THE DIVINE OFFICE

A STUDY OF THE ROMAN BREVIARY

BY

REV. E. J. QUIGLEY

1920

PREFACE

In the studies preliminary to ordination, the greatest time andattention must be given to the study of Dogmatic and Moral Theology. Certain subjects, such as liturgy, are always in danger of beingshortened or of occupying a very small space in a college course. Afterordination, priests find that these subjects are things of daily andhourly interest and importance. Who is it that does not know that thestudy of the Mass and the Missal, of the Breviary, its history and itscontents are studies useful in his daily offering of sacrificeand praise?

I hope that this book may serve as an introductory manual to the studyof the Breviary. It may be useful to junior students in colleges, ingiving them some knowledge of the Church's Hours, which they assist atin their college choirs. It may assist them to know and love theofficial prayers of the Church, and may help to form devout habits ofrecitation, so that, when the obligation of the daily office is imposedon them, they may recite it digne, attente et devote. The "texts andintentions" may be an aid to them, and to students in Holy Orders, inthe great and glorious work of pious prayer. 

Perhaps, this book may be a help to priests. It is an attempt to bringinto one handy volume many matters found in several volumes of history, liturgy, theology, and ascetic literature. Much of it they have metbefore, but some of it may be new and may enable some to pray morefervently and to aid them in the difficult work of saying each Hour andeach part of an Hour with attention and devotion. Some of the pages maybe to them instructive, and may give them new ideas on such points asthe structure of the Hours, the Collects, the Te Deum, the Anthems ofthe Blessed Virgin, etc. 

No book is faultless. Of this one, I can say with the Psalmist, "Istudied that I might know this thing, it is a labour in my sight" (Psalm72). And I can say it with St. Columban, _Totum, dicere volui in breve, totem non potui_. In the book I quote Cardinal Bona. In his wonderful_Rerum Liturgicarum_ (II. , xx. , 6) he wrote what I add as a finish, to this preface:--

"Saepe enim volenti et conanti vel ingenii vires vel rerum antiquarumnotitia vel alia subsidia defuerunt; nec fieri potuit quin per locasalebrosa in tenebris ambulans interdum offenderim, Cum aliquidincautius et neglentius a me scriptum offenderit, ignoscat primumlector, deinde amica manu corrigat et emendat et quae omisi suppleat. "

E. J. Q. 

ROCKCORRY, CO. MONAGHAN. 

CONTENTS

PART I. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS. 

 I. Idea of the Breviary II. Short History of Divine praise in general, of the Breviary in particular III. The excellence of the Roman Breviary in itself and in comparison with others Respect due to the sacred volume IV. 1. The contents of the Breviary 2. The ecclesiastical year and its parts; the calendar 3. General Rubrics of the Breviary Title I. The double office " II. The office of a semi-double " III. The office of a simple " IV. The office of Sunday " V. The ferial office " VI. The office of vigils " VII. Octaves " VIII. Office of the Blessed Virgin for Saturdays " IX. Commemorations " X. The Translation of Feasts " XI. Concurrence of office " XII. The arrangement of the office " XIII. Matins " XIV. Lauds " XV. Prime " XVI. Terce, Sext, None " XVII. Vespers " XVIII. Compline " XIX. The Invitatory " XX. Hymns " XXI. Antiphons " XXII. Psalms " XXIII. Canticles " XXIV. Versicle and responds " XXV. Absolutions and Benedictions " XXVI. The Lessons " XXVII. The responses after the lessons " XXVIII. The short responses after the hours " XXIX. Capitulum " XXX. Oratio, collects " XXXI. The Hymn Te Deum " XXXII. Pater Noster and Ave " XXXIII. The Apostles' Creed and the Athanasian Creed " XXXIV. The Preces " XXXV. The suffrages of the saints " XXXVI. The antiphons of the Blessed Virgin " XXXVII. The little office of the Blessed Virgin

PART II. 

RULES FROM MORAL AND ASCETIC THEOLOGY FOR THE RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY. 

Who are bound to say the office?Must every holder of a benefice read the office?What sin is committed by the omission of a notable part?What sins are committed by the omission of the whole office?What must a person do who has a doubt about omissions?Does a person, who recites by mistake, an office other than that prescribed fulfil his obligation?What causes justify an inversion of the hours?Is it a sin to say Matins of following day before finishing Compline of the current day?What is the time fixed for recitation of the Office?When may a priest begin the recitation of Matins and Lauds for the following day?What is true time as regards recitation of the office?Are priests bound to recite Matins and Lauds before Mass?At what time should the little hours be said?Where should the office be recited?What kind of verbal pronunciation should be attended to?May the recitation be interrupted?May Matins be separated from Lauds without cause?Is intention required in reading the hours?Is attention required? external? internal? superficial attention, literal attention?Opinions of theologians on necessary attention. Distractions, voluntary and involuntary. Does a person reciting the hours sin, if he have distractions?Causes excusing from reading the hours. Scruples and the direction of the scrupulous. 

ART. I. RULES FOB PIOUS RECITATION OF HOURS. 

1. The words read. 2. To whom we speak. 3. We pray in the name of the church. 4. Our associates on earth. 5. The purpose of our prayer. 6. It gives glory to God and draws down his blessings. 7. It brings help to those who recite it fervently. 

ART. II. THE MEANS TO ADOPT OF PIOUS RECITATION. 

 A. _Before Recitation_. 

1. Purify conscience. 2. Mortification of passions. 3. Guarding the senses. 4. Knowledge of the work that is to be done. 

 B. THE IMMEDIATE PREPARATION FOR THE RECITATION. 

1. Reading the Ordo Recitandi officium. 2. To recollect ourselves. 3. To invoke God's aid. 4. To unite ourselves with Christ. 5. (a) Christ our model in prayer. (b) Our prayers to be offered through him. (c) Church wishes this and practices it ever. (d) Lives of saints show how they united with Christ in prayer. (e) Remembrance of the sublime work we engage in. (f) To propose general, special and particular intentions. 

ART. III. AIDS DURING THE RECITATION OF THE HOURS. 

 (a) Suitable place. (b) Respectful and devout attitude. (c) Slow, deliberate pronunciation. (d) Distractions. (e) To apply the mind to what is read. (f) To read without critical judgments. (g) To think of Christ's Passion. (h) To think of the presence of God and of our Angel Guardian. 

ART. IV. AFTER SAYING THE OFFICE. 

1. Thanks to God. 2. Ask his pardon for faults. 3. Say the _Sacro-sanctae_. 4. The Sacro-sanctae. 

PART III

THE CANONICAL HOURS. 

CHAPTER I. --MATINS (TITLE XIII). 

Parts Pater Noster and Ave (Title XXXII) Credo (Title XXXIII) Domine labia mea--Deus in Invitatory (Title XIX) Hymns (Title XX) Antiphons (Title XXI) Psalms (Title XXII) Canticles Replies of Biblical Commission on Psalms Versicles and responds (Title XXIV) Absolutions and blessings (Title XXV) Lessons (Title XXIV) Responses (Title XXIV) Rubrics and Symbolism Te Deum (Title XXXI) Texts and Intentions

CHAPTER II. --LAUDS AND PRIME TITLES (XIV AND XV). 

Lauds. Etymology, Definition, Symbolism, Origin, Antiquity. Reasons for Hour, Structure, Rubrics Antiphons, Capitulum (Title XXX) Benedictus Oratio, Collect (Title XXX) Rubrics and explanation of Rubrics Texts and Intentions

Prime. Etymology, Origin, Contents, Structure Athanasian Creed (Title XXXIII) Reasons for the Morning Hour and Rubrics Preces (Title XXXIV), Confiteor Structure and Short Lesson Texts and Intentions

CHAPTER III. --TERCE, SEXT, NONE (TITLE XVI). 

Terce. Etymology, Structure, Antiquity. Reasons for Hour Texts and intentions

Sext. Etymology, structure, antiquity Reasons for Hour Texts and intentions

None. Etymology, structure, antiquity Reasons for Hour Texts and intentions

CHAPTER IV. --VESPERS AND COMPLINE PAGE (TITLE XVII-XVIII). 

Vespers. Etymology, structure, antiquity. Reasons for Hour Texts and intentions

Compline. Etymology, structure, antiquity Reasons for Hour Suffrages of the Saints (Title VII) Anthems of Blessed Virgin Texts and intentions

The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin (Title XXVII)

PART IV. 

HEORTOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. --A. PROPER OF THE TIME. 

AdventChristmasSt. Stephen; St. John; Circumcision; Epiphany; Septuagesima; Lent; Easter and Paschal Times; Ascension; Whit Sunday; Trinity Sunday

B. PROPER OF THE SAINTS. 

December; January; February; March; May; June; July; August; October; November

ROGATION DAYS AND LITANIES

NOTE A. Breviary Hymns. NOTE B. Particular Examen. NOTE C. Bibliography. 

PART I. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS. 

THE DIVINE OFFICE

CHAPTER I. 

IDEA OF THE BREVIARY. 

_Etymology_. --The word, Breviary, comes from an old Latin word, _Breviarium_, an abridgment, a compendium. The name was given tothe Divine Office, because it is an abridgment or abstract made fromholy scripture, the writings of the Fathers, the lives of the Saints. The word had various meanings assigned to it by early Christian writers, but the title, Breviary, as it is employed to-day--that is, a bookcontaining the entire canonical office--appears to date from theeleventh century. Probably it was first used in this sense to denotethe abridgment made by Pope Saint Gregory VII. (1013-1085), about theyear 1080. 

_Definition_. --The Breviary may be defined as "the collection ofvocal prayers established by the Church, which must be recited daily bypersons deputed for that purpose. "

_Explanation of the Definition_. --"Prayers, " this word includes notonly the prayers properly so called, but also, the whole matter of thedivine office. "Vocal, " the Church orders the vocal recitation, thepronunciation of each word. "Established by the Church, " to distinguishthe official prayers of obligation from those which the faithful maychoose according to their taste. "Which must be recited, " for therecitation is strictly obligatory. "Daily, " the Church has fixed theseprayers for every day of the year, and even for certain hours of theday. "By persons deputed for that purpose, " therefore, persons in holyorders recite these prayers not in their own name, but asrepresentatives of the universal Church. 

_Different Names for the Breviary_. --This book which is, with us, commonly called the Breviary, has borne and still bears different names, amongst both Latins and Greeks. 

Amongst the Latins, the recitation of the Breviary was called the Office(_officium_), that is, the duty, the function, the office; becauseit is, _par excellence_, the duty, function and office of personsconsecrated to God. This is the oldest and most universal name for theBreviary and its recitation. It was called, too, the Divine Office(_officium divinum_), because it has God for its principal objectand is recited by persons consecrated to God. It is called theecclesiastical office (_officium ecclesiasticum_), because it wasinstituted by the Church. Other names were, _Opus Dei; Agenda; Pensumservitutis; Horae; Horae Canonicae_. 

Which books were employed in olden times in reciting the Office?

Before the eleventh century the prayers of the Divine Office were notall contained in one book, as they are now in the Breviary, which is anabridgment or compendium of several books. The recitation of the Officerequired the Psaltery, the Lectionary, the Book of Homilies, theLegendary, the Antiphonarium, the Hymnal, the Book of Collects, theMartyrology, the Rubrics. The Psaltery contained the psalms; theLectionary (thirteenth century) contained the lessons of the first andsecond nocturn; the Book of Homilies, the homilies of the Fathers; theLegendary (before the thirteenth century), the lives of the saints readon their feast days. The Hymnal contained hymns; the Book of Collects, prayers, collects and chapters; the Martyrology contained the names withbrief lives of the martyrs; the Rubrics, the rules to be followed in therecitation of the Office. To-day, we have traces of this ancient customin our different choir books, the Psalter, the Gradual, theAntiphonarium. There were not standard editions of these old books, andgreat diversities of use and text were in existence. 

_Divisions of the Divine Office_. --How is the daily Office divided?The Office is divided into the night Office and the day Office. Thenight Office is so called because it was originally recited at night. It embraces three nocturns and Lauds. The day Office embraces Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline. 

_Parts or Hours of the Office_. --How many parts or hours go to makeup the Office? Rome counts seven, and seven only; and this is the numbercommonly counted by liturgists and theologians. They reckon Matins andLauds as one hour. 

The old writers on liturgy ask the question: "Why has the Churchreckoned seven hours only?" Their replies are summarised well byNewman: "In subsequent times the hours of prayer were graduallydeveloped from the three or (with midnight) the four seasons aboveenumerated to seven, viz. :--by the addition of Prime (the first hour), Vespers (the evening), and Compline (bedtime) according to the words ofthe Psalm--'Seven times a day do I praise thee, because of thy righteousjudgments. ' Other pious and instructive reasons existed, or have sincebeen perceived, for this number. It was a memorial of the seven days ofcreation; it was an honour done to the seven petitions given us by ourLord in His prayer; it was a mode of pleading for the influence of thatSpirit, who is revealed to us as sevenfold; on the other hand, it was apreservative against those seven evil spirits which are apt to return tothe exorcised soul, more wicked than he who has been driven out of it;and it was a fit remedy of those successive falls which, scripture says, happen to the 'just man' daily. " (_Tracts for the Times_, No. 75. "On the Roman Breviary. ")

 "Matutina ligat Christum qui crimina purgat, Prima replet sputis. Causam dat Tertia mortis. Sexta cruci nectit. Latus ejus Nona bipertit. Vespera deponit. Tumulo completa reponit. Haec sunt septenis propter quae psallimus horas. "

 "At Matins bound; at Prime reviled; Condemned to death at Tierce; Nailed to the Cross at Sext; at None His blessed Side they pierce. They take him down at Vesper-tide; In grave at Compline lay, Who thenceforth bids His Church observe The sevenfold hours alway. "

 (_Gloss. Cap. I. De Missa_)

Thus, this old author connects the seven hours with the scenes of thePassion. Another author finds in the hours a reminder and a warning thatwe should devote every stage of our lives to God. For the sevencanonical hours, he writes, bear a striking resemblance to the sevenages of man. 

_Matins_, the night office, typifies the pre-natal stage of life. _Lauds_, the office of dawn, seems to resemble the beginnings ofchildhood. _Prime_ recalls to him youth. _Terce_, recited whenthe sun is high in the heavens shedding brilliant light, symbolisesearly manhood with its strength and glory. _Sext_ typifies matureage. _None_, recited when the sun is declining, suggests man in hismiddle age. _Vespers_ reminds all of decrepit age gliding gentlydown to the grave. _Compline_, night prayer said before sleep, should remind us of the great night, death. 

CHAPTER II. 

SHORT HISTORY OF DIVINE PRAISE IN GENERAL AND OF THE BREVIARY IN PARTICULAR. 

From all eternity the Godhead was praised with ineffable praise by theTrinity--the three divine Persons. The angels from the first moment ofthe creation sang God's praises. _Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, DominusDeus, Sabaoth. Plena est omnis terra gloria ejus_ (Isaias vi. 3). 

Cardinal Bona writes that Adam and Eve blessed and praised God, theirCreator. For God created the first human beings, and "created in themthe knowledge of the Spirit of God that they might praise the name whichHe has sanctified and glory in His wondrous acts" (Ecclesiasticus xvii. 6-8), Every page of the Old Testament tells how the chosen raceworshipped God. We read of the sacrifices of Cain, Abel, Enoch, Noe; ofthe familiar intercourse which the great patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob had with God. Recorded, too, are the solemn songs and prayers ofMoses thanking God for His guidance in the freedom from the slavery ofEgypt (Exodus xv. ). David, under God's inspiration, composed those noblesongs of praise, the Psalms, and organised choirs for their rendering. He sings "Evening and morning and at noon I will speak and declare andHe shall hear my voice" (Psalm 54, v. 18); "I rose at midnight to givepraise to Thee" (Psalm 118, v. 162); "Seven times a day I have givenpraise to Thee" (Psalm 118, v. 164). 

The Prophet Daniel, a captive in Babylon, prayed thrice daily, his faceturned to Jerusalem. The Israelites, captives in Babylon with Nehemias, "rose up and read in the book of the Law of the Lord their God, fourtimes in the day, and four times they confessed and adored the Lordtheir God" (II. Esdras ix. 3). Hence, the Jewish day, made up as it waswith sacrifices, libations, oblations, purifications, and public andprivate prayer, was a day of prayer. In these public meetings they sangGod's praises, sang of His glory and of His mercy. Sometimes they spokewith loving familiarity, sometimes they prayed on bended knee, sometimesthey stood and pleaded with outstretched hands, pouring out the prayersinspired by God Himself. 

In the New Law our Saviour is the model of prayer, the true adorer ofHis Father. He alone can worthily adore and praise because He alone hasthe necessary perfection. Night and day He set example to His followers. He warned them to watch and pray; He taught them how to pray; He gavethem a form of prayer; He prayed in life and at death. His apostles, trained in the practices of the synagogue, were perfected by the exampleand the exhortations of Christ. This teaching and example are shown ineffect when the assembled apostles were "at the third hour of the day"praying (Acts ii. 15); when about the sixth hour Peter went to pray(Acts x. 9). In the Acts of Apostles we see how Peter and John went atthe ninth hour to the temple to pray. St. Paul in prison sang God'spraises at midnight, and he insists on his converts singing in theirassembly psalms and hymns (Ephes. V. 19; Col. Iii. 16; I. Cor. Xiv. 26). 

What form did the public prayers, which we may call the divine office, take in the time of the Apostles? It is impossible to say. But it iscertain 10 that there were public prayers, 20 that they were offered updaily in certain determined places and at fixed hours, 30 that thesepublic prayers consisted principally of the Psalms, hymns, canticles, extracts from Sacred Scripture, the Lord's Prayer, and probably theCreed, 40 that these public prayers varied in duration according to thewill of the bishop or master who presided. 

"The weekly commemoration of Christ's resurrection, the yearlyrecurrence of the memory of the great facts of Christ's life, the dailysanctification of the hours of the day, each led the Christian to drawupon the hours of the Psalter, and when, gradually, fixed hours fordaily prayer passed beyond the home circle and with groups of asceticsentered the public churches, it was from the Psalter that the songs ofpraise were drawn, and from the Psalms were added a series of canticles, taken from the books of the Old and the New Testaments, and thus, longages before any stereotyped arrangement of the Psalms existed, assigningparticular Psalms to particular days or hours, the Psalms were feedingthe piety of the faithful and teaching men to pray" (_The NewPsalter_--Burton and Myers). In this matter of public prayer, it ishard for us to realise the "bookless" condition of the early Christiansand their difficulties. It was twenty-five years after the Ascensionbefore the first books of the New Testament were written, and many yearsmust have elapsed before their wide diffusion; hence, in their booklessand guideless condition the early Christians were advised to use thePsalms in their new devotional life (Ephes. V. 19; Col. Iii. 16; St. James, v. 13). 

The first clear evidence of a division of the Psalter for use in theWestern Church is found in the work of St. Benedict (480-543). He hadspent his youth near Rome, and keeping his eye on the Roman usage heassigned the Psalms to the various canonical hours and to different daysof the week. The antiphons he drew from existing sources, and of coursethe canonical hours were already in existence. In his arrangement, thewhole Psalter was read weekly, and the whole Bible, with suitablepatristic selections, was read every year. He also arranged the Sunday, Festal and Ferial offices. For the recitation of the offices of asaint's day, St. Benedict arranged that the Matins shall have the sameform as a Sunday office--_i. E. _, three nocturns, twelve lessons andresponsories, but the psalms, antiphons and lessons are proper to eachsaint. This arrangement interrupted the weekly recitation of the wholepsalter, and caused great difficulty in later times; for when the feastsincreased in number the ferial psalter fell almost into complete disuse. 

St. Benedict's arrangement of the psalms and his other liturgicalregulations spread rapidly, but the Roman secular office never adoptedhis arrangement of the psalms, nor his inclusion of hymns, until aboutthe year 1145. In some details each office shows its independenthistory. It is a matter of dispute among liturgists whether Prime andCompline were added to the Roman secular office through the influence ofthe Benedictines (Baudot, _The Roman Breviary_, pp. 19-26). 

The period following the death of St. Benedict in 543 is a period ofwhich little is known. "We repeat with Dom Baumer (vol. I. , pp. 299-300)that the fifth century, at Rome as elsewhere, was a period of greatliturgical activity, while the seventh and eighth centuries were, viewedfrom this point of view, a period of decline" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, p. 53). The labours of St. Benedict probably were continued and perfectedby St. Gregory the Great (590-604). His labours are summed up by DomBaumer (_Histoire du Breviare_, vol. I. , pp. 289, 301-303): "It ishe who collected together the prayers and liturgical usages of hispredecessors and assigned to each its proper place, and thus the liturgyowes its present form to him. The liturgical chant also bears his name, because through his means it reached its highest state of development. The canonical hours and the formulary of the Mass now in use were alsocarefully arranged by him. " "The whole history of the Western liturgysupports us in maintaining that these books received from the great Popeor from one of his contemporaries a form which never afterwardsunderwent any radical or essential alteration. " The Roman office spreadquickly through Europe. The enthusiasm of Gregory became rooted in themonasteries, where the monks learned and taught, with knowledge andwith zeal, his liturgical reforms. Two important reforms of monasticpractice are interesting as showing further progress in the evolution ofthe Roman Breviary. St. Benedict of Aniane (751-821), the friend andadviser of Louis the Pious, became a reformer of Benedictine rule andpractice. His rule aimed at a rigid uniformity, even in detail. And theCouncil of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) helped him to establish his reforms. Asa result of the saint's exertions the Penitential Psalms and Office ofthe Dead were made part of the daily monastic office. The Abbey ofCluny, founded in 910, supplied a further reform tending to guard theoffice from further accretions. 

Did Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII. (1073-1086), labour for liturgicalreform? Liturgical writers give very different replies. MonsignorBattifol (_History of the Roman Breviary_, English edition, p. 158)maintains that Gregory made no reform, and that "the Roman office suchas we have seen it to be in the times of Charlemagne held its ground atRome itself, in the customs of the basilicas, without any sensiblemodification, throughout the tenth and eleventh centuries and even downto the close of the twelfth. " Dom Gueranger holds that Gregory abridgedthe order of prayers and simplified the liturgy for the use of the Romancuria. It would be difficult at the present time to ascertain accuratelythe complete form of the office before this revision, but since then ithas remained almost identical with what it was at the end of theeleventh century. Dom Baumer agrees with his Benedictine brother thatGregory wrought for liturgical reform. Probably Pope Gregory VII. , knowing the decadence which was manifest in liturgical exercises in Romeduring the tenth and eleventh centuries, decided to revise the old Romanoffice which, although it had decayed in Rome, flourished in Germany, France, and other countries. Hence, in his Lenten Synod, 1074, hepromulgated the rules he had already drawn up for the Regular Canons ofRome, ordering them to return to the old Roman rite. Thus he may becounted as a reformer, but not as an innovater nor an abridger. But hisreform fell on evil days. The great struggle between Church and Stateabout lay investitures had a baneful influence on liturgy, even in Romeitself. The times seemed to call for a modernised (i. E. , a shortened)office. The "modernisers" respected the psalter, the curtailment was inthe Lectionary. The modernising spirit showed itself in the arrangementand bulk of the office books. The Psalter, Antiphonary, Responsorial, Bible and Book of Homilies were gradually codified. Even then, a verylarge volume was the result. After a time the chant, which absorbed muchspace, was removed from the volume, but the resulting volume, noticeablysmaller, was not yet small enough. In time, only the opening words ofthe antiphons, responsories and versicles were printed, and to thevolume thus turned out was given the name _Breviary_. The CurialBreviary was drawn up in this way to make it suitable for personsengaged in outdoor pursuits and journeys. It gradually displaced thechoir office in Rome, and Rome's example was universally followed. 

This Curial Breviary was adopted by the Franciscans in their activelives. They changed the text of the Psalter only, _PsalteriumRomanum_, to the more approved text, the _Psalterium Gallicanum_. The improved Curial Breviary was imposed on the churches of Rome by theFranciscan Pope, Nicholas III. (1277-1280), and henceforth it is calledthe Roman Breviary. Thus we see that the book used daily by priests gotits name in the thirteenth century, although the divine office is almostfrom Apostolic times. 

But liturgy is a progressive study, a progressive practice capable andworthy of perfecting. And the friars strove for the greater perfectionand beauty of the new Breviary. They added variety to the unity alreadyachieved and yet did not reach liturgical perfection nor liturgicalbeauty. They loaded the Breviary by introducing saints' days with ninelessons, thus avoiding offices of three lessons. And by keeping octavedays and days within the octave as feasts of nine lessons, they almostentirely destroyed the weekly recitation of the psalter; and a largeportion of the Breviary ceased to be used at all. The Franciscan bookbecame very popular owing to its handy form. Indeed its use was almostuniversal in the Western Church. But the multiplication of saints'offices, universal and local, no fixed standard to guide the recital, and the wars of liturgists, made chaos and turmoil. 

Liturgical reform became an urgent need. Everyone reciting the canonicalhours longed for a great and drastic change. The Humanists, CardinalBembo (1470-1549), Ferreri, Bessarion, and Pope Leo X. (1513-1521)considered the big faults of the Breviary to lie in its barbarousLatinity. They wished the Lessons to be written In Ciceronian style andthe hymns to be modelled on the Odes of Horace. Ferreri's attempt atreforming the Breviary dealt with the hymns, some of which he re-wrotein very noble language, but he was so steeped in pagan mythology that heeven introduced heathen expressions and allusions, His work was afailure. The traditional school represented by Raoul of Tongres, Burchard, Caraffa, and John De Arze loved the past with so great a lovethat they refused to countenance any notable reforms, A third school, the moderate school, was represented by Cardinal Pole, Contarini, Sadolet and Quignonez, a Spanish cardinal who had been General of theFranciscans. The work of reform of the Breviary was undertaken byCardinal Quignonez (1482-1540). He was a man of great personal piety andpossessed a love for liturgy and an accurate knowledge of its history, its essentials, and its acquired defects. After seven years' labour atthe matter and form of the Breviary, his work, Quignonez's Breviary(_Brevarium Romanum a Francisco Cardinali Quignonio_) appeared in1535. It was for private use only, and was not intended as a choirmanual. Yet so popular was his work that, in 1536, six editions hadappeared, and in thirty-three years (until its suppression by St. PiusV, ) it went through no less than a hundred editions. Its immense successshows how much the need of Breviary change and reform was felt by theclergy. The book, too, had an important influence on shaping theBreviary produced by Pius V. (1566-1572). Quignonez's book wasreproduced with the variations of the four earliest editions, by theCambridge University Press in 1888. It is an interesting study in itselfand in comparison with later breviaries. 

But it was felt by scholars that Quignonez's reforms were too drastic. Tradition was ignored. The labour for brevity, simplicity and uniformityled to the removal from this Breviary of antiphons, responses, littlechapters and versicles, and to the reduction of lessons at matins tothree, and the number of psalms in each hour was usually only three. Hiswork had as a set principle the grand old liturgical idea of the weeklyrecitation of the whole psalter. The quick and almost universal demandfor Quignonez's Breviary indicated the need of a reform and the outlineof such a reform. The Pope, who commissioned Quignonez to take upbreviary reform, requested the Theatines to take up similar work. TheCouncil of Trent (1545-1563) took up the work of reform. But the Councilrose before the work had made headway, and the matter of reform wasfinally effected by St. Pius V. (1566-1572), by his Constitution, _Quoda nobis_ (1568). 

The Reformed Breviary of 1568 is, in outline, the Breviary in our handsto-day. The great idea in the reform was to restore the weeklyrecitation of the whole psalter. Theoretically, the Breviary made suchprovision, but practically the great number of saints' officesintroduced into the Breviary made the weekly recitation of the psalteran impossibility. The clergy were constantly reading only a few psalmsout of the 150 in the psalter. The rubrics, too, were in a confusedstate. Changes were made in the calendar by suppression of feasts, byrestoring to simple feasts the ferial office psalms, and by reducing thenumber of double and semi-double feasts. But in the body of the Breviarythe changes were few and slight. The lives of some saints drawn fromQuignonez's work were used, St. Gregory's canon of scripture lessons wasadopted and the antiphons, verses, responses, collects and prayers weretaken from the old Roman liturgy. The antiphons and responses were givenin the older translation of St. Jerome owing to their suitability formusical settings. And the text of the psalms was the _PsalteriumGallicanum_, which had been in use in the Roman Curial Breviary, But the Pian reform was soon to be followed by a reform of the Breviarytext, in accordance with the Sixtine Vulgate, the Clementine Vulgate, and the Vatican text. Clement VIII. (1592-1605) published his edition ofthe revised Breviary in 1602; and thirty years afterwards Urban VIII, (1623-1644) issued a new and further revised edition, which issubstantially the Breviary we read to-day. He caused careful correctionof errors which had crept in through careless printing; he printed thepsalms and canticles with the Vulgate punctuation, and he revised thelessons and made additions. He established uniformity in texts of Missaland Breviary. But the greatest change made in this new edition was inthe Breviary hymns, which were corrected on classical lines by Urbanhimself aided by four learned Jesuits (see Note, Hymns, p. 259). 

"The result (of their labours) has always given rise to very differentjudgments and for the most part unfavourable. It seemed to beexceedingly rash to regard as barbarous the hymns of men likePrudentius, Sedulius, Sidonius, Apollinaris, Venantius, St. Ambrose, St. Paulinus of Aquileia and Rabanus Maurus and to desire to remodel themafter the pattern of Horace's Odes. .. . It is only fair to give them thecredit, that out of respect for the wishes of Urban VIII. They treatedthese compositions with extreme reserve, and while they made someexpressions clearer they maintained the primitive unction in a largenumber of passages" (Baudot, The Roman Breviary, part iii. , chap. Ii. ). 

The commission appointed by Clement VIII. In his work of revision andreform included Baronius, Bellarmine and Gavantus. The commission ofUrban VIII. Included, amongst other famous men, the famous Irish friarminor, Luke Wadding (1588-1657). 

The need of revision, rearrangement and reform of the Breviary was inthe mind of every Pope, and nearly every one of them took some step toperfect the historic book. In the eighteenth century Benedict XIV. (1740-1758) contemplated Breviary reform in some details, particularlyin improving the composition of some legends and of replacing somehomilies of the Fathers. He entrusted this work to Father Danzetta, S. J. , but when the learned Jesuit's labour was presented to the Pope, sograve and so contrary were the reasons there put forth, that the Popethought it well to abandon the thought of reform. Father Danzetta'snotes are marvels of research and learning. They are to be seen inRuskovany's _Coelibatus et Breviarium, _ vol. V. They show to theignorant and the sceptical, the dangers and difficulties which allBreviary reformers have to contend with. 

Pope Pius VI. (1775-1799) returned to the project of Breviary reform. Dom Gueranger tells us that the plan of reform was drawn up andpresented to the Congregation of Rites, but the actual reform was notentered on. Pope Pius IX. (1846-1878), at the request of MonsignorSibour, Archbishop of Paris, appointed a commission to revise theBreviary, but their report caused the work to be abandoned. Petitionsfor reform were sent to the Vatican Council, but very little resulted. Leo XIII. (1878-1903) enriched the calendar by adding the names of manysaints; he added votive offices, corrected the Breviary lessons for thefeasts of a number of Popes, and, in 1902, he appointed a commission todeal with the hagiography of the Breviary and with its liturgy; but hisdeath in the following year ended the work of the commission, The unsatisfactory condition of the rules for the recitation of theDivine Office were apparent to everyone. Scholars feared to faceBreviary reform, the difficulties were so innumerable and so immense. However, with wonderful courage and prudence, Pope Pius X. (1903-1914)tackled the work. He resolved not to adopt a series of minor changes inthe Breviary, but to appoint an active commission of reform, whose firstwork should be a rearrangement of the psalter which must bring back therecitation of the Divine Office to its early ideal--the weeklyrecitation of the whole psalter. The problem which faced Pope Pius X. In1906 was the very same problem which faced his predecessor St, Pius V. (1566-1572), more than three hundred years ago. St. Pius tried to solvethe problem by a reform of the calendar, but the solution produced nopermanent effect. Pius X. And his commission went to the root of thedifficulty, and by a redistribution of the psalms have made the ferialand the festive offices almost equal in length, and have so arrangedmatters that the frequent recitation of every psalm, and the possibleand probable recitation of every psalm, once every week, is now anaccomplished fact; and the old and much-sought-after ideal--the weeklyrecitation of the whole Psalter--is of world-wide practice. 

On the publication of the new Psalter, Pope Pius announced that acommission would undertake a complete revision of the Breviary, a matterof great importance and one which must demand long years of care andstudy to accomplish. A member of the committee which re-arranged thePsalter, Monsignor Piacenza, tells us that such revision must embrace:--

1. A reform of the calendar and the drafting of rules for the admissionof feasts into the calendar of the universal Church;

2. The critical revision and correction of the historic and patristictexts;

3. The removal of spurious patristic texts;

4. The remodelling of the rubrics;

5. The institution of a new form of common office for confessors and forvirgins to facilitate the lessening of the number of feasts of saints, without diminishing the honour due to them (Burton and Myers, _op. Cit. _, p. 144). 

We may sum up, then, all that has been said in this long section bystating that from Apostolic times there was public prayer, thrice daily. The Jewish converts, having the psalms committed to memory needed not, nor could they have in those bookless days, a psalter script. In thethird century, morning, evening, and night offices are mentioned. Compline was in existence in the time of St. Benedict. "From the seventhcentury onwards, ecclesiastical writers, papal decrees and conciliardecrees recognise the eight parts of the office, which we have seen tookshape during the sixth century, and regard their recitation by priestsand monks as enjoined by positive law. During this period, or at leastat its commencement, Lauds and Vespers alone had a clearly definedstructure and followed a definite arrangement. As far as we can see, St. Gregory arranged the little hours for Sunday only, and their arrangementfor week days was left to the care of the bishops and metropolitans, oreven of abbots. This was also the case, in many instances, with regardto Matins, for the number of psalms to be recited thereat was notdefinitely fixed. As regards the little hours--Prime, Terce, Sext, Noneand Compline--the freedom of the competent ecclesiastical authoritieswas as yet unconfined by canonical restrictions. Chrodegang (766) wasfirst to follow the usages of the Benedictines of the Roman Basilica, in prescribing for secular clergy the celebration at Prime of the_officium Capituli_ (_i. E. _, the reunion in the chapter forreading the rule or, on certain days, the writings and homilies of theFathers). The rest of the chapter--_i. E. _, all that follows the_confiteor_ in Prime as a preparation for the work of the day, seems to have been composed in the ninth century. .. . Under Charlemagneand his successors variations in the canonical hours completelydisappeared" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, pp. 63-65). 

On this foundation was built up the Office, to which additions weremade, and of which reforms were effected, up to our own time. 

"For us, traditional liturgy is represented by the Roman Breviary ofUrban VIII. , a book which constitutes for us a Vulgate of the RomanOffice. .. . The thing which renders this Vulgate of 1632 precious to usis that, thanks to the wisdom of Paul IV. , Pius V. , and Clement VIII. , the differences between it and the Breviary of the Roman Curia of thethirteenth century are mere differences of detail: the substantialidentity of the two is beyond dispute. The Breviary of Urban VIII. Isthe lineal descendant of the Breviary of Innocent III. And the latter inits turn is the legitimate descendant of the Roman canonical Office, asit was celebrated in the basilica of St. Peter at the end of the eighthcentury, such as it had gradually come to be in the course of theseventh and eighth centuries, a genuinely Roman combination of variouselements, some of them Roman and some not, but of which some, at allevents, go back to the very beginnings of the Catholic religion"(Battifol, _op. Cit. _, p. 353). 

CHAPTER III. 

EXCELLENCE OF THE ROMAN BREVIARY--THE ESTEEM WHICH WE SHOULD HAVE FOR THE BOOK ITSELF. 

The Roman Breviary is excellent, firstly, in itself; and, secondly, incomparison with all other breviaries. 

It is excellent in itself, in its antiquity, for in substance it goesback to the first ages of Christianity. It is excellent, in its author, for it has been constructed and imposed as an obligation by the supremepontiffs, the vicars of Jesus Christ, the supreme pastors of the wholeChurch. It is excellent, in its perpetuity, for it has come down to usthrough all the ages without fundamental change. It is excellent in itsuniversality, in its doctrine, in the efficacy of its prayer, theofficial prayer of the Church. It is excellent in the matter of which itis built up, being composed of Sacred Scripture, the words of theFathers and the lives of God's saints. It is excellent in its style andin its form for the parts of each hour; the antiphons, psalms, canticles, hymns, versicles, follow one another in splendid harmony. 

The opinions and praises of the saints who dwelt on this matter of theBreviary would fill a volume. Every priest has met with many sucheulogies in his reading. Newman's words are very striking. "There is, "he wrote, "so much of excellence and beauty in the services of theBreviary, that were it skilfully set before the Protestants, byRomanistic controversialists, as the book of devotions received bytheir communion, it would undoubtedly raise a prejudice in theirfavour, if he were ignorant of the case and but ordinarily candid andunprejudiced. .. . In a word, it will be attempted to wrest a weapon outof our adversaries' hands, who have in this, as in many other instances, appropriated to themselves a treasure" (Newman, _Tracts for theTimes_, No. 275, _The Roman Breviary_). This tract raised astorm amongst Newman's fellow Protestants. All the old Protestantobjections against the Breviary and its recitation (See Bellarmine, _Controv_. Iii. , _de bonis operibus de oratione_ i. , i. Clx. )were re-published in a revised and embittered form. What a change hascome amongst non-Catholics! Hundreds of Anglican clergymen are readingdaily with attention and devotion the once hated and despised prayerbook, the Roman Breviary. How old Bellarmine would wonder if he sawmodern England with its hundreds of parsons reading their _Hours_!How he would wonder to read "The Band of Hope" (1915), an addressdelivered by an Anglican clergyman to a society of London clergymen. It includes a rule of life beginning, "Every day we say our Mass andour Office. " (_Cf_. R. Knox's _Spiritual Aeneid_, p. 102. )

The Roman Breviary is excellent, too, in comparison with every otherbreviary (e. G. , Aberdeen, Sarum, Gallican). For none of these can showthe antiquity, the authority, the doctrine, the sublime matter, thebeautiful order, which the Roman Breviary presents. It was for thesereasons that the emperors, Pepin (714-768), Charlemagne (742-814), Charles the Bald (823-888), adapted the Roman rite (Gueranger, _Institutiones Liturgiques_, tom. I. ). And Grandicolas (1772), anerudite liturgist, but a prominent Gallican with no love for Romanrites, declared that the Roman Breviary stands in relation to otherbreviaries as the Roman Church stands in relation to all other Christianbodies, first and superior in every way (_Com. Hist. In Brev. Rom. _, cap. 2). St. Francis De Sales applied to his Breviary the words of St. Augustine on the Psalter, "_Psalterium meum, gaudium meum. _"

CHAPTER IV. 

THE CONTENTS OF THE BREVIARY. 

SECTION I. 

The title of the Breviary is, BREVIARIUM ROMANUM EX DECRETO SACROSANCTICONCILII TRIDENTINI RESTITUTUM S. PII V. PONTIFICIS MAXIMI JUSSU EDITUM, ALIORUMQUE PONTIFICIUM, CURA RECOGNITUM PII PAPAE X. , AUCTORITATEREFORMATUM. This work is divided into four parts, the first part beingcalled _Pars Hiemalis_, the winter part; the second part, _ParsVerna_, the spring part; the third part, _Pars Aestiva_, thesummer part; and the fourth part, the _Pars Autumnalis_, the autumnpart. 

The Church, guided by the Holy Ghost, has drawn up these volumes ofliturgical prayer, so that for each season, even for each day, herofficial prayer may be suited to the time, to different degrees ofsolemnity and of rite, and so that it may be fixed and determined, yethaving great beauty in its wonderful unity and variety. Hence, nothingin her official prayer is left to chance, nothing is left to theselection or caprice of the individual who recites this prayer; all isforeseen, everything is in order, every tittle has a reason for itsexistence and its place in the liturgy, and represents the end and theintentions of the Church. For, every part of the Roman Breviary isstamped with the wisdom, the zeal and the piety of the Church, whichpresents it, as an offering all suitable for and worthy of God's honourand glory. 

Considering, then, the Breviary as a liturgical book, we find that theDivine Office has four general divisions, corresponding to the divisionsof our Lord's life. First, from Advent to Septuagesima; second, fromSeptuagesima to Easter; third, from Easter to Pentecost; fourth, fromPentecost to Advent. These divisions correspond also to the divisions ofthe year, winter, spring, summer and autumn. 

The end and object of the Office are to invite us to join in theinfinite praise which the Son of God rendered to His Father during Hislife, and which He renders still in Heaven and in the Tabernacle. "_Domine in unione illius divinae intentionis qua ipse in terris laudesDeo persolvisti, has tibi Horas persolvo, _" "O Lord, in union with thatdivine intention wherewith Thou whilst here on earth Thyself didstpraise God, I offer these Hours to Thee. " The life of Christ is dividedinto four principal divisions: first, His birth, circumcision, epiphany, presentation; second, His public life and His death; third, Hisresurrection, ascension, and descent of the Holy Ghost; fourth, Hismystic life in the Church and in Heaven. Hence arise the four generaldivisions of the Divine Office:--

_First General Division which begins the Church's year_. From Adventto Septuagesima:--The birth of the Saviour preceded by His life in Mary'swomb, and by the four weeks of Advent, representing (it is said) thepassing of the four thousand years, and embracing the mysteries of theHoly Infancy, Circumcision, Epiphany, Holy Name of Jesus, and thePresentation. 

_Second General Division, from Septuagesima till Easter_:--The deathof Christ preceded by the events of His public life, His fasting, temptation, preaching, miracles, passion and death. 

_Third General Division, from Easter to Pentecost_:--TheResurrection, the Ascension, Pentecost. 

_Fourth General Division, from Pentecost till Advent_, thetermination of the Church's year. The mystic life of Christ in theChurch, which will end on the Judgment Day. 

These divisions make up the four parts of the Roman Breviary. 

The first part, _Pars Prima_, contains the Pontifical Bull, _Quod a nobis_, of Pope Pius V. (1568). It states:--1. That thecause of the new edition was to remove the regrettable variety in thepublic liturgy. 2. It recalls the labours of Pope Paul IV. , Pius IV. , and Pius V. For the same end. 3. It announces the abolition of thetoo-abbreviated Breviary of Quignonez and of all those which have not, for two hundred years preceding 1568, an authentic approbation or alawful custom. 4. It gives permission to those using such breviariesto adopt the Roman Breviary. 5. It withdraws all privileges in respectto other breviaries. 6. It declares the Roman Breviary obligatory on allexcept those mentioned (_vide 3, supra_). 7. Even bishops areforbidden to make the smallest change in the new Breviary. 8. Therecitation of offices from other breviaries does not fulfil theobligation of those bound to breviary recitation. 9. Bishops arerequested to introduce the new Breviary. 10. The Pope suppressed theobligation of reciting on certain days the little Office of the BlessedVirgin, the Office of the Dead, the Penitential and the Gradual Psalms, 11. But he recommends their recitation on certain fixed days and grantsan indulgence for the practice. 12. Where the custom of reciting thelittle Office, in choir, exists, it should be retained. 13. Theappointment of the time for the adoption of the Breviary is obligatory. 14. Prohibition, under pain of excommunication, is made against thosewho print, distribute or receive copies of this Breviary without lawfulauthority. 15. The authentic publication and obligation of the Bull. 

The second document in the _Pars Prima_ of the Roman Breviary isthe Bull _Divino Afflatu_, issued by Pope Pius X, on 1st November, 1911. It tells us:--

1. That the psalms were composed under divine inspiration, and that itis well known that from the beginning of the Church they were used notonly to foster the piety of the faithful, who offered "the sacrifice ofpraise to God, that is to say, the fruit of lips confessing to His name"(Heb. Xiii. 15), but--that retaining the custom of the Old Law--theyheld a conspicuous place in both the liturgy and Divine Office of theNew Law. He quotes St. Basil, who calls psalmody the voice of the infantChurch, and Urban VIII. , who calls psalmody the daughter of hymnodywhich is chanted before the throne of God in Heaven. Two quotations fromSt. Athanasius and St. Augustine, in praise of psalmody, are added. 

2. In the Psalms there is a certain wonderful power which arouses insouls a zeal for all virtues. Two quotations from St. Augustine areadded. One says that as it is written that all Scriptures both of theOld and the New Testaments are divinely inspired and useful for ourinstruction. .. . Nevertheless, the book of the Psalms is, as it were, avery Paradise containing in itself the fruits of all the other books andexpressing them in hymns; and moreover it joins its own hymns to themand merges them in the general song of praise. Two further quotationsfrom St. Augustine, in similar strain, follow. For who will be, asks thesaint, unmoved by those frequent passages in the Psalms in which areproclaimed the immensity, the omnipotence, the infallible justice, thegoodness, the clemency of God? Or who is not moved by the prayers andthanksgivings for benefits received by the humble and trustfulpetitions, by the cries of souls sorrowing for sin, found in the Psalms?Whom will the Psalmist not fill with admiration when he recounts thegifts of the Divine loving kindness towards the people of Israel and allmankind, and when he sets forth the truths of heavenly wisdom? Who, finally, will not be inflamed with love by the carefully foreshadowedfigure of Christ, our Redeemer, whose voice St. Augustine heard in thePsalms, either singing or sighing or rejoicing in Hope or mourning inpresent sorrow?

3. In, former ages it was decreed by Popes and Councils and by monasticlaws that the whole Psaltery should be recited weekly. Pope St. PiusV. , Pope Clement VIII. , and Pope Urban VIII. In their revisions of theBreviary ordered this weekly recitation. And even at the present time, such would be the recitation of the Psalter had not the condition ofthings changed. 

4. This arose from the multiplication of saints' offices (_officia desanctis_), which after the canonization of saints gradually grew tosuch a huge number that very often the Dominical and Ferial Officeremained unread, and hence not a few psalms were neglected, which yetare as the rest, as St. Ambrose says, "the benediction of the people, the praise of God, the praise offering of the multitude, the acclamationof all, the expression of the community, the voice of the Church, theresounding confession of faith, the truly official devotion, the joy ofliberty, the shout of gladness, the re-echoing of joy. "

Many complaints from prudent and pious men reached the Pope about theomission of psalms, which took away from those bound to recite theOffice not only helps, well suited for God's praises and for theexpression of their inmost souls, but also diminished that desirablevariety in prayers which is so appreciated and which so well accordswith and aids our worthy, attentive, and devout praise of God. For St. Basil says that "in smooth uniformity the soul often grows weary andwhile present is yet away, but when in psalmody and chant are changedand varied in every hour, the fervour is renewed and its attention isrestored. "

5. This matter of the reform of the order of the psalter was broughtbefore the Holy See by many bishops and chiefly in the Vatican Council, where the demand for the old custom of reciting the whole psalterweekly was renewed, with the provision that any new arrangement shouldnot impose a greater onus on the clergy, now labouring more arduously inthe vineyard of the sacred ministry on account of the diminution oftoilers. These requests and wishes were repeated to Pope Pius X. , and hetook up the matter cautiously, so that the honour due to the cult of thesaints should not be diminished, nor the onus on the clergy increased bythe weekly recitation of the full Psalter. Begging the help of God, thepontiff formed a commission of learned and industrious men, who withjudgment and care carried out his wishes. The results of their labourswere submitted to the Sacred Congregation of Rites, and after carefulconsideration by the members of the Congregation the matter wassubmitted to the Pope, who sanctioned the new arrangement, that is, asregards the order and the division of the Psalms, Antiphons, Versiclesand Hymns, with the rubrics and rules pertaining to the same. And thePope ordered an authentic edition of these new arrangements to beprepared and issued from the Vatican Press. 

6. The arrangement of the Psalter has an intimate connection with theDivine Office and the Liturgy; and by these new decrees regarding theOffice and the Psalms a first step in the improvement of the Breviaryand the Missal has been taken. These matters will be dealt with by acommission of learned men which is soon to be formed. Amongst otherthings that this first step established was that the recitation of theScripture lessons with the proper responses according to the rubricsshould receive due honour and more frequent recitation, and that in theLiturgy the most ancient Masses of the Sundays throughout the year, especially those of Lent, should be restored to their places. 

7. The use of the old order of Psalms found in the Roman Breviary isabolished and interdicted from 1st January, 1913, and the use of the newPsalter for all clergy, secular and regular, who used the Roman Breviaryas revised by Pius V. , Clement VIII. , Urban VIII. , and Leo XIII. , andthose who continue to use the old order do not satisfy their obligation. 

8. Ecclesiastical superiors are to introduce the new order of thePsalter, and chapters are permitted to use it if the majority of themembers agree to its introduction. 

9. Establishment and declaration of the validity and efficacy of theBull, notwithstanding all previous apostolic constitutions and rulings, whether general or particular. Any person infringing these papalabolitions, revocations, etc. , sins and merits God's anger. 

10. Date and place of promulgation. 

SECTION II. 

THE YEAR AND ITS PARTS. 

The Council of Trent, Sess. XXIII. , c. 18, orders "_ut in disciplinaecclesiastica clerici commodius instituantur grammaticas, cantus, computi ecclesiastici, aliarumque bonarum artium disciplinamdiscant_. " The minute study of the ecclesiastical calendar is notnow so necessary for each priest, as it was centuries ago. The _OrdoDivini Officii recitandi_, issued yearly, and prepared with greataccuracy, relieves priests of much labour and secures them from manydoubts. And the decision of the Congregation of Rites (13th January, 1899) regarding the authority of the _ordo_ gives greater security. "_Qui probabilius judicat errare Calendarium tenetur eidem Calend. Stare, nec potest proprio inhaerere judicio quoad officium, Missam velcolorem Paramentorum. _" Of course this decision does not apply toerrors which are _openly_ and _plainly_ at variance with therubrics of the Missal and Breviary. However, it may be well to reviseand to recall the student days' lessons on the Church's Calendar. Thestudy is not an easy one, and in labouring to be brief, probably, I maybe obscure and incomplete. 

"_Annus menses habet duodecim. .. _" says the Breviary. The year hastwelve months, fifty-two weeks plus one day, or 365 days and almost sixhours. But these six hours make up a day every four years, and thisfourth year is called bisextile. 

In making calculations the six hours were taken as six complete hours, and not six hours wanting some minutes. And the aggregate miscalculationcontinued until the minutes added yearly, amounted to ten days andchanged the date of the spring equinox. Pope Gregory XIII. (1572-1585)sought to remedy the error. He re-established the spring equinox to theplace fixed by the Council of Nice (787). The year had fallen ten daysin arrear from the holding of the Council until the year of theGregorian correction, 1582. He again fixed it to the day arranged by theCouncil, the 14th of the Paschal moon. And he arranged, that such atime-derangement should not occur again. He omitted ten full days inOctober, 1582, so that the fourth day of the month was followedimmediately by the fifteenth. He determined that the secular year mustbegin on 1st January, that three leap years should be omitted in everyfour centuries, e. G. , 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, and his arrangement hasbeen observed throughout nearly the whole world. 

_Quarter Tenses_ fall on the Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays afterthe third Sunday of Advent, after the first Sunday of Lent; afterPentecost Sunday, and after the feast of the exaltation of the Cross. 

_The Nineteen Years' Course of the Golden Number_. This course orcycle was invented by an Athenian astronomer about 433 B. C. It was notexact, but was hailed with delight by the Greeks, who adorned theirtemples with the key number, done in gold figures; hence the name. Thecycle of course is the revolution of nineteen years, from 1 to 19. Whenthis revolution or course of years is run there is a new beginning inmarking, No. 1, e. G. , in the year 1577 the nineteenth number, the goldennumber, was 1; the following year it was 2, and so on until in 1597 thegolden number again is 2. A table given in the Breviary shows how thegolden number may be found and a short rule for the finding of it in anyyear is given. To the number of the year (e. G. , 1833) add 1; then dividethe sum thus resulting by 19 and the remainder is the golden number; ifthere be no remainder the golden number is 19. 

EPACTS AND NEW MOONS. 

The Epact (Greek [Greek: epaktos] from [Greek: eapgo] I add) is nothingmore than the number of days by which the common solar year of 365 daysexceeds the common lunar year of 354 days. So that the epact of thefirst year is 11, because the common solar year exceeds the common lunaryear by 11 days, and these added to the 11 days of the first, produce 22as the epact. At the end of the second year the new moon falls 22 dayssooner than in the first year. The epact of the third year is three, because if 11 be added to the 22, the result is 33, and from this 33 wesubtract 30 days which make up a lunar embolism and the remainder givesus 3, the epact for the year, and so on. 

In the Breviary there is a table (_alia Tabella epactarum_)corresponding to the golden numbers from the year 1901 to the year 2000inclusive. To take away all doubt in the use of this table, a new tableof epacts, an example may be quoted. In the year 1901 the epact was X, which is placed under the golden number 2; and new moons appear on the21st January, 19th February, and 21st March. .. . Again, in 1911 the epactis not marked by a number, but by an asterisk (see Table in Breviary)which is placed under the golden number 12, and in the calendar for thewhole year will indicate the new moon on January 1st, January 31st (forin February there is no new moon indicated in the Table; the sign [*] isnot found), on March 1st, March 31st, and on April 29th. In the year1916 the golden number is 17 and the epact is 25 (written not in Romannumerals but in ordinary figures), the new moons occur on 6th January, 4th February, 6th March, 4th April, etc. For when the epact is 25, corresponding with golden numbers greater than the number 11 in thecalendar, we must take in computation the epact 25 (written in modernfigures) but where the epact corresponds with numbers less than thenumber 11, in the _tabella, the epact_ XXV. In Roman numerals must betaken in calendar countings. This change takes place with epact 25 only, so that the computation of the lunar years may more closely respond tothe solar year. It is for this cause, too, that in six places in thecalendar two epacts, XXV. And XXIV. , are given. 

The new Breviary contains a _tabella_ of Dominical letters, up to theyear 2000 A. D. It needs no comment. 

_Indiction_. Indiction was a cycle of fifteen years, the first of whichdated from the third year of the Christian era. It was usual to indicatethe number of the year in a cycle and no mention was made of the cyclesalready completed. Thus, the _indictio sexta_ meant the sixth year of acycle and not the sixth cycle or period of fifteen years. Hence, to knowthe year of indiction is useless for determining the date in olddocuments of State. Indiction was instituted by Constantine in 313 forfiscal purposes. In papal and imperial documents the name of Pope oremperor was generally given and the regnal years noted. 

_Movable Feasts_. In virtue of the decree of the Council of Nice, in325, Easter, on which all other movable feasts depend, must becelebrated on the Sunday which follows immediately the fourteenth day ofthe moon of the first month (in the Hebrew year), our March. Easter, then, is the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon (i. E. , the fullmoon which happens upon or next after March 21st). If full moon happenson a Sunday, Easter Sunday is the Sunday after the full moon. The matterof the arrangement of Easter was for long a subject of very bittercontention in the Irish and in the English Church. The Irish, clingingtenaciously to the calendar of St. Patrick, carried it everywhere intheir missionary labours, so that the controversy was not confined toIreland and England. It was long and bitter, until at last the IrishChurch agreed to follow the reform. (See Healy, _Ireland's Schools andScholars_, p. 592; Moran, _Irish Saints in Great Britain_, "TheConference at Whitby in 664, " pp. 255-261). 

Calendar study is interesting, and many valuable contributions on thismatter have been given to us by Father Thurston, S. J. , and other Englishand Irish scholars. 

GENERAL RUBRICS OF THE BREVIARY. 

The next document in the Breviary, Part I. , has the title "RubricaeGenerates Breviarii, " the general rubrics of the Breviary. They arecalled _general_, as they apply to every part of the Breviary and are tobe distinguished from the rubrics dealing with the proper (_proprium_)of the Breviary, the proper of time or of the saints. The word "rubrics"was originally applied to the red marking lines used by carpenters onwood, later it referred to the titles used by jurisconsults inannouncing laws, which were written in red colours. The word appears inChurch literature to refer to signs and directions as early at least asthe fourteenth century (_Cath. Encyclopedia_--word "rubrics"). 

The general rubrics are divided into thirty-seven Titles. Attention willbe given to each; of these Titles, some of which must be modified byrecent legislation. The order followed may not be the order followed inthe general rubrics as given in the Breviary, as matters treated in thegeneral rubrics found in the Breviary are treated under other headingshere. However, a look at the table of contents or at the index shows thepages treating of these Titles. 

TITLE I. THE DOUBLE OFFICE. 

"Consequently, the civilised peoples already in remote antiquity havefound a call to the worship of God in the changing seasons and times andso have introduced sacred seasons. Sacred times and places are common toall religions in general. The change of times bringing with themcorresponding changes in nature made a religious impression uponmankind. In turn, man sanctified certain times and dedicated them toGod, and these days, thus consecrated to God, became festivals. "

The entire number of ecclesiastical holydays and seasons is codifiedfor us in the different Church calendars. Their contents fall into twoessentially different divisions, each possessing an entirely differentorigin and history. The first division consists of festivals of ourLord, distributed over the year, regulated and co-ordinated inaccordance with certain laws. The second division consists ofcommemorations of saints in no wise connected with festivals of our Lordor with one another. Occupying to some extent an intermediate positionbetween these two chief divisions come the festivals of our BlessedLady, which have this in common with the festivals of the saints, thatthey fall on fixed days; but, on the other hand, they are to a certainextent connected with each other and with some feasts of our Lord. Thisis carried out in such a way that they are distributed throughout theChurch year and are included in each of the festal seasons (Kellner, _Heortology_, Part I. ). 

From Apostolic times the feasts of Easter, the Ascension and Pentecostwere celebrated. In the second century feasts of the Apostles werecelebrated and the cult of the Martyrs was of speedy and widespreaddevelopment. But it was not, probably, till the fourth century, that thefeasts of saints who were not martyrs were celebrated. 

_Origin of the different grades of feasts_. To-day, we find Churchfestivals arranged in three grades, doubles, semi-doubles and simples, and it is very difficult, to determine clearly and accurately the originand the nature of the arrangements. But from the works of scholars, whohave studied this matter, the following may be considered as a fair andaccurate summing up:--

In the first ages of the Church the Apostles and Martyrs only werecommemorated in public prayers and, above all, in the Mass, perhaps, bya special prayer. Then, in time, followed the reading of a panegyric intheir honour, and later still hymns and histories of martyrdom wereadded to the public recitation of the Office. Still later, there wereadded the feasts of the saints with an office resembling our simpleoffice. Matins were entirely ferial, but had either a biography of thesaint or a long extract from the Fathers added. The other hours were asin a Sunday office, save that these feasts had no Vesper matter. 

In still later times, the Church added to the list of names on her saintroll, the names of saints who were honoured neither as Apostles nor asMartyrs. For these, special Masses, offices and feasts were established. St. Martin of Tours was the first confessor so honoured in the WesternChurch. For the more important feasts, an office of nine lessons wasestablished and this came to be known as a semi-double office, and latersuch feasts were called doubles. Hence, before the thirteenth century, we find celebrations of simple feasts, of semi-doubles and of doubles. And Durandus, who wrote in the thirteenth century, tells us of theexistence of doubles major and doubles minor. The Breviary of St. PiusV. , published in 1568, gives three classes of doubles: doubles of thefirst class, doubles of the second class, and doubles per annum. But, inthe revision by Clement VIII. The doubles per annum were again dividedinto doubles major and doubles minor. In the new Pian Breviary (1913)doubles are divided into Primary Doubles of the First Class, SecondaryDoubles of the First Class; Primary Doubles of the Second Class, Secondary Doubles of the Second Class, Primary Doubles Major, SecondaryDoubles Major. The list of feasts under each of these six headings maybe seen in the Breviary. 

Do double offices differ specifically from each other? No, the form isthe same in all double offices. What then is the difference betweendoubles of different classes? The difference is chiefly in thepreference which is given to them in cases of concurrence or occurrenceof feasts of greater or of lesser rite. 

The word "double" (_duplex_) is derived, some authors hold, from theancient custom of reciting two offices or saying two Masses on the sameday--one for the current feria and one for the feast (_festa_). Otherauthors say that the word is derived from the ancient practice ofchanting twice or in repetition the complete responses and versicles. And, above all, the recitation of the full antiphons before and aftereach psalm, at Matins, Lauds and Vespers, was called "duplication, " andthis name, it is said, was given to the office (double, duplex) in whichthe practice of duplication took place. 

It is often asked why are there different grades of feasts. Threereasons are given by writers on liturgy. First, to mark the diversity ofmerit in God's saints, their sanctity and their different degrees ofservice to His Church. Second, to mark their different degrees of gloryin Heaven. "One is as the sun; another, the glory of the moon; andanother the glory of the stars. For star differs from star" (1 _Cor_. ). Third, for some special national or local reasons--e. G. , patron ofa country. 

The rules laid down in the general rubrics in the new Breviary, fordoubles and semi-doubles, are left unchanged almost by the regulationslaid down by the Commission and by the _Variationes_. Their numbers werereduced, so that there now stand in the new Breviary only seventy-fivedoubles, sixty-three semi-doubles, and thirty-six movable feasts. 

A reason for the new arrangement of double feasts in the Pian Breviaryis the general one, that the Pope wished above all things the weeklyrecitation of the Psalter, and to bring about this weekly recitation andthe restoration of the Sunday Office a mere rearrangement of the Psalmswas quite insufficient, and a rearrangement of the gradation of feastsof concurrence and of occurrence was necessary. 

TITLE II. --THE OFFICE OF A SEMI-DOUBLE. 

_Etymology, nature and synonyms_. The word semi-double (_semi-duplex_)is derived from the Latin; and some writers hold that the word indicatesfeasts which are of lower rank and solemnity than double feasts. Othershold that it means simply, feasts holding a place between double feastsand simple feasts. Most writers on liturgy hold that on some days adouble office--one of the feast and one of the feria--was held, and thatin order to shorten this double recitation there was said a compositeoffice, partly of the saint's office and partly of the feria; and theysay that from this practice arose the term semi-double, or half-double. 

Synonyms for the term "semi-duplex, " are "non-duplex, " "office of ninelessons. "

1. The antiphons are not doubled in a semi-double office. 

2. The Sundays of the year, excepting Easter Sunday, Low Sunday, Pentecost and Trinity, are said according to the semi-double rite. Inthe new Breviaries the Psalms for Matins are only nine in number, instead of the eighteen of the older book. 

3. The versicles, antiphons, responses, preces and suffrages of saints, which are recited in semi-double offices, are given below under theirown titles. 

TITLE III. --THE SIMPLE OFFICE. 

_Etymology, nature_ and _synonyms_. The word _simple_ comes from theLatin _simplex_, to indicate the least solemn form of office and it isthe direct opposite in meaning to the term "double. " It is synonymouswith the term so often found in liturgical works, the office ofthree lessons. 

This form of office is of great antiquity, going back to the fifthcentury. In the early ages of the Church and down to the fourteenthcentury the simple office consisted of the ferial office with lessons, antiphons and prayers. But in the end of the fourteenth century, simplescame to be celebrated in the same manner as semi-doubles, with ninelessons and their nocturns, and in case of occurrence were transferred. As a result the offices of Sunday and the ferial offices werepractically crushed out of the Breviary. The Commission of Reformapplied an easy remedy, by restoring simple feasts to their ancientplace and status. Now, they are not to be transferred; but in case ofoccurrence with a feast of higher rite they are merely commemorated. 

These feasts have first Vespers only. At Matins, the nine psalms andthree lessons are said as one nocturn. The psalms in semi-double feastsare from the Psalter under the day of the week on which the feast iscelebrated. "_In quolibet alio Festo duplici etiam major, vel semiduplici vel simplici et in Feriis Tempore Paschali, semper dicanturPsalmi, cum antiphonis in omnibus Horis, et versibus ad matutinum, ut inPsalterio de occurrente hebdomadae die" (Tit, I. Sec, 3. Additiones etVariationes_). 

In commemorations in the Office, the versicle, response, antiphon andcollect of a semi-double is made _after_ the following commemorations(if they should have a place in the recitation of the day). 

(1) Any Sunday, (2) a day within the privileged octave of the Epiphanyor Corpus Christi, (3) an octave day, (4) a great double, (5) a lesserdouble. Of course the first commemoration is always of the concurringoffice except it be a day within a non-privileged octave, or a simple. In reckoning the order of precedence between feasts which occur on thesame day, lists given in _The New Psalter and its Use_, p. 108, showthat thirteen grades of feast stand before the feasts of semi-doublerite. And in the order of precedence as to Vespers, between feasts whichare in occurrence, these feasts stand in the eleventh place, beingpreceded by (1) doubles of the first class of the universal Church, (2)lesser doubles. 

TITLE IV. --SUNDAY. 

We translate the Latin _Dies Dominica_ by our word Sunday, for inEnglish the days of the week have retained the names given to them inPagan times. In Irish, too, Deluain, Monday, moon's day, shows Paganorigin of names of week days. 

The literal translation of the Latin _Dies Dominica_, the Lord's Day, isnot found in the name given to the first day of the week in any Europeantongue, save Portuguese, where the days of the week hold the oldCatholic names, _domingo, secunda feira, terca feira_, etc. It is saidthat the seven days of the week as they stand in numerical order wereretained and confirmed by Pope Silvester I. (314-336): "_Sabbati etDominici diei nomine retento, reliquos hebdomadae dies Feriarum nominedistinctos, ut jam ante in Ecclesia vocari coeperunt appellari voluit;quo significaretur quotidie clericos, abjecta caeterarum rerum cura, uniDeo prorsus vocare debere" (Brev. Rom_. In VI. Lect. St. Silvester Pope;31st Dec. ). 

There is no evidence of the abrogation of the Sabbath by Christ or byHis Apostles, but St. Paul declared that its observance was not bindingon Gentile converts. Accordingly, in the very early days of Christianitythe Sabbath fell more and more into the background, yet not withoutleaving some traces behind it (see art. _Sonnabender_ in Kraut's_Realenzyklop_). Among Christians the first day of the Jewish week, the_prima Sabbati_, the present Sunday, was held in honour as the day ofour Lord's resurrection and was called the Lord's Day (Apoc. I. 10; I. Cor, xvi. 2), This name, _dies dominica_, took the place of _diessolis_, formerly used in Greece and in Rome. This day has many names inthe works of Christian writers. St. Ignatius, M. Calls it _Regina omniumdierum_; St. Chrysostom, _dies pacis; dies lucis_; Alcuin, _diessanctus; feria prima_, Baronius tells us, was another name forour Sunday. 

The subject of the liturgical celebration of the Lord's Day has been agreat study and a problem to modern scholars. It appears that in thefirst ages of the Church, Sunday was a day of solemn reunion and ofcommon prayer. St. Justin, in his second apology, writes that on theLord's Day town and country met together at an appointed place forsacrifice, for the hearing of the word of God, for pious readings andfor common prayer. This common, prayer consisted largely in therecitation of the Psalms, hymns and prayers, of what are called theSunday Office. This office was nearly always the same in psalms, inhymns and in every part; so that Sunday after Sunday, for many years, there was very little change in the Sunday united-prayer part of theliturgy, although the preaching on the incidents of the life of our Lord(Beckel, _Messe und Pascha_, p, 91), the blessings and the thanksgivingsrelieved the service from monotonous sameness. 

A nocturn, a round of Psalms, was said on Saturday night by thevigilants preparing for the Sunday services. Before the eighth centurytwo other short nocturns were added. This addition, which was copiedfrom the monastic practice, built up the three nocturn form of officeand became the model and form of the office for saints. "There is goodreason for believing that originally the Divine Office formed part ofthe Mass. The _synaxis_, for which the early Christians assembled bynight, consisted of the 'breaking of bread, ' preceded by the singing ofpsalms and hymns, litanies and collects, readings, homilies, invocationsand canticles. This was the whole official liturgical prayer, apart, ofcourse, from private prayer" (Dom Cabrol, _Day Hours of the Church_, Introduction, p. Xvi). 

One of the chief objects of Pope Pius X. In his reform was therestoration of the liturgical importance of the Sunday office, theoffice of the Lord's Day, and, therefore, in its own right, superior tothe saints' feasts by which it had been displaced from its specialoffice, psalms and lessons. And this could only be effected by a changein the rules of occurrence, and in Title IV. (_De Festorum occurentia_, etc. , section 2) we find the new rule for restoring Sunday offices totheir proper liturgical rights. 

In Title IV. , sect, 1 (see Breviary, Additiones and Variationes) thereis no change in the old rubric. The eight Sundays of the first classexclude every other feast. And the Sundays of the second class only giveplace to a double of the first class and then are commemorated at Lauds, Vespers and Mass, and have the ninth lesson in Matins. 

But section 2 (_Dominicis minoribus_). .. Goes to the root of the matterof the new change in the rules for Sunday's liturgical office. Theordinary Sundays ranked as semi-doubles and hence their Mass and Officewas superseded by the Mass and Office of some occurring feast. Thelength of the Sunday office, in the breviaries until lately in use, mademany hearts rejoice over the occurring feast. But the almost totalomission of the ancient and beautiful Sunday Masses was a misfortuneand, in a sense, an unbecoming practice, which broke away from ancientliturgical rule and tradition. The abbreviation of the Sunday office inthe new breviaries and the rule laid down in Title IV. , sect. 2, restoreSunday's office and Sunday's Mass to their old and proper dignity. 

The general rule laid down is that on Sundays throughout the year theproper office of the Sunday shall always be said. The exceptions are (1)Feasts of our Lord and their octaves, (2) Doubles of the first class, (3) Doubles of the second class. On these days the office will be theoffice of the feast, with commemoration in Lauds, Vespers and Mass. Henceforth Sundays are divided into:

(1) Sundays of the first class, which exclude all feasts;

(2) Sundays of the second class, which exclude all feasts save doublesof the first class;

(3) The ordinary Sundays, which exclude all but doubles of the first orsecond class, feasts of our Lord, and their octave days. 

The date of Easter is the pivot of Calendar construction. Before Eastercome the Sundays of Lent and Quinquagesima, Sexagesima, SeptuagesimaSundays. Septuagesima cannot fall earlier than the eighteenth day ofJanuary, nor later than the twenty-second day of February. Hence, insome years there are fewer "Sundays after the Epiphany" than in others, owing to the dates of Easter and Septuagesima. The smaller the number ofSundays after Epiphany the greater is the number of Sundays afterPentecost. If the number of Sundays after Pentecost be twenty-five, thetwenty-fourth Sunday will have the office of the sixth Sunday afterEpiphany. If there be twenty-six Sundays after Pentecost, thetwenty-fourth Sunday will have the office of the fifth after Epiphany, and the twenty-fifth will have that of the fifth Sunday; thetwenty-sixth will be the sixth Sunday's office. It should be rememberedthat the Sunday called the twenty-fourth after Pentecost is _always_celebrated immediately before the first Sunday of Advent, even though itshould not be even the twenty-third Sunday after Pentecost. 

TITLE V. --FERIAL OFFICE. 

_Etymology and different signification_ of the word _Feria_. The word isderived probably from the Latin _feriari_ (to rest). Among the Romans, the idea of a day of rest and a holy day was intimately united andreceived the name of _feria_. But it was amongst the Hebrews that theday set apart for the worship of God received the most distinctivecharacter as day of rest (_Heortology_, p. 2). Hence the earlyChristians called the days of the week _feriae_. 

Why did the Church adopt the word _feriae_? She wished to mark the dayof the week and not to name them by their pagan name (_e. G. , dieslunae_) nor by their Jewish names (_e. G. , prima sabbati_), which shouldbe a sort of recognition of the dead and dying synagogue. Hence sheadopted the word _feria_, to denote the Christian rest in the Lord, theChristian peace and the abstinence from all sin, and that each and everyday should be consecrated to God. The Christian use of the word is foundin Origen (185-254) and was fully established in the time of Tertullian. 

In the time of Amalare (circa 830) the ferial office had taken awell-defined form, Matins having twelve psalms and six antiphons. InLauds of every _feria_ were recited the psalms, _Miserere; Deus, Deusmeus; Deus misereatur nostri_; a canticle drawn from a prophet andvarying each day of the week (_e. G. , Confitebor_, Isaias xii. , forMonday's Lauds; _Ego dixi_, Isaias xxxviii. , for Tuesday's Lauds, etc. , and the two psalms _Laudate_ (148, 150) and the _Cantate_, psalm149). In the small hours the Sunday psalms without antiphons wererecited. Vespers had daily, fixed psalms. At each hour the _KyrieEleison_ and ferial _prayers_ were said on bended knees and the hoursterminated--as do the hours of Holy Week still--with _Pater Noster andMiserere_. 

Ferias are divided into three classes, major ferias, privileged feriasand non-privileged. Ash Wednesday and the three last days of Holy Weekare the major ferias which are privileged and exclude all feasts (_vide_Tit. II. , sec. 2). Non-privileged feriae are the feriae of Lent andAdvent, Quarter Tense or Ember days and Rogation Monday. They takeprecedence of simple feasts only. 

In the ferial office nine psalms are said, and not twelve, as in theold order of the Breviary. The psalms found arranged in the new Breviaryfor three nocturns are to be said with nine antiphons up to the versicleof third nocturn--the versicle of the first and second being omitted(Tit. I. , sec. 7). Hence the psalms are to be said straight through(_sine interuptione_) omitting in the first two nocturns, the versicleand response, Pater Noster, absolutions and all pertaining to thelessons. This simplifies things and makes the ferial office shorter thanthe office of feasts. 

TITLE VI. --THE OFFICE OF VIGILS. 

_Etymology, nature and synonyms_. The word _vigil_ is from the Latin_vigilare, to keep awake, to watch_, because in old times the nightbefore any great event, religious or worldly, was spent in watching. Thus, the night prior to ordination to the priesthood, the night priorto a great battle, was spent in watching before the altar. Hence, theword vigil came to mean the prayers said during the time of watching orwaking, preparatory to the great event. It signified, too, the fastaccompanying the watching, and lastly it came to mean the liturgicaloffice of Mass and Breviary fixed for the time of vigilance. In theRoman Church it was sometimes called the nocturn or night office. TheGreeks call the vigil _profesta_, the time before the feast. 

The custom existed among the pagans, almost universally, before the timeof Christ. The Jews practised this ancient night prayer, as thescripture in several places shows, _"in noctibus extollite manusvestras in sancta"_ (Psalm 133). Our Saviour sanctified this use by Hisexample, and the early Christians were, on account of these nightassemblies, the objects of fear and dread, of admiration and of hatred. Organised vigils lasted till the thirteenth century in some countries, but owing to abuses and discord they became not a source of edification, but the occasion and cause of grave scandals, and were forbiddengradually and universally. The Church now retains for the faithful onecongregational vigil, the vigil of Christmas. Formerly, it was customaryto observe a fast on a day or night of a vigil, but that custom wassuppressed sometimes, or fell into disuse. Vigil fasts are now few. Almost the only relic of the vigil now remaining is the Mass and Office. 

When were vigils held? In the early ages they were held only on Saturdaynights and on nights preceding great solemnities or the festivals of theMartyrs. The early converts, if they had been pagans, knew few or noprayer formulae, and very little of the psalms was learned by them evenin their Christian practice. But Jews who became Christians knew psalmsand hymns and prayers. So that in the early Christian vigils, there wasno attempt made at reciting the Divine Office, and the custom of suchrecitation was not introduced until about 220 A. D. And was notobligatory (Duchesne, _Christian Worship_, Chap. VIII. ). 

It is difficult to speak with certainty about the hour of beginning orthe hour of ending these vigil services. Some think that the firstnocturn was said about 9 p. M. Lauds was said before sunrise and hencewas called _Laudes-matutinae_. But "after the middle of the ninthcentury, we gather from contemporary documents, that the office ofvigils was, as a whole, regularly constituted and well known" (Baudot, p. 64). These vigils were held in cenacles or upper rooms of houses. During the days of persecution these meetings were not infrequent andwere held secretly in crypts, catacombs, private houses and at martyrs'tombs. In times of peace they were held everywhere, in churches, monasteries, castles. 

Vigils are divided into two classes, major and minor; major vigils arethe vigils of Christmas, Epiphany and Pentecost, and they are calledprivileged vigils and are celebrated as semi-doubles. The vigils ofChristmas and Pentecost are privileged vigils of the first class. Thevigil of Epiphany is a privileged vigil of the second class. All othersare minor or non-privileged vigils. 

TITLE VII. -OCTAVES. 

_Etymology and nature_. The word "octave" is from the Latin _octavus_(eighth) because, in the early ages of Christianity, the Churchcelebrated the eighth day only after the celebration of the feastitself; not until the twelfth century was the custom of a commemorationon each of the eight days introduced. We have, probably, an example ofthis still in our Breviaries. The feast of St. Agnes is celebrated on21st January and on 28th it is mentioned at Vespers and Lauds only, andthe name in old Roman service books is _Octavo, S. Agnetis_. The originof the octave is Jewish. We read in the Old Testament that God orderedthat the Feasts of Pasch and Pentecost should be celebrated for eightdays. So, too, the Feast of Tabernacles lasted for eight days, the firstand eighth days being days of special celebration and devotion. TheChristian Church adopted the method of showing great honour and glory tothe principal festivals of the Christian year, to the great saints, thepatrons of countries, dioceses, etc. But just as the calendar becameovercrowded with saints' offices, which excluded almost entirely theSunday and ferial offices, so, too, the additions of octaves createdconfusion and further tended to the exclusion of the old liturgical useof the Psalter and the supplanting of the Sunday and ferial offices. Hence, in the _Motu Proprio Abhinc duos annos_, the octaves of thecalendar are divided into three great classes, privileged, common andsimple. Privileged octaves are further divided into three _orders_. Those of the first order are the octaves of Easter and Pentecost; theoctaves of Epiphany and Corpus Christi belong to the second order, andthe octaves of the Nativity and Ascension belong to the third. TheChristmas octave admits feasts of saints, but the octaves of Epiphany, Easter and Pentecost do not admit any feasts (Tit. V. , sec, 3). A daywithin an octave has a right to first Vespers, and the antiphon andresponse should be from first Vespers (S. C. R. , June, 1905). But thefeast of the day falling within octave has a right to first and secondVespers. The exceptions are, when at second Vespers of St. Thomas, theoffice of the octave of the Nativity to be observed on 30th December hasto be commemorated again, in octaves like octaves of Epiphany when eachday has its proper antiphon at the _Magnificat_, and again on and Julyin second Vespers of Visitation the office of St. Peter and Paul is tobe commemorated. In octaves the suffrages of saints and the AthanasianCreed are not said. When feasts of the Universal Church, which arecelebrated with an octave are perpetually transferred to the next day, because of a perpetual impediment, according to the rubrics, the octaveday is not therefore perpetually transferred but ought to be kept as inthe Universal Church on its own day. 

TITLE VIII. --OFFICE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN FOR SATURDAY. 

"_In omnibus Sabbatis per annum entra Adventum et Quadragesimam, ac nisiQuatuor Tempora aut Vigiliae ocurrant_, " etc. In all Saturdaysthroughout the year, except on the Saturdays of Advent, Lent, Ember Daysor occurring Vigils, or unless a feast of nine lessons has to be said onthe Saturday, then it is laid down in the rubrics that the Office of theBlessed Virgin should always be said with the rite of a simple office. The rubrics of the New Psalter (Title I. , sec. 6) direct, "_In officioSanctae Mariae in Sabbato et in festis simplicibus sic officiumpersolvendum est; ad matutinum, Invitatorium et hymnus dicuntur de eodemofficio vel de iisdem Festis; Psalmi cum suis antiphonis et versu deFeria occurente I. Et II. Lectis de Feria cum Responsoriis Propriis velde Communi. III. Vero lectio de officio vel Festo duabus lectionibus inunum junctis si quando duae pro Festo habeatur, ad reliquas autem Horasomnia dicuntur, prouti supra num. 5 in Festis Duplicibus expositum est_. "In the Office of the Blessed Virgin for Saturdays (Decree S. C. R. , 26thJanuary. 1916) the antiphons and Psalms at Matins, Lauds and small Hoursare to be said from the Saturday and from the _capitulum_ onwards all isto be taken from the office of the Blessed Virgin. 

This office is not to be confounded with the _officium parvum BeataeMariae. _ The office _de Sabbato_ is obligatory throughout the Church. The _officium parvum_ was only for choir use, an addition to the officeof the day. Saturday, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, is of greatantiquity, as the mention of it in the works of St. Peter Damien, St. Bernard and Pope Benedict XIII. Shows, but as to the time of its originor a history of its growth, little seems to be known. At first the cultconsisted in various and voluntary prayers and practices. About themiddle of the fourteenth century an office was composed for recital onSaturdays as dedicated to the Mother of God. The office in ourBreviaries was composed by St. Pius V, (1566-1572). 

TITLE IX, --COMMEMORATIONS. 

The rules laid down in the general rubrics of the Breviary forcommemorations were never very simple, and when we read the changesbrought about in _De ratione Divini officii recitandi juxta novumPsalteri ordinem_, Titles II. , III. , IV. , V. , VI. , with' the decrees ofthe Congregation (January, 1912), and subsequently (_Abhinc duos Annos_)everyone must fear to tread the maze with certainty and must often fallback gratefully on the labours of the compilers of the _Ordo_ which hefollows. Or, perhaps, doubts may be dispelled by _The New Psalter_(Burton and Myers) published in 1912. The chapter on the Calendar inthat book is worth study, but needs now additions and corrections, owingto the issue of more recent decrees. 

In the study of commemorations and translations of feasts there are twowords which have a special meaning and which, being often used incalendar working, deserve a special note. They are "occurrence" and"concurrence. " _Occurrence_ is the conjunction of two or more offices, which fall on the same day. It may be accidental when two movable feastsare concerned or when a movable feast falls on a day which has a fixedoffice; or it may be perpetual, when a fixed office falls on a day whichalready has a fixed office. The Church does not ask the recitation of adouble or a triple office. She, by her fixed rules, prefers one out ofthe two of the "occurring" offices, transfers if possible the others, orat least commemorates them by an antiphon, versicle and prayer, andsometimes by a ninth lesson at Matins. 

_Concurrence_ is the conjunction of two offices, which succeed oneanother, so that a question arises as to which feast the Vespers belongto; whether to the feast of the day or to the feast of the followingday, or whether the psalms should be of the feast and the remaining partof the Vespers should be as the _Ordo_ so often notes (_a cap. Deseq. _), from the _capitulum_ the office is taken from the followingfeast. 

The new rubrics contain five titles which make certain modifications inthe rules hitherto observed. We thus obtain a ready made division of thesubject:--

(1) Of the precedence of Feasts (Title II. ). (2) Of the accidental occurrence of feasts and their translation (Title III. ). (3) Of the perpetual occurrence of feasts and their transfer (Title V. ). (4) Of the occurrence of feasts (Title V. ). (5) Of the commemorations (Title VI. ) (Myers and Burton, _op. Cit. _). 

The new rubrics without the aid of any commentator give pretty clearnotions of the laws of precedence, occurrence and commemoration. Forstudents in college these rules are expounded in detail with additions, changes, exceptions. But for priests, long past the student stage, it isdifficult to undo the fixed liturgy lore of their student and earlypriest life; and the need of such a book as _The New Psalter and itsUses_ is, for those interested, a necessity. Even since the publicationof that book, changes have been made. For example, doubles, major orminor and semi-doubles, which were perpetually excluded on their own daywere transferred to some fixed day. This is given in _The New Psalterand its Uses_. But this has now been changed. In the case of feasts ofthe universal Church, no translation is allowed now. But feasts properto a nation, diocese, order, institute or particular church may still betransferred to a fixed day, if perpetually impeded on their own day. Another example of necessary changes in that excellent book is in thelast paragraph of page 136 (see Decree S. C. R. , June, 1912). The works ofcompilers and liturgists need constant revision to keep pace with newdecisions and decrees. 

In making commemorations, the order of the commemoration as laid down inthe _Ordo_ should be followed. Elements of a commemoration are theAntiphon of the _Benedictus_ or the _Magnificat_ with versicle andresponse. These antiphons are considered most excellent, preceding asthey do the Gospel canticles (St. Luke I. ). The antiphon, versicle andprayer of the commemoration at an hour should never be repetitions ofothers said in the same hour. Thus, if in the office of a confessorpontiff having the prayer _Da quaesumus_, another confessor pontiff'sfeast, commemorated in the same hour, should not have the same prayer. About the prayer, or, as it is called, the collect, the following shouldbe noted: first, the commemoration is omitted if the prayer of theoffice which is being recited and the prayer of the feast to becommemorated have the same object. Thus, a feast of the Blessed Virgin, falling within the octave of the Assumption, should not be commemorated. Second, where a commemoration for a saint or saints of title similar tothat of the saints whose office is being said, is to be made, theCongregation of Rites (5th May, 1736) arranged that not even theversicles and response be repeated and that the following order beobserved:--

IN VESPERS--

1st Com. Made by Antiphon and Versicle of Lauds. 2nd Com. Made by Antiphon of second Vesper and Ver. Of II. Nocturn. 3rd Com. Made by Antiphon of I. Noct. And Vers. Of III. Nocturn. 

IN LAUDS--

1st Com. Made by Antiphon and Vers. From first Vesp. 2nd Com. Made by Antiphon I. Noct. , and Ver. , III. Noct. 3rd Com. Made by Antiphon II. Vesp. , Vers. , II. Noct. 

If it should happen in commemorating a day within an octave that theversicle from the common had already been taken for the office, then therule is "_Sumenda est in laudibus antiphona de secundis Vesperis; et prosecundis Vesperis antiphona de laudibus in utroque tamen casu cum v. Deprimis Vesperis_" (S. C. R. , 18th Dec. , 1779). In the above given formof making commemorations it may be noted that the second commemorationin Lauds is made up from the versicles and response of Matins and notfrom second Vespers, so as to avoid repeating in Lauds what was said atVespers (Cavalieri). 

As regards prayers in the office the reminder that the same formula mustnot be repeated in the same hour may be supplemented. Because, prayershaving all words identical, save one single word, are not considered inliturgy as different prayers (_e. G. , Accendamur exemplis; instruamurexemplis_, Feast of St. Philip and St. James, Feasts of severalmartyrs). So, too, prayers which have the same form of petition (e. G. , the prayers on feast of St. Joseph and on feast of St. Mathew), are notconsidered as different and must not be repeated in the same hour. Butwhere the petition is different, even though all the remainder of theprayers are similar in wording, they may be repeated in the same hour. 

But what is to be done in offices where a commemoration prayer and theprayer of the office is from the common? What must be done where thefeast is the feast of a Doctor and a commemoration of a Doctor is to bemade? What is to be done when the office of the feast is of a virgin nota martyr, and a commemoration of a virgin not a martyr is to be made? Inthe first case the prayer from the office of a confessor or Pontiffshould be said, adding to it the title of Doctor. In the other case, theprayer _Indulgentiam_, omitting the word _martyr_, is to be said. 

The origin of these commemorations was, that the Popes in removing thesolemn celebrations of certain feasts of Apostles and Martyrs, whichwere formerly of precept, provided that their _cultus_ should not beforgotten, and that their commemoration in the office should remindpriests and the faithful of those servants of God, whom the Churchwishes ever to honour. I have said the order given for commemoration inthe _Ordo_ should be followed; but not to follow this order does notexceed a venial sin. Even the deliberate omission of a commemoration inLauds or Vespers is not a violation of a grave precept. 

TITLE X. --THE TRANSLATION OF FEASTS. 

When several offices fall on the same day, only one office, the one ofhighest rank or most important, is said. The others are transferred orcommemorated. The last section dealt with commemorations, and now wecome to the difficult question of the translation of feasts. Title X. Ofthe general rubrics must be read in connection with the ApostolicConstitution, _Divino Afflatu_ (1911) and with the _Abhinc duosAnnos_ (1913). 

Translation of a feast may mean the removal of a feast from an impededday to a day which is free. Thus a feast of higher rank may fall on afeast day of a saint whose feast is of lower rank; the latter may thenbe transferred. Transference is either perpetual or accidental andtemporary. The former applies to feasts which are always impeded by themeeting with a feast of higher rite on their fixed days. A feast whichwould fall on 6th January would suffer perpetual translation. Thistranslation bears different names in rubrics, decrees and liturgicalwritings--_translatio ad diem, fixam, translatio ad diem assignatam, mutatio, etc. _ Accidental translation means occasional transference, atransfer in one year and not in another. 

Title II. , section i, of the _Divino Afflatu_ gives the characters ofpreferential rank which are to be considered in occurrence, concurrenceor translation of feasts, _Ritus altior, ratio primarii aut secundarii, Dignitas Personalis, solemnitas externa_. 

Although in the General Rubrics of the Breviary, the title _De Festorumpraestantia_ is not found, the four principles, (1)gradation of rite, (2)classification as a primary or secondary feast, (3)personal dignity, (4)external solemnity, are mentioned in the sixth section of Title X. , _De Translatione Festorum_, and the degrees of personal dignity areadded in the second section of Title XL, _de commemorationibus_. Before1897 precedence, and hence transference, was settled first by the rankof the rite (Double major, etc. ); then, too, between two feasts of thesame rite, transference was settled by dignity and finally by solemnity. But in 1897 the Sacred Congregation of Rites indicated two further notesto be observed in the weighing of claims for transference, (1)theclassification into primary and secondary feasts, (2)the distinctionbetween fixed and movable feasts. This latter distinction--between fixedand movable feasts--has been suppressed by the new legislation and somechanges made in the others. 

I. _Gradation of Feasts_ makes a distinction between doubles, semi-doubles and simples, and distinguishes the various kinds ofdoubles. The order of procedure will be--(1)Doubles of the first class, (2)doubles of the second class, (3)greater doubles, (4)doubles, (5)semi-doubles, (6)simples. But as the section shows (Tit. II. , sec. I)this is subject to the privileges of certain Sundays, ferias, and octavedays or even days within an octave. And hence, an ordinary Sunday, though! only a semi-double, will take precedence of a double; and anoctave day, though only a double, takes precedence of a greater double. 

II. Classification as a primary or a secondary feast. Tables ofclassification are to be found in the prefatory part of the newBreviary, under the headings _Tres Tabellae_. They give a revised listof feasts with their rank and rites. Some feasts are reduced fromprimary to secondary rank (e. G. , Feast of the Dolours); and the tablesgive a new division of primary and secondary doubles and semi-doubles. 

III. Thirdly, the order of precedence among feasts will be determined bythe dignity of the person who is the special object of the office thatis to be recited. Hence, in the order set down in General Rubrics (TitleXI, _De Concurrentia officii_, sec. 2) all feasts of our Lord, otherthings being equal, take precedence of the feasts of our Lady. And then, in order, come the festivals of the angels, of St. John the Baptist, ofSt. Joseph, of the Apostles and other saints. Amongst the saints who arehonoured as martyrs, confessors or virgins there is no precedence as topersonal dignity. 

IV. Lastly, there is the note of "external solemnity, " which may giveprecedence to one or two feasts, which are equal in the above-mentionedmatters--i. E. , in Gradation I. , Classification II. , Precedence III. Butthe main point is that only doubles of first and second class have theright, as a rule, of transference. Transference is now rather rare. 

"From these rules it will be seen that in cases of concurrence, occurrence, perpetual transfer or translation, precedence between twofeasts will first be decided by gradation of rite, a double of the firstclass being preferred to one of the second, and so on. If the feasts areof equal rank recourse must be had to the second test, the distinctionbetween primary and secondary feasts. If both happen to be primary, orboth are secondary, then precedence will be granted to the feast whichhas the greater personal dignity. And if both feasts should have thesame dignity, then the fact of external solemnity would conferprecedence" (_The New Psalter and its Uses_, p. 79). For practical help, a look at the first of the _Duae Tabellae_ is a guide to find out whichoffice is to be said, if more than one feast occur on the same day. 

Before discussing new offices it may be well to remember that votiveoffices of all kinds, including the votive offices conceded by thedecree of July, 1883, are abolished. These offices were drasticinnovations, introduced to get rid of the very long psalm arrangement ofthe ferial office. The new distribution of the psalms got rid of theonus, and votive offices are no longer given in the Breviary. 

TITLE XL--CONCURRENCE. 

_Concurrence_ is the conjunction of two offices which succeed eachother, so that the question arises to which of the two are the Vespersof the day to be assigned. The origin of this conjunction of feasts wasby some old writers traced to the Mosaic law in which the festivals, began in the evening, and they quote "from evening until evening youshall celebrate your sabbaths" (_Leviticus_, xxii. 32). The effect ofconcurrence may be that the whole vespers may belong to the feast of theday or may be said entirely from, the feast of the following day; or itmay be that the psalms and antiphons belong to the preceding festivaland the rest of the office be from the succeeding feast. The GeneralRubrics, Title XI, must be read now in conjunction with Titles IV. , V. , and VI. Of the _Additiones et Variationes ad norman Bullae "DivinoAfflatu"_. The rules for concurrence are given in Table III. Of the_Tres Tabellae_ inserted in the new Breviary (S. C. R. , 23 January, 1912). These tables supersede the tables given in the old editions of theBreviary. The first of these two tables shows which office is to besaid, if more than one feast occur on the same day, whether perpetuallyor accidentally. The second table is a guide to concurrence--_i. E. _, whether the first vespers of the following feast is to be said entirelywithout reference to the preceding feast, or if second vespers of thepreceding feast is to be said entire, without reference to thefollowing; or, again, first vespers of the following with commemorationof the preceding, or second vespers of the preceding with commemorationof the following, or vespers of the more noble feast with commemorationof the other--any of these may be the liturgical order to follow, andthe _Tabella_ makes things clear. 

The "tables" are to be used thus:--Opening the Breviary at the _ITabella, "Si occurrat eodem die, "_ first find the number marked in thatsquare in which the two feasts in question meet, and then read thedirection printed, in column on same page to left-hand side, bearingthe same number. For example: the question is about the occurrence of aSunday of the first class and a Double of the first class. _Double ofthe first class_ stands first word of page, and _Sunday of first class_will be found in column beneath the rows of figures. Now the square inwhich straight lines drawn from _double of first class_ and _Sunday offirst class_ meet bears the number 6, and reference to number 6 incolumn of directions found on same page gives the rule, "_Officium de 2, Translatio de I_, " that is, the office must be of the Sunday of firstclass and the double of the first class must be transferred according tothe rubrics. When in these brief directive notes, (1-8), mention is madeof the "first or the preceding, " the reference is made to feast oroffice printed in the upper part of the Table, e. G. , Double of firstclass. Reference to "the second" or "following" refers to feast printedin the lower section of the Table. Where _O_ stands in a square in the_Tabella_ it signifies that there can be no occurrence or concurrencebetween feasts whose "lines" meet in that square. These two tables arevery ingeniously arranged. The lists, given in the Breviary followingthese tables, give the lists of greater Sundays and Ferias, privilegedvigils, doubles of first and second class and greater doubles, and tellwhether feasts are primary or secondary. 

TITLE XII. --THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE OFFICE ACCORDING TO THE RUBRICS GIVEN ABOVE. 

If any one wish from the rubrics given in the Breviary to arrange theoffice, he can see in the calendar and in the tables of movable feastswhich office he is to say on the following day. And when he has foundout the feast he determines, from the rules given, the vespers and theother hours. 

If the office be the office of an excepted feast, the whole office issaid from the feast as it is in the Proper or Common of saints; but thepsalms of Lauds and the hours are taken from the Sunday psalms, as theystand in the new Psaltery, At Prime the psalm _Deus in nomine_ is saidin place of _Confitemini_. Compline is said from the Sunday psalms. Ifthe office be the ordinary non-excepted office it is recited accordingto the rule laid down in the new rubrics. Tit. I. , n. 5, :--

"_Ad matut, invit. Hymnus, Lectiones II. Et III. Nocturni ac responsoria2 et 3 nocturnorum propria vel de communi; antiphonae vero, psalmi etversus trium nocturnorum necnon Lestiones I. Nocturni cum suisResponsoriis de feria occurrente. .. . "_

_"Ad Laudes et ad Vesperas ant. Cum Psalm. De Feria; Capit. Hym. Vers. Et Antiph. Ad Benedictus vel ad magnificat cum oratione aut in Proprioaut de Communi ad Horas minores et Complet. Aut cum Psalm semper diciturde occurrente Feria. Ad Primam pro Lectione breve legitur capit. Nonaeex Proprio, vel de Communi. Ad Tertiam, sextam et Nonam, capit. Respons. Breve et orat. Pariter sumuntur vel ex Proprio vel de Communi_. "

(Matins and the other hours are treated of in another section. )

PART II. 

RULES FROM MORAL AND ASCETIC THEOLOGY FOR THE RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY. 

MORAL THEOLOGY GIVES THE RULES AND LAWS, WHICH MUST BE FOLLOWED FOR THEVALID AND LICIT RECITATION OF THE HOURS. ASCETIC THEOLOGY EXPLAINS THEMEANS, WHICH ARE TO BE USED IN THEIR FERVENT RECITATION. 

CHAPTER I. 

MORAL AND ASCETIC THEOLOGY. 

Q. Who are bound to recite the Divine Office?

R. 1. Religious, that is, all those who have made Religious Profession, in the Canonical sense, and who are bound to Choir recitation (Canon 610, Juris Canonici). 

 2. Clerics in Holy Orders (Canon 135, Codex). 

 3. Beneficed Clergy. 

Who are Beneficed Clergy?

Beneficed Clergy are those who hold a Canonically erected benefice. Canon 1409 of the _Codex Juris Canonici_ defines an ecclesiasticalbenefice to be a "Juridical entity constituted or erected by competentecclesiastical authority, consisting of a sacred office and the right ofreceiving revenues from endowments attached to the office. " Hence underthis Canon, as previously three conditions are required for a benefice, first, a sacred office, second, the right of receiving revenues fromendowment attached to that office, third, erection by ecclesiasticalauthority. There never was any doubt in the many discussions on thissubject, that the work and care of a parish is a sacred office, and thatparish priests hold such an office. But the second condition mentionedabove received different interpretations. Some held that it implied acertain amount of ecclesiastical property set aside, from the revenuesof which the holder of the benefice would derive his income. Hence therevenues of parish priests in these Kingdoms, arising from certain andvoluntary offerings of the faithful, were not fixed revenues, did notfulfil the conditions of "endowment, " and parishes must not be regardedas benefices. This opinion is no longer tenable. Canon 1410 says:--"Theendowment of a Benefice is constituted either by property, the ownershipof which pertains to the Juridical entity itself, or by certain andobligatory payments of any family or moral personality, or by certainand voluntary offerings of the faithful which appertain to the rector ofthe benefice, or, as they are called stole fees, within the limits ofdiocesan taxation or legitimate custom, or choral distributions, exclusive of a third part of the same, if all the revenues of thebenefice consist of choral distributions. "

This Canon seems to make it clear that the second condition is fulfilledin all the parishes of these Kingdoms, since to the sacred office isattached the right of receiving revenue from the certain and voluntaryofferings of the faithful or from stole fees or from both. 

The third condition, erection by ecclesiastical authority, is qualifiedby Canon 1418 which prescribes that benefices should be erected by alegitimate document defining the place of the benefice, its endowmentand the duties and rights of the person appointed. 

This law has not an invalidating clause, hence it is not now necessarynor ever was it necessary to have such a written document. A validappointment was and can be made without any writing. 

Where these three conditions are fulfilled there is a benefice, true, real, and canonical. Normally parishes are benefices. (See _IrishEcclesiastical Record_, Vol. XIV. , No. 623; and _Irish TheologicalQuarterly_, October, 1917, p. 209. )

Every cleric in holy orders is bound under pain of mortal sin to recitedaily the Divine Office. No General Council, no Pope, has made such alaw, but the old-established custom has grown, until it has the force ofa law (Bened. XIV. , _Instructio Coptharum_). Authors are not agreed asto the date of the first traces of this old custom. Billuart quotes thetext of the fourth Council of Carthage to prove that it existed in thefourth century, _Clericus, qui absque corpusculi sui inequalitatevigiliis deest, stipendiis privatus, excommunicatur_. Gavantus can findtraces of it only as late as the sixth century. Several decrees ofprovincial councils regarding this custom are quoted by writers onliturgy. However, the matter is clearly and definitely dealt with by theGeneral Council of Lateran (1213) and by the Bulls, _Quod a nobis_ and_Ex proximo_, of Pope Pius V. (1571). This Pope expressly states thatwilful omission of the Divine Office is a grave sin--"_grave peccatumintelligat se commissise_. "

The obligation of reciting the office binds those in Holy Orders, eventhough they may be excommunicated, suspended, degraded or imprisoned. The obligation binds for the first time when subdeaconship has beenconferred. Subdeacons are bound to recite "the hour" in the office ofthe day, corresponding to the time of their ordination. If theordination is finished before nine o'clock, the sub-deacon is bound tobegin his recitation with Terce. If the ordination is held between nineo'clock and mid-day the recitation begins with Sext. The question isdiscussed by theologians if the recitation of Terce or Sext may belawfully and validly made before the ordination. Some authors deny thatit may be justly and lawfully done, while others, with some probability, affirm that before ordination the debt may be paid in advance. 

Are priests bound to follow the Proper in their own diocese?

They are, if it has been approved by the Sacred Congregation of Rites(S. R. C. , 4597-4746). But a priest travelling (_peregrinus_) shouldrecite the office according to the calendar of the church to which he isattached regularly, but the obligation of following the calendar of hishome church was not binding by a grave precept. A reply of the SacredCongregation of Rites (Nov. , 1831) arranged (1) that beneficed clergyare always bound to recite the office of their own proper church ordiocese; (2) that simple priests may read either the office as arrangedfor the place they tarry in or travel in, or the office of their ownhome diocese; (3) for unattached priests (_vagi_) it is the wiser orderto follow the office as laid down in their own diocese. 

Must every holder of a benefice read the Divine Office?

Every holder is bound, under pain of mortal sin, to recite the DivineOffice daily, if the benefice be an ecclesiastical benefice fulfillingthe conditions named above. The omission of the recital of the DivineOffice by a beneficed person is a grave sin against the virtue ofreligion and a grave sin against the virtue of justice. For the Churchimposes on the beneficiary the duty of the Office recital, on conditionthat he may not take the fruits of his benefice if he do not recitethe Office. 

What sin is committed by the omission of a notable part of the dailyoffice?

He who wilfully omits a notable part of the daily Divine Office commitsa mortal sin. A notable part of the Divine Office for any day is held bysome theologians to be the omission of one psalm in one of the smallhours, or a corresponding quantity of matter in lessons, responses, etc. They hold that such wilful omission is a grave sin. Other theologianshold--and their opinion is the more common and the more probableone--that, although one psalm is a notable part of a small hour, inrelation to the whole office it is not a notable part, and its omissionis not a grave matter. These theologians hold that the wilful omissionof an entire small hour or equivalent matter (e. G. , Sext, or the thirdnocturn of Matins) is an omission of a notable part and cannot beexcused from grave sin. 

The omission of the entire office of a day, the seven canonical hours, is held by some theologians to carry the guilt of seven mortal sins. Because, there is a different precept for each hour and the omission ofeach hour violates a precept. The Salamenticenses think this opinionprobable. The more common and the more correct opinion is that by suchomission only one sin is committed. And the theologians who hold thisopinion say that the recitation of the canonical hours is imposed underone precept only, and hence there is only one obligation embracing theseven hours. This is the opinion of St. Alphonsus (n. 148) who quotesseveral authors (including Lessius, Sanchez and St. Antoninus) insupport. If a person in Holy Orders omit several hours with aretractation, or a moral interruption in his sinful intentions, he maycommit several mortal sins, because all the omissions, which inthemselves are grave matter, may become independent of each other by theinterruption and renewal of the intention (St. Alphonsus, n. 148). 

What must a person do who has a doubt that he has omitted something inhis recitation of the office? Is he bound to make assurance doubly sureby reciting the part of which he doubts?

If the doubt be a positive doubt, that is, if he have good reason tobelieve that he has recited it, he is not bound to anything furtherregarding the part in question. For instance, if a priest remembershaving started the recitation of a lesson, and in a short time findshimself at the end of it, and cannot be sure if he have recited it, thepresumption is in favour of the priest and of the recitation, because itis his custom to recite completely whatever part he commences. He has, thus, moral certainty that he has satisfied the precept, and it is notnecessary to repeat it; if the necessity for repetition be admitted insuch a case, a fruitful source of scruples is opened up. 

On the other hand, if the doubt be negative--that is to say, if a personhas no reasonable motive for believing that he has recited the fulloffice or the full hour, he is bound to recite the part omitted, because in such a doubt, the precept of recitation is, as thetheologians say, "in possession. " (St. Alphonsus, n. 150). 

It is not allowed to change anything nor to add anything to the dailyoffice without permission. The Sacred Congregation of Rites (10 June, 1690, n. 3222) replied to a query, that in saints' offices nothing is tobe added and nothing is to be changed, and this reply applies to allsorts of offices, old and new. 

THE ORDER TO BE OBSERVED IN RECITING THE DIVINE OFFICE. 

In reciting the Divine Office two points of order are to be noted: (1)the order or arrangement of offices, (2) the order or arrangement ofHours. The order of offices indicates which office is to be said on eachday as laid down in the calendar. The order of the Hours points outwhich of the seven hours should be recited, firstly, secondly, etc. , Matins, Lauds, Prime, Terce, etc. It is of obligation to observe bothorders. But is it a sin to change wilfully the order of the office? Itis not, if there be a reasonable cause for the change. For instance, ifa priest cannot say the office proper to his diocese on a certain day, but says some other approved office, the change is not a sin. But if apriest, _ex industria_, substitute one office for another, it is _perse_ a venial sin; but if an office be said which is very much shorterthan the calendar office, or if this changing or substituting be sofrequent as to disturb gravely the good order of the year's offices, thesin may be (and, according to some authors, is) a mortal sin. 

It is asked whether a person fulfils his debt to the Church if he hasrecited by mistake an office other than the one assigned in the calendarof the day. Theologians teach that such a recitation fulfils the debt. The Church does not wish to impose a second recitation, and her axiom"_officium pro officio valet_" holds, provided always that the order ofthe psalms as laid down in the new psaltery is followed. This order isnecessary always for validity. However, if the substituted office bevery much shorter than the omitted office, it is advised to equalisethem by reciting the psalms of Matins, This is a counsel and was notlaid down by theologians as an obligation. 

An office thus omitted is not to be transferred to another day (S. C. R. , June 17th, 1673). The office may be omitted altogether for that year. Ifthere be leisure the omitted office should be recited. This practice isin conformity with the spirit of the liturgy and with the right order ofthe calendar. The Sacred Congregation of Rites, questioned on thismatter, replied _sic debere fieri_, such should be done. If a priestrecites by mistake one day's office for another (e. G. , the Tuesdayoffice on a Monday) he is bound to recite Tuesday's office on Tuesday(St. Alphonsus). If, however, after a portion of the office has beenread, it is noticed that a mistake has been made in reading the calendaror the _Ordo_, and that the office partly recited is not the office ofthe current day, what is to be done? If the priest has without faultmade the mistake of reciting some office not ascribed to the currentday, he is not bound to repeat the part already recited (e. G. , Matins); it is sufficient, valid and lawful to follow the correctoffice in the following Hours. The priest reciting is not bound torepeat even part of an hour, if he finds out his mistake during therecitation of even a small hour. And he may finish the psalm or hymn orprayer which he was reciting when he discovered his mistake, and he maythen take up the correct office at the part or hour at which he leavesoff, or he may finish the Hour at which he was engaged. The formersolution of the difficulty seems the better, as it more accuratelyagrees with the maxim, _error corrigatur ubi apprehenditur_. If theerror in the selecting of the office has been wilful, say, through grosscarelessness, and is the fault of the priest who changes a notable partof a canonical Hour, he is obliged--the more probable opinionteaches--to repeat the full Hour, and this obligation binds under painof venial sin--_i. E. _, the obligation to recite the office in theprescribed manner. 

What is a person bound to do who forgets part of an Hour--is he obligedto repeat the full Hour?

He is bound to recite the part forgotten only, unless the mistake bemade through gross carelessness, and unless it be a considerable part(e. G. , two nocturns); in that case he is bound under pain of venialsin to repeat the full Hour. If a person say the same Hour (e. G. , Terce) twice, may he compensate for extra labour by the omission of anequivalent part (e. G. , None)? Such omission is unlawful; he mustrecite all the Hours without omission (Scavini, 391). 

Is there an obligation to repeat the Hours in the order fixed in theBreviary? Yes, there is such an obligation. And a person may sinvenially by the inversion of the Hours, The obligation binds _subveniali_ only. The inversion does not mean any grave breach of order, which is fixed by a secondary precept and as a circumstance of lightimportance. If the whole office be recited, the substance of theoffice--which is the main and primary matter--is safeguarded. Severalauthors argued that any inversion of the Canonical Hours, if frequent, is a mortal sin, but the opinion which says that the inversion of theHours is only a venial sin is the more probable (St. Alph. 169; Gury, 77; Lehmkuhl II. , 621). 

Which causes justify an inversion of the Hours? Any reasonable causejustifies this inversion. Thus, if a friend invite a priest to jointrecitation of an Hour, and the priest have not the preceding canonicalHours recited, he is justified in accepting the invitation and ininverting the order of the Hours. Or if a person have a Diurnal only athand, he may read the day Hours, although he have not Matins for the dayread. Again, a priest may not have the lessons for Matins at hand, buthe may recite the psalms for Matins, Lauds, and add the lessons atMatins when they are to hand (Gury, n. 78; St. Alph. , n. 170). 

Is it a sin to say Matins for following day before finishing office ofcurrent day? Some theologians answer affirmatively, because the officeof the current day should be complete before another office is begun. Others hold that such recitation is both valid and licit, as the officeof one day and its obligation have no bond with the office of anotherday, and that any reasonable cause exempts from all sin or fault (Gury, n. 79). Not to recite the commemorations in the prescribed order set outin the _Ordo_ is held by some theologians to be a venial sin, as theyhold that the rubric is preceptive; others hold that it is not any sin, as they say that the rubric is directive. 

ARTICLE III. --TIME OF RECITATION. 

The time fixed for the recitation of the entire office of the day isfrom midnight to the midnight following, and anyone bound to recite theDivine Office does not sin gravely if he has recited carefully theentire office of the day between these limits of time; because, withinthese limits, the substance of the obligation binding to time isfulfilled. Of course, it is lawful in virtue of a privilege granted bythe Church to recite on the previous evening Matins and Lauds for thefollowing day. In the recitation the times fixed by the Church for eachhour should be observed. But the non-recital at those fixed times isnever a mortal sin and is rarely a venial sin, unless their postponementor anticipation is without cause. 

When may a priest begin the recitation of Matins and Lauds for thefollowing day? There were two different replies given to this question. One opinion stated that it was lawful to begin Matins and Lauds after 2o'clock, p. M. , and this could be lawfully done every day in the year, and in every land. Another opinion--and St. Alphonsus calls it_sententia verior_--denies that such a course is lawful. The old FrenchBreviaries gave a _horarium_ arranging the hour of anticipation ofMatins and Lauds, so that no one should, through temerity or ignorance, begin the anticipation before the sun had passed half way in its coursebetween mid-day and sunset. On January 20th the time to begin theanticipation of hours was 2. 15 p. M. , but on June 8th the anticipationwas not to begin till 4 p. M. 

Nowadays, the first opinion is held almost universally. The principal_internal_ argument for this opinion is the teaching that theanticipation may begin from the public hour of first vespers, and thesemay be recited publicly according to present-day custom at 2 p. M. Therefore, this time, 2 o'clock p. M. , is the beginning of theecclesiastical day, and can be taken as the time for privateanticipation of Matins and Lauds. The _external_ argument in favour ofthis opinion is the authority of theologians. In 1905, the SacredCongregation of Rites was asked the question "_Utrum in privatarecitatione Matutinum sequentis diei incipi possit, 2da pomeriddiane_?". The reply was, "_Consulantur probati auctores_" (_Acta Sanctae Sedis_XXXVII. , p. 712). Now many approved authors (e. G. , Lehmkuhl, II. , 793;Ballerini-Palmieri, IV. 515; Slater I. , p. 609) hold that it is lawful, privately, to anticipate Matins and Lauds at 2 o'clock, p. M. Lehmkuhl, who previously favoured a stricter view, was compelled, in the latesteditions of his _Moral Theology_, to say of this opinion which allowsanticipation to begin at 2 o'clock, p. M. : "_Quae sententia hodie amultis usque gravissimis viris tenetur et observatur, ut, spectataconsuetudine, extrinseca saltem probabilitas negari nequit_. " Weconclude, accordingly, that always and everywhere the privateanticipation of Matins and Lauds may begin at 2 p. M. (_cf. IrishEcclesiastical Record_, Fifth Series, Vol. I. , No. 541). 

Doubts have arisen in connection with time changes made by variousStates in Europe. The various schemes of new time, of daylight saving, of co-ordinations of time, uniformity of time all through certainStates, have given rise to doubts and queries regarding the time forfulfilling the precept of the office and also regarding the time forlawful anticipation of Matins and Lauds. These doubts were solvedseveral years ago, and now there is no longer any difficulty or anxietyover "true time, " "new time, " "legal time, " in relation to mattersecclesiastical. In reply to queries, Dr. M. J. O'Donnell, in the _IrishEcclesiastical Record_ (Vol. III. , p. 582), explains clearly this timedifficulty and its solution by the Congregation of the Council on 22ndJuly, 1893. The Bishop of Trier explained to the Congregation of theCouncil that owing to the State legislation in the German Empire allpublic clocks should register the same time, and that this meant that inhis diocese the legal computation differs by half an hour from the meantime. "May clerics follow the legal time in reciting the Divine Office?"was the bishop's question. The Congregation of the Council answered by asimple affirmative. In 1892, Greenwich time was introduced for Statepurposes into all railway, postal, and Government offices in Holland. The query was put to the Congregation of the Inquisition if the clergyand people might, for the purpose of fast and other ecclesiasticalobligations, follow the new time, or were they obliged to retain thetrue time? The reply was "_affirmative ad primam: negative ad secundampartem_. " "In a word, the constant Roman answer has been 'Do as youplease'; so far as the approval of the legal time is concerned itconfirms the conclusion of the editor of the _Acta_ (xxxii-251) that incomputing time the Church follows the rule that regulates all businessconcerns in different localities. .. . 

"In the meantime, taking into account the conventional character of'time' and the liberal principles of Rome in the past, we have no doubtthat everyone, priest or layman, is fully justified in following the newtime if he feels so inclined. " (See _Codex Juris. Canon. _, Can. 33). 

Are priests bound to recite Matins and Lauds before Mass?

The first sentence of the _Ritus servandus in celebratione Missae_ inthe Missal contains the clause "_saltem Malutino cum Laudibusabsoluto_, " The word _saltem_ indicates that the Church notifies theminimum and expects a further hour, Prime or even others of the smallhours, to be finished before Mass. But theologians hold that there is nograve obligation for such prior-to-Mass recital, and that any reasonablecause excuses from the obligation (Lehmkuhl II. , 628). In connectionwith this matter a very instructive and devotional essay in the _IrishEcclesiastical Record_ (Fourth Series XXXI. , n. 533) by Father M. Russell, S. J. , is well worth reading. It is entitled "A NeglectedAdverb"; the adverb being _saltem_, from the clause quoted. 

At what times should the small hours be recited? Prime may be, and, probably with more appropriateness, should be used as morning prayer andsaid before Mass. Terce and Sext may be said before mid-day, or Sext andNone may be said after mid-day. Vespers should be said after mid-day. Compline was the night prayer of the monks, who probably instituted thehour. It should be borne in mind that the substance of the law ofrecitation is fulfilled if the whole office of the day be recited beforemidnight, and that the obligation for entire and complete recitation isgrave; while the recitation of the hours at set hours of the day is alight obligation. 

ARTICLE IV. -OF THE PLACE OF RECITATION AND THE ATTITUDE IN RECITING THE OFFICE. 

Where should the Divine Office be recited? The Divine Office should berecited in the place intended and set apart by the Church for thatpurpose--viz. , in the choir or in the Church (Con. Trid. , sess. 24). Canons and religious are bound to recite their office in choir; ofcourse, this refers to Canons in residence at a cathedral for dailyservice, and to religious in the strict application of the term. TheDivine Office may be recited by priests anywhere, in the church, in adwelling-house, walking, in the fields, etc. 

In reciting the office a priest should observe an attitude in harmonywith the great work in which he is engaged, prayer to God. Hence, hisattitude should be becoming, on his knees, standing, sitting, walking, but not sprawling or lying. The rubrics which prescribe kneeling, sitting, standing, apply to choir recitation only. But writers recommendthat in private recitation these directions should not be altogetheromitted, and they say that the practice of these rubrics of kneeling, bowing, standing, etc. , is laudable and an aid to devout recital. 

ARTICLE V. --PRONUNCIATION OF THE WORDS. 

What kind of pronunciation is to be attended to in the recitation of theDivine Office? The pronunciation should be vocal--that is, there shouldbe some sound, _aliquis sonitus verborum_, as St. Alphonsus writes (n. 162). Hence, to read the Breviary merely mentally or with the eyes only, does not satisfy the obligation. [A] Although the reader may not hear thesound produced, he must be careful to form with his lips every syllable. This must be done, not necessarily in a throaty way. The formation ofthe words clearly with the lips suffices. But writers on this pointemphasise the importance of audible recitation as a preventive ofslurred, mutilated Latinity, which often leads to careless, or eveninvalid recitation. They note, too, that the reading with the eyemerely, is a habit which readers bring from the reading of other booksto their reading of the Breviary. German authors dwell at length on thefact that many priests, very early in their career, contract the habitof faulty vocalisation of liturgy, and that they never seem to noticetheir fault, or at least never seem to attempt an amendment. Theseauthors attribute the defect to sub-voce recitation and recommendaudible recitation, long and frequent audible recitation, to all priestsreading their hours. 

[Footnote A: The privilege of mental recitation was granted to the FriarMinor by Pope Leo X. And Pius V. , but it is probable that the privilegewas withdrawn by Pope Gregory XV. In 1622, in his letter _RomanusPontifex_; and Urban VIII. , 1635, withdrew all privileges granted _vivaevocis oraculo_. The text of the document granting the privilege isobscurely worded. Still, several theologians of repute maintain that theprivilege still exists and extends to the whole office. This is taughtby the Salaraenticenses, _De hor. Can. Cap. _ 3, n. 55; Tamburini, Rodriguez, etc. , others opposed this view of the privilege existingafter Pope Urban's letter _Alias_. This privilege extends to secularpriests who are Franciscan tertiaries, if it exists at all. ]

Can a priest fulfil his obligation by reciting the office with acompanion? Yes, he can, for such recitation is the Church's ideal; andthe priest who says his part (alternate verses, etc. ), as in choir, fulfils his obligation, even when his companion is a layman or aninattentive person. In such recitation a priest should be careful (1)that his recitation be of alternate verses, (2) that the verserecitation be successive and not simultaneous, (3) that the verses, etc. , chanted by one companion (or by one choir) be heard by the othercompanion or choir. There is no necessity for a priest at suchrecitation to say one verse in a loud voice and to say his companion'sverses in a low, inaudible voice. Some priests do this with distressingresults. Imperfect vocal recitation often leads to doubts and scruplesin old age when remedies either cannot be applied or prove useless. 

Those who recite the office in choir are bound by the rubrics concerningkneeling, sitting, standing, etc. Secondly, they are bound to observethe rules of the liturgy, especially the rule as to the stop in eachverse at the asterisk mark. Thirdly, they are bound to recite clearlyand distinctly; but even if they cannot hear distinctly the alternatechoir, or even if they recite in a low voice, they fulfil the obligationof recitation; and canons are bound at Cathedral offices to sing andchant or to lose their manual distributions and the fruits of theirprebends. If a person reciting his office with a companion or in a choirdoes not understand the words recited by his companion or by the choir, he is not bound at the end to repeat the part which he did notunderstand, because such a person has the intention of offering prayerand praise to God, and that intention suffices. Moreover, the Church'sprecept of reciting the office should he interpreted benignly, otherwiseit must give rise to many scruples; for, companions in recitation, then, always, should be anxious as to the duty of repetition or thenon-fulfilled duty of complete recitation. 

Pronunciation of the words of the office should be _integral_. That is, the words and syllables are to be repeated fully without mutilation orabbreviation. Hence, if mutilation of the words occur to such an extentthat the sense or meaning of the words is notably changed, mortal sinmay be committed. But if the mutilation be small in quantity there isonly a venial sin committed, and often no sin at all may be committed, as the mutilation of words or syllables may be quite involuntary, or maybe done inadvertently, or may arise from an inveterate habit verydifficult to correct, and in the attempt to cure it time and patiencemay have been spent (St. Alph. , 164-165). This bad habit, if it extendover a large portion of the recitation and destroy notably the sense ofthe words, may bind _sub gravi_ to repetition, as this fault or habitaffects the very substance of recitation. Priests seldom are bound tosuch a repetition, as the mutilation is not destructive to the sense ofa notable part of the office and hence does not affect the substance ofthe obligation to vocal recital. St. Alphonsus holds (n. 165), that theobligation is fulfilled as long as the meaning is not destroyed, _quandoservatur aliqua significatio verborum_. 

Pronunciation should be _continuous_. That is, the recitation of eachhour should be continuous, non-interrupted, and every notable stoppageor break in the recitation of a canonical hour is a venial sin, if therebe no excusing cause for such an interruption. Any reasonable cause forinterruption (e. G. , to obey a bell call, to see a parishioner whocalls, to hear a confession) excuses from all fault (St. Alph. , n. 168). 

If the recital of the office for any canonical hour be interrupted, should the whole hour be repeated? Some theologians say that it shouldbe repeated. But the more probable opinion denies that there is any suchobligation; it holds that the union of the prayers prescribed by theChurch is not broken, as each psalm, each lesson, each prayer, has acomplete signification and they are united sufficiently in one round ofprayer by the intention formed of continuing the Hour, or even by theactual continuation. Gury states that a priest interrupting the officebetween the verses of a psalm is not bound to repeat the entire psalm onresuming the recitation, as he says each verse has its ownsignification. 

May Matins be said separately from Lauds without any excusing cause?Yes, for it was the practice of the early Church to say these parts ofthe liturgy at times separated by intervals. But if Matins be saidseparately, without Lauds following immediately. _Pater Noster_ withDominus Vobiscum and the prayer of the day should be said at the end ofthe _Te Deum_, If Lauds follow Matins immediately the _Pater_ and _Ave_should not be said, for the Congregation (same decree) says "_Laudesincohandas ut in Psalterio_, " but in the Psalter the _Pater_ and _Ave_are not assigned for the beginning of Lauds. 

A notable time may elapse between the nocturns of Matins without anyexcusing cause. In the early Church intervals occurred between eachnocturn. Some authors state that an interval of three hours between twonocturns is quite lawful, even when there be no cause for the delay. With a reasonable cause the interval may last as long as the excusingcause requires. 

ARTICLE VI. --INTENTION AND ATTENTION. 

The valid recitation of the Divine Office requires that the priestshould have in his mind an intention of praying, for the Divine Officeis a true and real prayer, not a mere vocal exercise. Hence, a priestreading his office as a mere study or as a means of remembering thewords of the psalms does not validly recite his office (St. Alph. , n. 176). Now, what sort of intention is best and what sort of intention isnecessary? An actual, explicit intention which states expressly when theBreviary is opened, "I intend to pray, " is the best intention. Thedevout recital of the prayer "_Aperi Domine_" expresses well the bestform of the actual, explicit intentions of those reciting the office. But such an express, actual intention is not necessary; a virtualintention, which finds expression in the opening of the Breviary torecite the office, suffices. The mere opening of the book, the findingout of the office, the arrangement of the book markers, are ampleevidence of the existence of a virtual intention quite sufficient forthe valid recitation of the office. St. Alphonsus writes, "_Imo putosemper adesse exercite, intentionem actualem implendi officium_" (n. 176). This question of intention gives great trouble to the timid andscrupulous, whose doubts and difficulties seem hard to solve. The commonsense and common practice in everyday affairs seem to desert some peoplewhen they prepare to read the canonical hours. For, who has not seen thenervous, pious, anxious cleric, stupidly labouring to acquire even asufficient intention before beginning his hours?

Attention in reading the hours is a much more discussed and much moredifficult mental effort. It means the application of the mind to thething in which we are engaged. When we listen to a conversation or whenwe write a letter the mind is fixed and attentive to the matter spokenor written. Intention is an act of the will; attention is an act of theunderstanding. 

Attention may be either external or internal. External attention isattention of such a kind that it excludes every exterior actionphysically incompatible with the recitation of the office--e. G. , towrite or type a letter, to listen attentively to those conversing, areacts incompatible with the simultaneous recitation of the office. Butwalking, poking a fire, looking for the lessons, whilst reciting frommemory all the time, are not incompatible with the external attentionrequired in office recital; because such acts do not require mentaleffort which could count as a serious disturbing element. However, inthis matter of external attention no rule can be formulated for allBreviary readers; for what may lightly disturb and distract one readermay have no effect on another, and yet may seriously disturb therecitation of another (St. Alph. , n. 176). External attention isnecessary for the valid recitation of the office. 

Internal attention is application or advertence of the mind. Is suchinternal attention, such deliberate application or mental advertencenecessary for the valid recitation of the office?

There are two opinions on this matter, two replies to the question. According to one opinion, and this is the more common and the moreprobable one, internal attention is required for the valid recitation ofthe Hours. 1. Because the Divine Office is a prayer, but there can be notrue or real prayer without internal attention, for prayer is defined asan elevation of the soul to God, but if there be no internal attention, there is no elevation of the soul to God, and no prayer. 2. Our Lordcomplained of those who had external attention at prayer, but lackedinternal attention or advertence, "This people honour me with theirlips, but their heart is far from me" (St. Matt. Xv. ). 3. The Churchappears to demand internal attention at prayer, for although she has notgiven any positive precept dealing with this kind of attention, she doesthe same thing when she commands that the recitation of the DivineOffice take the form of prayer for God's honour, and this recitation ofwords cannot be true prayer without internal attention. 4. The Councilof Trent seems to exact this attention when it wishes that the DivineOffice be said reverently, distinctly and devoutly, reverenter, distincte, devote. 5. If no internal attention be required in recitingthe Hours, it is difficult to see how voluntary distractions areforbidden by Divine Law. 

This is the opinion held by Cajetan (1496-1534), Sa (1530-1596), Azor(1539-1603), Sanchez (1550-1610), Roncaglai (1677-1737), Concina(1687-1756), and St. Alphonsus, the great Doctor of prayer (1696-1787). 

According to the other opinion, external attention suffices always andever to satisfy substantially the obligation of reading the office andfor the avoidance of mortal sin which invalid recitation entails. For, (1) To pray is to speak to God, to trust in Him, to manifest to Him thewishes and wants of the soul; but this can be done by a person who hasvoluntary distractions of mind, just as a man can read to his king anaddress, setting forth the thanks and requests of his subjects, althoughthe reader's mind is far from dwelling on the words or the meaning ofthe sentences before his eyes. But he is careful to read all the wordsin a clear, intelligible manner. Now the theologians who maintain thisopinion say that, _a fortiori_, this method of reading the Hours shouldbe valid; for, in the reading the priest acts principally in the name ofthe Church, as her minister, and offers up prayers to God in her name, and they say that the irreverence of the servant does not render theprayer of the Church unpleasing to Him, (2) He who makes a vow, and resolves to do a certain act, fulfils hisvow, even when fulfilling it he acts with voluntary distractions; so, apari, with the recitation of the office, (3) The administration of the sacraments--even the administration ofExtreme Unction, the form of which is a prayer--with full voluntarydistractions is valid; so, too, should be the recital ofBreviary prayers. 

(4) In the other opinion it is hard to see how, if voluntarydistractions destroy the substance of prayer, involuntary distractionsdo not produce similar effect, and hence, there can be no prayer ifthere be distraction of any kind. 

This opinion was held by Lugo (1583-1660), Gobat (1600-1679), Sporer(1609-1683), St. Antonnius (1389-1459), and other eminent men. It isquoted by St. Alphonsus, as _satis probabilis_. Of it, Lehmkuhl writes, "Quae ad substantiam divini officii dicamus satis probabilitersufficere cum intentione orandi observasse attentionem externam"(II. 635). 

What are the divisions or kinds of internal attention?

I. Objectively they are (1) spiritual attention, (2) literal attention, (3) superficial or material attention. Spiritual attention is thatadvertence of soul which tends towards God, the Term of all prayer, whenthe soul meditates on the power, wisdom, goodness of God, on thePassion, on the Mother of God, on God's saints. Literal attention isthat which strives to lay hold of the meaning of the words said in theoffice. Superficial attention is that advertence of soul which appliesitself to the correct recitation of the words, avoiding errors ofpronunciation, mutilation, transposition, etc. , etc. 

II. Subjectively, virtual attention suffices; habitual is divided intoactual and interpretative. Actual attention is that which exists at themoment--e. G. , the attention paid by a pupil to a question put by ateacher. Virtual attention is attention which was once actual, but isnot such at the time spoken of, but which lives virtually. Habitual isattention which once was actual, which does not remain in act, but whichwas not retracted. Interpretative attention is that which never existedat all, but which would have existed if the agent had adverted. 

Which kind of internal attention is required in the reading of theOffice? I. Objectively, material, or superficial attention is necessary, since the Breviary is a vocal prayer, and therefore it is necessary topronounce distinctly all the words of the day's office and to observethe rubrics. But this suffices; it is not necessary that a priestreciting his Hours should carefully notice each word, it is sufficientto have general and moral attention to recite every part well, and withthe intention of praying, "Sed sufficere moralem et generalem qua quiscuret bene omnia dicere cum intentione orandi" (St. Alphonsus). 

Hence, objectively, neither attention, which is called spiritual, because it is not easy to attain, nor the literal attention, whichreligious who do not understand Latin strive after, is needed for validrecitation. By this, it is not meant to convey that spiritual attentionis not very excellent and very commendable and praiseworthy. 

Subjectively, virtual attention suffices; habitual does not suffice, neither does interpretative. Best of all is actual attention, but it isnot necessary, because it is not always within the power of mortals. 

This want of internal attention is called mental distraction. Theologians distinguish two kinds of distractions, voluntary andinvoluntary. Voluntary distractions are thoughts which the mind freelyand directly embraces to the exclusion of pious thoughts which shouldoccupy it in prayer, of which the office is a high form; or they may bethoughts which arise from previous laziness, thoughtlessness, pre-occupation or some engrossing worldly affair. Involuntarydistractions are those which come unbidden and unsought to the mind, areneither placed directly, nor by their causes, by the person at prayer. 

Does a person reciting the Hours sin if he have distractions?

If the distractions be involuntary there is no sin. But if thedistractions be voluntary there is sin, But, unless the mind bealtogether filled with distractions, not thinking of God, of prayer, ofthe words or of the meaning, and unless the distractions are _fullyvoluntary_ and _reflective_ during a notable part of the office, thereis no mortal sin. Hence, St. Alphonsus, the great Doctor of Prayer, wrote, "_ut dicatur aliquis officio non satisfacere, non solumrequiritur ut voluntarie se distrahat, sed etiam ut plene advertat sedistrahi, nam alias iste, licet sponte se divertat non tamen sponte sedivertit a recitatione_" (St. Alphonsus, n. 177). Therefore, before aperson accuse himself of not satisfying the precept of recitation, onaccount of inattention or distractions, he must be able to affirmpositively (1)that he was wilfully distracted, (2)he must have noticednot only his distraction and mental occupation by vain thoughts, but hemust have noticed _also_ that he was distracted in his recitation; (3)hemust be able to state positively that the intention, resolution ordesire to recite piously, which he made at the beginning of his prayer, was revoked with full advertence and that it did not exist eitheractually or virtually during the time of distraction in his recitation. Seldom, indeed, are these conditions fulfilled, and seldom are theregravely sinful distractions. 

This subject of attention in prayer, in the official prayer of theChurch, is important. Long and learned disputes about its nature andrequirements occupied great thinkers in times long gone by. To-daytheologians argue on different sides; and anxiety, serious, painful andlife-long, reigns in the souls of many who struggle to recite theoffice, _digne, attente ac devote_. 

ARTICLE VII. -CAUSES WHICH EXCUSE FROM READING THE OFFICE. 

Authors generally give six causes which excuse a person from saying theHours: lawful dispensation, important work, grave illness, grave fear, blindness, want of a Breviary. They are recorded in thewell-known lines:--

"Quem Papa dispenset multus labor opprimit aeger Qui timet aut occulus, officioque caret. "

1. The obligation of reading the Office is imposed by the Church and thePope can dispense in it even without cause. Bishops can give temporarydispensations. 

2. A grave occupation excuses from the whole or from a part of theOffice. Thus, missioners giving missions or parish retreats are excusedfrom the whole Office; so, too, are priest combatants in the battleline; but when in rest camps they are bound to say the Hours. A priestengaged in saying his Office, if he receive an urgent call to a dyingperson may not have time to finish his Office before midnight. He isexempt from the part of the Office omitted and does not sin by theomission. The proposition claiming exemption from the Office for thoseengaged in great studies was condemned by Pope Alexander VII. Thebiographers of Lamennais trace the beginning of his downfall to hisexemption from his daily Office. 

A difficulty arises sometimes as regards the full or partial ornon-exemption of those who foresee that serious occupation which cannotbe neglected must arise to prevent the recitation of the Hours. In suchcases priests are bound to recite the Office, or as much of it aspossible, within the limits of the current day. In doing this they mayanticipate the times fixed for the recitation of the small Hours, andthey may anticipate Vespers and Compline by reciting them in theforenoon. If a priest foresees that he may not be able to recite Matinsfor next day he is not bound to anticipate, as there is no obligation toanticipation; the obligation is "recital between midnight and midnight. "It is becoming to anticipate, if possible, so that the Office may befull and entire. If before midnight there be a cessation from necessaryprofessional work (e. G. , hearing confessions), a priest is bound tofinish his Office for the day or to say as much of it as time allows. If, however, there be time merely to take a necessary meal beforemidnight (e. G. , to prepare for a late Mass on next day, Sunday), andnot time to eat and to recite, the obligation of saying theHours ceases. 

A grave illness exempts from the saying of the canonical Hours. Hence, those seriously ill, those who fear the saying of the Office may upsetthem in their weak state, and convalescents from a serious illness, areexcused from saying the Hours. In this matter the advice of a spiritualor a medical adviser should be faithfully carried out by patients. St. Alphonsus teaches that invalids and convalescents may be allowed to sayMass and yet not be bound to say the Office, as the saying of Mass doesnot fatigue them so much as the saying of the Office (St. Alphonsus, n. 155). 

A grave fear exempts from the saying of the Office. A priest amongstfurious persecutors of the Church should be excused from any recitationof his Hours which he fears may draw on him cruel or severe punishments. 

Blindness makes the recitation of the Office a physical impossibility. Even very defective sight, although not total blindness, exempts fromthe obligation of saying the Office. In all such cases a formaldeclaration of exemption should be sought. Some theologians hold thatsuch priests, if they have committed to memory a notable part of thepsalms, should repeat that part from memory. The new psaltery makes suchmemorising an extremely difficult feat and no obligation for such arepetition from memory can be imposed. 

Want of a Breviary excuses from the recitation of the Office. Forexample, if a priest setting out on a long journey forgets to take hisBreviary or leaves it in a railway carriage, and cannot procure another, or cannot procure another without, great inconvenience, he is exemptfrom the obligation of his Office; and the omission being involuntary issinless. The wilful casting away of a Breviary, as an excuse for notbeing able to read the Office, is gravely sinful; and unless the sinfuldesire be retracted there may be question of many mortal sins of wilfulomission to fulfil the obligation, as the omissions are then wilful incause. Priests travelling are unable sometimes to recite the properOffice of the day, as their Breviaries lack something (e. G. , theproper prayer or the lessons of the second nocturn). The SacredCongregation of Rites (December, 1854) decided "_Sacerdos peregreprofectus cui molesti difficiliorque esset officii recitatio cui etpauca desunt in libro officii praesentis, nempe oratio et legenda, valet de communi absque obligatione propria deinde ad supplementumrecitandi. .. Atque ita servari mandavit_. " The psalms as arrangedin the new psalter must always be said for a valid recitation of theOffice (_v. Divino Afflatu_). 

What is a priest bound to do, who from a grave cause cannot find time torecite the whole Office but only a part of it?

St. Alphonsus gives the rule, "If you can recite a part equivalent to asmall Hour, you are bound to do so under pain of mortal sin. But if youcannot read or repeat a part equivalent to a small Hour, you are boundto nothing, as a part so small--less than a small Hour--takenseparately, is considered inappreciable for the end the Church's law ofrecitation has in view. "

ARTICLE VIII. --THE DIRECTION OF THE SCRUPULOUS. 

Persons who are scrupulous about the recitation of the Hours should havehelp from their confessors, who should deal specifically with any of thescruples which arise in the daily task. Scruples generally concern thenecessary intention, the necessary attention, pronunciation, and thetime necessary for a good and faithful recitation of the canonicalHours. How should a confessor deal with scruples about intention? Aconfessor should tell a cleric, scrupulous in this point, that his fearis groundless and that by the very act of taking up his Breviary heexpresses his intention of praying, of saying his Hours; that it is notnecessary that such intention be actual or reflexive, it is sufficientif it be virtual, and that such an intention _does_ exist every time oneopens the Breviary to say his Hours. The saying slowly and deliberatelythe prayer "_Aperi Domine_" is a great aid to the scrupulous in forminga right intention and in dispelling their vain fears. 

Clerics troubled about attention are helped and comforted by theirconfessor repeating to them what they well know themselves, aboutvoluntary and involuntary distractions, and the telling of the anxiousones that this very anxiety and anguish show that their fear of losingattention in their prayer is a true and real sign of its existence. Indealing with scruples about vocal and integral pronunciation a confessorshould advise that no stopping should be made in the saying of thepsalms, etc. , but that the recitation should be continued quietly, without restraining the voice, without impatience, and without scrutinyof the pronunciation of the part said, "God is a father, full ofgoodness, not an exacting taskmaster, and He is more honoured bymoderate care than by a disturbing solicitude. " Above all things, aconfessor should remember that it is important to forbid scrupulouspersons to repeat the whole or even the part of an Hour. An effortshould be made by him to tranquilise the troubled soul with theprinciple that the precepts of the Church do not bind him to repeat theHours with such inconvenience as leads to bodily and mental illness. TheChurch is our mother and does not wish her children to be troubled andsolicitous, but to pray in peace. 

CHAPTER IV. 

SOME RULES OF ASCETIC THEOLOGY FOR THE PIOUS RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY. 

There are many reasons why we should recite the Divine Office devoutly, for (1) the words which we read are holy; (2) He to Whom we speak isGod; (3) we speak in the name of Holy Church; (4) we are the associatesof thousands on earth and in heaven who sing God's praises; (5) thepurpose of our prayer is sublime; (6) it gives glory to God and drawsdown His grace and mercy on His Church; (7) and, finally, the recitationof the Office brings help and strength to those who repeat it fervently. 

And, firstly, let us see what are the words of the Office. They are thewords of God or of His Church. In the psalms, scripture lessons, gospelextracts, responses and antiphons, we have God's inspired word. In theprayers, sermons, homilies, hymns, and often in the responses andantiphons, as the Church is guided and assisted by the Holy Ghost, itmay be, in a sense, true to say that these her words are divine. Forwhat is more worthy of respect than the word of God? St. Augustine saysthat it is no less worthy of respect than the body of Jesus Christ. _Nonminus est verbum Dei quam corpus Christi_ (Sermon 300). How very carefulshould we be to treat the word of God with respect, worthily, attentively, and devoutly (_digne, attente ac devote_). 

(2) To whom do we speak in our daily service of prayer? We speak to ourMaster, Whose very special work we are doing in offering up the greatprayer. His adorable eyes are fixed upon us at this sacred duty. Helistens to us, He reads our thoughts. He judges our intentions, ourefforts and their fulfilment. He is the King of kings, the Almighty God. Mindful of His presence and majesty should we not try earnestly to blessHis Holy name and to free our hearts from vain, evil and wanderingthoughts? We pray _ad benedicendum nomen sanctum tuum; munda quoque cormeum ab omnibus vanis perversis et alienis cogitationibus_. 

(3) In whose name do we speak? It is a great honour to be an ambassadorfor a great king and a mighty kingdom, guarding the interests of thefatherland in a foreign land. The priest is always such an ambassador. "For Christ, we are ambassadors, " says St. Paul. In this work of dailyrecitation of the Office, we are ambassadors, not of some petty king ortiny state, but we represent the entire Church, the well-beloved spouseof Christ, to whose prayer He ever hearkens. _Sonet vox tua in auribusmeis; vox enim tua dulcis est_ (Canticle of Canticles, ii. 14). And St. Bernard says "_Sacerdos publica persona et totius Ecclesie os_. " Hence, every priest is the ambassador of Christ and of His Church, the guardianof His interests. And as it is the duty of ambassadors to studycarefully, to watch and further the interests of the kings whom theyrepresent, it is a priest's duty to study carefully and further theinterests of Christ's Church by the devout fulfilment of the great dailyduty, the recitation of the Divine Office. History brands as traitorsthose ambassadors who through ignorance of the language of the foreigncourt, or through want of vigilant attention, allow the interests oftheir royal masters to suffer. What a punishment awaits the days andyears of ignorant, careless or inattentive fulfilment of the greatofficial work of a priest--the Divine Office. 

Who are a priest's associates in this work? They are the thousands ofpriests and religious throughout the world who say the Hours, and whosend up daily and nightly the great prayer of praise and thanksgiving toGod. _Secundum nomen tuum, sic et laus tua in fines terrae_ (ps. 47, v. Ii). _Dies diei eructat verbum et nox nocti indicat scientiam_ (ps. 18, v. 3). In this holy work of reciting the Hours, we are united with theangels and saints in heaven in honouring our common Creator; for, theChurch herself reminds us of this ineffable honour in the hymn for thededication of the Church:--

 "Sed ilia sedes Coelitum Semper resultat laudibus Dumque trinum el unicum Jugi canore jungimur Almae Sionis aemuli. "

 "That house on high--it ever rings With praises of the King of kings; For ever there, on harps divine, They hymn th' eternal One and Trine We, here below, the strain prolong;, And faintly echo Sion's song. "

What are the ends for which the Office is said? (a) To glorify God, (b)to help holy Church, and (c) to sanctify ourselves. 

(a) "To glorify God, " that is, to adore His infinite majesty, to thankHim for his innumerable and constant blessings, to satisfy His justicein expiating the sins of the world and to beg His grace and mercy. Theends for which the Office are said are the same as those for which Massis offered, for the Office is the supplement of the Mass (Tronson). 

(b) "To help holy Church. " The Church militant has many and great needs. It is her mission to extend the Kingdom of Christ, and to do this greatwork she needs freedom from hostile laws, strength and courage towithstand tyrants and persecution, unity and peace amongst her childrenand pastors, zeal in her ministers and recruits for her militant forces. To obtain these results the Church relies very much on the devoutrecitation of the Office. Doubtless, it is for these purposes that theChurch has confided to the care of her chosen ministers this publicofficial prayer and has laid no such obligation on the laity. St. Alphonsus did not hesitate to say that if priests and religious said theOffice as they should say it, the Church should not be in the deplorablestate that it then was in. This Doctor of the Church adds "that bydevout saying of the Office many sinners could be drawn from the slaveryof the devil and many souls would love God with more fervour. " The wantsof the Church are greater now than they were ever before. Eachdevoutly-said Hour draws down God's blessing on His Church. What a vastnumber of blessings come from a life of daily recitation offeredworthily, attentively and devoutly (_digne, attente, ac devote_). 

(c) "The benefit of the person who recites the Hours. " The third end forwhich the canonical Hours are offered is for the benefit of the personwho recites them. St. Alphonsus wrote, "If they said the Office as theyought, priests themselves should not be always the same, alwaysimperfect, prone to anger, greedy, attached to self-interest and tovanities. .. . But if they recited the Office, not as they say it withdistractions and irreverences, but with devotion and recollection, uniting the affections of the heart with so many petitions which theypresent to God, they should certainly not be so weak as they are, butwould acquire fervour and strength to resist all temptations and to leada life worthy of priests. "

Another blessing springs from the attentive recitation of theBreviary--viz. , the daily withdrawal from the world and its cares whichmust be banished from the soul which speaks with God. For, as St. Alphonsus writes, the saying of the Hours devoutly, gives occasion topious souls to elicit many acts of virtue, acts of faith, of hope, ofcharity, of humility, etc. For one psalm, says the saint, moves all thepowers of the soul and causes us to elicit a hundred acts. And in theBreviary are found the most beautiful formulae of adoration and praise, the psalms above all other parts of the Office being wonderfully rich inmagnificent praise of God's attributes. Where can such sublime forms ofprayer and praise be found as in Psalms, 8, 9, 17, 18, 21, 23, 28, 29, 33, 45, 46, 49, 54--to name but a few?

Finally, the attentive recitation of the Breviary is a source of lightand of grace and of merit. How many lights in prayer spring from thesedivine words; how many maxims enter the soul, how many beautiful prayersare said, and if they be well said, they would obtain for prieststreasures of grace, according to Christ's infallible promise, "Ask andyou shall receive"? A person can merit several degrees of glory by onedevout recitation of the Office, what an abundance of merit may begained by the devout recitations in a life of twenty, thirty or fortyyears! And it was this thought of lost opportunities and of the greattreasures within the reach of priests, which caused St. Alphonsus whenan old man, to study the Breviary psalms and to write hiswell-known work. 

Nor was St. Alphonsus alone in his opinion of the great means ofsanctification which the Breviary affords to priests. St. Joseph ofCupertino (1603-1663) was asked by Monsignor Claver, Bishop of Potenza, to point out a means for the greater sanctification of the priests ofhis diocese. The saint replied, "Monsignor, if you wish to sanctify yourpriests strive to procure two things for them, that they say the Officepiously and that they say Mass with fervour. Nothing more is necessaryto ensure their salvation" (_Life of St. Joseph Cupertino_ by Bernini). The words of the wonderful Franciscan, whose life was a marvel of piety, were repeated a century later by St. Leonard of Port Maurice (1671-1751)and are often quoted as his own. 

In every age of the Church earnest souls drew great sweetness andconsolation from reading the psalms or from reading the canonical Hours. Writers dealing with this part of priestly work quote the words ofeminent servants of God, They quote St. Augustine, St. GregoryNazianzan, St. Bernard, St. Catherine of Bologna, St. Philip Neri, St. Francis De Sales and St. Alphonsus. It would make this section of thisbook too long to quote the words of these saints. But the words of St. Francis De Sales seem to have a special force. "Sometimes I am solow-spirited, " wrote the Saint, "by business and events, that I do notknow where to turn nor at what end to begin: but during the Officenothing annoys me, I have not even distractions, I imagine that I am inheaven singing with the angels the praises of my Creator; and on leavingthe choir I find often that the mighty problems which had given metrouble are cleared away and, solved in an Instant. " Biographies ofGod's servants record many great favours bestowed on priests who recitethe Breviary piously. Cardinal Bona, recording a vision vouchsafed toSt. Bernard, tells how the saint saw an angel beside each choir monk, recording his disposition of soul. Some angels wrote in letters of gold, others in letters of silver, others in ink, others in water, and othersheld their pens but wrote nothing. Our Lord explained to the saint themeaning of the vision; the writing in gold typified charity and thefervour of the recitation; the writing in silver denoted devotion butlittle charity or fervour; the words in ink-writing signified carefulattention to the full verbal recitation but to little else; the wordswritten in water meant distraction and little attention to the meaningor to the words; and the angels who wrote nothing watched the insolenceof those who were voluntarily distracted. The vision has furnished thetheme of much pious writing and a theme for Christian painters. It showshow God watches over the daily work of priests, while His angels recordin golden or silvern letters the work of pious recitation, or perhapshold their pens at rest. 

What means should be used to promote pious recitation?

ARTICLE II. --THE MEANS TO ADOPT FOR THE PIOUS RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY. 

A. --THE MEANS TO ADOPT BEFORE THE RECITATION. 

Preparation is necessary before beginning every prayer, for the HolyGhost says, "Before prayer prepare thy soul, and be not as a man thattempteth God" (Ecclesias. 18. 23). This preparation necessary beforeother prayers is above all necessary before the recitation of the DivineOffice, which is the greatest of all prayers. Two kinds of preparationare necessary, the remote and the proximate. 

The remote preparation demands the removal of all obstacles which impedeprayer, and the greatest of all prayers, the Church's official prayer. The chief or capital obstacles which impede or prevent a piousrecitation of the Breviary are: sin, the passions, the absorbingthoughts of creatures and the ignorance of the Divine Office. And themeans to remove these obstacles are to purify the conscience, science, to mortify the passions, to guard the sense and to have an intelligentknowledge of the duty and requirements of a proper fulfilment of thedaily task of the saying of the Canonical Hours. 

The first means is to purify the conscience from sin, for sin hindersprayer. But what effect has sin on the recitation of the Office? TheOffice is a prayer, an elevation of the soul to God, and as all writerson ascetics teach, sin is a chain that binds us to earth; it is, saysSt. Francis, as birdlime which impedes the soul in its flight upwards. Prayer is a conversation with God, but a soul loving sin cannot conversewith God; "_Peccatores Deus non audit_" (St. John, ix. 31). Prayer is anintimate union with God, but a soul resting in sin can have no intimateunion with God; there can be no intimate union between light anddarkness, between sanctity and sin, between good and evil; in a word, between Christ and Belial. _Quae participatio, quae societas lucis adtenebras? Quae conventio Christi el Belial?_

The second means of procuring fervent prayer is the mortification of thepassions. It is not enough to secure fervour in prayer that our soulsshould be free from sin; we must struggle to master our passions. Thispoint is important--for a soul upset by its passions, anger, pride, etc. , cannot with fervour recite the Hours, for it cannot converse withGod, it cannot elevate itself to God, it can have no true union withGod. It cannot converse with God, for God will not converse with anunmortified soul for three reasons. First, He will not speak if there beno one to listen, for the Holy Ghost tells us "Where there is nohearing, pour not out words" (Eccli. Xxxii. 6). God wishes a soul inconverse with Him to be calm and still, for God is not in the earthquake(3 Kings, xix. Ii. ). Again, even if God speaks to an unmortified soul, it cannot hear Him as the passions fix its attention on worldly matters. And even when such a soul tries to listen and to understand, thepassions surging and warring drown all sound and sense of holy things. For, "the animal man perceiveth not these things that are of the spiritof God, for it is foolishness to him and he cannot understand, becauseit is spiritually examined" (I. Cor. Ii. 14). The human soul cannot trulyunite itself to God if the passions are not conquered, because by theirvery nature they are opposed to God and hence inspire estrangement from, and disgust for, holy things. 

Thirdly, the senses must be guarded. Our five senses can impede therecitation of the Office because they present to our souls images of thethings which occupy them, and they can draw our will towards thepleasures which correspond with these objects. It is necessary for theworthy, attentive and devout saying of the Office that each sense beguarded. The sense of sight should be guarded from gazing at objects athand, persons, books, landscape, etc. The sense of hearing should beguarded in flying from the company of evil speakers, calumniators, detractors, those who speak of worldly affairs or who give evil counsel. It is necessary, too, to guard the tongue from evil speech. "I have seta guard to my mouth, when the sinner stood against me" (Psalm 38, 2);and it is well to guard against too frequent or too long conversations, which fill the soul with thoughts disturbing to a prayerful disposition. The sense of touch should likewise be guarded, for St. Thomas says thatthe sense of touch is the maintenance of the other senses (1 P. Q. 76, a. 75). And when the foundations of a house commence to fall asunder, the walls, the frame and the roof totter and fall. So it is with thesenses; when the sense of touch is disturbed the other senses quicklycomplete the ruin. 

What knowledge is needed for the valid and for the licit recitation ofthe Hours? Must the person know the meaning of the words read? No suchknowledge is necessary, for God hears the prayer of the ignorant andilliterate and of the babes. To the chief priests and scribes, whohearing the children crying out the Saviour's praise in the temple, Christ said "Yea, have you not read 'Out of the mouths of infants andsucklings thou hast perfected praise'" (St. Matth. Xxi. 15-16), St. Augustine defended from the sneers of the learned, those who prayed toGod in rude and barbarous words, or words which they did not understand. "_Noverint non esse vocem ad aures Dei nisi animi affectum_" (_DeCatech. _ Rud. C. I. ). The Church has bound religious, both men and women, to say the Office in choir, even though they may not understand Latin. Nevertheless, it is highly desirable that those who understand Latinshould understand what they read daily in the Breviary. God, the Church, the practice of the saints, our own intelligence, our spiritualadvantage, demand that every priest should read with knowledge so thatwith more certainty he may read attentively and devoutly. 

For (1) the Holy Ghost warns us to sing wisely, _Psallite sapienter_(Ps. 46. 8); (2) that priests may sing wisely, may say the daily Officepiously is the reason and end of liturgical studies of the psalms and ofthe Breviary in theological colleges; (3) the saints who wrote sopiously and so learnedly on the psalms and on psalmody are for everimpressing this matter of intelligent recitation. St. Augustine wrote, "_Et quare dicta sunt, nisi ut sciantur? Quare sonuerunt nisi utaudiantur? Quare audita sunt nisi ut intelligantur_" (Tract xxxi. InJoan). Again, commenting on psalm 146, he writes, "David teaches that wesing wisely; let us not seek the mere sound for the ear, but a light forthe soul. " St. Thomas Aquinas commenting on "For I pray in a tongue, myspirit prayeth, but my understanding is without fruit" (I. Cor. Xiv. 14)wrote "_Constat quod plus lucratur qui orat. Nam, ille qui intelligitreficitur quantum ad intellectum et quantum ad affectum; sed mens ejusqui non intelligit est sine fructu refectionis_. " And (4) our ownintellect tells us that the Breviary should be read intelligently anddevoutly. One of the ends of the Church in imposing the Divine Office asan obligation is, that by honouring the holy mysteries, or the holymemories of the saints, we may raise our hearts and souls to God, as St. Paul wishes us, "May the God of patience and of comfort grant you to beof one mind towards one another according to Jesus Christ, that with onemind and one mouth you may glorify God" (Rom. Xv. 5-6), an effect thatcannot be produced by the recital of words which are not understood. Itis almost impossible to avoid very grave distractions and to sustainattention if there be not a good knowledge of the matter and form of theHours recited. 

It seems irrational that, priests should spend daily more than an hourreading words that they understand not at all, or very imperfectly; andthat the beautiful and sublime thought and language of the book ofpsalms, which are admired by all educated men, should be, to those whoread them every day for years, nothing but a tinkling cymbal, _vox etpraeterea nihil_. This is often the case even with priests who practisepiously and methodically mental prayer. And yet nowhere are suchbeautiful acts of faith and confidence in God's power expressed as inthe Psalms (e. G. , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 16, 19, 25, 27, 30, 34, 43, 54, 55, 56, etc. ); no more sublime expressions of praise exist than in thePsalms 8, 9, 17, 18, 20, 21, etc. Time spent in studying the history ofthe Breviary, the structure and the growth of the contents of each Hour, the meanings of the prayers and hymns, is time well spent. 

B. --THE IMMEDIATE PREPARATION FOR THE RECITATION OF THE HOURS. 

First. It is necessary to foresee from the reading of the _Ordo_ what isto be said, and to mark all the psalms, lessons, responses, antiphonsand prayers. By this practice, St. Bonaventure says, all is recited andrecited in order. _Libri et alia necessaria ad officium praeparantur etlegenda studiose ante praevisa, quando et quomodo sint dicendadicuntur_ (Intit. Novit, p. I. , c. 4). Unless this matter be arrangedbefore the prayer, _Aperi_ is begun, a priest is certain to suffer fromdistractions, to run the risk of violating the rubrics and to lose someof the spiritual profit which arises from preparation. This point ofpreparation is attended to by all thoughtful priests and it was ever thepractice of the great students and lovers of liturgy. 

Second. It is necessary to recollect ourselves. This is simply to drawoff from profane thoughts the mind and the heart, and to apply them tothe sublime work of conversing with God, which we do in the DivineOffice. This recollecting of our wandering thoughts before prayer isimpressed on us by Holy Scripture, by the example of the saints, and byour own common sense. Holy Scripture warns us "Before prayer prepare thysoul and be not as a man that tempteth God" (Ecclus. 18. 23). And astypical of the preparation made by saintly priests, the example of St. Charles Borromeo may be mentioned. The saint always spent a quarter ofan hour in preparatory prayer before beginning the Church's officialprayer. The Venerable John D'Avila made the same practice generalamongst his disciples. This holy man narrates, how one day he met apriest of the Society of Jesus, who asked him to recite the Hours withhim, and that before beginning their prayer the Jesuit fell on hisknees, saying, "There are some who speak of saying the Office as if itwere a trifle. Come, they say, let us say our Hours together, and soimmediately begin. This is showing very little appreciation for so holya duty, for it well merits a few moments at least of recollection"(Bacquez). Our own common sense tells us not to rush heedlessly to beginany important work. To converse with God is a work of sublime importancewhich needs preparation, so that it may be done attentively. 

Third. We must invoke God's aid by prayer. No prayer is more suitablethan the prayer given as a preparatory prayer in the Breviary, "_Aperi, Domine, os meum_ . .. Open Thou, O Lord, my mouth to bless Thy holy name;cleanse my heart from vain, evil and wandering thoughts; enlighten myunderstanding, inflame my will, that so I may worthily, attentively anddevoutly recite this Office and deserve to be heard in the presence ofThy Divine Majesty. Through Christ our Lord. Amen. O Lord, in union withthat divine intention wherewith Thou whilst here on earth didst Thyselfpraise God, I offer these Hours to Thee. "

Fourth. To unite ourselves with Jesus Christ. In the prefatory prayer"_Aperi, Domine_, " we say "_Domine, in unione_, " etc. In Baptism, Christians are united to Jesus, to His life, to His spirit. He is theHead of the Church and we are its members. And this union should be areal, explicit, vivifying union when we fulfil our ministry of socialprayer. This union with Christ is sought for by Himself, by theApostles, by the Church, and is practised ever by God's saints. Thewords of the prayer should be reduced to action. 

1. Christ our model in all things is our model in prayer, and so Heteaches us that when we pray we must say "Our Father, Who art inHeaven, " that is, to use His very words and sentiments. And this desireof our Lord, that souls should be united to Him in prayer, has oftenbeen manifested by Him to His saints. To St. Gertrude He said, "Mydaughter, behold My Heart; look upon It in future as supplying your owndefects. When you would pray, ask It to help you to give My Father thehomage you owe Him. I shall be ever ready to second you as soon as youcall Me to your aid. " St. Bernard, schooled in this practice by the HolyGhost, knew all its sweetness: "David, " he says, "rejoiced of old tohave found his heart to pray to his Master and his God--_Invenit servustuus cor tuum ut oraret te oratione hac_ (II. Kings viii. 27). And I, that I may pray, have found the heart of my King and my Brother, of mysweet Saviour; shall I not then also pray? Yes, certainly, for I am, too, happy, as I have, if not the Heart of Jesus in place of mine, atleast have I mine in that of Jesus" (Bacquez, p. 191). 

2. St. Paul recommends us to offer our prayers through Jesus Christ. "Byhim, therefore, let us offer the sacrifice of praise always to God, thatis to say, the fruit of lips confessing to His name" (Heb. Xiii. 15). 

3. The Church wishes this union with Christ and mentions it severaltimes in her prayers, _Per Dominum nostrum Jesum Christum_. Sheexpresses her wish in the preparatory prayer, _Aperi, Domine_; shewishes the words and sentiments of the psalms to be applied to Jesus, the Saviour, whom David typified, and to whom the psalms in greatnumber relate. And in the frequent repetition of the _Pater Noster_, wespeak Christ's sentiments and words. 

4. The lives of the saints furnish many examples and precepts of thisunion with Christ in our prayer. To the examples of St. Gertrude and St. Bernard many others can be added. Several such examples are quoted byBacquez in his work on the Office. 

5. The remembrance of the sublime work of the Office should aid in itsfervent recitation. Priests should remember the words of St. Alphonsus:"After the sacrifice of the Mass the Church possesses no treasure sogreat as the Divine Office. " "It is God's Church, the Spouse of Christ, who has done me the honour of choosing me for this great work--me, inpreference to a hundred others. She puts into my hand her holy book ofheavenly language, and asks me to read its words before God, to unitewith the angels and saints in honouring God. "

6. To propose some particular intention before the recitation of theHours begins, and to renew it during the recitation is an excellentmeans of guarding against distractions and mechanical routine. Itsustains during the prayer the fervour with which it was begun. St. Bonaventure said to priests "Give _great_ attention to the signs(_i. E. _, to the directions, about kneeling, standing, sign of cross, etc. ), _greater_ attention to the words, and the _greatest_ attention tothe (particular) intention. "

But what intention ought we to have?

We should have general intentions and particular intentions. We musthave the general intentions of the Church, whose ambassadors we are. Wemust pray that God be known and adored, loved and thanked and praised. We must pray that the Church have freedom, that she may be exalted, thatthe kingdom of Christ may spread and flourish, that the Pope and clergyof the world may be blessed and guided by God, that holy souls may beconfirmed in virtue and that sinners may be converted. 

We should have also some particular intentions in reading our Hours. Thus, we may pray to obtain a more lively faith, a greater hope, a moreardent charity, greater meekness and humility, greater patience, detachment from the world, greater fraternal charity, help in keepingvows--in a word, an increase of virtues, especially those in which wemay have great wants. Again, a priest may and should beg God to help himand guide him by his light and grace, in doubts, in trouble, in crosses, in his daily work as a priest, in his parish, in his schools, in hiscollege. Particularly and fervently should a priest pray for success inhis religious instruction in school, in church, in the pulpit. For St. Augustine tells us that success in this matter depends more on prayerthan on preaching (_De Doc. Christ. , Lib_. 4, chap. 15). And at everyHour a priest should pray for a happy death. 

Before saying his Hours, a priest may form a special intention ofpraying for others, his superiors, his parents, his brothers andsisters, his benefactors, his friends, his enemies, for those who haveasked for prayers, for some one in sorrow, for some one in sin, for asoul in purgatory. Of course, these prayers benefit the priest whooffers them, for as St. Gregory the Great said so well, "_Plus enim prose valere preces suas efficit qui has et pro aliis impendit_" (MoralII. 25). 

AIDS DURING THE RECITATION. 

I. A suitable place should be selected. The Psalmist sang "_In omni locodominationis ejus, benedic, anima mea, Domino_" (Ps. 102, 22). Our Lordwishes us to pray always; St. Paul says (I. Tim. Ii. ) that we shouldpray in every place, and theologians teach that a priest may validly andlicitly say his Hours walking in the fields, in his room, or in anysuitable place. The most suitable place is the church. For it is a houseof prayer (St. Matt. Xxi. 43), and the Holy Ghost asks us to go there topray, "_in templo ejus omnes dicent gloriam_" (Ps. 28, 9). The Apostles, going to the temple to pray at the sixth and at the ninth hour, show ushow suitable is the place holier than the temple--the church. Thepractice of the saints impresses on us the suitability of the church forthe Church's official prayer. In the life of every modern saint we findrecommended and practised the saying of the Hours at the altar. Perhaps, the example which is best known to missionary priests, is the example ofthe Cure d'Ars, who in the early days of his priestly life always saidhis Breviary kneeling in the sanctuary. His parishioners liked from timeto time to slip into the church to watch him. "Often, " says aneye-witness, "he paused while praying, his looks fixed on theTabernacle, with eyes in which were painted so lively a faith that onemight suppose our Lord was visible to his gaze. Later, his church beingcontinually filled with an attentive crowd following his leastmovements, he took pains to avoid everything that might excite theiradmiration. Yet still, he might be frequently found, after a long daypassed in the sacred tribunal, reciting his Hours on his knees, eitherin the sacristy or in a corner of the choir, a few steps from the altar;so strong was the attraction that drew him to unite his prayer to thatof our Lord, so great was the love and respect inspired by the presenceand infinite majesty of his Divine Master" (_Life of Cure d'Ars_, by Monnin). 

Every priest must feel that the church benches, or the sanctuary, withtheir silence, their every part awakening and reminding the soul thatthis is the house of God, this is the gate of Heaven, are places mostsuitable for prayer and are great aids to fervent prayer. The thought ofthe presence of Christ with His adoring angels, to whose songs of praisethe priest should unite himself, should help wonderfully in the devoutrecitation of the Hours. St. Alphonsus recommends that priests sayingthe Breviary should say it before a crucifix or before a statue orpicture of the Blessed Virgin, so that gazing from time to time on theseholy objects may foster or renew pious thoughts. 

II. A great aid to pious recitation of the Hours is to take up arespectful position. The Office is a prayer, an elevation of the soul toGod, and should be treated as such; and as everyone knows, the union ofsoul and body is such that in vocal prayer both are employed. If thebody take up a lazy or unbecoming position in prayer, it is an insultto God to Whom prayer is offered, and is a certain source of distractionand faulty prayer. Habit does much in this matter, and where a priestlabours to correct an inclination to take up a too comfortable positionin saying his Hours, he is striving to pray well. 

Priests, young and old, say writers on this point, should be vigilant inthis aid to fervent prayer. The well-known words of St. Teresarecommending a comfortable attitude in prayer do not clash with thisdoctrine. In the _Selva_, St. Alphonsus writes: "It is related thatwhile two religious recited Matins a devil appeared, caused anintolerable stench, and through mockery said, 'To the prayer which youoffer such incense is suited'--_ad talem orationem tale debeturincensum_. "

Which attitude is the best? Seeing the examples of the saints, St. Charles Borromeo, St. Vincent de Paul, St. Francis de Sales, St. John dela Salle, the Cure d'Ars, and of many other saintly men, the bestattitude in reciting the Hours is kneeling. Other saints accustomedthemselves to recite their Hours standing, with head uncovered. Othersfollowed, in private recitation, all the positions--sitting, kneeling, standing--required in choir. The practice is said to aid in banishingdistractions, and contributes greatly to attention and devotion. Ofcourse, in private recitation no one is bound to any of these practices. But they have proved useful to many in practising devout prayer. Everyone is bound to pray with fervour, and a respectful attitude is abig help towards that end. 

Slow, deliberate pronunciation is another aid to the fervent saying ofthe Hours of the Breviary. The lives of saintly men show their practicein this matter. Knowing that they were the ambassadors of the Church inpresenting her praise, thanks and wants to God, they read with care andattention. From their slow and deliberate reading of the holy words, their souls drew out the sublime thoughts and sentiments which theirlips expressed. In rapid reading, the mind and heart have not time tothink well on the meaning of the words and of the sentiments, and hence, no holy thoughts fill the soul, no acts of virtue are elicited, noprayer of petition is offered, no holy resolutions are formed. Indeed, very often--to quote the words of a venerable author--priests seem tosay with their lips and to express by their rapid reading, not _Deus inadjutorium meum intende_, O God, make haste to help me! but _Domine adfestinandum me adjuva_--"O God, help me to hasten?" Wise old Rodriguezadvises readers of spiritual books to observe a hen drinking and toimitate her slow and deliberate sipping, by reading in small quantities, with pauses. Sometimes priests acquire the habit of hurried reading, quite unconsciously, and afterwards labour hard, and in vain, too, tocorrect it. It is important for beginners in the Breviary to go at aslow pace, as the trot and the gallop are fatal to good and piousrecitation. Sometimes priests excuse this hurried reading, as they wishto save time! Why do priests wish to save time? "For study, " some maysay; but the obligation of the Divine Office precedes all obligations ofstudy, and its devout recitation is of far greater importance to thepriest and to the Church than is any other or every other study. Somepriests gallop through the Hours, to gain time for other ministerialwork, they say. But they forget that the primary work--after thecelebration of Mass--and the _most important work_ of a priest, is thegreat official prayer of the Church. Who amongst priests leads the lifeof ceaseless toil which the Cure d'Ars led? And we have read how he saidhis Hours. St. Francis Xavier found time to preach to his manyneophytes, to teach them, to baptize them, and yet he did not use thepermission given him to shorten his Breviary prayer. He read the wholeOffice daily and added to it prayers to obtain the grace of betterattention and devotion. 

Sometimes the reading of the Hours is hurried for a motive lesspraiseworthy than the motives of study or of priestly work. _Producitursomnus, producitur mensa, produncuntur confabulationes, lusus, nugaenugarum; solius supremae Magestratis, cultus summa qua potest celeritatedeproperatur_ (Kugler, _De Spiritu Eccles_. ), "On this, God complainedone day to St. Bridget, saying that some priests lose so much time everyday in conversing with friends on worldly affairs; and afterwards, inconversing with Him, while they recite the Office, they are so hurriedthat they dishonour Him more than they glorify Him" (St. Alphonsus, _Selva_). In the hurried reading of the Office, time, a few minutesperhaps, is gained, but what is lost? Does the loss of all the lightsand graces and blessings of the Office compensate for the time gained?It is important that all who read the Breviary hurriedly, or who may betempted to acquire the habit, should weigh well the words read therein(Friday's Vespers) "_Labor labiorum ipsorum operiet eos; cadent supereos carbones_" (Ps. 139). "The labour of their lips shall overwhelmthem; burning coals shall fall upon them. "

To acquire this important habit, the practice of reading at a slow pacethe words of the Breviary, authors suggest several little hints. One is, never to start reading the Hours unless there be _ample_ time forfinishing the Hour or Hours intended to be then and there read. Thepractice of squeezing the small Hours into scraps of time (e. G. , inthe intervals between hearing confessions in the confessional, at asession) is fatal to careful and pious reading. Another hint is, to readeverything, every word (_e. G. , Pater Noster, Ave, Credo_), and to repeatnothing from memory, because the printed words meeting the eyes and thespoken words reaching the ears help to fix the attention and there isless risk of their passing unnoticed. This was the practice of St. Charles Borromeo. St. Philip Neri never recited from memory even insaying the small Hours. St. Vincent de Paul always spent a great time insaying his Breviary. His intense fervour was helped by his carefulreading of every word, and this practice of keeping his eyes fixedsteadily on the printed matter of the book he recommended to hiscongregation of priests. Some holy priests maintained that they couldrecite from memory with greater fervour than from the reading of thepages of the Breviary; but the practice is not one for the many. Anotherhint to help pious recitation is to _earnestly wish_ to say the Officeworthily, attentively and devoutly. This wish must bring up before themind the thought of how displeasing to God and how great is the dailyloss--not to speak of a lifetime's loss-to the soul of a priest whoprays carelessly, tepidly and mechanically. But in spite of allprecautions, it may be noticed during the recitation of the Hours that, without our own fault, the words are said too quickly. It is advised, then, to pause and to say mentally what the Venerable Boudon was wont tosay to his soul in similar circumstances: "To punish and mortify thee, Iwill go more slowly; I will devote to my office to-day a longer time"(Bacquez). 

IV. To prevent distractions and to banish them are no easy matters. Itis impossible to avoid all distractions. Involuntary distractions do nothinder merit; still it is important that an effort be made to diminishand repress the quality of such disturbing elements in prayer. 

First of all, we can never totally avoid all distractions, nor can weentirely and completely remove them when they enter our souls. The humansoul cannot pray for any notable time without distraction. The greatestsaints knew this well. St. Augustine wrote, "_Vult se tenere ut stet, etquodammodo fugit a se nec invenit cancellos quibus se includat_" (inPsalm 95). St. Thomas wrote "_Vix unum Pater noster potest homo dicerequin mens ad alia fertur_. " The author of the _Imitation of Christ_wrote, "For I confess truly that I am accustomed to be very muchdistracted. For oftentimes I am not there where I am bodily standing orsitting, but am rather there where my thoughts carry me" (Bk. Iii. C. 48). The same writer wrote, "And I, a wretch and the vilest of men. .. . Ican hardly spend one half hour as I ought. " St. Teresa wrote, "I am notless distracted than you are during Office, and try to think that itarises from weakness of head. Do not fear to think so, too. Does not ourLord know, that when we perform this duty we would wish to do it withthe greatest possible attention?"

After reading these words we can understand how prayer offered up withinvoluntary distractions is true, holy prayer. St. Thomas tells us"_Dicendum quod in spiritu et veritate orat, qui ex instinctu spiritusad orandum accedit, etiamsi ex aliqua infirmitate mens postmodumevagetur. .. . Evagatio vero mentis quae fit praeter propositum orationisfructum non tollat_" (2. 2. Q. 83, a. 13). 

Nevertheless, every effort should be made to avoid and to banishdistractions. The ways of doing this are given in all treatises onprayer. Every priest knows them well. There are negative means andpositive means. The negative means consist in withdrawing the senses andthe powers of the soul from everything disturbing the soul's conversewith God; in guarding against any too absorbing interest in worldlyaffairs, so that the mind is unmanageable and cannot be fixed on sacredthings. St. Francis of Assisi, working at a piece of furniture beforesaying Terce, was, during the saying of that hour disturbed by thethought of his manual work. When he re-entered his cell he took the bitof work and threw it in the fire saying, "I wish to sacrifice to theLord the thing which hindered my prayer to Him. "

The positive means of avoiding and of banishing distractions are givenabove; they are to read slowly, to read every word, to read in abecoming position, to observe choir directions, to give ample time toeach Hour. Another rule given by writers on the pious recitation of theOffice, is to pause at certain places in the psalms to renew attentionand elicit affections. Some authors recommend such pauses at the end ofthe invitatory, at the end of each hymn, or after each _Gloria_. "Studywell the _Gloria Patri_, " said St. Francis of Assisi, "for in it youfind the substance of the scriptures. "

V. To apply the mind to what is read is another help to piousrecitation. It seems to be a useless repetition of an obvious fact thatto apply the mind to the prayers read, helps to ward off and to driveaway distractions. Such a practice is natural for a person ofintelligence, and the Church wishes and expects such intelligent andheartfelt prayer. God said to the Jewish priests what applies to theChristian priesthood, too: "And now, O ye priests, this commandment isto you, if you will not hear, if you will not lay it to heart to giveglory to My name, saith the Lord of Hosts, I will curse your blessings, because you have not laid it to heart" (Mal. Ii. 1-2). Christ complainedabout the Jewish people who honoured Him with their lips, but had theirhearts far from Him. And God's great servants realized this fully. St. Paul said, "And he that speaketh by a tongue (the gift of speakingstrange tongues) let him pray that he may interpret. For if I pray in atongue my spirit prayeth, _but my understanding is without fruit_. Whatis it then? I will pray with the spirit. I will pray also with theunderstanding. I will sing with the spirit, I will sing also with theunderstanding" (I. Cor. Xiv. 13-15). St. Gregory the Great said thattrue prayer consists not only in the articulation of the words, but alsoin the attention of the heart; for to obtain the divine graces our gooddesires have greater efficacy than mere words (_Moral, lib_. 22. _cap_. 13). Peter de Blois wrote of the priests of his time, "_Labia sunt incanticis et animus in patinis_! Their lips are in the psalms, but theirheart is in the dishes!" (_Selva_). "_Age quod agis_, " says the_Imitation of Christ_. 

VI. It is advisable not to dwell on the literary excellence of theBreviary during the recitation of the Office. It is a useful thing thatpriests should recognise the authorship of the psalms recited, theirprobable dates, the circumstances of their composition, the sublimity oftheir thought, the peculiarity of their Hebrew style, the rhythm andpoetry of the Hebrews. But the _dwelling_ on these thoughts leads todistractions. Again, some priests, like the clerics of the Renaissanceand post-Renaissance times, despise and dislike the Breviary for itsalleged barbarous style. These unworthy and foolish sentiments are metwith, very rarely. They are opposed to the priestly spirit, which shouldlove and respect the Scripture extracts, God's inspired words. Thehomilies from the Fathers are well chosen, and suitable for the greatestprayer and for the greatest prayerbook the world has ever known. Thehymns are the wonder and study of scholars of every religion. St. Augustine, after his conversion even, felt a repugnance for the holyScriptures as unequal to Cicero in form. But in his mature age andconsidered judgment, the saint reversed his judgment; "_non habent_, " hewrote of the Pagan classics, "_illae paginae vultum pietatis, lacrymasconfessionis spiritum contribulatum cor contritum et humiliatum_"(Confess. Bk. 7, c. 21). 

VII. To think of Christ's Passion is another aid to good Breviaryrecitation. We have seen in the theological part of this book (page 4)the seven principal stages of the Passion which correspond with theseven principal parts of the Office. And this devout thought on somescene of the Passion is recommended by all writers on the Divine Office, as an easy and very profitable means and aid to attentive and devoutsaying of the Hours. It is a means practised by thousands of priests. 

St. Bonaventure recommended that at each Hour some thought of themysteries of the life and death of Christ should be held in mind. Thus, Matins, the night Office, might be offered up in honour of the birth andinfancy of Christ; Lauds, in honour of His resurrection; Terce, inhonour of the coming of the Holy Ghost; None, in memory of Christ'sdeath; Vespers, in thanksgiving for the Eucharist. 

VIII. To remember the presence of God, of our angel guardian, and of thedemons, is a practice recommended by writers on recitation of the Officein or out of choir. This thought of the presence of God was one of theaids recommended by St. Benedict to his religious, to aid their devoutfulfilment of the great work of reciting their Hours worthily, attentively, and devoutly. Centuries after St. Benedict's death we findSt. Bonaventure repeating this advice to his novices. Blessed PeterFaber, S. J. , to make his Breviary prayer more fervent, used to pictureto himself the presence of his guardian angel at his side recording hispious and holy thoughts, and the demon recording his distractions. "Dearly beloved priest, " wrote St. Alphonsus, "when you take theBreviary in your hand, imagine that an angel stands on one side toregister your merits in the Book of Life if you say the Office withdevotion, and on the other a devil who, if you recite it withdistraction, writes your faults in the book of death. With this thoughtexcite yourself to say the Office with the greatest possible devotion. Endeavour, then, not only at the beginning of the Office, but also atthe beginning of each psalm, to renew your attention, that you may beable to excite in your heart all the sentiments that you shall read"(_Selva_). 

ARTICLE IV. --AFTER SAYING THE DIVINE OFFICE. 

1. Give God thanks for His goodness in permitting us to join in thegreat work, for hearing our prayer, and for His helps and graces duringits duration. 

2. Ask God's pardon for faults committed in the course of this prayer ofHis Church. 

3. Devoutly recite the "_Sacro-sanctae et Individuae Trinitati_ . .. Amen. V. _Beata viscera_. .. . R. _Et beata ubera_. .. . " This prayer, whichis generally printed in Breviaries immediately before the Psalter, is tobe said kneeling, where this is physically possible. This is necessaryin order to gain the indulgence granted by Pope Pius X. To all personsobliged to recite the Divine Office. It is not of obligation and itsomission is not sinful. It forms no part of the obligatory Office. "Itmust be said kneeling, but at the request of Cardinal Asquini, Prefectof the Congregation of Indulgences, Pope Pius IX. Was pleased to makeone exception (July 12, 1865) in favour of persons who were not able tosay it kneeling--_infirmitatis tantum causa_. Hence, travellers orpersons on a journey are not exempted, for they can say it kneeling atthe end of the journey. It is sufficient to say the '_Sacro-sanctae_'once only, that is, at the end of Compline, with the intention ofobtaining pardon of all the defects a person may have been guilty of insaying the entire Office. Yet it may be repeated after each Hour, e. G. , after Matins, and Lauds, after the small Hours and after Compline; ineach case one would thereby get forgiveness for the faults committedduring the part of the Office recited. This explanation has been givenby the Holy Father (Pius IX. ) himself. The usage amongst the chapters atRome, as at St. Peter's, St. Mary's, etc. , is to recite it every timethey leave the choir" (Maurel, S. J. , _Le chretien e claire sur la natureet l'usage des Indulgences_). The beauty and sublimity of this prayer isnot always appreciated. Its translation here may inspire fresh thoughtsof fervour. "To the most holy and undivided Trinity, to the humanity ofour Lord Jesus Christ crucified, to the fruitful virginity of the mostglorious Mary ever a Virgin, and to the company of all the saints, begiven by every creature eternal praise, honour, power and glory, and tous the remission of all our sins. Amen. Blessed be the womb of theVirgin Mary, which bore the Son of the Eternal Father. And blessed bethe breasts which gave suck to Christ, our Lord. "

In connection with this prayer an interesting question is discussed inthe _Irish Ecclesiastical Record_ (No. 540. December, 1912). Is thisprayer merely a sacramental? Has it an indulgence attached to it at all?The querist quotes _The new Raccolta_, in answering the second part ofhis query but wishes to know if it be an indulgence how it produces itseffects. "For either the defects committed in reading the Divine Officeare voluntary or involuntary. If voluntary they are sins andconsequently cannot be touched by an indulgence; if involuntary they arenot sinful and therefore stand in no need of an indulgence. " In a verylong reply Dr. John M. Harty sums up, "For our part we adhere to theview which says that the efficacy of the privilege annexed by Leo X. AndPius X. To the _Sacro-sanctae_ is derived from an indulgence. At thesame time we think that these prayers are also sacramentals, since theyare official prayers of the Church. Under this aspect, they obtain theordinary benefits which are attached to sacramentals, and, accordinglylead to a remission of sin and temporal punishment by means of sorrowand satisfaction, which are elicited under the influence of theabundant graces given by God, through the intercession of the Church. They also placate God, so as to render Him willing to grant His favourseven though defects exist in the recitation of the Office. .. . Thoughthese defects are not produced _ex opere operato_, they nevertheless arereal, and are an encouragement to priests, whose human frailty preventsthe perfect performance even of the most sacred functions of theirpriestly office. "

PART III

THE CANONICAL HOURS. 

CHAPTER I. 

MATINS. 

_Etymology_. The word _Matins_ is derived from _Matuta_, the Latin namefor the Greek goddess of morning. The word used in the Roman Breviary is_matutinum (i. E. , tempus)_. It is the old name for Lauds, _Laudesmatutinae_. The word was also used to denote the office of Vigils. Hence, the word was used in three senses, to denote the nocturns andlauds, to denote Lauds only and to denote the vigil office. Inliturgical study the word was confusing, and sometimes it is the contextonly which gives the author's meaning. This, the principal Hour of theChurch's public prayer, was, in the early days of Christianity, said atnight, and was called _Nocturnum_ and _Vigiliae_. 

_Origin_. The night office of vigils dates from the very earliest daysof Christianity. It derived its name from the vigils or night watches ofthe soldiers, who divided the night, from six o'clock in the evening tosix o'clock in the morning, into four watches of three hours each. Thenightly meetings of the Christians came to be called by the name_vigils_, but the meetings were not begun at the stated hours ofmilitary vigil and did not finish with them. Why these meetings ofChristians were held at night, and in what their religious exercisesconsisted in, both in matter and form, is an unsolved problem. But it iscertain that they resembled the services of the Jewish synagogue in thereadings from Scripture, psalm-singing and prayers, and differed fromthose services by having readings from the Gospels, the Epistles, andfrom non-canonical books, such as the Epistle of St. Clement. TheEucharistic service always formed part of them. Indeed, the very name, Synagogue was given to these assemblies of Christians, as we see fromthe Pastor of Hermes. In their common prayer, they faced towards theEast, as the Jews did towards Jerusalem. They had precentors andjanitors as in the Jewish rites. Their services consisted of thereadings from the Mosaic law, from Gospels and Epistles, exposition ofScripture, a set sermon, long and fervent "blessings" or thanksgivingand psalms. Before there were any written gospels to read, we gatherthat the reading of the Old Law, of the Prophets and the Psalms, wasfollowed by a set sermon on the life and death of Christ (Bickel, _Messeund Pascha, _ p, 91). From St. Basil (fourth century) it is concludedthat two choirs sang the Psalms. Cassian writes that the monks of thefifth century celebrated the Night Office with twelve psalms andreadings from the Old and the New Testaments. Hence, "we find the sameelements repeated, the psalms generally chanted in the form ofresponses, that is to say, by one or more cantors, the choir repeatingone verse which served as a response, alternately with the verses of thepsalms, which were sung by the cantors, readings taken from the Old andthe New Testaments and, later on, from the works of the Fathers andDoctors; litanies, supplications, prayers for divers members of theChurch, clergy, faithful, neophytes and catechumens; for emperors, travellers; the sick; and generally for all the necessities of theChurch, and even for Jews and for heretics. It is quite easy to findthese essentials in our modern Matins" (Dom Cabrol, _Cath. Encyclopedia_, art. "Matins"). 

Matins on account of its length and position in the Breviary is the mostimportant part of the daily Office. And, on account of the variety andbeauty of its elements, is considered the most remarkable. 

The prayer _Pater Noster_ begins the Office. It is the Lord'sprayer, _divina institutions formata_, when Christ told HisApostles "_Sic vos orabitis_" (St. Matt. Vi. 9). It is the mostexcellent of all prayers, being most excellent in its author, its form, its depth of meaning, its effects. The prayer consists of a preface, "Our Father, Who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name, Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. " And in the body of theprayer are seven petitions--three for the honour and glory of God, inand by ourselves, and four for our own wants, spiritual and temporal. Very excellent matter on the greatest of prayers is to be found in the_Catechism of the Council of Trent_ (translation, Duffy, Dublin)and in _A Lapide_ (St. Matt. Vi. ). Writers on liturgy say that therecitation of the _Pater Noster_ as the opening prayer of Matinswas _not obligatory_ until the beginning of the twelfth century. Itis said that the monks were wont to say a _Pater Noster_ at eachaltar in the church before entering their stalls for Office recitation. This practice delayed the beginning of the Office in choir, and a rulewas made that those who wished to say this prayer must say it in theirstalls, in a low tone. Of course, in the Breviary of Pius V. (1568) thispractice became obligatory on each person bound to read the Hours. 

_Ave Maria_. This is a leading prayer amongst the great prayers of theMass and the Office. It, too, is excellent in its authors, its form(clear, short devotional), in motive (in honouring Mary, Mother of God, and in begging her intercession). It is divided into three parts, thewords of the angel, of St. Elizabeth and of the Church, Devout thoughtson this prayer have been penned by countless clients of Mary in everyage. Priests are familiar with many such writings, great and small, but_A Lapide_ (St. Luke I. ) bears reading and re-reading. The prayer, as itstands in the Breviary to-day, is not of very ancient date. "In point offact there is little or no trace of the Hail Mary as an accepteddevotional formula before 1050. .. . To understand the developments of thedevotion, it is important to grasp the fact that the _Ave Maria_ wasmerely a form of greeting. It was, therefore, long customary toaccompany the words with some external gesture of homage, a genuflexion, or at least an inclination of the head. .. . In the time of St. Louis the_Ave Maria_ ended with the words _benedictus fructus ventris tui_: ithas since been extended by the introduction both of the Holy Name and ofa clause of petition. .. . We meet the _Ave_ as we know it now, printed inthe Breviary of the Camaldolese monks and in that of the Order deMercede C. 1514. . .. The official recognition of the _Ave Maria_ in itscomplete form, though foreshadowed in the Catechism of the Council ofTrent, was finally given in the Roman Breviary of 1568" (FatherThurston, S. J. , _Cath. Encyclopedia_, art. "Hail Mary. ")

_Credo_. The Apostles' Creed is placed at the beginning of Matins, because Matins is the beginning of the whole Office, and faith is thebeginning, the _principium_ of every supernatural work. St. Paul teachesus that it is necessary for us to stir up our faith when we approachGod, "For he that cometh to God must believe that He is. " In recitingthe Creed we should think of the sublime truths of our faith, and ourhearts should feel, what our lips say, "For with the heart we believeunto justice; but with the mouth confession is made unto salvation"(Rom. X. 10). We should remember too, that this formula of faith comesto us from Apostolic times and that it has been repeated millions oftimes by saints and martyrs; their sentiments of belief, of confidencein God and love of God should be ours. 

_Domine labia mea aperies_. The practice of this beautiful invocationdates from the time of St. Benedict (480-553). In his Office it stoodafter the words _Deus in adjutorium_. These words _Domine labia meaaperies_, taken from the Psalm _Miserere_, remind us of God purifyingthe lips of Isaias His prophet with a burning coal, of how God openedthe lips of Zachary to bless God and to prophesy. "And immediately hismouth was opened and his tongue loosed, and he spoke blessing God" (St. Luke, i. 64). Very appropriately, does the priest reciting the DivineOffice ask God to open his lips, to fortify his conscience, to touchhis heart. 

_Deus in adjutorium_. These words, the opening words of Psalm 69, werealways and everywhere used by the monks of old, says Cassian, who calledthis short prayer the formula of piety, the continual prayer. The Churchrepeats it often in her Office. St. John Climacus says it is the greatcry of petition for help to triumph over our invisible enemy, who wishesto distract us and to mar our prayer. It should be said with humilityand with confidence in God. In repeating these holy words we make thesign of the Cross; for, all grace comes from the sacrifice of the Cross;and besides, it is a holy and an ancient practice to begin all goodworks with the sacred sign. 

_Gloria Patri_. This little prayer indicates the purpose and end of therecitation of the Office, the glory of the Holy Trinity. "Bring to theLord glory and honour; bring to the Lord glory to His name" (Psalm 28). The many repetitions of this formula in the Church liturgy shows thegreat honour which she pays to it, and the trust she places in itsefficacy. It was especially loved by St. Francis of Assisi, who saidthat it contained all wisdom. 

This form of doxology, "Glory be to the Father, to the Son, and to theHoly Ghost, " was adopted to repel Arianism, by giving to the faithful acompact theological formula by which they could end every dispute. Someauthors quote St. Ephrem (circa 363) as the originator of this much-usedprayer. The form would seem to be of Syrian origin, translated intoGreek and later into Latin (Dom Cambrol, _Dictionnaire d' ArcheologieChretienne_, I. , 2282, _et seq. , _ word Antienne, Liturgie; _Month_, May, 1910). 

_Invitatory_. _Venite Adoremus_. .. . The cry of the Church calling on allto adore and praise God, Who has done all for us, Who is the GreatShepherd, and we, the sheep of His fold, should not harden our hearts asdid the ungrateful Jews. We should pray for all, Catholics, infidelsand sinners. 

"A message from the saints. Let us imagine, like St. Stephen at hismartyrdom, we are privileged to see the heavens opened, and before oureyes the City of God, with its twelve gates all of pearl, and itsstreets of pure gold, as it were transparent glass, is laid bare, andthat we see the angels in their legions, and the redeemed of the Lordaround the throne of God. Thousands of thousands are ministering toHim, " as St. John tells us, "and ten thousand times a hundred thousandstand before Him, " and we hear the voice of God, as the noise of manywaters in company with that great multitude which no man can number, outof every tribe and nation, clothed in white robes, with palms in theirhands, coming into Sion with praise, with everlasting joy upon theirheads, for from their eyes God has wiped away all tears, and sorrow andmourning have fled away. 

"There are the white-robed army of Martyrs, holy Confessors, too, men ofrenown in their generation, and Virgins, the Spouses of Christ: thereare those who have come through great tribulation, who once, perchance, were far from God, but have washed their robes in the blood of the Lamband are now numbered among the people of God, sitting in the beauty ofpeace and in the tabernacle of confidence and in wealthy rest. Let usbring them all before us in vision. They have overcome the beast and arestanding by the sea of glass, having the harps of God; the Prince ofPastors has appeared to them and they have received a never-failingcrown of glory and by the Lamb of God they have been led to fountains ofthe waters of life. " Let us listen as they sing their canticle to God, "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Hosts, who is and who was and who is tocome"; let us listen as they sing to us, for we are fellow citizens withthem, and where they are we also must be if we remain faithful to theend. What do they sing, "O come let us praise the Lord with joy; let usjoyfully sing to God, our Saviour" (_Sing ye to the Lord_, pp. 94-95--Rev. R. Eaton). 

The authorship of this psalm--which is said daily in Matins--isattributed to David in the Septuagint and Vulgate. Its Latin form in theinvitatory differs slightly from the Vulgate text. The Breviary retainshere the text of St. Jerome's revision and the Vulgate contains thesecond and more correct revision. 

_Hymns_. The hymn is an answer to the invitation given to us in theinvitatory, to praise God and to rejoice with Him. It is a song of joyand praise. Hymns were introduced into the Divine Office in the EasternChurch before the time of St. Ambrose (340-397). To combat the Arians, who spread their errors by verse set to popular airs, St. Ambrose, it issaid, introduced public liturgical hymn-singing in his church in Milan, and his example was followed gradually through the Western Church. (SeeNote A, _infra_. )

The final stanza of a Breviary hymn is called the doxology ([Greek:doxa] praise, [Greek: logos] speech), a speaking of praise. Hymns whichhave the final stanza proper, the _Ave Maris stella_, Lauds hymn of theBlessed Sacrament, Matins hymn for several Martyrs, the first Vesperhymn of the Office of Holy Cross, and the Vesper hymns of St. Venantiusand St. John Cantius, never change the wording of the stanza. 

But, _where the metre of the hymn_ admits such a change as possible inthe last stanza. 

(a) From Christmas to Epiphany _Jesu tibi sit gloria, Qui natus es deVirgine_ is inserted in all hymns, even on saints' offices. 

(b) From Epiphany till end of its octave, _Jesu tibi sit gloria, Quiapparuisti gentibus_. 

(c) From Low Sunday till Ascension Thursday, on Pentecost Sunday and itsoctave, all hymns end in _Deo Patri sit gloria, Et Filio qui a mortuis_. 

This is the ending for all hymns of saints' feasts in Paschal times, excepting those hymns mentioned above. 

(d) From Ascension to Pentecost (except in the hymn _Salutis humanaeSator_) the doxology is _Jesu tibi sit gloria, Qui victor incoelum redis_. 

(e) Feast of Transfiguration has _Jesu, tibi sit gloria, Qui te revelasparvulis_. 

In all other hymns the doxology is read as it is printed in theBreviary. 

_Antiphons_. Antiphon, coming from Greek words meaning a re-echoing ofthe sound, is a chant performed alternately by two choirs, and was usedin pagan drama, long before the Christian era. At what date it wasintroduced into Church liturgy it is difficult to determine. Some say itwas introduced by St. Ignatius, second Bishop of Antioch. It is certainthat it was used by bishops and priests to attract, retain and teach thefaithful during the Arian heresy. In church music, the lector ceased torecite the psalm as a solo and the faithful divided into two choirs, united in the refrain _Gloria Patri_. 

With us, the antiphon generally is a verse or verses from Scripture, recited before and after each psalm. "The verse which serves as theantiphon text contains the fundamental thought of the psalm to which itis sung and indicates the point of view from which it is to beunderstood. In other words, it gives the key to the liturgical andmystical meaning of the psalm, with regard to the feast on which itoccurs" (_Cath. Encycl. _, art. "Antiphon"). 

_Psalms. _ In the Breviary, before the recent reform, twelve psalms wererecited in the first nocturn of Sundays and on ferias. This recitationof twelve psalms was, Cassian tells us, caused by the apparition of anangel, who appeared to the monks and sang at one session twelve psalms, terminating with _Alleluia_. The event was mentioned at the Council ofTours, In the new reform, nine psalms are recited at Matins; theyshould, the old writers on liturgy tell us, remind us of the nine choirsof angels who without ceasing sing God's praise. 

In the new Psalter, the Psalms have been divided into two largedivisions, Psalms I. --CVIII. Being assigned to the night Office, Matins;and Psalms CIX. --CL. For the day Offices, Lauds to Compline. From thislatter division has been made:--

(1) a selection of psalms suitable by their character and meaning toLauds (_vide infra_, psalms at Lauds);

(2) a selection of psalms suitable to Compline;

(3) the psalms long used in the small Hours of Sunday's Office;

(4) the first psalms assigned by Pope Pius V. To Prime on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday. 

The remaining psalms are divided into seven groups, in simple numericalorder. The psalms of Matins generally come first, and are followedimmediately by the groups of psalms for the day Hours. 

In the new Breviary, seven new canticles are added to the ten, whichstood in the older book. The ten taken from the old and from the newTestament are _Audite coeli_ (Deut. , chap. 32) in Lauds for Saturday;_Benedicite_ (Daniel, chap. 3) Sunday's Lauds; _Cantemus_ (Exod. , chap. 15) Thursday's Lauds; _Confitebor_ (Isaias, chap. 12) Monday's Lauds;_Domine audivi_ (Habacuc, chap. 3) Friday's Lauds; _Ego dixi_ (Isaias, chap. 38) Tuesday's Lauds; _Exultavit_ (I. Kings, chap 2) Wednesday'sLauds. From the new Testament we have _Benedictus, Magnificat, Nuncdimittis_. To these are now added _Audite verbum_ (Jeremias, chap. 31), _Benedictus es_ (I. Paralip. , chap. 29), _Benedictus es_ (Daniel, chap. 3), _Hymnum cantemus_ (Judith, chap. 16), _Magnus es_ (Tobias, chap. 13), _Miserere nostri_ (Ecclus. 36), _Vere tu es Deus_ (Isaias, chap. 45). (_Cf. The New Psalter_, Burton and Myers, pp. 51-52). 

"The psalms retain the accentuation of the Latin words, which wasinserted at the request of Pius V. In the Reformed Breviary of 1568; andalso the asterisk, which was introduced to mark the division of theverses of the Psalms in Urban VIII. 's Reform in 1632. " The versedivision of the psalms do not, in the Breviary, always coincide withthose of the Vulgate--e. G. , Psalm X. :--

PSALTER VULGATE

Dominus in templo sancto suo Dominus in templo sancto suoDominus in coelo sedes ejus Dominus in coela sedes ejus:(v. 4). Oculi ejus in pauperem respsiciunt; palpebrae ejus interrogant filios hominum (verse 5). 

The present verse divisions of the Vulgate were introduced by aCalvinistic printer of Geneva, who used them in an edition of the Greeknew Testament published in 1561. Formerly, biblical chapters were, forsake of reference, divided into seven sections denoted by letters of thealphabet a, b, c, etc. In the older breviaries, the reference to thelittle lesson at Compline stood, I. Pet. V. C. The new Breviary hasadopted the modern form of reference, and we now read I. Pet. V. 8-9. Itis sometimes confusing to find reference made to the psalms bynon-Catholic writers. This arises from the different method of numberingwhich is used by them. In the Greek version of the old Testament--theseptuagent--the Psalter is arranged differently from the Hebrew. Psalms9 and 10 are counted as one and so are Psalms 114 and 115, but 116 and117 are divided into two, leaving the complete number 150, as in theHebrew version. The Vulgate and the Douay version follow the Greek, andPsalm 9 contains 21 verses, not 38 as in the English Authorised Version. The English revised version follows the numbering of the Vulgate. 

"Our Latin version of the Psalms is that of the old Itala; it was notmade directly on the Hebrew original . .. It is then a translation (theGreek). By the time of St. Jerome, it had become very faulty, owing tothe very many transcriptions which had been made of it; and this greatscholar revised it, about 383 A. D. , on the request of Pope Damascus. Hiscorrections were not very numerous, because, he feared to upset, by toomany changes, the habits of the faithful, most of whom knew the psalmsby heart. This first version is known as the Roman Psalter. It was soondeemed insufficient. St. Jerome once more set to work between 387 and391, and published a second edition, more carefully and more extensivelycorrected, of the Italic version of the Psalms; it is called the_Gallican Psalter_, because it was adopted by the churches of Gaul. Whenhe, later on, translated the Old Testament from the Hebrew, he publishedhis third edition of the Psalms, the _Hebraic Psalter_. This version wasa good one, but the faithful were so familiar with the old Itala psalterthat the Church, in her wisdom, thought best to keep it in the editionsof the Vulgate according to the Gallican form. .. . Our official versionof the psalms is then in many ways defective. It is frequentlyincorrect and barbarous in style, obscure in places, and even fails attimes to give the exact sense of the original. Although our Vulgate isnot perfect, it possesses admirable strength and conciseness, joined toan agreeable savour which gives it the greatest value and causes thewords of the sacred singers, under this form of the Latin spoken by thepeople, to strike the mind and become engraved upon the memory muchbetter than if they were clothed in all the elegance of a modern tongue"(Vigouroux; _Manuel Biblique_, tom. Ii. , 663-664). 

The following replies by the Biblical Commission (May, 1910) may not bedeemed out of place:--

I. Whether the appellations, Psalms of David, Hymns of David, DavidicalPsaltery, employed in the old collections and in the Councils themselvesto designate the Book of the one hundred and fifty Psalms of the OldTestament, as well as the opinion of many Fathers and Doctors who heldthat absolutely all the psalms of the Psaltery are to be ascribed toDavid alone, have so much force that David must be regarded as the soleauthor of the entire Psaltery?

ANSWER: In the negative. 

II. Whether it may rightly be argued from the concordance of the Hebrewtext with the Alexandrine Greek text and other ancient versions, thatthe titles prefixed to the Hebrew text are older than the version knownas the Septuagint, and that therefore they have been derived if not fromthe authors themselves of the Psalms at least from the ancient Judaictradition?

ANSWER: In the affirmative. 

III. Whether the said titles of the Psalms, as witnesses of Judaictradition, may be prudently called into question when there is no graveargument against their genuineness?

ANSWER: In the negative. 

IV. Whether, considering the not unfrequent testimonies of the SacredScripture concerning the natural skill of David, illumined by the giftof the Holy Ghost, in the composition of religious canticles, theinstitutions laid down by him for the liturgical chant of the Psalms, the attribution to him of Psalms made both in the Old and New Testamentand in the very inscriptions which have been prefixed to the Psalms fromantiquity, and in addition to all this the agreement of the Jews and theFathers and Doctors of the Church, it can be prudently denied that Davidis the principal author of the canticles of the Psaltery, or that it canbe affirmed that only a few of the canticles are to be attributed to theRoyal Psalmist?

ANSWER: In the negative to both parts. 

V. Whether, specifically, the Davidical origin can be denied of thosepsalms which both in the Old and the New Testament are cited expresslyunder the name of David, among which are specially to be reckoned PsalmII. , "Quare fremuerunt gentes"; Psalm XV. , "Conserva me Domine"; PsalmXVII. , "Diligam te, Domine fortitudo mea"; Psalm XXXI. , "Beati quorumremissae sunt iniquitates"; Psalm LXVIII. , "Salvum me fac, Deus"; PsalmCIX. , "Dixit Dominus Domino meo"?

ANSWER: In the negative. 

VI. Whether it is possible to admit the opinion of those who hold thatamong the Psalms of the Psaltery there are some, either of David or ofother authors which on account of liturgical or musical reasons, thecarelessness of amanuenses or other unknown causes, have been divided orunited; and also that there are other Psalms such as the "Miserere mei, Deus, " which in order that they might be better adapted to thehistorical circumstances or solemnities of the Jewish people have beenslightly revised or modified, by the omission or addition of a versicleor two saving, however, the inspiration of the whole sacred text?

ANSWER: In the affirmative to both parts. 

VII. Whether the opinion can with probability be maintained of thoseamong more recent writers who have endeavoured to show from merelyinternal indications or an inaccurate interpretation of the sacred textthat not a few of the psalms were composed after the time of Esdras andNehemias, or even after the time of the Macchabees?

ANSWER: In the negative. 

VIII. Whether from the manifold testimonies of the Sacred Books of theNew Testament, and the unanimous agreement of the Fathers, as well asfrom the admission of the writers of the Jewish people, severalprophetic and Messianic psalms are to be recognised, as prophesyingconcerning the coming kingdom, priesthood, passion, death andresurrection of the future Redeemer; and that therefore the opinion isto be absolutely rejected of those who, perverting the prophetic andMessianic character of the Psalms, twist these same propheciesregarding Christ into merely a prediction regarding the future lot ofthe chosen people?

ANSWER: In the affirmative to both parts. 

On May 1, 1910, in an audience graciously granted to both Most ReverendConsultors Secretaries His Holiness approved the foregoing answers andordered that they be published. 

Rome, May 1, 1910. 

PULCRANUS VIGOUROUX, P. S. S. 

LAURENTIUS JANSSENS, O. S. B. 

Consultors Secretaries. 

The Psalms were always dear to the hearts of Christians. Our Lord diedwith the words of a psalm on His sacred lips: "Into thy hands I commendmy spirit" (Psalm 30, v. 6). Millions of dying Christians have repeatedHis great prayer. On the Church's very birthday, when St. Peter preachedthe first Christian sermon, he had three texts and two of them were fromthe Psalms (Acts II. ). To an educated and rigid Pharisee like St. Paulthey were a treasure house of teaching. To the early Christians thePsalms were a prayer book, for there was no Christian literature. It wastwenty-five years after the Ascension before the first books of the NewTestament were written. Hence St. Paul and St. James tell their fellowChristians to use the Psalms in worship (Ephesians, v. 19; Colos. Iii. 16; I. St. James 5-13). Some of the greatest of the early Christianwriters and saints, Origen, St. Athanasius, Hilary of Poitiers, St. Ambrose, St. Chrysostom, Bede, and St. Augustine all studied the psalmsdeeply and wrote learned commentaries on them. The works of later saintsabound in happy and beautiful quotations from these religious poems. With them, too, as with those holy people of whom St. Chrysostom wrote, "David is first, last and midst. " For many years no priest was ordainedwho could not recite the whole Psalter without the aid of a book, Thisveneration of the inspired words deserves respect and imitation. Thelearned Calmet (1672-1757) writing of the universal esteem and study ofthe Psalms, said that then there existed more than a thousandcommentaries on them. Since then, the number has been doubled; so greatand universal is the reverence and esteem in which this book ofScripture is held. To conclude this very long note on the Psalms I quotethe quaint words of a mediaeval poet. It shows how the saints of oldfound their Master in the songs of His great ancestor:--

 Rithmis et sensu verborum consociatum Psalterium Jesu, sic est opus hoc vocitatum, Qui legit intente, quocunque dolore prematur, Sentiet inde bonum, dolor ejus et alleviatur; Ergo pius legat hoc ejus sub amore libenter, Cujus ibi Nomen scriptum videt esse frequenter. 

_Versicle and respond_ are placed after the psalms and before thelessons to rouse the attention which is necessary before all prayer, andthe lessons are a noble form of prayer. These little prayers are of veryancient origin and were dealt with by Alcuin (735-804) in his recensionof the Gregorian books for use in Gaul. His pupil, Amalare, also studiedthem, so that a meaning should be found in what was sung, and that thetruncated repetitions should be avoided. He retained what wastraditional and ancient, introduced versicles and responds taken fromancient Roman books and from books belonging to Metz, selected passagesfrom the Gospels which seem to fit in with the antiphons and added themto what he found in the Roman books, made alterations in the order hereand there and gave completion to the whole by adding some offices forsaints' days proper to the Church of Metz (Baudot, _The Roman Breviary_, p. 88). Amalare had been administrator of the diocese of Lyons duringthe exile of Agobard the Archbishop. The latter, with learning andbitterness, attacked the reforms of Amalare, but, "in spite of all, thereform of Amalare held its ground in Metz, and then in the greaternumber of the churches north of the Alps" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _). Much ofthe work of Amalare stands in our Breviary. 

_Pater Noster_ is said to beg from God, light and grace to understandthe doctrine contained in the lessons. In choir, a part of the PaterNoster is said in common and in a loud voice to recall the Communionof saints. 

_Absolutions and Blessings_. "The custom of giving a blessing before thelections was already in existence in the fourth century. The ruler ofthe choir, who gave it in the beginning, gave also the signal for thetermination of the lesson by the words, 'Tu autem' (scil, desine orcessa), to which the reader responded 'Domine miserere nobis, ' while thechoir answered _Deo gratias_. In the palace of Aix-la-Chapeile, it wasby knocking, and not by the words _Tu autem_, that the EmperorCharlemagne gave the signal for the conclusion of the lections, whilethe lector recited himself, _Tu autem, Domine miserere nobis_. The_Rituale Ecclesiae Dunelmensis_, containing fragments of the Romanliturgy from the end of the seventh to the ninth and tenth centuries, includes forms of blessing for the different festivals, sometimes three, sometimes nine. In the latter case each lesson was provided with its ownform of blessing, which correspond with the mystery commemorated by thefestival. The absolutions, _Exaudi Domine_ and _A vinculis peccatorum_did not appear until the succeeding period" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, p. 74). 

In offices of three and of nine lessons, the lessons are preceded by theabsolutions and blessings as they stand in the ordinarium, except in theOffice for the Dead and Tenebrae Offices when they are not said. TheAbsolution is said immediately after the Pater Noster which follows theversicle and response under the third, sixth or ninth psalm. The firstbenediction is said immediately after it, and the second and third atthe conclusion of the responses after each lesson and in reply to thewords Jube Domine benedicere. The three words are to be said (when onlyone person recites the office) before the short Lesson at Primeand Compline. 

In an office of nine lessons, the absolutions and benedictions in thefirst two nocturns do not vary; but in the third nocturns the eighthbenediction may be, if the office is of a saint, Cujus festum, or if oftwo or more saints, Quorum (vel quarum) festum. The ninth may be _Adsocietatem_ or, if the ninth lesson be a gospel extract with homily, _Per evangelica_. 

In offices of three lessons the Absolution Exaudi is said on Monday andThursday; Ipsius, on Tuesday and Friday; A vinculis, on Wednesday andSaturday. But the benedictions vary. Thus, when a gospel extract and ahomily are read, the three benedictions are Evangelica, Divinum, Adsocietatem. When with the three lessons, no gospel extract is read, thebenedictions are Benedictione, Unigenitus, Spiritus Sancti. In an officeof a saint or saints, where the total number of lessons to be said isthree (e. G. , the Office of SS. Abdon et Sennen, 30 July), where firsttwo lessons are from Scripture occurring and last lesson gives lives ofthese saints, the benedictions are, Ille nos, Cujus (vel Quorum autQuarum) festum, Ad societatem. 

_Lessons. _ In the early days of Christendom, the Divine Office consistedin the singing of psalms, the reading of portions of Sacred Scriptureand the saying of prayers. The principle of continuous reading of thebooks of the Bible bears an early date. Later were added readings fromthe acts of the martyrs, and later still, readings from the homilies ofthe Fathers. Till the seventh century the ferial Office had no lessonsand the Sunday Office had only three, all taken from the Bible, whichwas read in its entirety, yearly. In the seventh century, ferial Officesreceived three lessons. About the time of St. Gregory, (died 604) theOffice for Matins was divided into three parts or nocturns, each havinglessons. The lessons for the second and third nocturns were not takenfrom the Bible, but from the works of the Fathers. These extracts werecollected in book form--the _homilaria_. The collection of extracts madeby Paul the deacon (730-797) and used by Charles the Great (742-814) inhis kingdom, form the foundation of the collected extracts in ourBreviaries. The scripture lessons in our Breviaries are generally knownas "the scripture occurring, " and are so arranged that each book ofscripture is begun at least, except the books, Josue, Judges, Ruth, Paralipomenon and the Canticle of Canticles. Quignonez arranged in hisreform that the whole Bible should be read yearly. But his book waswithdrawn by Pope Paul IV. In 1558. 

Although the ecclesiastical year begins with Advent, the beginnings ofthe Bible are not read till March. Hence, we begin the lessons fromGenesis, after Septuagesima Sunday, and not, as we should naturallyexpect, at Advent, the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. The orderin which the Scripture lessons are read does not follow the order inwhich the books of the Bible stand in the sacred volume. Thus, the Actsof the Apostles begin on the Monday after Low Sunday and are read for afortnight; The Apocalypse begins on the third Sunday after Easter and isread for a week; then the Epistle of St. James begins, and so on, withspecial regard to the feasts of the time, rather than to the order ofthe books of the Bible. 

The lessons of the second nocturn are generally commemorative of a saintor some episode of a saint's life. They have been much, and oftenignorantly criticised, even by priests. The science of hagiology is avery wide and far-reaching one, which demands knowledge and reverence. Priests wishing to study its elements may read with pleasure and profitand wonder _The Legends of the Saints_, by Pere H. Delehaye, S. J. , Bollandist (Longmans, 3s. 6d. ). "Has Lectiones secundi Nocturni exHistoriis sanctorum, quas nunc habemus recognitas fuisse a doctissimisCardinalibus Bellarmino et Baronio, qui rejecerunt ea omnia, quae juremerito in dubium revocari poterant et approbatus sub Clemente VIII. "(Gavantus). And Merati adds "quod aliqua qua controversia erant utpotealicujus aliquam haberent probabilitatem, ideo rejecta non fuerant sedretenta eo modo quo erant cum falsitatis argui non possent, quamvisfortasse opposita sententia sit a pluribus recepta" (Merati, _Obser. AdGavant_, sec. V. , chap. Xii. , nn. 10 and 16). The words of these learnedmen and the writings of the learned Bollandist mentioned above areworthy of consideration, as sometimes priests are puzzled about thetruth and accuracy of the incidents recorded in those lessons of thesecond nocturn. They should be treated with reverence. The ignorantflippancy of a priest in an article (in a very secular periodical) onSt. Expeditus gave great pain to Catholics and gave material for yearsto come to scoffing bigots. 

"Legends, _i. E. _, narratives, were based upon documents of the naturedescribed above, and worked up by later writers, either for the purposeof edification or from the point of view of the historian. The writings, however, differ endlessly as to their value, according to the knowledgeand authority possessed by the writers, and according to their nearnessto the events described. There were many martyrs whose sufferings wererecorded in no acta or passiones, but were imprinted on the memory ofmen and became part of the traditions handed down in the community, until they were finally committed to writing. The later this took placethe worse for the authenticity. For it was then that anachronisms, alterations in titles, changes in the persons and other similarhistorical errors could more easily creep into the narrative, as we knowin fact they have done in many instances. The historical sense wasunfortunately lacking to the Franks and Byzantines, as well as all ideaof sound criticism. 

"A false kind of patriotism and national pride often go along withcredulity, so that we find here and there in literature of this kind, even downright fabrication. After the introduction of printing, by whichliterature became more widely diffused, and comparative criticism wasrendered possible, it at once became evident among Catholics that errorwas mixed with truth and that a sifting of the one from the other wasnecessary, and, in many cases, possible" (Kellner, _Heorlology_, pp. 209-210). "It was not the intention of the Church or of the compilersand authors of the service books to claim historical authority for theirstatements. And so, the Popes themselves have directed many emendationsto be made in the legends of the Breviary, although many others stillremain to be effected" (Dom Baumer, _Histoire Du Breviare Roman_). Cf. Dom Cabrol, _Le Reforme du Breviare_, pp. 61-63. 

_Responsories. _ (Title XXVII. ). In the new Breviary the responsories tothe lessons have been restored to their place of honour. They are ofancient origin, but "how they came to have a place in the Divine Office, who was responsible for their composition, what was the process ofdevelopment until they reached their present form, are questions uponwhich liturgical writers are not quite agreed" (Rev. M. Eaton, _IrishEccles. Record_, January, 1915). Amalare of Metz found them fully formedand placed. The rule of St. Benedict, written about 530 A. D. , mentionsthem as a recognised part of Matins. In solemn vigils, in the earlyChurch, the congregation took part in the psalm singing, and hence wefind _psalmi responsorii_ mentioned, and we still have a typicalinstance in the Invitatory Psalm of our Office. Probably, some similarpractice existed in the readings from Sacred Scripture. "At thoseprimitive vigils, then, after the reading of the Sacred Scripture, theresponsory was given by the precentor and the assembled faithful took upthe words and chanted them forth in the same simple melody. Next, averse was sung frequently echoing the same sentiment, and the choiragain, as in the _psalmi responsorii_, repeated the refrain or theresponsorii proper. Frequently other verses were added according to thedignity of the festivals, and after each the faithful struck in with theoriginal refrain. .. . At first those responsories would probably havebeen extempore . .. Left to the genius or to the inspiration of theindividual chanter, but gradually, by a survival of the fittest, themost beautiful ones became stereotyped and spread throughout severalchurches. .. . Later they were carefully collected, arranged and codifiedby St. Gregory or one of his predecessors and passed into all the booksof liturgy" (Rev. M. Eaton, _loc. Cit. _). Monsignor Battifol (_Historyof the Roman Breviary_, Eng, trans. , p. 78) says that these parts of theliturgy, in beauty and eloquence rival the chorus dialogues of Greekdrama, and quotes as an example the _Aspiciens a longe_ from the firstSunday of Advent. 

_Rubrics. _ The responsories, as a rule, are said after each lesson ofMatins. When the _Te Deum_ is said after the ninth lesson, there areonly eight responsories. At the end of the third, sixth and eighthlesson the _Gloria Patri_ with a repetition of part of the responsory issaid. It is said in the second responsory in offices of three lessonsonly. In Passiontide the _Gloria Patri_ is not said, but the responsoryis repeated _ab initio_. In the Requiem Office _Gloria Patri_ isreplaced by "_requiem aeternam_. " In the Sundays of Advent, Sundaysafter Septuagesima until Palm Sunday, and in the triduum before Easter, there are nine responsories recited. 

Perhaps an explanation of the rubric may not be useless. The asterisk(*) indicates the part which should be repeated first after the verseand immediately after the _Gloria Patri_. The _Gloria Patri_ should besaid to include the word _sancto_, and _sicut erat_ should not be said. Some responsories have two or three asterisks, and then the repetitionsshould be made from one asterisk to another and not as far as the verseending. Examples may be seen in the responsories for the first Sundayof Advent and in the _Libera nos_ of the Requiem Office. Theresponsories of the Requiem Office--which is almost the only Officewhich missionary priests have an opportunity of reciting in choir--arehighly praised for their beauty of thought and expression. They werecompiled by Maurice de Sully (circa 1196), Bishop of Paris. 

_Symbolism of the Rubric. _ The responsories are placed after thelessons, the old writers on liturgy say, to excite attention anddevotion, to thank God for the instruction given in the lessons, to makeus realise and practise what has been read and to teach us that "Blessedare they who hear the word of God and keep it. " Again, those writersknew why the chanter said only one verse and the worshippers replied inchorus--to show that all their souls were united and free from schism. 

_Te Deum_ (Title XXXI. ). _Author. _ In the Breviary prior to the reformof Pius X. , this hymn was printed under the words "Hymnus SS. Ambrosiiet Augustini. " However, "no one thinks now of attributing this canto toeither St. Ambrose or St. Augustine" (Battifol, _op. Cit. _, p. 110). Formerly, it was piously believed to have been composed and sung bythese saints on the evening of Augustine's baptism. The question of theauthorship of this hymn has led to much study and much controversy. Somescholars attribute it to St. Hilary, others to Sisebut, a Benedictine;others to Nicetas, Bishop of Treves, in the year 527. To-day, theopinion of the learned Benedictine, Dom. Morin--who follows the readingsof the Irish manuscripts--that the hymn was written by Nicetas ofRemesiana (circa 400 A. D. ), is the most probable. This opinion has beencriticised by several Continental scholars (V. _Cath. Encly_. , art. "Te Deum"). 

_Rubrics_. The Te Deum is always said at the end of Matins, unless inMatins of Feast of Holy Innocents, of Sundays of Advent, and fromSeptuagesima to Palm Sunday, and ferias outside Eastertide (from LowSunday to Ascension Day). 

_The Structure of the Hymn_. In this wonderful composition, there areprobably two hymns connected, and followed by a set of versicles and. Responses, which might be used with any similar hymn. It is probablethat the first hymn (_Te Deum . .. Paraclitum Spiritum_), lines 1 to 13 ofTe Deum are older than the second part, which was written probably as asequel to the early hymn. The rhythm of the hymn is very beautiful, being free from abruptness and monotony. Students of poetry may notethat seven lines have the exact hexameter ending, if scannedaccentually, as voce proclamant; Deus sabbaoth, etc. Seven have twodactyls, as laudabilis numerus, laudat exercitus; one ends withspondees, apostolorum chorus. The other six lines have a lessregular ending. 

This hymn of praise to the Blessed Trinity is divided into two parts andseems to be modelled on the lines of the Psalm 148, _Laudate Dominum decoelis_ (see Sunday Lauds I. ). The verses 1 to 6 of the hymn, like theopening verses of the psalm, record the worship and adoration of theangels. The second part of the hymn records the worship of human beingsliving or dead--Apostles, Prophets, Martyrs. The second hymn, _Tu Rexgloriae Christi_, etc. , is a prayer to Christ, the God Incarnate, theRedeemer now in Glory, to aid His servants and to aid them to be of thenumber of His saints in everlasting glory. 

The third part of the hymn, vv. 22-29 (_Salvum fac_ . .. _in aeternum_)is considered by scholars to be simply versicles, responses and prayers;the verses 22-23 (Salvum fac. .. Usque in aeternum). Being the versicle, and verses 24-25 (Per singulos dies. .. Saeculi), verse 2 of Psalm 144being the response before the beautiful verses of prayer "Dignare Dominedie isto sine peccato nos custodire, " etc. "Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keepus this day from sin; O Lord, have mercy on us, " etc. , etc. 

This hymn has a special interest for Irish priests, as the Irishrecensions of it, found in the Bangor Antiphoner (to be seen in theLibrary of Trinity College, Dublin) are of the greatest value toscholars engaged in critical study. They date from the tenth century, and give Nicetas as the author. The wording in the old Irish Antiphonerdiffers in some verses from the text given in our Breviary. Thus, inverse 6, the Bangor text has, _universa_ before the word _terra_; again, in verse 18, the Breviary reads "_Tu ad deteram Dei sedes_, " Bangor, andprobably more correctly, reads _sedens_. Verses 26-29, "_DignareDomine_. .. _confundar in aeternum_" are not found in the Irish book. Those who wish to study these old Irish MSS. May receive great help fromWarren's _Bangor Antiphoner_ (II. , pp. 83-91) and light comes too fromJulian's _Dictionary of Hymnology_ (pp. 1120-1121). 

SOME TEXTS AND INTENTIONS WHICH MAY HELP TOWARDS THE WORTHY RECITATION OF MATINS (_vide_ pages 4, 120). 

 "Matutina ligat Christum qui crimina purgat. " "Although I should die with Thee, I will not deny Thee. " "And in like manner also said they all. " "Pray, lest you enter into temptation, " "And being in agony He prayed the longer. " "Friend, whereunto art thou come?--" "And they holding Jesus led Him away"--the Garden. "Art thou one of His disciples?" "My kingdom is not of this world"--Before the High Priest. 

_General Intentions_:-Exaltation of the Church; the Pope; the Mission tothe heathen; Christian nations; the conversion of the heretics, infidelsand sinners; the Catholic laity; the Catholic priesthood. 

_Personal Intentions_:-Lively faith; a greater hope; ardent charity. 

_Special Intentions_:-For parents; for benefactors; for those in sorrow;dying sinners; deceased priests of Ireland; for the conversion ofEngland; for vocations to the priesthood. 

CHAPTER II. 

LAUDS. 

_Etymology, Definition, Symbolism_. The word "Lauds" is derived from theLatin _laus_, praise. It is applied to this Hour, as it is _parexcellence_, the hour in which God's praises are chanted by His Church. This Hour succeeds Matins and precedes Prime. The name is said to havebeen given to this Hour on account of the last three Psalms, whichformerly formed part of the Office. In these Psalms, 148, 149, 150, theword _Laudate_ recurs several times. Before the eighth century the Hourwas called "Matutinum, " or morning Office, and sometimes it was called_Gallicinum_ or _Galli cantus_ from being recited at cock-crow. This isthe Office of daybreak and hence its symbolism is of Christ'sresurrection. "Christ, the light of the world, rose from the tomb onEaster morning, like a radiant sun, trampling over darkness and sheddingHis brightness upon the earth. The hymns, psalms, antiphons andversicles of Lauds, all proclaim the mystery of Christ's Resurrection, and the light which enlightens our souls. The reform of the Psalter in1911 has not always preserved this liturgical idea; nevertheless, thecharacter of the Office has not been altered. Lauds remains the truemorning prayer, which hails in the rising sun, the image of Christtriumphant--consecrates to Him the opening day. No other morning prayeris comparable to this" (Dom. F. Cabrol, _The Day Hours of the Church_, London, 1910). 

_Antiquity_. The Christians, in their night vigils, followed the piouspractices of the Jews, as to prayers at dead of night and at dawn, Hence, the Hour, Lauds is of great antiquity, coming, perhaps, fromApostolic times. It is found well established in the very earliestaccounts of Christian liturgy. 

The old writers on liturgy loved to dwell on pious congruities andparallelisms. They ask the questions, why did the early Christians prayat dawn and why is the practice continued? They answer at great length, I will try to summarise their holy themes. The early Christians prayedat dawn, 1. That in the New Law the figures of the Old may be fulfilled;2. To honour the risen Saviour and to remind us of our resurrection; 3. To glorify Jesus typified by the physical light. "I am the Light of theworld" (St. John, viii. 12); 4. Because at dawn, after rest, body andsoul are refreshed and ready to devote all their powers to God, freefrom distractions and noise. Each dawn, revealing God's wondrous work, should hear God's praises in the most sublime words ever uttered, thePsalms (e. G. , _Dominus regnavit, Jubilate Deo_, etc. , etc. );5. Because God seems more disposed to hear prayers made at that hour. For, He has said, "Yet if thou wilt arise early to God and wilt beseech theAlmighty. .. He will presently awake unto thee and make the dwelling of thyjustice peaceable" (Job, viii. 5-6). "I love them that love me; andthey that in the morning early watch for me shall find me" (Proverbsviii. 17). 

_Structure_. If Lauds succeeds Matins immediately, _Pater Noster_ and_Ave Maria_ are omitted, and the Hour begins with _Deus in adjutorium_. At these words it is a practice but not an obligation to make the signof the cross from head to breast (see Vespers, _infra_). Then the GloriaPatri, Sicut erat, Amen, Alleluia are said before the antiphons andpsalms. But if a notable delay--say, of ten minutes' duration--be madebetween the end of Matins and the start of Lauds, the _Pater Noster_ and_Ave Maria_ begin Lauds. After the psalms, comes the Capitulum, theHymn, Versicle and Response, antiphon to Benedictus, Canticle_Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, Gloria Patri, Sicut erat_, Antiphon toBenedictus repeated, _Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo, Oremus_, collect, commemorations preceded by versicle, response and _Oremus_before each. Then _Dominus vobiscum_, _Et cum spiritu tuo_, _BenedicamusDomino, Deo Gratias, Fidelium animae, Amen_. If another Hour do notsucceed immediately, _Pater Noster_ (said silently), _Dominus det nobis_(with a sign of the cross) _suam pacem, Et vitam aeternam_. _Amen_. Thenis said the antiphon of the Blessed Virgin, Alma Redemptoris or AveRegina, or Regina Coeli, or Salve Regina, according to the part of theecclesiastical year for which each is assigned, with _versicle, response, oremus, collect, Divinum auxilium_. .. . Amen. 

_Rubrics_. In the paragraphs dealing with the structure of this hour isgiven the rule for saying _Pater Noster_ and _Ave_, The Psalms forLauds in the new Breviary follow these rules:--

_General Rule_: Psalms of the current day. 

_Exception_: Sunday Psalms on the excepted Feasts. 

In applying the general rule to Sundays and week days, it will be seenthat the Psalter contains two sets of Psalms for Lauds. The use of thetwo sets is as follows:--

_Sundays_: (i) Throughout the year: first set of Psalms. 

 (ii) Sundays from Septuagesima to Easter: second set of Psalms. 

_Ferias_: The first set of Psalms is to be used on:--

 (i) Ferias throughout the year, not including those in Advent, Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima weeks. 

 (ii) Ferias in Paschal time. 

 (iii) Feasts at any season of the year. 

 (iv) Vigils of Christmas and Epiphany. 

The second set of Psalms is to be used on:--

 (i) Ferias of Advent. 

 (ii) Ferias from Septuagesima to Wednesday in Holy Week, inclusive. 

 (iii) Vigils (common) outside Paschal time, when the Office of Vigil is said (_New Psalter and Its Uses_, p. 188). 

On Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday, the Psalms of theFeria are to be said. But the Canticle of Moses (Deut, 33) is not saidon Holy Saturday. 

_Antiphons_. As a general rule antiphons of the current day of the weekare to be said. 

_Exceptions_. (1) On excepted Feasts, (2) non-excepted Feasts which haveproper antiphons, (3) Holy Week has special antiphons, (4) Six feriasbefore Christmas have special antiphons. 

In Paschal time, all psalms and the canticles are recited under oneantiphon. 

Antiphon of Benedictus (1) Sunday antiphons are proper. (2) Feriasthroughout the year have antiphons of current feria. But Ferias inAdvent, and in Lent, in Passiontide, Paschal time and September Emberdays have proper antiphons. (3) Feasts have antiphons from proper orfrom common. 

_Capitulum_ (Title XXIX. ). _Etymology, meaning and synonyms_. 

The word _capitulum_ comes from the Latin, and means a little chapter, aheading, a beginning, an abridgment, because this little chapter is alittle lesson, a brief extract from Sacred Scripture, the head or thebeginning of the Epistle of the Mass of the Feast (Gavantus, Bona). Itis found in every Hour, except Matins. It is known by other names, thesummarium, collectio, collatio, lectio brevis, epistoletto, lectiuncula, Versiculus brevis. 

_Antiquity_. Some authors hold that this usage of reading a briefextract from Sacred Scripture is of Jewish origin. For, the Jews wereaccustomed to interpose brief readings from Scripture prose in theirpsalm chanting service. The _capitulum_ is found in Christian servicesof the fourth century; and St. Ambrose (340-397) is said to haveinstituted the _capitula_ of Terce, Sext and None. This new practicespread quickly and several councils recommended or ordered theusage--e. G. , the Council of Agde In 506 A. D. 

_Remarks. _ The _Capitulum_ is said always except from Holy Thursday tothe Vespers of Saturday preceding Low Sunday, and in Requiem Offices. InCompline it is said after the Hymn. 

The _Capitulum_ of Lauds is ordinarily taken from the beginning of theEpistle of the Mass of the day of the feast. Sext and None generallyhave their _capitula_ drawn from the middle and end of the same Epistleextract. Terce has generally the same words for the _Capitulum_, asVespers and Lauds, because it is the grandest and most sublime of thelittle Hours. The _Capitulum_ is said without a blessing being sought, because it is (in choir) read by the Hebdomadarius, who there representsthe person of Christ, just as the _Capitulum_ does too, and for Whom itwould not be consonant to ask a blessing. It concludes without _Tuautem_, because these words are correlative of _Jube_. And since it issuch a short lesson it is easy to recite it without fault or sin, themore so as it is read by the Hebdomadarius, who should be advanced inperfection. It is short, whilst the lessons of Matins, the night Office, are long, because the day is specially given to toil and the night tocontemplation. During the recital of this little lesson all turn to thealtar through respect for Christ, figured by the _Capitulum_. Sometimesthe words of the _Capitulum_ are from the Itala version and not fromthe Vulgate. 

_Psalms and Canticles of Lauds_. The Office of Lauds now consists offour Psalms and a canticle, followed by a little chapter, a hymn, versicle, antiphon, of Benedictus, the canticle, Benedictus and prayer. One of the characteristics of Lauds is the canticle taken from the OldTestament. Fourteen canticles taken from the Old Testament now find aplace in our Breviaries. Formerly, only seven canticles from the OldTestament were given in the Psaltery (cf. _supra_, p. 149). 

"If, according to the new distribution of the Psalter, the Psalms forLauds do not refer so directly to the symbolism of sunrise, they arenevertheless more varied and are generally well chosen. The canticlesinserted among the Psalms have also been changed. The whole selection isworthy of note. It contains, besides those given in the formerarrangement of the Psalter, others which are very beautiful andadmirably prayerful. 

"The hymns for Lauds, all ancient and varying with the seasons, form afine collection. Their theme is one: the rising of the sun as a symbolof Christ's resurrection, and the crowing of the cock, which arouses thesluggish and calls all to work. Some of these hymns are of considerablepoetical merit: that for Sunday, _Aeterne Rerum conditor_, is a littlemasterpiece. 

"The 'Benedictus' corresponds with the _Magnificat_ of Vespers. Both aresung with the same solemnity and are of the same importance; they formas it were the culminating point of their respective Hours, and forfeast days the altar is incensed while they are chanted. 

"The 'Benedictus' or Canticle of Zachary recalls the Precursor's missionof proclaiming the Messiah and the new alliance. It is altogetherappropriate to the Office of daybreak, as ushering in the dawn of a newera. The closing verse speaks of the light which the announcement of theMessiah shed upon the nations 'sitting in darkness and in the shadow ofdeath'" (Dom Cabrol, Introduction to _Day Hours of the Church_). 

"This Canticle of Zachary (St. Luke i. 68-79) naturally falls into twoparts. The first (verses 68 to 75, 'Benedictus Dominus . .. Diebusnostris') is a song of thanksgiving for the fulfilment of the Messianichopes of the Jews, to which is given a Christian sentiment. The power, which was of old in the family of David for the defence of the nation, is being restored, and in a higher and more spiritual sense. The Jewsmourning under the Roman yoke prayed for deliverance through the houseof David. The 'deliverance, ' a powerful salvation ('cornu salutisnobis') was at hand so that the Jews were seeing the fulfilment of God'spromise made to Abraham, and this deliverance, this salvation was suchthat 'we may serve Him without fear in holiness and justice, all ourdays' (St. Luke i. 75). 

"The second part of the canticle (verses 76-80, 'Et tu puer . .. Addirigendos pedes nostros') is an address by Zachary to his own son, whowas to take an important part in the scheme of the powerful salvationand deliverance by the Messiah. This canticle is known as the canticleof joyous hope, hence its use at funerals at the moment of interment, when words of thanksgiving for the Redemption are specially in place asan expression of Christian hope" (_Catholic Encyclopedia_, art. "Benedictus"). 

_Oratio_ (Title XXX. ). The word _oratio_ has various meanings. In theliturgy it is translated by the word "collect. " The word "collect" meanseither that the priest who celebrates Mass collects in a short form theneeds, the thanksgivings and the praises of the people, to offer them upto God; or most probably "the original meaning seems to have been this:it was used for the service held at a certain church on the days whenthere was a station held somewhere else. The people gathered togetherand became a collection at the first church; after certain prayers hadbeen said they went in procession to the station church. Just beforethey started, the celebrant said a prayer, the _oratio ad collectam_(_ad collectionem populi_), the name would then be the same as _oratiosuper populum_, a title that still remains in our Missal, in Lent, forinstance, after the Post-Communion. This prayer, the collect, would berepeated at the beginning of Mass at the station itself. Later writersfind other meanings for the name. Innocent III. Says that in this prayerthe priest collects all the prayers of the faithful" (_De Sacr. Altar. Mystic_. Ii. , 2). See also Benedict XIV. (_De SS. Missae Sacr_. Ii. , 5, --Dr. A. Fortescue, _Cath. Encyl_. , art. "collect"). 

_Antiquity of collects_. No one can say with certainty who thecomposers of the collects were. All admit the antiquity of thesecompositions. In the fourth century certain collects were believed tocome from apostolic times; indeed, the collects read in the Mass on GoodFriday, for Gentiles, Jews, heretics, schismatics, catechumens andinfidels bear intrinsic notes of their antiquity. Other liturgicalcollects show that they were composed in the days of persecution. Othersshow their ages by their accurate expression of Catholic doctrineagainst, and their supplications for, heretics, Manicheans, Sabbelians, Arians, Pelagians and Nestorians. St, Jerome in his Life of St. Hilarion(291-371) writes, "Sacras Scriptures memoriter tenens, post orationes etpsalmos quasi Deo praesente recitabat. " It is said that St. Gelasius (d. 496), St. Ambrose (d. 397), St, Gregory the Great (d. 604) composedcollects and corrected existing ones. The authorship and the period ofcomposition of many of the Breviary collects are matters of doubt anddifficulty. Even the date of the introduction of collects into theDivine Office is doubtful. In the early Christian Church there seems tohave been one and only one prayer, the _Pater Noster_, in liturgicaluse. St. Benedict laid it down in his rule that there should be noneother. It is generally held by students of liturgy that the collectswere originally used in Mass only and were introduced into the Office ata time much later than their introduction into the Mass books. 

In the Masses for Holy Week we see the collects in their oldest existingform. The rite of the Mass has been shortened at all other seasons, andthere remains now only the greeting, _Oremus_, and the collect itself. The _Oremus_ did not refer immediately to the collect, but rather to thesilent prayer that went before it. This also explains the shortness ofthe older collects. They are not the prayer itself, but its conclusion. One short sentence summed up the petitions of the people. It is onlysince the original meaning of the collect has been forgotten that it hasbecome itself a long petition with various references and clauses(compare the collects for the Sundays after Pentecost with those ofmodern feasts)--(_Cath. Encyl. _, art. "Collects"). 

The following examples which are not extreme, may help to make clear andemphatic the matter of the shortness of the old and the length of thenew collects. 

"Protector in te sperantium, Deus, sine quo nihil est validum, nihil estsanctum: multiplica super nos misericordiam tuam; ut te rectore, teduce, sic transeamus per bona temporalia, ut non amittamus aeterna. Per Dominum. "

_Translation_--"O God, the Protector of all that hope in Thee, withoutWhom nothing is sure, nothing is holy, bountifully bestow on us, Thymercy, that Thou being our ruler and our guide, we may so pass throughtemporal blessings that we lose not the eternal. Through our Lord . .. "(Collect for third Sunday after Pentecost. )

"Omnipotens et misericors Deus qui beatam Joannam Franciscam tuo amoresuccensam admirabili spiritus fortitudine per omnes vitae semitas in viaperfectionis donasti, quique per illam illustrare Ecclesiam tuam novaprole voluisti: ejus meritis et precibus concede ut qui infirmitatisnostrae conscii de tua virtute confidimus coelestis gratiae auxilio, cuncta nobis adversantia vicamus. Per Dominum . .. "

_Translation_-"Almighty and merciful God Who inflaming blessed JaneFrances with love, didst endow her with a marvellous fortitude of spiritto pursue the way of perfection In all the paths of life, and wastpleased through her to enrich Thy Church with a new offspring, grant byher merits and intercession that we, who, knowing our own weakness, trust in Thy strength, may by the help of Thy heavenly grace overcomeall things that oppose us. Through our Lord" (Collect of St. JaneFrances Fremiot De Chantal, August 21). 

_Rubrics_. In Vespers and Lauds the collect is said after the antiphonsof the _Magnificat_ and _Benedictus_, unless the _Preces_ (q. V. ) are tobe said in these hours. Then the _Preces_ are said after the antiphons, and the collects follow after them immediately. The collect of a ferialOffice is found in Office of the previous Sunday, except in ferias ofLent and Rogation days which have special and proper collects. 

At Prime and the other Hours the collect is said after the littlerespond, unless the _Preces_ be recited. They precede the collect. AtCompline the collect is said after the antiphon _Salva nos_ if the_Preces_ be not recited. 

At Prime and Compline the collects of the Psalter are never changedexcept during the last three days of Holy Week. In this triduum, in allhours up to and including None on Holy Saturday the collect is saidafter the Psalm _Miserere_. 

Before reciting the collect in the Office, everyone in deacon's ordersor in priesthood says _Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo_, and thisis said even if the Office be said privately. All others reciting theOffice say _Domine exaudi orationem meam. Et clamor meus ad te veniat_. Then the word _Oremus_ is prefixed to the recitation of the collect, andat the end, _Amen_ is said. If there be only one collect, the _Dominusvobiscum_ or the _Domine exaudi_ with the responses _Et cum spiritu tuo;Et clamor meus ad te veniat_ is repeated after the _Amen_. But if therebe more than one collect, before each is said its corresponding antiphonand versicle and also the word, _Oremus_. After the last collect issaid, the _Dominus vobiscum_ and _Et cum spiritu tuo_ are repeated. Thenwe add _Benedicamus Domino; Deo Gratias, Fidelium animae_. .. . Thislatter verse is not a constant sequel to the _Benedicamus_, as we see inPrime, where the verse _Pretiosa_ succeeds it; and again in Compline itis succeeded by _Benedicat et custodiet_. The concluding words of theprayers or collects vary. If the prayer is addressed to God the Father, the concluding words are _Per Dominum_ (see the collects given above). If the prayer be addressed to God the Son, the concluding words are _Quivivis et regnas_--e. G. , Deus qui in tuae caritatis exemplum ad fideliumredemptionem . .. . Qui vivis et regnas (Collect for St. Peter Nolasco'sfeast, 3ist January). If in the beginning of the prayer mention is madeof God the Son, the ending should be _Per eundem, e. G. , _ Domine Deusnoster? qui, beatae Brigittae per Filium tuurn unigenitum secretacoelestia revelasti; . .. Per eundem Dominum (collect for feast, 8thOctober). But if the mention of God the Son is made near the end of thecollect, the ending is _Qui tecum vivit et regnal, e. G. _, "Famulorumtuorum, quaesumus, Domine. .. . Genitricis Filii tui Domini nostriintercessione salvemur: Qui tecum vivit et regnat" (collect ofAssumption, 15th August). If the name of the Holy Ghost occur in theprayer, the conclusion is, _In unitate ejusdem Spiritus sancti, e. G. _, "Deus, qui hodierna die corda . .. In eodem spiritu recta . .. _in imitateejusdem Spiritus_" (collect: for Pentecost Sunday). 

The following lines, giving the rules for terminations, are well knownand are useful, as a help to the memory:--

 _Per Dominum_ dicas, si Patrem quilibet oras Si Christum memores, _Per eundem_, dicere debes Si loqueris Christo, _Qui vivis_ scire memento; _Qui tecum_, si sit collectae finisin ipso Si Flamen memores _ejusdem_ die prope finem

When there are several collects an ending or conclusion is added to thefirst and last only. _Dominus vobiscum_ is said before the first collectonly, but each collect is preceded by the word _Oremus_, unless in theOffice for the Dead. 

_Explanation of the Rubric_. Where a feast is transferred eitheroccasionally or always and its collect contains words such as _Hancdiem, hodiernom diem_, it is not allowed to change the wording, withoutpermission of the Congregation of Rites (S. R. C. , 7th September, 1916). 

If the collect of a commemoration be of the same form as the prayer ofthe feast, the former is taken from the common of saints, inproper place. 

_Dominus vobiscum_. This salutation is of great antiquity. It was thegreeting of Booz to his harvestmen (Ruth, ii. 4). The prophet used theselfsame salutation to Azas. And the Angel Gabriel expressed the sameidea, _Dominns tecum_, to the Blessed Virgin. It was blessed andhonoured by our Lord Himself, when to His apostles he said "Ecce egovobiscum sum omnibus diebus" (St. Matt. 28. 20). This beautifulsalutation passed into Church liturgy at an early date, probably inapostolic times. Its use in liturgy was mentioned at the Council ofBraga (563), and it is found in the Sacramentarium Gelasianum (sixthcentury). These words are called the divine salutation. They mean thatthe priest who utters them is at peace with all clergy and people andthus wishes God to remain with them--the highest and holiest of wishes. For the presence of God, Who is the source of every good and the authorof every best gift, is a certain pledge of divine protection and of thatpeace and consolation which the world cannot give. This formula is usedeven in private recitation of the Office, as the priest prays in unionwith and in the name of the Church. 

The words _Et cum spiritu tuo_ add a new and further significance to thesalutation; for it is the spirit, the human soul, that prays, and whenthe spirit prays in the name of the Church for her children, its workis a work of high spiritual order, demanding the use of all thesoul's powers, _Oremus. _ This exhortation is of very great antiquity, and in this formis found in the liturgies of St. James and of St. Mark. In those days itwas said by the priest in a loud voice. The priest, the mediator, following the example of the great Mediator, Christ, calls others tojoin with him in prayer. St. Augustine tells us, that sometimes afterpronouncing the word _Oremus_, the priest paused for a while and thepeople prayed in silence, and then the priest "collected" the unitedprayers of the congregation and offered them to God, hence the name_collect_ (St. Augustine, Epistle 107), (_cf. _ Probst. , _AbendlMesse_, p. 126). 

_Invocation and Conclusion_. Prayer is addressed generally to God theFather. This practice is in accordance with the example and doctrine ofChrist, "Father, I give Thee thanks" (St. John, xi, 41); "Amen, amen, Isay to you; if you ask the Father anything in My name, he will give itto you" (St. John, xvi. 23). "And He taught us to say 'Our Father. '" Inthe early ages of the Church, seldom was prayer addressed to God, theSon. Innocent III. Tells us that the reason for the practice was a fearthat such prayer might lead the catechumens, the Jews or the Pagansconverted to Christianity, to allege or to believe that Christiansworshipped several Gods. However, with the advent of the early heresies, it became necessary to formulate prayers witnessing the divinity ofChrist and His equality in all things to the Father and the Holy Ghost. In some of the great prayers of the liturgy, the three Persons of theHoly Trinity are named to show their equality and unity of nature andsubstance. Nearly all the prayers of this kind are the products of theChurch during the storms of early heresy against the divinity, nature orpersonality of Christ. 

The conclusions of the prayers generally contain the words _Per Dominumnostrum Jesum Christum_, because all graces come through Jesus Christ, our Lord and Saviour, Who pleads, as Mediator between God and Man, as HeHimself has said, "No man cometh to the Father but by Me" (St. John, xiv. 6). 

Hence, in every collect, we may distinguish five parts: the invocation, the motive, the petition, the purpose, the conclusion. 

(1) The Invocation takes some form such as _Deus, Domine_. 

(2) The motive is commonly introduced by the relative _qui_; e. G. , Deus, _qui corda fidelium sancti spiritus illustratione docuisti_. 

(3) The petition, the body or centre or substance of the prayer, isalways noted for the solemn simplicity of language, which marksliturgical prayer, e. G. , _Multiplica_ super nos misericordiam tuam. 

(4) The purpose is an enforcement of the petition. It has reference, generally, to the need of the petitions and is marked usually with theword _ut_. "Multiplica super nos misericordiam tuam, _ut_ quae, nobisagendis praecipis, te miserante adimplere possimus" (prayer for feast ofSt. Patrick). 

(5) The _conclusion_ varies, e. G. , "Per Dominum nostrum, " "Per eundemDominum, " etc. 

"Those who pay intelligent attention to the liturgical chant at HighMass, and in particular to the chant of the celebrant, will be able todiscover for themselves that the intonations used in the singing of thecollect and the Post-Communion serve, as a rule, to mark off two atleast of the main divisions indicated. Two inflections, a greater and alesser, occur in the body of the prayer, the greater for the most partcoming at the close of the 'motive, ' while the lessor concludes the'petition' and produces the purpose of the prayer. When the prayers arecorrectly printed, as in the authentic 'Missale Romanum, ' the place ofthe inflexions is indicated by a colon, 'punctum principals, ' and asemicolon, 'semi-punctum, ' respectively. These steps, it will heobserved, indicate, not precisely 'breaks in the sense' (as Haberlincorrectly says) but rather the logical divisions of the sentence, which is not quite the same thing" (Father Lucas, S. J. , _Holy Mass_, chap, vi. ). 

The question is often asked, why _Dominus vobiscum_ is said after thecollect, or prayer. Writers on liturgy reply that it is so placedbecause Christ frequently used the salutation _Pax vobis_, and thepriest in public prayer holds the place of Christ, and as he, thepriest, used this formula of salvation before the collect to obtain thespirit of prayer and the grace of God, he repeats it so that these giftsmay be retained. 

In the collects, the fatherland of the saints is rarely found, becausethe saints' true home and fatherland is heaven, where they were bornagain to life eternal, and their fatherland is not this valley of exilewhere they spent their temporal life. Nor are their surnames given inthe collects (see the collect of St. Jane Frances Fremiot de Chantelgiven on p. 180). But it is not infrequent in the collects to findcertain appellations characterising a saint or noting some specialprerogative or wonderful gift of grace. The Church's collects record thewonderful gifts of St. John Chrysostom ("the golden-mouthed"), St. PeterChrysologus ("qui ob auream ejus eloquentiam Chrysologi cognomen adeptusest") (_Rom. Brev_. ). Sometimes the nation or earthly home of a saint isgiven in a collect to distinguish one saint from another. This is seenin the case of saints bearing the name of Mary, which if used absolutelyor unqualifiedly refers to the Mother of God. See the collects for St. Mary Magdalen, St. Mary of Egypt, etc. 

The collect or prayer is placed at the end of the Hours to collect orgather up the fruits of all the prayers that precede; to beg from Godthat His grace may follow our actions as it precedes them; that theprayer may be a shield and buckler against all temptations which may beencountered. The prayers at Prime and at Compline never vary, to remindus, the old writers tell us, that all our acts should be invariablyreferred to God. In the early ages of the Church, all public prayers, both in Mass and in Office were offered up by both priests and peoplewith outstretched arms. This practice is observed still, in a certainway, in Mass. 

_Benedicamus_ is the prayer to thank God for all His graces. 

_Fidelium animae_. This prayer is said after every Hour, unless wherethe hour is said in choir and followed immediately by Mass. It Isomitted, too, before the Litany. 

De Precibus (Title XXXIV. ). These are prayers which are said at some ofcanonical Hours, before the collect or oratio. They commence with Kyrieeleison or Pater Noster. They consist of versicles and responses andthese differ from other versicles and responses, which are generallyhistoric, e. G. , In omnem terram exivit sonus eorum, Amavit eum Dominuset laudavit eum. But the versicles and responses of the _preces_ arealways a call to God or an exhortation to praise God (e. G. , Fiatmisericordia tua, Domine), super nos, Quemadmodum speravimus in te (seePrime, infra, page 193). These prayers are of great antiquity, mentionof them being found in the works of Amalare (ninth century). 

They are said in some Offices in Vespers, Compline, Lauds, Prime andLittle Hours. Before the reform of the Breviary by Pope Pius X, , thePreces at Vespers contained six short prayers and the Psalm, Miserere. In the new Breviary nine short prayers are given in the Preces--the sixformer prayers being retained and three new ones, Pro Papa; Proantistite; Pro benefactoribus, being added. The Miserere is omitted. Thesame additions were made in Lauds and the Psalm, De Profundis omitted. 

In Prime and the Little Hours, the preces are unchanged standing in thenew Breviary as in the old. 

_Rubrics_. The Preces are recited in the Office of--

(1) Prime and Compline on certain days;

(2) Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers and Compline of certainfeasts. 

The preces feriales at Lauds and Vespers are the same in structure. Theyhave the same structure in Terce, Sext, None, but differ in character. The preces dominicales at Prime and Compline have a form of their own, additions being made in the preces of Prime when said on a feria. 

1. The Preces Feriales are said at Lauds on Ferias of Lent, Advent andPassiontide, Ember days, except Ember day at Pentecost and on Vigils(except on Vigil of Christmas, Epiphany, Ascension, Friday afterAscension and Vigil of Pentecost)--when the Office on those days is ofthe current feria. 

2. At Prime (i) Preces Dominicales are said in all semi-doubles, simples, Ferial Offices. 

(i) They are said at Little Hours if said at Lauds. 

(ii) At Prime, Preces Feriales are said if they have been said at Lauds. 

3. At Vespers Preces Feriales are said (1) on ferias of Advent and Lentwhen office is of feria. 

4. At Compline, Preces Dominicales are said on all (i) semi-doubles, (ii) simples, (iii) all Ferias, _unless_ at Vespers a double or anoctave was celebrated. 

SOME TEXTS AND INTENTIONS WHICH MAY HELP TOWARDS THE DEVOUT RECITATION OF LAUDS. 

1. "And very early in the morning, the first day of the week, they cometo the sepulchre, the sun being now risen. "

They said to one another, "Who shall roll us back the stone from thedoor of the sepulchre?" (St. Mark, xv. ). 

2. "And looking, they saw the stone rolled back. .. . And entering thesepulchre they saw a young man sitting on the right side, clothed with awhite robe; and they were astonished. Who sayeth to them, Be notaffrighted; you seek Jesus of Nazareth Who was crucified. He is risen, He is not here" (St. Mark, xv. ). 

3. "Behold Jesus sayeth to her (Magdalen) 'Woman, why weepest thou?'"

4. "Behold Jesus met them (the women) saying to them 'All hail. '"

(5) "See my hands and feet, that it is I myself, handle and see" (St. Luke, xxiv. ). 

6. "Bring hither thy hand and put it into My side and be not faithless. "

7. "My Lord and my God" (St, John, xx. ). 

_General Intentions_. The wants of the Church, peace amongnations--vocations to the priesthood--Church students--souls inPurgatory. 

_Personal Intentions_. A glorious resurrection; fervour in saying theOffice; fervour in saying Mass; fervour in priestly work; forgivenessof all sin. 

_Special Intentions_. For Catholic Ireland; for the conversion ofAmerica; for peace throughout the world. 

PRIME (TITLE XV. ). 

_Etymology_. The name _Prime_ is derived from the Latin _prima_ becausethis part of the Office was said at the first hour of the day, 6 a. M. , with us, following the old Roman distribution of the day. 

_Origin_. It was stated by some writers that this Hour was establishedby St. Clement and should therefore date from almost apostolic times. But modern writers, following the statement of Cassian, date the originof this Hour from about the year 382. It was believed, too, that themonastery indicated by Cassian as the cradle of Prime was the monasteryof Bethlehem, St. Jerome's monastery. But it was probably establishednot there, but in a monastery in the neighbourhood, Dair-er-Raociat(convent of the shepherds) or in Seiar-en-Ganheim (enclosure of thesheep). Cassian tells us the reason that led to the introduction of thisHour. Lauds ended at dawn, and the monks retired to rest. As no otherchoir work called them until Terce, at 9 a. M. , some of them wereinclined to rest until that hour and to neglect the spiritual readingand manual work laid down by their rule. To prevent this prolonged rest, it was decided to introduce a short choir service, the recital of a fewpsalms, and then the monks went to work until Terce (_Cath. Encyclopedia_, "Prime"). 

_Contents_. Originally the matter for Prime was drawn from Lauds and wasa repetition of part of Lauds. Prime consists of two parts. The firstpart consists of hymn, psalms, little chapter and collect. The prayersand confiteor inserted before the collect and said on certain days areadjuncts. The second part contains the Martyrology (when Prime is saidin choir) and other prayers peculiar to the Hour. "The reason for thisdivergence may be traced to the fact that Prime is of monasticinstitution and the second portion, which is said in the chapter house, has reference to monastic customs. The Martyrology and Necrology havingbeen read, prayers were said for the dead recommended to the Community, as benefactors, friends, patrons, protectors, etc. Then followed aspecial prayer in preparation for manual labour of the day, and achapter of the rule was read, on which the Abbot briefly commented orelse gave some admonition to the Community. This monastic character willbe easily recognised by a glance at the formulas used. The prayer, 'Sancta Maria et omnes sancti' forms a natural conclusion, to thereading of the Martyrology, The 'Deus in adjutorium, ' the 'Pater Noster'with accompanying versicles, and the collect, are the prayers beforemanual labour: 'Respice, ' etc. , Look, O Lord, upon Thy servants and uponThy works. .. And direct Thou the work of our hands. 'Dirige etsanctificare, ' etc. , 'Vouchsafe to direct and sanctify our senses, wordsand actions, ' etc. Whilst the 'Dominus nos benedicat' and the 'Fideliumanimae' are the conclusion of the prayers for the dead" (Dom Cabrol, Introduction to the _Day Hours of the Church_). 

_Structure_:-i. Pater, Ave, Credo, silently. 2. Deus in adjutorium. . .. Domine ad adjuvandum . . With sign of the cross, Gloria Patri. . .. Sicuterat. . .. 3. Hymn, _fam lucis_. 4. Antiphon, first words only. 5. Psalmsfor the Sunday or feria as rubrics direct, with the Athanasian Creed ifit be ordered, then the antiphon in full. 6. Regi saeculorum . .. Or, Pacem et veritatem. . .. Deo Gratias, Christie, Fili Dei vivi. .. . 7. Preces, if they are ordered in the Office of the Day, Preces Dominicalesor Preces feriales as rubrics direct. These include versicles, responses, confiteor, misereatur. .. Indulgentiam. .. Versicles responses. 8. Dominus vobiscum. Et cum spiritu tuo. Oremus, Domine Deus. .. .. Amen. Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo. 9. Benedicamus Domino, DeoGratias. 10. In choir, the martyrology is here read, 11. Pretiosa. .. Mors. .. . 12. Sancta Maria et omnes Sancti. .. . 13. Thrice, Deus inadjutorium meum intende, Domine ad adjuvandum. .. Without the sign ofcross, Gloria Patri. .. . Sicut erat. 14. Kyrie Eleison, Christe Eleison, Kyrie Eleison, Pater Noster, qui es in coelis. .. (in silence). Et ne nosinducas in tentationem. Sed libera nos a malo. 15. Respice in servostuos. .. . Et sit splendor. .. . 16. Gloria Patri. .. . Sicut erat. .. . Oremus, Dirigere et sanctificare. .. . L7. Jube, Domine. .. . Deus et actusnostros. .. . Amen. 18. Lectio brevis, which in feast offices is theCapitulum from None. 19. Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domine (with signof cross on forehead, breast and shoulders); Qui fecit. .. . 20. Benedicite, Deus; Domine nos benedicat. .. In pace, Amen. To the lectiobrevis at Prime, Tu autem Domine, miserere nobis, is added. 

_The Athanasian Creed_. In the Roman Breviary prior to the reform of1911, the title given to the formula of faith was Symbolum S. Athanasi. In the new Breviaries the title stands Symbolum Athanasianum. Why wasthe change made?

During the past two hundred years the authorship of this formula hasled to great discussion and its reading has led to much bitter andheated controversy in Anglican and Protestant churches. Many contendedfor its retention in Protestant services and many rejoiced at itspartial exclusion, its truncated revision and clamoured for itsrejection everywhere from service. Controversy led to the study of itsorigin. In 1872 a Protestant author, Ffoulkes, maintained that it wasnot composed by St. Athanasius (296-373) but by Paulinus of Aquileia(A. D. 800). But the literature of the age of Charlemagne proves thatthis creed had at the beginning of the ninth century an antiquity of atleast more than a century (Ommaney, _History and Structure of theAthanasian Creed_, Oxford, 1897). Scholars, basing their opinions onwords found in the _Expositio Fidei Fortunati_, date the origin ofthis symbol from the fifth century. It contains certain expressionswhich a writer subsequent to the Council of Chalcedon (451) would havebeen most unlikely to employ, and omits certain expressions which such awriter would have been most unlikely to omit. However, it is likely thatthe creed dates from the fifth century. Who its author was, is quitedoubtful. It was not St. Athanasius, it may have been St. Hilary ofAries, or St. Vincent of Lerins, or some local bishop in southernFrance, "But let us only suppose that the real author was some localbishop--or the theologian employed by some local bishop--and that it wascomposed in the first instance for purely local use in some district ofsouthern France--then does not the difficulty disappear, and are notthe facts of its silent and gradual adoption suitably explained? Notcoming from an author of wide reputation, it would not at first haveattracted much attention and would have been used only in the localityof its origin; from there its use would have spread to neighbouringdistricts; as it got more known it would have been more widely adopted, and the compactness and lucidity of its statements, and theenthusiasm-inspiring character of its style would have contributed tomake it highly prized wherever it was known. Then would come speculationas to its authorship, and what wonder if in uncritical times anAthanasian authorship was first guessed, then confidently affirmed andbelieved?" (Father Sydney F. Smith, S. J. , _The Month_, October, 1904). 

This opinion is only one of several held by Catholic scholars. Dom Morinholds strongly, and gives very good reasons for his view, that it waswritten by Martin of Braga between the years 550 and 580. It waswritten, he says, for the people of Galicia in Spain, who had beenrecently converted from Arianism (_Journal of Theological Studies_, April, 1911). It was adopted into Gallican liturgy and office about 980, and in the Roman office only when the Curial Breviary was adopted. 

"The liturgical use of the Athanasian Creed was Frankish in origin(ninth century) and spread through the influence of the Cluniac reform(tenth century), but only found its way to Rome in the Supplementaryprayers in the twelfth and thirteenth century" (Burton and Myers, _op. Cit_. , p. 51). 

_Rubrics_. Athanasian Creed, to be said (1) Trinity Sunday, (2) Sundaysafter Epiphany, (3) Sundays after Pentecost unless there be in (2) and(3) the commemoration of a double, or of an octave. 

Why is prayer offered at this first hour of the day?

Writers on liturgy answer, 1st to offer to God the first fruits of ourday, of our work, of our devotion, following in this the example ofChrist, Who from His first entry into the world offered Himself to HisFather for the salvation of mankind. 2d To beg of Him to keep us safeduring the day, 3d To beg of Him to keep us free from sin, "ut indiurnis actibus nos servet a nocentibus. "

 "May God in all our words and deeds Keep us from harm this day. May He in love retain us still, From tones of strife and words of ill, And wrap around and close our eyes To earth's absorbing vanities. May wrath and thoughts that gender shame Ne'er in our breasts abide. And painful abstinences tame Of wanton flesh, the pride" (Hymn at Prime). 

_Rubrics_. The Office of Prime begins in choir with the silentrecitation of _Pater Noster, Ave, Credo_. Then, if in choir (aloud) Deusin adjutorium. . .. Domine ad adjirvandum. . .. Gloria Patri. .. . Alleluia, or Laus tibi. .. . Then the hymn _fam lucis_ is said. The antiphon for theday is said as far as the asterisk (*), then the Psalms of the day'sOffice as arranged in the new Pian Psaltery, according to the day of theweek, except on some special feasts, when the Psalms at Prime are theSunday psalms. When the _ordo recitandi_ marks an Office as _officiumsolemne_ (an excepted feast), the psalms at Lauds and Hours are theSunday psalms; and at Prime the psalm _Deus in nomine tuo_ (Psalm 53)takes the place of Psalm _Confitemini_ (Psalm 117). At Prime, and at thesmall Hours, Terce, Sext, None, only one antiphon is said. It is said infull at the end of the last Psalm in each Hour. 

The Capitulum, the little Responsory, _Christe_, _Fili Dei vivi_ . .. Isthen said. In this responsory the versicle _Qui sedes ad dexteramPatris_ is sometimes changed, e. G. , in paschal time it is, _Quisurrexisti a mortuis_. 

The manner of reciting this responsory is sometimes not correctlyunderstood, owing, perhaps, to its printed form in some Breviaries. Thenormal method is to repeat the _whole_ response, then say the versicle, and then the second portion of the response; then the _Gloria Patri elFilio et Spiritui Sancto, without the Sicut erat_, is said, and theresponse repeated. The versicle _Exsurge_ and the response _Et libera_are then said. This is the method of recitation in all the small Hoursand at Compline. 

After this responsory, if the Office be of double rite or be an Officewithin an octave, or on the vigil of Epiphany or on Friday or Saturdayafter Ascension, or on a Sunday on which a double is commemorated, or anoctave is celebrated, or on a semi-double feast within an octave, _Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo_, and the prayer _Dominus Deusomnipotens_ is said. But if the Office be not any of these mentionedjust now, the responsory is followed by the _Preces_. 

_Preces_ (Title XXXIV. ) In the Breviary there are two sets of preces, the Preces Dominicales for Sunday and the Preces Feriales for ferialOffices. These ferial preces of Prime differ from the ferial preces ofLauds, and are said in Prime when the ferial preces are said in Lauds, That is, on the ferias of Advent, Lent, Passiontide, Ember days andVigils. The ferial preces of Lauds are found in the Breviary, immediately after the second set of Psalms for ferial Lauds and afterthe short responsory in the psalm arrangements for the days of the week. (See Lauds, _supra_, p. 188. )

These prayers were introduced at a very early stage of Christianliturgy. St. Isidore writes that they come from Greek liturgy and theopening words _Kyrie eleison_ seem to indicate remnants of an oldlitany. Formerly they were read oftener during the liturgical year thanwe now are called on to repeat them. They are sometimes referred to asthe _preces flebiles_, tearful prayers, because they are said in timesof penance, and are formed to excite tears. In choir recitation they aresaid kneeling. When the preces or the preces feriales are said the signof the cross is made from the forehead to the breast, at the words_Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domini_. Then the Confiteor is said. 

The Confiteor was from an early date a prayer said privately as apreparation for Mass. It is found in several forms; _Confiteor Deo, beatae Mariae, omnibus sanctis et vobis_ (Sarum Missal), but since thetime of St. Pius V. (1566-1572) our present form alone was followed andallowed (S. R. C. , 13th February, 1666). If the Office be recitedprivately or with one or two companions, the _confiteor_ is said onceonly and simultaneously in the preces, and the words _vobis fratribus_and _vos fratres_, which priests say in the opening prayer of Mass areomitted. It should be remarked, too, that the _Misereatur_ and_Indulgentiam_ have not in this location _vestri, vestris, vos, _ but_nostri, nostris, nos_. Sometimes errors in this part of the recitationof the Office are unnoticed, and this pronoun error makes the formulameaningless. 

After the _Indulgentiam_ come the concluding versicles of the preces, Dignare . .. Sine peccato . .. Miserere . .. Miserere . .. Fiat . .. Quemadmodum . .. Domine . .. Et . .. Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo, and the prayer _Domine Deus Omnipotens_ . .. Amen. . .. Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo. . .. Benedicamus Domino, Deo gratias. If the Officebe said in choir, the martyrology is read at this part of Prime. Thereading of the martyrology is not of obligation in private recitation ofthe Office; but the reading of it was highly recommended, even inprivate recitation, by Pope Gregory XIII. (14th January, 1584; see hiswords in the beginning of the Martyrology). 

Then are said, Pretiosa . .. Mors . .. Sancta Maria . .. Deus inadjutorium. .. Domine ad adjuvandum (both the latter being repeatedthrice) . .. Gloria Patri . .. Sicut erat . .. Kyrie eleison . .. Christeeleison . .. Kyrie eleison . .. Pater Noster (silently) until words "Etne nos" . .. Sed libera . .. Respice . .. Et sit . .. Gloria Patri . .. Sicuterat . .. Oremus, Dirigere et . .. Amen, Jube Domine . .. Dies etactus . .. Amen. 

The short lesson which, on all feasts, is the same as the chapter whichis said at None will be found in the proper or common, under that Hour, The new Psalter and new rubrics made no change in this matter. Hence, for example, on the feast of SS. Peter and Paul the short lesson at endof Prime is taken from None of the feast, "Et Petrus ad se reversus";the short lesson for Prime on the feast of St. Aloysius is "Lex Deiejus" and not the short lesson printed in the Psalter under theday's Office. 

On all Sundays and week days it varies according to the season. Thus--

1. From the 14th January until the first Saturday in Lent, from Mondayto Wednesday in Trinity week, from the Friday after the octave of CorpusChristi until the Saturday before Advent, the short lesson is "Dominusautem" (II. Thess. Iii. ), 2. From the first Sunday of Advent until the 23rd December inclusive itis "Domine miserere" (Isaias xxxiii, ). 

3. From the first Sunday of Lent until the Saturday before PassionSunday inclusive it is "Quaerite Dominum" (Isaias iv. ). 

4. From Passion Sunday until Wednesday in Holy Week it is "Faciem meam"(Isaias, 1. ), 5. From Easter Sunday to the Vigil of Ascension inclusive, the shortlesson is "Si consurrexists" (Coloss. Iii. ). 

At the end of the short lesson the words "Tu autem Domine, misererenobis; Deo gratias" are added, and after these words are said"Adjutorium nostrum . .. Qui fecit . .. Benedicite Deus" and the Blessing, "Dominus nos benedicat . .. Requiescant in pace, Amen. " Then _PaterNoster_ is said silently, unless another Hour is to follow immediately. 

TEXTS AND INTENTIONS FOR PIOUS RECITATION OF PRIME. 

1. "Herod and his army set him at nought" (St. Luke, c. 25). 

2. "Not this man, but Barrabas. Crucify Him. "

3. "I find no cause in Him. I will chastise Him and let Him go" (St. Luke). 

4. "But Jesus he delivered up to their will" (St. Luke, c. 23). 

5. "Shall I crucify your King?, " (St. John, 19). 

_General Intentions_. The Pope and his intentions; the propagation ofthe Faith; the priesthood; the Catholic laity; Catholic Missions in theEast; Catholic Europe. 

_Personal Intentions_. The spirit of meekness and humility; greaterdevotion to the Eucharist; greater love of the Blessed Virgin; thepriestly vows. 

_Special Intentions_. For our friends; for the sick and sorrowful; forthe Church in Scotland; for our enemies; for the priesthood of America. 

CHAPTER III. 

TERCE, SEXT, NONE (TITLE XVI. ). 

TERCE. 

_Etymology. _ The word Terce comes from the Latin word _tertia (hora)_, third. Because this little Hour was said at the third hour of the Romanday, that is, about 9 o'clock in the forenoon, _Structure. _ It consists of Pater Noster, Ave, Deus in adjutorium, Gloria Patri . .. Sicut erat . .. Amen, Alleluia, Hymn, opening words ofthe antiphon, the three psalms, antiphon in full, capitulum, response, Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo, Oremus, collect, Dominus vobiscum, Et cum spiritu tuo, Benedicamus . .. Deo gratias, Fidelium animae. .. . Amen. And Pater Noster is said silently if another Hour is not begunimmediately. 

Terce is called the golden Hour, _hora aurea_, because at this time ofthe day, the third Hour, the Holy Ghost, who is typified by gold, descended on the apostles. It is called sometimes the sacred Hour (_horasacra_) because in conventional churches it is recited immediatelybefore Holy Mass. It is the most solemn of all the small Hours. 

_Antiquity. _ The custom of praying at these three hours, terce, sext andnone, is very ancient. It was in use amongst the devout Jews, and theearly converts to Christianity retained the practice. The ApostolicConstitutions contain the words "Preces etiam vestras facitehora tertia. "

Why does the Church wish us to pray at the third hour?

The question is asked by liturgists of olden times. Their replies are:--

1. To remind us of the hour when our Saviour was condemned (St. Mark, c. 15). 

2. To remind us of the hour at which the Holy Ghost descended on theChurch. 

3. As the Church's hymn tells us that at this hour of the day when menare engrossed in worldly affairs, they especially need God's help, "Come, Holy Ghost, Who ever One, Reignest with Father and with Son. It is the hour, our souls possess With Thy full flood of holiness. Let flesh and heart and lips and mind Sound forth our witness to mankind. And love light up our mortal frame Till others catch the living flame, Now to the Father, to the Son, And to the Spirit, Three in One, Be praise and thanks and glory given, By men on earth, by saints in heaven. Amen. "

 (Translation by Cardinal Newman of St. Ambrose's hymn, _Nunc sancte_). 

TEXTS AND INTENTIONS FOR PIOUS RECITATION OF TERCE. 

1. "Therefore, Pilate took Jesus and scourged Him. "

2. "And the soldiers plaiting a crown of thorns put it on His head; andthey put on Him a purple garment. "

3. "And they came to Him and said, 'Hail, King of the Jews, ' and theygave Him blows" (St. John). 

4. "Jesus, therefore, came forth bearing the crown of thorns and thepurple garment, and he (Pilate) sayeth to them 'Behold the Man!'"

_General Intentions. _ The Pope's Intentions; the conversion of heretics;the conversion of the Jews. 

_Personal Intentions. _ Devotion to the Holy Ghost; devotion to thePassion. 

_Special Intentions. _ Vocations in America and Australia; for the Irishpeople throughout the world; for the souls of our deceased penitents. 

SEXT. 

_Etymology_. The word Sext comes from the Latin word _sexta, (hora)_, the sixth hour, because the little Hour should be said at what was thesixth hour of the Roman day, about mid-day with us. 

_Structure. _ The structure of this hour is similar to that given inTerce above, the hymn, antiphon, psalms, little chapter and responsesdiffering, but the order and form being similar in both. 

_Antiquity. _ The Psalmist wrote, "Vespere et mane et meridie narrabo etannuntiabo, et exaudiet vocem meam" (Ps. 54). This practice of devoutJews was maintained by the early Christians and in the Acts of theApostles we read, "Ascendit Petrus in superiora ut oraret circam horamsextam" (Acts x, 9). At this hour, the Christians met for public, joint prayer. 

Why does the Church wish us to pray at the sixth hour of the day?

1. Because at this hour Christ instructed the Samaritan woman, the typeof the Gentiles; and He promised to give the living water, springing upunto life everlasting, which was His blood, poured out on Calvary at thesixth hour. 

2. Because at this sixth hour Christ was raised on the cross for oursalvation and it is right and just, daily, to remember Him and His greatlove for us. Besides, it is to realise His words "And if I be lifted upfrom the earth, I will draw all things to myself" (St. John xii. 32). And the Church, in the opening words of Sext for Sunday, impresses thisidea on us "Deficit in salutare meum anima mea, " "My soul hath faintedafter thy salvation" (Ps. 118). 

3. To ask God to grant us health and peace of heart, as the hymn forSext sings:--

 "O God, Who canst not change nor fail, Guiding the hours as they go by, Brightening with beam the morning pale, And burning in the midnight sky, Quench Thou the fires of hate and strife, The wasting fever of the heart; From perils guard our feeble life, And to our souls Thy grace impart. Grant this, O Father, only Son, And Holy Ghost, God of Grace, To whom all glory, Three in One, Be given in every time and place--Amen. "

 (Translation by Cardinal Newman of St. Ambrose's hymn, _Rector potens_). 

TEXTS AND INTENTIONS FOR THE PIOUS RECITATION OF SEXT. 

1. "And they took Jesus, and after they had mocked Him, they took offthe purple from Him and put His own garments on Him and led Him out tocrucify Him" (St. Mark, c. 15). 

2. "Bearing His own cross, Jesus went forth to that place calledCalvary. "

3. "Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for Me, but for yourselves. "

_General Intentions. _ The wants of the Church; for peace and goodwillamongst all States and peoples; for the Pope; for Church students. 

_Personal Intentions. _ For patience; for fraternal charity; for the loveof the practice of mortification. 

_Special Intentions. _ For Catholic schools; for increase in number ofdaily communicants; for the success of catechists and their work. 

NONE. 

_Etymology. _ The word _None_ comes from the Latin word _nona_, ninth(_hora nona_), because this part of the Office was said at the ninthhour of the Roman day, that is, about three o'clock in our modern day. 

_Antiquity. _ This hour was set apart in Apostolic times for jointprayer, "Now Peter and John went up into the Temple at the ninth hour ofprayer" (Acts iii. 1). 

_Structure. _ See note under this head at Terce. 

Why does the Church desire prayer at the ninth hour?

1. In this she follows the example of her Founder, Christ, Who prayed atthe ninth hour. "At the ninth hour, Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying 'Eloi, Eloi, lamma sabacthani?' which is, being interpreted, 'MyGod, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me?'" (St. Mark xv. 34). 

2. That ninth hour was the long-wished-for and long-watched-for hourwhen reconciliation between earth and heaven was complete. 

3. To beg from God light and grace, especially towards the end of life, for the day's decline in the afternoon is a figure of the waning ofspiritual and corporal life. The hymn for None expresses this:--

 "O God, unchangeable and true, Of all the light and power, Dispensing light in silence through Each successive hour; Lord, brighten our declining day, That it may never wane Till death, when all things round decay, Brings back the morn again. This grace on Thy redeemed confer, Father, Co-equal Son, And Holy Ghost, the Comforter, Eternal Three in One--Amen. " (St. Ambrose's hymn, translated by Cardinal Newman). 

TEXTS AND INTENTIONS TO AID THE PIOUS RECITATION OF NONE. 

1. "Come down from the cross" (St. Matthew, c. 27). 

2. "Lord, remember me when Thou shalt come into Thy Kingdom" (St. Matthew, c. 23). 

3. "My God, my God, why has Thou forsaken me?" (St. Matthew, c. 27). 

_General Intentions_. All the intentions of the Sacred Heart; theconversion of Britain; the Church in America. 

_Personal Intentions_. Fervour in preparation for Mass; fervour inthanksgiving after Mass; fidelity to professional duties and studies. 

_Special Intentions_. The temporal welfare of Ireland; to beg a blessingon her priests; to beg a blessing on her Church students; to beg ablessing on her Catholic laity; to beg a blessing on herelementary schools. 

CHAPTER IV. 

VESPERS AND COMPLINE. 

_Etymology_. The word _vespers_ comes directly from the Latin _Vesper_;_Vespera_ or _Espera_ was a name given to the star Venus, which risingin the evening was a call to prayer. This Hour is recited after None andbefore Compline. In structure, it resembles Lauds, Pater Noster, Ave, Gloria, Five Psalms with antiphons, Capitulum, Hymn, Versicle, antiphon, Magnificat, antiphon and collect. 

It had several synonymous names. It was called _Duodecima Hora_(Antiphonary of Bangor), because it was said at the twelfth hour of theday, six o'clock, or, perhaps, the name came from the twelve psalmswhich made up the Hour in some churches. It was known, too, by the names_Lucernarium, hora lucernalis_, the hour of the candles; because at thishour a number of candles were lighted, not only to shed light but forsymbolic purposes. It was sometimes referred to as _hora incensi_, fromthe custom of burning incense at this evening service, and sometimes itis called _gratiarum actio_ (St. Isidore), because it gives thanks toGod for the graces given during the day. It came to mean not the eveningHour, but the sunset Hour. And in the sixth century it was celebratedbefore daylight had gone and before there was any need for artificiallight. In the fourth century it was recited by torchlight. 

_Antiquity_. The Jews honoured God by special and solemn eveningservice. Their feasts by God's command began in the evening. "Fromevening unto evening you shall celebrate your sabbaths" (Lev. Xxiii, 32). And David sang "Evening and morning and at noon I will speak anddeclare" (Psalm 54:32). The eariy Christians faithfully followedthe practice. 

"In the sixth century, the order of Psalms, etc. , in Vespers differedlittle from the Vespers in our modern Breviaries. Long before the sixthcentury there were evening Offices in various forms. Its existence inthe fourth century is also confirmed by St. Augustine, St. Ambrose, St. Basil, St. Ephraem . .. Before the fourth century we find allusions tothe evening prayer in the early Fathers, Clement I. Of Rome, St. Ignatius, St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, the Canons ofSt. Hippolytus, St. Cyprian (for texts see Baumer-Biron; 1. C. T. 20 seq. 73-74, 76, 78)"--(Dorn Cabrol, _Cath. Ency. _, art "Vespers"). 

Why do we offer up public prayer in the evening? The old liturgistsreply:--

1. To imitate the devout Christians of apostolic times. 

2. To honour Jesus, the true Sun of the world, Who hid Himself at HisIncarnation, and in His life, and Whose glory was hidden in His Passion. 

3. To thank Christ for the Eucharist, which He instituted in the eveningof His earthly life, . .. "and they prepared the Pasch. But when it wasevening (vespere autem) He sat down with His twelve disciples" (St. Matthew, xxvi. 20). At this vesper meeting He gave to priests the powerto offer the sacrifice of the Mass, to change bread and wine into Hisbody and blood. At this vesper service, too, Christ and His apostlescelebrated the divine praises, "Hymno dicto" (St. Matthew xxvi. 30). 

4. In the evening our Lord's body was taken down from the cross. 

5. At the approach of evening Christ appeared to His disciples at Emmausand revealed to them His divinity. "Stay with us because it is towardsevening (_advesperascit_) and He went in with them. He took bread andblessed and brake and gave it to them and their eyes were opened andthey knew Him" (St. Luke xxiv. 29-30). At Vespers we thank God for theEucharist. 

The hymns at Vespers date for the most part from the sixth century. Theyare of great beauty and have the peculiar characteristic of telling ofthe days of creation. Thus St. Gregory's (?) fine hymn, _Lucis Creatoroptime_, in Sunday's Vespers, refers to the creation of light; Monday'shymn, _Immense coeli Creator_, refers to the separation of land andwater; Wednesday's hymn (written probably by St. Ambrose), _Coeli Deussanctissime_, refers to the creation of the sun and moon; the hymns forThursday's vespers, _Magnae Deus potentiae_, refers to the creation offish and birds; Friday's hymn, _Hominis superne conditor_ (St. Gregory), refers to the creation of the beasts of the earth; Saturday's hymn (St. Ambrose) is an exception, as it refers to the Trinity. All these hymnshave been beautifully translated into English and the text andtranslations repay study. 

Sunday's hymn, _Lucis Creator optime_, stands thus in translation:--

 "O blest Creator of the light, Who makest the day with radiance bright, And o'er the forming world didst call The light from chaos first of all. 

 Whose wisdom joined in sweet array The morn and eve and named them day, Night comes with all its darkening fears; Regard Thy people's prayers and tears, Lest sunk in sin, and whelmed with strife, They lose the gift of endless life; While thinking--but the thoughts of time, They weave new chains of woe and crime. 

 But grant them grace that they may strain The heavenly gate and prize to gain; Each harmful lure aside to cast, And purge away each error past. 

 O Father, that we ask be done, Through Jesus Christ, Thine only Son; Who, with the Holy Ghost and Thee, Doth live and reign eternally. Amen. "

 (Translation by Dr. J. M. Neale). 

_Structure. _ Vespers, in structure, resembles Lauds and consists of fivePsalms. It begins with Pater Noster, Ave (said silently), Deus inadjutorium, . .. Domine ad adjuvandum. .. . Gloria Patri. .. . Sicut erat. Alleluia or Laus tibi. .. . Antiphon begun only if the feast be notdouble; if feast be a double the antiphon is said in full before andafter each psalm. If feast be a semi-double or simple the antiphon isintoned at the beginning and is said in full at end of each psalm andthen only. Then are said Capitulum, Deo gratias, Hymn, versicle andresponse, antiphon to Magnificat, the canticle Magnificat, GloriaPatri. .. . Sicut erat. .. . Dominus vobiscum. .. . Et cum spiritu tuo, Oremus, collect, commemoration if any made by versicle and response andantiphon of Magnificat proper to commemoration with collect, Dominusvobiscum, Et cum. .. . Benedicamus Domino; Deo gratias, Fideliumanimae. .. . Amen. If Compline be not said immediately after Vespers, Pater Noster is added. 

At the opening words of the _Magnificat_, _Nunc Dimittis_ and_Benedictus_, it is a practice with many priests to make the sign of thecross from forehead to breast, as at _Deus in adjutorium_ (_cf. _Ceremoniale Epis. Lib. II. I. 14). This custom, where it exists, shouldbe preserved (S. R. C. , April, 1867). 

Writers on liturgy tell us that the number of Psalms in Vespers have asymbolic meaning, typifying the five wounds of the Saviour, the last ofwhich, the wound in the side, was inflicted on the evening of GoodFriday, and the others, as the Church says in the hymn _Vergente mundivespere_, at the waning of the day of the Old Law, before the dawn ofsalvation (Honorius of Autun, circa 1130). Other writers say that thesefive psalms should produce acts of contrition for the sins committedduring the day, by the five senses; and that they should be for us, morally, what the five lighted lamps were for the wise virgins in theGospel parable (Amalare of Metz, circa 850). 

_Magnificat. _ Author. The Blessed Virgin Mary is the author of thiscanticle. "The witness of the codices and of the Fathers is practicallyunanimous for the Vulgate reading: 'Et ait Maria, ' but apart from this, the attribution of the _Magnificat_ to Elizabeth would in St. Luke'scontext be highly abnormal" (Dr. H. T. Henry, _Cath. Encyc_. , word, _Magnificat_)--The Roman Breviary entitles it _Canticum Beatae MarineVirginis_. 

It is divided by commentators into three parts (St. Luke 1, vv. 46-49;50-53; 54-55). It "is in many places very similar in thought and phraseto the Canticle of Anna (I. Kings ii. 1-10) and to various psalms (Ps. 33, vv. 3-4; Ps. 39, v. 9; Ps. 70, v. 9; Ps. 125, vv. 2-3; Ps. 110, v. 9; Ps. 97, v. 1; Ps. 117, v. 16; Ps. 32, v. 10; Ps. 92, v. 7; Ps. 33, v. 11; Ps. 97, v-3; Ps. 131, v. 11). Similarities are found in Hab. C. III. V. 18; Mal. C. III. V. 12; Job. C. 5, v. 11; Is, c. 41, v. 8; Is. C. 149, v. 3, and Gen. C. 17, v. 19. Steeped thus in scriptural thought andPhraseology, summing up in its inspired ecstasy the economy of God withHis chosen people, indicating the fulfilment of olden prophecy, andprophesying anew until end of time, the Magnificat is the crown of theOld Testament singing, the last canticle of the Old and the first of theNew Testament. It is an ecstasy of praise for the inestimable favourbestowed by God on the Virgin, for the mercies shown to Israel, and forthe fulfilment of the promises made to Abraham and the patriarchs" (Dr. Henry, _loc. Cit_. ). 

It is found universally in the ancient liturgies and affords a proof ofthe apostolic and universal praise of the Blessed Virgin. Durandus(thirteenth century) gives some reasons for the assignment of theMagnificat to Vespers. Because Vespers is the grandest liturgical Hour;because Mary probably arrived at the house of Elizabeth in the evening;because it was in the moral evening of the world that Mary consented tobe the Mother of God; because she is the star of the sea, etc. Thefollowing interesting reason for the use of the Magnificat at Vespers isgiven by St. Bede (works 5, 306). "It comes to pass, by the bounty ofthe Lord, that if we were at all times to meditate upon the acts andsayings of the Blessed Virgin, the observance of chastity and the worksof virtue will always continue with us. For, the excellent and salutarycustom has grown up in Holy Church that all shall sing her hymn (theMagnificat) every day with the Vesper Psalms, in order that therecalling of the Lord's incarnation, by this means, may the oftenerincite the souls of the faithful to devotion and that the considerationof the example set by His Mother may confirm them in the stability ofvirtue. And it is meet that this should be done at Vespers, so that themind wearied in the course of the day, and distracted by variousopinions, may, at the approach of the season of quiet, collect itself inoneness of meditation and through the wholesome reminder may hasten tocleanse itself, by the prayers and tears of the night, from everythinguseless or harmful which it had contracted by the business of the day. "

_Suffrages of the Saints_. (Title XXXV. ) In Sec. 2 of rubrics of the newBreviary we read, "Deinceps, quando facienda erunt suffragia sanctorum, unum fiet suffragium, juxta formulam propositam in Ordinario noviPsalterii. " Thus were abolished the old formulae of suffrages and a newone inserted. 

Antiphon Beata Dei Genitrix. .. . V. Mitificavit . .. . R. Et exaudivit. .. . Oremus, A cunctis. .. . 

This will be said at Lauds and Vespers outside Paschal time (1) on allSundays and ferias, (2) on semi-doubles and simples, except (_a_) inAdvent and Passiontide, (_b_) when there is a commemoration of a double, a day within an octave. In Paschal time the Commemoration is ofthe Cross. 

In this prayer the names of the Holy Angels and of St. John the Baptist, if they be titulars, are inserted before the name of St. Joseph. At theletter N. In the prayer, the name of the titular saint of the particularchurch should be inserted; but churches dedicated by the title of amystery (e. G. , the Ascension) are not to be named in this prayer(S. R. C. , March, 1912). 

TEXTS AND INTENTIONS TO AID THE PIOUS RECITATION OF VESPERS. 

1. "Woman, behold thy Son; Behold Thy mother" (St. John, c. 19), 2. "I thirst" (St. John, c. 19). 

3. "And they, putting a sponge full of vinegar about hyssop, put it toHis mouth" (St. John, c. 19). 

_General Intentions_. The conversion of sinners; the wants of theChurch; those in death agony; spread of Eucharistic devotion; dailyCommunion; priest adorers; reparation for bad Communions; reparation forimpieties and irreverences towards the Eucharist. 

_Personal Intentions_. Regularity in visits to Blessed Sacrament;Fervour in Mass and in administering Holy Communion; a happy death; trueand deep devotion to Mary. 

_Special Intentions_. The Irish Daily Mass Crusade; Total Abstinence;devotion to the Passion; devotion to the agonising Heart of Jesus. 

COMPLINE. 

_Etymology and synonym_. The word compline comes from the Latin word_complere_, to complete, to finish, because this Hour completes orfinishes the day Hours of the Office. It bore several names, _Completa_(St. Isidore), _Initium noctis_ (St. Columbanus), _Prima noctis hora_(St. Fructeux). 

_Antiquity_. The origin of this Hour has given rise to a great deal ofcontroversy. Both Baumer and Battifol in their histories of the Breviaryattribute the origin of this Hour to St. Benedict (480-543). Otherscholars attribute its origin to St. Basil, and hence date it from thefourth century. It is admitted that before the time of St. Basil, Bishopof Caesarea (370-379) this Hour was in existence. Some hold that St. Basil established the Hour in the East and St. Benedict in the West. Thelatter certainly invested the Hour with the liturgical character andarrangement which were preserved by the Benedictines and adapted by theRoman Church. The Compline of the Roman Church is more ornate and solemnthan the liturgy assigned to this Hour by St. Benedict, which was verysimple. The addition of the response _In manus tuas Domine_, the _Nuncdimittis_ and its anthem of the Blessed Virgin make this Hour one ofgreat beauty. 

_Structure_, The structure of the Hour seems to point to its monasticorigin, "The reader begins, 'Pray, Father, a blessing' (jube, domnebenedicere); the blessing, 'The Lord Almighty grant us a quiet night anda perfect end. Amen. ' 'Noctem quietam. .. . ' Then follows a short lesson, which the Father Abbot gave to his monks. 'Brethren, be sober and watch;because your adversary, the devil, as a roaring lion, goeth about, seeking whom he may devour, whom resist ye, strong in faith. But Thou, OLord, have mercy on us. ' And the monks answer 'Thanks be to God. ''Fratres sobrii estote et vigilate. .. . ' Then the _Pater Noster_(silently), and the presiding priest, who was the Abbot or his deputy, said the confiteor and the choir answered _Misereatur_. .. . 'May AlmightyGod have mercy upon thee and forgive thee thy sins, and bring thee tolife everlasting. ' The choir then repeats the Confiteor and the priestreplies 'Misereatur vestri. .. . ' 'May Almighty God have mercy upon you, forgive you your sins and bring you to life everlasting. '" Of course, inprivate recitation, or where two or three recite the Office, theseprayers are said only once, and in the Confiteor, _tibi pater_ and _tepater_ are omitted, and _nostri, nostris, nos, nostrorum, nobis_, aresaid in the Misereatur and Indulgentiam. 

Then the _Converte nos Deus. .. . At averte iram tuam. .. . Deus inadjutorium. .. . Domine ad adjuvandum. .. . Gloria Patri_. .. . Antiphon(begun only) and three psalms, which vary, are said, _GloriaPatri_. .. . _Sicut erat_. .. Being said at the end of each. _Inmanus tuas_. .. Is said twice. _Redemisti nos_. . .. _Commendospiritum meum_; _Custodi nos_ . .. _sub umbra_. .. . _Salvanos_; _Nunc dimittis_. .. . _Gloria Patri, Salva nos Dominevigilantes, custodi nos_. .. _pace_. (Preces are said here ifrubric orders; i. E. , _Kyrie eleison, Christie eleison_. .. _ad teveniat_); _Dominus vobiscum, Et cum_. .. . _Benedicamus Domino, Deo gratias_; _Benedicat et custodiat nos omnipotens_. Amen;then the anthem of the Blessed Virgin, _Alma Redemptoris Mater_(from Saturday before first Sunday of Advent to the feast of thePurification, inclusive) with its antiphon; in Advent, _AngelusDomini_, response, _Et concepit_, Oremus and prayer, _Gratiamtuam_, or with antiphon (after Advent) _Post partum_. .. Andresponse, _Dei genetrix, Oremus, Deus qui salutis_. After thePurification, until Holy Thursday the anthem is _Ave reginacoelorum_, with versicle _Dignare me_ . .. , _Da mihi_, Oremus, _Concedemisericors_. From Holy Saturday until Saturday afterPentecost, the anthem is _Regina coeli_ with versicle, _Gaude_. .. Andresponse, _Quia surrexit_. .. . _Oremus_ and prayer, _Deus qui perresurrectionem_. From Holy Trinity Sunday to the Saturday beforeAdvent, the antiphon is _Salve Regina_ with versicle, _Ora pronobis_. .. Response, _Ut digni, Oremus_ and prayer, _Omnipotenssemipeterne Deus_. Then the versicle _Divinum auxilium_. .. . Amen. _Pater Noster, Ave, Credo_, in silence, are said. The _Sacro-sanctae_is added (see pp. 133-135). 

The study of the component parts of this Hour are of great interest. After the Abbot had given his blessing and begged of God to grant thetwo-fold favour of a quiet night and a good death, a monk read from HolyScripture, and when a suitable portion was read, or at the end of aScripture chapter or theme, the Abbot said, "Tu autem, " and the reader"Tu autem, Domine, miserere nobis. " This was to ask God to pardon faultsboth of reader in his reading and of monks, who, perhaps, were drowsyand inattentive. The Abbot terminated the exercise by the _Adjutoriumnostrum_ (the _Pater Noster_ is of more recent introduction). Monks whowere absent substituted for the Scripture lesson which they had missed, the pithy extract from St. Peter, "Fratres; sobrii estote, " which we nowread. The whole company of monks and their abbot then proceeded to thechapel where each made his examination of conscience, and at a sign fromthe abbot, the monks, two by two, in a subdued tone of voice, said the_Confiteor, Misereatur, Indulgentiam_ and _Converte nos_. Gavantus andMerati hold that the _Converte nos_ does not belong to this introductorymatter, but formed part of Compline proper. This prayer is verybeautiful: "Convert us, O God, our Saviour. And turn away Thine angerfrom us. Incline unto my aid, O God; O Lord, make haste to help us. Glory be to the Father, . .. Praise be to God. "

The new arrangement of the Psalter did not retain the old traditionalpsalms, 4, 90, 133, in Compline, except for Sundays and solemn feasts. But the selection of psalms accords well with the idea of thehour--night prayer--and with the other prayers, which go to make up theclose of the Office of the day. The hymn, _Te lucis_, so chastelysimple, has ever been admired. Its ideas suit so admirably for theprayer before sleep and for reminding us of sleep and her sister deathand the solemn petition made to God to be our guardian and defence inthe solemn hour of death, are simply and solemnly set out in this dailyhymn. How beautiful it reads in Father Caswall's translation:--

 "Now with the fast departing light, Maker of all, we ask of Thee Of Thy great mercy, through the night, Our guardian and defence to be. 

 Far off let idle visions fly, No phantom of the night molest: Curb Thou our raging enemy, That we in chaste repose may rest. 

 Father of mercies! hear our cry; Hear us, O sole-begotten Son! Who, with the Holy Ghost most high, Reignest while endless ages run. "

In Passiontide, the Breviary gives us the last verse, Deo Patri, and thetranslation renders it:--

 "To Thee, Who dead again dost live, All glory, Jesus, ever be, Praise to the Father, infinite, And Holy Ghost eternally. "

_Little Chapter_. This is a beautiful call to our Lord to remind Him, asit were, that we are His own, that we bear His name. In this invocationwe express our confidence in Him and ask Him not to abandon us, but todwell with us. "But Thou, O Lord, art among us, and Thy holy name isinvoked upon us; forsake us not, O Lord our God"; and for pastprotection the Church adds to their invocation, taken from the prophetJeremias, the words of gratitude, "Thanks be to God. "

_The Response_. "In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum. .. Nos. ""Into Thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit. Into Thy hands I commendmy spirit. For Thou hast redeemed us, O Lord God of Truth. I commend myspirit. Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Ghost. Into Thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit. Keep us, O Lord, as theapple of Thine eye. Protect us under the shadow of Thy wings. " No moresublime prayer exists in the liturgy than this response, which theChurch orders us to say nightly. She wishes, in its daily recital, toprepare us for death, by reminding us of the sentiments and words of ourdying Lord on the cross, "Into Thy hands I commend my spirit" (Ps. 30, v. 6), and by asking Him Who redeemed us on the bitter tree, to keep ussafe as the apple of His eye and to protect us "under the shadow of Hiswings" (Ps. 40, v, 6). These solemn words of our dying Saviour havebeen, in all ages, and in all lands, the death prayer of many of thosewhom He redeemed, with the great price. St. Stephen, the proto-martyr, prayed "Lord Jesus receive my spirit. " "Into Thy hands I commend myspirit, " prayed St. Basil in his death agony. "Into Thy hands I commendmy spirit, " prayed thousands of God's servants, heroes and heroines, e. G. , Savanarola, Columbus, Father Southwell, the martyr Mary, Queen ofScots, and countless other servants of God. 

_Nunc Dimittis_. The canticle _Nunc dimittis_ is the last in historicalsequence of the three great canticles of the New Testament. It wasspoken at the presentation of Christ, by Simeon, "This man was just anddevout, waiting for the consolation of Israel; and the Holy Ghost was inhim. And he had received an answer from the Holy Ghost, that he shouldnot see death before he had seen the Christ of the Lord. And he came bythe spirit into the temple. And when His parents brought the child Jesusto do for him according to the custom of the law. He also took Him inhis arms and blessed God and said 'Now thou dost dismiss thy servant, OLord, according to thy word in peace. .. . '" (St. Luke ii. 29-33). Thissublime canticle uttered by the holy old man at the close of his days isplaced fittingly in the priest's Office at the close of the day. Itbreathes his thanks, expresses his love and his wish to die, having seenthe Saviour. 

Before the canticle are said the opening words of the antiphon, "Salvanos"; and it is repeated in full at the end. "Save us, O Lord, while weare awake, and guard us when we sleep, that we may watch with Christ andrest in peace. "

The prayers, Kyrie eleison, Christie eleison, etc. , are said alwaysexcept when a double office or a day within an octave has beencommemorated at Vespers. The prayer, _Visita quaesumus_ is found inBreviaries of the thirteenth century and was introduced probably by theFriars Minor. The words _habitationem istam_ are said to indicate thatit is a prayer not only for the chapel of the friars, but for theirdwellings on journeys. It was said in choir by the abbot or presidingpriest. Like all prayers for Compline it begs God to drive far away thesnares of the enemy; it begs Him to let His angels dwell in that houseto keep the dwellers therein, in peace; and finally, it begs Him to "letThy blessing be always upon us. Through Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our Lord, Who liveth and reigneth with Thee in the unity of the Holy Ghost, God, world without end. Amen. "

After the Dominus vobiscum and its response, the abbot or presidingpriest gave the solemn blessing "Benedicat et custodiet. .. , May theAlmighty and merciful Lord, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, bless and preserve us. Amen. "

Then one of the anthems of the Blessed Virgin Mary is said. From theSaturday before Advent until the feast of the Purification, inclusive, is said the anthem "Alma Redemptoris Mater"; translated by FatherCaswall, it reads:--

 "Mother of Christ, hear Thou thy people's cry, Star of the deep and portal of the sky, Mother of Him who Thee from nothing made, Sinking we strive and call to Thee for aid. Oh, by that joy which Gabriel brought to Thee, Thou Virgin first and last, let us Thy mercy see. "

The Latin hexameters are attributed to Hermanus (circa 1054). It hasbeen translated by several poets great and small, and is well known inNewman's translation, "Kindly Mother of the Redeemer. " It was a popularhymn in Norman Ireland and in Catholic England, as we see in Chaucer's"Prioress's Tale. " After this anthem are said its versicle, response, and prayer _Oremus, Gratiam tuam quaesumus_. 

From the first Vespers of the Nativity, the versicle, response andprayer said are "Post partum . .. ; Dei Genetrix. .. . Oremus, Deus quisalutis. " . .. From the end of Compline on February 2nd until HolyThursday exclusive the antiphon is "Ave Regina coelorum. " It appears tobe of monastic origin, and St. Jerome attributes it to St. Ephraem. Itsexpressions are borrowed from the works of St. Ephraem, of St. Athanasius and of other doctors, and its theme is Mary, as Queen ofHeaven, the dawn of our salvation, and an extolling of her beauty. 

From Compline of Holy Saturday, inclusive, until None of the Saturdayafter the feast of Pentecost, inclusive, the "Regina coeli" is said. Itis a very old composition, but its author is unknown. Some authorsattribute it to St. Gregory the Great (590-604). Others, following avenerable tradition, say that the three first lines were the compositionof angels, and the fourth, Ora pro nobis Deum, alleluia, was added byPope Gregory. The legend tells us that when in the year 596 Rome wasdesolated by the plague, Pope Gregory the Great exhorted his people topenance and prayer, and carrying in his hands the picture of the BlessedVirgin, said to be painted by St. Luke, he led them in procession to thechurch, Afa Coeli, on Easter morn. When the procession was passingAdrian's Mole, angel voices were heard chanting the Regina Coeli, andthe Pope astonished and rejoiced added the words "Ora pro nobis Deum, Alleluia, " and immediately a shining angel appeared and sheathed hissword, the plague ceased on that very day (Gueranger, _LiturgicalYear_, "Paschal Time, " Part I. , p. Iii; Duffy, Dublin). Attempts attranslation have been indifferent. 

From the first Vespers of the feast of the Most Hoiy Trinity to the Noneof the Saturday before Advent, the Salve Regina is said. The authorshipwas assigned to St. Bernard (1091-1153). But scholars reject thistheory. It is assigned to Petrus de Monsoro (circa 1000) and toAdehemar, but the claims of both are doubtful. In 1220 the generalchapter of Cluny ordered its daily chanting before the high altar, afterthe Capitulum. The use of the anthem at Compline was begun by theDominicans about 1221 and the practice spread rapidly. It was introducedinto the "modernised. " Franciscan Breviary in the thirteenth century. The Carthusians sing it daily at Vespers; the Cistercians sing it afterCompline, and the Carmelites say it after every Hour of the Office. Itis said after every low Mass throughout the world. It was especiallyobnoxious to Luther, who several times denounced it, as did theJansenists also. It is recorded in the lives of several saints that theBlessed Virgin, to show her love for this beautiful prayer, showed tothem her Son, at the moment they said "Et Jesum . .. Nobis post hocexilium ostende. "

Speaking of these antiphons of the Blessed Virgin, Battifol, in his_History of the Roman Breviary_ (English ed. ), writes: "We owe a justdebt of gratitude to those who gave us the antiphons of the BlessedVirgin . .. Four exquisite compositions, though in style enfeebled bysentimentality. "

After the antiphon of the Blessed Virgin the versicle and response aresaid. Then Oremus and prayer "Omnipotens sempiterne Deus . .. Divinumauxilium . .. Amen, " are said. Then the Pater Noster, Ave and Credo aresaid silently, and this finishes the Hour. The prayer Sacro-sanctae etindividuae. .. . V. Beata viscera . .. R. Et beata ubera . .. Pater Nosterand Ave are generally added though not of obligation. They are to besaid kneeling. The reading of this well-known and oft-repeated prayer, in its English translation, may bring fresh and fervent thoughts topriests, for it is a sublime prayer:--

 "To the most holy and undivided Trinity, to the humanity of our Lord Jesus Christ crucified, to the fruitful virginity of the most glorious Mary ever a Virgin, and to the company of all the saints, be given by every creature, eternal praise, honour, power and glory, and to us the remission of all our sins. Amen. Blessed be the womb of the Virgin Mary, which bore the Son of the Eternal Father. And blessed be the breasts which gave suck to Christ our Lord. "

TEXT AND INTENTIONS TO AID THE PIOUS RECITATION OF COMPLINE. 

1. "Into Thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit. "

2. "It is finished. "

3. "For this Thou hast redeemed us, O God of truth. "

_General Intentions. _ The spread of the faith; the Pope; the Church inFrance and in Spain; for the Church in Australia. 

_Personal Intentions. _ A happy death; fervour in administering the lastsacraments; devotion to St. Joseph, patron of a happy death. 

_Special Intentions, _ For the sick poor of Ireland; for persons dyingwithout the last sacraments; for those dying all alone; fordying sinners. 

THE LITTLE OFFICE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN, (TITLE XXXVII. ). 

_Origin. _ This Office dates from the eighth century at least. PopeGregory II. (715-731) and Pope Gregory III. (731-741) ordered the monksto say this little Office in addition to their great Office. Thepractice was observed by St. John Damascene (676-787) and by St. PeterDamien (1007-1072). This usage was confined to monasteries only. At theend of the eleventh century the practice became almost universal. PopeUrban II. (1088-1099) besought the special aid of the Blessed Virgin inhis crusade against the Turks and recommended all clerics to recite thelittle Office. Provincial councils prescribed its use and some canonistsheld it to be obligatory. However, the Bull _Quod a nobis_ of Pope PiusV. (9 July, 1568) removed all obligation of the private recital of thisOffice, but he exhorted all to continue the practice and grantedindulgences for its recitation. 

PART IV. 

NOTES ON SOME FEASTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

PROPER OF THE TIME. 

ADVENT. 

_Advent_ (Latin, _advenire_, to come to) is a period beginning with theSunday nearest to the Feast of St. Andrew (November 30) and embracingfour Sundays. In the early Church there was a divergence of date andpractice in Advent celebration. Thus, in France it began on St. Martin'sDay (11 November) and ended with Christmas, France kept Advent withtri-weekly fasts. Rome did not, in very early days, observe the Adventfasts, but maintained the shorter period, containing only four Sundays. (Father Thurston, _The Month_, No. 498). 

Several authors stated that this period of preparation for thecelebration of Christ's birthday was instituted by Gregory the Great. Itis now traceable to the fourth century in France; in Rome it was oflater date. The Church, as is seen in the Advent Offices in theBreviary, instituted this part of the liturgical year to honour and torecall the two comings of Christ--His first coming in human form atBethlehem, as Saviour; and His second coming, as Judge of all mankind. In her liturgy she expresses repeatedly both sentiments, a sentiment ofjoy and a sentiment of sorrow. The former she expresses by her_alleluias_ and the latter by her omission of the _Te Deum_ and by herrecital of the ferial prayers, the prayers of tears and grief. 

In the Advent Offices are many phrases which were fulfilled at theIncarnation: "Rorate coeli desuper et nubes pluant Justum; O Adonai, veni ad redimendum nos; Emitte Agnum, Domine, Dominatorum terrae;Orietur sicut sol Salvator mundi et descendet in uterum Virginis. "Centuries have passed since the Saviour came, and yet the Church wishesus to repeat the sublime prayers and prophecies which associatethemselves with the coming of the Word made Flesh, and by our repetitionto be animated with the ardent longings of olden days; and that by themwe may awaken our faith, our hope, our charity, and obtain and augmentGod's grace in our souls. 

_Rubrics_. The first Sunday of Advent has the invitatory hymn and therest of the Office proper. The lessons are from Isaias, the prophet ofthe Incarnation. The first response to the lesson is unique in theBreviary for it has three verses (see p. 164). These three verses arespoken in the names of the holy people who lived before the law, duringthe law, and after the law. The Gloria Patri is added to honour the HolyTrinity, who has at length sent the long-watched-for Messias (Durandus). And the response is repeated from the beginning because the secondcoming of Christ is watched for, by His faithful (Honorius d'Autun). The_Te Deum_ is not said, in order thereby to mark the sad thought of thesecond coming of Christ, then our judge. 

_Lessons_. From the first Sunday of Advent until the first Sunday ofAugust the lessons of the first and second nocturns are given in theBreviary in the Proprium de Tempore, after the Psaltery. The lessons ofthird nocturn for same period are given after those of second nocturn. The suffrages are not said in Advent. In Advent the lectio brevis is"Domine miserere. " In Sunday Matins special versicles are given. Thepreces are said at Lauds and Vespers in ferias of Advent and at thesmall Hours; preces are said, too, if they be said at Lauds. 

The great antiphons are the antiphons of the Magnificat which begin onthe 17th December. They are sometimes called the great O's, or the Oantiphons, as each begins with this letter. They begin "O Sapientia, quae ex ore Altissimi prodiisti . .. " and continue "O Adonai, O radixJesse, " etc. .. . They are the most beautiful antiphons in the liturgy, expressing the prayers and ardent hopes for the coming Saviour. Theyhave formed the subjects of study for poets, scholars and liturgists, ancient and modern. It is asked why these antiphons introduce theMagnificat and not the Benedictus. And liturgists reply: Because theIncarnation was of Mary, and hence these heralds of the Infant King moreappropriately introduce Mary's canticle rather than that of Zachary. Andthe old liturgists add that these antiphons are said at Vespers, theevening Hour, because the Messias was expected and watched for in theworld's evening. They tell us, too, why there are seven great antiphons. They are to excite our piety during this octave preparatory to thebirthday of Christ. This number seven typifies the seven gifts of theHoly Ghost; it represents the seven miseries of mankind, ignorance, eternal punishment, the slavery of the devil, sin, gloom and exile fromour fatherland, which is Heaven. And those wonderful men of mediaevaldays tell us why we have need of a Teacher, O Sapientia; of a Redeemer, O Adonai; of a Liberator, O Radix Jesse; of a Guardian, O Clavis David;of a brilliant Instructor, O Oriens; of a Saviour to bring us, Gentiles, back to our Great Father, God; O Rex gentium; a Herald to the Jews. Honorius of Autun tells that these antiphons refer to the seven gifts ofthe Holy Ghost and are arranged in the well-known order in which thesegifts are always arranged in works of piety. He says that Christ came inthe Spirit of Wisdom, O Sapientia, that in the word "Adonai" isindicated that Christ redeemed us in the Spirit of Understanding. Hesays, too, that the antiphon "O Radix" signifies the sign of the cross, and that Christ redeemed us in the Spirit of Counsel. "O Clavis"indicates that Christ opened Heaven and closed Hell in the Spirit ofStrength or Fortitude. "O Orient" shows forth Christ enlightening us inthe Spirit of Knowledge. "Rex gentiam" points out the holy King whosaved men by the Spirit of Piety. "O Emanuel" refers to Christ coming inthe Spirit of Fear, but giving us also the Law of Love. 

These antiphons have formed the theme of the oldest Christian poem inEurope--Cynewulf's "Christ, " a work which is the admiration of modernscholars. They were celebrated with great pomp and joy in monastic life, the monks carrying their congruous symbolism into their recitation. For, to the gardener-monk was assigned, the chanting of "O Radix Jesse, " andto the cellarer-monk, the "O clavis David"--typifying their work ofroot-growing and key keeping. (See _The Month_, No. 489; _The IrishEcclesiastical Record_, December, 1918). 

_Christmas. Antiquity. _ "It was formerly taken for granted that Christhad actually been born on this day, and, accordingly, the learned wereof opinion that the Church had observed it from the beginning, as theday of His birth. Even at the present day it will be dfficult for manyto give up this idea. But there is no Christmas among the Christanfeasts enumerated by Tertullian ([died] 220), Origen (185-254), and therecently published Testament of Jesus Christ. On the contrary, there isclear proof that even in the fourth and fifth centuries it was unknownin some parts of the Church, where its introduction, at a later period, can be proved historically" (_vide_ Kellner, _op. Cit. _, pp. 127-158). 

Christmas is one of the great festivals. In Rome there were two nightOffices. The first, celebrated at nightfall in the Papal chapel, beginswith the antiphon of the first psalm in the nocturn. It has nine lessonsand the _Te Deum_. About midnight a more solemn Office began, this timewith the invitatory and psalm _Venite_. The first of these Officesbecame the Office of the vigil. 

In the Office of Christmas Day the lessons are read without the title ofthe book (Isaias) from which they are taken, because their author's namewas so often repeated during the Advent that each one knew their source, or because at Christmas God speaks to us by His Son, rather than by Hisprophet. In the first response the Gloria Patri is said, to thank Godfor the great favour He has bestowed on us--His Son, the Christ. In thethird nocturn, _Alleluia_ is added to the antiphons, because the thirdnocturn typifies the time of grace, in which we should express the joythat is ours in the birth of the Saviour. In this nocturn, too, aregiven three Gospel extracts, corresponding with the Gospels in the Massof Christmas. Matins are separated from Lauds by the first Mass because, it is said at midnight, and Lauds is a day Office. At Prime the versicleof the little response is _Qui natus est_. 

_Rubrics_. Christmas is a primary double of the First Class. The thirdof the new _Tres Tabellae_ (S. C. R. , January, 1912) in the new Breviariesgives the rules for concurrence of Vespers in the Octave of Christmas. 

_Feast of St. Stephen_. The worship of St. Stephen may be said to be asold as the Church herself, since St. Paul gave him the title of Martyrof Christ (Acts XXII. 20). His name is to be found in the earliestliturgical sources, e. G. , the Arian martyrology belonging to about 360and in all calendars, ancient and modern, excepting the Coptic. Hiscultus received great impulse from the discovery of his relics at KapharGamala, on the shore of Lake Genesareth, and the wonderful miracleswrought by them, A basilica in his honour was erected, in Rome in thefourth century. 

_St. John the Apostle_. The commemoration of St. John on the 27thDecember was formerly united with that of St. James the Less. In time, St. John's feast only was celebrated on this date, and such was thecase as early as the time of Bede. 

_The Circumcision. _ This festival was originally called _Octava Domini_, and hence it may be inferred that it was not an independent festival andpassed unnoticed if it fell on a week day. Thus, in the _Homilarium_ ofCharlemagne (786) it is referred to by this name. But very shortly afterthis, the name which we now use for the festival of the 1st January wasused in Rome, and spread through the Church. In the early days ofChristianity the first day of the civil year was given over torejoicings, dancing, feasting and rioting. And these abuses lingered inFrance, though stripped of their pagan character, until the later middleages. A remnant of them is found in the so-called Feast of Fools, whichwas held in churches, and which mocked several religious customs andceremonies. These feasts lasted till the middle of the fifteenth century. 

_Epiphany_. The name is derived from a Greek verb employed to describethe dawn, and the adjective derived from the Greek verb was applied inclassic Greek, to the appearances of the gods bringing help to men. InChristian liturgy, the feast was instituted to celebrate the appearance, the manifestation of Christ, to the Gentiles, in the persons of theMagi. In later times, there were added to this commemoration of Christ'smanifestation to the Gentiles, two further commemorations of hiswonderful showings of His divine mission, viz. , His manifestation in Hisbaptism in the Jordan, a manifestation to the Jews, and His miracle atCana, a showing forth to His friends and disciples. This feast is ofearly origin. Suarez thinks it should be attributed to the Apostles (_DeRelig_. L. 2. Ch. 5, n. 9); and Benedict XIV. Held that it was establishedby the infant Church at Rome to draw off the Christians from the profaneand sinful revelry which marked the pagan feast of this date. However, these statements are hardly accurate. "With regard to the antiquity andspread of the feast, it was unknown in North Africa during the thirdcentury, for Tertullian makes no reference to it; and even in the timeof St. Augustine, it was rejected by the Donatists as an orientalnovelty. In Origen's time, at least, it was not generally observed as afestival in Alexandria, since he does not reckon it as such. For Rome, evidence is wanting for the earliest times, but since the daughterChurch of Africa knew nothing--of the festival at first, it may beinferred that originally it was not kept at Rome, but was introducedthere in course of time. In Spain it was a feast-day in 380, in Gaul in361 . .. " (Kellner, _op. Cit. _, p. 172). 

In the antiphons for the Magnificat and the Benedictus it may be noticedthat the three manifestations are given not in the same order. "This dayis the Church united to the Heavenly Spouse, for Christ, in the Jordan, washes away her sins; the Magi run to the royal nuptials with theirgifts, and the guests of the feast are gladdened by the water changedinto wine" (Ant. Of Benedictus). The Magi, seeing the star, said toeach other: "This is the sign of the King: let us go and seek him, andoffer him gifts, gold, frankincense and myrrh" (Ant. Of Magnificat, 1stVesp. ), "We celebrate a festival adorned by three miracles: this day, astar led the Magi to the manger; this day water was changed into wine atthe marriage feast; this day Christ vouchsafed to be baptised by John, in the Jordan of our salvation" (Ant. Of Magnificat, 2nd Vesp. ). Now, the baptism is the special event commemorated by the Easterns on thisfeast, and on account of its connection with the baptism, this feasthas, amongst the Greeks, the secondary title of the feast of lights. And, in Ireland (Synodus II. , St. Patricii, can. 20), contrary to theancient custom of the Church, solemn baptism was administered on thisfeast day. This subject of the baptism forms the only theme of theancient sermons bearing on this feast. On the other hand, the visit ofthe Magi is the sole event commemorated by St. Augustine in his sixsermons delivered on this feast day. The third event, the marriagefeast, is of later commemoration; and Maximus of Turin doubted if theyall actually happened on the same day. 

The Octave to the feast dates from the eighth century. It was customaryon this date, in the Eastern Church, to read publicly the epistolafestalis of the Patriarch of Alexandria arranging the date of Easter andthe practice was ordered by the fourth Council of Orleans in 541. 

In Epiphany the invitatory is not said in the beginning of Matins, inorder, say the liturgists, not to repeat the inquiry made by Herod fromthe scribes about the birthplace of Christ, an inquiry and invitationinspired by hatred and anger. The invitatory is omitted, they tell us, that we, like the Magi, may come to Christ, without other than a silentinvitation. Teachers of olden time used to urge those who were slow tobelieve to imitate the Magi. But, the invitatory is not quite omitted. It is read in the third nocturn, which typifies the law of grace, inwhich the Apostles and their successors invite all to praise and worshipGod. The psalms of the feast are taken from the psalms of each day ofthe week, but chiefly from Friday's psalms, perhaps because the Magi'svisit was on that day. 

SEPTUAGESIMA. 

"During the age of the persecutions it was scarcely possible forChristians to observe any other festival than Sunday, and so it is notsurprising that the two writers who have occasion to speak of theinstitution of the festivals of the Church, mention only Easter andPentecost, both of which fall on a Sunday. To these Christmas was addedin the fourth century and Epiphany somewhat earlier. These chieffestivals, along with others soon added to their number, formed theelements for the organisation of a festal system in the Church, ascentres round which the lesser festivals grouped themselves. The laststep of importance, however, in the development of the Church's year wasto connect these chief festivals with one another, so as to make themparts of a whole. The Sundays afforded a convenient means for effectingthis. They were associated with the festal character of the nearestfeast and were connected with it as links in a chain. The way for thisdevelopment had been prepared by the season of preparation for Easter, and the Sundays in the fifty days between Easter and Pentecost--Quinquagesima--were marked with the festal character with whichantiquity invested the whole period. All that was needed was, first ofall, to connect Christmas, Easter and Pentecost; and, in the secondplace, the institution of a season of preparation before Christmas. Thiswas accomplished between the sixth, and the eighth centuries. 

"During the first six centuries the ordinary Sundays of the year hadneither liturgical position or character, since they were not evenenumerated. There was a sort of _commune dominicarum, i. E. _, a number ofMasses existed from which one could be chosen at will for each Sunday. To these Sundays, which were called simply _dominicae quotidianae_, those after Epiphany and Pentecost belonged. 

"They numbered altogether twenty-nine or thirty, according as thecalendar gave fifty-two or fifty-three Sundays in the year. .. . Thesmaller number of these, six at most, come between Epiphany andSeptuagesima, but the larger, twenty-three to twenty-eight, between WhitSunday and Advent. The variation depends on the date of Easter. There isno historical circumstance forthcoming to give these a specially festalcharacter. . .. " (Kellner, _op. Cit_. , pp. 176, _et seq_. ). 

Septuagesima Sunday comes nine weeks before Easter. It cannot comebefore the 18th January, nor after the 22nd February. It is the firstday of a period of mourning and penance, preparatory to the greatpenitential period of Lent. On the Saturday preceding Septuagesima two_alleluias_ are added to the Benedicamus and Deo Gratias, to intimatethat the period of rejoicing in the Saviour's birth has passed. Violet, the penitential colour, is used at Mass, and the chapters in Genesisrecording the fall of Adam, warn man to think well, to humble himselfand to do penance. Every part of the Office, the lessons, antiphons andhymns, bear the notes of mourning and penance. 

LENT. 

_Lent_. --The Teutonic word, _Lent_, originally meant the spring season. It has come to mean the forty days preceding Easter. Scholars used tomaintain that this season of penance was of apostolic origin; but, modern scholars noting the diversity of practice and the diversity ofduration in different churches and the Easter controversy, hold that itis not of apostolic origin, and that it dates from the third century oreven from the fourth century. It is not mentioned in the Didascalia(circa 250 A. D. ), but was enjoined by St. Athanasius upon his flockin 331. 

EASTER AND PASCHAL TIME. 

Easter is the chief festival of Christendom, the first and oldest of allfestivals, the basis on which the Church's year is built, the connectinglink with the festivals of the old covenant and the central point onwhich depends the date of the other movable feasts. Some of the veryearly Christian writers call it feast of feasts (festum festorum). 

The English word Easter is from _Eastre_, the goddess of spring. In theliturgy we never find the word _Pascha_, always the words _dominicaresurrectionsis_. Pascha has no connection with the Greek [Greek:Pascho], but is the Aramaic form of _pesach_. 

Some points regarding this festival are to be noted, its antiquity, itsconnection with Jewish feasts and Christian feasts, its preparation, character and duration. 

_Antiquity_. No mention of this feast is in the _Didache_, in Justin'sDialogue with Trypho, or in his apologies. But in the year 198 A. D. Anexchange of letters between Pope Victor, Bishop Narcissus of Jerusalem, Polycrates of Ephesus, shows that the feast had been for years inexistence. Many references are found in Tertullian and writers of histime to this festival. 

_Connection of the Christian Festival with the Jewish_. "The connectionbetween the Christian and the Jewish feasts is both historical andideal--historical because our Lord's death happened on the 15th Nisan, the first day of the Jewish feast; ideal, because what took place hadbeen prefigured in the Old Testament by types, of which itself was theantitype. The Jewish rites and ceremonies (Exodus XII. ) are referred toin the prophecies of the Messias. Thus, Isaias calls Him the Lamb chosenby God, who bears the iniquities of others. The Baptist called Jesus, the Lamb of God. The Evangelist refers to the typical character of thePassover rites, when he applies, 'a bone of it shall not be broken'(Exod. XII. 46), to Christ on the Cross. Justin and Tertullian see inthe Christian sacrifice the fulfilment of the imperfect sacrifices ofthe old law. Hence, there is no doubt that the Jewish Passover wastaken over into Christianity. Thereby its typical ceremonies found theirdue fulfilment. 

"To the real and historical connection between Easter and the Passoveris due the explanation of a striking peculiarity in the Church's year, viz. , the moveable feasts of which Easter is the starting point. Easterfalls on no fixed date, because the Jewish 15th Nisan, unlike the datesof the Julian and Gregorian Calendars, varied year by year. 

"The preparation for Easter was the Lenten fasts. The fare on fast daysconsisted of water and soup made with flour; fruit and oil and breadwere also eaten. The catechumens also fasted on Wednesdays and Fridays. Among the faithful there were some who ate nothing from their repast onSunday until the following Saturday, e. G. , for five days, and who allthe year round took only one meal a day. Others abstained in Lent fromall food for two consecutive days, but others fasted by taking nothingto eat all day, until the evening" (Kellner, _op. Cit. _, p. 93). 

The Easter celebrations were in the early ages chiefly noted for thegreat and solemn ceremonies of baptism conferred on a large number ofcatechumens, with solemn procession from the baptistry to the cathedral. The Easter Octave celebrates by festivals the supper at Emmaus, theappearance of our Lord (St. Luke xxiv. ), His appearance by the sea (St. John xxi. 1-14), His appearance to Magdalen (St. John xx. 11-18), Hisappearance on the mountain (St. Matthew xxviii. 16-20), and Hisappearance just after He had risen (St. John xx, 1-9), THE ASCENSION. 

This day was kept as a festival in very early times, although it is notmentioned in the lists of Church festivals given by Tertullian (+220), nor by Origen (185-254). St. Augustine (354-430) (Epist. Ad Januarium, 54, c. L. ) attributes the institution of this festival to an apostolicordinance or the injunction of a general council. But neither can beproved. But the festival dates from the days of the early Church, and asit was natural that the concluding act of our Saviour's life should beremembered and honoured, the celebration of the feast of His Ascensionspread widely and rapidly. The feast was noted for the solemnprocessions held, to imitate and to commemorate our Lord's leading ofthe Apostles out of the city to the Mount of Olives. 

WHIT SUNDAY. 

Pentecost or Whit Sunday extends back to the early days of the Church. From Tertullian, it is plain that the festival was well known and longestablished. In the _Peregrinatio Silviae_, we read a detailed accountof how the feast was kept in Jerusalem at her visit (385-388). "On thenight before Whitsunday the vigil was celebrated in the church of theAnastasis, at which the bishop, according to the usual custom inJerusalem on Sundays, read the Gospel of the Resurrection, and thecustomary psalmody was performed. At dawn, all the people proceeded tothe principal church (Martyrium) where a sermon was preached and Masscelebrated. About the third hour, when the psalmody was finished, thepeople singing accompanied the bishop to Sion. There, the passage fromthe Acts of the Apostles describing the descent of the Holy Ghost wasread, and a second Mass was celebrated; after which the psalmody wasresumed. Afterwards, the archdeacon invited the people to assemble inthe 'Eleona, ' from whence a procession was made to the summit of theMount of Olives. Here, psalms and antiphons were sung, the Gospel wasread and the blessing given. After this, the people descended again intothe 'Eleona, ' where Vespers were sung, and then, with the bishop attheir head, proceeded in a solemn procession, with singing, back to theprincipal church, which was reached towards 8 p. M. At the city gate theprocession was met by torch bearers, who accompanied it to theMartyrium. Here, as well as in the Anastasias, to which the peopleproceeded in turn, and in the chapel of the Holy Cross, the usualprayers, hymns and blessings took place, so that the festival did notconclude until midnight. " (Kellner, _op. Cit. _, pp. 112-113). In mostchurches, the principal services were solemn baptism and processions. Insome places it was customary to scatter roses from the roof of thechurch, to recall the miracle of Pentecost. In France, trumpets wereblown in church, in memory of the great wind which accompanied the HolySpirit's descent. 

TRINITY SUNDAY. 

The first Sunday after Pentecost, for centuries, was not called TrinitySunday. Pope Alexander II. (circa 1073) was questioned about a feast inhonour of the Holy Trinity and he replied that it was not the Romancustom to set apart any particular day in honour of the Trinity, whichwas honoured many times daily in the psalmody, by the _Gloria Patri_. But an Office and Mass, dating from a hundred years earlier than thisPope's time, were in use in the Netherlands and afterwards in England, Germany and France; and in 1260 were spread far and wide. In 1334, PopeJohn XXII. Ordered uniformity and general observance of this feast onthe Sunday after Pentecost. The Office in our Breviaries dates from thetime of Pius V. It is beautiful and sublime in matter and in form. Whether this is a new Office or a blending of some ancient offices, is amatter of dispute. Baillet, _Les Vies des Saints_ (Tom ix. C. 2, 158)thinks it a new Office. But Binterim, _Die Kirchichle Heortology_, PartI. , 265, and Baumer-Biron, _Histoire du Breviaire_, 298, take adifferent view. The Roman rite follows the older form of enumeration, second Sunday after Easter and so forth, and not first Sunday afterTrinity. The latter form of enumeration is adopted in the Anglicanchurch service books. 

THE PROPER OF THE SAINTS. 

_December. The Feast of the Immaculate Conception. _ The discussion ofthe question of this feast lasted for more than a thousand years. Afeast of the Conception was celebrated in the Eastern Church in theearly part of the eighth century and was celebrated on the 9th December(Kellner, _Heortology_, p. 242, _et seq. _). The feast was celebrated inEngland before the Norman Conquest (1066) (Bishop, _On the Origins ofFeast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary_, London, 1904). 

But there is an earlier codex than those mentioned by Bishop, and fromit, it is argued that the feast is of Irish origin. In a metricalcalendar, which is reasonably referred to the time of Alfred the Great(871-901), there is the line "Concipitur Virgo maria cognomine senio";and this calendar exhibits, says Father Thurston, S. J. , "mostunmistakable signs of the influence of an Irish character. " It waswritten, Dr. Whitely Stokes believed, by an Irishman in the ninthcentury or thereabouts. The script appears to him to be "old Irish, rather than Anglo-Saxon, and the large numbers of commemorations ofIrish saints and the accuracy with which the names are spelt, point toan Irish origin. " This calendar places the feast of our Lady'sConception on the 2nd May. In the metrical calendar of Oengus, the feastis assigned to the 3rd May, and in his _Leabhar Breac_, the scribe addsthe Latin note, "Feir mar Muire et reliqua, _i. E. _, inceptio ejus utalii putant--sed in februo mense vel in Martio facta est illa, quae postVII. Menses nata est, ut innaratur--vel quae libet alia feria ejus. "Again, in the martyrology of Tallaght, from which Gorman, a latermartyrologist, says that Oengus, the Culdee, drew his materials, isfound under date May 3rd, a mention of the celebration of the Conceptionof Mary. This evidence seems to show--although it is not perfectlyconclusive--that the conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary wascelebrated in the Irish Church in the ninth and tenth centuries, but noton the 8th December (see Father Thurston, S. J. , _The Month_, May andJune, 1904; Father Doncoeur, S. J. , _Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique_, Louvain, 1907, p. 278, et seq. ; Baudot, _The Roman Breviary_, pp. 253-255; Kellner, _op. Cit. _). 

It is to be regretted that even in the new Breviary the lessons for thesecond nocturn of this feast are taken from the composition, _Cogitisme_, falsely attributed to St. Jerome, and rejected by critics, from thedays of Baronius, as spurious (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, p. 236). 

_February. The Purification. _ Candlemas. According to the Gospelnarrative, Mary fulfilled the commands of the Law (Lev. XII. 2-8), andon the fortieth day brought the prescribed offering to the Temple, whereshe met Simeon and Anna. 

The first reference found in Christian writers to this festival is foundin the famous _Peregrinatio Sylviae_, the diary of a Spanish lady whovisited Jerusalem about 385-388. She tells us that the day began with asolemn procession, followed by a sermon on St. Luke II. 22 seqq. , and aMass. It had not yet a name, but was called the fortieth day after theEpiphany; and this naming shows that at Jerusalem the Epiphany wasregarded as the day of Christ's birth. The lady's words show that thefeast was not then observed in her own country. The feast was observedin Rome in 542; and Pope Sergius I. (687-701) ordered a procession onthis festival. The opinion that is so often met with in pious books, that this feast with its procession of candlebearers was established bythe Church to replace the riot and revels of the Pagan _Lupercalia_, isnow rejected by scholars. For, processions, with or without lights, wereso common amongst Pagans and Christians that any connection betweenthese two feasts is negligible. 

_March. St. Joseph_. In the Western Church the cultus of St. Joseph isnot found in any calendar before the ninth century, although numeroustraces of the esteem and veneration paid to him by individuals arefound. The public cultus of St. Joseph was introduced by the privatedevotions of great servants of God, such as St. Bernard, St. Gertrude, St. Bridget of Sweden, John Gerson, St. Bernardine of Sienna, and otherFranciscan preachers. The spread of the devotion in several countriesled Pope Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to introduce St. Joseph's feast, as asimplex, having only one lesson. Clement XI. (1700-1721) changed it intoa feast of nine lessons. Two centuries previously the feast is found inBreviaries under date 19th March. 

_The Annunciation_. Devotion to the Mother of God was continued by theapostles after the death of her Son. Fervent and widespread devotion istraceable in the Church's early days, but the organising of our Lady'sfeasts was a work of some time and difficulty. A great difficulty wasthe fear of blasphemy from pagans, and of error amongst pagan converts, so trained in myths and genealogies of the gods. Then the festivalscommemorating the facts of the life, death and resurrection wereprimarily commemorative of the Redeemer and secondarily of His Mother. Long before the institution of her feast, the cultus of Mary was almostuniversal. The feast of the Annunciation falls on the 25th March withus. Its date depends entirely on the date of Christmas, but the birth ofChrist was not always placed in calendars on the 25th December. 

In early days the feasts of martyrs and other saints were not celebratedin Lent, and hence this feast of the Blessed Virgin was set down in somecalendars as transferred, and was celebrated in Advent. In Spain, it wascelebrated eight days before Christmas. In the East, the feast wasgenerally celebrated on the 25th March, and gradually this date wasfixed, and was sanctioned by several councils in the eleventh century. 

_May. The Finding of the Holy Cross_. The history of the finding of thetrue cross by St. Helena is well known. The Alexandrine Chronicle givesthe day as the 14th September, 320. This September feast of the holycross is of earlier origin than the feast of May. The latter wasestablished to commemorate the act of the emperor in 629, when hebrought back to Jerusalem the true cross, from the Persian conquerors. On 3rd May, he handed it over to the Patriarch Zacharias, and, strangeto say, this festival of May spread rapidly in the Western Church, whilst in the East only one feast, (the September one), of the findingof the cross was celebrated for centuries. In Milan, for instance, theSeptember feast was received in the eleventh century, whilst the Mayfeast was rooted in the Western Church very many years before that time. 

The antiphons and hymns of this Office are, it is said, amongst themost beautiful and sublime prayers of our liturgy. 

_The Apparition of St. Michael_. The cultus of the holy angels is ofJewish origin and existed in the Christian Church from the beginning. InSt. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians (modern _Khonus on the Lycus_) hespeaks of this devotion and of the attempts of a Gnostic sect to spreadfalse doctrines on this point (Col. Ii, 18). Although the evil wroughtwas long lived, true devotion to the angels was practised in Colossaeand there the Archangel Michael appeared. In honour of this apparition, the festival of St. Michael in September was established. Devotion tothe Archangel was of very early date in Rome and in the Western Churchgenerally. Masses in his honour are found in the oldest RomanSacramentary (483-492); and in these he is mentioned by name in prayersand prefaces. The May feast was instituted in the sixth century, tocommemorate a second apparition near Sipontum on Monte Gargano, whichtook place on the 8th May, 520. 

_June 29. Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul_. There always has been aconstant tradition in Rome that these two saints suffered martyrdom onthe same day, 29th June, and it is only natural that this day should bekept with great devotion and solemnity at Rome. In the East, feasts inhonour of these martyrs were held at different seasons, Christmas, February and Epiphany. The day was kept in many places as a solemnholiday, servile works being prohibited. But in Rome, devotion wasclosely connected with the date and with the exact places of martyrdom. "Owing to the distance which separated the two churches of the apostlesfrom each other, it was most fatiguing to celebrate Mass at both places, and so in course of time the festival was divided into two parts, andthe Mass in honour of St. Paul took place on the 3Oth June. "

_July. The Visitation_. This feast was probably originated by theFranciscans in the thirteenth century. It certainly was preached andspread by their zeal. It is mentioned amongst Franciscan records bearingdate 1263. It was kept in different places at different dates. In Parisit was kept in April. In 1850 Pius IX. Raised this feast to the rank ofa double of the second class, to thank God for having, on this day, 2ndJuly, freed Rome from the revolutionary yoke. 

_Feast of St. Mary Magdalen_. Commentators on Sacred Scripture are notagreed whether Mary of Magdala was the sister of Lazarus or whetherthere were two or three Marys connected with our Lord--Mary the sisterof Lazarus, Mary of Magdala, and Mary the sinner named in St. Luke'sGospel vii. 27. The Roman liturgy seems to favour the opinion that Maryof Magdala was the sister of Lazarus, and that she was a sinner and waspossessed by seven devils. The history of Mary Magdalen after our Lord'sdeath has been written, with large and varied additions of adventure, bypious mediaevalists. In the Western Church, traces of the saint's cultusare met with in Bede and his contemporaries. But devotion far and widebegins with mediaeval times. The many legends which have grown uparound her name and history have so obscured historic truth that theBreviary gives no historic lessons on her feast day, but gives as alesson part of a homily from St. Gregory. Some of the legends may befound in the Office of St. Martha (July, 29th). 

_August. The Assumption. _ "In all probability this is the earliest ofour Lady's festivals" (Kellner, _op. Cit. _, p. 235). Early writersmention the Garden of Gethsemani as the place of Mary's burial and thethird year--some say the twelfth year--after our Lord's death as theyear of her death. St. John Damascene relying on the writings ofEuthymius tells us what we know of the Assumption. He tells that thewife of the Emperor Marcian (450-457) wished to transfer our Lady'srelics from Jerusalem to Constantinople and was informed by Juvenal, Bishop of Jerusalem, that such relics were not in Jerusalem. The BlessedMother had been buried there, in the Garden of Gethsemani, in thepresence of the Apostles, Thomas alone being absent. On his arrival hewished to venerate the Mother of God; the tomb was opened for him, butnothing was found save the linen grave-clothes, which gave forth a sweetperfume. The Apostles concluded that Christ had taken to Heaven the bodywhich had borne Him. The Emperor Maurice ordered the date, the 15thAugust, long and widely recognised, to be the date of this annualfestival. However, some churches celebrated it on other dates. In theGothico-Gallic missal of the eighth century, the feast is fixed for the18th January. The festival was called sometimes _dormitio Mariae, pausatio Mariae_. It was celebrated in Rome at the end of the seventhcentury, but how long it had been in existence there, and in the Westgenerally before that time, no one can say. 

_Feast of the Name of Mary. _ This feast owes its origin to the devotionof the faithful and was first authorised by the Pope in 1513. It wasextended to the universal calendar in 1683, on the occasion of thedeliverance of Vienna from the Turks. 

Over the derivation and meaning of the name _Maria_ much scholarship andconjecture have been lavished. It is said to mean (1) _stella maris_(Eusebius); (2) lady, from the Syrian _Martha_ (St. John Damascene);this is the Breviary meaning, but the Breviary uses the first meaning, _stella maris_, too; (3) stately, imposing one (Bardenhewer); (4) fromthe Egyptian, _merijom_, friend of water, bride of the sea (Macke). 

_October. Feast of the Holy Rosary. _ It is not necessary to speak of theorigin of the Rosary. This feast was established by Gregory XIII. In1573, as a thanksgiving for the victory of Lepanto (October, 1571). Clement XI. Extended the feast to all Christendom in consequence of thevictory gained at Peterwarden by Prince Eugene in 1716. 

_November. Feast of all Saints. _ This feast was "instituted to honourall the saints, known and unknown, and, according to Urban IV. , tosupply any deficiencies in the faithful's celebration of saints' feastsduring the year. In the early days, the Christians were accustomed tosolemnize the anniversary of a martyr's death for Christ, at the placeof martyrdom. The neighbouring dioceses began to interchange feasts, totransfer them and to divide them, and to join in a common feast; . .. Frequently groups of martyrs suffered on the same day, which naturallyled to a joint commemoration. In the persecution of Diocletian thenumber of martyrs became so great that a separate day could not beassigned to each. But the Church, feeling that every martyr should bevenerated, appointed a common day for all. The first trace of it we findin Antioch on the Sunday after Pentecost. . .. At first only martyrs andSt. John the Baptist were honoured by a special day. Other saints wereadded gradually, and increased in number when a general process ofcanonization was established; still, as early as 411 there is in theChaldean calendar a 'commemoratio Confessorum' for the Friday afterEaster. . .. Gregory IV. (827-844) extended the celebration on 1stNovember to the entire Church" (_Cath. Ency. _, art, "All Souls"). 

_Feast of All Souls_, "The theological basis for the feast is thedoctrine that the souls, which, on departing from the body are notperfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for pasttransgressions, are debarred from the Beatific Vision, and that thefaithful on earth can help them by prayers, almsdeeds, and especially bythe holy sacrifice of the Mass. In the early days of Christianity thenames of the departed brethren were entered in the diptychs. Later, inthe sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold acommemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide, In Spain, therewas such a day before Sexagesima or before Pentecost, at the time of St. Isidore (d. 636). In Germany, there existed (according to the testimonyof Widukind, Abbot of Corvey, c. 980) a time-honoured ceremony ofpraying for the dead on 1st October. This was accepted and sanctified bythe Church" (_Cath. Ency. _, art. "All Souls"). 

The psalms and lessons of this Office are especially well chosen, andthe responses to the lessons--said to be the work of Maurice de Sully(d. 1196)--are greatly admired by liturgical experts. 

It may be noted here, that, in the recitation of this Office, which is, for most priests, the only choral recitation of liturgy, care should betaken to select the proper nocturn or nocturns. "In the general rubricsof the Breviary (Tit. XIX. N. 2) it is stated that the invitatory is notto be said in _Officio Defunctorum_ per annum, excepto dieCommemorationis omnium fidelium defunctorum, ac in die obitus seudepositionis defuncti et quandocunque dicuntur tres nocturni. When, therefore, only one nocturn is recited, the invitatory is to be omittedexcept on the dies obitus seu depositionis. " In this latter case, eventhough the body is not present--for some special reason, such ascontagious disease--the invitatory is not to be omitted. 

"On any other occasion, no matter how solemn or privileged, such as theseventh, thirtieth, or anniversary day, when only one nocturn isrecited, the invitatory must not be included. This is clear, not onlyfrom the rubrics of the Breviary and Ritual (Tit. VI. , cap. IV. ) butalso from certain answers of the Congregation of Rites" (_Irish Eccles. Record_, December, 1913). 

Dom Baudot's _The Roman Breviary_ gives in an appendix, pp. 239-252, "tables showing the date at which each saint was inserted in the RomanBreviary, the rank given to his festival, and the variations it hasundergone. It is often difficult to give precise dates. "

ROGATION DAYS, EMBER DAYS AND LITANIES. 

"Litanies were solemn supplications instituted to implore the blessingof Heaven on the fruits of the earth. It was customary to recite them inthe spring, that is, the season of late frosts, so much dreaded by thecultivators of the soil. .. . The people marched in procession to thespot, chanting the while that dialogue prayer which we call a litany, elaborated, according to circumstances, into a long series ofinvocations, addressed to God and to angels and saints. "

"The day set apart for this purpose at Rome was the 25th April, atraditional date, being that on which the ancient Romans celebrated thefestival of the Robigalia. .. . 

"The most ancient authority for this ceremony is a formulary forconvoking it, found in the Register of St. Gregory the Great, which musthave been used in the first instance in the year 598" (Duchesne, _Christian Worship_, chap, viii. , n. 9). 

Ember days, a corruption from Latin Quatuor Tempora (four times). "Thepurpose of their introduction, besides the general one intended by allprayer and fasting, was to thank God for the gifts of nature, to teachmen to make use of them in moderation, and to assist the needy. Theimmediate occasion was the practice of the heathens of Rome. The Romanswere originally given to agriculture and their native god belonged tothe same class. At the beginning of the time for seeding and harvestingreligious ceremonies were performed to implore the help of theirdeities; in June for a bountiful harvest, in September for a richvintage, and in December for the seeding. .. . The Church when convertingheathen nations has always tried to sanctify any practice which could beutilised for a good purpose. " The fasts were fixed by the Church beforethe time of Callixtus (217-222). The spread of the observance of Emberdays was slow; but they were fixed definitely and the fast prescribedfor the whole Church by Gregory VII. (1073-1085). (_Cf. CatholicEncyclopedia_, word, Ember Days; Duchesne _Christian Worship_, chap, viii. ; Dom Morin _Revue Benedictine_, L'Origine des Quatre Temps, 1897, pp. 330-347. )

NOTE A. 

THE BREVIARY HYMNS. 

Of all the many and varied branches of Christian art, there is nonewhich offers to the researches of criticism a field so extensive as doesthe hymnography of the Roman Breviary. No other source of liturgicalstudy, if we except the antiphonarium, has received such attention fromstudious men. But never, in any age, did this study receive such carefultreatment and give rise to such patient and laborious research as inour own. (Pimont, _Les hymnes du Breviare Romain_, Introduction. )

In this note, an attempt will be made to define a hymn, to tell of theintroduction of hymns into the Roman Breviary, and to note briefly thecharacter of these hymns. 

St. Augustine, commenting on Psalm 122, defined a hymn as a song withpraise of God, cantus est cum laude Dei. It may, however, be morestrictly defined as a spiritual song, a religious lyric (v. _Cath, Ency. _, art. "Hymn"). 

In the early Christian assemblies great use was made of the psalms andcanticles in their congregational singing. St. Paul wrote: "Speaking toyourselves in psalms and hymns and spiritual canticles, singing andmaking melody in your hearts to the Lord" (Ephes. V. 18) ". .. Teachingand admonishing one another in psalms, hymns and spiritual canticles, singing in grace in your hearts to God" (Col. Iii. 16). The Jesuit, Father Arevalo, in his _Hymodia Hispanica_, cites many witnesses, suchas Clement of Alexandria, the Apostolic Constitutions, Pliny theyounger, to prove that hymns were used in the first and secondcenturies. But a much-debated question is, whether those hymns werereally made part of the Office, as hymns stand there to-day. Somescholars deny that they were; others assert that they were certainlypart of the Church's Office. All agree that they were certainly in useformally and substantially in the Office in the third and fourthcenturies in the Eastern and in the Western Church. The Council ofAntioch (269-270) wrote to the Pope that Paul of Samosate hadsuppressed some canticles recently composed in honour of Jesus Christ. St. Dionysius of Alexandria composed some hymns, to win over an erringbishop. In the fourth century the Council of Laodicea spoke of theintroduction of some hymns, which were not approved; and St. Basil tellsus that hymns were in universal use in the Eastern Church. 

In the Western Church, St. Hilary of Potiers (370) composed a hymn bookfor his church. Its existence is known from the words of St. Jerome. St. Augustine states that St. Ambrose (340-397), shut up with his people inthe church in Milan by the persecutors, occupied his flock by theirsinging of hymns which he himself had composed, and some of which are inour Breviaries. The Church of Milan certainly had hymns in its Officeand in its Office books then, for St. Paulinus in his life of St. Augustine wrote: "Hoc in tempore, primum antiphonae, hymni ac vigilae inEcclesia Mediolanensi celebrari coeperunt; cujus celebritatis devotiousque in hodiernam diem, non solum, in Ecclesia Mediolanensi verum peromnes pene Occidentis provincias manet. "

But the question arises, when did Rome introduce hymns into her liturgy?The learned Jesuit, Father Arevalo, held that the Roman Office had hymnsas an integral part from the time of St. Ambrose, and he called theopinion of those who held that they were of later introduction aninveterate error, _errorem inveteratum (Hymnodia Hispanica_ XVIII. , n. 95). The introduction of antiphonal chanting was introduced into Rome atthe time of St. Ambrose and liturgical hymn singing, too, wasintroduced about the same time. This we know from the Milanese priestPaulinus, St. Augustine, Pope Celestine I. , and Faustus, Bishop of Riez. But formal, official and systematic hymnody was not introduced in Romeuntil centuries after the death of St. Ambrose. Mabillon (Suppl. Ad IV. Lib de div. Off. Amalarii, t. 11) and Tomasi (In annot, ad Resp. Etantip. Rom. Ecc. ) place the date of the introduction of hymns into theRoman liturgy, in the eleventh or twelfth centuries. But scholars nowagree that hymns were formally recognised in the liturgy of Rome in thelatter half of the ninth century. "To judge of what Amalare of Metzsays, there was no sign of it at the beginning of the ninth century, butfrom the middle of the same century onwards hymns must have beenintroduced into the Office used by the Churches of the Frankish empire, and shortly afterwards in Rome" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, pp. 67-68). WilfridStrabo agrees with Amalare. Rabanus Maurus testifies that hymns were ingeneral usage in the second part of the ninth century. (Migne, Pat. Lat. Clx. 159, cxiv. 956). This is the opinion of Gueranger, Pimont, Blumeand Baumer. 

Dom Gueranger explains why Rome, the mother and mistress of all thechurches, did not adopt the practice of hymn chanting in her liturgy forcenturies; why she did not precede or quickly follow the Eastern andmany parts of the Western Church in this matter of liturgical hymns. "The Church, " he says, "did not wish to alter by religious songs thesimplicity, or the meaning, of her great liturgical prayer. Nor did shewish to adopt quickly any innovation in her liturgy or discipline"(_Inst. Liturg. _ I. 1, pp. 170-171). 

No part of the Church's liturgy has met with such persistent, abusive, and often ignorant criticism as her hymns have received. 

The renaissance clerics, the Gallicans, the Jansenists, and theProtestants poured forth volumes of hostile and unmerited criticism onthe matter and form of Rome's sacred songs. Becichemus, rector of theAcademy of Pavia in the sixteenth century, in his introduction to thework of Ferreri, wrote of the hymns: "sunt omnes fere mendosi, inepti, barbarie refecti, nulla pedum ratione nullo syllabarum mensucompositi. .. . Ut ad risum eruditos concinent, et ad contemptumecclesiastici ritus vel literatos sacerdotes inducant. .. . Literatosdixi: nam ceteri qui sunt sacri patrimonii helluones, sine scientia, sine sapientia, satis habent, ut dracones stare juxta arcam Domini. " Theremarks of the rector recall the saying of Lactantius, "literati nonhabent fidem. " Ferreri, who had been commissioned by Pope Clement torevise and correct the Breviary hymns, wrote in his dedication epistle:"I have given all my care to this collection of new hymns, becauselearned priests and friends of good Latinity who are now obliged topraise God in a barbarous style, are exposed to laugh and to despiseholy things. " Santeuil (1630-1697) characterised the Breviary hymns asthe product of ignorance, the disgrace of the Latin language, thedisreputable relics of the early ages, the result of lunacy. 

Violent attack leads to violent defence. Both are generally born ofignorance, a partizan spirit, and exaggeration. Pious Catholic defenderswrite that the Roman Breviary has hymns far superior to the classiclyrics of ancient Rome; that they have an inimitable style; that theyare far superior to Horatian poetry; that there is nothing to comparewith their style and beauty in pagan classics, Indeed, zeal has led someholy men to censure Pope Leo X. , Clement VII. , and. Urban VIII. Fortheir attempts to correct these compositions, which they hold to havebeen perfect. 

Truth seems to hold the place of the golden mean between the bittercritics and the over zealous defenders of our Breviary hymns. Thefollowing propositions, drawn from Father Barnard's _Cours De LiturgieRomaine_, may be taken as a fair and accurate statement of the views ofscholars, views which may be safely held by all students of this portionof liturgy. 

_First Proposition_:--Many of the hymns of the Roman Breviary have notthe elegance of the Odes of Horace, of the hymns of Santeuil andof Coffin. 

Proof:-(1) The holy Fathers had outlined in a rough sketch rather thanperfected their hymns (Pope Urban VIII. , Bull Quamvis, 17th June, 1644). 

(2) Speaking of the new Hymnal of Ferreri, Pope Clement VIII. Says thatthe new work could only add to the splendour of worship and help to thecommon interest, implying that the new hymns helped religion by theiraccuracy and grace of correct poetic forms. 

(3) Pimont, the author of a classic work on the Breviary Hymns, in anumber of comments, notes the crudities of the Breviary hymns, even intheir revised forms. Thus, in the hymn for Prime, he notes apparentruggedness. He passes similar comments on the hymns assigned to thelittle hours. 

(4) Bacquez states that all the hymns do not join beauty of expressionto the merit of the thought expressed, and that a certain number lackstyle and good prosody. 

These opinions should not be extended to all, nor even to very many ofthe Breviary hymns. All serious critics agree about the beauty of suchhymns as the _Aeterne rerum Conditor_, the _Somno refectis artubus, Splendor Aeternae gloriae, Verbum supernum prodiens_, and a good numberof others. 

The greater part of the Breviary Hymns are composed according to therules of prosody, and their form is lyric, the popular form of Latinsong, which preceded in Italy the prosodical system borrowed from theGreeks, and used by the classic pagan poets. The critics of theRenaissance period are very loud and very wrathful over the form ofthese hymns. Some of them accuse St. Ambrose, Prudentius and Gregory theGreat of gross ignorance of the rules of Latin verse and, what to thecritics was worse, ignorance of the ways of pagan classical models. But, was the rhymed, tonic accented lyric, which was to be sung by all sortsand conditions of men, in public, such an outrageous literary sin? Wasit ignorance or prudence that guided the early hymn writers in theiradoption of popular poetic form? It is not certain by any means that theearly hymn writers wished to copy or adopt the classic forms of theAugustinian age. Nor is it clear that such men of genius as St. Ambrose, Prudentius, St. Gregory the Great, were ignorant of the rules and modelsof the best Latin poets. It seems that they did not wish to follow them. They wilfully and designedly adopted the popular lyric forms, so thatthey might give to their flocks in popular and easily remembered forms, prayers and formulas of faith. 

_Second Proposition_:-The Breviary hymns have the principal elements ofpoetic beauty. 

Briefly, these elements are sublimity of thought, beauty of sentiment, aptness of expression, unction of form. In these matters the Breviaryhymns are not inferior to the classic poetry of paganism, nor to themuch-belauded beauties of the Gallican Breviary hymns (_vide_ Bacquez, _Le Saint Office_, notes vi. And viii. In finem). 

The composition of the hymns is in perfect harmony with the end forwhich they are intended, that is, liturgical prayer, chanted prayer. Their phrases do not display the vain and superfluous literary glitterof the much-lauded Gallican hymns, but their accents go out from thesanctuary and live in the hearts of the people. Their language is, likethe thought and expression of the psalms, the word of a soul praying toGod and adoring Him in fervour, in simplicity, and in faith. Of thepiety and expression of the French hymns, Foinard, an ardent apostle ofthe French liturgical novelties, wrote: "Il ne parait pas que ce soitl'onction qui domine dans les nouveaux Breviaries; on y a la verite, travaille beaucoup pour l'esprit; mais il semole qu' on n'y a pastravaille autant pour le coeur. " Letourneux, the fierce Jansenist, wroteto the Breviary-poet, Santeuil, his co-worker: "Vous faites fumerl'encens; mais c'est un feu estranger qui brule dans l'ensenoir. Lavanite fait en vous ce que la charite devrait faire. " And the CatholicDe Maistre, so famed for his fair-minded criticisms, wrote of the newhymn-makers' works: "They make a certain noise in the ear, but theynever breathe prayer, because their writers were all alone (_i. E. _, unaided by the grace and guidance of the Holy Spirit) when they composedthem. " Of the Roman Breviary hymns he wrote: "They always pray andexcite the soul to prayer. " "Train your hearts to attention, and hearall their prayers. You will in them see the true religion, as clearly asyou see the sunbeams. "

_Fourth Proposition_:--The characteristic of the Roman Breviary hymns isto express with lively sentiments and with unction the noble ideas andbeautiful sentiments of the supernatural order, in a simple manner, without prosodical pretension, yet having ever a true rhythm whichsometimes vies with better compositions. 

The characteristic mentioned in this proposition, which comes as acorollary from the three preceding propositions, is one which is clearlynoted in our Breviary hymns. For by their very position in the Breviary, side by side with the Psalms, Scripture extracts and words of theFathers, the Church shows her esteem and her use of these lyrics ofprayer and praise. Again, the Church's mind is shown by her retention ofher hymns in her liturgy, notwithstanding the many efforts made tosubstitute a new hymnal. Up to the sixteenth century these Breviaryhymns were universally esteemed. They were admired by St. Augustine. They are quoted and praised by St. Thomas in his Summa. Deays theCarthusian {1402-1471} wrote a beautiful commentary on them. Amongst allpriests, secular and regular, the hymns were venerated and loved. Although there were many men of genius in every age and in every part ofthe Christian Church, the hymns escaped until the renaissance under LeoX. (1475-1521). 

The lovers of everything classic and pagan were pained and exasperatedat the venerable simplicity, the lack of prosody, the vagueness andcrudity of the wording of the liturgical hymns. In 1531, Wimpheling, apriest of the diocese of Spire, produced a work, _Himni de tempore et desanctis_ . .. _secundum legem carminis diligenter emendati_. Leo X. , yielding to his own taste and the wishes of the learned innovators whowere ardent students of pagan antiquity, commissioned Ferreri to composea new hymnal for liturgical use. His book was allowed for liturgicaluse, but was not prescribed. It omitted all the old hymns sanctioned bythe Church for centuries, and sung with fervour by thousands down theages. "There are found in the work of Ferreri, " wrote Dom Gueranger, "all the images and all the allusions to pagan beliefs and usages whichwe find in Horace. Sometimes, it is only fair to say, his hymns arebeautiful and simple . .. But they follow generally and too servilely thepagan models . .. But they are the work of strong and clear inspiration, which under the mask of classic diction shows itself in every part. "(_Inst. Liturg. _ t. I. , p. 370. ) During the reign of Pope Paul III. Newhymnals were issued, but the Breviary hymns were not removed. St. PiusV. In his reform of the Breviary did not touch the Breviary hymns. Clement VIII. In his reform added new hymns but did not remove norretouch the old ones. This work remained for Pope Urban VIII. (1623-1644). 

Urban VIII. , Maffeo Barberini, was a poet of no mean rank. Before hiselection to the papacy, he was a recognised lover of classicalliterature and an adept in following classic themes and classic forms. Our Breviaries contain some few of his compositions and they showcorrectness of form, poetic merit, and piety. They are the hymns, _Martinae celebri, Tu natale solum_ (January 20); _Nullis te genitor, Regali solio fortis_ (April 13). His great desire was the correction ofthe Breviary hymns. This work of correction was not beyond the personalpower of the Pope himself, if we judge him by his hymns. His views areexpressed in the Bull _Divinam Psalmodiam_, issued to promulgate thecorrected hymns. It found a place in all copies of the Roman Breviary inthe last century. To carry out the corrections outlined by the Pope, four Jesuits were appointed, and whether the result of the correctionsis the Pope's or the Jesuits' is a highly and hotly disputed point. First of all, the task set to the Jesuits was a very difficult one, andone demanding much prudence as well as learning. It may seem to us thatto begin the correction, mutilation and reconstruction of the works andwords of men so great in church history and liturgy as Prudentius, Sedulius, St. Ambrose, St. Paulinus, was a work of rashness, a sort ofsacrilege, attempting to remodel the glowing piety of their poems to thepattern of Horace's verse. But the Jesuits had got their commands andthey were bound to obey. They were chosen on account of their classicalscholarship, which was kept sharp by their daily teaching in college, and they were specially bound by a vow of loyal obedience to Papalorders. "It is only fair to give them the credit that out of respect forthe wishes of Urban VIII, they treated these ancient compositions withextreme reserve and, while they made some impressions clearer, theymaintained the primitive unction in a large number of passages" (Baudot, _op. Cit. _, p. 185). 

They corrected more than nine hundred false quantities found scatteredthrough the Breviary, 58 in the psalter per hebdomadam, 359 in theproper de Tempore, 283 in the proper of Saints, and 252 in the common ofSaints. They changed the opening words of more than thirty hymns. Somehymns were untouched--e. G. , the three hymns of the Blessed Sacrament, the _Ave Maris Stella_, which is rhythmic prose, not verse, and the hymnof the Angels, which was sufficiently perfect. The metre of three hymns, _Tibi Christe splendor Patris_, and the _Urbs Jerusalem_ and _Angularisfundamentum_ were changed. 

The Jesuits have been censured very bitterly for their work ofcorrection. Perhaps they merited some censure, but surely they did notmerit the censures heaped on them by hostile critics like Thiers, HenriValois, and the Franciscan, Cavalli. They answered their criticssplendidly and triumphantly by the works of Father Arevalo, S. J. But thewordy war lasts to the present day. Students who wish to see theunrevised and the revised hymnal of Urban VIII. May consult Daniel's_Thesaurus hymnologicus_ for examples. Other examples are given inMonsignor Battifol's work, and others in Dom Baudot's. If the readerread in the Breviary, the hymn _Te lucis ante terminum_, he may note adifference in that, the revised form, and this, the unrevised:--

 Te lucis ante terminum, Rerum Creator poscimus, Ut solita clementia Sis praesul ad custodiam. 

 Praesta pater omnipotens Per Jesum Christum Dominum Qui tecum in perpetuum regnat Cum Sancto Spiritu

Again, see Lauds for Passion Sunday, _Lustra sex_, second verse, unrevised reads:--

 Hic acetum fel arundo Sputa clavi lancea Mite corpus perforator Sanguis unda profluit Terra, pontus, astra, mundus Quo lavantur flumine. 

_Iste Confessor_, unrevised reads:--

 Iste confessor domini sacratus Festa plebs cujus celebrat per orbem Hodie laetus meruit secreta Scandere coeli. 

 Qui Pius, prudens humilis judicus, Sobrius, castus fuit et quietus Vita dum praesens vegetavit ejus Corporis artus. 

The imitation of Breviary hymns has for centuries formed a notable partof sacred Latin poetry. A great amount of Latin poetry dealing withsacred themes finds no place in Missal or Breviary. Every nation hasancient Latin hymns, generally modelled on the then existing liturgicalmodels; and these hymns are found in national hymnals and in worksdealing with Christian antiquities, but they find no place in modernliturgy. Thus the Latin poetry of the ancient Irish Church is formed forprivate and not choral use. The oldest purely rhythmical Latin hymn isthat of St. Sechnall (1448), "Audite omnes amantes Deum, sancta merita. "But neither it, nor any other of the old Latin hymns by Irish writers, finds place in the Breviary. Collections of Latin hymns by Irish writersof early Christian Ireland are to be found in Todd's _Book of Hymns ofthe Ancient Irish Church_ (Dublin, 1885-1891); the _Irish LiberHymnorum_ (London, 1898), the _Antiphonary of Bangor_ (Warren's Edition, London, 1893). 

One of the most difficult works for a scholar to attempt and to carryout to his satisfaction is the translation of prose or poetry intoanother language. The work of translating the Latin of the RomanBreviary into English was attempted and completed years ago. The workwas great and creditable, but not renowned as a feat of translation. Thehymns of the Breviary have been translated by several authors in everycountry of Christendom, and with different degrees of success. The studyof the Breviary hymns is a highly interesting one, and when it issupported by the different efforts of different translators, it yieldsnew delights, and new beauties are discovered in verses which aresometimes said too rapidly for earnest thought and attention. In thelist of books given in the bibliography below, there are given the namesof books of translated hymns. Any one of them is of great interest. 

NOTE B. 

PARTICULAR EXAMEN ON THE RECITATION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE. 

I. How preparation for saying the Hours is to be made:--

(a) Have we before commencing to recite the Breviary made a fervent actof faith in the presence of God and in the sovereign majesty of Him toWhom we are going to speak?

Have we endeavoured to purify our hearts by an act of contrition, inorder that we may escape the terrible reproach which God addresses tothe sinner--"to the sinner God hath said, 'Why dost thou declare myjustices and take away covenant in thy mouth?'" (Psalm 49, v. 16)?

Have we taken particular care to clear off from our souls everythingwhich can distract us, and above all others these things to which we areattracted and to which our minds may return during our prayer?

"Ante debes facere quod ait propheta: scopebam spiritum meum donecincalescat spiritus tuus ex devota meditatione et affectum etdesiderium concipiat" (D. Gerhard Zutp. De spir. Ascen. ). "Studeatoratione devota et recollectione animi interna divinum praevenireofficium" (St. Bona. Spec, di. , p. 2, c. 7). 

Have we recollected ourselves and remained silent for a time, particularly when passing from study or from a secular business, inorder to banish vain or worldly thoughts, and to make ourselves ready toreceive the Holy Ghost?

Have we united ourselves to Jesus Christ, Who is the perfect praise ofGod, the Father? Have we united ourselves in spirit to the Church, inwhose name we are going to praise God? "In unione orationum ac meritorumChristi Jesu gratiam ad officium debite persolvendum petat" (St. Bona. _ibid_. )

Have we begged the Holy Ghost by the intercession of the Blessed Virginand the saints, whose offices we read, that we may be allowed to joinour praises to those which they give God?

Have we always formed intentions general and particular, not forgettingto form intentions embracing the intentions of Christ and His Church?

Have we adopted some pious thought prior to our reading, so thatdistractions may be excluded and fervour fostered during our recitation?Have we chosen suitable time and place to pray?

Have we taken pains to mark the places in the Breviary and looked overthe rubrics? Has not negligence in these matters caused innumerabledistractions?

II. Dispositions which we should have in saying the Office:--

Let us find out with what dispositions we recite the Divine Office, andif we say it in the manner in which the Church wishes it to be said, digne, attente, ac devote. (Orat. Rec. Ante offic. ). 

1. Have we considered well that God is present and that we speak to Him?Do we look on ourselves as instruments which need to be animated withGod's holy spirit in order to bless His holy name? Have we said theOffice with all the respect and all the veneration which His almightymajesty calls for? Cum timore et humilitate, tanquam Deo visibiliterpresente, psallant (S. Bona, spec, discip. , p. 1, c. 15). 

2. In order to say it attentively have we taken great pains to put awayall kinds of distractions?

"Munda cor meum ab omnibus vanis perversis et alienis cogitationibus"(_ibid. _). 

Have we rejected even good thoughts which were unsuitable for the timeof recitation, and above all have we banished idle or indifferent ones?

Have we tried, following the example of the saints, to excite inourselves the different sentiments expressed by the Psalms, or to dwellon some perfection of God, or on some mystery of our Lord, or on somevirtue of the saint whose office we read? Have we piously dwelt onthese, or on some other subject proper to the Church's season oraccording to our needs?

"Si orat psalmus, orate; si gemit, gemite; si gratulatur, gaudete; sitimet, timete" (St. Aug. In Ps. 30). 

In order to say the Office devoutly, have we said it with love, havingour hearts and souls fully alive to the advantages and the excellenceand the beauties of the Divine Office?

Have we said it with fervour, abandoning ourselves to a good emotion, toholy affections, and to joyous transports, which the Holy Ghost usuallyworks in fervent souls? Have we done this work with joy, taking apeculiar pleasure in this holy labour, recognising the great honour itis to be a partaker in the songs of praise offered to God by theheavenly company, whose hosts are filled with His glory?

III. How we must keep watch over ourselves in reading the Office:--

Let us examine ourselves to find out if in reading the Breviary we keepthe rules of good recitation, as laid down by the saints--Distincte, integre, continue, reverenter, ordinate (St. Bonav. , spec. Discip. P. 1, c. 16). 

1. _Distincte_, Do we recite distinctly, observing the ordinary pause atthe middle and at the end of each verse, not hurrying the one on theother? Do we articulate every word, not adopting a careless or toospeedy pronunciation?

"Non in gutture vel inter dentes, seu deglutiendo et syncopandodictiones vel verba" (Con. Basil, sess. 22). 

2. _Integre_. Do we say the Office in its entirety, being scrupulouslycareful not to omit the smallest part, and taking great care that a partthat we should wish or try to say by heart shall not slip out of ourrecitation altogether or be mutilated?

"Integre, ut de dicendis nihil omittant" (St. Bona. , spec, discip. , p. 1). 

3. Continue. Do we say our Hours without interruption? Do we love thisholy exercise? Or do we easily interrupt our prayer on any triflingpretext, and on the first opportunity?

"Interruptiones in eo non fiant, nisi urgente necessitate" (_ibid_. ). 

4. _Ordinate_. Do we say our Office with order, that is, order both insubstance (not substituting one Office for another) and in manner, according to the rubrics arranging the several hours?

"_Ordinate in substantia, tempore et modo_" (St. Bona. Spec. , _ibid_. ). 

5. Have we said our Hours piously, with all the modesty and all thereverence which so holy an action demands? With becoming attitude, notlying prone, not crossing our legs; without saluting or speaking tothose passing by?

"In officio curando magnopere reverentia et honestas, cum ubique siteadem cui tune loquimur et adstamus Deitas et majestas" (_ibid_. ). (From_Examens Particulers sur l'Office Divin_, par M. Tronson). 

NOTE C. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Priests are provided in their text-books of College days with reliableguides dealing directly and indirectly with liturgy. Hence, some of thebooks quoted here may already be favourites with many readers; but, perhaps, some books in the list may be brought to the notice ofstudents of liturgy for the first time, and may be useful in introducingpriests and church students to easy, pleasant paths in liturgicalstudies. The prices quoted may be useful to book-buyers, 1. Dom Gueranger, _The Liturgical Year_ (1895, Duffy, Dublin, 16 vols. £3 9s. )--This work is a favourite with all lovers of liturgy, It studiesand comments on the Church's liturgy day by day, week by week. It givesreaders of the Missal and the Breviary a new interest and an additionalfervour in their daily prayers. It is a standard work and holds its ownwonderfully against all competitors. 

2. _Cours De Liturgie Romaine Le Breviare_, L'abbe Bernard, Sulpician(Paris. 1887, 2 vols, 7 francs). This is a text-book written with greatcare, showing fine scholarship and deep piety. It is the work of askilled teacher. 

3. _Le Breviare Romain, Commente_ par L'abbe Maugere. Paris. 1887, 6francs. --A very concise and useful work, which I have used often incompiling my book. 

4. The articles in the _Catholic Encyclopedia_, on the Breviary andliturgy generally. 

5. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (London. 1904. 10s. ). Very readable andserviceable to students of early Church history. 

6. Battifol, _History of the Roman Breviary_. (London, 1912. 15s. )

7. Biron-Baumer, _Histoire du Breviaire_. (Paris. 2 vols. 11 francs. )

8. Baudot, _The Roman Breviary_ (London. Cath. Truth Society. Price4s. 6d. )

Monsignor Battifol's book is well and favourably known. It is inEnglish, and has had a large circulation. It received searching andsevere criticism from Dom Baumer, the author of _Geschichte desBreviers_. Baumer's work (translated into French by Biron) is a workshowing wonderful industry, learning and critical acumen. The greatGerman Benedictine was aided in several parts of his work by Mr. E. Bishop, the English liturgiologist, who intended to translate the workinto English. Dom Baudot's book gives in concise form the results of thelabours of Battifol and Baumer. The book is readable, accurate, and isexcellent value for the price. 

9. _The Calendar_. The introductory matter given in the Breviarysuffices for the wants of the ordinary student of liturgy. But those whowish for an exhaustive study of times and seasons may safely read_Kalendarium Manuale_, Pars I. _Festa immobilia_, Editio secunda; price9 lire; and Pars. II. _Festa Mobilia_, price 13 lire, by Rev. N. Nilles, S. J. Calendar study is highly interesting, and the articles in the_Catholic Encyclopedia_ and Father Thurston's articles in the _Month_ onCalendar affairs are always instructive. 

_The New Psalter_ (Myers and Burton. London. 1915. 3s. 6d. ) is a veryuseful and practical help to the understanding and application of thenew rubrics. I have quoted several times from its pages, _Heortology_, a History of Christian Festivals from their Origin to thePresent Day, by Dr. Kellner, Professor of Catholic Theology in Bonn, isa translation of a text-book written for German students preparing topass Government examinations. It is a fine book, and if a student ofliturgy knew its contents well he would have no poor knowledge of thisand, incidentally, of other questions of liturgy. Gueranger, Duchesneand Kellner constitute the beginnings of a student's liturgical library(London, Keegan, Paul. 1908. Price 10s. 6d. ). An excellent little volumeby Father McKee, dealing with the same subject, is published by CatholicTruth Society, London, 2s, 6d. It is introductory and elementary. 

10. Thousands of works on the Psalms have been published. But any priestor student who studies Steenkiste's work on the Psalms learns nearly allthat is needed to recite his psalms digne, attente ac devote. His workis a mine of useful, pious, and, in the main, accurate comment on theinspired text. Breviary students studying this commentary need littleelse to help them to admire, to understand and to use their psalmody ina prayerful manner. Steenkiste, _Liber Psalmorum_ (3 vols, Bruges. 1886. Price 15s. ). 

_The New Psalter of the Roman Breviary_, by Fillon, S. S. (London, Herder. 1915. Price 6s. ). 

Father Fillon was consultor to the Biblical Commission. His notes areshort and useful to those who, having studied the psalms, can recalltheir meaning by a few brief hints. Its comments are too brief, but itgives the Latin text, English translation, notes on psalms and newlyadded canticles, and is arranged in the order in which they stand in thePian psaltery. 

_Sing Ye to the Lord_, by Rev. R. Eaton (London, Catholic TruthSociety. 2 vols. 4s. Each). 

In these books the leading idea or ideas of the Psalms are taken up, andbeautiful explanations and spiritual readings given. The books aredelightful reading, and give Breviary readers, old and young, freshthoughts on psalms which through familiarity and constant repetition mayhave lost some of their pious meaning and prayerfulness. 

Books of Scripture commentary by non-Catholic writers should be readwith caution, and often ecclesiastical permission for their perusal mustbe sought. Neale and Littledale's _Commentary on the Psalms_ (6 vols. London. 1867) is a compilation by two Anglican scholars, from thecommentators of the Middle Ages. The wonderful piety of these men ofold, saints and scholars, their beautiful comments, their glowingfervour, and above all their knowledge and love of the Bible text, surprise us all. Sometimes, of course, these mediaevalists run intofar-fetched, outlandish comments, but the compilers give always thecomments of the Masters, St. Thomas, St. Bede, etc. 

Very many metrical arrangements of the Psalms by non-Catholic authorsexist in English. Most of these metrical efforts are very poor, unreliable in giving the sense, and awkward and ungainly in poeticforms. An interesting book is Prothero's _Psalms in Human Life_. Theauthor was a Protestant, hence his numbering of the Psalms may at firstsight be confusing, Sermons fresh and beautiful, full of unction, and full of texts, sublimeand practical, are to be found in the Psalms. A work, little known inour islands, is Monsignor Doublet's fine work, _Psaumes etudies en vuede la Predication_ (3 vols. 8th Edition. 12s. ). 

A charming booklet, dealing chiefly with the Psalms as prayers, isRolland Gosselin's _Prieres et Meditations bibliques_ (Paris. 1917. Bauchesne. 3s. ). 

_10. Hymns. _ Immense labour has been devoted to the study of Latinsacred poetry. The _Analecta Hymnica_ in 60 huge volumes testifies tothe learning and zeal of its Jesuit authors. Ordinary mortals contentthemselves with lesser works, such as Pimont's _Hymnes du BreviareRomain_ (Paris Poussielgne. 2 vols, 12-1/2 francs), or with _La Poesiedu Breviaire, Les Hymns_, by l'abbe C. Albin. Price 6 francs. Theopinions and judgments in neither book are infallible; and some ofPimont's findings have been roughly criticised and sometimes rejected. But both books give good, sound knowledge of Breviary hymns and thushelp to make their recitation a pious and a rational exercise, not amechanical, soulless labour. 

Translation of poetry has ever been a study and a pastime. Every clericis familiar with the prose translations which aided his boyhood'slabours in rendering the poetry of Horace and Euripides into modernspeech. But prose efforts are one thing, and poetical efforts areanother, and just as many have laboured to present Virgil and Homer inmodern language, in metre, in rhyme, in rhythm; so, many poets andverse-makers, in different ages and in different climes, have labouredto turn into modern poetic form and into their own national tongue thepoems of the Breviary. The Breviary hymns have met with several good, kind, translating poets; but very often they have been rudely handled bywell-meaning verse builders. Passing over in charitable silence theindifferent efforts of those people, it may interest some students ofthe Breviary to read the efforts of well-known authors to translate theliturgy, its anthems, responses, collects, hymns, into good English. 

(1) _The Day Hours of the Church_. --A translation of the Horae Diurnae, with the psalms, etc. , arranged according to the reform of Pope Pius X. This is a good book, giving in parallel columns on the same page, Latinand English translations. It includes the very best hymn translations byCatholic authors, John Dryden, Cardinal Newman, Father Caswall, etc. (Burns & Gates. 8s. ). This book is intended for the use of the laity, and, owing to the strict regulations issued for the printing of the newRoman Breviary, this book may not lawfully be used to replace theBreviarium Romanum. But, as it is a complete translation of the littleHours of the Church, it is a very useful aid to the attentive and devoutrecitation of the Hours. A look at its pages before each hour'srecitation, or a glance to see the meaning of some verse of psalm orhymn will repay anyone. It is a wonderfully careful production, has abeautiful _format_, and is good value at the price marked. 

(2) _Annus Sanctus_, by Orby Shipley (Burns & Oates. 1884). This bookcontains the work of many Catholic translators, and their translationsof Breviary hymns vary in merit. It contains a good introduction, thetranslations attributed to Dryden, and it gives some things which arealways interesting, the efforts of several minds, poets andverse-makers, to render the same Latin hymn into English verse. Itincludes verses from several Irishmen. 

(3) _Hymns from the Roman Breviary_, translated (Catholic Truth Society, London. Price 1s. 6d). A good selection from Catholic and non-Catholictranslators. The translations of Dr. Neale, Anglican--held to besuperior in fidelity and in poetic form to that of any Englishtranslator--are given in this booklet. Neale's _Collected Hymns_ (Hodder& Stoughton, 6s. ) are useful for translators and composers of vernacularhymns. But his work is, I think, over-rated. 

(4) Other translations of Breviary hymns are found in the collections ofhymns used in Anglican churches: _Hymns, Ancient and Modern; The EnglishHymnal; The Hymner from the Sarum Breviary_ (Plain-song and MediaevalSociety, London); _Songs of Sion_, by Woodward, etc. 

For advanced study of liturgy, Dom Cabrol's _Dictionaire D'ArcheologieChrietienne Et Liturgie_ (Paris: Letouzey et Ane) is indispensable. Itsstudy delights and consoles those who possess it.