as "he, " orby his name. --Translator's note, addressed to the English reader. 

I

I once heard him [2] discuss the topic of economy [3] after thefollowing manner. Addressing Critobulus, [4] he said: Tell me, Critobulus, is "economy, " like the words "medicine, " "carpentry, ""building, " "smithying, " "metal-working, " and so forth, the name of aparticular kind of knowledge or science?

 [1] By "economist" we now generally understand "political economist, " but the use of the word as referring to domestic economy, the subject matter of the treatise, would seem to be legitimate. 

 [2] "The master. "

 [3] Lit. "the management of a household and estate. " See Plat. "Rep. " 407 B; Aristot. "Eth. N. " v. 6; "Pol. " i. 3. 

 [4] See "Mem. " I. Iii. 8; "Symp. " p. 292. 

Crit. Yes, I think so. 

Soc. And as, in the case of the arts just named, we can state the properwork or function of each, can we (similarly) state the proper work andfunction of economy?

Crit. It must, I should think, be the business of the good economist [5]at any rate to manage his own house or estate well. 

 [5] Or, "manager of a house or estate. "

Soc. And supposing another man's house to be entrusted to him, he wouldbe able, if he chose, to manage it as skilfully as his own, wouldhe not? since a man who is skilled in carpentry can work as well foranother as for himself: and this ought to be equally true of the goodeconomist?

Crit. Yes, I think so, Socrates. 

Soc. Then there is no reason why a proficient in this art, even ifhe does not happen to possess wealth of his own, should not be paid asalary for managing a house, just as he might be paid for building one?

Crit. None at all: and a large salary he would be entitled to earn if, after paying the necessary expenses of the estate entrusted to him, hecan create a surplus and improve the property. 

Soc. Well! and this word "house, " what are we to understand by it? thedomicile merely? or are we to include all a man's possessions outsidethe actual dwelling-place? [6]

 [6] Lit. "is it synonymous with dwelling-place, or is all that a man possesses outside his dwelling-place part of his house or estate?"

Crit. Certainly, in my opinion at any rate, everything which a man hasgot, even though some portion of it may lie in another part of the worldfrom that in which he lives, [7] forms part of his estate. 

 [7] Lit. "not even in the same state or city. "

Soc. "Has got"? but he may have got enemies?

Crit. Yes, I am afraid some people have got a great many. 

Soc. Then shall we say that a man's enemies form part of hispossessions?

Crit. A comic notion indeed! that some one should be good enough to addto my stock of enemies, and that in addition he should be paid for hiskind services. 

Soc. Because, you know, we agreed that a man's estate was identical withhis possessions?

Crit. Yes, certainly! the good part of his possessions; but theevil portion! no, I thank you, that I do not call part of a man'spossessions. 

Soc. As I understand, you would limit the term to what we may call aman's useful or advantageous possessions?

Crit. Precisely; if he has things that injure him, I should regard theserather as a loss than as wealth. 

Soc. It follows apparently that if a man purchases a horse and doesnot know how to handle him, but each time he mounts he is thrown andsustains injuries, the horse is not part of his wealth?

Crit. Not, if wealth implies weal, certainly. 

Soc. And by the same token land itself is no wealth to a man who soworks it that his tillage only brings him loss?

Crit. True; mother earth herself is not a source of wealth to us if, instead of helping us to live, she helps us to starve. 

Soc. And by a parity of reasoning, sheep and cattle may fail of beingwealth if, through want of knowledge how to treat them, their ownerloses by them; to him at any rate the sheep and the cattle are notwealth?

Crit. That is the conclusion I draw. 

Soc. It appears, you hold to the position that wealth consists of thingswhich benefit, while things which injure are not wealth?

Crit. Just so. 

Soc. The same things, in fact, are wealth or not wealth, according as aman knows or does not know the use to make of them? To take an instance, a flute may be wealth to him who is sufficiently skilled to play uponit, but the same instrument is no better than the stones we tread underour feet to him who is not so skilled... Unless indeed he chose to sellit?

Crit. That is precisely the conclusion we should come to. [8] Topersons ignorant of their use [9] flutes are wealth as saleable, but aspossessions not for sale they are no wealth at all; and see, Socrates, how smoothly and consistently the argument proceeds, [10] since it isadmitted that things which benefit are wealth. The flutes in questionunsold are not wealth, being good for nothing: to become wealth theymust be sold. 

 [8] Reading {tout auto}, or if {tout au} with Sauppe, transl. "Yes, that is another position we may fairly subscribe to. "

 [9] i. E. "without knowledge of how to use them. "

 [10] Or, "our discussion marches on all-fours, as it were. "

Yes! (rejoined Socrates), presuming the owner knows how to sell them;since, supposing again he were to sell them for something which he doesnot know how to use, [11] the mere selling will not transform them intowealth, according to your argument. 

 [11] Reading {pros touto o}, or if {pros touton, os}, transl. "to a man who did not know how to use them. "

Crit. You seem to say, Socrates, that money itself in the pockets of aman who does not know how to use it is not wealth?

Soc. And I understand you to concur in the truth of our propositionso far: wealth is that, and that only, whereby a man may be benefited. Obviously, if a man used his money to buy himself a mistress, to thegrave detriment of his body and soul and whole estate, how is thatparticular money going to benefit him now? What good will he extractfrom it?

Crit. None whatever, unless we are prepared to admit that hyoscyamus, [12] as they call it, is wealth, a poison the property of which is todrive those who take it mad. 

 [12] "A dose of henbane, 'hogs'-bean, ' so called. " Diosc. 4. 69; 6. 15; Plut. "Demetr. " xx. (Clough, v. 114). 

Soc. Let money then, Critobulus, if a man does not know how to use itaright--let money, I say, be banished to the remote corners of the earthrather than be reckoned as wealth. [13] But now, what shall we say offriends? If a man knows how to use his friends so as to be benefited bythem, what of these?

 [13] Or, "then let it be relegated... And there let it lie in the category of non-wealth. "

Crit. They are wealth indisputably, and in a deeper sense than cattleare, if, as may be supposed, they are likely to prove of more benefit toa man than wealth of cattle. 

Soc. It would seem, according to your argument, that the foes of a man'sown household after all may be wealth to him, if he knows how to turnthem to good account? [14]

 [14] Vide supra. 

Crit. That is my opinion, at any rate. 

Soc. It would seem, it is the part of a good economist [15] to know howto deal with his own or his employer's foes so as to get profit out ofthem?

 [15] "A good administrator of an estate. "

Crit. Most emphatically so. 

Soc. In fact, you need but use your eyes to see how many privatepersons, not to say crowned heads, do owe the increase of their estatesto war. 

Crit. Well, Socrates, I do not think, so far, the argument could beimproved on; [16] but now comes a puzzle. What of people who have gotthe knowledge and the capital [17] required to enhance their fortunes, if only they will put their shoulders to the wheel; and yet, if we areto believe our senses, that is just the one thing they will not do, andso their knowledge and accomplishments are of no profit to them? Surelyin their case also there is but one conclusion to be drawn, which is, that neither their knowledge nor their possessions are wealth. 

 [16] Or, "Thanks, Socrates. Thus far the statement of the case would seem to be conclusive--but what are we to make of this? Some people... "

 [17] Lit. "the right kinds of knowledge and the right starting-points. "

Soc. Ah! I see, Critobulus, you wish to direct the discussion to thetopic of slaves?

Crit. No indeed, I have no such intention--quite the reverse. I want totalk about persons of high degree, of right noble family [18] some ofthem, to do them justice. These are the people I have in my mind's eye, gifted with, it may be, martial or, it may be, civil accomplishments, which, however, they refuse to exercise, for the very reason, as I takeit, that they have no masters over them. 

 [18] "Eupatrids. "

Soc. No masters over them! but how can that be if, in spite of theirprayers for prosperity and their desire to do what will bring them good, they are still so sorely hindered in the exercise of their wills bythose that lord it over them?

Crit. And who, pray, are these lords that rule them and yet remainunseen?

Soc. Nay, not unseen; on the contrary, they are very visible. And whatis more, they are the basest of the base, as you can hardly fail tonote, if at least you believe idleness and effeminacy and recklessnegligence to be baseness. Then, too, there are other treacherousbeldames giving themselves out to be innocent pleasures, to wit, dicingsand profitless associations among men. [19] These in the fulness of timeappear in all their nakedness even to them that are deceived, showingthemselves that they are after all but pains tricked out and decked withpleasures. These are they who have the dominion over those you speak ofand quite hinder them from every good and useful work. 

 [19] Or, "frivolous society. "

Crit. But there are others, Socrates, who are not hindered by theseindolences--on the contrary, they have the most ardent disposition toexert themselves, and by every means to increase their revenues; but inspite of all, they wear out their substance and are involved in endlessdifficulties. [20]

 [20] Or, "become involved for want of means. "

Soc. Yes, for they too are slaves, and harsh enough are theirtaskmasters; slaves are they to luxury and lechery, intemperance and thewine-cup along with many a fond and ruinous ambition. These passionsso cruelly belord it over the poor soul whom they have got under theirthrall, that so long as he is in the heyday of health and strong tolabour, they compel him to fetch and carry and lay at their feet thefruit of his toils, and to spend it on their own heart's lusts; but assoon as he is seen to be incapable of further labour through old age, they leave him to his gray hairs and misery, and turn to seize on othervictims. [21] Ah! Critobulus, against these must we wage ceaselesswar, for very freedom's sake, no less than if they were armed warriorsendeavouring to make us their slaves. Nay, foemen in war, it must begranted, especially when of fair and noble type, have many times ere nowproved benefactors to those they have enslaved. By dint of chastening, they have forced the vanquished to become better men and to lead moretranquil lives in future. [22] But these despotic queens never cease toplague and torment their victims in body and soul and substance untiltheir sway is ended. 

 [21] "To use others as their slaves. "

 [22] Lit. "Enemies for the matter of that, when, being beautiful and good, they chance to have enslaved some other, have ere now in many an instance chastened and compelled the vanquished to be better and to live more easily for the rest of time. "

II

The conversation was resumed by Critobulus, and on this wise. He said: Ithink I take your meaning fully, Socrates, about these matters; and formyself, examining my heart, I am further satisfied, I have sufficientcontinence and self-command in those respects. So that if you will onlyadvise me on what I am to do to improve my estate, I flatter myself Ishall not be hindered by those despotic dames, as you call them. Come, do not hesitate; only tender me what good advice you can, and trust me Iwill follow it. But perhaps, Socrates, you have already passed sentenceon us--we are rich enough already, and not in need of any furtherwealth?

Soc. It is to myself rather, if I may be included in your plural "we, "that I should apply the remark. I am not in need of any further wealth, if you like. I am rich enough already, to be sure. But you, Critobulus, I look upon as singularly poor, and at times, upon my soul, I feel adownright compassion for you. 

At this view of the case, Critobulus fell to laughing outright, retorting: And pray, Socrates, what in the name of fortune do yousuppose our respective properties would fetch in the market, yours andmine?

If I could find a good purchaser (he answered), I suppose the wholeof my effects, including the house in which I live, might very fairlyrealise five minae [1] (say twenty guineas). Yours, I am positivelycertain, would fetch at the lowest more than a hundred times that sum. 

 [1] 5 x L4:1:3. See Boeckh, "P. E. A. " [Bk. I. Ch. Xx. ], p. 109 f. (Eng. Ed. )

Crit. And with this estimate of our respective fortunes, can you stillmaintain that you have no need of further wealth, but it is I who am tobe pitied for my poverty?

Soc. Yes, for my property is amply sufficient to meet my wants, whereas you, considering the parade you are fenced about with, and thereputation you must needs live up to, would be barely well off, I takeit, if what you have already were multiplied by three. 

Pray, how may that be? Critobulus asked. 

Why, first and foremost (Socrates explained), I see you are called uponto offer many costly sacrifices, failing which, I take it, neither godsnor men would tolerate you; and, in the next place, you are bound towelcome numerous foreigners as guests, and to entertain them handsomely;thirdly, you must feast your fellow-citizens and ply them with allsorts of kindness, or else be cut adrift from your supporters. [2]Furthermore, I perceive that even at present the state enjoins uponyou various large contributions, such as the rearing of studs, [3]the training of choruses, the superintendence of gymnastic schools, orconsular duties, [4] as patron of resident aliens, and so forth; whilein the event of war you will, I am aware, have further obligations laidupon you in the shape of pay [5] to carry on the triearchy, ship money, and war taxes [6] so onerous, you will find difficulty in supportingthem. Remissness in respect of any of these charges will be visited uponyou by the good citizens of Athens no less strictly than if they caughtyou stealing their own property. But worse than all, I see you fondlingthe notion that you are rich. Without a thought or care how to increaseyour revenue, your fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love, [7] as ifyou had some special license to amuse yourself.... That is why I pityand compassionate you, fearing lest some irremediable mischief overtakeyou, and you find yourself in desperate straits. As for me, if I everstood in need of anything, I am sure you know I have friends who wouldassist me. They would make some trifling contribution--trifling tothemselves, I mean--and deluge my humble living with a flood of plenty. But your friends, albeit far better off than yourself, considering yourrespective styles of living, persist in looking to you for assistance. 

 [2] See Dr. Holden ad loc. , Boeckh [Bk. Iii. Ch. Xxiii. ], p. 465 f. 

 [3] Cf. Lycurg. "c. Leocr. " 139. 

 [4] Al. "presidential duties. "

 [5] {trierarkhias [misthous]}. The commentators in general "suspect" {misthous}. See Boeckh, "P. E. A. " p. 579. 

 [6] See Boeckh, p. 470 f. ; "Revenues, " iii. 9, iv. 40. 

 [7] Or, "to childish matters, " "frivolous affairs"; but for the full import of the phrase {paidikois pragmasi} see "Ages. " viii. 2. 

Then Critobulus: I cannot gainsay what you have spoken, Socrates, itis indeed high time that you were constituted my patronus, or I shallbecome in very truth a pitiable object. 

To which appeal Socrates made answer: Why, you yourself must surely beastonished at the part you are now playing. Just now, when I said thatI was rich, you laughed at me as if I had no idea what riches were, and you were not happy till you had cross-examined me and forced me toconfess that I do not possess the hundredth part of what you have; andnow you are imploring me to be your patron, and to stint no pains tosave you from becoming absolutely and in very truth a pauper. [8]

 [8] Or, "literally beggared. "

Crit. Yes, Socrates, for I see that you are skilled in one lucrativeoperation at all events--the art of creating a surplus. I hope, therefore, that a man who can make so much out of so little will nothave the slightest difficulty in creating an ample surplus out of anabundance. 

Soc. But do not you recollect how just now in the discussion you wouldhardly let me utter a syllable [9] while you laid down the law: if a mandid not know how to handle horses, horses were not wealth to him at anyrate; nor land, nor sheep, nor money, nor anything else, if he did notknow how to use them? And yet these are the very sources of revenue fromwhich incomes are derived; and how do you expect me to know the use ofany of them who never possessed a single one of them since I was born?

 [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds, " 945; "Plut. " 17; Dem. 353; and Holden ad loc. 

Crit. Yes, but we agreed that, however little a man may be blest withwealth himself, a science of economy exists; and that being so, whathinders you from being its professor?

Soc. Nothing, to be sure, [10] except what would hinder a man fromknowing how to play the flute, supposing he had never had a flute of hisown and no one had supplied the defect by lending him one to practiseon: which is just my case with regard to economy, [11] seeing I nevermyself possessed the instrument of the science which is wealth, so as togo through the pupil stage, nor hitherto has any one proposed to handme over his to manage. You, in fact, are the first person to make sogenerous an offer. You will bear in mind, I hope, that a learner of theharp is apt to break and spoil the instrument; it is therefore probable, if I take in hand to learn the art of economy on your estate, I shallruin it outright. 

 [10] Lit. "The very thing, God help me! which would hinder... "

 [11] Lit. "the art of administering an estate. "

Critobulus retorted: I see, Socrates, you are doing your very bestto escape an irksome task: you would rather not, if you can helpit, stretch out so much as your little finger to help me to bear mynecessary burthens more easily. 

Soc. No, upon my word, I am not trying to escape: on the contrary, Ishall be ready, as far as I can, to expound the matter to you. [12] ... Still it strikes me, if you had come to me for fire, and I had none inmy house, you would not blame me for sending you where you might get it;or if you had asked me for water, and I, having none to give, had ledyou elsewhere to the object of your search, you would not, I am sure, have disapproved; or did you desire to be taught music by me, and I wereto point out to you a far more skilful teacher than myself, who wouldperhaps be grateful to you moreover for becoming his pupil, what kind ofexception could you take to my behaviour?

 [12] Or, "to play the part of {exegetes}, 'legal adviser, ' or 'spiritual director, ' to be in fact your 'guide, philosopher, and friend. '"

Crit. None, with any show of justice, Socrates. 

Soc. Well, then, my business now is, Critobulus, to point out [13] toyou some others cleverer than myself about those matters which you areso anxious to be taught by me. I do confess to you, I have made it longmy study to discover who among our fellow-citizens in this city are thegreatest adepts in the various branches of knowledge. [14] I had beenstruck with amazement, I remember, to observe on some occasion thatwhere a set of people are engaged in identical operations, half of themare in absolute indigence and the other half roll in wealth. I bethoughtme, the history of the matter was worth investigation. Accordingly I setto work investigating, and I found that it all happened very naturally. Those who carried on their affairs in a haphazard manner I saw werepunished by their losses; whilst those who kept their wits upon thestretch and paid attention I soon perceived to be rewarded by thegreater ease and profit of their undertakings. [15] It is to these Iwould recommend you to betake yourself. What say you? Learn of them: andunless the will of God oppose, [16] I venture to say you will become asclever a man of business as one might hope to see. 

 [13] Al. "to show you that there are others. "

 [14] Or, "who are gifted with the highest knowledge in their respective concerns. " Cf. "Mem. " IV. Vii. 1. 

 [15] Lit. "got on quicker, easier, and more profitably. "

 [16] Or, "short of some divine interposition. "

III

Critobulus, on hearing that, exclaimed: Be sure, Socrates, I will notlet you go now until you give the proofs which, in the presence of ourfriends, you undertook just now to give me. 

Well then, [1] Critobulus (Socrates replied), what if I begin by showing[2] you two sorts of people, the one expending large sums on money inbuilding useless houses, the other at far less cost erecting dwellingsreplete with all they need; will you admit that I have laid my fingerhere on one of the essentials of economy?

 [1] Lincke [brackets as an editorial interpolation iii. 1, {ti oun, ephe}--vi. 11, {poiomen}]. See his edition "Xenophons Dialog. {peri oikonomias} in seiner ursprunglichen Gestalt"; and for a criticism of his views, an article by Charles D. Morris, "Xenophon's Oeconomicus, " in the "American Journal of Philology, " vol. I. P. 169 foll. 

 [2] As a demonstrator. 

Crit. An essential point most certainly. 

Soc. And suppose in connection with the same, I next point out to you[3] two other sets of persons:--The first possessors of furniture ofvarious kinds, which they cannot, however, lay their hands on when theneed arises; indeed they hardly know if they have got all safe and soundor not: whereby they put themselves and their domestics to much mentaltorture. The others are perhaps less amply, or at any rate not moreamply supplied, but they have everything ready at the instant forimmediate use. 

 [3] "As in a mirror, or a picture. "

Crit. Yes, Socrates, and is not the reason simply that in the first caseeverything is thrown down where it chanced, whereas those others haveeverything arranged, each in its appointed place?

Quite right (he answered), and the phrase implies that everything isorderly arranged, not in the first chance place, but in that to which itnaturally belongs. 

Crit. Yes, the case is to the point, I think, and does involve anothereconomic principle. 

Soc. What, then, if I exhibit to you a third contrast, which bears onthe condition of domestic slaves? On the one side you shall see themfettered hard and fast, as I may say, and yet for ever breaking theirchains and running away. On the other side the slaves are loosed, andfree to move, but for all that, they choose to work, it seems; they areconstant to their masters. I think you will admit that I here point outanother function of economy [4] worth noting. 

 [4] Or, "economical result. "

Crit. I do indeed--a feature most noteworthy. 

Soc. Or take, again, the instance of two farmers engaged in cultivatingfarms [5] as like as possible. The one had never done asserting thatagriculture has been his ruin, and is in the depth of despair; the otherhas all he needs in abundance and of the best, and how acquired?--bythis same agriculture. 

 [5] {georgias}. See Hartman, "An. Xen. " p. 193. Hold. Cf. Plat. "Laws, " 806 E. Isocr. "Areop. " 32. 

Yes (Critobulus answered), to be sure; perhaps [6] the former spendsboth toil and money not simply on what he needs, but on things whichcause an injury to house alike and owner. 

 [6] Or, "like enough in the one case the money and pains are spent, " etc. 

Soc. That is a possible case, no doubt, but it is not the one that Irefer to; I mean people pretending they are farmers, and yet they havenot a penny to expend on the real needs of their business. 

Crit. And pray, what may be the reason of that, Socrates?

Soc. You shall come with me, and see these people also; and as youcontemplate the scene, I presume you will lay to heart the lesson. 

Crit. I will, if possibly I can, I promise you. 

Soc. Yes, and while you contemplate, you must make trial of yourself andsee if you have wit to understand. At present, I will bear you witnessthat if it is to go and see a party of players performing in a comedy, you will get up at cock-crow, and come trudging a long way, and ply mevolubly with reasons why I should accompany you to see the play. But youhave never once invited me to come and witness such an incident as thosewe were speaking of just now. 

Crit. And so I seem to you ridiculous? [7]

 [7] Or, "a comic character in the performance. " Soc. "Not so comic as you must appear to yourself (i. E. With your keen sense of the ludicrous). "

Soc. Far more ridiculous to yourself, I warrant. But now let me pointout to you another contrast: between certain people whose dealing withhorses has brought them to the brink of poverty, and certain others whohave found in the same pursuit the road to affluence, [8] and have aright besides to plume themselves upon their gains. [9]

 [8] Or, "who have not only attained to affluence by the same pursuit, but can hold their heads high, and may well pride themselves on their thrift. "

 [9] Cf. Hom. "Il. " xii. 114, {ippoisin kai okhesphin agallomenos}, et passim; "Hiero, " viii. 5; "Anab. " II. Vi. 26. 

Crit. Well, then, I may tell you, I see and know both characters as wellas you do; but I do not find myself a whit the more included among thosewho gain. 

Soc. Because you look at them just as you might at the actors in atragedy or comedy, and with the same intent--your object being todelight the ear and charm the eye, but not, I take it, to becomeyourself a poet. And there you are right enough, no doubt, since youhave no desire to become a playright. But, when circumstances compel youto concern yourself with horsemanship, does it not seem to you a littlefoolish not to consider how you are to escape being a mere amateur inthe matter, especially as the same creatures which are good for use areprofitable for sale?

Crit. So you wish me to set up as a breeder of young horses, [10] doyou, Socrates?

 [10] See "Horsemanship, " ii. 1. 

Soc. Not so, no more than I would recommend you to purchase lads andtrain them up from boyhood as farm-labourers. But in my opinion there isa certain happy moment of growth which must be seized, alike in manand horse, rich in present service and in future promise. In furtherillustration, I can show you how some men treat their wedded wives insuch a way that they find in them true helpmates to the joint increaseof their estate, while others treat them in a way to bring uponthemselves wholesale disaster. [11]

 [11] Reading {e os pleista}, al. {e oi pleistoi} = "to bring about disaster in most cases. "

Crit. Ought the husband or the wife to bear the blame of that?

Soc. If it goes ill with the sheep we blame the shepherd, as a rule, orif a horse shows vice we throw the blame in general upon the rider. Butin the case of women, supposing the wife to have received instructionfrom her husband and yet she delights in wrong-doing, [12] it may bethat the wife is justly held to blame; but supposing he has never triedto teach her the first principles of "fair and noble" conduct, [13] andfinds her quite an ignoramus [14] in these matters, surely the husbandwill be justly held to blame. But come now (he added), we are allfriends here; make a clean breast of it, and tell us, Critobulus, theplain unvarnished truth: Is there an one to whom you are more in thehabit of entrusting matters of importance than to your wife?

 [12] Cf. "Horsemanship, " vi. 5, of a horse "to show vice. "

 [13] Or, "things beautiful and of good report. "

 [14] Al. "has treated her as a dunce, devoid of this high knowledge. "

Crit. There is no one. 

Soc. And is there any one with whom you are less in the habit ofconversing than with your wife?

Crit. Not many, I am forced to admit. 

Soc. And when you married her she was quite young, a mere girl--atan age when, as far as seeing and hearing go, she had the smallestacquaintance with the outer world?

Crit. Certainly. 

Soc. Then would it not be more astonishing that she should have realknowledge how to speak and act than that she should go altogetherastray?

Crit. But let me ask you a question, Socrates: have those happyhusbands, you tell us of, who are blessed with good wives educated themthemselves?

Soc. There is nothing like investigation. I will introduce you toAspasia, [15] who will explain these matters to you in a far morescientific way than I can. My belief is that a good wife, being asshe is the partner in a common estate, must needs be her husband'scounterpoise and counterpart for good; since, if it is through thetransactions of the husband, as a rule, that goods of all sorts findtheir way into the house, yet it is by means of the wife's economy andthrift that the greater part of the expenditure is checked, and on thesuccessful issue or the mishandling of the same depends the increase orimpoverishment of a whole estate. And so with regard to the remainingarts and sciences, I think I can point out to you the ablest performersin each case, if you feel you have any further need of help. [16]

 [15] Aspasia. See "Mem. " II. Vi. 36. 

 [16] Al. "there are successful performers in each who will be happy to illustrate any point in which you think you need, " etc. 

IV

But why need you illustrate all the sciences, Socrates? (Critobulusasked): it would not be very easy to discover efficient craftsmen of allthe arts, and quite impossible to become skilled in all one's self. So, please, confine yourself to the nobler branches of knowledge as menregard them, such as it will best befit me to pursue with devotion; beso good as to point me out these and their performers, and, aboveall, contribute as far as in you lies the aid of your own personalinstruction. 

Soc. A good suggestion, Critobulus, for the base mechanic arts, socalled, have got a bad name; and what is more, are held in ill repute bycivilised communities, and not unreasonably; seeing they are the ruinof the bodies of all concerned in them, workers and overseers alike, whoare forced to remain in sitting postures and to hug the loom, or elseto crouch whole days confronting a furnace. Hand in hand with physicalenervation follows apace enfeeblement of soul: while the demand whichthese base mechanic arts makes on the time of those employed in themleaves them no leisure to devote to the claims of friendship and thestate. How can such folk be other than sorry friends and ill defendersof the fatherland? So much so that in some states, especially thosereputed to be warlike, no citizen [1] is allowed to exercise anymechanical craft at all. 

 [1] "In the strict sense, " e. G. The Spartiates in Sparta. See "Pol. Lac. " vii. ; Newman, op. Cit. I. 99, 103 foll. 

Crit. Then which are the arts you would counsel us to engage in?

Soc. Well, we shall not be ashamed, I hope, to imitate the kings ofPersia? [2] That monarch, it is said, regards amongst the noblestand most necessary pursuits two in particular, which are the arts ofhusbandry and war, and in these two he takes the strongest interest. 

 [2] "It won't make us blush actually to take a leaf out of the great king's book. " As to the Greek text at this point see the commentators, and also a note by Mr. H. Richers in the "Classical Review, " x. 102. 

What! (Critobulus exclaimed); do you, Socrates, really believe that theking of Persia pays a personal regard to husbandry, along with all hisother cares?

Soc. We have only to investigate the matter, Critobulus, and I daresaywe shall discover whether this is so or not. We are agreed that hetakes strong interest in military matters; since, however numerous thetributary nations, there is a governor to each, and every governorhas orders from the king what number of cavalry, archers, slingers andtargeteers [3] it is his business to support, as adequate to control thesubject population, or in case of hostile attack to defend the country. Apart from these the king keeps garrisons in all the citadels. Theactual support of these devolves upon the governor, to whom the duty isassigned. The king himself meanwhile conducts the annual inspection andreview of troops, both mercenary and other, that have orders to be underarms. These all are simultaneously assembled (with the exception ofthe garrisons of citadels) at the mustering ground, [4] so named. That portion of the army within access of the royal residence the kingreviews in person; the remainder, living in remoter districts of theempire, he inspects by proxy, sending certain trusty representatives. [5] Wherever the commandants of garrisons, the captains of thousands, and the satraps [6] are seen to have their appointed members complete, and at the same time shall present their troops equipped with horse andarms in thorough efficiency, these officers the king delights to honour, and showers gifts upon them largely. But as to those officers whom hefinds either to have neglected their garrisons, or to have made privategain of their position, these he heavily chastises, deposing them fromoffice, and appointing other superintendents [7] in their stead. Suchconduct, I think we may say, indisputably proves the interest which hetakes in matters military. 

 [3] Or, Gerrophoroi, "wicker-shield bearers. "

 [4] Or, "rendezvous"; "the 'Champ de Mars' for the nonce. " Cf. "Cyrop. " VI. Ii. 11. 

 [5] Lit. "he sends some of the faithful to inspect. " Cf. Our "trusty and well-beloved. "

 [6] See, for the system, Herod. Iii. 89 foll. ; "Cyrop. " VIII. Vi. 11. 

 [7] Or, as we say, "inspecting officers. " Cf. "Cyrop. " VIII. I. 9. 

Further than this, by means of a royal progress through the country, he has an opportunity of inspecting personally some portion of histerritory, and again of visiting the remainder in proxy as above bytrusty representatives; and wheresoever he perceives that any of hisgovernors can present to him a district thickly populated, and the soilin a state of active cultivation, full of trees and fruits, its naturalproducts, to such officers he adds other territory, adorning them withgifts and distinguishing them by seats of honour. But those officerswhose land he sees lying idle and with but few inhabitants, owing eitherto the harshness of their government, their insolence, or their neglect, he punishes, and making them to cease from their office he appointsother rulers in their place.... Does not this conduct indicate at leastas great an anxiety to promote the active cultivation of the land by itsinhabitants as to provide for its defence by military occupation? [8]

 [8] Lit. "by those who guard and garrison it. "

Moreover, the governors appointed to preside over these two departmentsof state are not one and the same. But one class governs the inhabitantsproper including the workers of the soil, and collects the tribute fromthem, another is in command of the armed garrisons. If the commandant[9] protects the country insufficiently, the civil governor of thepopulation, who is in charge also of the productive works, lodgesaccusation against the commandant to the effect that the inhabitantsare prevented working through deficiency of protection. Or if again, inspite of peace being secured to the works of the land by the militarygovernor, the civil authority still presents a territory sparse inpopulation and untilled, it is the commandant's turn to accuse thecivil ruler. For you may take it as a rule, a population tilling theirterritory badly will fail to support their garrisons and be quiteunequal to paying their tribute. Where a satrap is appointed he hascharge of both departments. [10]

 [9] Or, "garrison commandant. " Lit. "Phrourarch. "

 [10] The passage reads like a gloss. See about the Satrap, "Hell. " III. I. 10; "Cyrop. " VIII. Vi. 1; "Anab. " I. Ix. 29 foll. 

Thereupon Critobulus: Well, Socrates (said he), if such is his conduct, I admit that the great king does pay attention to agriculture no lessthan to military affairs. 

And besides all this (proceeded Socrates), nowhere among the variouscountries which he inhabits or visits does he fail to make it his firstcare that there shall be orchards and gardens, parks and "paradises, "as they are called, full of all fair and noble products which the earthbrings forth; and within these chiefly he spends his days, when theseason of the year permits. 

Crit. To be sure, Socrates, it is a natural and necessary conclusionthat when the king himself spends so large a portion of his time there, his paradises should be furnished to perfection with trees and all elsebeautiful that earth brings forth. 

Soc. And some say, Critobulus, that when the king gives gifts, hesummons in the first place those who have shown themselves bravewarriors, since all the ploughing in the world were but small gain inthe absence of those who should protect the fields; and next to thesehe summons those who have stocked their countries best and rendered themproductive, on the principle that but for the tillers of the soil thewarriors themselves could scarcely live. And there is a tale told ofCyrus, the most famous prince, I need not tell you, who ever wore acrown, [11] how on one occasion he said to those who had been calledto receive the gifts, "it were no injustice, if he himself received thegifts due to warriors and tillers of the soil alike, " for "did he notcarry off the palm in stocking the country and also in protecting thegoods with which it had been stocked?"

 [11] Lit. "the most glorious king that ever lived. " The remark would seem to apply better to Cyrus the Great. Nitsche and others regard these SS. 18, 19 as interpolated. See Schenkl ad loc. 

Crit. Which clearly shows, Socrates, if the tale be true, that this sameCyrus took as great a pride in fostering the productive energies ofhis country and stocking it with good things, as in his reputation as awarrior. 

Soc. Why, yes indeed, had Cyrus lived, I have no doubt he would haveproved the best of rulers, and in support of this belief, apart fromother testimony amply furnished by his life, witness what happened whenhe marched to do battle for the sovereignty of Persia with his brother. Not one man, it is said, [12] deserted from Cyrus to the king, butfrom the king to Cyrus tens of thousands. And this also I deem a greattestimony to a ruler's worth, that his followers follow him of their ownfree will, and when the moment of danger comes refuse to part from him. [13] Now this was the case with Cyrus. His friends not only fought theirbattles side by side with him while he lived, but when he died they toodied battling around his dead body, one and all, excepting only Ariaeus, who was absent at his post on the left wing of the army. [14] But thereis another tale of this same Cyrus in connection with Lysander, whohimself narrated it on one occasion to a friend of his in Megara. [15]

 [12] Cf. "Anab. " I. Ix. 29 foll. 

 [13] Cf. "Hiero, " xi. 12, and our author passim. 

 [14] See "Anab. " ib. 31. 

 [15] Possibly to Xenophon himself {who may have met Lysander on his way back after the events of the "Anabasis, " and implying this dialogue is concocted, since Socrates died before Xenophon returned to Athens, if he did return at that period. }

Lysander, it seems, had gone with presents sent by the Allies to Cyrus, who entertained him, and amongst other marks of courtesy showed him his"paradise" at Sardis. [16] Lysander was astonished at the beauty of thetrees within, all planted [17] at equal intervals, the long straightrows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular [18]symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about themas they paced the park. In admiration he exclaimed to Cyrus: "All thisbeauty is marvellous enough, but what astonishes me still more is thetalent of the artificer who mapped out and arranged for you the severalparts of this fair scene. " [19] Cyrus was pleased by the remark, andsaid: "Know then, Lysander, it is I who measured and arranged it all. Some of the trees, " he added, "I planted with my own hands. " ThenLysander, regarding earnestly the speaker, when he saw the beauty ofhis apparel and perceived its fragrance, the splendour [20] also of thenecklaces and armlets, and other ornaments which he wore, exclaimed:"What say you, Cyrus? did you with your own hands plant some of thesetrees?" whereat the other: "Does that surprise you, Lysander? I swearto you by Mithres, [21] when in ordinary health I never dream ofsitting down to supper without first practising some exercise of war orhusbandry in the sweat of my brow, or venturing some strife of honour, as suits my mood. " "On hearing this, " said Lysander to his friend, "Icould not help seizing him by the hand and exclaiming, 'Cyrus, you haveindeed good right to be a happy man, [22] since you are happy in being agood man. '" [23]

 [16] See "Hell. " I. V. 1. 

 [17] Reading {oi' isou pephuteumena}, or if {ta pephuteumena}, transl. "the various plants ranged. "

 [18] Cf. Dion. Hal. "de Comp. " p. 170; Cic. "de Senect. " S. 59. 

 [19] Lit. "of these" {deiktikos}, i. E. Pointing to the various beauties of the scenery. 

 [20] Reading {to kallos}. 

 [21] The Persian "Sun-God. " See "Cyrop. " VII. V. 53; Strab. Xv. 3. 13. 

 [22] Or, "fortunate. "

 [23] Or, "you are a good man, and thereby fortunate. "

V

All this I relate to you (continued Socrates) to show you that quitehigh and mighty [1] people find it hard to hold aloof from agriculture, devotion to which art would seem to be thrice blest, combining as itdoes a certain sense of luxury with the satisfaction of an improvedestate, and such a training of physical energies as shall fit a man toplay a free man's part. [2] Earth, in the first place, freely offers tothose that labour all things necessary to the life of man; and, as ifthat were not enough, makes further contribution of a thousand luxuries. [3] It is she who supplies with sweetest scent and fairest show allthings wherewith to adorn the altars and statues of the gods, or deckman's person. It is to her we owe our many delicacies of flesh or fowlor vegetable growth; [4] since with the tillage of the soil is closelylinked the art of breeding sheep and cattle, whereby we mortals mayoffer sacrifices well pleasing to the gods, and satisfy our personalneeds withal. 

 [1] Lit. "Not even the most blessed of mankind can abstain from. " See Plat. "Rep. " 344 B, "The superlatively best and well-to-do. "

 [2] Lit. "Devotion to it would seem to be at once a kind of luxury, an increase of estate, a training of the bodily parts, so that a man is able to perform all that a free man should. "

 [3] Al. "and further, to the maintenance of life she adds the sources of pleasure in life. "

 [4] Lit. "she bears these and rears those. "

And albeit she, good cateress, pours out her blessings upon us inabundance, yet she suffers not her gifts to be received effeminately, but inures her pensioners to suffer glady summer's heat and winter'scold. Those that labour with their hands, the actual delvers of thesoil, she trains in a wrestling school of her own, adding strengthto strength; whilst those others whose devotion is confined to theoverseeing eye and to studious thought, she makes more manly, rousingthem with cock-crow, and compelling them to be up and doing in manya long day's march. [5] Since, whether in city or afield, with theshifting seasons each necessary labour has its hour of performance. [6]

 [5] See "Hellenica Essays, " p. 341. 

 [6] Lit. "each most necessary operation must ever be in season. "

Or to turn to another side. Suppose it to be a man's ambition to aid hiscity as a trooper mounted on a charger of his own: why not combine therearing of horses with other stock? it is the farmer's chance. [7] Orwould your citizen serve on foot? It is husbandry that shall give himrobustness of body. Or if we turn to the toil-loving fascination of thechase, [8] here once more earth adds incitement, as well as furnishingfacility of sustenance for the dogs as by nurturing a foster brood ofwild animals. And if horses and dogs derive benefit from this art ofhusbandry, they in turn requite the boon through service rendered to thefarm. The horse carries his best of friends, the careful master, betimesto the scene of labour and devotion, and enables him to leave it late. The dog keeps off the depredations of wild animals from fruits andflocks, and creates security in the solitary place. 

 [7] Lit. "farming is best adapted to rearing horses along with other produce. "

 [8] Lit. "to labour willingly and earnestly at hunting earth helps to incite us somewhat. "

Earth, too, adds stimulus in war-time to earth's tillers; she pricksthem on to aid the country under arms, and this she does by fosteringher fruits in open field, the prize of valour for the mightiest. [9]For this also is the art athletic, this of husbandry; as thereby men arefitted to run, and hurl the spear, and leap with the best. [10]

 [9] Cf. "Hipparch, " viii. 8. 

 [10] Cf. "Hunting, " xii. 1 foll. 

This, too, is that kindliest of arts which makes requital tenfold inkind for every work of the labourer. [11] She is the sweet mistress who, with smile of welcome and outstretched hand, greets the approach of herdevoted one, seeming to say, Take from me all thy heart's desire. Sheis the generous hostess; she keeps open house for the stranger. [12] Forwhere else, save in some happy rural seat of her devising, shall a manmore cheerily cherish content in winter, with bubbling bath and blazingfire? or where, save afield, in summer rest more sweetly, lulled bybabbling streams, soft airs, and tender shades? [13]

 [11] Lit. "What art makes an ampler return for their labour to those who work for her? What art more sweetly welcomes him that is devoted to her?"

 [12] Lit. "What art welcomes the stranger with greater prodigality?"

 [13] See "Hellenica Essays, " p. 380; and as still more to the point, Cowley's Essays: "Of Agriculture, " passim. 

Her high prerogative it is to offer fitting first-fruits to high heaven, hers to furnish forth the overflowing festal board. [14] Hers is akindly presence in the household. She is the good wife's favourite, the children long for her, she waves her hand winningly to the master'sfriends. 

 [14] Or, "to appoint the festal board most bounteously. "

For myself, I marvel greatly if it has ever fallen to the lot offreeborn man to own a choicer possession, or to discover an occupationmore seductive, or of wider usefulness in life than this. 

But, furthermore, earth of her own will [15] gives lessons in justiceand uprightness to all who can understand her meaning, since thenobler the service of devotion rendered, the ampler the riches ofher recompense. [16] One day, perchance, these pupils of hers, whoseconversation in past times was in husbandry, [17] shall, by reason ofthe multitude of invading armies, be ousted from their labours. The workof their hands may indeed be snatched from them, but they were broughtup in stout and manly fashion. They stand, each one of them, in body andsoul equipped; and, save God himself shall hinder them, they will marchinto the territory of those their human hinderers, and take from themthe wherewithal to support their lives. Since often enough in war it issurer and safer to quest for food with sword and buckler than with allthe instruments of husbandry. 

 [15] Reading {thelousa}, vulg. , or if after Cobet, {theos ousa}, transl. "by sanction of her divinity. " With {thelousa} Holden aptly compares Virgil's "volentia rura, " "Georg. " ii. 500. 

 [16] "That is, her 'lex talionis. '"

 [17] "Engaged long time in husbandry. "

But there is yet another lesson to be learnt in the public shool ofhusbandry [18]--the lesson of mutual assistance. "Shoulder to shoulder"must we march to meet the invader; [19] "shoulder to shoulder" stand tocompass the tillage of the soil. Therefore it is that the husbandman, who means to win in his avocation, must see that he creates enthusiasmin his workpeople and a spirit of ready obedience; which is just what ageneral attacking an enemy will scheme to bring about, when he deals outgifts to the brave and castigation [20] to those who are disorderly. 

 [18] Lit. "But again, husbandry trains up her scholars side by side in lessons of... "

 [19] {sun anthropois}, "man with his fellow-man, " is the "mot d'order" (cf. The author's favourite {sun theois}); "united human effort. "

 [20] "Lashes, " "punishment. " Cf. "Anab. " II. Vi. 10, of Clearchus. 

Nor will there be lacking seasons of exhortation, the general haranguinghis troops and the husbandman his labourers; nor because they are slavesdo they less than free men need the lure of hope and happy expectation, [21] that they may willingly stand to their posts. 

 [21] "The lure of happy prospects. " See "Horsemanship, " iii. 1. 

It was an excellent saying of his who named husbandry "the mother andnurse of all the arts, " for while agriculture prospers all other artslike are vigorous and strong, but where the land is forced to remaindesert, [22] the spring that feeds the other arts is dried up; theydwindle, I had almost said, one and all, by land and sea. 

 [22] Or, "lie waste and barren as the blown sea-sand. "

These utterances drew from Critobulus a comment:

Socrates (he said), for my part I agree with all you say; only, one mustface the fact that in agriculture nine matters out of ten are beyondman's calculation. Since at one time hailstones and another frost, atanother drought or a deluge of rain, or mildew, or other pest, willobliterate all the fair creations and designs of men; or behold, hisfleecy flocks most fairly nurtured, then comes murrain, and the end mostfoul destruction. [23]

 [23] See Virg. "Georg. " iii. 441 foll. : "Turpis oves tentat scabies, ubi frigidus imber. "

To which Socrates: Nay, I thought, Critobulus, you full surely wereaware that the operations of husbandry, no less than those of war, liein the hands of the gods. I am sure you will have noted the behaviour ofmen engaged in war; how on the verge of military operations they striveto win the acceptance of the divine powers; [24] how eagerly they assailthe ears of heaven, and by dint of sacrifices and omens seek to discoverwhat they should and what they should not do. So likewise as regardsthe processes of husbandry, think you the propitiation of heaven is lessneeded here? Be well assured (he added) the wise and prudent will payservice to the gods on behalf of moist fruits and dry, [25] on behalfof cattle and horses, sheep and goats; nay, on behalf of all theirpossessions, great and small, without exception. 

 [24] See "Hell. " III. I. 16 foll. , of Dercylidas. 

 [25] "Every kind of produce, succulent (like the grape and olive) or dry (like wheat and barley, etc. )"

VI

Your words (Critobulus answered) command my entire sympathy, when youbid us endeavour to begin each work with heaven's help, [1] seeing thatthe gods hold in their hands the issues alike of peace and war. Soat any rate will we endeavour to act at all times; but will you nowendeavour on your side to continue the discussion of economy fromthe point at which you broke off, and bring it point by point to itsconclusion? What you have said so far has not been thrown away on me. I seem to discern already more clearly, what sort of behaviour isnecessary to anything like real living. [2]

 [1] Lit. "with the gods, " and for the sentiment see below, x. 10; "Cyrop. " III. I. 15; "Hipparch, " ix. 3. 

 [2] For {bioteuein} cf. Pind. "Nem. " iv. 11, and see Holden ad loc. 

Socrates replied: What say you then? Shall we first survey the groundalready traversed, and retrace the steps on which we were agreed, sothat, if possible we may conduct the remaining portion of the argumentto its issue with like unanimity? [3]

 [3] Lit. "try whether we can go through the remaining steps with like... "

Crit. Why, yes! If it is agreeable for two partners in a business torun through their accounts without dispute, so now as partners inan argument it will be no less agreeable to sum up the points underdiscussion, as you say, with unanimity. 

Soc. Well, then, we agreed that economy was the proper title of a branchof knowledge, and this branch of knowledge appeared to be that wherebymen are enabled to enhance the value of their houses or estates; andby this word "house or estate" we understood the whole of a man'spossessions; and "possessions" again we defined to include those thingswhich the possessor should find advantageous for the purposes of hislife; and things advantageous finally were discovered to mean all thata man knows how to use and turn to good account. Further, for a man tolearn all branches of knowledge not only seemed to us an impossibility, but we thought we might well follow the example of civil communitiesin rejecting the base mechanic arts so called, on the ground that theydestroy the bodies of the artisans, as far as we can see, and crushtheir spirits. 

The clearest proof of this, we said, [4] could be discovered if, on theoccasion of a hostile inroad, one were to seat the husbandmen and theartisans apart in two divisions, and then proceed to put this questionto each group in turn: "Do you think it better to defend our countrydistricts or to retire from the fields [5] and guard the walls?" And weanticipated that those concerned with the soil would vote to defendthe soil; while the artisans would vote not to fight, but, in docileobedience to their training, to sit with folded hands, neither expendingtoil nor venturing their lives. 

 [4] This S. 6 has no parallel supra. See Breit. And Schenkl ad loc. For attempts to cure the text. 

 [5] See Cobet, "N. L. " 580, reading {uphemenous}, or if {aphemenous} transl. "to abandon. "

Next we held it as proved that there was no better employment for agentleman--we described him as a man beautiful and good--than this ofhusbandry, by which human beings procure to themselves the necessariesof life. This same employment, moreover, was, as we agreed, at once theeasiest to learn [6] and the pleasantest to follow, since it givesto the limbs beauty and hardihood, whilst permitting [7] to the soulleisure to satisfy the claims of friendship and of civic duty. 

 [6] {raste mathein}. Vide infra, not supra. 

 [7] Lit. "least allowing the soul no leisure to care for friends and state withal. "

Again it seemed to us that husbandry acts as a spur to bravery in thehearts of those that till the fields, [8] inasmuch as the necessaries oflife, vegetable and animal, under her auspices spring up and are rearedoutside the fortified defences of the city. For which reason also thisway of life stood in the highest repute in the eyes of statesmen andcommonwealths, as furnishing the best citizens and those best disposedto the common weal. [9]

 [8] Cf. Aristot. "Oec. " I. Ii. 1343 B, {pros toutois k. T. L. }

 [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Archarnians. "

Crit. I think I am fully persuaded as to the propriety of makingagriculture the basis of life. I see it is altogether noblest, best, andpleasantest to do so. But I should like to revert to your remark thatyou understood the reason why the tillage of one man brings him in anabundance of all he needs, while the operations of another fail tomake husbandry a profitable employment. I would gladly hear from youan explanation of both these points, so that I may adopt the right andavoid the harmful course. [10]

 [10] Lincke conceives the editor's interpolation as ending here. 

Soc. Well, Critobulus, suppose I narrate to you from the beginning howI cam in contact with a man who of all men I ever met seemed to me todeserve the appellation of a gentleman. He was indeed a "beautiful andgood" man. [11]

 [11] Or, "a man 'beautiful and good, ' as the phrase goes. "

Crit. There is nothing I should better like to hear, since of all titlesthis is the one I covet most the right to bear. 

Soc. Well, then, I will tell you how I came to subject him to myinquiry. It did not take me long to go the round of various goodcarpenters, good bronze-workers, painters, sculptors, and so forth. Abrief period was sufficient for the contemplation of themselves and oftheir most admired works of art. But when it came to examining those whobore the high-sounding title "beautiful and good, " in order to find outwhat conduct on their part justified their adoption of this title, Ifound my soul eager with desire for intercourse with one of them; andfirst of all, seeing that the epithet "beautiful" was conjoined withthat of "good, " every beautiful person I saw, I must needs approachin my endeavour to discover, [12] if haply I might somewhere see thequality of good adhering to the quality of beauty. But, after all, itwas otherwise ordained. I soon enough seemed to discover [13] that someof those who in their outward form were beautiful were in their inmostselves the veriest knaves. Accordingly I made up my mind to let gobeauty which appeals to the eye, and address myself to one ofthose "beautiful and good" people so entitled. And since I heard ofIschomachus [14] as one who was so called by all the world, both men andwomen, strangers and citizens alike, I set myself to make acquaintancewith him. 

 [12] Or, "and try to understand. "

 [13] Or, "understand. "

 [14] See Cobet, "Pros. Xen. " s. N. 

VII

It chanced, one day I saw him seated in the portico of Zeus Eleutherios, [1] and as he appeared to be at leisure, I went up to him and, sittingdown by his side, accosted him: How is this, Ischomachus? you seatedhere, you who are so little wont to be at leisure? As a rule, when Isee you, you are doing something, or at any rate not sitting idle in themarket-place. 

 [1] "The god of freedom, or of freed men. " See Plat. "Theag. " 259 A. The scholiast on Aristoph. "Plutus" 1176 identifies the god with Zeus Soter. See Plut. "Dem. " 859 (Clough, v. 30). 

Nor would you see me now so sitting, Socrates (he answered), but that Ipromised to meet some strangers, friends of mine, [2] at this place. 

 [2] "Foreign friends. "

And when you have no such business on hand (I said) where in heaven'sname do you spend your time and how do you employ yourself? I willnot conceal from you how anxious I am to learn from your lips by whatconduct you have earned for yourself the title "beautiful and good. " [3]It is not by spending your days indoors at home, I am sure; the wholehabit of your body bears witness to a different sort of life. 

 [3] "The sobriquet of 'honest gentleman. '"

Then Ischomachus, smiling at my question, but also, as it seemed tome, a little pleased to be asked what he had done to earn the title"beautiful and good, " made answer: Whether that is the title by whichfolk call me when they talk to you about me, I cannot say; all I knowis, when they challenge me to exchange properties, [4] or else toperform some service to the state instead of them, the fitting out ofa trireme, or the training of a chorus, nobody thinks of asking for thebeautiful and good gentleman, but it is plain Ischomachus, the sonof So-and-so, [5] on whom the summons is served. But to answer yourquestion, Socrates (he proceeded), I certainly do not spend my daysindoors, if for no other reason, because my wife is quite capable ofmanaging our domestic affairs without my aid. 

 [4] On the antidosis or compulsory exchange of property, see Boeckh, p. 580, Engl. Ed. : "In case any man, upon whom a {leitourgia} was imposed, considered that another was richer than himself, and therefore most justly chargeable with the burden, he might challenge the other to assume the burden, or to make with him an {antidosis} or exchange of property. Such a challenge, if declined, was converted into a lawsuit, or came before a heliastic court for trial. " Gow, "Companion, " xviii. "Athenian Finance. " See Dem. "Against Midias, " 565, Kennedy, p. 117, and Appendix II. For the various liturgies, Trierarchy, Choregy, etc. , see "Pol. Ath. " i. 13 foll. 

 [5] Or, "the son of his father, " it being customary at Athens to add the patronymic, e. G. Xenophon son of Gryllus, Thucydides son of Olorus, etc. See Herod. Vi. 14, viii. 90. In official acts the name of the deme was added, eg. Demosthenes son of Demosthenes of Paiane; or of the tribe, at times. Cf. Thuc. Viii. 69; Plat. "Laws, " vi. P. 753 B. 

Ah! (said I), Ischomachus, that is just what I should like particularlyto learn from you. Did you yourself educate your wife to be all that awife should be, or when you received her from her father and motherwas she already a proficient well skilled to discharge the dutiesappropriate to a wife?

Well skilled! (he replied). What proficiency was she likely to bringwith her, when she was not quite fifteen [6] at the time she wedded me, and during the whole prior period of her life had been most carefullybrought up [7] to see and hear as little as possible, and to ask [8]the fewest questions? or do you not think one should be satisfied, if atmarriage her whole experience consisted in knowing how to take the wooland make a dress, and seeing how her mother's handmaidens had theirdaily spinning-tasks assigned them? For (he added), as regards controlof appetite and self-indulgence, [9] she had received the soundesteducation, and that I take to be the most important matter in thebringing-up of man or woman. 

 [6] See Aristot. "Pol. " vii. 16. 1335(a). See Newman, op. Cit. I. 170 foll. 

 [7] Or, "surveillance. " See "Pol. Lac. " i. 3. 

 [8] Reading {eroito}; or if with Sauppe after Cobet, {eroin}, transl. "talk as little as possible. "

 [9] Al. "in reference to culinary matters. " See Mahaffy, "Social Life in Greece, " p. 276. 

Then all else (said I) you taught your wife yourself, Ischomachus, untilyou had made her capable of attending carefully to her appointed duties?

That did I not (replied he) until I had offered sacrifice, and prayedthat I might teach and she might learn all that could conduce to thehappiness of us twain. 

Soc. And did your wife join in sacrifice and prayer to that effect?

Isch. Most certainly, with many a vow registered to heaven to becomeall she ought to be; and her whole manner showed that she would not beneglectful of what was taught her. [10]

 [10] Or, "giving plain proof that, if the teaching failed, it should not be from want of due attention on her part. " See "Hellenica Essays, " "Xenophon, " p. 356 foll. 

Soc. Pray narrate to me, Ischomachus, I beg of you, what you firstessayed to teach her. To hear that story would please me more than anydescription of the most splendid gymnastic contest or horse-race youcould give me. 

Why, Socrates (he answered), when after a time she had become accustomedto my hand, that is, was tamed [11] sufficiently to play her part ina discussion, I put to her this question: "Did it ever strike you toconsider, dear wife, [12] what led me to choose you as my wife amongall women, and your parents to entrust you to me of all men? It wascertainly not from any difficulty that might beset either of us to findanother bedfellow. That I am sure is evident to you. No! it was withdeliberate intent to discover, I for myself and your parents in behalfof you, the best partner of house and children we could find, that Isought you out, and your parents, acting to the best of their ability, made choice of me. If at some future time God grant us to have childrenborn to us, we will take counsel together how best to bring them up, forthat too will be a common interest, [13] and a common blessing if haplythey shall live to fight our battles and we find in them hereaftersupport and succour when ourselves are old. [14] But at present there isour house here, which belongs like to both. It is common property, forall that I possess goes by my will into the common fund, and in the sameway all that you deposited [15] was placed by you to the common fund. [16] We need not stop to calculate in figures which of us contributedmost, but rather let us lay to heart this fact that whichever of usproves the better partner, he or she at once contributes what is mostworth having. "

 [11] (The timid, fawn-like creature. ) See Lecky, "Hist. Of Eur. Morals, " ii. 305. For the metaphor cf. Dem. "Olynth. " iii. 37. 9. 

 [12] Lit. "woman. " Cf. N. T. {gunai}, St. John ii. 4; xix. 26. 

 [13] Or, "our interests will centre in them; it will be a blessing we share in common to train them that they shall fight our battles, and... "

 [14] Cf. "Mem. " II. Ii. 13. Holden cf. Soph. "Ajax. " 567; Eur. "Suppl. " 918. 

 [15] Or reading {epenegke} with Cobet, "brought with you in the way of dowry. "

 [16] Or, "to the joint estate. "

Thus I addressed her, Socrates, and thus my wife made answer: "But howcan I assist you? what is my ability? Nay, everything depends on you. Mybusiness, my mother told me, was to be sober-minded!" [17]

 [17] "Modest and temperate, " and (below) "temperance. "

"Most true, my wife, " I replied, "and that is what my father said to me. But what is the proof of sober-mindedness in man or woman? Is it not soto behave that what they have of good may ever be at its best, and thatnew treasures from the same source of beauty and righteousness may bemost amply added?"

"But what is there that I can do, " my wife inquired, "which will help toincrease our joint estate?"

"Assuredly, " I answered, "you may strive to do as well as possible whatHeaven has given you a natural gift for and which the law approves. "

"And what may these things be?" she asked. 

"To my mind they are not the things of least importance, " I replied, "unless the things which the queen bee in her hive presides over are ofslight importance to the bee community; for the gods" (so Ischomachusassured me, he continued), "the gods, my wife, would seem to haveexercised much care and judgment in compacting that twin system whichgoes by the name of male and female, so as to secure the greatestpossible advantage [18] to the pair. Since no doubt the underlyingprinciple of the bond is first and foremost to perpetuate throughprocreation the races of living creatures; [19] and next, as the outcomeof this bond, for human beings at any rate, a provision is made by whichthey may have sons and daughters to support them in old age. 

 [18] Reading {oti}, or if with Br. {eti... Auto}, "with the further intent it should prove of maximum advantage to itself. "

 [19] Cf. (Aristot. ) "Oecon. " i. 3. 

"And again, the way of life of human beings, not being maintainedlike that of cattle [20] in the open air, obviously demands roofedhomesteads. But if these same human beings are to have anything to bringin under cover, some one to carry out these labours of the field underhigh heaven [21] must be found them, since such operations as thebreaking up of fallow with the plough, the sowing of seed, the plantingof trees, the pasturing and herding of flocks, are one and all open-airemployments on which the supply of products necessary to life depends. 

 [20] "And the beast of the field. "

 [21] "Sub dis, " "in the open air. "

"As soon as these products of the field are safely housed and undercover, new needs arise. There must be some one to guard the store andsome one to perform such necessary operations as imply the need ofshelter. [22] Shelter, for instance, is needed for the rearing of infantchildren; shelter is needed for the various processes of converting thefruits of earth into food, and in like manner for the fabrication ofclothing out of wool. 

 [22] Or, "works which call for shelter. "

"But whereas both of these, the indoor and the outdoor occupationsalike, demand new toil and new attention, to meet the case, " I added, "God made provision [23] from the first by shaping, as it seems to me, the woman's nature for indoor and the man's for outdoor occupations. Man's body and soul He furnished with a greater capacity for enduringheat and cold, wayfaring and military marches; or, to repeat, He laidupon his shoulders the outdoor works. 

 [23] "Straightway from the moment of birth provided. " Cf. (Aristot. ) "Oecon. " i. 3, a work based upon or at any rate following the lines of Xenophon's treatise. 

"While in creating the body of woman with less capacity for thesethings, " I continued, "God would seem to have imposed on her the indoorworks; and knowing that He had implanted in the woman and imposed uponher the nurture of new-born babies, He endowed her with a larger shareof affection for the new-born child than He bestowed upon man. [24] Andsince He imposed on woman the guardianship of the things imported fromwithout, God, in His wisdom, perceiving that a fearful spirit was nodetriment to guardianship, [25] endowed the woman with a larger measureof timidity than He bestowed on man. Knowing further that he to whom theoutdoor works belonged would need to defend them against malign attack, He endowed the man in turn with a larger share of courage. 

 [24] {edasato}, "Cyrop. " IV. Ii. 43. 

 [25] Cf. "Hipparch, " vii. 7; Aristot. "Pol. " iii. 2; "Oecon. " iii. 

"And seeing that both alike feel the need of giving and receiving, Heset down memory and carefulness between them for their common use, [26]so that you would find it hard to determine which of the two, the maleor the female, has the larger share of these. So, too, God set downbetween them for their common use the gift of self-control, whereneeded, adding only to that one of the twain, whether man or woman, which should prove the better, the power to be rewarded with a largershare of this perfection. And for the very reason that their naturesare not alike adapted to like ends, they stand in greater need of oneanother; and the married couple is made more useful to itself, the onefulfilling what the other lacks. [27]

 [26] Or, "He bestowed memory and carefulness as the common heritage of both. "

 [27] Or, "the pair discovers the advantage of duality; the one being strong wherein the other is defective. "

"Now, being well aware of this, my wife, " I added, "and knowing wellwhat things are laid upon us twain by God Himself, must we not strive toperform, each in the best way possible, our respective duties? Law, too, gives her consent--law and the usage of mankind, by sanctioning thewedlock of man and wife; and just as God ordained them to be partners intheir children, so the law establishes their common ownership of houseand estate. Custom, moreover, proclaims as beautiful those excellencesof man and woman with which God gifted them at birth. [28] Thus fora woman to bide tranquilly at home rather than roam aborad is nodishonour; but for a man to remain indoors, instead of devoting himselfto outdoor pursuits, is a thing discreditable. But if a man does thingscontrary to the nature given him by God, the chances are, [29] suchinsubordination escapes not the eye of Heaven: he pays the penalty, whether of neglecting his own works, or of performing those appropriateto woman. " [30]

 [28] Or, "with approving fingers stamps as noble those diverse faculties, those superiorities in either sex which God created in them. Thus for the woman to remain indoors is nobler than to gad about abroad. " {ta kala... ; kallion... Aiskhion... }-- These words, which their significant Hellenic connotation, suffer cruelly in translation. 

 [29] Or, "maybe in some respect this violation of the order of things, this lack of discipline on his part. " Cf. "Cyrop. " VII. Ii. 6. 

 [30] Or, "the works of his wife. " For the sentiment cf. Soph. "Oed. Col. " 337 foll. ; Herod. Ii. 35. 

I added: "Just such works, if I mistake not, that same queen-bee wespoke of labours hard to perform, like yours, my wife, enjoined upon herby God Himself. "

"And what sort of works are these?" she asked; "what has the queen-beeto do that she seems so like myself, or I like her in what I have todo?"

"Why, " I answered, "she too stays in the hive and suffers not the otherbees to idle. Those whose duty it is to work outside she sends forthto their labours; and all that each of them brings in, she notes andreceives and stores against the day of need; but when the season foruse has come, she distributes a just share to each. Again, it is she whopresides over the fabric of choicely-woven cells within. She looks to itthat warp and woof are wrought with speed and beauty. Under her guardianeye the brood of young [31] is nursed and reared; but when the days ofrearing are past and the young bees are ripe for work, she sends themout as colonists with one of the seed royal [32] to be their leader. "

 [31] Or, "the growing progeny is reared to maturity. "

 [32] Or, "royal lineage, " reading {ton epigonon} (emend. H. Estienne); or if the vulg. {ton epomenon}, "with some leader of the host" (lit. Of his followers). So Breitenbach. 

"Shall I then have to do these things?" asked my wife. 

"Yes, " I answered, "you will need in the same way to stay indoors, despatching to their toils without those of your domestics whose worklies there. Over those whose appointed tasks are wrought indoors, itwill be your duty to preside; yours to receive the stuffs brought in;yours to apportion part for daily use, and yours to make provision forthe rest, to guard and garner it so that the outgoings destined fora year may not be expended in a month. It will be your duty, when thewools are introduced, to see that clothing is made for those whoneed; your duty also to see that the dried corn is rendered fit andserviceable for food. 

"There is just one of all these occupations which devolve upon you, " Iadded, "you may not find so altogether pleasing. Should any one of ourhousehold fall sick, it will be your care to see and tend them to therecovery of their health. "

"Nay, " she answered, "that will be my pleasantest of tasks, if carefulnursing may touch the springs of gratitude and leave them friendlierthan before. "

And I (continued Ischomachus) was struck with admiration at her answer, and replied: "Think you, my wife, it is through some such traits offorethought seen in their mistress-leader that the hearts of bees arewon, and they are so loyally affectioned towards her that, if ever sheabandon her hive, not one of them will dream of being left behind; [33]but one and all must follow her. "

 [33] Al. "will suffer her to be forsaken. "

And my wife made answer to me: "It would much astonish me (said she) didnot these leader's works, you speak of, point to you rather than myself. Methinks mine would be a pretty [34] guardianship and distribution ofthings indoors without your provident care to see that the importationsfrom without were duly made. "

 [34] Or, "ridiculous. "

"Just so, " I answered, "and mine would be a pretty [35] importation ifthere were no one to guard what I imported. Do you not see, " I added, "how pitiful is the case of those unfortunates who pour water in theirsieves for ever, as the story goes, [36] and labour but in vain?"

 [35] "As laughable an importation. "

 [36] Or, "how pitiful their case, condemned, as the saying goes, to pour water into a sieve. " Lit. "filling a bucket bored with holes. " Cf. Aristot. "Oec. " i. 6; and for the Danaids, see Ovid. "Met. " iv. 462; Hor. "Carm. " iii. 11. 25; Lucr. Iii. 937; Plaut. "Pseud. " 369. Cp. Coleridge:

 Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve, And hope without an object cannot live. 

"Pitiful enough, poor souls, " she answered, "if that is what they do. "

"But there are other cares, you know, and occupations, " I answered, "which are yours by right, and these you will find agreeable. This, forinstance, to take some maiden who knows naught of carding wool and tomake her proficient in the art, doubling her usefulness; or to receiveanother quite ignorant of housekeeping or of service, and to render herskilful, loyal, serviceable, till she is worth her weight in gold; oragain, when occasion serves, you have it in your power to requite bykindness the well-behaved whose presence is a blessing to your house; ormaybe to chasten the bad character, should such an one appear. But thegreatest joy of all will be to prove yourself my better; to make me yourfaithful follower; knowing no dread lest as the years advance you shoulddecline in honour in your household, but rather trusting that, thoughyour hair turn gray, yet, in proportion as you come to be a betterhelpmate to myself and to the children, a better guardian of our home, so will your honour increase throughout the household as mistress, wife, and mother, daily more dearly prized. Since, " I added, "it is notthrough excellence of outward form, [37] but by reason of the lustreof virtues shed forth upon the life of man, that increase is given tothings beautiful and good. " [38]

 [37] "By reason of the flower on the damask cheek. "

 [38] Al. "For growth is added to things 'beautiful and good, ' not through the bloom of youth but virtuous perfections, an increase coextensive with the life of man. " See Breit. Ad loc. 

That, Socrates, or something like that, as far as I may trust my memory, records the earliest conversation which I held with her. 

VIII

And did you happen to observe, Ischomachus (I asked), whether, asthe result of what was said, your wife was stirred at all to greatercarefulness?

Yes, certainly (Ischomachus answered), and I remember how piqued she wasat one time and how deeply she blushed, when I chanced to ask her forsomething which had been brought into the house, and she could not giveit me. So I, when I saw her annoyance, fell to consoling her. "Do not beat all disheartened, my wife, that you cannot give me what I ask for. Itis plain poverty, [1] no doubt, to need a thing and not to have theuse of it. But as wants go, to look for something which I cannot lay myhands upon is a less painful form of indigence than never to dream oflooking because I know full well that the thing exists not. Anyhow, youare not to blame for this, " I added; "mine the fault was who handed overto your care the things without assigning them their places. Had I doneso, you would have known not only where to put but where to find them. [2] After all, my wife, there is nothing in human life so serviceable, nought so beautiful as order. [3]

 [1] "Vetus proverbium, " Cic. Ap. Columellam, xii. 2, 3; Nobbe, 236, fr. 6. 

 [2] Lit. "so that you might know not only where to put, " etc. 

 [3] Or, "order and arrangement. " So Cic. Ap. Col. Xii. 2, 4, "dispositione atque ordine. "

"For instance, what is a chorus?--a band composed of human beings, who dance and sing; but suppose the company proceed to act as eachmay chance--confusion follows; the spectacle has lost its charm. Howdifferent when each and all together act and recite [4] with orderlyprecision, the limbs and voices keeping time and tune. Then, indeed, these same performers are worth seeing and worth hearing. 

 [4] Or, "declaim, " {phtheggontai}, properly of the "recitative" of the chorus. Cf. Plat. "Phaedr. " 238 D. 

"So, too, an army, " I said, "my wife, an army destitute of order isconfusion worse confounded: to enemies an easy prey, courting attack; tofriends a bitter spectacle of wasted power; [5] a mingled mob of asses, heavy infantry, and baggage-bearers, light infantry, cavalry, andwaggons. Now, suppose they are on the march; how are they to get along?In this condition everybody will be a hindrance to everybody: 'slowmarch' side by side with 'double quick, ' 'quick march' at cross purposeswith 'stand at ease'; waggons blocking cavalry and asses foulingwaggons; baggage-bearers and hoplites jostling together: the whole ahopeless jumble. And when it comes to fighting, such an army is notprecisely in condition to deliver battle. The troops who are compelledto retreat before the enemy's advance [6] are fully capable of tramplingdown the heavy infantry detachments in reserve. [7]

 [5] Reading {agleukestaton}, or, if with Breit, {akleestaton}, "a most inglorious spectacle of extreme unprofitableness. "

 [6] Or, "whose duty (or necessity) it is to retire before an attack, " i. E. The skirmishers. Al. "those who have to retreat, " i. E. The non-combatants. 

 [7] Al. "are quite capable of trampling down the troops behind in their retreat. " {tous opla ekhontas} = "the troops proper, " "heavy infantry. "

"How different is an army well organised in battle order: a splendidsight for friendly eyes to gaze at, albeit an eyesore to the enemy. Forwho, being of their party, but will feel a thrill of satisfaction as hewatches the serried masses of heavy infantry moving onwards in unbrokenorder? who but will gaze with wonderment as the squadrons of the cavalrydash past him at the gallop? And what of the foeman? will not his heartsink within him to see the orderly arrangements of the different arms:[8] here heavy infantry and cavalry, and there again light infantry, there archers and there slingers, following each their leaders, withorderly precision. As they tramp onwards thus in order, though theynumber many myriads, yet even so they move on and on in quiet progress, stepping like one man, and the place just vacated in front is filled upon the instant from the rear. 

 [8] "Different styles of troops drawn up in separate divisions: hoplites, cavalry, and peltasts, archers, and slingers. "

"Or picture a trireme, crammed choke-full of mariners; for what reasonis she so terror-striking an object to her enemies, and a sight sogladsome to the eyes of friends? is it not that the gallant ship sailsso swiftly? And why is it that, for all their crowding, the ship'scompany [9] cause each other no distress? Simply that there, as you maysee them, they sit in order; in order bend to the oar; in order recoverthe stroke; in order step on board; in order disembark. But disorderis, it seems to me, precisely as though a man who is a husbandman shouldstow away [10] together in one place wheat and barley and pulse, andby and by when he has need of barley meal, or wheaten flour, or somecondiment of pulse, [11] then he must pick and choose instead of layinghis hand on each thing separately sorted for use. 

 [9] See Thuc. Iii. 77. 2. 

 [10] "Should shoot into one place. "

 [11] "Vegetable stock, " "kitchen. " See Holden ad loc. , and Prof. Mahaffy, "Old Greek Life, " p. 31. 

"And so with you too, my wife, if you would avoid this confusion, if youwould fain know how to administer our goods, so as to lay your fingerreadily on this or that as you may need, or if I ask you for anything, graciously to give it me: let us, I say, select and assign [12] theappropriate place for each set of things. This shall be the place wherewe will put the things; and we will instruct the housekeeper that she isto take them out thence, and mind to put them back again there; andin this way we shall know whether they are safe or not. If anything isgone, the gaping space will cry out as if it asked for something back. [13] The mere look and aspect of things will argue what wants mending;[14] and the fact of knowing where each thing is will be like having itput into one's hand at once to use without further trouble or debate. "

 [12] {dokimasometha}, "we will write over each in turn, as it were, 'examined and approved. '"

 [13] Lit. "will miss the thing that is not. "

 [14] "Detect what needs attention. "

I must tell you, Socrates, what strikes me as the finest and mostaccurate arrangement of goods and furniture it was ever my fortune toset eyes on; when I went as a sightseer on board the great Phoenicianmerchantman, [15] and beheld an endless quantity of goods and gear ofall sorts, all separately packed and stowed away within the smallestcompass. [16] I need scarce remind you (he said, continuing hisnarrative) what a vast amount of wooden spars and cables [17] a shipdepends on in order to get to moorings; or again, in putting out to sea;[18] you know the host of sails and cordage, rigging [19] as they callit, she requires for sailing; the quantity of engines and machinery ofall sorts she is armed with in case she should encounter any hostilecraft; the infinitude of arms she carries, with her crew of fighting menaboard. Then all the vessels and utensils, such as people use at home onland, required for the different messes, form a portion of thefreight; and besides all this, the hold is heavy laden with a mass ofmerchandise, the cargo proper, which the master carries with him for thesake of traffic. 

 [15] See Lucian, lxvi. "The Ship, " ad in. (translated by S. T. Irwin). 

 [16] Lit. "in the tiniest receptacle. "

 [17] See Holden ad loc. Re {xelina, plekta, kremasta}. 

 [18] "In weighing anchor. "

 [19] "Suspended tackle" (as opposed to wooden spars and masts, etc. )

Well, all these different things that I have named lay packed there in aspace but little larger than a fair-sized dining-room. [20] The severalsorts, moreover, as I noticed, lay so well arranged, there could be noentanglement of one with other, nor were searchers needed; [21] and ifall were snugly stowed, all were alike get-at-able, [22] much to theavoidance of delay if anything were wanted on the instant. 

 [20] Lit. "a symmetrically-shaped dining-room, made to hold ten couches. "

 [21] Lit. "a searcher"; "an inquisitor. " Cf. Shakesp. "Rom. And Jul. " V. Ii. 8. 

 [22] Lit. "not the reverse of easy to unpack, so as to cause a waste of time and waiting. "

Then the pilot's mate [23]--"the look-out man at the prow, " to give himhis proper title--was, I found, so well acquainted with the place foreverything that, even off the ship, [24] he could tell you where eachset of things was laid and how many there were of each, just as wellas any one who knows his alphabet [25] could tell you how many lettersthere are in Socrates and the order in which they stand. 

 [23] Cf. "Pol. Ath. " i. 1; Aristoph. "Knights, " 543 foll. 

 [24] Or, "with his eyes shut, at a distance he could say exactly. "

 [25] Or, "how to spell. " See "Mem. " IV. Iv. 7; Plat. "Alc. " i. 113 A. 

I saw this same man (continued Ischomachus) examining at leisure [26]everything which could possibly [27] be needful for the service of theship. His inspection caused me such surprise, I asked him what he wasdoing, whereupon he answered, "I am inspecting, stranger, " [28] "justconsidering, " says he, "the way the things are lying aboard the ship; incase of accidents, you know, to see if anything is missing, or not lyingsnug and shipshape. [29] There is no time left, you know, " he added, "when God makes a tempest in the great deep, to set about searchingfor what you want, or to be giving out anything which is not snug andshipshape in its place. God threatens and chastises sluggards. [30] Ifonly He destroy not innocent with guilty, a man may be content; [31]or if He turn and save all hands aboard that render right good service, [32] thanks be to Heaven. " [33]

 [26] "Apparently when he had nothing better to do"; "by way of amusement. "

 [27] {ara}, "as if he were asking himself, 'Would this or this possibly be wanted for the ship's service?'"

 [28] "Sir. "

 [29] Or, "things not lying handy in their places. "

 [30] Or, "them that are slack. " Cf. "Anab. " V. Viii. 15; "Mem. " IV. Ii. 40; Plat. "Gorg. " 488 A: "The dolt and good-for-nothing. "

 [31] "One must not grumble. "

 [32] "The whole ship's crew right nobly serving. " {uperetein} = "to serve at the oar" (metaphorically = to do service to heaven). 

 [33] Lit. "great thanks be to the gods. "

So spoke the pilot's mate; and I, with this carefulness of stowage stillbefore my eyes, proceeded to enforce my thesis:

"Stupid in all conscience would it be on our parts, my wife, if thosewho sail the sea in ships, that are but small things, can discover spaceand place for everything; can, moreover, in spite of violent tossings upand down, keep order, and, even while their hearts are failing them forfear, find everything they need to hand; whilst we, with all our amplestorerooms [34] diversely disposed for divers objects in our mansion, an edifice firmly based [35] on solid ground, fail to discover fair andfitting places, easy of access for our several goods! Would not thatargue great lack of understanding in our two selves? Well then! how gooda thing it is to have a fixed and orderly arrangement of all furnitureand gear; how easy also in a dwelling-house to find a place for everysort of goods, in which to stow them as shall suit each best--needs nofurther comment. Rather let me harp upon the string of beauty--image afair scene: the boots and shoes and sandals, and so forth, all laid inorder row upon row; the cloaks, the mantles, and the rest of the apparelstowed in their own places; the coverlets and bedding; the coppercauldrons; and all the articles for table use! Nay, though it well mayraise a smile of ridicule (not on the lips of a grave man perhaps, butof some facetious witling) to hear me say it, a beauty like the cadenceof sweet music [36] dwells even in pots and pans set out in neatarray: and so, in general, fair things ever show more fair when orderlybestowed. The separate atoms shape themselves to form a choir, and allthe space between gains beauty by their banishment. Even so some sacredchorus, [37] dancing a roundelay in honour of Dionysus, not only isa thing of beauty in itself, but the whole interspace swept clean ofdancers owns a separate charm. [38]

 [34] Or, "coffers, " "cupboards, " "safes. "

 [35] Cf. "Anab. " III. Ii. 19, "firmly planted on terra firma. "

 [36] Or, "like the rhythm of a song, " {euruthmon}. See Mr. Ruskin's most appropriate note ("Bib. Past. " i. 59), "A remarkable word, as significant of the complete rhythm ({ruthmos}) whether of sound or motion, that was so great a characteristic of the Greek ideal (cf. Xi. 16, {metarruthmizo}), " and much more equally to the point. 

 [37] "Just as a chorus, the while its dancers weave a circling dance. "

 [38] Or, "contrasting with the movement and the mazes of the dance, a void appears serene and beautiful. "

"The truth of what I say, we easily can test, my wife, " I added, "bydirect experiment, and that too without cost at all or even serioustrouble. [39] Nor need you now distress yourself, my wife, to think howhard it will be to discover some one who has wit enough to learn theplaces for the several things and memory to take and place them there. We know, I fancy, that the goods of various sorts contained in the wholecity far outnumber ours many thousand times; and yet you have only tobid any one of your domestics go buy this, or that, and bring it youfrom market, and not one of them will hesitate. The whole world knowsboth where to go and where to find each thing. 

 [39] Lit. "now whether these things I say are true (i. E. Are facts), we can make experiment of the things themselves (i. E. Of actual facts to prove to us). "

"And why is this?" I asked. "Merely because they lie in an appointedplace. But now, if you are seeking for a human being, and that too attimes when he is seeking you on his side also, often and often shallyou give up the search in sheer despair: and of this again the reason?Nothing else save that no appointed place was fixed where one wasto await the other. " Such, so far as I can now recall it, was theconversation which we held together touching the arrangement of ourvarious chattels and their uses. 

IX

Well (I replied), and did your wife appear, Ischomachus, to lend awilling ear to what you tried thus earnestly to teach her?

Isch. Most certainly she did, with promise to pay all attention. Herdelight was evident, like some one's who at length has found a pathwayout of difficulties; in proof of which she begged me to lose no time inmaking the orderly arrangement I had spoken of. 

And how did you introduce the order she demanded, Ischomachus? (Iasked). 

Isch. Well, first of all I thought I ought to show her the capacitiesof our house. Since you must know, it is not decked with ornaments andfretted ceilings, [1] Socrates; but the rooms were built expressly witha view to forming the most apt receptacles for whatever was intendedto be put in them, so that the very look of them proclaimed what suitedeach particular chamber best. Thus our own bedroom, [2] secure in itsposition like a stronghold, claimed possession of our choicest carpets, coverlets, and other furniture. Thus, too, the warm dry rooms would seemto ask for our stock of bread-stuffs; the chill cellar for our wine; thebright and well-lit chambers for whatever works or furniture requiredlight, and so forth. 

 [1] Or, "curious workmanship and paintings. " See "Mem. " III. Viii. 10. Cf. Plat. "Rep. " vii. 529 B; "Hipp. Maj. " 298 A. See Becker, "Charicles, " Exc. I. 111. 

 [2] Or, "the bridal chamber. " See Becker, op. Cit. P. 266. Al. "our store-chamber. " See Hom. "Od. " xxi. 9:

{be d' imenai thalamonde sun amphipoloisi gunaixin eskhaton, k. T. L. }

"And she (Penelope) betook her, with her handmaidens, to thetreasure-chamber in the uttermost part of the house, where lay thetreasures of her lord, bronze and gold and iron well wrought. "--Butcherand Lang. Cf. "Od. " ii. 337; "Il. " vi. 288. 

Next I proceeded to point out to her the several dwelling-rooms, allbeautifully fitted up for cool in summer and for warmth in winter. [3] Ishowed her how the house enjoyed a southern aspect, whence it was plain, in winter it would catch the sunlight and in summer lie in shade. [4]Then I showed her the women's apartments, separated from the men'sapartments by a bolted door, [5] whereby nothing from within couldbe conveyed without clandestinely, nor children born and bred by ourdomestics without our knowledge and consent [6]--no unimportant matter, since, if the act of rearing children tends to make good servantsstill more loyally disposed, [7] cohabiting but sharpens ingenuity formischief in the bad. 

 [3] See "Mem. " III. Viii. 8. 

 [4] See "Mem. " ib. 9. 

 [5] "By bolts and bars. " Lit. "a door fitted with a bolt-pin. " See Thuc. Ii. 4; Aristoph. "Wasps, " 200. 

 [6] Cf. (Aristot. ) "Oecon. " i. 5, {dei de kai exomereuein tais teknopoiiais}. 

 [7] Lit. "since (you know) if the good sort of servant is rendered, as a rule, better disposed when he becomes a father, the base, through intermarrying, become only more ripe for mischief. "

When we had gone over all the rooms (he continued), we at once set aboutdistribution our furniture [8] in classes; and we began (he said) bycollecting everything we use in offering sacrifice. [9] After this weproceeded to set apart the ornaments and holiday attire of the wife, andthe husband's clothing both for festivals and war; then the bedding usedin the women's apartments, and the bedding used in the men's apartments;then the women's shoes and sandals, and the shoes and sandals of themen. [10] There was one division devoted to arms and armour; anotherto instruments used for carding wood; another to implements for makingbread; another to utensils for cooking condiments; another to utensilsfor the bath; another connected with the kneading trough; another withthe service of the table. All these we assigned to separate places, distinguishing one portion for daily and recurrent use and the restfor high days and holidays. Next we selected and set aside the suppliesrequired for the month's expenditure; and, under a separate head, [11]we stored away what we computed would be needed for the year. [12] Forin this way there is less chance of failing to note how the supplies arelikely to last to the end. 

 [8] "Movable property, " "meubles. "

 [9] Holden cf. Plut. "De Curios. " 515 E, {os gar Xenophon legei toi Oikonomikois, k. T. L. }

 [10] Cf. "Cyrop. " VIII. Ii. 5. See Becker, op. Cit. P. 447. 

 [11] See Cic. Ap. Col. Who curiously mistranslates {dikha}. 

 [12] Schneider, etc. , cf. Aristot. "Oecon. " i. 6. 

And so having arranged the different articles of furniture in classes, we proceeded to convey them to their appropriate places. That done, wedirected our attention to the various articles needed by our domesticsfor daily use, such as implements or utensils for making bread, cookingrelishes, spinning wool, and anything else of the same sort. Thesewe consigned to the care of those who would have to use them, firstpointing out where they must stow them, and enjoining on them to returnthem safe and sound when done with. 

As to the other things which we should only use on feast-days, orfor the entertainment of guests, or on other like occasions at longintervals, we delivered them one and all to our housekeeper. Havingpointed out to her their proper places, and having numbered andregistered [13] the several sets of articles, we explained that it washer business to give out each thing as required; to recollect to whomshe gave them; and when she got them back, to restore them severally tothe places from which she took them. In appointing our housekeeper, wehad taken every pains to discover some one on whose self-restraint wemight depend, not only in the matters of food and wine and sleep, butalso in her intercourse with men. She must besides, to please us, begifted with no ordinary memory. She must have sufficient forethought notto incur displeasure through neglect of our interests. It must be herobject to gratify us in this or that, and in return to win esteem andhonour at our hands. We set ourselves to teach and train her to feel akindly disposition towards us, by allowing her to share our joys inthe day of gladness, or, if aught unkind befell us, by inviting herto sympathise in our sorrow. We sought to rouse in her a zeal for ourinterests, an eagerness to promote the increase of our estate, bymaking her intelligent of its affairs, and by giving her a share in oursuccesses. We instilled in her a sense of justice and uprightness, byholding the just in higher honour than the unjust, and by pointing outthat the lives of the righteous are richer and less servile than thoseof the unrighteous; and this was the position in which she found herselfinstalled in our household. [14]

 [13] Or, "having taken an inventory of the several sets of things. " Cf. "Ages. " i. 18; "Cyrop. " VII. Iv. 12. See Newman, op. Cit. I. 171. 

 [14] Or, "and this was the position in which we presently established her herself. "

And now, on the strength of all that we had done, Socrates (he added), I addressed my wife, explaining that all these things would fail of useunless she took in charge herself to see that the order of each severalpart was kept. Thereupon I taught her that in every well-constitutedcity the citizens are not content merely to pass good laws, but theyfurther choose them guardians of the laws, [15] whose function asinspectors is to praise the man whose acts are law-abiding, or to mulctsome other who offends against the law. Accordingly, I bade her believethat she, the mistress, was herself to play the part of guardian of thelaws to her whole household, examining whenever it seemed good to her, and passing in review the several chattels, just as the officer incommand of a garrison [16] musters and reviews his men. She must applyher scrutiny and see that everything was well, even as the Senate [17]tests the condition of the Knights and of their horses. [18] Like aqueen, she must bestow, according to the power vested in her, praiseand honour on the well-deserving, but blame and chastisement on him whostood in need thereof. 

 [15] See Plat. "Laws, " vi. 755 A, 770 C; Aristot. "Pol. " iii. 15, 1287 A; iv. 14, 1298 B; vi. 8, 1323 A; "Ath. Pol. " viii. 4; and Cic. Ap. Col. Xii. 3. 10 f. Holden cf. Cic. "de Legg. " iii. 20, S. 46; "C. I. G. " 3794. 

 [16] Lit. Phrourarch, "the commandant. "

 [17] Or, "Council" at Athens. 

 [18] Cf. "Hipparch. " i. 8, 13. 

Nor did my lessons end here (added he); I taught her that she must notbe annoyed should I seem to be enjoining upon her more trouble than uponany of our domestics with regard to our possessions; pointing out to herthat these domestics have only so far a share in their master's chattelsthat they must fetch and carry, tend and guard them; nor have they theright to use a single one of them except the master grant it. But tothe master himself all things pertain to use as he thinks best. And soI pointed the conclusion: he to whom the greater gain attaches in thepreservation of the property or loss in its destruction, is surely he towhom by right belongs the larger measure of attention. [19]

 [19] Or, "he it is on whom devolves as his concern the duty of surveillance. "

When, then (I asked), Ischomachus, how fared it? was your wife disposedat all to lend a willing ear to what you told her? [20]

 [20] Lit. "when she heard did she give ear at all?"

Bless you, [21] Socrates (he answered), what did she do but forthwithanswer me, I formed a wrong opinion if I fancied that, in teaching herthe need of minding our property, I was imposing a painful task uponher. A painful task it might have been [22] (she added), had I bade herneglect her personal concerns! But to be obliged to fulfil the duty ofattending to her own domestic happiness, [23] that was easy. After allit would seem to be but natural (added he); just as any honest [24]woman finds it easier to care for her own offspring than to neglectthem, so, too, he could well believe, an honest woman might find itpleasanter to care for than to neglect possessions, the very charm ofwhich is that they are one's very own. 

 [21] Lit. "By Hera!" Cf. The old formula "Marry!" or "By'r lakin!"

 [22] Lit. "more painful had it been, had I enjoined her to neglect her own interests than to be obliged... "

 [23] {ton oikeion agathon}, cp. "charity begins at home. " See Joel, op. Cit. P. 448. 

 [24] Or, "true and honest"; "any woman worthy of the name. " {sophroni} = with the {sophrosune} of womanhood; possibly transl. "discreet and sober-minded. "

X

So (continued Socrates), when I heard his wife had made this answer, Iexclaimed: By Hera, Ischomachus, a brave and masculine intelligence thelady has, as you describe her. 

(To which Ischomachus) Yes, Socrates, and I would fain narrate someother instances of like large-mindedness on her part: shown in thereadiness with which she listened to my words and carried out my wishes. 

What sort of thing? (I answered). Do, pray, tell me, since I would farmore gladly learn about a living woman's virtues than that Zeuxis [1]should show me the portrait of the loveliest woman he has painted. 

 [1] See "Mem. " I. Iv. 3. 

Whereupon Ischomachus proceeded to narrate as follows: I must tell you, Socrates, I one day noticed she was much enamelled with white lead, [2]no doubt to enhance the natural whiteness of her skin; she had rougedherself with alkanet [3] profusely, doubtless to give more colour to hercheeks than truth would warrant; she was wearing high-heeled shoes, inorder to seem taller than she was by nature. [4]

 [2] Cf. Aristoph. "Eccl. " 878; ib. 929, {egkhousa mallon kai to son psimuthion}: ib. 1072; "Plut. " 1064. 

 [3] Lit. "enamelled or painted with anchusa or alkanet, " a plant, the wild bugloss, whose root yields a red dye. Cf. Aristoph. "Lys. " 48; Theophr. "H. Pl. " vii. 8. 3. 

 [4] See Becker, op. Cit. P. 452; Breit. Cf. "Anab. " III. Ii. 25; "Mem. " II. I. 22; Aristot. "Eth. Nic. " iv. 3, 5, "True beauty requires a great body. "

Accordingly I put to her this question: [5] "Tell me, my wife, would youesteem me a less lovable co-partner in our wealth, were I to show youhow our fortune stands exactly, without boasting of unreal possessionsor concealing what we really have? Or would you prefer that I should tryto cheat you with exaggeration, exhibiting false money to you, or sham[6] necklaces, or flaunting purples [7] which will lose their colour, stating they are genuine the while?"

 [5] Lit. "So I said to her, 'Tell me, my wife, after which fashion would you find me the more delectable partner in our joint estate --were I to... ? or were I to... ?'"

 [6] Lit. "only wood coated with gold. "

 [7] See Becker, op. Cit. P. 434 f; Holden cf. Athen. Ix. 374, xii. 525; Ael. "V. H. " xii. 32; Aristoph. "Plut. " 533. 

She caught me up at once: "Hush, hush!" she said, "talk not such talk. May heaven forfend that you should ever be like that. I could not loveyou with my whole heart were you really of that sort. "

"And are we two not come together, " I continued, "for a closerpartnership, being each a sharer in the other's body?"

"That, at any rate, is what folk say, " she answered. 

"Then as regards this bodily relation, " I proceeded, "should you regardme as more lovable or less did I present myself, my one endeavour and mysole care being that my body should be hale and strong and thereby wellcomplexioned, or would you have me first anoint myself with pigments, [8] smear my eyes with patches [9] of 'true flesh colour, ' [10] and soseek your embrace, like a cheating consort presenting to his mistress'ssight and touch vermillion paste instead of his own flesh?"

 [8] "Red lead. "

 [9] Cf. Aristoph. "Ach. " 1029. 

 [10] {andreikelon}. Cf. Plat. "Rep. " 501 B, "the human complexion"; "Crat. " 424 E. 

"Frankly, " she answered, "it would not please me better to touch pastethan your true self. Rather would I see your own 'true flesh colour'than any pigment of that name; would liefer look into your eyes and seethem radiant with health than washed with any wash, or dyed with anyointment there may be. "

"Believe the same, my wife, of me then, " Ischomachus continued (so hetold me); "believe that I too am not better pleased with white enamelor with alkanet than with your own natural hue; but as the gods havefashioned horses to delight in horses, cattle in cattle, sheep in theirfellow sheep, so to human beings the human body pure and undefiled issweetest; [11] and as to these deceits, though they may serve to cheatthe outside world without detection, yet if intimates try to deceiveeach other, they must one day be caught; in rising from their beds, before they make their toilet; by a drop of sweat they stand convicted;tears are an ordeal they cannot pass; the bath reveals them as theytruly are. "

 [11] See "Mem. " II. I. 22. 

What answer (said I) did she make, in Heaven's name, to what you said?

What, indeed (replied the husband), save only, that thenceforward shenever once indulged in any practice of the sort, but has strivento display the natural beauty of her person in its purity. She did, however, put to me a question: Could I advise her how she might becomenot in false show but really fair to look upon?

This, then, was the counsel which I gave her, Socrates: Not to be forever seated like a slave; [12] but, with Heaven's help, to assume theattitude of a true mistress standing before the loom, and where herknowledge gave her the superiority, bravely to give the aid of herinstruction; where her knowledge failed, as bravely try to learn. Icounselled her to oversee the baking woman as she made the bread; tostand beside the housekeeper as she measured out her stores; to go toursof inspection to see if all things were in order as they should be. For, as it seemed to me, this would at once be walking exercise andsupervision. And, as an excellent gymnastic, I recommended her to kneadthe dough and roll the paste; to shake the coverlets and make the beds;adding, if she trained herself in exercise of this sort she would enjoyher food, grow vigorous in health, and her complexion would in verytruth be lovelier. The very look and aspect of the wife, the mistress, seen in rivalry with that of her attendants, being as she is at oncemore fair [13] and more beautifully adorned, has an attractive charm, [14] and not the less because her acts are acts of grace, not servicesenforced. Whereas your ordinary fine lady, seated in solemn state, wouldseem to court comparison with painted counterfeits of womanhood. 

 [12] See Becker, p. 491. Breit. , etc. , cf. Nicostr. Ap. Stob. "Tit. " lxxiv. 61. 

 [13] Lit. "more spotles"; "like a diamond of purest water. " Cf. Shakesp. "Lucr. " 394, "whose perfect white Showed like an April daisy in the grass. "

 [14] Or, "is wondrous wooing, and all the more with this addition, hers are acts of grace, theirs services enforced. "

And, Socrates, I would have you know that still to-day, my wife isliving in a style as simple as that I taught her then, and now recountto you. 

XI

The conversation was resumed as follows: Thanking Ischomachus for whathe had told me about the occupations of his wife; on that side I haveheard enough (I said) perhaps for a beginning; the facts you mentionreflect the greatest credit on both wife and husband; but would you nowin turn describe to me your work and business? In doing so you will havethe pleasure of narrating the reason of your fame. And I, for my part, when I have heard from end to end the story of a beautiful and goodman's works, if only my wits suffice and I have understood it, shall bemuch indebted. 

Indeed (replied Ischomachus), it will give me the greatest pleasure torecount to you my daily occupations, and in return I beg you to reformme, where you find some flaw or other in my conduct. [1]

 [1] Lit. "in order that you on your side may correct and set me right where I seem to you to act amiss. " {metarruthmises}--remodel. Cf. Aristot. "Nic. Eth. " x. 9. 5. 

The idea of my reforming you! (I said). How could I with any show ofjustice hope to reform you, the perfect model [2] of a beautiful, goodman--I, who am but an empty babbler, [3] and measurer of the air, [4] who have to bear besides that most senseless imputation of beingpoor--an imputation which, I assure you, Ischomachus, would have reducedme to the veriest despair, except that the other day I chanced to comeacross the horse of Nicias, [5] the foreigner? I saw a crowd of peoplein attendance staring, and I listened to a story which some one hadto tell about the animal. So then I stepped up boldly to the groom andasked him, "Has the horse much wealth?" The fellow looked at me as if Iwere hardly in my right mind to put the question, and retorted, "Howcan a horse have wealth?" Thereat I dared to lift my eyes from earth, onlearning that after all it is permitted a poor penniless horse to bea noble animal, if nature only have endowed him with good spirit. If, therefore, it is permitted even to me to be a good man, please recountto me your works from first to last, I promise, I will listen, all Ican, and try to understand, and so far as in me lies to imitate you fromto-morrow. To-morrow is a good day to commence a course of virtue, is itnot?

 [2] Cf. Plat. "Rep. " 566 A, "a tyrant full grown" (Jowett). 

 [3] Cf. Plat. "Phaed. " 70 C; Aristoph. "Clouds, " 1480. 

 [4] Or rather, "a measurer of air"--i. E. Devoted not to good sound solid "geometry, " but the unsubstantial science of "aerometry. " See Aristoph. "Clouds, " i. 225; Plat. "Apol. " 18 B, 19 B; Xen. "Symp. " vi. 7. 

 [5] Nothing is known of this person. 

You are pleased to jest, Socrates (Ischomachus replied), in spite ofwhich I will recount to you those habits and pursuits by aid of which Iseek to traverse life's course. If I have read aright life's lesson, ithas taught me that, unless a man first discover what he needs to do, andseriously study to bring the same to good effect, the gods have placedprosperity [6] beyond his reach; and even to the wise and careful theygive or they withhold good fortune as seemeth to them best. Such beingmy creed, I begin with service rendered to the gods; and strive toregulate my conduct so that grace may be given me, in answer to myprayers, to attain to health, and strength of body, honour in my owncity, goodwill among my friends, safety with renown in war, and ofriches increase, won without reproach. 

 [6] "The gods have made well-doing and well-being a thing impossible. " Cf. "Mem. " III. Ix. 7, 14. 

I, when I heard these words, replied: And are you then indeed so carefulto grow rich, Ischomachus?--amassing wealth but to gain endless troublein its management?

Most certainly (replied Ischomachus), and most careful must I needs beof the things you speak of. So sweet I find it, Socrates, to honourGod magnificently, to lend assistance to my friends in answer totheir wants, and, so far as lies within my power, not to leave my cityunadorned with anything which riches can bestow. 

Nay (I answered), beautiful indeed the works you speak of, and powerfulthe man must be who would essay them. How can it be otherwise, seeing somany human beings need the help of others merely to carry on existence, and so many are content if they can win enough to satisfy their wants. What of those therefore who are able, not only to administer their ownestates, but even to create a surplus sufficient to adorn their city andrelieve the burthen of their friends? Well may we regard such peopleas men of substance and capacity. But stay (I added), most of us arecompetent to sing the praises of such heroes. What I desire is to hearfrom you, Ischomachus, in your own order, [7] first how you study topreserve your health and strength of body; and next, how it is grantedto you [8] to escape from the perils of war with honour untarnished. And after that (I added), it will much content me to learn from your ownlips about your money-making. 

 [7] "And from your own starting-point. "

 [8] As to the construction {themis einai} see Jebb ad "Oed. Col. " 1191, Appendix. 

Yes (he answered), and the fact is, Socrates, if I mistake not, allthese matters are in close connection, each depending on the other. Given that a man have a good meal to eat, he has only to work off theeffect by toil [9] directed rightly; and in the process, if I mistakenot, his health will be confirmed, his strength added to. Let him butpractise the arts of war and in the day of battle he will preserve hislife with honour. He needs only to expend his care aright, sealinghis ears to weak and soft seductions, and his house shall surely beincreased. [10]

 [9] See "Mem. " I. Ii. 4; "Cyrop. " I. Ii. 16. Al. "bring out the effect of it by toil. "

 [10] Lit. "it is likely his estate will increase more largely. "

I answered: So far I follow you, Ischomachus. You tell me that bylabouring to his full strength, [11] by expending care, by practice andtraining, a man may hope more fully to secure life's blessings. So Itake your meaning. But now I fain would learn of you some details. Whatparticular toil do you impose on yourself in order to secure good healthand strength? After what particular manner do you practise the arts ofwar? How do you take pains to create a surplus which will enable you tobenefit your friends and to gratify the state?

 [11] Or, "by working off ill-humours, " as we should say. 

Why then (Ischomachus replied), my habit is to rise from bed betimes, when I may still expect to find at home this, that, or the other friend, whom I may wish to see. Then, if anything has to be done in town, I setoff to transact the business and make that my walk; [12] or, if there isno business to do in town, my serving-boy leads my horse to the farm;I follow, and so make the country-road my walk, which suits my purposequite as well, or better, Socrates, perhaps, than pacing up and down thecolonnade. [13] Then when I have reached the farm, where mayhap some ofmy men are planting trees, or breaking fallow, sowing or getting in thecrops, I inspect their various labours with an eye to every detail, and, whenever I can improve upon the present system, I introduce reform. After this, as a rule, I mount my horse and take a canter. I puthim through his paces, suiting these, as far as possible, to thoseinevitable in war [14]--in other words, I avoid neither steep slope [15]nor sheer incline, neither trench nor runnel, only giving my utmost heedthe while so as not to lame my horse while exercising him. When thatis over, the boy gives the horse a roll, [16] and leads him homewards, taking at the same time from the country to town whatever we may chanceto need. Meanwhile I am off for home, partly walking, partly running, and having reached home I take a bath and give myself a rub; [17] andthen I breakfast--a repast which leaves me neither empty nor replete, [18] and will suffice to last me through the day. 

 [12] See "Mem. " III. Xiii. 5. 

 [13] {xusto}--the xystus, "a covered corridor in the gymnasium where the athletes exercised in winter. " Vitruv. V. 11. 4; vi. 7. 5. See Rich, "Companion, " s. N. ; Becker, op. Cit. P. 309. Cf. Plat. "Phaedr. " 227--Phaedrus loq. : "I have come from Lysias the son of Cephalus, and I am going to take a walk outside the wall, for I have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common friend Acumenus advises me to walk in the country, which he says is more invigorating than to walk in the courts. "--Jowett. 

 [14] See "Horsemanship, " iii. 7 foll. ; ib. Viii. ; "Hipparch, " i. 18. 

 [15] "Slanting hillside. "

 [16] See "Horsemanship, " v. 3; Aristoph. "Clouds, " 32. 

 [17] Lit. "scrape myself clean" (with the {stleggis} or strigil). Cf. Aristoph. "Knights, " 580. See Becker, op. Cit. P. 150. 

 [18] See "Lac. Pol. " ii. 5. Cf. Hor. "Sat. " i. 6. 127:

pransus non avide, quantum interpellet inani ventre diem durare. 

Then eat a temperate luncheon, just to stay A sinking stomach till theclose of day (Conington). 

By Hera (I replied), Ischomachus, I cannot say how much your doings takemy fancy. How you have contrived, to pack up portably for use--togetherat the same time--appliances for health and recipes for strength, exercises for war, and pains to promote your wealth! My admiration israised at every point. That you do study each of these pursuits in theright way, you are yourself a standing proof. Your look of heaven-senthealth and general robustness we note with our eyes, while our ears haveheard your reputation as a first-rate horseman and the wealthiest ofmen. 

Isch. Yes, Socrates, such is my conduct, in return for which I amrewarded with--the calumnies of half the world. You thought, I daresay, I was going to end my sentence different, and say that a host of peoplehave given me the enviable title "beautiful and good. "

I was indeed myself about to ask, Ischomachus (I answered), whether youtake pains also to acquire skill in argumentative debate, the cut andthrust and parry of discussion, [19] should occasion call?

 [19] Lit. "to give a reason and to get a reason from others. " Cf. "Cyrop. " I. Iv. 3. 

Isch. Does it not strike you rather, Socrates, that I am engaged in onelong practice of this very skill, [20] now pleading as defendant that, as far as I am able, I do good to many and hurt nobody? And then, again, you must admit, I play the part of prosecutor when accusing people whomI recognise to be offenders, as a rule in private life, or possiblyagainst the state, the good-for-nothing fellows?

 [20] "The arts of the defendant, the apologist; and of the plaintiff, the prosecutor. "

But please explain one other thing, Ischomachus (I answered). Do you putdefence and accusation into formal language? [21]

 [21] "Does your practice include the art of translating into words your sentiments?" Cf. "Mem. " I. Ii. 52. 

Isch. "Formal language, " say you, Socrates? The fact is, I never ceaseto practise speaking; and on this wise: Some member of my household hassome charge to bring, or some defence to make, [22] against some other. I have to listen and examine. I must try to sift the truth. Or thereis some one whom I have to blame or praise before my friends, or I mustarbitrate between some close connections and endeavour to enforce thelesson that it is to their own interests to be friends not foes. [23]... We are present to assist a general in court; [24] we are called upon tocensure some one; or defend some other charged unjustly; or to prosecutea third who has received an honour which he ill deserves. It frequentlyoccurs in our debates [25] that there is some course which we stronglyfavour: naturally we sound its praises; or some other, which wedisapprove of: no less naturally we point out its defects. 

 [22] Or, "One member of my household appears as plaintiff, another as defendant. I must listen and cross-question. "

 [23] The "asyndeton" would seem to mark a pause, unless some words have dropped out. See the commentators ad loc. 

 [24] The scene is perhaps that of a court-martial (cf. "Anab. " V. Viii. ; Dem. "c. Timocr. " 749. 16). (Al. Cf. Sturz, "Lex. " s. V. "we are present (as advocates) and censure some general"), or more probably, I think, that of a civil judicial inquiry of some sort, conducted at a later date by the Minister of Finance ({to stratego to epi tas summorias eremeno}). 

 [25] Or, "Or again, a frequent case, we sit in council" (as members of the Boule). See Aristot. "Pol. " iv. 15. 

He paused, then added: Things have indeed now got so far, Socrates, thatseveral times I have had to stand my trial and have judgment passed uponme in set terms, what I must pay or what requital I must make. [26]

 [26] See "Symp. " v. 8. Al. {dielemmenos} = "to be taken apart and have ... "

And at whose bar (I asked) is the sentence given? That point I failed tocatch. [27]

 [27] Or, "so dull was I, I failed to catch the point. "

Whose but my own wife's? (he answered). 

And, pray, how do you conduct your own case? (I asked). [28]

 [28] See "Mem. " III. Vii. 4; Plat. "Euth. " 3 E. 

Not so ill (he answered), when truth and interest correspond, but whenthey are opposed, Socrates, I have no skill to make the worse appear thebetter argument. [29]

 [29] See Plat. "Apol. " 19-23 D; Aristoph. "Clouds, " 114 foll. 

Perhaps you have no skill, Ischomachus, to make black white or falsehoodtruth (said I). [30]

 [30] Or, "It may well be, Ischomachus, you cannot manufacture falsehood into truth. " Lit. "Like enough you cannot make an untruth true. "

XII

But (I continued presently), perhaps I am preventing you from going, asyou long have wished to do, Ischomachus?

To which he: By no means, Socrates. I should not think of going awayuntil the gathering in the market is dispersed. [1]

 [1] Lit. "until the market is quite broken up, " i. E. After mid-day. See "Anab. " I. Viii. 1; II. I. 7; "Mem. " I. I. 10. Cf. Herod. Ii. 173; iii. 104; vii. 223. 

Of course, of course (I answered), you are naturally most careful notto forfeit the title they have given you of "honest gentleman"; [2] andyet, I daresay, fifty things at home are asking your attention at thismoment; only you undertook to meet your foreign friends, and rather thanplay them false you go on waiting. 

 [2] Lit. "beautiful and good. "

Isch. Let me so far correct you, Socrates; in no case will the thingsyou speak of be neglected, since I have stewards and bailiffs [3] on thefarms. 

 [3] Cf. Becker, op. Cit. P. 363. 

Soc. And, pray, what is your system when you need a bailiff? Do yousearch about, until you light on some one with a natural turn forstewardship; and then try to purchase him?--as, I feel certain, happenswhen you want a carpenter: first, you discover some one with a turn forcarpentry, and then do all you can to get possession of him. [4] Or doyou educate your bailiffs yourself?

 [4] The steward, like the carpenter, and the labourers in general, would, as a rule, be a slave. See below, xxi. 9. 

Isch. Most certainly the latter, Socrates; I try to educate them, as yousay, myself; and with good reason. He who is properly to fill my placeand manage my affairs when I am absent, my "alter ego, " [5] needs but tohave my knowledge; and if I am fit myself to stand at the head of my ownbusiness, I presume I should be able to put another in possession of myknowledge. [6]

 [5] Or, "my other self. "

 [6] Lit. "to teach another what I know myself. "

Soc. Well then, the first thing he who is properly to take your placewhen absent must possess is goodwill towards you and yours; for withoutgoodwill, what advantage will there be in any knowledge whatsoever whichyour bailiff may possess?

Isch. None, Socrates; and I may tell you that a kindly dispositiontowards me and mine is precisely what I first endeavour to instil. 

Soc. And how, in the name of all that is holy, do you pick out whom youwill and teach him to have kindly feeling towards yourself and yours?

Isch. By kindly treatment of him, to be sure, whenever the gods bestowabundance of good things upon us. 

Soc. If I take your meaning rightly, you would say that those who enjoyyour good things grow well disposed to you and seek to render you somegood?

Isch. Yes, for of all instruments to promote good feeling this I see tobe the best. 

Soc. Well, granted the man is well disposed to you does it thereforefollow, Ischomachus, that he is fit to be your bailiff? It cannot haveescaped your observation that albeit human beings, as a rule, are kindlydisposed towards themselves, yet a large number of them will not applythe attention requisite to secure for themselves those good things whichthey fain would have. 

Isch. Yes, but believe me, Socrates, when I seek to appoint such men asbailiffs, I teach them also carefulness and application. [7]

 [7] {epimeleia} is a cardinal virtue with the Greeks, or at any rate with Xenophon, but it has no single name in English. 

Soc. Nay, now in Heaven's name, once more, how can that be? I alwaysthought it was beyond the power of any teacher to teach these virtues. [8]

 [8] For the Socratic problem {ei arete didakte} see Grote, "H. G. " viii. 599. 

Isch. Nor is it possible, you are right so far, to teach suchexcellences to every single soul in order as simply as a man mightnumber off his fingers. 

Soc. Pray, then, what sort of people have the privilege? [9] Should youmind pointing them out to me with some distinctness?

 [9] Lit. "what kind of people can be taught them? By all means signify the sort to me distinctly. "

Ishc. Well, in the first place, you would have some difficulty in makingintemperate people diligent--I speak of intemperance with regard towine, for drunkenness creates forgetfulness of everything which needs tobe done. 

Soc. And are persons devoid of self-control in this respect the onlypeople incapable of diligence and carefulness? or are there others inlike case?

Isch. Certainly, people who are intemperate with regard to sleep, seeingthat the sluggard with his eyes shut cannot do himself or see thatothers do what is right. 

Soc. What then? [10] Are we to regard these as the only people incapableof being taught this virtue of carefulness? or are there others in alike condition?

 [10] Or, "What then--is the list exhausted? Are we to suppose that these are the sole people... "

Isch. Surely we must include the slave to amorous affection. [11] Yourwoeful lover [12] is incapable of being taught attention to anythingbeyond one single object. [13] No light task, I take it, to discover anyhope or occupation sweeter to him than that which now employs him, hiscare for his beloved, nor, when the call for action comes, [14] willit be easy to invent worse punishment than that he now endures inseparation from the object of his passion. [15] Accordingly, I am in nogreat hurry to appoint a person of this sort to manage [16] my affairs;the very attempt to do so I regard as futile. 

 [11] See "Mem. " I. Iii. 8 foll. ; II. Vi. 22. 

 [12] {duserotes}. Cf. Thuc. Vi. 13, "a desperate craving" (Jowett). 

 [13] Cf. "Symp. " iv. 21 foll. ; "Cyrop. " V. I. 7-18. 

 [14] Or, "where demands of business present themselves, and something must be done. "

 [15] Cf. Shakesp. "Sonnets, " passim. 

 [16] Or, "I never dream of appointing as superintendent. " See above, iv. 7. 

Soc. Well, and what of those addicted to another passion, that of gain?Are they, too, incapable of being trained to give attention to field andfarming operations?

Isch. On the contrary, there are no people easier to train, none sosusceptible of carefulness in these same matters. One needs only topoint out to them that the pursuit is gainful, and their interest isaroused. 

Soc. But for ordinary people? Given they are self-controlled to suityour bidding, [17] given they possess a wholesome appetite for gain, howwill you lesson them in carefulness? how teach them growth in diligenceto meet your wishes?

 [17] Or, "in matters such as you insist on. "

Isch. By a simple method, Socrates. When I see a man intent oncarefulness, I praise and do my best to honour him. When, on the otherhand, I see a man neglectful of his duties, I do not spare him: I try inevery way, by word and deed, to wound him. 

Soc. Come now, Ischomachus, kindly permit a turn in the discussion, which has hitherto concerned the persons being trained to carefulnessthemselves, and explain a point in reference to the training process. Is it possible for a man devoid of carefulness himself to render othersmore careful?

No more possible (he answered) than for a man who knows no music to makeothers musical. [18] If the teacher sets but an ill example, the pupilcan hardly learn to do the thing aright. [19] And if the master'sconduct is suggestive of laxity, how hardly shall his followers attainto carefulness! Or to put the matter concisely, "like master like man. "I do not think I ever knew or heard tell of a bad master blessed withgood servants. The converse I certainly have seen ere now, a good masterand bad servants; but they were the sufferers, not he. [20] No, he whowould create a spirit of carefulness in others [21] must have the skillhimself to supervise the field of labour; to test, examine, scrutinise. [22] He must be ready to requite where due the favour of a service wellperformed, nor hesitate to visit the penalty of their deserts upon thoseneglectful of their duty. [23] Indeed (he added), the answer of thebarbarian to the king seems aposite. You know the story, [24] how theking had met with a good horse, but wished to give the creature fleshand that without delay, and so asked some one reputed to be clever abouthorses: "What will give him flesh most quickly?" To which the other:"The master's eye. " So, too, it strikes me, Socrates, there is nothinglike "the master's eye" to call forth latent qualities, and turn thesame to beautiful and good effect. [25]

 [18] Or, "to give others skill in 'music. '" See Plat. "Rep. " 455 E; "Laws, " 802 B. Al. "a man devoid of letters to make others scholarly. " See Plat. "Phaedr. " 248 D. 

 [19] Lit. "when the teacher traces the outline of the thing to copy badly. " For {upodeiknuontos} see "Mem. " IV. Iii. 13; "Horsem. " ii. 2. Cf. Aristot. "Oecon. " i. 6; "Ath. Pol. " 41. 17; and Dr. Sandys' note ad loc. 

 [20] Or, "but they did not go scot-free"; "punishments then were rife. "

 [21] Cf. Plat. "Polit. " 275 E: "If we say either tending the herds, or managing the herds, or having the care of them, that will include all, and then we may wrap up the statesman with the rest, as the argument seems to require. "--Jowett. 

 [22] Or, "he must have skill to over-eye the field of labour, and be scrutinous. "

 [23] "For every boon of service well performed he must be eager to make requital to the author of it, nor hesitate to visit on the heads of those neglectful of their duty a just recompense. " (The language is poetical. )

 [24] See Aristot. "Oecon. " i. 6; Aesch. "Pers. " 165; Cato ap. Plin. "H. N. " xviii. 5. Cic. Ap. Colum. Iv. 18; ib. Vi. 21; La Fontaine, "L'Oeil du Maitre. "

 [25] Or, "so, too, in general it seems to me 'the master's eye' is aptest to elicit energy to issue beautiful and good. "

XIII

But now (I ventured), suppose you have presented strongly to the mind ofsome one [1] the need of carefulness to execute your wishes, is a personso qualified to be regarded as fit at once to be your bailiff? or isthere aught else which he must learn in order to play the part of anefficient bailiff?

 [1] Breit. Cf. "Pol. Lac. " xv. 8. Holden cf. Plat. "Rep. " 600 C. 

Most certainly there is (he answered): it still remains for him to learnparticulars--to know, that is, what things he has to do, and when andhow to do them; or else, if ignorant of these details, the profit ofthis bailiff in the abstract may prove no greater than the doctor'swho pays a most precise attention to a sick man, visiting him late andearly, but what will serve to ease his patient's pains [2] he knows not. 

 [2] Lit. "what it is to the advantage of his patient to do, is beyond his ken. "

Soc. But suppose him to have learnt the whole routine of business, willhe need aught else, or have we found at last your bailiff absolute? [3]

 [3] Cf. Plat. "Rep. " 566 D. Or, "the perfect and consummate type of bailiff. "

Isch. He must learn at any rate, I think, to rule his fellow-workmen. 

What! (I exclaimed): you mean to say you educate your bailiffs to thatextent? Actually you make them capable of rule?

At any rate I try to do so (he replied). 

And how, in Heaven's name (I asked), do you contrive to educate anotherin the skill to govern human beings?

Isch. I have a very simple system, Socrates; so simple, I daresay, youwill simply laugh at me. 

Soc. The matter, I protest, is hardly one for laughter. The man whocan make another capable of rule, clearly can teach him how to play themaster; and if can make him play the master, he can make him what isgrander still, a kingly being. [4] Once more, therefore, I protest: Aman possessed of such creative power is worthy, not of ridicule, farfrom it, but of the highest praise. 

 [4] i. E. {arkhikos} includes (1) {despotikos}, i. E. An arbitrary head of any sort, from the master of one's own family to the {turannos kai despotes} (Plat. "Laws, " 859 A), despotic lord or owner; (2) {basilikos}, the king or monarch gifted with regal qualities. 

Thus, then, I reason, [5] Socrates (he answered): The lower animals aretaught obedience by two methods chiefly, partly through being punishedwhen they make attempts to disobey, partly by experiencing some kindnesswhen they cheerfully submit. This is the principle at any rate adoptedin the breaking of young horses. The animal obeys its trainer, andsomething sweet is sure to follow; or it disobeys, and in place ofsomething sweet it finds a peck of trouble; and so on, until it comes atlast to yield obedience to the trainer's every wish. Or to take anotherinstance: Young dogs, [6] however far inferior to man in thoughtand language, [7] can still be taught to run on errands and turnsomersaults, [8] and do a host of other clever things, precisely onthis same principle of training. Every time the animal obeys it getssomething or other which it wanted, and every time it misbehaves itgets a whipping. But when it comes to human beings: in man you have acreature still more open to persuasion through appeals to reason; [9]only make it plain to him "it is his interest to obey. " Or if theyhappen to be slaves, [10] the more ignoble training of wild animalstamed to the lure will serve to teach obedience. Only gratify theirbellies in the matter of appetite, and you will succeed in winning muchfrom them. [11] But ambitious, emulous natures feel the spur of praise, [12] since some natures hunger after praise no less than others cravefor meats and drinks. My practice then is to instruct those whom Idesire to appoint as my bailiffs in the various methods which I havefound myself to be successful in gaining the obedience of my fellows. Totake an instance: There are clothes and shows and so forth, with whichI must provide my workfolk. [13] Well, then, I see to it that these arenot all alike in make; [14] but some will be of better, some of lessgood quality: my object being that these articles for use shall varywith the service of the wearer; the worse man will receive the worsethings as a gift, the better man the better as a mark of honour. For Iask you, Socrates, how can the good avoid despondency seeing thatthe work is wrought by their own hands alone, in spite of which thesevillains who will neither labour nor face danger when occasion calls areto receive an equal guerdon with themselves? And just as I cannot bringmyself in any sort of way to look upon the better sort as worthy toreceive no greater honour than the baser, so, too, I praise my bailiffswhen I know they have apportioned the best things among the mostdeserving. And if I see that some one is receiving preference by dintof flatteries or like unworthy means, I do not let the matter pass; Ireprimand my bailiff roundly, and so teach him that such conduct is noteven to his interest. 

 [5] {oukoun}. "This, then, is my major premiss: the dumb animal... " (lit. "the rest of animals"). 

 [6] {ta kunidia} possibly implies "performing poodles. "

 [7] {te gnome... Te glotte}, i. E. Mental impression and expression, "mind and tongue. "

 [8] Or, "to run round and round and turn heels over head. " Al. "dive for objects. "

 [9] "Logic, argument. " Or, "a creature more compliant; merely by a word demonstrate to him... "

 [10] Cf. Plat. "Rep. " 591 C. 

 [11] See Pater, "Plato and Platonism, " "Lacedaemon, " p. 196 foll. 

 [12] See "Cyrop. " passim. 

 [13] {ergastersi}, Xenophontic for the common Attic {ergatais}. See Hold. Ad loc. For similar forms, and cf. Rutherford, "New Phrynichus, " 59. 

 [14] Cf. Aristot. "Oecon. " i. 5 (where the thesis is developed further). 

XIV

Soc. Well, then, Ischomachus, supposing the man is now so fit to rulethat he can compel obedience, [1] is he, I ask once more, your bailiffabsolute? or even though possessed of all the qualifications you havenamed, does he still lack something? [2]

 [1] Or, "that discipline flows from him;" al. "he presents you with obedient servants. "

 [2] Lit. "will he still need something further to complete him?"

Most certainly (replied Ischomachus). One thing is still required ofhim, and that is to hold aloof from property and goods which are hismaster's; he must not steal. Consider, this is the very person throughwhose hands the fruits and produce pass, and he has the audacity to makeaway with them! perhaps he does not leave enough to cover the expensesof the farming operations! Where would be the use of farming the land byhelp of such an overseer?

What (I exclaimed), can I believe my ears? You actually undertake toteach them virtue! What really, justice!

Isch. To be sure, I do. But it does not follow therefore that I findall equally apt to lend an ear to my instruction. However, what I do isthis. I take a leaf now out of the laws of Draco and again another outof the laws of Solon, [3] and so essay to start my household on the pathof uprightness. And indeed, if I mistake not (he proceeded), both thoselegislators enacted many of their laws expressly with a view to teachingthis branch of justice. [4] It is written, "Let a man be punished fora deed of theft"; "Let whosoever is detected in the act be bound andthrown in prison"; "If he offer violence, [5] let him be put to death. "It is clear that the intention of the lawgivers in framing theseenactments was to render the sordid love of gain [6] devoid of profitto the unjust person. What I do, therefore, is to cull a sample of theirprecepts, which I supplement with others from the royal code [7] whereapplicable; and so I do my best to shape the members of my householdinto the likeness of just men concerning that which passes throughtheir hands. And now observe--the laws first mentioned act as penalties, deterrent to transgressors only; whereas the royal code aims higher:by it not only is the malefactor punished, but the righteous and justperson is rewarded. [8] The result is, that many a man, beholding howthe just grow ever wealthier than the unjust, albeit harbouring in hisheart some covetous desires, is constant still to virtue. To abstainfrom unjust dealing is engrained in him. [9]

 [3] Cobet, "Pros. Xen. " cf. Plut. "Solon, " xvii. {proton men oun tous Drakontos nomous aneile k. T. L. } "First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too great; for death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch that those that were convicted of idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or murder" (Clough, i. 184). See Aul. Gell. "N. A. " xi. 13. 

 [4] "The branch of justice which concerns us, viz. Righteous dealing between man and man. "

 [5] For this sense of {tous egkheirountas} cf. Thuc. Iv. 121; "Hell. " IV. V. 16. Al. {dedesthai tous egkheirountas kai thanatousthai en tis alo poion} (Weiske), "let the attempt be punished with imprisonment"; "let him who is caught in the act be put to death. "

 [6] Cf. Plat. "Laws, " 754 E. 

 [7] Or, "the royal laws, " i. E. Of Persia. Cf. "Anab. " I. Ix. 16; "Cyrop. " I. Ii. 2, 3. Or possibly = "regal"; cf. Plat. "Minos, " 317 C; {to men orthon nomos esti basilikos}. 

 [8] Lit. "benefited. "

 [9] Lit. "Whereby, beholding the just becoming wealthier than the unjust, many albeit covetous at heart themselves most constantly abide by abstinence from evil-doing. "

Those of my household (he proceeded) whom, in spite of kindly treatment, I perceive to be persistently bent on evil-doing, in the end I treat asdesperate cases. Incurable self-seekers, [10] plain enough to see, whoseaspiration lifts them from earth, so eager are they to be reckoned justmen, not by reason only of the gain derivable from justice, but throughpassionate desire to deserve my praise--these in the end I treat asfree-born men. I make them wealthy, and not with riches only, but inhonour, as befits their gentle manliness. [11] For if, Socrates, therebe one point in which the man who thirsts for honour differs from himwho thirsts for gain, it is, I think, in willingness to toil, facedanger, and abstain from shameful gains--for the sake of honour only andfair fame. [12]

 [10] Lit. "Those, on the other hand, whom I discover to be roused" (to honesty--not solely because honesty is the best policy). 

 [11] Or, "men of fair and noble type"; "true gentlemen. " This passage suggests the "silver lining to the cloud" of slavery. 

 [12] Cf. Hom. "Il. " ix. 413, {oleto men moi nostos, atar kleos aphthiton estai}, "but my fame shall be imperishable. "

XV

Soc. But now, suppose, Ischomachus, you have created in the soul of someone a desire for your welfare; have inspired in him not a mere passiveinterest, but a deep concern to help you to achieve prosperity; further, you have obtained for him a knowledge of the methods needed to give theoperations of the field some measure of success; you have, moreover, made him capable of ruling; and, as the crowning point of all yourefforts, this same trusty person shows no less delight, than you mighttake yourself, in laying at your feet [1] earth's products, each indue season richly harvested--I need hardly ask concerning such an one, whether aught else is lacking to him. It is clear to me [2] an overseerof this sort would be worth his weight in gold. But now, Ischomachus, I would have you not omit a topic somewhat lightly handled by us in theprevious argument. [3]

 [1] {apodeiknuon}, i. E. In presenting the inventory of products for the year. Cf. "Hell. " V. Iii. 17; "Revenues, " ii. 7. 

 [2] {ede}, at this stage of the discussion. 

 [3] Or, "that part of the discussion which we ran over in a light and airy fashion, " in reference to xiii. 2. 

What topic, pray, was that? (he asked). 

Soc. You said, if I mistake not, that it was most important to learnthe methods of conducting the several processes of husbandry; for, youadded, unless a man knows what things he has to do and how to do them, all the care and diligence in the world will stand him in no stead. 

At this point [4] he took me up, observing: So what you now command meis to teach the art itself of tillage, Socrates?

 [4] Keeping the vulg. Order of SS. 3-9, which many commentators would rearrange in various ways. See Breit. Ad loc. ; Lincke, op. Cit. P. 111 foll. 

Yes (I replied), for now it looks as if this art were one which made thewise and skilled possessor of it wealthy, whilst the unskilled, in spiteof all the pains he takes, must live in indigence. 

Isch. Now shall you hear, then, [5] Socrates, the generous nature ofthis human art. For is it not a proof of something noble in it, thatbeing of supreme utility, so sweet a craft to exercise, so rich inbeauty, so acceptable alike to gods and men, the art of husbandry mayfurther fairly claim to be the easiest of all the arts to learn? Noble Iname it! this, at any rate, the epithet we give to animals which, beingbeautiful and large and useful, are also gentle towards the race of man. [6]

 [5] Or, "Listen, then, and whilst I recount to you at once the loving-kindness of this art, to man the friendliest. "

 [6] Schenkl regards this sentence as an interpolation. For the epithet {gennaios} applied to the dog see "Cyrop. " I. Iv. 15, 21; "Hunting, " iv. 7. 

Allow me to explain, Ischomachus (I interposed). Up to a certain pointI fully followed what you said. I understand, according to your theory, how a bailiff must be taught. In other words, I follow your descriptionsboth as to how you make him kindly disposed towards yourself; and how, again, you make him careful, capable of rule, and upright. But at thatpoint you made the statement that, in order to apply this diligence totillage rightly, the careful husbandman must further learn what are thedifferent things he has to do, and not alone what things he has to do, but how and when to do them. These are the topics which, in my opinion, have hitherto been somewhat lightly handled in the argument. Let me makemy meaning clearer by an instance: it is as if you were to tell me that, in order to be able to take down a speech in writing, [7] or to read awritten statement, a man must know his letters. Of course, if notstone deaf, I must have garnered that for a certain object knowledgeof letters was important to me, but the bare recognition of the fact, I fear, would not enable me in any deeper sense to know my letters. So, too, at present I am easily persuaded that if I am to direct my carearight in tillage I must have a knowledge of the art of tillage. Butthe bare recognition of the fact does not one whit provide me with theknowledge how I ought to till. And if I resolved without ado to setabout the work of tilling, I imagine, I should soon resemble yourphysician going on his rounds and visiting his patients without knowingwhat to prescribe or what to do to ease their sufferings. To saveme from the like predicaments, please teach me the actual work andprocesses of tillage. 

 [7] Or, "something from dictation. "

Isch. But truly, [8] Socrates, it is not with tillage as with the otherarts, where the learner must be well-nigh crushed [9] beneath a loadof study before his prentice-hand can turn out work of worth sufficientmerely to support him. [10] The art of husbandry, I say, is not so illto learn and cross-grained; but by watching labourers in the field, bylistening to what they say, you will have straightway knowledge enoughto teach another, should the humour take you. I imagine, Socrates (headded), that you yourself, albeit quite unconscious of the fact, alreadyknow a vast amount about the subject. The fact is, other craftsmen (therace, I mean, in general of artists) are each and all disposed to keepthe most important [11] features of their several arts concealed:with husbandry it is different. Here the man who has the most skill inplanting will take most pleasure in being watched by others; and so toothe most skilful sower. Ask any question you may choose about resultsthus beautifully wrought, and not one feature in the whole performancewill the doer of it seek to keep concealed. To such height of nobleness(he added), Socrates, does husbandry appear, like some fair mistress, toconform the soul and disposition of those concerned with it. 

 [8] "Nay, if you will but listen, Socrates, with husbandry it is not the same as with the other arts. "

 [9] {katatribenai}, "worn out. " See "Mem. " III. Iv. 1; IV. Vii. 5. Al. "bored to death. "

 [10] Or, "before the products of his pupilage are worth his keep. "

 [11] Or, "critical and crucial. "

The proem [12] to the speech is beautiful at any rate (I answered), buthardly calculated to divert the hearer from the previous question. Athing so easy to be learnt, you say? then, if so, do you be all thereadier for that reason to explain its details to me. No shame on youwho teach, to teach these easy matters; but for me to lack the knowledgeof them, and most of all if highly useful to the learner, worse thanshame, a scandal. 

 [12] Or, "the prelude to the piece. "

XVI

Isch. First then, Socrates, I wish to demonstrate to you that whatis called [1] "the intricate variety in husbandry" [2] presents nodifficulty. I use a phrase of those who, whatever the nicety withwhich they treat the art in theory, [3] have but the faintest practicalexperience of tillage. What they assert is, that "he who would rightlytill the soil must first be made acquainted with the nature of theearth. "

 [1] "They term"; in reference to the author of some treatise. 

 [2] Or, "the riddling subtlety of tillage. " See "Mem. " II. Iii. 10; Plat. "Symp. " 182 B; "Phileb. " 53 E. 

 [3] Theophr. "De Caus. " ii. 4, 12, mentions Leophanes amongst other writers on agriculture preceding himself. 

And they are surely right in their assertion (I replied); for he whodoes not know what the soil is capable of bearing, can hardly know, Ifancy, what he has to plant or what to sow. 

But he has only to look at his neighbour's land (he answered), at hiscrops and trees, in order to learn what the soil can bear and whatit cannot. [4] After which discovery, it is ill work fighting againstheaven. Certainly not by dint of sowing and planting what he himselfdesires will he meet the needs of life more fully than by planting andsowing what the earth herself rejoices to bear and nourish on her bosom. Or if, as well may be the case, through the idleness of those who occupyit, the land itself cannot display its native faculty, [5] it is oftenpossible to derive a truer notion from some neighbouring district thatever you will learn about it from your neighbour's lips. [6] Nay, eventhough the earth lie waste and barren, it may still declare its nature;since a soil productive of beautiful wild fruits can by careful tendingbe made to yield fruits of the cultivated kind as beautiful. And onthis wise, he who has the barest knowledge [7] of the art of tillage canstill discern the nature of the soil. 

 [4] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg. " i. 53; iv. 109. According to the commentator Servius, the poet drew largely upon Xenophon's treatise. 

 [5] Or, "cannot prove its natural aptitude. "

 [6] Or, "from a neighbouring mortal. "

 [7] Or, "a mere empiric in the art of husbandry. "

Thank you (I said), Ischomachus, my courage needs no further fanningupon that score. I am bold enough now to believe that no one needabstain from agriculture for fear he will not recognise the nature ofthe soil. Indeed, I now recall to mind a fact concerning fishermen, howas they ply their business on the seas, not crawling lazily along, norbringing to, for prospect's sake, but in the act of scudding past theflying farmsteads, [8] these brave mariners have only to set eyes uponcrops on land, and they will boldly pronounce opinion on the natureof the soil itself, whether good or bad: this they blame and that theypraise. And these opinions for the most part coincide, I notice, withthe verdict of the skilful farmer as to quality of soil. [9]

 [8] Or, "the flying coastland, fields and farmyards. "

 [9] Lit. "And indeed the opinions they pronounce about 'a good soil' mostly tally with the verdict of the expert farmer. "

Isch. At what point shall I begin then, Socrates, to revive yourrecollection [10] of the art of husbandry? since to explain to you theprocesses employed in husbandry means the statement of a hundred detailswhich you know yourself full well already. 

 [10] Or, "begin recalling to your mind. " See Plat. "Meno, " for the doctrine of Anamensis here apparently referred to. 

Soc. The first thing I should like to learn, Ischomachus, I think, ifonly as a point befitting a philosopher, is this: how to proceed and howto work the soil, did I desire to extract the largest crops of wheat andbarley. 

Isch. Good, then! you are aware that fallow must be broken up inreadiness [11] for sowing?

 [11] Or, "ploughed up. " Cf. Theophr. "Hist. Pl. " iii. I. 6; Dion. Hal. "Ant. " x. 17. 

Soc. Yes, I am aware of that. 

Isch. Well then, supposing we begin to plough our land in winter?

Soc. It would not do. There would be too much mud. 

Isch. Well then, what would you say to summer?

Soc. The soil will be too hard in summer for a plough and a pair of oxento break up. 

Isch. It looks as if spring-time were the season to begin this work, then? What do you say?

Soc. I say, one may expect the soil broken up at that season of the yearto crumble [12] best. 

 [12] {kheisthai} = laxari, dissolvi, to be most friable, to scatter readily. 

Isch. Yes, and grasses [13] turned over at that season, Socrates, serveto supply the soil already with manure; while as they have not shedtheir seed as yet, they cannot vegetate. [14] I am supposing that yourecognise a further fact: to form good land, a fallow must be clean andclear of undergrowth and weeds, [15] and baked as much as possible byexposure to the sun. [16]

 [13] "Herbage, " whether grass or other plants, "grass, " "clover, " etc; Theophr. "Hist. Pl. " i. 3. 1; Holden, "green crops. "

 [14] Lit. "and not as yet have shed their seed so as to spring into blade. "

 [15] Or, "quitch. "

 [16] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg. " i. 65, coquat; ii. 260, excoquere. So Lucr. Vi. 962. 

Soc. Yes, that is quite a proper state of things, I should imagine. 

Isch. And to bring about this proper state of things, do you maintainthere can be any other better system than that of turning the soil overas many times as possible in summer?

Soc. On the contrary, I know precisely that for either object, whetherto bring the weeds and quitch grass to the surface and to wither them byscorching heat, or to expose the earth itself to the sun's baking rays, there can be nothing better than to plough the soil up with a pair ofoxen during mid-day in midsummer. 

Isch. And if a gang of men set to, to break and make this fallow withthe mattock, it is transparent that their business is to separate thequitch grass from the soil and keep them parted?

Soc. Just so!--to throw the quitch grass down to wither on the surface, and to turn the soil up, so that the crude earth may have its turn ofbaking. 

XVII

You see, Socrates (he said, continuing the conversation), we hold thesame opinion, both of us, concerning fallow. 

Why, so it seems (I said)--the same opinion. 

Isch. But when it comes to sowing, what is your opinion? Can you suggesta better time for sowing than that which the long experience of formergenerations, combined with that of men now living, recognises asthe best? See, so soon as autumn time has come, the faces of all meneverywhere turn with a wistful gaze towards high heaven. "When will Godmoisten the earth, " they ask, "and suffer men to sow their seed?" [1]

 [1] See Dr. Holden's interesting note at this point: "According to Virgil ('Georg. ' i. 215), spring is the time, " etc. 

Yes, Ischomachus (I answered), for all mankind must recognise theprecept: [2] "Sow not on dry soil" (if it can be avoided), being taughtwisdom doubtless by the heavy losses they must struggle with who sowbefore God's bidding. 

 [2] Or, "it is a maxim held of all men. "

Isch. It seems, then, you and I and all mankind hold one opinion onthese matters?

Soc. Why, yes; where God himself is teacher, such accord is apt tofollow; for instance, all men are agreed, it is better to wear thickclothes [3] in winter, if so be they can. We light fires by generalconsent, provided we have logs to burn. 

 [3] Or, "a thick cloak. " See Rich, s. V. Pallium (= {imation}). 

Yet as regards this very period of seed-time (he made answer), Socrates, we find at once the widest difference of opinion upon one point; as towhich is better, the early, or the later, [4] or the middle sowing?

 [4] See Holden ad loc. Sauppe, "Lex. Xen. , " notes {opsimos} as Ionic and poet. See also Rutherford, "New Phryn. " p. 124: "First met with in a line of the 'Iliad' (ii. 325), {opsimos} does not appear till late Greek except in the 'Oeconomicus, ' a disputed work of Xenophon. "

Soc. Just so, for neither does God guide the year in one set fashion, but irregularly, now suiting it to early sowing best, and now to middle, and again to later. 

Isch. But what, Socrates, is your opinion? Were it better for a man tochoose and turn to sole account a single sowing season, be it much hehas to sow or be it little? or would you have him begin his sowing withthe earliest season, and sow right on continuously until the latest?

And I, in my turn, answered: I should think it best, Ischomachus, to useindifferently the whole sowing season. [5] Far better [6] to have enoughof corn and meal at any moment and from year to year, than first asuperfluity and then perhaps a scant supply. 

 [5] Or, "share in the entire period of seed time. " Zeune cf. "Geop. " ii. 14. 8; Mr. Ruskin's translators, "Bibl. Past. " vol. I. ; cf. Eccles. Xi. 6. 

 [6] Lit. "according to my tenet, " {nomizo}. 

Isch. Then, on this point also, Socrates, you hold a like opinion withmyself--the pupil to the teacher; and what is more, the pupil was thefirst to give it utterance. 

So far, so good! (I answered). Is there a subtle art in scattering theseed?

Isch. Let us by all means investigate that point. That the seed must becast by hand, I presume you know yourself?

Soc. Yes, by the testimony of my eyes. [7]

 [7] Lit. "Yes, for I have seen it done. "

Isch. But as to actual scattering, some can scatter evenly, otherscannot. [8]

 [8] Holden cf. W. Harte, "Essays on Husbandry, " p. 210, 2nd ed. , "The main perfection of sowing is to disperse the seeds equally. "

Soc. Does it not come to this, the hand needs practice (like the fingersof a harp-player) to obey the will?

Isch. Precisely so, but now suppose the soil is light in one part andheavy in another?

Soc. I do not follow; by "light" do you mean weak? and by "heavy"strong?

Isch. Yes, that is what I mean. And the question which I put to youis this: Would you allow both sorts of soil an equal share of seed? orwhich the larger? [9]

 [9] See Theophr. "Hist. Pl. " viii. 6. 2; Virg. "Georg. " ii. 275. Holden cf. Adam Dickson, "Husbandry of the Ancients, " vol. Ii. 35. 33 f. (Edin. 1788), "Were the poor light land in Britain managed after the manner of the Roman husbandry, it would certainly require much less seed than under its present management. "

Soc. The stronger the wine the larger the dose of water to be added, Ibelieve. The stronger, too, the man the heavier the weight we willlay upon his back to carry: or if it is not porterage, but people tosupport, there still my tenet holds: the broader and more powerful thegreat man's shoulders, the more mouths I should assign to him to feed. But perhaps a weak soil, like a lean pack-horse, [10] grows stronger themore corn you pour into it. This I look to you to teach me. [11]

 [10] Or, "lean cattle. "

 [11] Or, "Will you please answer me that question, teacher?"

With a laugh, he answered: Once more you are pleased to jest. Yet restassured of one thing, Socrates: if after you have put seed into theground, you will await the instant when, while earth is being richlyfed from heaven, the fresh green from the hidden seed first springs, andtake and turn it back again, [12] this sprouting germ will serve as foodfor earth: as from manure an inborn strength will presently be added tothe soil. But if you suffer earth to feed the seed of corn within it andto bring forth fruit in an endless round, at last [13] it will be hardfor the weakened soil to yield large corn crops, even as a weak sow canhardly rear a large litter of fat pigs. 

 [12] "If you will plough the seedlings in again. "

 [13] {dia telous... Es telos}, "continually... In the end. " See references in Holden's fifth edition. 

Soc. I understand you to say, Ischomachus, that the weaker soil mustreceive a scantier dose of seed?

Isch. Most decidedly I do, and you on your side, Socrates, I understand, give your consent to this opinion in stating your belief that the weakerthe shoulders the lighter the burdens to be laid on them. 

Soc. But those hoers with their hoes, Ischomachus, tell me for whatreason you let them loose [14] upon the corn. 

 [14] Cf. "Revenues, " iv. 5. 

Isch. You know, I daresay, that in winter there are heavy rains? [15]

 [15] "And melting snows, much water every way. "

Soc. To be sure, I do. 

Isch. We may suppose, then, that a portion of the corn is buried bythese floods beneath a coat of mud and slime, or else that the roots arelaid quite bare in places by the torrent. By reason of this same drench, I take it, oftentimes an undergrowth of weeds springs up with the cornand chokes it. 

Soc. Yes, all these ills are likely enough to happen. 

Isch. Are you not agreed the corn-fields sorely need relief at such aseason?

Soc. Assuredly. 

Isch. Then what is to be done, in your opinion? How shall we aid thestricken portion lying mud-bedabbled?

Soc. How better than by lifting up and lightening the soil?

Isch. Yes! and that other portion lying naked to the roots anddefenceless, how aid it?

Soc. Possibly by mounding up fresh earth about it. [16]

 [16] "Scraping up a barrier of fresh earth about it. "

Isch. And what when the weeds spring up together with the corn and chokeit? or when they rob and ruthlessly devour the corn's proper sustenance, like unserviceable drones [17] that rob the working bees of honey, pilfering the good food which they have made and stored away withlabour: what must we do?

 [17] Cf. Shakesp. "Lazy yawning drones, " "Henry V. " I. Ii. 204. 

Soc. In good sooth, there can be nothing for it save to cut out thenoisome weed, even as drones are cleared out from the hive. 

Isch. You agree there is some show of reason for letting in these gangsof hoers?

Soc. Most true. And now I am turning over in my mind, [18] Ischomachus, how grand a thing it is to introduce a simile or such like figure welland aptly. No sooner had you mentioned the word "drones" than I wasfilled with rage against those miserable weeds, far more than when youmerely spoke of weeds and undergrowth. 

 [18] Or, "I was just this moment pondering the virtue of a happy illustration. " Lit. "what a thing it is to introduce an 'image' ({tas eikonas}) well. " See Plat. "Rep. " 487 E, {de eikonos}, "in a parable" (Jowett); "Phaed. " 87 B, "a figure"; Aristoph. "Clouds, " 559; Plat. "Phaedr. " 267 C; Aristot. "Rhet. " III. Iv. As to the drones, J. J. Hartman, "An. X. " 186, aptly cf. Aristoph. "Wasps, " 1114 f. 

XVIII

But, not to interrupt you further (I continued), after sowing, naturallywe hope to come to reaping. If, therefore, you have anything to say onthat head also, pray proceed to teach me. 

Isch. Yes, by all means, unless indeed you prove on this head also toknow as much yourself already as your teacher. To begin then: You knowthat corn needs cutting?

Soc. To be sure, I know that much at any rate. 

Isch. Well, then, the next point: in the act of cutting corn how willyou choose to stand? facing the way the wind blows, [1] or against thewind?

 [1] Lit. "(on the side) where the wind blows or right opposite. "

Soc. Not against the wind, for my part. Eyes and hands must suffer, Iimagine, if one stood reaping face to face with husks and particles ofstraw. [2]

 [2] i. E. "with particles of straw and beards of corn blowing in one's face. "

Isch. And should you merely sever the ears at top, or reap close to theground? [3]

 [3] See Holden ad loc. ; Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, "Husbandry, " 27 (ed. 1767), "In Somersetshire... They do share theyr wheate very lowe.... "

If the stalk of corn were short (I answered), I should cut down close, to secure a sufficient length of straw to be of use. But if the stalk betall, you would do right, I hold, to cut it half-way down, whereby thethresher and the winnower will be saved some extra labour (which bothmay well be spared). [4] The stalk left standing in the field, whenburnt down (as burnt it will be, I presume), will help to benefit thesoil; [5] and laid on as manure, will serve to swell the volume ofmanure. [6]

 [4] Lit. "will be spared superfluous labour on what they do not want. "

 [5] Al. "if burnt down... ; if laid on as manure... "

 [6] "Help to swell the bulk" (Holden). For the custom see Virg. "Georg. " i. 84; J. Tull, op. Cit. Ix. 141: "The custom of burning the stubble on the rich plains about Rome continues to this time. "

Isch. There, Socrates, you are detected "in the very act"; you know asmuch about reaping as I do myself. 

It looks a little like it (I replied). But I would fain discover whetherI have sound knowledge also about threshing. 

Isch. Well, I suppose you are aware of this much: corn is threshed bybeasts of burthen? [7]

 [7] Holden cf. Dr. Davy, "Notes and Observations on the Ionian Islands. " "The grain is beaten out, commonly in the harvest field, by men, horses, or mules, on a threshing-floor prepared extempore for the purpose, where the ground is firm and dry, and the chaff is separated by winnowing. "--Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians, " ii. 41 foll. 

Soc. Yes, I am aware of that much, and beast of burthen is a generalname including oxen, horses, mules, and so forth. [8]

 [8] See Varro, i. 52, as to tritura and ventilatio. 

Isch. Is it your opinion that these animals know more than merely how totread the corn while driven with the goad?

Soc. What more can they know, being beasts of burthen?

Isch. Some one must see, then, that the beasts tread out only whatrequires threshing and no more, and that the threshing is done evenlyitself: to whom do you assign that duty, Socrates?

Soc. Clearly it is the duty of the threshers who are in charge. [9] Itis theirs to turn the sheaves, and ever and again to push the untroddencorn under the creatures' feet; and thus, of course, to keep thethreshing-floor as smooth, and finish off the work as fast, as possible. 

 [9] Or, "to the over-threshers, " "the drivers" (Holden). 

Isch. Your comprehension of the facts thus far, it seems, keeps pacewith mine. 

Soc. Well, after that, Ischomachus, we will proceed to cleanse the cornby winnowing. [10]

 [10] Breit. Cf. Colum. "de r. R. " ii. 10, 14, 21; vide Rich, s. V. Ventilabrum. 

Isch. Yes, but tell me, Socrates; do you know that if you begin theprocess from the windward portion (of the threshing-floor), you willfind your chaff is carried over the whole area. 

Soc. It must be so. 

Isch. Then it is more than likely the chaff will fall upon the corn. 

Soc. Yes, considering the distance, [11] the chaff will hardly becarried across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor. 

 [11] Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried. " Al. (1) "It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the corn. " (2) "It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the threshing-floor. " So Breit. 

Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of thethreshing-floor? [12]

 [12] Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind. " Al. "protected from the wind. "

Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-receiver. [13]

 [13] A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to Breitenbach. 

Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will youproceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to winnowthe remainder, [14] or will you first pack the clean grain into thenarrowest space against the central pillar? [15]

 [14] Lit. "of the chaff, " where we should say "corn, " the winnowing process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff. 

 [15] If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim of the threshing-floor. "

Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, andproceed. My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of thefloor, and I shall escape the need of winnowing twice over. [16]

 [16] Or, "the same chaff (i. E. Unwinnowed corn, Angl. Corn) twice. "

Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, toteach an ignorant world [17] the speediest mode of winnowing. 

 [17] Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another how to purge his corn most expeditiously. "

Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these matters, though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my brains, [18]reflecting whether or not I may not know some other things--how torefine gold and play the flute and paint pictures--without beingconscious of the fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no one evertaught me these, no more than husbandry; while, as to using my own eyes, I have watched men working at the other arts no less than I have watchedthem till the soil. 

 [18] Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether... "

Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was thenoblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn?

Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have knownthe processes of sowing, without being conscious of my knowledge. [19]

 [19] Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own knowledge). "

XIX

Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees [1] adepartment in the art of husbandry?

 [1] i. E. Of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc. 

Isch. Certainly it is. 

Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing andat the same time have no knowledge about planting?

Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge?

Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in whichto plant, nor yet the depth of hole [2] the plant requires, nor thebreadth, or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded; [3] norlastly, how to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering itsgrowth. [4]

 [2] Reading {to phuto}, "nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole) for the plant. " Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al. {bothron}. 

 [3] See Loudon, "Encycl. Of Agric. " S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon. "

 [4] Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or grow. "

Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do notknow already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are dugfor plants?

Soc. Hundreds of times. 

Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep?

Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feetdeep. 

Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more thanthree feet broad? [5]

 [5] Or, "width, " "wide. " The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N. " xvii. 11, 16, 22; Columell. V. 5. 2; ib. Iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg. " ii. 288. 

Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad. 

Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench lessthan one foot deep?

Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the plantswould be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so extremelynear the surface. 

Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as anyone. [6] The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a half, or shallower than one foot and a half. 

 [6] Lit. "quite adequately. "

Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once. 

Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soiland a moist?

Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus, [7] andany that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows ofPhalerum, [8] or the like. 

 [7] See Leake, "Topog. Of Athens, " i. 209. 

 [8] Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land. " See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9. 

Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in adry soil or a moist?

Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig deeptrenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then an endto further planting. 

Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trencheshave been dug. Does your eyesight take you further? [9] Have you noticedat what season in either case [10] the plants must be embedded?

 [9] Lit. "As soon as the trenches have been dug then, have you further noticed... "

 [10] (1) The vulg. Reading {openika... Ekatera} = "at what precise time... Either (i. E. 'the two different' kinds of) plant, " i. E. "vine and olive" or "vine and fig, " I suppose; (2) Breit. Emend. {opotera... En ekatera} = "which kind of plant... In either soil... "; (3) Schenkl. Etc. , {openika... En ekatera} = "at what season... In each of the two sorts of soil... "

Soc. Certainly. [11]

 [11] There is an obvious lacuna either before or after this remark, or at both places. 

Isch. Supposing, then, you wish the plants to grow as fast aspossible: how will the cutting strike and sprout, do you suppose, mostreadily?--after you have laid a layer of soil already worked beneath it, and it merely has to penetrate soft mould? or when it has to force itsway through unbroken soil into the solid ground?

Soc. Clearly it will shoot through soil which has been worked morequickly than through unworked soil. 

Isch. Well then, a bed of earth must be laid beneath the plant?

Soc. I quite agree; so let it be. 

Isch. And how do you expect your cutting to root best?--if set straightup from end to end, pointing to the sky? [12] or if you set it slantwiseunder its earthy covering, so as to lie like an inverted gamma? [13]

 [12] Lit. "if you set the whole cutting straight up, facing heavenwards. "

 [13] i. E. Anglice, "like the letter {G} upon its back" {an inverted "upper-case" gamma looks like an L}. See Lord Bacon, "Nat. Hist. " Cent. V. 426: "When you would have many new roots of fruit-trees, take a low tree and bow it and lay all his branches aflat upon the ground and cast earth upon them; and every twig will take root. And this is a very profitable experiment for costly trees (for the boughs will make stock without charge), such as are apricots, peaches, almonds, cornelians, mulberries, figs, etc. The like is continually practised with vines, roses, musk roses, etc. "

Soc. Like an inverted gamma, to be sure, for so the plant must needshave more eyes under ground. Now it is from these same eyes of theirs, if I may trust my own, [14] that plants put forth their shoots aboveground. I imagine, therefore, the eyes still underground will do thesame precisely, and with so many buds all springing under earth, theplant itself, I argue, as a whole will sprout and shoot and push its waywith speed and vigour. 

 [14] Lit. "it is from their eyes, I see, that plants... "

Isch. I may tell you that on these points, too, your judgment tallieswith my own. But now, should you content yourself with merely heaping upthe earth, or will you press it firmly round your plant?

Soc. I should certainly press down the earth; for if the earth is notpressed down, I know full well that at one time under the influence ofrain the unpressed soil will turn to clay or mud; at another, under theinfluence of the sun, it will turn to sand or dust to the very bottom:so that the poor plant runs a risk of being first rotted with moistureby the rain, and next of being shrivelled up with drought throughoverheating of the roots. [15]

 [15] Through "there being too much bottom heat. " Holden (ed. 1886). 

Isch. So far as the planting of vines is concerned, it appears, Socrates, that you and I again hold views precisely similar. 

And does this method of planting apply also to the fig-tree? (Iinquired). 

Isch. Surely, and not to the fig-tree alone, but to all the rest offruit-trees. [16] What reason indeed would there be for rejecting in thecase of other plant-growths [17] what is found to answer so well withthe vine?

 [16] {akrodrua} = "edible fruits" in Xenophon's time. See Plat. "Criti. " 115 B; Dem. "c. Nicostr. " 1251; Aristot. "Hist. An. " viii. 28. 8, {out akrodrua out opora khronios}; Theophr. "H. Pl. " iv. 4. 11. (At a later period, see "Geopon. " x. 74, = "fruits having a hard rind or shell, " e. G. Nuts, acorns, as opposed to pears, apples, grapes, etc. , {opora}. ) See further the interesting regulations in Plat. "Laws, " 844 D, 845 C. 

 [17] Lit. "planting in general. "

Soc. How shall we plant the olive, pray, Ischomachus?

Isch. I see your purpose. You ask that question with a view to put meto the test, [18] when you know the answer yourself as well as possible. You can see with your own eyes [19] that the olive has a deeper trenchdug, planted as it is so commonly by the side of roads. You can see thatall the young plants in the nursery adhere to stumps. [20] And lastly, you can see that a lump of clay is placed on the head of every plant, [21] and the portion of the plant above the soil is protected by awrapping. [22]

 [18] Plat. "Prot. " 311 B, 349 C; "Theaet. " 157 C: "I cannot make out whether you are giving your own opinion, or only wanting to draw me out" (Jowett). 

 [19] For the advantage, see "Geopon. " iii. 11. 2. 

 [20] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg. " ii. 30--

quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radixoleagina ligno. 

The stock in slices cut, and forth shall shoot, O passing strange! fromeach dry slice a root (Holden). 

See John Martyn ad loc. : "La Cerda says, that what the Poet here speaksof was practised in Spain in his time. They take the trunk of an olive, says he, deprive it of its root and branches, and cut it into severalpieces, which they put into the ground, whence a root and, soonafterwards, a tree is formed. " This mode of propagating by dry piecesof the trunk (with bark on) is not to be confounded with that of"truncheons" mentioned in "Georg. " ii. 63. 

 [21] See Theophr. "H. Pl. " ii. 2, 4; "de Caus. " iii. 5. 1; "Geopon. " ix. 11. 4, ap. Hold. ; Col. V. 9. 1; xi. 2. 42. 

 [22] Or, "covered up for protection. "

Soc. Yes, all these things I see. 

Isch. Granted, you see: what is there in the matter that you do notunderstand? Perhaps you are ignorant how you are to lay the potsherd onthe clay at top?

Soc. No, in very sooth, not ignorant of that Ischomachus, or anythingyou mentioned. That is just the puzzle, and again I beat my brains todiscover why, when you put to me that question a while back: "Had I, inbrief, the knowledge how to plant?" I answered, "No. " Till then it neverwould have struck me that I could say at all how planting must be done. But no sooner do you begin to question me on each particular pointthan I can answer you; and what is more, my answers are, you tell me, accordant with the views of an authority [23] at once so skilful and socelebrated as yourself. Really, Ischomachus, I am disposed to ask: "Doesteaching consist in putting questions?" [24] Indeed, the secret of yoursystem has just this instant dawned upon me. I seem to see the principlein which you put your questions. You lead me through the field of my ownknowledge, [25] and then by pointing out analogies [26] to what Iknow, persuade me that I really know some things which hitherto, as Ibelieved, I had no knowledge of. 

 [23] Or, "whose skill in farming is proverbial. "

 [24] Lit. "Is questioning after all a kind of teaching?" See Plat. "Meno"; "Mem. " IV. Vi. 15. 

 [25] It appears, then, that the Xenophontean Socrates has {episteme} of a sort. 

 [26] Or, "a series of resemblances, " "close parallels, " reading {epideiknus}: or if with Breit. {apodeiknus}, transl. "by proving such or such a thing is like some other thing known to me already. "

Isch. Do you suppose if I began to question you concerning money and itsquality, [27] I could possibly persuade you that you know the method todistinguish good from false coin? Or could I, by a string of questionsabout flute-players, painters, and the like, induce you to believe thatyou yourself know how to play the flute, or paint, and so forth?

 [27] Lit. "whether it is good or not. "

Soc. Perhaps you might; for have you not persuaded me I am possessed ofperfect knowledge of this art of husbandry, [28] albeit I know that noone ever taught this art to me?

 [28] Or, "since you actually succeeded in persuading me I was scientifically versed in, " etc. See Plat. "Statesm. " 301 B; "Theaet. " 208 E; Aristot. "An. Post. " i. 6. 4; "Categ. " 8. 41. 

Isch. Ah! that is not the explanation, Socrates. The truth is whatI told you long ago and kept on telling you. Husbandry is an art sogentle, so humane, that mistress-like she makes all those who look onher or listen to her voice intelligent [29] of herself at once. Manya lesson does she herself impart how best to try conclusions with her. [30] See, for instance, how the vine, making a ladder of the nearesttree whereon to climb, informs us that it needs support. [31] Anon itspreads its leaves when, as it seems to say, "My grapes are young, myclusters tender, " and so teaches us, during that season, to screen andshade the parts exposed to the sun's rays; but when the appointed momentcomes, when now it is time for the swelling clusters to be sweetenedby the sun, behold, it drops a leaf and then a leaf, so teaching us tostrip it bare itself and let the vintage ripen. With plenty teeming, seethe fertile mother shows her mellow clusters, and the while is nursinga new brood in primal crudeness. [32] So the vine plant teaches us howbest to gather in the vintage, even as men gather figs, the juiciestfirst. [33]

 [29] Or, "gives them at once a perfect knowledge of herself. "

 [30] Lit. "best to deal with her, " "make use of her. "

 [31] Lit. "teaches us to prop it. "

 [32] Lit. "yet immature. "

 [33] Or, "first one and then another as it swells. " Cf. Shakespeare:

The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, Or being early pluck'dis sour to taste ("V. And A. " 527). 

XX

At this point in the conversation I remarked: Tell me, Ischomachus, if the details of the art of husbandry are thus easy to learn, and allalike know what needs to be done, how does it happen that all farmersdo not fare like, but some live in affluence owning more than theycan possibly enjoy, while others of them fail to obtain the barestnecessities and actually run into debt?

I will tell you, Socrates (Ischomachus replied). It is neither knowledgenor lack of knowledge in these husbandmen which causes some to be welloff, while others are in difficulties; nor will you ever hear such talesafloat as that this or that estate has gone to ruin because the sowerfailed to sow evenly, or that the planter failed to plant straight rowsof plants, or that such an one, [1] being ignorant what soil was bestsuited to bear vines, had set his plants in sterile ground, or thatanother [2] was in ignorance that fallow must be broken up for purposesof sowing, or that a third [3] was not aware that it is good to mixmanure in with the soil. No, you are much more likely to hear said ofSo-and-so: No wonder the man gets in no wheat from his farm, when hetakes no pains to have it sown or properly manured. Or of some otherthat he grows no wine: Of course not, when he takes no pains either toplant new vines or to make those he has bear fruit. A third has neitherfigs nor olives; and again the self-same reason: He too is careless, andtakes no steps whatever to succeed in growing either one or other. Theseare the distinctions which make all the difference to prosperity infarming, far more than the reputed discovery of any clever agriculturalmethod or machine. [4]

 [1] "Squire This. "

 [2] "Squire That. "

 [3] "Squire T'other. "

 [4] There is something amiss with the text at this point. For emendations see Breit. , Schenkl, Holden, Hartman. 

You will find the principle applies elsewhere. There are points ofstrategic conduct in which generals differ from each other for thebetter or the worse, not because they differ in respect of wit orjudgment, but of carefulness undoubtedly. I speak of things within thecognisance of every general, and indeed of almost every private soldier, which some commanders are careful to perform and others not. Who doesnot know, for instance, that in marching through a hostile territoryan army ought to march in the order best adapted to deliver battle witheffect should need arise? [5]--a golden rule which, punctually obeyedby some, is disobeyed by others. Again, as all the world knows, it isbetter to place day and night pickets [6] in front of an encampment. Yeteven that is a procedure which, carefully observed at times, is at timesas carelessly neglected. Once more: not one man in ten thousand, [7]I suppose, but knows that when a force is marching through a narrowdefile, the safer method is to occupy beforehand certain points ofvantage. [8] Yet this precaution also has been known to be neglected. 

 [5] See Thuc. Ii. 81: "The Hellenic troops maintained order on the march and kept a look-out until... "--Jowett. 

 [6] See "Cyrop. " I. Vi. 43. 

 [7] Lit. "it would be hard to find the man who did not know. "

 [8] Or, "to seize advantageous positions in advance. " Cf. "Hiero, " x. 5. 

Similarly, every one will tell you that manure is the best thing inthe world for agriculture, and every one can see how naturally it isproduced. Still, though the method of production is accurately known, though there is every facility to get it in abundance, the fact remainsthat, while one man takes pains to have manure collected, another isentirely neglectful. And yet God sends us rain from heaven, and everyhollow place becomes a standing pool, while earth supplies materials ofevery kind; the sower, too, about to sow must cleanse the soil, and whathe takes as refuse from it needs only to be thrown into water and timeitself will do the rest, shaping all to gladden earth. [9] For matterin every shape, nay earth itself, [10] in stagnant water turns to finemanure. 

 [9] Lit. "Time itself will make that wherein Earth rejoices. "

 [10] i. E. "each fallen leaf, each sprig or spray of undergrowth, the very weeds, each clod. " Lit. "what kind of material, what kind of soil does not become manure when thrown into stagnant water?"

So, again, as touching the various ways in which the earth itself needstreatment, either as being too moist for sowing, or too salt [11] forplanting, these and the processes of cure are known to all men: howin one case the superfluous water is drawn off by trenches, and in theother the salt corrected by being mixed with various non-salt bodies, moist or dry. Yet here again, in spite of knowledge, some are careful ofthese matters, others negligent. 

 [11] See Anatol. "Geop. " ii. 10. 9; Theophr. "de Caus. " ii. 5. 4, 16. 8, ap. Holden. Cf. Virg. "Georg. " ii. 238:

salsa autem tellus, et quae perhibetur amara frugibus infelix. 

But even if a man were altogether ignorant what earth can yield, were hedebarred from seeing any fruit or plant, prevented hearing from thelips of any one the truth about this earth: even so, I put it to you, itwould be easier far for any living soul to make experiments on a pieceof land, [12] than on a horse, for instance, or on his fellow-man. Forthere is nought which earth displays with intent to deceive, but inclear and simple language stamped with the seal of truth she informsus what she can and cannot do. [13] Thus it has ever seemed to me thatearth is the best discoverer of true honesty, [14] in that she offersall her stores of knowledge in a shape accessible to the learner, sothat he who runs may read. Here it is not open to the sluggard, as inother arts, to put forward the plea of ignorance or lack of knowledge, for all men know that earth, if kindly treated, will repay in kind. No! there is no witness [15] against a coward soul so clear as that ofhusbandry; [16] since no man ever yet persuaded himself that he couldlive without the staff of life. He therefore that is unskilled in othermoney-making arts and will not dig, shows plainly he is minded to makehis living by picking and stealing, or by begging alms, or else hewrites himself down a very fool. [17]

 [12] Or, "this fair earth herself. "

 [13] Or, "earth our mother reveals her powers and her impotence. "

 [14] Lit. "of the good and the bad. " Cf. Dem. "adv. Phorm. " 918. 18. 

 [15] Lit. "no accuser of. " Cf. Aesch. "Theb. " 439. 

 [16] Reading, with Sauppe, {all' e georgia}, or if, with Jacobs, {e en georgia argia}, transl. "as that of idleness in husbandry. "

 [17] Or, "if not, he must be entirely irrational. " Cf. Plat. "Apol. " 37 C. 

Presently, Ischomachus proceeded: Now it is of prime importance, [18] inreference to the profitableness or unprofitableness of agriculture, evenon a large estate where there are numerous [19] workfolk, [20] whether aman takes any pains at all to see that his labourers are devoted to thework on hand during the appointed time, [21] or whether he neglects thatduty. Since one man will fairly distance ten [22] simply by working atthe time, and another may as easily fall short by leaving off before thehour. [23] In fact, to let the fellows take things easily the whole daythrough will make a difference easily of half in the whole work. [24]

 [18] Lit. "it made a great difference, he said, with regard to profit and loss in agriculture. "

 [19] Or if, after Hertlein, adding {kai meionon}, transl. "workmen now more, now less, in number. "

 [20] {ergasteron}, "poet. " L. & S. Cf. "Orph. H. " 65. 4. See above, v. 15; xiii. 10. 

 [21] Cf. Herod. II. Ii. 2. 

 [22] Or, "Why! one man in ten makes all the difference by... " {para} = "by comparison with. "

 [23] Reading as vulg. , or if {to me pro k. T. L. } transl. "by not leaving off, etc. "

 [24] i. E. "is a difference of fifty per cent on the whole work. "

As, on a walking-expedition, it may happen, of two wayfarers, theone will gain in pace upon the other half the distance say in everyfive-and-twenty miles, [25] though both alike are young and hale ofbody. The one, in fact, is bent on compassing the work on which hestarted, he steps out gaily and unflinchingly; the other, more slack inspirit, stops to recruit himself and contemplate the view by fountainside and shady nook, as though his object were to court each gentlezephyr. So in farm work; there is a vast difference as regardsperformance between those who do it not, but seek excuse for idlenessand are suffered to be listless. Thus, between good honest work and baseneglect there is as great a difference as there is between--what shall Isay?--why, work and idleness. [26] The gardeners, look, are hoeing vinesto keep them clean and free of weeds; but they hoe so sorrily that theloose stuff grows ranker and more plentiful. Can you call that [27]anything but idleness?

 [25] Lit. "per 200 stades. "

 [26] Or, "wholly to work and wholly to be idle. " Reading as Sauppe, etc. , or if with Holden, etc. , {to de de kalos kai to kakos ergazesthai e epimeleisthai}, transl. "between toil and carefulness well or ill expended there lies all the difference; the two things are sundered as wide apart as are the poles of work and play, " etc. A. Jacobs' emend. Ap. Hartm. "An. Xen. " p. 211, {to de de kakos ergazesthai e kakos epimeleisthai kei to kalos}, seems happy. 

 [27] Or, "such a hoer aught but an idle loon. "

Such, Socrates, are the ills which cause a house to crumble far morethan lack of scientific knowledge, however rude it be. [28] For ifyou will consider; on the one hand, there is a steady outflow [29] ofexpenses from the house, and, on the other, a lack of profitable worksoutside to meet expenses; need you longer wonder if the field-workscreate a deficit and not a surplus? In proof, however, that the man whocan give the requisite heed, while straining every nerve in the pursuitof agriculture, has speedy [30] and effective means of making money, Imay cite the instance of my father, who had practised what he preached. [31]

 [28] Cf. Thuc. V. 7; Plat. "Rep. " 350 A; "Theaet. " 200 B. 

 [29] Or, "the expenses from the house are going on at the full rate, " {enteleis}. Holden cf. Aristoph. "Knights, " 1367: {ton misthon apodoso 'ntele}, "I'll have the arrears of seamen's wages paid to a penny" (Frere). 

 [30] {anutikotaten}. Cf. "Hipparch, " ii. 6. 

 [31] Or, "who merely taught me what he had himself carried out in practice. "

Now, my father would never suffer me to purchase an estate already undercultivation, but if he chanced upon a plot of land which, owing to theneglect or incapacity of the owner, was neither tilled nor planted, [32]nothing would satisfy him but I must purchase it. He had a saying thatestates already under cultivation cost a deal of money and allowed ofno improvement; and where there is no prospect of improvement, more thanhalf the pleasure to be got from the possession vanishes. The height ofhappiness was, he maintained, to see your purchase, be it dead chattelor live animal, [33] go on improving daily under your own eyes. [34]Now, nothing shows a larger increase [35] than a piece of land reclaimedfrom barren waste and bearing fruit a hundredfold. I can assure you, Socrates, many is the farm which my father and I made worth I do notknow how many times more than its original value. And then, Socrates, this valuable invention [36] is so easy to learn that you who have butheard it know and understand it as well as I myself do, and can go awayand teach it to another if you choose. Yet my father did not learn it ofanother, nor did he discover it by a painful mental process; [37] but, as he has often told me, through pure love of husbandry and fondness oftoil, he would become enamoured of such a spot as I describe, [38] andthen nothing would content him but he must own it, in order to havesomething to do, and at the same time, to derive pleasure along withprofit from the purchase. For you must know, Socrates, of all AtheniansI have ever heard of, my father, as it seems to me, had the greatestlove for agricultural pursuits. 

 [32] i. E. Out of cultivation, whether as corn land or for fruit trees, viz. Olive, fig, vine, etc. 

 [33] Or, "be it a dead thing or a live pet. " Cf. Plat. "Theaet. " 174 B; "Laws, " 789 B, 790 D, 819 B; "C. I. " 1709. 

 [34] Cf. "Horsem. " iii. 1; and see Cowley's Essay above referred to. 

 [35] Or, "is susceptible of greater improvement. "

 [36] Or, "discovery. " See "Anab. " III. V. 12; "Hell. " IV. V. 4; "Hunting, " xiii. 13. 

 [37] Or, "nor did he rack his brains to discover it. " See "Mem. " III. V. 23. Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds, " 102, {merimnophrontistai}, minute philosophers. 

 [38] "He could not see an estate of the sort described but he must fall over head and ears in love with it at first sight; have it he must. "

When I heard this, I could not resist asking a question; Ischomachus (Isaid), did your father retain possession of all the farms he put undercultivation, or did he part with them whenever he was offered a goodprice?

He parted with them, without a doubt (replied Ischomachus), but then atonce he bought another in the place of what he sold, and in every casean untilled farm, in order to gratify his love for work. 

As you describe him (I proceeded), your father must truly havebeen formed by nature with a passion for husbandry, not unlike thatcorn-hunger which merchants suffer from. You know their habits: byreason of this craving after corn, [39] whenever they hear that corn isto be got, they go sailing off to find it, even if they must cross theAegean, or the Euxine, or the Sicilian seas. And when they have got asmuch as ever they can get, they will not let it out of their sight, butstore it in the vessel on which they sail themselves, and off they goacross the seas again. [40] Whenever they stand in need of money, theywill not discharge their precious cargo, [41] at least not in haphazardfashion, wherever they may chance to be; but first they find out wherecorn is at the highest value, and where the inhabitants will set thegreatest store by it, and there they take and deliver the dear article. Your father's fondness for agriculture seems to bear a certain familyresemblance to this passion. 

 [39] Lit. "of their excessive love for corn. "

 [40] Lit. "they carry it across the seas again, and that, too, after having stored it in the hold of the very vessel in which they sail themselves. "

 [41] Or, "their treasure. " {auton} throughout, which indeed is the humour of the passage. The love of John Barleycorn is their master passion. 

To these remarks Ischomachus replied: You jest, Socrates; but still Ihold to my belief: that man is fond of bricks and mortar who no soonerhas built one house than he must needs sell it and proceed to buildanother. 

To be sure, Ischomachus (I answered), and for my part I assure you, uponoath, I, Socrates, do verily and indeed believe [42] you that all men bynature love (or hold they ought to love) those things wherebysoever theybelieve they will be benefited. 

 [32] Reading {e men pisteuein soi phusei (nomizein) philein tauta pantas... }; and for the "belief" propounded with so much humorous emphasis, see Adam Smith, "Moral Sentiments. " Hartman, "An. Xen. " 180, cf. Plat. "Lysis. "

XXI

After a pause, I added: I am turning over in my mind how cleverly youhave presented the whole argument to support your thesis: which was, that of all arts the art of husbandry is the easiest to learn. And now, as the result of all that has been stated, I am entirely persuaded thatthis is so. 

Isch. Yes, Socrates, indeed it is. But I, on my side, must in turn admitthat as regards that faculty which is common alike to every kind ofconduct (tillage, or politics, the art of managing a house, or ofconducting war), the power, namely, of command [1]--I do subscribe toyour opinion, that on this score one set of people differ largelyfrom another both in point of wit and judgement. On a ship of war, forinstance, [2] the ship is on the high seas, and the crew must row wholedays together to reach moorings. [3] Now note the difference. Here youmay find a captain [4] able by dint of speech and conduct to whet thesouls of those he leads, and sharpen them to voluntary toils; and thereanother so dull of wit and destitute of feeling that it will take hiscrew just twice the time to finish the same voyage. See them step onshore. The first ship's company are drenched in sweat; but listen, theyare loud in praise of one another, the captain and his merry men alike. And the others? They are come at last; they have not turned a hair, thelazy fellows, but for all that they hate their officer and by him arehated. 

 [1] See "Mem. " I. I. 7. 

 [2] Or, "the crew must row the livelong day... "

 [3] For an instance see "Hell. " VI. Ii. 27, Iphicrates' periplus. 

 [4] Or, "one set of boatswains. " See Thuc. Ii. 84. For the duties of the Keleustes see "Dict. Gk. Rom. Ant. " s. V. Portisculus; and for the type of captain see "Hell. " V. I. 3, Teleutias. 

Generals, too, will differ (he proceeded), the one sort from the other, in this very quality. Here you have a leader who, incapable of kindlinga zest for toil and love of hairbreadth 'scapes, is apt to engender inhis followers that base spirit which neither deigns nor chooses to obey, except under compulsion. They even pride and plume themselves, [5] thecowards, on their opposition to their leader; this same leader who, inthe end, will make his men insensible to shame even in presence ofmost foul mishap. On the other hand, put at their head another stamp ofgeneral: one who is by right divine [6] a leader, good and brave, aman of scientific knowledge. Let him take over to his charge thosemalcontents, or others even of worse character, and he will have thempresently ashamed of doing a disgraceful deed. "It is nobler to obey"will be their maxim. They will exult in personal obedience and in commontoil, where toil is needed, cheerily performed. For just as an unurgedzeal for voluntary service [7] may at times invade, we know, the breastsof private soldiers, so may like love of toil with emulous longing toachieve great deeds of valour under the eyes of their commander, beimplanted in whole armies by good officers. 

 [5] Lit. "magnify themselves. " See "Ages. " x. 2; "Pol. Lac. " viii. 2. 

 [6] Or, "god-like, " "with something more than human in him. " See Hom. "Il. " xxiv. 259:

{oude eokei andros ge thnetou pais emmenai alla theoio. }

"Od. " iv. 691; {theioi basilees}. Cf. Carlyle, "Heroes"; Plat. "Meno, "99 D: Soc. "And may we not, Meno, truly call those men divine who, having no understanding, yet succeed in many a grand deed and word?"And below: Soc. "And the women too, Meno, call good men divine; and theSpartans, when they praise a good man, say, 'that he is a divine man'"(Jowett). Arist. "Eth. N. " vii. 1: "That virtue which transcends thehuman, and which is of an heroic or godlike type, such as Priam, in thepoems of Homer, ascribes to Hector, when wishing to speak of his greatgoodness:

 Not woman-born seemed he, but sprung from gods. "

And below: "And exactly as it is a rare thing to find a man of godlikenature--to use the expression of the Spartans, 'a godlike man, ' whichthey apply to those whom they expressively admire--so, too, brutality isa type of character rarely found among men" (Robert Williams). 

 [7] Reading {etheloponia tis}, or if {philoponia}, transl. "just as some strange delight in labour may quicken in the heart of many an individual soldier. " See "Anab. " IV. Vii. 11. 

Happy must that leader be whose followers are thus attached to him:beyond all others he will prove a stout and strong commander. And bystrong, I mean, not one so hale of body as to tower above the stoutestof the soldiery themselves; no, nor him whose skill to hurl a javelinor shoot an arrow will outshine the skilfullest; nor yet that mountedon the fleetest charger it shall be his to bear the brunt of dangerforemost amid the knightliest horsemen, the nimblest of light infantry. No, not these, but who is able to implant a firm persuasion in the mindsof all his soldiers: follow him they must and will through fire, if needbe, or into the jaws of death. [8]

 [8] Or, "through flood and fire or other desperate strait. " Cf. "Anab. " II. Vi. 8. 

Lofty of soul and large of judgment [9] may he be designated justly, atwhose back there steps a multitude stirred by his sole sentiment; notunreasonably may he be said to march "with a mighty arm, " [10] to whosewill a thousand willing hands are prompt to minister; a great man inevery deed he is who can achieve great ends by resolution rather thanbrute force. 

 [9] See "Ages. " ix. 6, "of how lofty a sentiment. "

 [10] See Herod. Vii. 20, 157; Thuc. Iii. 96. 

So, too, within the field of private industry, the person in authority, be it the bailiff, be it the overseer, [11] provided he is able toproduce unflinching energy, intense and eager, for the work, belongsto those who haste to overtake good things [12] and reap great plenty. Should the master (he proceeded), being a man possessed of somuch power, Socrates, to injure the bad workman and reward thezealous--should he suddenly appear, and should his appearance in thelabour field produce no visible effect upon his workpeople, I cannot sayI envy or admire him. But if the sight of him is followed by a stirof movement, if there come upon [13] each labourer fresh spirit, withmutual rivalry and keen ambition, drawing out the finest qualities ofeach, [14] of him I should say, Behold a man of kingly disposition. And this, if I mistake not, is the quality of greatest import in everyoperation which needs the instrumentality of man; but most of all, perhaps, in agriculture. Not that I would maintain that it is a thing tobe lightly learnt by a glance of the eye, or hearsay fashion, as a talethat is told. Far from it, I assert that he who is to have thispower has need of education; he must have at bottom a good naturaldisposition; and, what is greatest of all, he must be himself a god-likebeing. [15] For if I rightly understand this blessed gift, this facultyof command over willing followers, by no means is it, in its entirety, a merely human quality, but it is in part divine. It is a gift plainlygiven to those truly initiated [16] in the mystery of self-command. Whereas despotism over unwilling slaves, the heavenly ones give, as itseems to me, to those whom they deem worthy to live the life of Tantalusin Hades, of whom it is written [17] "he consumes unending days inapprehension of a second death. "

 [11] According to Sturz, "Lex. " s. V. , the {epitropos} is (as a rule, see "Mem. " II. Viii. ) a slave or freedman, the {epistates} a free man. See "Mem. " III. V. 18. 

 [12] Apparently a homely formula, like "make hay whilst the sun shines, " "a stitch in time saves nine. "

 [13] Cf. Hom. "Il. " ix. 436, xvii. 625; "Hell. " VII. I. 31. 

 [14] Reading {kratiste ousa}, or if with Heindorf, {kratisteusai}, transl. "to prove himself the best. "

 [15] See "Cyrop. " I. I. 3; Grote, "Plato, " vol. Iii. 571. 

 [16] See Plat. "Phaed. " 69 C; Xen. "Symp. " i. 10. 

 [17] Or, "it is said. " See Eur. "Orest. " 5, and Porson ad loc.