[Transcriber's note: The spelling and punctuation inconsistencies of theoriginal have been retained in this etext. ]

SKI-RUNNING

BY

KATHARINE FURSE

G. B. E. , R. R. C. 

WITH MAP AND FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

1924

PREFACE

So many excellent books have been written about Ski-ing that it is, perhaps, presumptuous on my part to think that there is room foranother. 

Mr. Vivien Caulfeild in his "How to Ski" and "Ski-ing Turns, " as wellas Mr. Arnold Lunn in his "Ski-ing for Beginners, " "Cross CountrySki-ing" and "Alpine Ski-ing, " have covered all the ground ofthe technique discovered up to date. What future discoveries andinventions may be made, requiring new books, no one knows as yet. 

Had it not been for the help and coaching these two exponents ofSki-ing have given to me personally, I should never have been able toenjoy the sport to the extent I do now, because I should probably havebeen content to continue running across country, falling whenever Iwanted to stop, and using a kick turn at the end of my traverses. Their enthusiasm and example gave me new ideas of the standard Iwanted to attain, and their unfailing kindness and advice helped me toget nearer to it than I could otherwise have done. 

The standard still lies away up out of reach, as age undoubtedly tellsagainst the Ski-runner, and the perfect Christiania in deep, soft snowround trees growing close together on a steep slope must be done inheaven rather than on earth by people who are nearer fifty than forty. 

Much experience of coaching beginners convinces me that there is stillroom for a book such as I hope to make this--a book containing onlythe simple answers to questions put to me during the last three years, when I have been responsible for running the Ski-ing in variouscentres. The object of such coaching is to raise the standard ofBritish Ski-ing, and it is satisfactory to realize that other nations, including the Swiss, already marvel at the fair average of ourrunners. This is specially remarkable when it is remembered that mostBritish runners can only afford a bare fortnight or three weeks'winter holiday in the Alps, and that they are not always in trainingwhen they arrive. Ski-ing is a sport which exercises every nerve andmuscle as well as lungs, as is soon discovered during the first 100feet climb or the first fall in deep snow on the Nursery slopes. 

In addition to my conviction that there is room for another bookfor beginners, my love of the Alps, which have been my home for thegreater part of my life, also induces me to try to show something ofthe real objects of Ski-ing; namely getting to the silent places whichcan only be reached on skis, realizing something of the strengthand immensity of Nature at her grimmest, profiting by the wonderfulatmosphere of the mountains, to say nothing of the beauty of an Alpineview on a fine day. 

The greatest pity is that most British winter holiday-makers can onlygo out for Christmas. This is admittedly the worst time from thepoint of view of weather. At low altitudes rain often falls earlyin January, turning the snow into slush and reducing the Ski-er todespair. After the 15th January, the weather is usually better, and inFebruary the days are longer and finer. The best time of all for anAlpine holiday is usually February and early March. My advice tonovices, who are not tied by Christmas holidays, is to come out aboutthe 20th January, when the hotels are less crowded, the days longer, the snow more certain and all the conditions more favourable. Some ofmy own best Ski-ing days have been late in March when the crocuses andgentians were already opening to the sun on the Southern slopes, and asoldanella might be found along some tiny stream. Few experiences canequal a Spring day among the Alps when the wealth of flowers beginsto show in the valleys, while masses of good snow still lie on theNorthern slopes or on the ridges above 6, 000 feet. 

Early starts are necessary these days as the sun blazes after 11 a. M. , but nothing can equal the bodily comfort and well-being enjoyed atmidday, lunching at the top of some peak or pass, basking in the blazeand imagining the run down cool slopes. No Ski-runner, who has notbeen out in late February or March, realizes the joy and comfort oflate Ski-ing. The hotels will remain open as long as clients stay tomake it worth while, and all the mid-winter amenities will be kept upif they are wanted. 

In recommending places and equipment, I intend boldly to confinemyself to the places I have been to and to the equipment I have used, or of which I have had reports from people I trust. This is a somewhatrisky determination as there is great competition among the variouscentres and business firms which cater for Ski-runners. My reason isthat the endless advertisements must be extremely confusing to thenovice, who does not know what to believe, and who may sometimes belet down by a glowing description of some place or gear, which provesto be quite unsuitable. 

The old hands will find nothing new in this book. Not even controversyabout the nomenclature of turns or as to which foot should carry theweight in a Christiania. My own view of Ski-ing turns is that theyare a means to an end, and not an end in themselves, and that theSki-runner, who is content to spend weeks on the Nursery slopes, perfecting one turn, has wasted almost weeks, when he might beenjoying what Skis enable one to reach among the mountains above. Atthe same time every beginner should be content to devote two or threeof his first days to the Nursery slopes, learning the elements of goodSki-ing before dashing off on an excursion. As I know from painfulexperience, there is much to unlearn in what one has picked up by thelight of Nature. Scrambling down a run, crashing and sitting on one'sSkis, may be great fun the first day, but is tiring and humiliatingas time goes on. It is infinitely preferable to learn the knack ofSki-ing tidily, and thereby keeping dry and, in a few days, runningwell enough thoroughly to enjoy a day out with its slow climb to thetop of some peak or pass, and then the slide down under control. 

This is where tests are so valuable. Most people undoubtedly enjoycompetition and, if the passing of the turns is made a necessaryqualification for the timed run of the 3rd class test, most beginnerswill determine to learn them and then to try the Run and, havingsuccessfully passed that, wear a Badge. Badge-hunting, likepot-hunting, may not be a very worthy object in itself, but if itencourages people to become proficient in a beautiful sport, let usgive our weakness of character free play and achieve the results itleads to. The tests of the Federated Ski Clubs of Great Britain havedone more to raise the standard of our running than anything elseimaginable. 

The beginner is wise, who chooses a centre where the Ski-ing is wellorganized, and where he can be certain of getting coaching as well asexcursions suited to his standard, as nothing is lonelier than goingto a place where he is dependent on his own initiative; neither isanything more irksome to the good runner than to be asked to admit astranger to his party, who may keep him back and spoil his run. Thiswill be further alluded to in the Chapter on Etiquette, and if abeginner wishes to be popular, I advise him strongly to adhere tothe "Law. " A strict code has been adopted, mainly as a result of thesuffering from pertinacious runners, who put their standard higherthan is admitted by others. 

Where the Ski-ing is organized, tests sort different individuals intotheir different standards and Runs are planned accordingly, so thatthe novice is not over-strained and the experienced runner is nothindered by too big a party. 

The beginner should also choose a centre where there is a railway tohelp him. A great deal of precious time and energy may be wasted in ashort holiday when all climbing has to be done on skis. The first runsare tiring enough without the additional fatigue of climbing, andgoing up in a funicular or railway opens up numbers of runs whichwould be far too energetic for most people who are not in training. 

CONTENTS

PREFACE

HISTORY OF SKI-ING

COST OF A SKI-ING HOLIDAY IN WINTER

SKI-ING CENTRES

CLOTHING

EQUIPMENT

CARE OF EQUIPMENT

THE ELEMENTS OF SKI-ING

ETIQUETTE

SNOW AND LIGHT

FALLS

TESTS

GUIDES AND SKI INSTRUCTORS

MAPS AND FINDING THE WAY

AVALANCHES

ACCIDENTS

THE ATTRACTIONS OF SKI-ING

SUMMER SKI-ING

APPENDIX: REGULATIONS OF THE BRITISH SKI TESTS

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

From photographs by E. Gyger, Adelboden, Switzerland

ACHIEVEMENT!

MAP OF SWITZERLAND

THE UPHILL TRACK

POWDER SNOW

SPRING

SKI-RUNNING

HISTORY OF SKI-ING

Very little is known of the early history of Ski-ing. Doctor HenryHoek in his book "Der Schi" gives a very interesting chapter tracingthe use of Skis back to the earliest records. He thinks that Skis wereused by Central Asian races thousands of years B. C. And long beforethey were used in Europe. According to his book the word "Schi" isderived from the Gothic "Skaidan, " the German "Scheiden, " Latin"Scindere, " and so on. All these words mean split or divide, and mightbe used to describe the split wood of which Skis are made or theiraction in dividing or separating the snow through which they pass. 

Doctor Hoek further says that early records show how Ski-ing was asport practised by knights, and he quotes Rognwald of Orkney (1159A. D. ) who states that he could run on Skis. 

The Swedish Bishop Magnus writes in 1533 of the way in which theNorwegians used Skis for traversing country when hunting. 

During the Swedish and Norwegian war in 1808 the Norwegian Armyincluded 2, 000 Ski runners, but the use of Skis does not seem to havecome into warfare again until the Great War of 1914-1918, when theSwiss, Austrians and Italians all used them on the Alpine frontiers. 

The modern and fully recorded use of Skis began about 1843 when thesport became really popular in Norway and a Ski race was run atTromso. In 1861 a Ski Club was founded, and in 1863 an exhibition washeld there. 

The Swedes also took up Ski-ing as a sport at about this time but Skisdo not seem to have penetrated into Central Europe until after 1870when a French doctor tried them at Chamounix in 1871. 

The first introduction of Skis into Switzerland, which I have beenable to trace, was by the monks of St. Bernard, who obtained somepairs from Norway in 1883, thinking that they might be useful in theirwork of mercy, rescuing pedestrians who were in difficulties on thePass. About 1887 Colonel Napier came to Davos bringing with him aNorwegian man-servant and a pair of Skis. Mythical tales were told ofthe way this man slid down the slopes from châlet to hotel, carrying atea tray on his shoulder. I have only a vague recollection of seeinghim perform, but when Colonel Napier left Davos the same year, he gavethe Skis to me to play with. They were very similar to modern Skis buthad a rigid binding made of sealskin with no means of tightening orloosening it. Not knowing better, I used to try to run in gouties orrubber snow-boots which slipped about inside the binding so that I hadabsolutely no control. This did not make much difference, as I knewnothing of the art and only used the Skis as a freak on days off fromtobogganing. I knew nothing of wax, and when the Skis stuck, theystuck, and I thought it a poor game. When they slid I sat down andI thought it a poorer game. It never entered my head that I couldtraverse across any slope and so I always went straight down and onlyby a fluke did I ever stand. Then Tobias Branger, who was a greatsportsman and kept a sports shop at Davos, imported several pairs ofSkis and practised the art himself. 

About this time Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Mr. And Mrs. Hugh Dobsontook up the game and we spent many hours practising on the slopesbehind Davos Dorf. 

The Richardson brothers, who had been to Norway, came to Davos about1893 bringing with them knowledge of the sport and soon gathered roundthem a keen lot of disciples. The Davos English Ski Club was formedand from now on Ski-ing spread rapidly throughout Switzerland. 

In the meantime, Ski Clubs were also being formed in the Black Forestand other parts of Germany, as well as in Austria. 

Doctor Nansen, in his book about Greenland, described the use of Skisfor Arctic exploration and his accounts fired a great many more peopleto try the game. 

I advise anyone who wishes to know more of the development of Skirunning to read Doctor Hoek's book "Der Schi, " published in 1922, ashe gives a long account of the first forming of Clubs as well as thegradual adoption of Skis as a means to winter climbing, and, further, a useful list of the literature on the subject. 

After the first beginnings in 1899, the Swiss became energetic andenthusiastic runners. The children could be seen on barrel staves witha pair of old boots nailed to the centre into which they slipped theirfeet with their own boots on. It was not a particularly graceful gamein those days. Runners armed themselves with poles some 8 feet long onwhich they leant heavily when running downhill. This school soon gaveway to the more modern school, which proved that the carrying of twosticks was better than one only. A great many books on the techniqueof Ski-ing followed each other fast and furiously--Zdarsky andLilienfeld, Caulfeild and Lunn, Roget Hoeg and others all contributingto the controversy on technique. 

Now there are innumerable Ski Clubs with their own year-books, and thesport is so well launched, not only in Europe, but also in Australia, New Zealand, East Africa and America and elsewhere, throughout theworld, that there is but little chance of its ever again dying out. 

The British Ski Clubs include the Ski Club of Great Britain, theBritish Ski Association, the Alpine Ski Club and the Ladies' Ski Club. These are federated in one Council and work harmoniously together forthe furtherance of British Ski-ing. 

This is a very incomplete history, but I feel that it is betterto limit it to a few dates and to await the publishing of a moreextensive history of Ski-ing in English than now exists. 

COST OF A SKI-ING HOLIDAY IN WINTER

The expenses of a winter holiday differ according to the place chosen, the hotel and the organization to whose care you commit yourself, ifany. Any figures I quote are approximate and are subject to changeowing to fluctuations in exchanges, etc. 

If you go to a large hotel, with all its luxuries, you will payanything from £1 a day upwards, and this may not include sports tax, etc. The smaller hotels will probably make arrangements for pension atabout 16 francs, or even 14 francs, or less, per day, but may notbe very comfortable, and comfort is important in winter. It isparticularly necessary that the hotel should be well heated, as thedrying of Ski-ing clothes is a very important point. 

As I said in my Preface, the beginner will be wise who chooses acentre where the sports are highly organized, and where he will becertain to find coaching and arrangements made for tests and runs, aswell as a railway or funicular to help with uphill work. Only in sucha place can he learn enough Ski-ing in a short time to enable him tobegin to enjoy touring before he returns home, panting to come outagain and continue the experience. One joy of Ski-ing is that youusually begin again where you left off, and have not to relearn whatyou learnt the winter before. 

Having lived in the Alps off and on for forty-six years, and havingseen all sorts of different ways of running things, I realized atMürren, where I first learnt to ski properly four years ago, how muchthe beginner profits by going to such a centre. Otherwise he maywaste infinite time in Ski-ing without skill and with only half theenjoyment. It is not only at Mürren that the coaching is given, though Mr. Arnold Lunn's system of helping everyone originated there. Pontresina provides it also, and Klosters and other places as well, but it seems to me that Mürren is the mother of up-to-date BritishSki-ing. 

The cost of a fortnight at a good hotel comes to about £15, includingsports tax, afternoon tea and heating. The journey about £7 return2nd-class or £9 1st-class, in addition. This can be reduced bytravelling 3rd class in England and Switzerland, where at any rate itis quite possible to travel 3rd class on any mountain railway. 

In addition to the expense of Pension at an hotel and of the journey, at least £5 will probably be required for local railway fares, subscription to entertainment fund, baths, gratuities, hire of Skis, lessons, guides, etc. £30 ought to cover a fortnight, and £35 threeweeks, and a good deal less can be reckoned if a smaller hotel bechosen. 

Most of the Sports Hotels will now quote an inclusive price per day, to which at least 10 per cent. Should be added to the estimatefor gratuities to servants. This is the recognized scale at whichgratuities are given by most people, though they might often amount tomore when any special service has been rendered. 

Local railway fares on mountain railways are high, because of thegreat expense of keeping them open, but most of these railways offerspecial sports tickets, either for a definite period as a seasonticket, or for a certain number of journeys. For instance, on theMuottas Muraigl Funicular Railway above Pontresina 24 tickets singlejourney can be obtained for the sum of Frs. 50, while the ordinarysingle fare is Frs. 4. 75, or more than twice the reduced fare. 

The cost of equipment must be added to the estimate, but this need notbe very great as Ski-ing boots and gloves are the only items whichcannot usually be used at home by men--trousers or breeches being anadditional cost for women. 

People sometimes complain that a Swiss winter holiday is very costly, but I believe it can compare favourably with a golfing holiday athome. Ski-ing is the cheapest possible sport, if runners are contentto foot it uphill instead of using railways or sledges. During themonths of February and March, special low terms can probably beobtained in the hotels, as they are anxious to prolong their season, and will do anything they can afford to induce British sportsmen tocome out then. February and the first half of March are the best timefrom every point of view, so that no one who can take his holidaythen, and who does not want all the gaiety of the social side, willregret going during these months. In old days before the war this wasfully appreciated and the season used to last three months, instead ofa short six weeks as it does now. 

SKI-ING CENTRES

In this chapter I propose only to describe such of the larger Swissplaces as I know personally, or by reputation. There are a great manysmaller places where equally good, or even better, Ski-ing may befound, but, as my book is meant mainly for beginners, it seemspreferable to adhere to the advice given in the preface, and for me tomention only such centres as provide comfort in the hotels and goodcoaching and organization of tours, as well as facilities for playingother games. Most people when they go to the Alps for their firstwinter visit wish to try all the different sports in order to seewhich they like best, and there seems to me to be no question but thatthe all-round sportsman gets the most out of his holiday. 

There may be days when Ski-ing is not possible or when a few hours onthe rink or toboggan run offer a relief to a stale Ski runner. It isusually only the really keen enthusiast of some years' standing whocan spend the whole day waxing or oiling his Skis, or poring over amap planning future runs. 

When choosing a place the first objective is a good supply of snow. This does not seem to depend entirely on height, though there is morelikelihood of finding it above 4, 000 feet than below that height. Above 5, 000 feet there is less chance of thaw and rain--the bugbearsof all Winter sportsmen, who can only go out for the Christmasholidays. 

I have known a Winter when snow has lain in one district at 5, 000 feetand not at 6, 000 feet in another, but this was exceptional. The higheryou go, the more hope you have of snow as a rule and also of frost, which is so necessary to keep the snow in good condition. 

The centres I recommend are mainly arranged in groups geographically, taking the Canton of Graubunden, or the Grisons first, because it isthe country I love best, having spent most of my early life there. Theheights are taken from Murray's Handbook. 

KLOSTERS, 3, 970 feet above the sea. This seems to me to be one of thevery best Winter Sports centres. It is a small village with two largeand a few small hotels. It usually has good snow and is protected fromwind. There is plenty of sun, but North slopes provide good runs nearthe village as well as on the Parsenn. 

The Rhaetische Railway helps runners to get the maximum of downhillrunning for the minimum of climb, especially opening up the wholeParsenn district to those who want a long day's tour with only some1-1/2 hours' climb. 

The Nursery slopes are good, and there is plenty of open ground nearthe hotels for practice. The Ski-ing is well organized by the localclub, and there are 1st-class Ski Instructors, as well as CertificatedGuides. 

The rinks are well kept and the Klosters run of old renown ismaintained in good condition for tobogganing or bobbing. 

There is quite a good Ski map to be obtained locally, but the OrdnanceMap should be used as well. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

DAVOS, 5, 015 feet above the sea, was one of the first places at whichWinter sports began, and it still offers almost everything desired bythe Ski runner. The fact that Davos is much visited by invalids detersa great many people from going there, for fear of infection. As amatter of fact they are probably a good deal safer there than in someother places where there may be a few invalids, but where the sameprecautions regarding disinfection may not be taken. 

Two or three hotels are kept open for sports people only, and at thesethe life is just the same as in all the other well-known centres. 

Davos is within very easy reach by the Rhaetische Railway of all theParsenn runs. The side valleys, Fluela, Dischma and Sertig, all offerinnumerable good runs to the energetic runner who does not object toclimbing, and there are endless Nursery slopes. It is one of thefew places whence tours can still be planned over almost unlimitedsnow-fields when a track is a rare sight except on the few ordinaryshort runs or on the Parsenn. 

The local club organizes the Ski-ing, and good Ski Instructors andGuides are available. 

The rinks are excellent and the Schatzalp and Klosters runs aremaintained for bobbing and tobogganing. 

There is a good Ski map showing all the runs round Davos, but theOrdnance Map should be used as well. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

AROSA, 5, 643 feet above the sea, is said to be excellent for Ski-ing, but I do not know it well. There is no railway to help runners much. Invalids go there as well as to Davos, but the same precautions aretaken as at Davos. 

There are rinks and a very good run for bobbing and tobogganing. 

LENZERHEIDE, about 4, 500 feet above the sea, has a fine reputation foreasy Ski-ing. There is no railway to help it and all uphill work hasto be done on Skis. I have never been there in Winter-time, but knowthat a great many runners speak well of Lenzerheide. The Ski-ing isorganized, and good Instructors and Guides are available. 

There is probably a good rink, but of this I have no personalknowledge. 

In the Engadine[1] valley, which is also part of Graubunden, thefollowing centres can be recommended. 

PONTRESINA, 5, 916 feet above the sea. The Nursery slopes are veryextensive and offer short runs to the beginner. The Muottas Muraiglfunicular conveys runners up some 2, 000 feet, when after an easy climbof one hour a really good run may be obtained back to Pontresina. 

The Rhaetische and Bernina Railways open up a large number of goodruns in the Engadine valley and also up the Bernina and Morteratschdistricts. 

Open wood-running as well as glacier-running under safe conditions canbe enjoyed near home, and Pontresina is undoubtedly one of the bestplaces for people who want to perfect their cross-country runningunder different conditions. 

There are no short afternoon runs ending in the village, but therailways enable people to enjoy all the tours of the Upper Engadine. 

The longer tours, such as those over the Kesch Glacier to Bergün orDavos, are unequalled so far as I know. 

Having spent two Winters at Pontresina, I can recommend it fromintimate knowledge, but only for the real beginner or for the expertwho wants amusing running. It is not the place for Ski-ers who onlywant a short run between lunch and tea. 

First-class Guides and good Instructors are available. The Ski-ing isorganized and plenty of coaching is given to members of the PublicSchools Alpine Sports Club. 

Excellent rinks and short bobbing and tobogganing runs are maintained. 

A useful guide describing all the runs in the Upper Engadine can beobtained locally. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

ST. MORITZ, 6, 037 feet above the sea. CELERINA, 5, 750 " " " "SAMADEN, 5, 669 " " " "are all served by the Rhaetische and Bernina Railway, and have thesame Ski-ing facilities as Pontresina. 

Their rinks and toboggan runs are well maintained, those at St. Moritzbeing, of course, among the best in Switzerland. 

Good Guides and Ski Instructors are available, but, so far as I know, Ski-ing is not in any way organized for beginners in these places. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

ZUOZ, 5, 617 feet above the sea, is also a good Ski-ing centre furtherdown the Inn Valley. There are only two or three hotels, and thevillage is quite unspoilt. It provides the most wonderful open Southslopes for Ski-ing and North slopes are also within reach across thevalley. 

Zuoz lies almost at the foot of the climb for the Kesch runs and alsotaps the country further down the Inn valley behind Schuls. 

So far as I know the Ski-ing is not organized in any way, but Guidesare available. 

There are rinks, but, Zuoz being still one of the old-fashionedplaces, life would be quiet there. 

CAMPFER, about 5, 850 feet above the sea, and

SILS-MARIA and SILVAPLANA, about 5, 950 feet above the sea, liefurther up the Inn valley beyond St. Moritz. No railway exists tohelp Ski runners, and the slopes are somewhat steep and apt to beprecipitous except in the Fex Thal, south of Sils-Maria, which haslovely snow-fields. 

Campfer and Silvaplana tap the country lying behind the Julier Pass, but, as no railway helps here, the tours entail a lot of climbing anda drive on the way home. 

MALOJA, 5, 935 feet above the sea, lies at the upper end of the Innvalley. 

Never having been there in Winter, I cannot describe it during thatseason. 

It is a beautiful place in Summer, and may open up a good deal ofcountry which is not much tracked, as there is no village and only onelarge and two small hotels. 

The post road runs zigzagging down into Italy and is said to provide avery fine bob or toboggan run. A Rink is kept open. Now that Maloja isbeing opened as a Winter centre, every amenity for a Winter holidaywill probably be offered. 

The Bernese Oberland is also one of the best Ski-ing districts inSwitzerland. 

Mr. A. Lunn has produced a very helpful guide to all the Ski-ing toursand also, with the help of Herr Gurtner, a first-class Ski-ing map, using the Ordnance Map as its basis, so that only one map need becarried. 

MÜRREN, 5, 368 feet above the sea, seems to me to be one of the verybest centres for beginners as they receive so much help, and there arenumbers of short runs aided by the Allmendhubel funicular which runsup some 700 feet above the village. From the top of this several shortruns end in the village or on the Berner Oberland Railway, whichbrings the tired novice home without much effort. 

The Berner Oberland and the Wengern Alp Railways also enable people toget the best of the Scheidegg runs down to Wengen or Grindelwald. 

The Ski-ing is very highly organized at Mürren and beginners receive agreat deal of help and encouragement. 

There are Guides and Instructors. 

The Rinks and bob run are admittedly among the best in Switzerland. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

WENGEN, 4, 187 feet above the sea, is a lovely place, with the mostbeautiful view of the Jungfrau. It faces south, but provides two orthree nice home runs, which remain in good condition except for thetracks of innumerable runners. 

The Wengern Alp Railway is usually open to the Scheidegg, though aftera very heavy snow-fall it may take a few days to clear. This enablespeople to enjoy all the runs down to Grindelwald, returning to Wengenby train. 

The Ski-ing is organized and there are good Guides and Instructors. Rinks and a most amusing toboggan run provide for off-days. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

GRINDELWALD, 3, 468 feet above the sea, is too well-known as a Summerresort to need much description here. 

Its main fault in Winter is that the sun disappears behind a mountainfor about an hour and a half in the middle of the day. This ensuresperfect ice on the rinks and does not much affect the Ski runner, whocan climb beyond the shadow for lunch. I cannot resist mentioning mygood friend Frau Wolther's tea-shop as one of the great attractions atGrindelwald, drawing many a Ski runner over the Scheidegg from Mürrenand Wengen! Frau Wolther's unfailing welcome and hospitality are agreat joy at the end of a hot, wet run, and the fact that a change ofclothes can be sent round by train to her care is a great comfort tothose coming from afar. 

There are plenty of short Ski runs above Grindelwald, and theScheidegg railway is kept open as far as Alpiglen to help with theclimb on a long day's tour. 

There are good Guides to be had, some of whom are probably SkiInstructors. 

The Rinks are first-class and both bob and toboggan runs are kept up. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

LAUTERBRUNNEN, about 3, 000 feet above the sea. People who knowSwitzerland well may wonder why I include Lauterbrunnen in my list, but I have often wondered equally why no one makes it a centre forSki-ing. Though the sun may not shine there for long hours, the factthat it lies at the junction of the Berner Oberland Railway, theMürren Funicular and the Wengern Alp Railway seems to me to make it avery possible Ski-ing centre. 

There are good hotels, and the Herr Gurtners, whose home Lauterbrunnenis, may be depended upon as two of the best Ski runners in Switzerlandand two of the most active pushers of Ski-ing, to do their utmost tohelp any British runners who decide to try Lauterbrunnen. 

All the Mürren, Wengen and Grindelwald runs are within easy reach ofLauterbrunnen, and if the railways will sell special tickets, the costof the journeys should not be prohibitive. 

To my mind, the fact that one could stop at Lauterbrunnen after a dayover the Scheidegg would be a great comfort, as the last journey upto Mürren or Wengen is apt to be tiresome after a long run, if oftenrepeated. 

In any case it seems to me that runners might do worse than write toHerr Gurtner at Lauterbrunnen and ask for particulars, at any rate forthe Christmas holidays, when most of the popular villages are veryfull and the hotel rates are high. 

Good Guides are available at Lauterbrunnen. 

KANDERSTEG, 3, 835 feet above the sea. I have never been there exceptin Summer when I know it well. 

One great attraction about Kandersteg is that it can be reached by athrough train from Calais or Boulogne. 

From the Ski-ing point of view, I think Kandersteg might bedisappointing to the runner who hopes for short runs. There areexcellent Nursery slopes, and the Loetschberg Railway probably opensup quite a lot of country. 

Guides are obtainable. 

Rinks and toboggan runs are maintained. 

ADELBODEN, 4, 450 feet above the sea, is said to be an excellentSki-ing centre, but I do not know it personally, having only just beenup there in Summer time. 

There is no railway to help, so that all climbing has to be done onSkis. It is within reach of very good tours throughout the lowerBernese mountains. 

The British Championship was held there in 1923, which shows that theSki-ing is organized, and good Guides are, no doubt, obtainable. 

Adelboden, being a well-known Winter Sports Centre, the rink andtoboggan runs are probably excellent, but, never having seen them, Icannot vouch for them. 

Skis can be hired locally. 

SAANENMOSER, 4, 209 feet above the sea, lies at the top of the lowpass between the Simmen Valley above Zweizimme and the Sarine Valleyrunning down to Gstaad and Chateau d'Oex. 

There is only the one Sports Hotel and no village. It is a mostcharming place within reach of Ski-ing in all directions among thelower Bernese mountains. 

The Montreux Oberland Railway running down both sides of thePass helps a little by carrying Ski runners home after some longexcursions, but all uphill work has to be done on Skis. The slopesare gradual and the Saanenmoser runs are perfect for people who havelearnt the elements of Ski-ing in some active place, and who then wantto gain confidence by free running over easy country. 

The Ski-ing was not organized when I was at Saanenmoser in 1921, andneither Guides nor Ski Instructors were obtainable. There was only atiny rink and no toboggan or bob runs. 

Skis can be hired at Gstaad. 

GSTAAD, about 3, 800 feet above the sea, lies below Saanenmoser, and isa large village with numbers of hotels. The Ski-ing is very much thesame as at Saanenmoser and the Railway serves the same purpose, onlyhelping runners a little. 

I have never stayed at Gstaad, but have heard it well spoken of as aWinter Sports centre offering all the usual attractions. 

Skis can be hired locally, I believe, and Guides are obtainable. 

 * * * * *

The Rhone Valley offers a few centres which I do not know in Winter. Among those I have heard most about, the following are outstanding. 

VILLARS, 4, 000 feet above the sea, is reached by a railway from Bex. It lies on slopes facing South, and I gather that the Ski-ing there issomewhat limited. 

The rinks are said to be good and the usual Winter attractions areoffered. 

MONTANA, 5, 000 feet above the sea, is reached by a funicular railwayfrom Sierre. Like Villars it also lies on slopes, facing almost south, but there seems to be good Ski-ing among the mountains behind. 

MORGINS. In addition to the above, I would mention Morgins, which I donot know personally, but of which I have heard a good deal. Morginsis 4, 406 feet above the sea, and is particularly well-known for itsrinks, which seem to be first-class. The Ski-ing is said to be goodbut not extensive. There is no railway. 

DIABLERETS, 3, 849 feet above the sea, in a valley going from Aigleamong the mountains to the East, might be a good centre for Ski-ing, but I only know it in Summer. So far as I have heard it offers theusual attractions in Winter, but there is no railway to help much. 

In other districts of Switzerland the following places should bementioned, although I have never been to them in Winter time. 

ENGELBERG, 3, 343 feet above the sea, in the Stans valley near Luzern, is often well spoken of as a Winter centre, though it is liable tothaw and shortage of snow. From what I know of it in Summer time Ishould think that most of the surrounding slopes are too steep andprecipitous to allow of much free running, but the Titlis groupprobably provides some open country and there is a short funicularabove the village. 

There are excellent hotels, and all the usual attractions are offered. 

ANDERMATT, 4, 738 feet above the sea, lies in the Gothard Valley abovethe Tunnel, and is easily reached in Winter by express trains stoppingat Goeschinen, whence a short mountain railway runs up to Andermatt. 

I have only been there in Summer, and from what I saw should imaginethat Andermatt was subject to a great deal of wind. The slopes alllook somewhat steep and are bare of forest, so that they might besomewhat dangerous on account of avalanches. 

There is no railway to help Ski runners, but Andermatt might offerquite a lot of good runs to experienced people. 

I know nothing of the other attractions for the all-round Wintersportsman, but have little doubt that Andermatt, which is a go-aheadplace, does all it can to satisfy them. 

There are, of course, innumerable other places which may be goodSki-ing centres, not only in Switzerland, but also in Germany, Austria, and the Italian Tyrol. 

The Jura mountains and places, such as Splugen and Schuls inGraubunden, might open up new districts. There is much new country toexplore, and I have only picked out for notice the few places to whichI have been myself, or of which I have heard from people I trust. 

My description may not always be appreciated by people who havespecial affection for any one centre, but I have only tried to putforward my own impressions for the guidance of any beginner who mayfeel in a quandary as to what place to choose. 

So much depends on weather conditions: if there is plenty of snow andif the sun shines, almost every place is delightful. If, on theother hand, a thaw settles in or fog descends on the mountains, ora blizzard blows the snow about, or, worst of all, if rain falls, reducing the snow to slush, nobody will be satisfied anywhere. Luckilyfor Ski runners, even a few inches of wet snow will provide practice, so that they suffer less than other Winter sportsmen when the weatheris unfavourable. 

One thing can invariably be depended upon in Switzerland, namely awarm welcome from the hotels, and every endeavour made to ensure thecomfort and enjoyment of their clients. 

No country in the world lays itself out more for the satisfaction ofits visitors, and no holiday can beat a Winter holiday among the Alpswhen the conditions are favourable and the sportsmen determined toenjoy themselves. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: There is apt to be a certain amount of wind in the wholeEngadine but its height counterbalances this by usually ensuring thatthere is not a thaw, even at Christmas time. ]

CLOTHING

Clothing should be light, smooth, warm, loose and, when buttoned up, it should leave no gaps. It is better to wear several thin, warmgarments than one thick one, for the simple reason that going uphillone wants to peel to the minimum; sitting on top of a mountain orridge in a wind, one wants to pile on everything one possesses, andgoing downhill one wants a medium amount, all of which will button upso that the snow cannot penetrate inside. Ordinary country clotheswill usually suffice for the first season, especially if they are ofsmooth material which will shake off the snow. 

Men usually wear smooth wool or cotton gaberdene coats, and trousers, and a peaked "Guide's" cap. Their trousers either tuck inside theuppers of their boots and should be sufficiently long to do so withoutpulling out in a strained turn or fall, or they may be buttoned roundoutside the boots or folded and tied on with Norwegian puttees orswanks. Breeches and stockings may be worn, but long puttees should beavoided as they constrict the muscles and stop the circulation, thustending to frost-bite, which is a serious danger at high altitudes. 

Sweaters, unless worn under a coat when practising or runningdownhill, are quite unsuitable as the snow gets into the stitches andthen melts, and the sweater becomes a sponge and often stretches tillit is more like a woman's coat-frock than anything it was before! ASki-ing suit should be well provided with pockets, all of which shouldhave flaps to button over and keep the snow out. Also to keep thecontents in. Money and other things carried loose are apt to fall outin a downhill fall. Once this winter, when getting up from a fall, Isaw what looked like a useful leather boot-lace lying in the snow. I picked it up and found it was the bootlace attached to twostop-watches, which I had been using for a test. As one cannot tieone's money up with a boot-lace, it is wise to carry it safely, andcheat the goatherds, who may surely make a profitable living out ofthe various treasures lost by Ski-ers, which appear on the slopesafter the snow melts. 

Women need very much the same sort of clothing as men. Either trousersor breeches, whichever they prefer. These should be made to measure inorder to fit well and be worn with braces to pull them up. Thick boys'stockings should be worn to pull up over the breeches. If women wouldonly realize how sloppy their nether garments sometimes look and howreally horrid breeches look hanging loose over silk stockings indoors, they would surely be more careful to study and copy a man's neat legsbefore they venture into man's apparel. 

One sometimes sees women's coats made with innumerable fancy buttonsor tabs as decoration. These only add to the weight which no one wouldwant to carry, and also look out of place. So does fur trimming. Ski-ing clothes cannot be too simple. Elaboration is easily obtainedby bright-coloured gloves, scarves or swanks. 

Coats should be made with a belt, which can be buckled tight beforethe descent. A sitting fall in soft snow is apt to provide the runnerwith a good dose of snow inside the coat. For the same reason breechesand trousers should be cut somewhat high above the waist. 

Women need just as many pockets as men, and I strongly advise twolarge side pockets and two smaller breast pockets outside the coat, aswell as two inside breast pockets--all with flaps to button over. 

A felt hat is now usually worn by women Ski runners, who find the brima comfort on sunny days, while it also protects the eyes when Ski-ingthrough a blizzard. Incidentally it helps to prevent snow from goingdown the neck in a head-first fall. A chin-strap may be required forfast running. 

Boots are, perhaps, the most important part of a Ski runner's outfit. They must be water-proof and large enough to hold two pairs of socksin addition to stockings. The soles must be so stout that they willnot buckle or bend under the instep when the Ski binding is tight. Heels must be low and should be slightly grooved at the back to holdthe binding. I have no hesitation in saying that most of the Ski-ingboots sold in England prove to be unsatisfactory. Such firms asLillywhite and Fortnum & Mason, which make a study of suitableequipment, may be trusted, and almost every Swiss bootmaker now sellstrustworthy boots for Ski-ing. I always buy my own boots from Och, who has shops at Geneva, Montreux, Zürich and St. Moritz. They can berelied on for at least two or three long seasons, if one is careful tooil the uppers with boot oil occasionally, and never to oil the solesexcept with linseed oil, which is said to harden them. On the whole, however, the soles are safest left untouched. Boots should never bedried on a radiator or by a fire. Personally I like hooks, rather thaneyelets, and I find that leather boot-laces last longer than others. 

There is much discussion as to whether Ski boots should have nails inthe soles or not. They tend to wear away the aluminium or linoleumplates fixed to the Skis under the foot, but on the other hand theyare almost indispensable when Skis are carried across a hard, steepslope, or down an icy path. It seems to me that it is positivelydangerous to go any real Ski tour with unnailed boots unless cramponsor spikes to fit on to the heels be carried. New plates can easily befitted to the Skis when nails have worn through them, but nothing canhelp the Ski-er down a steep, icy path or across a hard frozen slopeon smooth soles, unless he carries special contrivances to fix to hisboots. 

People are now trying crepe rubber soles, but they are not solidenough to bear the strain of tight bindings unless fixed to the usualthick leather sole, when the whole becomes too thick for comfort. Myexperience for several winters with beginners is that the soles ofmost English boots buckle as soon as they are subjected to the tightpull of a leather binding. 

Few things are more irritating to a beginner than to find that hisbinding will not hold on his boot. Over and over again in a run downhis Ski comes off and he delays his party by having to stop and putit on again. Still it will not hold even though he ties it on withstring. Then he realizes that his boot is buckling. The sole arches upunder the instep and the binding, becoming loose, slips off the heel. 

There is no cure for this, and the only solution is to use a toebinding, such as the new B. B. , or a solid binding such as the Ellessenor Lilienfeld, instead of a heel binding. As most hired Skis have theHuitfeldt heel binding it is essential to ensure that boots are of thevery best. 

Gloves are another very important item of clothing. They should bewaterproof. This is easy to say but very difficult to obtain. Therub of the stick on the palm of the hand tends to sodden almost anymaterial. Snow also gets inside during a fall and then, of course, even the waterproof glove comes home wet. The best gloves are pawsmade of thick horse-hide and lined with wool. They should have longgauntlets wide enough to pull up over the sleeves and they should bejoined by a string going round behind the neck, under the coat collar, long enough to allow of free use of the hands, and this string shouldhave another string joining it across the chest. It is often necessaryto slip off a glove and if they are not safely hung round the neckthey fall in the snow, which promptly runs inside, or they may bedropped and lost. 

Socks are a matter for individual choice. Some people like goat's-hairsocks, which have many of the qualities or disqualities of a hairshirt. They are prickly and, therefore, perfect as a counter-irritantunder very cold conditions, but far too irritating for ordinary wear. I was much amused in a London shop last winter when I heard a Ski-ingexpert advising a lady not to buy "those repulsive goat's-hair socks. "When she had bought what he advised I said I had come especially tobuy "a repulsive pair of socks. " He immediately explained that he hadadvised the lady not to get them because they only had two pairs left, and he did not want to sell them. He let me have a pair, and theonly time I wore them I thought with amusement of his advice andexplanation. The lady was undoubtedly well out of them, and I hopenever to use them again. Some people swear by them, so all tastes mustbe allowed for. 

It seems to me better to wear two thin pairs of socks in addition tostockings, rather than one pair of thick socks. If these seem to fillthe toes of the boot too much, the toe part of one pair of socks canbe cut off, the remainder being worn as an anklet. 

Swanks, or Norwegian puttees, may be used to tie the socks aboveor over the boot so as to prevent the snow from getting inside. Orshooting anklets may also be used, granted that they are large enoughto go over the wide uppers of a Ski boot as well as the socks. 

Footgear for Ski-ing is not elegant, but as every one wears the same, nobody need feel shy. It is another reason for buying in Switzerland. Ski boots of the right size bought in a London shop look so Gargantuanthat people will often insist on having a smaller pair than is reallyuseful when the time comes to wear them. 

Spare clothing should invariably be carried on any run beyond thenursery slopes as, in case of an accident and delay in fetching help, a runner who is hurt may be badly frost-bitten. This, of course, onlyapplies to high places during the months of December, January andearly February, when the thermometer may often register 32° of frostor more after the sun goes down. 

When choosing equipment it is wise, therefore, to remember spareclothing, which should include a Cardigan or Jersey, a dry pair ofwoollen gloves, a dry pair of socks or stockings, a warm cap of somesort to cover the ears and a scarf. All these should be chosen fora combination of warmth and lightness. A wind-jacket is oftenrecommended. Some people carry a thin silk, or oil silk, or evenchamois leather, or paper waistcoat, to put on under their coatswhen a wind blows. This is not necessary for any but long tours inmidwinter. A very useful "sail-cloth coat" specially made for Ski-ingcan be bought in most Swiss sports-shops and is excellent. 

The great thing to remember about clothing for Ski-ing is thatclimbing uphill you will probably get very hot and perspire freely. To stop in a biting wind in this condition without putting on spareclothing is obviously risky. It is difficult to ski freely in heavythick clothes, so that everything should be warm and loose and made ofwool except, perhaps, the wind-jacket or the Swiss coat, which can beworn over a sweater. 

Cotton or linen underclothing will probably soon be discarded, butthis is a personal matter, and need not be dealt with here. 

EQUIPMENT

The minimum amount of equipment should be purchased before going out. The Swiss shops are just as well provided with Ski-ing necessities asthe British and it is expensive to take out heavy luggage. Most Swisshotels will gladly store Skis or gear of any kind through the Summer, and these can be posted or forwarded by rail to any place the runnerchooses for the following season. 

Clothing has been dealt with in a former chapter. Here I propose todescribe the equipment which I know, from experience, to be useful. 

Skis can be bought in England or in Switzerland. One or two Englishfirms, such as Lillywhite, which really take pains to obtain the bestpossible quality of goods, may be trusted to provide Norwegian Skis, but there are also several makers of good Skis in Switzerland. Skisshould be made either of hickory or ash. Other woods such as birch andwalnut have been tried but these do not appear to make as satisfactorySkis as hickory or ash. Hickory is heavy so that the beginner willdo well to get ash Skis in the first instance. Their average lengthshould be the height of the Runner with his arm extended above hishead, the tip of the Ski when standing upright being in the palm ofhis hand and his fingers just able to bend over it. When the novicebecomes more proficient, he may like to try longer or shorter Skis, but the average length is best to begin with. 

Good makers, such as Bjornsted in Bern or Staub at Zurich, may betrusted to make their Skis right proportionately, and the buyer neednot worry about their width or depth so long as the length is right. There is a great deal of difference in the line of a Ski, as there isin a boat. Flat ones are ugly compared with those which hump alongthe centre, but they are also lighter. It seems to me wise for thebeginner to hire his first Skis, rather than to buy them. Most of thesports shops in the different centres are very obliging and will allowtheir clients to try two or three pairs of Skis in order to experiencethe difference between them. 

They should not curve up too abruptly in front and they should beabout one inch apart in the centre when laid flat one against theother. This spring adds greatly to the comfort of running and shouldbe maintained by the Ski having a block of wood between them when putaway for the Summer or even when laid by for two or three days. 

The question of binding is a very serious one. Broadly there are threedifferent types:

 (1) Toe bindings, by which only the toe of the boot is attached to the Ski. 

 (2) Solid binding with a sole attached to the Ski. 

 (3) Leather heel bindings. 

(1) I have tried two forms of toe bindings--the B. B. And the B. B. B. And gave them up for the following reasons. Firstly, I think it adangerous binding. There is practically no give at all so that in abad fall when the foot is twisted under one, if the Ski does not movethe leg has to give way and may be broken. I think surgeons agree thatthere are more accidents as a result of wearing a B. B. Binding thanany other--so that it seems to me much better to start with anothertype of binding and then go into the B. B. Later if preferred. Anotherdrawback is that as the whole pivotal pressure in a turn is borne bythe toe iron, when a B. B. Binding is worn, the toe irons are alwaysbeing forced open. Not only that, but the spring on the Ski whichholds the hook on the boot is so strong that it tends to pull the bootthrough the toe irons, so that gradually the boot gets longer and morepointed and the spring no longer holds. 

All this criticism may be due to prejudice on my part, but I havetried the B. B. With enthusiasm and only gave it up because I wasconvinced that a heel binding was more satisfactory. Since I tried it, two or three new forms of toe binding have been put on the market, thesimplest of which seems to me to be the Davos form, which is merely astrap fixed to the Ski with an iron loop at the end to fit into thehook on the boot and an ordinary Huitfeldt spring buckle to fix itfirmly. 

(2) Solid bindings. The commonest forms of these are the Ellesen, Lilienfeld and Bilgeri, but as I have never tried any of them, I cansay nothing about them. 

(3) Heel bindings. There are two main forms of these--the Lap thongand the Huitfeldt. The Lap thong is merely a long strap of raw hide orleather. A loop is drawn through the hole under the toe iron, the longend is taken round the heel and through the loop, then back round theheel and through a slit in the other or short end. The long end isthen carried under the foot and round the instep and finally tied offwith a knot. This has been improved upon by a ring and buckle beingadded to save slitting the leather or knotting the ends. 

The Huitfeldt binding is a thick double-leather strap, which bucklesround the whole foot and has a strong spring to pull it taut when thebinding has been slipped on to the heel. This is the usual binding onhired Skis. 

I have tried both these bindings, and now wear a Scheer binding, whichis a combination of the two--the long Lap thong with buckles and alsoa spring similar to the one tightening a Huitfeldt binding. The chiefdrawback to a Lap binding was that it took time to put on so thatfingers got very cold and clumsy when fitting it before a run downfrom a height. The trouble about a Huitfeldt binding is that it isthick and clumsy and the buckles stick out so that they catch in thesnow when running. 

The Scheer binding avoids these drawbacks. It is put on just as easilyas a Huitfeldt and the thin thong lies so closely along the boot thatthere is nothing to catch in the snow. It is very easily lengthened orshortened when the leather contracts or stretches and this is alsoa great comfort. This binding being new, may not yet be obtainableeverywhere, but it is well worth trying to get. The Huitfeldt andScheer bindings both tend to give a little in a strained fall, so thatthe foot slips round and the leg is usually saved. 

Toe irons pass through the Ski under the toes and come up either sideto hold the foot in place. They should be carefully fitted and, with aview to this, the boots should be left overnight with the sports shopand the Skis fetched next day. The boot should lie quite straightalong the Ski. If the toe irons do not fit properly, the boot will becock-eye on the Ski, and too much free play may take place. I haveoften seen beginners take advantage of this to stick their heels outand off the Ski into the snow to help them uphill, or to act as abrake downhill. They will rue it downhill, however, as the foot shouldbe firmly held on the Ski or control will be impossible. 

Toe irons are sometimes made of very soft metal. These are usuallyattached to Skis hired out by the sports shops in order that they maybe easily fitted to the many different shaped feet of the hirers. Whengetting toe irons fitted to one's own Skis, it is wise to ask forstrong ones, as the soft irons give too freely to the pivotal actionof the feet in turns and tend to be constantly opening and becomingloose. 

Cast-iron toe irons are often used in conjunction with toe bindings inorder to avoid the difficulty of the irons being forced open by theboot being pulled through by the spring. These irons have one greatfault. They have to be screwed on to the Ski and are very cold underthe foot. This may be considered imagination, but I believe it to betrue, in which case it may be prejudice. 

The toe irons are joined over the toes by a leather toe-strap pulledthrough and buckled. The irons should be so high that this strap doesnot press at all on the boot, or restrict the free play of the toes. The whole binding should be so fitted that it is possible to kneeldown on one's Skis. 

Foot plates are nailed on the Ski under the foot. These are usuallymade of linoleum or aluminium. I prefer a thick plain aluminium plate, and find that the snow does not stick to it. 

When the Skis have been chosen, sticks have to be provided. A pairof sticks should be used, one being carried in each hand. They areusually made of hazel or bamboo. The latter are light, but tend tosplit. I always use hazel, which are cheaper and very satisfactory. 

Sticks should be so long that they reach to just above the waist andshould not be very heavy though strong sticks are necessary for allreal touring. They should have padded leather knobs at the tops, as these prevent the stick from slipping out of the hand and beingdropped during a run, as well as saving the hand from blisters whenthe stick is much used in practising lifted stem or jump turns. Woodenknobs are often used but these tend to get coated with ice, which wetsthe glove and is uncomfortable. 

A leather or webbing thong is passed through the stick or nailed underthe knob as a loop to hang them up by, but should never be put roundthe wrist except for uphill work as the wrist might easily be brokenin a bad fall, if the stick be attached to it. My great idea is to getrid of my sticks in a fall, as I once impaled my leg on the spike ofmy stick in a somersault. I was thankful that the spike was a shortone and not one of the newfangled aluminium spikes which would havepenetrated much further and might easily have done damage to the bone. Only a short spike is necessary--just long enough to go into crustedsnow and hold. 

The discs round the bottom of sticks should be large, about seveninches in diameter, and they should be loose so that they will lieflat with the Ski when packed. I prefer them put on with a thong whichpasses through the stick and is crossed backwards and forwards acrossthe disc, allowing of plenty of free play in the disc. By this means, the thong does not cut where it passes through the stick. Discs areoften made almost solid and then fixed to the stick with an iron hasp, which is apt to snap or to split the stick. 

Sticks hired out with Skis usually have small discs and no knobs, andmost beginners will soon wish to possess their own pair, which onlycost about twelve francs. A word of advice here. Keep your sticksin your bedroom. Even in the best Ski-ing circles sticks sometimesdisappear--and once your own sticks go, you are tempted to takeanybody else's and so the mischief goes on!

The Rucksack is a very important item of equipment It should bewaterproof and large, even if you do not intend to carry much. Nothingis more uncomfortable than a small full Rucksack, perching like afootball on one's back. By the time a packed lunch and a cardiganas well as some spare gear is stuffed into the sack, it swells. Twooutside pockets and one large inside division are indispensable. Keepwax, scraper, string, etc. , in one outside pocket ready to hand. Mapin the other. 

Leather shoulder straps are the best as they do not cut the shoulderin the same way as webbing. I once hunted a great many London shops invain for a Rucksack with leather shoulder straps. They all had thinwebbing, which soon turns into a wisp and hurts the muscles of theshoulder. The leather straps should finish on a ring at the top whichshould be attached to the top of the Rucksack by a leather tab firmlysewn on. This is a much safer system than running the string, whichpulls up the top of the sack, through the shoulder straps at the back, because the pull on the string chafes it and gradually cuts throughit. Some experienced runners prefer the Bergans Rucksack on analuminium frame. It is unquestionably heavier than the ordinary sack, but the frame resting on the hips helps to distribute the weight andit is said to be less tiring to carry. Another joy about it is thatthe frame keeps the sack off the back, so that there is an air space, and the usual poultice effect of an ordinary Rucksack is avoided. 

There are many different types of Rucksack to be had in Switzerland. They should be waterproof and as the waterproof material is veryexpensive now, a good serviceable sack costs at least Frs. 17. 00 to25. 00. The better Rucksacks have straps fixed outside for carryingone's coat or possibly sealskins. (Sohms skins should be carriedinside the sack. ) I advise people to carry the various contents oftheir sacks in different bags, or tied up in handkerchiefs. This maysound old-maidish, but it is a trick I learnt from Swiss climbers andI am very thankful. Anyone who has hurriedly searched his sack forsome particular bit of gear knows the sort of haystack which results, while if first-aid equipment, sealskins, spare bindings, emergencyrations, mending outfit, etc. , are all carried in separate, differently coloured bundles inside the sack, endless time is saved. This is particularly worth considering in a blizzard, when fingers arecold and nothing can be found. 

Skins are used for climbing uphill on tour. They consist of longstrips of sealskin, which are attached to the running surface of theSkis. The hairs lying towards the back of the Ski catch in the snowand prevent the Skis from slipping backwards, which is a great helpand saving of energy. The Skis can be kept in good slipping conditionwith oil or wax, and when the skins are taken off at the top of a run, very little further preparation is necessary. 

There are two forms of sealskins:

(1) Sohms skins, which are attached to the Skis with wax. 

(2) Those made up on canvas with straps to fix them to the Skis. 

The latter can usually be hired by the day for about Frs. 3. 00 fromthe local sports shop, and cost about Frs. 20. 00 to buy. Most runnersnow use the Sohms skins, the great gain being that one can rundownhill almost as well when they are still on, so that on a tour withone or two short descents _en route_, the Skis may be left on. 

Waxes are of many kinds, and some runners, not content with what theybuy, prefer to mix their own. 

The waxes most used in Switzerland are Skiolin, both hard and soft, Sohms' with red, yellow or green label, and Parafine. 

I have found that hard Skiolin ironed into the running surface ofthe Ski with a hot iron, provides a good surface. Sohms' wax being aclimbing wax is apt to stick to some kinds of snow and if Sohms' skinshave been used, it is wise to scrape all this wax off before the rundown and to polish the Ski with Parafine wax if it needs a finish. Onhard snow this is not necessary. 

Some waxes are used as climbing wax instead of skins, but as differentsorts are needed for different types of snow, they complicate lifealmost more than is worth while. 

A very good permanent surface on Skis is obtained by oiling themrepeatedly with linseed oil, allowing them to dry thoroughly betweeneach coat of oil. This is a somewhat lengthy process and an impossibleone if the Skis are in daily use, but it is much the best method atthe beginning or end of the season. 

The best Sohms' skins are dark grey or black and they cost about Frs. 25. The leather surface should be carefully waxed with green labelSohms' wax before starting on an expedition. The wax should bevery thinly spread, and it is wise to get this job done at leisureovernight and to lay the skins together with their waxed surfacestouching, and to keep them in a warm room, but not near a heater orstove. 

When starting on an excursion wear the skins wound round your bodyunder your coat so that they remain warm and supple until required. Then wax the running surfaces of the Skis with yellow label Sohms' waxas sparingly as possible. It should be spread smoothly and withoutlumps. When putting on the skins lay them along the Skis from the tiptowards the back and run your thumb down the line of the centre groovein the Ski, while you press the skin on evenly over the whole Ski. 

New skins are apt to shrink after use, so it is better not to cut thestrap, which slips over the tip of the Ski. The best plan is to makea second slit in this strap and slip it on, and then if the skin isstill too long turn the end part up over the Ski at the back, stickingit on with wax. Then, when the skins have been used for two or threedays, it is easier to decide what length the strap should be. 

Having put your skins on, lay the Skis flat on the snow so that theskins will freeze on. 

Sealskins must never be dried by a heater or stove as the heatshrivels them and they are ruined. 

When not in use, they can be kept rolled up in a bag and should becarried in the Rucksack rather than hanging on outside. Frozen skinsare very difficult to attach. 

A scraper should invariably be carried when Ski-ing, even on theNursery slopes. These are made of aluminium and the best type has agroove which will fit into the groove of the Ski and scrape this aswell as the flat surface, as ice is apt to adhere there also. Somerunners carry, attached to their belt, a Norwegian hunting knife inits case. This is excellent for scraping the Skis and for any purposefor which a strong knife may be wanted, but it always seems to me thatit would be a nasty thing to fall on. 

A strong ordinary knife should invariably be carried. The Swissmilitary knife is the best possible as it seems to include practicallyeverything necessary. A really good one costs about Frs. 12. 00 or Frs. 14. 00, though inferior steel may be had for a great deal less. Itshould have a ring and be attached to the belt. 

Dark spectacles or goggles should be included in equipment. 

A mending outfit is often needed, and at least one member of everyparty going on tour should carry something with which to mend brokenSkis. There are many patterns of spare Ski tip on the market, all ofwhich may be useful in certain circumstances, but I have no doubt thatthe wooden Ski tip is the best. It is just an ordinary front part of aSki, about two feet long and planed off, so that it will lie close tothe broken Ski. This is fixed on by metal clamps, which are made onpurpose and can be bought in most winter sports shops. Holes, atdifferent intervals fitting the clamps which should be put onlengthwise, may be bored beforehand in the Ski tip, in order to savetime when the tip may be needed on tour. The gimlet supplied with theclamps is usually a poor one, and I always carry a spare gimlet, alittle larger than is necessary, as it is difficult to make the holesin exactly the right place in a broken Ski. Cold and clumsy hands havealways to be reckoned with when Ski-ing. 

The clamps being somewhat roughly made are apt to break so that oneshould carry at least five pairs. In putting them on, take care not todrop the little square nut off the bolt into powder snow as it sinksat once and may be irretrievably lost. 

Other makes of spare Ski tips include one made of cast aluminiumproduced by Lillywhite, who will probably improve upon it, as atpresent it seems to me to be too flat. The method of fixing it is, however, a good one. 

The Swiss sports shops also keep light tips made of tin and copper, which are affixed by various methods, but they are usually too shortand thin to be more than a makeshift. 

If a Ski is broken near the front, the wooden Ski tip, when properlyadjusted enables one to run any distance quite comfortably and evenpermits of turns. It is clumsy to carry except in a Bergans Rucksack. A long, narrow pocket might be sewn diagonally across the back of anordinary Rucksack in which to carry it, but I am afraid it would beuncomfortable. I tried such a pocket vertically and found it quiteintolerable and even dangerous in some falls. 

Mending outfit must also include a spare binding and a toe strap, as well as some string and cord, wire, and two or three leatherboot-laces. The best spare binding to carry is a Lap thong, as it iseasier to push through than a Huitfeldt, unless a thin single strap iscarried for the front part of the latter. In any case a bit of wirefacilitates the pulling through of the thong or strap. 

An inexperienced runner, who has not used a Lap thong, should tryfitting one at home before depending on it in emergency, as it is alittle tricky to put on at first. 

Runners going any distance on tour should carry some sort of first-aidequipment. It need not be elaborate, but should include bandages, aclean dressing (a first field dressing is the best and most compact), iodine and adhesive plaster, and some vaseline or boracic ointment. Even a scratch will go on bleeding on a cold day and be very tiresome. Accidents are miraculously few and far between in Ski-ing, consideringthe falls and the large number of people who ski. But they happenoccasionally, and it is as well to be prepared. 

The list of gear could be prolonged to any extent, as "What to carryin my Rucksack" becomes an enthralling hobby. Everyone will eventuallydecide what he thinks he ought to have, in order to come home with afree conscience after any eventuality. Another runner has suggestedmy adding a pair of small pincers, a pocket tool outfit, matches orfusees, an electric torch, scissors. 

Weight has to be considered, as the more the Ski runner carries thegreater the effort, but there is undoubtedly great satisfactionin feeling that one has everything which might be helpful in anyemergency. If three or four runners are going together the whole gearcan be distributed among them, but this makes it more necessary thanever for the party to keep together as a spare Ski tip or similarluxury is no use at the bottom of a run when the accident is near thetop. 

Even if one does not need all the gear oneself, it seems better to beprepared to help other people who are in difficulties. 

The following lists show firstly what I think every runner goingseveral miles beyond home ought to carry; and secondly what a greatmany runners carry in addition:

(1) A strong knife with corkscrew, leather punch, tin opener, etc. 

(2) A Ski tip, gimlet and mending outfit. 

(3) Wire. 

(4) String and cord. 

(5) Spare binding and toe strap. 

(6) Dark yellow glasses (Triplex are safest). 

(7) Siren or strong whistle. 

(8) Emergency ration of some sort, such as chocolate, raisins, dates. 

(9) Spare clothing including cardigan or sweater, dry gloves, drysocks, scarf, cap to cover ears. 

(10) First-aid equipment. 

(11) Map. 

(12) Wax and scraper. 

Some runners carry all these things and the following besides:

Matches, lantern (folding), or electric torch, aneroid, compass, pincers, hammer, brandy, thermos with some hot drink. 

A great many people will laugh at me for suggesting all this gear, butI do so out of experience. When one has ski-ed some years with a goodmany people, one looks back with amusement to the number of times whenone has been asked to provide any of the above. 

People go out without spare clothing, food, first-aid equipment, repair outfit. Something happens, and they at once look round to seewhere they can borrow. Now borrowing is not part of the game and everyrunner should be independent. It is easy when going on tour, to divideup the gear so that every member of the party carries his share; it isnot necessary for each member to carry the whole of what I have shown. Let each carry enough to feel self-reliant, and let the party carryenough not only for their own needs, but also for any other runner indistress whom they may come across. Ski-ing should be an unselfishsport. 

At a certain centre one Winter, word was brought in at about 3. 30 p. M. By a member of a party of three that one of his companions was lyingin the forest about a mile away with a badly broken leg. Three runnersdashed off from the Nursery slopes with the man who brought the news, to show them the way. I posted a friend to watch where they enteredthe wood, while two other strong runners fetched clothing and hotdrinks in a thermos. Somebody else called up the Rettung chef and thedoctor. All this help was mobilized within an hour. 

Meanwhile the man was lying in the snow in the wood with a badlybroken lower leg. The sun had set and the temperature very low. Not one of the party had any spare clothing or gear of any sort. Asensible man, who had been one of the first three to go off from theslopes told me afterwards that if hot drink and clothing had not comesoon, he was convinced that the man would have died. As it was he wasnearly unconscious and his pulse had nearly stopped. 

Dark came on and the doctor and the ambulance sledge did not arrive. Instead of going the way the others had disappeared, they tried aroute they thought easier and took too high a line in the forest. The trees muffled sound, and though both parties were shouting andwhistling, they heard nothing till at about 6. 30 p. M. One of thewatchers heard a runner near and went off after him in the dark andluckily found him. This man was scouting for the doctor and sledge andfinally brought them to the scene of the accident at 7 p. M. 

By this time some one or two of the watchers had gone home nearlyfrozen, leaving all possible clothing on the injured man. Three othersstayed and rubbed him without intermission, which probably saved hislife and limbs. The doctor had brought a splint which he put on bylight of an electric torch and the man was taken to the station andsent off at once to the hospital. 

Now, all this happened within a mile of home where help was handy. Such accidents happening several miles from home may have far moreserious consequences, and every Ski runner, who scoffs at theprecautions of people more fussy than themselves, may very likely havethe life or limb of someone else on their mind when, had they been alittle more fussy, they might have saved it. 

Not only that, the selfish runner, who travels light, may well be aserious burden to others and risk their safety and comfort through hisown foolhardiness. 

Ski-ing is a game which sorts people out, and where the character ofpeople like sailors, who know what it is to face the elements, showsup well against the civilian, whose greatest risk in life at home iscrossing a street at a busy hour. 

People may ski for years without getting hurt, and the experiencedrunner probably hurts himself less than the beginner. Yet it is theexperienced runner who carries the gear, the beginner it is whousually scoffs and takes risks, not only to himself, but to the peoplewho have to go out to look for him when he is benighted or hurt. 

CARE OF EQUIPMENT

Skis call for a good deal of attention if one takes the gameseriously. People who only come out for a fortnight and who hire anypair of Skis, which they treat as they would the floor of an omnibus, have no appreciation of how much attention Skis need, if they are tobe really dependable in all sorts of snow. 

New Skis should be well-oiled with two or three coats of Linseed oil, which should dry between each coat. I think hickory needs the oil justas much as ash, but some people disagree with this. The oil hardlygoes beyond the surface of the wood and soon rubs off on hard snow, but it preserves the wood as well as giving a slipping surface solong as it lasts. Newly oiled Skis when dry need very little furtherattention for a few days, as they will run well over all sorts ofsnow. 

When there is no time to oil, because the Skis are in daily use, waxcan be ironed in. Most good sports hotels now provide a bench withan electric iron in a special heated and lighted room where theSki-runner can work happily after tea, or on a snowy day. If no suchroom be provided, it should be clamoured for, because the waxing ofSkis is a much more difficult job without it. The patent iron "Para"is helpful where no electric iron is provided. "Para" is an oblongperforated metal box with a handle which screws in. A lump of Meta(solid spirit fuel) is lighted and put inside and the iron becomes hotand is rubbed up and down the Ski, while wax is pressed against it anddribbled on to the wood. 

Almost any wax can be ironed in, but I think the hard black "Skiolin"is best for the purpose. Be careful to wax the groove as well as theflat surface of the Ski. 

When Skis are put away for the summer, the upper as well as therunning surfaces should be oiled or re-varnished in order to preservethe wood. 

Leather bindings may be well oiled with special boot oil to keep themsupple. 

Skis should never be kept in a hot place, as they are apt to warp, butthey should be kept dry when put away. 

Boots should never be dried by a fire or on a heater, but should bestored in a cool place. They need occasional oiling of the uppers withsome sort of boot oil. Dubbin may also be used and is good for fillingplaces, such as between the sole and the upper. The soles should neverbe oiled, except perhaps with Linseed oil, which hardens the leather. I think the wisest plan is to leave the soles dry, but if snow ballson them they can be waxed with Ski wax. This is often speciallynecessary on the heel. If boots be put outside the bedroom everynight, the porter will oil them automatically, in most good hotels. 

Sealskins should be wrapped up in newspaper and stored in a cool placewhen put away. Moth will ruin them if left open and heat crumplesthem, making them useless. A friend told me that when her seal Skis(webbing ones) were ruined by being put near a fire, she recoveredthem by soaking them in salad oil. She was certainly using them quitehappily afterwards. 

THE ELEMENTS OF SKI-ING

This book does not profess to be in any way a textbook of thetechnique of Ski-ing. As stated in the preface, my only idea inwriting it is to provide an answer to a good many questions which havebeen asked me every year. Anyone who deals with a great many peopleknows that there are always some fifty stock questions, which canquite easily be answered by fifty stock answers. What I say in thischapter about the first run will be the barest elements of Skirunning. 

Beginners should obtain either Arnold Lunn's books, or those of VivienCaulfield, and concentrate on the theory of turns. I have known twoor three novices who, though they had never even seen Skis before, bydint of studying the technique in theory before they came out, wereable immediately to apply it in practice. Most beginners find, however, that the moment the Skis start sliding, all theory is thrownto the winds. Instinct of self-preservation prevails and they sitdown. Kind friends looking on say, "That was because you were leaningbackwards. You must lean forwards. " Off they start again, carry outthe advice, their Skis stick for some reason and down they go headforemost--the most difficult fall of all to get up from, and the mostaggravating. 

The great thing is not to do too much the first two days after comingout. The height affects people more than they realize at first, andgreat energy, due to the bracing air, is often followed by greatlassitude. Most people are not in training, and Ski-ing tries thelungs, nerves, and muscles of the fittest as the whole system seems tobe brought into play. 

A few hours' practice on the Nursery slopes is usually enough for thefirst two or three days, and if, at the end of the week, the beginnerseems to be falling more than when he first began, half or even awhole day off Skis will produce wonderful results in better balanceand general fitness. 

Having chosen Skis, and ensured that the toe irons and binding fityou, go out to some gentle slope of about 10° with soft snow, ifpossible. 

Set your Skis at right angles to, or across, the fall of the slopebefore putting them on, because Skis are quite apt to go off alone ifpointing down, hill. It is as well to realize this from the first andto adopt the habit of preventing it in the way I suggest, because manya run has been ruined by a Ski descending alone to the valley below, leaving its owner to get home as best he can on one leg. Even if itonly goes down some 100 or 200 feet, the friend who goes after it andbrings it back often has a good deal to say, and you are lucky if theSki has not struck a rock or tree and got broken in its independentrun. It is no good getting angry on these occasions. I once watched aboy on a distant slope, who had been obliged to descend some hundredsof feet after one of his Skis. When he got hold of it in a temper hestarted beating it with his stick, and continued doing so till thestick nearly broke. 

While on the subject of runaway Skis, I may as well warn you alsoagainst a runaway Rucksack. I put mine down at my feet on a steephard-crusted slope while I took off my coat one day, and the Rucksackstarted sliding slowly down below us. The party was made up ofbeginners and we had ropes on our Skis instead of skins so that noone could catch it up till it stopped about 200 feet below us. To addinsult to injury at the same time, somebody dropped a 50-ct. Bit atthe same moment and this danced off down into the valley, racing theRucksack and beating it hollow. 

But to return to the start. The Skis are safely lying across theslope, and you are going to put them on. Put on the lower one first. Never forget this, because it will often prevent a runaway Ski. If theslope is very steep and hard, you should stick the other Ski uprightin the snow above you, in order that it may remain well in hand whileyou put on the first. You will probably find it impossible to put onyour Skis with gloves on. If you lay these on the snow, they willundoubtedly get snow inside them. The safest place to put them is oneon each stick, stuck upright on either side of you, or tuck them intoyour belt or pockets. 

When you have your Skis and gloves on and everything else ishermetically sealed, you are ready to start sliding or traversingslowly across the slope, before going straight down it. This will giveyou time to get the feeling of Skis, which are clumsy at first. Slideone foot forward, then the other, but do not lift them. Now try a kickturn and come back across the slopes to the top and face straightdownhill. Keep your Skis closely side by side, one foot leading byabout twelve inches and push yourself off with your sticks. Try toimagine that the Skis are only a moving staircase and that all youhave to do is to stand upright on them and let them do the rest. Ifyour slope is only 10° and there is nothing steeper below you, theSkis won't do much. Indeed in deep snow they may refuse to move atall, in which case try pushing yourself along with your sticks. Thegreat thing is always to want to run faster than you are going and, therefore, only to choose slopes where you feel that you can keep upas fast as the Skis go. It is a mistake to start immediately down sucha steep slope that the Skis run away with you. At the same time it isalso a mistake not to increase the angle of your slope as soon as youcan compete with it. 

Stand upright, press the knees together and try to feel that there isa spring in your knees. Let one or other foot lead so that, if theSkis stop, the front foot takes your weight and prevents you plungingforwards and if the Skis suddenly plunge forward, the back foot isequally ready to take the weight and prevents you from sitting down. 

Whatever you do, avoid the hideous doubled-up position of a runner, who bends at waist and knees, with feet parallel and far apart, looking like a note of interrogation and leaving what we calltram-line tracks. By his tracks shall a Ski-er be judged!

Look back and see the line you have left. If your two feet have lefttwo tracks with more than six inches apart in soft snow, you must notbe contented. In a good track, the two feet should leave one track, but some bindings make this impossible, so that unless you are wearinga toe binding you need not worry about a gap of two or three inchesbetween your feet. This only applies to soft snow running. On hard orcrusty snow, it is almost impossible and also dangerous to keep thefeet together. 

When you have begun to feel at home on Skis, go off to a much steeperslope and try traversing. Choose a slope which has flattish groundbelow so that you have an easy out-run and nothing to make younervous. 

Remember for your comfort that if you go across a slope leadingwith the upper foot and with most of your weight on the lowerfoot--standing upright and, if anything, leaning a little outwardsaway from the slope, you can traverse across almost any slope withoutdifficulty, so long as it is not too steep for the snow to bear yourweight without slipping itself. Nothing is more comforting to abeginner than to realize this. It takes away the feeling of giddinessand gives confidence, but it needs learning and should be practised atonce. 

The first tendency of Skis on a steepish slope is to point more andmore downhill till, finally having intimidated the beginner intoallowing them to go their own way, they plunge straight down, and thebeginner collapses. To counteract this put more weight on the heel andless on the toes while traversing. 

This will push the back part of the Skis down and the front partuphill across the slope and, if done sufficiently, the Skis will stopand you have begun to get some feeling of control when traversing. 

Standing upright the inner edge of your Skis will bite into the snow. Try leaning inwards, as you will do by instinct, and you will findyour feet slipping away down the slope and you will gracefully reclinefull length against it. It is exactly the same when walking acrossa steep grass slope in Summer. Most of the slips are due to leaningtowards instead of away from the slopes. 

As you get more confidence in your running, try lifting one Ski offthe ground as you slide along. Or even take off one Ski and tryrunning on the other; lifting a Ski will often save a fall. Forinstance if the Skis get crossed, just lift the upper one and put itdown beside the other again while running. It is perfectly easy andyet I have known people who, after weeks of practice, dared not lift aSki off the ground while moving, only because they had never tried itas routine practice. 

Whatever you do by way of practice do it first on one foot and thenon the other, or you will become a right or left-footed Ski-er and itwill take ages for you to feel equal confidence in either foot. Thisapplies especially to turns. Beginners will often go on practising aturn on the right foot, till they can do it and then have to re-learnit completely on the left foot. 

Straight running downhill is mainly a question of confidence andbalance. As said before, it is better at first to avoid straightrunning down a steep slope, because the Skis may go so fast that thebeginner is quite incapable of keeping up with them and a fall at veryhigh speed is somewhat upsetting and may temporarily shake your nerve. 

Choose a low gradient of about 12° or 15° where you can see theout-run which should be on to level ground or even a gentle rise sothat the Skis gradually pull up of their own accord. Soft snow is theeasiest and confidence may soon be won in this. 

Stand upright or bend the knees, but do not bend at the waist. Youshould feel as though on springs and you want your weight should bewell forward over your feet so that you can keep up with the Skis. Standing in tube or bus, facing the way you are going and not holdingon to anything is very good practice at home. You will notice that abus conductor usually gives with the movement of the bus, so that heis prepared for whatever it does. So with Ski-ing. Look ahead and seewhat the ground is like, and then suit your balance to what is likelyto occur as the ground rises or falls. This soon becomes automatic butit needs thinking out at first. 

When the snow is hard, practise side slipping, because it will helpyou out of many difficulties and once you know the feeling of it, youwill find that it replaces the downhill side-stepping, which is soslow. 

On hard snow, it is possible to go down broadside on by merelystanding on one's Skis and turning one's outer or lower ankle outwardsand one's inner or upper ankle towards the other, so that the Skis arelying flat on the snow, instead of the edges biting into it. Push offwith your stick from the slope above you and weight your heels or yourtoes according to whether the Skis are sinking in front or behind. Have confidence, keep upright, lean away from the slopes and let yourSkis slide and don't blame me if you suddenly slide into a soft patchof snow, which stops the Skis dead and you fall head downwards. Thisis all in the day's work. If the surface of the snow is uniformly hardyou will slip down without difficulty. 

Seriously, side slipping is a huge help and should be learned at once. Mr. Caulfield gives first-class instructions, which are easy to followin detail. 

When going uphill never try to climb steeper than is easy. If the Skisare slipping back, you are going too steep and should turn off andtraverse instead. No time is saved by too steep a climb; the man whogoes easily gets to the top first, while the other clambers up almoston all fours, gets hot and exhausted and has gained nothing. If I amleading an elementary run uphill, I can soon pick out the experiencedrunners by the line they take and the pace at which they climb. Thepuffing, panting, stumbling people, who forge ahead, herring-boning orturning their ankles over their Skis so as to get a grip with theirboots, are not included in my "experienced runners. "

Another hint for uphill work is that when traversing a slope, theSkis should be edged so that the inner edge of the Ski bites into theslope. A Ski with its whole surface flattened to the slope is bound toslip especially on hard snow. By standing upright as you go uphill andkeeping the ankles straight, the Skis will be edged in the right way. 

A quick way of getting up a steep slope is side-stepping. As you standwith your Skis horizontal across the slope, lift the upper foot andplace it on the slope a few inches higher. Then lift the lower footand place it beside the upper. You will soon be able to do this whileadvancing across your traverse at the same time, but it is hard workand should only be used for short climbs. 

Side-stepping is a very good way of climbing, but should be avoidedwhen descending, except when approaching a narrow gap in a fence orcrossing a stream where the approach is steep. 

I have known a party almost benighted by a beginner, who haddiscovered the joys of side-stepping and proposed to descend some1, 000 feet by this safe method, instead of sliding in the proper way. Allowing eight inches to each side-step, how many hours would it taketo descend 1, 000 feet?

A further hint, which may be useful for uphill work. If the Skis areslightly lifted at every push forward, they tend to stick instead ofsliding back. 

Always stand upright when climbing and keep the weight well on theheels. People tend to bend forward and this adds greatly to the effortand the Skis are more likely to slip back. 

On long climbs sealskins are usually used on the Skis. The hairs lyingtowards the rear stick into the snow and prevent the back slip, whilewhen the Ski pushes forward, they lie flat and offer no resistance. 

The best uphill track is the one which keeps going at the same angle. Every good walker knows how tiring it is to go up and down acrosscountry when gullies have to be crossed. It is disappointing, havinggot up a certain height, to lose all that is gained by going downagain. So it is even more with Ski-ing, when uphill work is reallymore arduous than walking. Mr. Caulfield gives a very helpfuldescription of a good uphill track, and Skis tend to teach thebeginner how to keep the angle as they slip so easily downwards themoment the uphill direction is altered. 

When going uphill make up your mind what point you want to reach inthe distance and what line will take you to it most easily and thengo for it steadily, keeping the same angle all the way so far as ispossible and choosing your places for turns very carefully before youreach them. 

Following an experienced leader teaches a great deal about the art ofsetting an uphill track, and the criticisms of the rest of the partyfollowing, when the leader loses height soon make one want to avoidcomment. 

ETIQUETTE

In organized Ski-ing centres a perfectly good code of etiquette isgrowing up as the result of experience. 

So many novices pour out on to the slopes with no knowledge of thegame that notices are even posted on the boards in the hotels giving afew of the main points of the Law. 

One such notice runs as follows:

(1) Ensure that you take your own Skis, sticks, etc. When you startout. It is wise to mark sticks, and they are safest kept in bedrooms. 

(2) Never join a private party unless invited. 

(3) Only join the advertised tours, the test for which you havepassed. 

(4) The slower mover has the right of way. The faster mover must avoidhim. Never call "Fore, " "Achtung, " etc. 

(5) Always offer help to anyone in difficulties. 

(6) Keep with your party. They might waste a lot of time looking foryou while you run home because you thought their pace too slow. 

(7) Never desert a runner who, for any reason, is unable to keep upwith a party. 

(8) Carry your own gear including spare clothing, Ski-ing necessaries, etc. 

(9) Avoid stepping on the Skis of another runner. This caution isespecially necessary for uphill work. 

(10) Remember that wherever you leave a track others may follow. Therefore only choose safe slopes. The snow is liable to slip onslopes of 25° or more, so that these are dangerous. 

Ski-ing is a sport which can be made dangerous for others ifindividuals do not carry out the usual etiquette. It may seemextraordinary that people should need warning not to join a privateparty unless invited, but it is sadly true. 

One day as I was starting off on a long run a stranger came up to meand asked if she might join us. I consulted the Guide, and he said healready had as many in the party as he could take charge of. I toldthe lady this, and said I was sorry that we could not accept hercompanionship. She at once replied cheerily, "Oh, then I will followyou. " Nothing could prevent her from doing this. Switzerland is a freecountry, and there is a right of way anywhere over the mountains inwinter. We started off and she followed. From that moment, of course, we automatically became responsible for her because one of the Lawsis that you never desert a runner who is alone. She was a very poorperformer and fell a great deal, so that for the whole six or sevenmiles' run, we were kept waiting for her. Of course, we were under noreal obligation to look after her, but had we left her and anythinghad happened to her, we could never again have held up our heads asSki-ers. 

On another occasion a runner made a formal complaint to me about alady who joined his party. In this case it was an experienced runner, who had presumably learnt the Law, and who might have read the noticeon the board. First of all she said, "May I go with you?" and thesomewhat cold answer was that the party was complete. Then shefollowed asking questions about the route, etc. At every opportunity. Of course, she had finally to be adopted and taken along much to theboredom of the party, which was a private one. 

Where the Ski-ing is organized, tests are run and tours arrangedfor the different standards. This does not apply so much to 2nd or1st-class runners who, of course, prefer to make up their own parties, but, at any rate, these are protected from having the less experiencedrunner with them, except by invitation. By these means the organizedtours only take runners up to the standard advertised, and no oneneed feel compunction at leaving members of their party behind in thevillage, because they know that the elementary runner will also get achance of a run. 

Yet even under these arrangements, I have found a beginner sittinghuddled in a corner of the railway carriage when we have startedbefore dawn for a big tour. "Where are you off to?" I said, thinkinghe was out with a Guide. "With your party, " was the reply. What couldI do? It is not easy to turn a person out of a train at 5. 45 a. M. Ona cold morning. I said weakly, "Did you not see the notice which saidthis was a run for 3rd-class runners only?" He said, "Yes, but Ithought I could keep up. " So there he was, and we took him through andthough he was very slow uphill and kept us all back in this case, heran down without delaying us. People often put their own capacityhigher than do the people they want to run with and it is verydifficult to be tactful. 

Again most people would not think it necessary to warn runners againstdeserting their party. Yet they often do and it is not usually thebeginner who is the culprit here. Perhaps he cannot run quick enoughto get away! I shall always remember a run in charge of a tour when Iwas with a lot of novices. Another experienced runner accompanied meofficially to help. I chose what I thought the easiest way to start, and he wanted to try another route at the top and went off saying hewould join us below a wood. When we reached the part where I thoughtwe should rejoin, I waited and shouted, but he did not appear. So wewent on to another post where we had lunch, and then I began to getanxious as this runner never turned up. Anything might have happenedto him. He might have gone over a rock or into a tree or even onlybe tied up in one of those tangled falls when it is practicallyimpossible to extricate oneself. It was no good our trying to look forhim then, so after about two hours' delay, I took my party down to thevalley and the first person who met us in the village was our lostcompanion. He chaffed us for being so late as he had run down veryquickly and had had his tea ages ago. 

No party going beyond the Nursery slopes should consist of fewer thanthree. One to go for help in case of need, the other to stay with thethird runner, who may need help. Needless to say, people who know themountains well, go off alone with impunity. When I asked one of theselonely runners what would happen if he hurt himself and was benighted, he told me he always carried sufficient morphia to put him out of hisagony in case of need. This was, no doubt, all right from his point ofview, but what of the people who might go out to look for him amongthe infinite possible runs with Ski tracks in every direction. 

No sporting runner would ever refuse help to a lame duck, thoughpretty bad cases of selfishness have been recorded. 

There is one point, which does not always strike people, and that isthe danger of cutting a track over a difficult place. Beginners willusually follow a track instead of working by their map. For instanceon the Muottas Muraigl run at Pontresina, if once a rash runner cuts atrack straight across from the restaurant to the valley, crowds willprobably follow it, though they may be warned against it. This isa very dangerous slope under certain conditions as was shown thisWinter, when a runner going along its top was carried down to thebottom of the valley by the avalanche he started. 

I have one track left on my conscience; when a few of us went downwhat might have been a dangerous place under different conditions tothose we found. Luckily it was not a way most people would have wishedto follow as it apparently led nowhere and hardly looked attractive. 

The slower mover always has the right of way when Ski-ing, so that norunner ought to shout to those ahead of him to get out of his way. Needless to say this does not apply to a runner out of control, whomay be dashing unwillingly into someone in front of him when, for boththeir sakes, a friendly warning is advisable!

It is the business of every Ski-er to avoid obstacles and the slowermover may be looked on as such in just the same way as a rock or atree. I was amused one day at Pontresina when a crowd of us were goingup the village street and met a lady on Skis being held back as shewent downhill by two friends on either side of her. It was the firsttime I had ever thought of someone going down hill being the slowermover in relation to those climbing. 

Nursery slopes are for the practice of turns and the individual whouses them for straight running while a lot of people are practising isabhorred. The same applies to jumps on the Nursery slopes. Theseare so easily made where other people are not practising that it isselfish to come plunging down into a crowd of devotees to turns. Whenthe Nursery slopes are empty, it is great fun to practise straightrunning down them and no one will object. 

One jolly thing about Ski runners is that they seldom ridicule oneanother or laugh at falls in any but a friendly way. There is greatrivalry and daring to greater effort, but ill-natured ridicule isseldom heard. Perhaps this is due to the fact that most people wholive in glass houses do not throw stones. Everybody who tries toimprove his Ski-ing is bound to fall and it is better not to set thefashion of laughing at others in difficulties. 

There will always be some people who like to look on at tests as "Freeentertainment without tax, " but if they could hear the comments ontheir behaviour and probably on their own lack of prowess they wouldsoon give up the habit. 

Anyone who is really keen to get on and who will go on practising andaccept advice may be sure of sympathy and help. Ski-ing with all itsdangers and need for combined effort seems to bring out the best ofpeople and to produce the very best spirit of goodwill and tolerance. 

Going uphill in soft snow, every strong member should take a turn atcutting the track. It is often heavy work, and an energetic leader maynot like to ask for help. The best plan is to work by time, the leaderfalling out at the end of his shift and letting the party pass himtill he takes his position at the rear and the second man becomes theleader and so on. 

People who are wise, will avoid stepping on the Skis of the man ahead. This is often difficult as instinct makes one want to go faster thanthe person ahead, just as a wheeler in a tandem will usually try tocatch up the leader. The easiest way to avoid overlapping is to keepstep. Push forward the right foot, when the man ahead pushes forwardhis right foot and then the left. This gives a rhythm to the uphillwork, which also seems to minimize effort. Anyone who has experiencedthe irritation caused by his Skis being constantly touched by therunner behind while plodding uphill will learn to spare another thesame nuisance. 

When running straight down a steep slope make sure that there is noone ahead whom you might run into and no one below on either side, who might traverse across the slope you propose to run down. This isespecially necessary in a gap between trees. Another member of yourparty might be among the trees below and suddenly come out into theopen, traversing to the other side. When straight running at anyspeed, only the best Ski runners can turn suddenly to avoid adifficulty, and a nasty collision may occur if care be not exercised. 

When a crowd of people are taking their Skis by train, a great deal oftrouble may be avoided in getting the mass of Skis out of the train ifthese are tied neatly together. 

A pair of Skis tied near the tips and behind the bindings is easy tohandle, while a pair of Skis put together by slipping one through thetoe-strap of the other is a great nuisance. 

Skis piled together soon become very like a heap of spillikins if notcarefully handled and a good deal of damage may be done to them aswell as delay to the train if Ski-ers are careless in this smallmatter. 

Another good plan is for the Ski-ers to form themselves into a queueand to hand out all the Skis along the line, till they can be easilydistributed where there is space. The beginner is apt to huntanxiously for his own pair, which may be at the bottom of the pile, and while he pulls and tugs with but little success, other people arewaiting in vain for a chance to get their Skis out. This is especiallythe case on funicular railways, where space is very limited in thestations. Different nationalities travelling together add considerablyto the confusion and the railway officials are usually thankful toanyone who will take charge and get a line formed and the Skis handedout tidily. 

These hints may seem unnecessary to a great many people, but nomatter. I have had so much of my own time wasted by this sort oftiresome lack of sense that I venture to suggest a means of savingtime and temper for others. 

Ski runners should remember that sledges and pedestrians have theright of way on a road. All the fields are open to the Ski runner andhe should not monopolize a road. In most parts of Switzerland thereis a law by which everyone has right of way everywhere where the snowlies--so long as it is not enclosed ground. This was brought hometo my family rather vividly, when we lived at Davos, by a shootinggallery being set up on our land in front of our house. We had nopower to prevent it and there it remained for the winter. At the sametime, Ski runners should respect the property of other people, andhere I would like to make two appeals to British runners. 

Firstly, that we will do our best to avoid damaging young trees. (Oldtrees can probably look after themselves where the Ski-er is concernedas they are usually stronger than he is. )

Secondly, that we should treat the inhabitants of the country with asmuch courtesy as possible. The peasant, over whose land we run, makesvery little out of the tourist business and has other things to thinkabout rather than sport. He is usually courteous and friendly andalways ready to help us when in difficulties. Let us return hishospitality be treating him with courtesy. School teachers have toldme that they have great difficulty in persuading the children to greetforeigners because these so seldom respond. Yet few things are morepleasant than the friendly "Grüsse, " or "Grüss Gott, " or "Leb wohl, "with which one is greeted by the people of the country. We can answerin English if we do not know how to answer in German, but do let usanswer and, thereby, prove ourselves as friendly as our hosts. 

Another matter, which is not always understood by beginners on thesnow fields is that when an Alpine Club or local Ski Club hut is used, a fee should be paid to the funds which support the Hut. These Hutsare expensive to build and their upkeep is a great tax on the Clubs. British runners can either join the local Club, when they can usethe Huts by day for nothing, or they can pay the advertised fee forwhatever use they make of them. 

A notice is always posted in the Hut showing the various charges, butwhen no one is there to collect the money, it is left to the honourof the guests to pay it. A money-box can be found in all huts withinSwitzerland proper, but as these boxes are not safe from maraudersnear the frontier, the Ski runner has to send the money in by post. Atthe Boval hut, for instance, above the Morteratsch Glacier, a supplyof money order forms will be found hanging near a door. All the leaderof the party has to do is to collect the money from his members, takeone of the forms and pay the money into any post office, whence it issent to the H. Q. Of the Club. 

Huts should invariably be left tidy. This also is a matter of honour. The doors are unlocked always in order that people who may needhospitality, in case of distress, can find shelter. Blankets can beborrowed. Wood is usually provided for firing and there may even be areserve of food, all of which should be respected. Before the partyleaves, blankets should be folded, shutters should be shut, snow sweptout and debris buried outside, or what can be used as fuel put awaytidily in the kitchen. Then the door should be shut carefully andthe hut left the better, rather than the worse off for having givenhospitality. 

SNOW AND LIGHT

Full descriptions of the different types of snow which must benegotiated by the Ski-runner will be found in Mr. Arnold Lunn's book, "Alpine Ski-ing. "

It is only necessary for me, therefore, to describe the four maintypes, namely, soft, hard, crust and sticky snow. 

Soft snow in winter is the new powder snow, which is to be found aftera fall or on North slopes where sun and wind have not spoilt it. It isthe ideal snow for the luxurious runner, especially two days after ithas fallen, when it has settled down and a hard frost has converted itinto crystal powder. A run through crystallized snow, which tinkles asthe Skis cut through it, is beyond description. 

Even a bad runner will find that he can do marvels as the snow seemsliterally to help him in all his experiments. I have known a day whena blinding blizzard has started blowing the snow into my face and Ihave run fast along the bottom of a valley with my eyes shut. TheSkis kept to the lowest line and ran safely and steadily through thispowder snow at a low gradient. It is not suggested that blind runningshould be indulged in as a rule and I only quote this case to show howhelpful is good powder snow. 

The Telemark is the usual turn in soft snow. Christiania and jumpturns can also be used by people who are proficient and strong, butthey require both skill and strength. 

Soft snow is usually found on North slopes or at the bottom of shadyvalleys or even behind any ridge which protects it from the sun orwind. Also among trees which shelter it. Tracks ruin it in time sothat it is usually wise to sidle off the track and try new snow besideit. 

Luckily for the experienced runner, most beginners usually behaverather like sheep, preferring tracks to exploring on their own. Theresult is that perfect snow can often be found alongside the beatentrack, and when this gets spoilt, it is only necessary to go a littlefurther afield in order to get a good run. Then, as more and morepeople beat down the track it becomes hard and very amusing runningcan be had there. 

Hard snow is of two types--a beaten track or a hard crust where thesun has melted the surface and the frost at night has frozen it, sothat it will bear the weight of the Ski-runner. When this is reallysolid enough to allow of side-slipping and stem, or Christiania turns, it is very trustworthy and easy to negotiate. At first, however, itintimidates the beginner, because it is very fast. As time goes on andhe becomes accustomed to the skid and rattle of hard snow, he willfind that his horror turns into pleasure because he can trust it. TheNursery slopes become hard after two or three days and will provideuseful experience for coping with such snow on a run. 

The lifted stem and Christiania are the best turns on hard snow. ATelemark is apt to skid too much. 

Crust is the bugbear of all runners and is out and away the mostdifficult to tackle. It may be hard, and then with nothing apparent onthe surface to warn you, the Skis break through and catch in the crustand down you go. When crust is about, let someone else lead, and thenprofit by his experience. 

There are many forms of crust, all of which may be met on the samerun, and when wind has been at work, there may be crust on Northslopes and not on South. After rain too, when the surface has beensoaked and a frost follows, crust will be found everywhere. 

Sticky snow is usually due to the effect of the sun or to Fohn windor thaw. It is easily coped with by proper waxing of the runningsurfaces, but the sudden sticking of the skis, which have been runningwell over wet snow in the open, when they get into cold powder snowunder trees or in shadow, is very disconcerting. 

The same is apt to happen when people have dried their Skis in the sunby sticking them on end while lunching. The sun not only dries thembut warms them so that if the first run after lunch is in shadow andthe snow is cold, the Skis stick because the warm surfaces melt thesnow, which immediately freezes again and adheres to the Skis, so thatthey come to an absolute standstill. 

The only way to avoid sticking is to keep the running surfaces of theSkis in good condition by oiling them thoroughly and to carry one ortwo different types of wax for use according to circumstances. 

The great thing is to get practice on all types of snow and never tomind it. Look upon crust as a joke, and learn jump turns, which arethe only safe turns for any but the strongest runners. Some of thesecan accomplish a Telemark, or stem-turn or even a Christiania on everysort of snow, but most people are content with the jump turn on crust. The great trouble of this turn is that it is very tiring when a heavyRucksack is carried, but knack and good use of the stick will help it. 

Light is a great factor in Ski-ing. On a fine day when visibility isgood, it is easy to distinguish between the rise and fall of countryahead and, therefore, to be prepared for decrease or increase inspeed. Some days when the sky is clouded, it is practically impossibleto tell what is coming. This difficulty is increased in a narrowvalley when the reflection of the slopes on either side make the wholesurface look identical. 

Coloured glasses may help a little, but it is better to run slowly andto take no risks. On these occasions tracks help immensely as theygive the eye something to follow. Rocks and trees also help; anythingthat breaks the surface of the snow and shows up the gradient ahead. 

FALLS

Falls!--what a word. When I first thought of writing this book, itstruck me that the best selling title would be "Ski-ing withoutFalls. " But then I remembered that I could never look a beginner inthe face again if, knowing that he had read my book, I saw him fall. 

Besides which, a Ski runner who never falls, is probably but a poorexponent of the sport. When you begin to run comfortably and can dothe turns at low speeds, falls show that you are still trying tolearn more of the game. It is only by trying new things that arunner becomes really proficient and you are almost certain to fallconstantly as you learn. There is art in falling on Skis as well as inrunning and turning. Fall loose. Let yourself go; never try to saveyourself when once you find the fall is inevitable and get rid of yoursticks. You will have the most amazing falls on Skis and nobody willlisten to your descriptions of them because they are just as eager todescribe their own. The surprising thing is how little people hurtthemselves--knees and ankles go most. The strain on the knee and ankleis very great in some falls, but if you let yourself go and relax yourmuscles as you fall, you will find that even ankles and knees surviveas a rule. 

I once saw a really good runner turn three somersaults whilenose-driving down a steep slope at high speed in soft snow. And allthe damage done was two hat-pins snapped! Moral, don't wear hat-pins. 

People are so tangled up sometimes that they do not know whether theSki tip sticking out of the snow belongs to their right or left foot, and they have to dig with their sticks before they can extricatethemselves. And sometimes the results of a fall are so intricate thatthe runner could never extricate himself, but needs the help of afriend, who will undo a binding so as to free him. The most curiousfall I ever saw was when a man, running down a steep slope amongtrees, ran into a fir tree on the upper side where the snow was lyingwell up the trunk. He then fell head downwards into the hole below thetree where the snow had not penetrated and, his Skis being caught inthe branches, there he hung. Had he been alone, I doubt whether hewould ever have succeeded in getting free. As it was, we undid abinding quickly and no damage was done. 

Not only is there art in falling but there is a technique of gettingup. Before attempting to get up, arrange your Skis so that they areready to stand on. Suppose they are crossed below you on a steepslope, lie on the slope, raise the Skis in the air, uncross them, setthem parallel across the slope below you, facing the way you want togo, and get up. This fall is sometimes used as a turn and may bevery useful, though not considered the best possible form if doneintentionally. 

Never attempt to get up on to Skis facing downhill. They will onlygo off with you the moment you begin to rise, and then down you flopagain. 

If you fall head downwards down a slope, you still have to get yourSkis parallel across the slope below you before you can stand up, andthe only thing to be done is to turn a somersault uncrossing your Skisin the air if they are crossed and getting them below you and thenstanding up. All of which is extremely easy, but it is very necessaryto ensure that clothes are so made that the powder snow cannot slipinto crevices while you are gambolling in this fashion. The firstthing I do before getting up from a fall is to put up my hands and letthe snow shake out of my glove gauntlets. 

If you are so tangled up in a fall that it is almost impossible to getout, just undo a binding, slip off a Ski and get up easily with a freefoot to stand on. And, if you see anyone else so tangled up that hedoes not begin to get up immediately, hurry to his assistance, becausehis ankle or knee may be in a very strained position and he may bethankful to you for undoing a binding and releasing him. It is inthese falls that the leather heel bindings so often prove better thana rigid toe binding. The leather will ease a little or slip and allowthe foot to turn a fraction of an inch so that the strain is notmaintained long enough to cause real damage. 

Falls are often half the fun of Ski-ing, and every runner who istrying something new will sometimes fall in the endeavour. So neverlose hope, however much you fall. If you have been running ratherwell, and then get a day when you do nothing but only means that youare stale and that your muscles and nerves need a rest. This is wherethe all-round Winter sportsman gains. He can spend a day on the rinkor curling or tobogganing and not feel that he has wasted time. 

Never scoff at people because they fall. A first-class runner issupposed to be able to run at high speed, using turns without falling. So he will, probably, if he intends to, but no first-class runnerworth his salt would always run like this. He will always be tryingsomething more difficult, turns at higher speed or in difficult snow, and consequently he will often be seen to fall, and the beginner whoscoffs is merely voted an ignoramus. Here again a runner will bejudged by his tracks. Look carefully at the place where he ran and tryto make out what turn he was trying and what the snow was like, andwhy he fell. You can learn a great deal from other people's tracks. 

Falls in deep snow are always a little more risky than on hard snow, because there is greater strain on muscles and ligaments. On hard snowyou get many a bump and scratch, but the results are less lasting thana torn ligament. 

Having got up safely from your fall, look on the snow and see what youhave dropped before starting off again. Even pockets with flaps mayallow of leakage. 

It is wise to tie your Rucksack firmly with a strap round your waistbecause, if it is loose, anything heavy inside may give you a nastybump on the head as you fall. 

TESTS

There are three British Ski tests under the Federal Council of BritishSki Clubs. In addition to these, different centres and local clubsoften set an elementary test for beginners in order that these may besorted into various standards for expeditions. 

Hitherto the Elementary test has usually been a run down a certaindistance within a time set by the judges. This is not an altogethersatisfactory test, as the beginner, who goes straight down sitting onhis Skis may get through, while another, who conscientiously tries torun standing, falls the whole time and fails. Style might be judgedand the sitting candidate disqualified, but when, as often happens, some seventy or eighty people enter for an Elementary test, the judgeshave their hands full enough with starting and timing, apart fromwatching individual running critically as in the 2nd-class test. 

A better way, therefore, is to flag a line, which must be followed, providing traverses across slopes, which soon catch out the sittingnovice. 

Beginners usually hate traversing because they dislike the look of asteep slope and do not know how to prevent the instinctive pointingstraight downwards of the Skis. They do not realize yet that if theywould stand upright on their Skis while traversing, and lead with theupper foot while they put their weight on the lower foot and keeptheir whole weight somewhat on their heels, they will traverse quiteeasily at a gentle angle. 

The Elementary test ought to be so planned as to force this type ofrunning. 

Another way of running an Elementary test is for a judge to lead at asteady easy pace for an hour's cross-country run, including both upand downhill, as well as level running and obstacles. The test wouldbe timed, an ample margin being allowed beyond the judge's time. Allthose, who finished within the time would pass. 

This would probably not be nearly so popular a Test with thecandidates as the short downhill run, but it would be a far bettertest of their capacity for touring. 

The British Ski tests consist of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd-Class Tests, theRegulations for which will be found in the Ski Year Book, which canbe obtained from the Hon. Secretary, Federal Council of British SkiClubs, Essex Court, Temple, London, E. C. They can also be obtainedfrom any official representative of one of the British Clubs inSwitzerland, and are printed as an Appendix at the end of this book. 

In the 3rd class test, which is the first and which has to be passedbefore the runner can go up for his 2nd class, there are three parts. 

Part (a) is a climb of 1, 500 feet in not more than 1-1/2 hours and arun down 1, 500 feet in a time set by the judges. The time may not beless than seven, or more than twenty minutes. It should not be morethan 12 minutes under good conditions. 

Men must carry Rucksacks weighing not less than 6 lbs. , and women 3lbs. Sealskins may be used for the climb. 

Part (b) consists of four consecutive lifted stem-turns on a slopeof 15° to 20°, and Part (c) four consecutive Telemark turns on aslope of the same gradient. Parts (b) and (c) are often used asa qualifying test before Part (a) is run, in order to limit theentries for Part (a), which may otherwise be a very difficult testto run when a large field enters for it. 

Candidates who enter for this test should really take pains to ensurethat their bindings fit their boots and that they have everythingnecessary for a run as well as being up to the standard. Speaking asa judge of four years' standing, who has run innumerable tests, I maysay that it is pitiable to see the number of casual people who willcome up for a test without reading the regulations and without beingin any way prepared for a 1, 500 ft. Climb. Few things are moredisagreeable than having to disqualify a candidate, who turns upwithout a Rucksack, or more miserable than having to shepherd downbeginners who are worn out by a run for which they are quite out oftraining. The one comfort is that a candidate, who is pertinacious andcourageous enough to face this test five or six times without passingand goes in again, is almost sure to pass in the end. 

For the judge's sake, however, I strongly urge such a candidate totime himself over similar runs with his friends and to persist in thisuntil he proves that he is up to 3rd-class standard, when he will be avery welcome candidate in the test itself. 

A course is easily found by using an aneroid, or it may also be workedoff the Ordnance Map. Any ordinary watch with a second hand willsuffice for the timing of one's own run. 

Some people may think that I am a little harsh in my reasons forsuggesting that beginners should not enter for the running part of the3rd-class test so lightheartedly. It is really for their own sakes asmuch as for that of the judge's. Failure is very discouraging, and Ihave known people's nerve quite upset by one of these runs. They havetried to race down and have taken really nasty tosses in their rush, while the fatigue of constant falling and getting up out of deep snow, becoming more and more out of breath in the anxiety to compete, isvery bad for their running. I have often wanted to hide my head inshame when coming home after such a test with a lot of worn-outpeople, wet through, who have failed. And yet, such is life, that manywith the first breath, after they finish exhausted, will ask when thenext Test takes place in order that they may compete again. Such acandidate really does one's heart good. 

Tests have probably done more than anything else to improve thestandard of British running. We all have a liking for competition, andhere is our chance. Having succeeded in passing the 3rd-class test, we can wear a badge and then we have to ski better in order to proveworthy of it, and presently we see no reason against qualifying forthe 2nd-class test before going home. "After all, the turns only haveto be done on a steeper slope. " "The run can be put off till nextWinter, and passed the moment we come out, " they say. 

The 1st-class standard is rising higher and higher as British Skirunners become more proficient. The runner who passed a year or twoago now hesitates to wear the gold badge, because he often realizesthat his speed and turns are not good enough for what is now required. 

Judges of the British Ski tests may be found in most well-knowncentres, but, as there are very few 1st-class people, the tests forthis class are usually run in one or two districts only. 

GUIDES AND SKI INSTRUCTORS

Swiss Guides are certificated by the Swiss Alpine Club and are theonly people permitted by law to guide parties among the highermountains. A tariff exists in every district showing the fees whichthese Guides must charge. In addition to the fee, the client usuallygives a gratuity and also pays for the Guide's accommodation andprovisions on the tour. A percentage may be added for numbers greaterthan those provided for in the tariff, while on a really difficulttour, the Guide will probably refuse to take more than two or threerunners unless a second Guide or porter be engaged. The CertificatedGuides wear a badge issued by the Swiss Alpine Club and any manwearing this may be depended upon to be a good fellow, a carefulGuide, and a philosopher and friend. Most of them can now ski well, though a few of the older ones may not be very proficient in techniqueand may be stick riders. 

When on tour with a Guide, he is responsible for the safety of theparty, and every member should do his best to help him by carrying outany instructions he may give for their greater safety. This is notalways appreciated by people who do not know the Alps and theirunwritten laws, and the Guides complain somewhat bitterly that theyare often put in very difficult positions. For instance, on oneoccasion, when a party was crossing an avalanche slope, the Guideasked them to go singly at intervals of 20 metres, so that if anyonewas carried away, the others would not be involved and could go to hisrescue. One of the party was overheard saying: "Oh! he is only tryingto prove how careful he is in order to get a higher tip, " and theywere careless in their carrying out of the instructions. 

In any case it is discourteous not to do what the Guide prescribes andhe is put in a very false position as he is held responsible. 

Ski Instructors belong to a different category, unless they are alsoCertificated Guides, which is often the case. In some Cantons, such asGraubünden, the Instructors have to pass an examination showingtheir capacity to ski and also to teach. Many of them are perfectlybeautiful runners, but they should not be pressed to conduct tourswhere glacier work or rock climbing is involved. They are not examinedfor this and they hold no credentials, and if an accident occurs, everyone is blamed. There are a great many other runs they are allowedto lead and they will set as good a course as anyone would wish for. 

Before engaging a Guide, or an Instructor on the recommendation of theconcierge, get some expert advice as to who is the best. The Secretaryof the local Ski Club would advise or some good runner in theneighbourhood. 

In some parts of Switzerland the Guides and Instructors have taken totouting for clients. They hang about the hotels and try to induce theunwary to engage them and to go for tours for which they are oftennot fit. The better Swiss Guides are the first to want the public todiscourage this type of behaviour, as it is doing a lot of harm totheir good name. 

When a Guide is engaged, treat him as a friend and trust him. Theyare usually a most obliging and reliable set of men, who will doeverything in their power for their clients, such as carrying food andspare clothing, waxing skis, attaching skins and even making terms ininns, and cooking the food in huts when on tour. Their knowledge ofthe mountains and their experiences are well worth probing, and theywill usually talk willingly when kindly dealt with. They are quickjudges of character and if the younger ones are sometimes a littleinclined to take advantage of the people who do not treat themsuitably, only those people themselves can be blamed. Theold-fashioned Guides are never familiar, though they are very friendlyand will always do their best for the entertainment of their party. They should not be petted and flattered, neither should they betreated as inferiors. A happy medium is easily found which is what theGuide will prefer, because in his heart of hearts, he has the whole ofthe Swiss characteristics--great dignity, independence and respect forwise people. 

On a long and dangerous tour the safety of the party may ultimatelydepend upon the trust and confidence placed in the Guide in charge, and by him in his clients, and this should be remembered in allnegotiations. These men often have to risk their lives for the sake ofthe people who employ them, and their staunch unselfishness is a fineexample of human endeavour for the benefit of others. Their fees mayappear to be high, but when everything is taken into consideration, including the shortness of their Winter and Summer Seasons, it is soonrealized that the fees are not exorbitant. 

MAPS AND FINDING THE WAY

Every Ski runner going across country should carry a map. Even on ashort run a great deal can be learnt from a map, which will proveuseful later on a longer run. Both time and risk can be saved bypeople who run by their map and who know how to avoid dangerous placesand how to take advantage of narrow safe openings. 

There are different types of maps to be had in Switzerland. Thebest are the official Ordnance Maps published by the Eidg. Landestopographie at Bern. The mountain districts are produced at ascale of 1 centimetre in 50, 000 centimetres or 2 centimetres in onekilometre, and large or small sheets can be bought almost everywhere. The gradients are clearly shown by contour lines. The equidistancebeing 30 metres, or roughly 100 feet, the dotted contour lines whenheight is marked some every 8 or 10 ordinary contour lines. Thisdiffers according to the edition. Cliff and rock are shown grey, whileglacier contour lines are blue. 

Some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, have produced this mapwith red lines showing all the Ski runs. In other places they alsoprovide Ski-ing maps, but on a different scale and not as good as theOrdnance Map. 

All maps are best when mounted on linen, as the weathering theyreceive on a run may reduce a paper map to pulp or rag. 

It is easy to work out the distance of runs or the gradient of slopesfrom the large scale Ordnance Map. 1 in 50, 000 metres means that 1centimetre on the map equals a run of 50, 000 metres; 2 centimetresequal a kilometre or 100, 000 metres; 8 kilometres equal five Englishmiles. Therefore, if a centimetre measure be carried, the distancesare soon ascertained with a minimum of arithmetic. 

Throughout this chapter I have taken the mathematical or map gradientand not the engineer's gradient. The latter is generally used, Iunderstand, to measure the gradients of roads, railways, etc. 

To avoid confusion when Ski-ing, the gradient is usually named by theangle of the slope. 

The gradient of slopes is shown by the contour lines, the drop betweeneach being 30 metres or approximately 100 feet. The table on p. 92 wasgot out by Commander Merriman, R. N. , and has proved very useful tome in setting tests as well as in judging whether slopes arecomparatively safe from avalanche or not. 

A slope showing eight 30-metre contour lines in one centimetre worksout roughly at 27°, which is a steeper slope than most people care totake straight, running over unknown country. Anything steeper thanthis is apt to avalanche in certain conditions, though a 30° slopeshould usually be safe. (A 25° slope may be dangerous under someconditions. )

A comfortable slope is 5 contour lines in 1 centimetre, or a gradientof 17°. Taking English measurements as in Commander Merriman's scale, 16 contour lines in one inch on the map. 

The beginner will probably content himself with slopes where 10contour lines are shown in one inch, or a gradient of about 13°. 

 ROUGH TABLE OF GRADIENTS. 

Assuming 30 metre contours to be equal to 100 feet contours(actually this is 98. 4 feet). Natural Scale 1: 50, 000. 

--------------------------------------------Drop per inch | Average angle | Gradient on map. | of slope. | 1 in. -------------------------------------------- 100' | 1° 24' | 40. 9 200' | 2° 45' | 20. 8 300' | 4° 07' | 13. 9 400' | 5° 29' | 10. 4 500' | 6° 50' | 8. 3 600' | 8° 12' | 6. 9 700' | 9° 33' | 5. 9 800' | 10° 52' | 5. 2 900' | 12° 11' | 4. 6 1, 000' | 13° 30' | 4. 2 1, 100' | 14° 47' | 3. 8 1, 200' | 16° 04' | 3. 5 1, 300' | 17° 20' | 3. 2 1, 400' | 18° 34' | 3. 0 1, 500' | 19° 48' | 2. 8 1, 600' | 21° 00' | 2. 6 1, 700' | 22° 11' | 2. 5 1, 800' | 23° 22' | 2. 3 1, 900' | 24° 30' | 2. 2 2, 000' | 25° 39' | 2. 1 2, 100' | 26° 45' | 2. 0 2, 200' | 27° 50' | 1. 9 2, 300' | 28° 53' | 1. 8 2, 400' | 29° 56' | 1. 7 2, 500' | 30° 58' | 1. 6--------------------------------------------

Up till now I have only been describing the official Ordnance Maps. There are several other maps which may also be useful. 

The Dufour maps are good for direction and lie of country, but theirscale being 1 in 100, 000 they are not much help for actual running. 

The local Ski Tour Map is useful to show where the usual tours go, but cannot always be trusted for gradients or cliffs and rocks. ThePontresina map, for instance, though showing an equidistance of 30metres as in the Ordnance Maps, really has 50 metres contour lines, which might be a terrible snare to the unwary, who would confidentlyrun towards a slope, thinking it was about 20° and find that it wasnearer 35°, or an avalanche slope. In a case like this the OrdnanceMap must be used for actual running, while the Ski Tour Map is used toshow the line to be followed. 

In some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, the Ordnance map hasbeen used for the local Ski tour map, and the tours shown on it inred. This is a great saving of weight and money for the runner, whothen only has one map to carry. 

Most Ski maps show dangerous avalanche slopes. The local Summer mappublished in most tourist centres in Switzerland is not much use tothe Ski runner, because it shows walks which may be along slopes ordown cliffs, which are perfectly safe in Summer and very dangerous inWinter. 

I strongly advise all beginners who are bitten by the joy of Ski-ingto buy, at any rate, the small local sheet of the Ordnance Map whichusually only costs Frs. 1. 30, or roughly 1s. , and to study itcarefully, noticing the contour lines on the well-known Nurseryslopes, and gradually realizing the gradient represented by thedifferent widths between them. 

Let him also notice the difference between a hill and a hole on themap. This is easily recognized either by the thin blue line of astream emerging from a lake, or by comparing the nearest heights shownon the dotted lines or some marked point. Contours are often puzzlingto a beginner in map reading, but knowledge of what they represent maysave a party from a weary climb back up a place they have gaily ski-eddown, thinking they could get through but finding an impossible slopeor fall of rock which forced them to retrace their steps. 

Before going on tour even with a Guide, it is wise to study the mapwith a view to knowing where an Alpine hut can be found in case ofneed, or where a hay châlet could offer shelter. 

When once the Ski runner has begun to appreciate the fun and interestof running by a map, he will never leave it behind, and he will beable to enjoy all sorts of runs he would never know of if he werecontent with the sheep habit of "following tracks. "

The greatest fun of Ski-ing is in finding one's own way, and this onecan never hope to do without a map. 

The following scale of comparative heights in metres and feet may beof use in estimating the heights of points which the Ski runner wishesto reach:

 10 metres equal 33 feet (approximately). 50 " " 164 " 100 " " 328 " 250 " " 820 " 500 " " 1, 640 "1, 000 " " 3, 281 "2, 000 " " 6, 562 "3, 000 " " 9, 843 "

A compass is, of course, useful when running by map, but as precipicesare apt to get in the way when running straight for any given point, a compass cannot be trusted alone. In the case of fog, it is verydifficult to avoid difficulties, and points on the map can only beidentified by the use of an aneroid, as well as a compass. Set theaneroid at the point you start from and check your heights by this asyou climb or descend, referring constantly to the map to ensure thatyou are running on the right line. It is wise to practise this onclear days in order to get accustomed to running by map, compassand aneroid. As the weather also affects the aneroid, it should beconstantly reset at known levels. 

All this may sound very confusing, and most beginners will probablyprefer to take a Guide who knows his country well rather than trust toelementary map-reading knowledge in unknown country. Most runnerswho go on tour will find running much more interesting, however, ifinstead of following a Guide blindly they also watch the map or geta knowledge of what is good or bad country to run over. There aresometimes cases also when the party must necessarily divide, and anamateur may have to take the lead over unknown country. 

AVALANCHES

Much has been written on this subject. Mr. Arnold Lunn, in "TheAlps, " tells some extraordinary stories about these monsters of themountains. My father, John Addington Symonds, in "Our Life in theSwiss Highlands, " also describes them. 

There was a very interesting article by Monsieur F. Krahnstoever inthe "Swiss Ski Club Year-Book for 1923" on the subject of avalanchesin relation to Ski-ing. They are an everlasting nightmare to Skirunners in high places, and beginners should at once take care tolearn all they can of snow-craft in order, in so far as possible, torealize what is safe and what is dangerous. 

The steepness of slopes and the condition of snow, as well as thedirection of wind, are all factors affecting avalanches. 

Any slope whose gradient is more than 15° may be dangerous undercertain conditions, but it may be generally accepted that most longslopes under 25° are comparatively safe so long as they have not muchsteeper slopes immediately above or below them. 

New snow is always apt to slip before it has had time to settle down. Snow blown by wind into a cornice or overhanging lip at the top of aslope or on a cliff may topple down and start an avalanche. 

Wet snow, after rain, or a warm Föhn wind, becomes heavy and begins toslide. 

A very dangerous condition is new soft snow lying on a slope coveredwith old hard snow. 

Trees or rocks sticking up through the snow make such slopes safer, asthey tend to prevent the snow from beginning to slip. This is why theForestry Laws of Switzerland are so strict. In some districts theowner of a forest may not cut a tree unless it has been approvedby the Government forester. This is to ensure that the forests aremaintained as a protection for the villages in the valleys below. 

Beginners should never go on a tour without first ascertaining thatthe route they propose to follow is a safe one. And if there is theslightest doubt, owing to weather conditions, they should put it offfor a day or two. Some runs are perfectly safe when the snow hassettled and a sharp frost has bound it, but they may become dangerousagain when a thaw sets in, a Föhn wind is blowing, or rain has fallen. 

The Ski runner himself may start an avalanche on a slope where thesnow would lie safely if he did not pass along it. The cutting of histrack, breaking the continuity of the snow, may set it going eitherabove or below him and he will be carried away with it. 

Wherever there seems to be the slightest risk of avalanche the partyshould separate and proceed in single file at about 20-yard intervals. Then if a runner is carried away, the others will be able to go tohis assistance. In some cases, however, even this is not sufficientprotection as the whole slope may go at once. In old days before therailways had tunnelled through the passes we were driving over theFluela above Davos on our way to Italy in March. We were in the postconsisting of some 20 one-horse sledges and had just left the Hospizwhen we met the up-coming post, also consisting of a number ofone-horse sledges. It took some time to pass, as the track was narrowand the horses floundered in the deep snow when passing each other. After we had got by and were continuing on our way down to Süs, weturned along an outstanding buttress of cliff and saw that some twomiles of steep slope ahead had avalanched. The whole surface of thesnow had slipped to the bottom of the valley and if either of thediligences had been on this slope when it happened, horses, sledgesand all would have been carried away. 

This experience fixed avalanche danger very firmly in my mind, andhaving also seen several large avalanches falling, as well as theimmense amount of damage done to forests and châlets by theseinsuperable monsters, I have never wished to risk getting into a largeone myself. 

Even a small avalanche is very overwhelming and a beginner who hasfelt its effects soon realizes what it may mean. Choose a _very_ shortsteep slope on a day when the snow is slipping and try to get itgoing. Once it moves and entangles your legs and Skis, you will feelthe extraordinary helplessness which results. This was one of ourgames when I was a child. Without Skis it is possible to float on topof a baby avalanche and to enjoy it, but with Skis on, the feet soonbecome entangled and helplessness results. 

The first thing to do when an avalanche starts and no escape ispossible is to get the Ski bindings undone and the feet free. Then"swim" with arms and legs and try to keep on top. If buried, keep onearm over nose and mouth so as to keep air space and push the other armup, pointing the Ski stick through to the open so that it may showyour whereabouts. This is easy to describe, but probably not so easyto carry out if the occasion arises. 

One of the first books on Ski-running advises people to carry some 60metres of red tape and to let this trail behind them when crossingdangerous ground. Then, if overwhelmed by an avalanche, the red threadcan be picked up by the search party and the victim may quickly be dugout. I have never met anyone who has carried out this suggestion anddo not want the extra weight of red tape in my Rucksack, but it makesone think and realize how much other experienced runners have thoughtalso. 

The following precautions would seem to me to be better:

Never ski along, or above, or below a dangerous-looking slope underdoubtful conditions. 

Never go for a tour without making sure beforehand that the route youpropose to follow is a safe one. 

Always carry out any instructions your Guide or the experienced leaderof your party may give. If you have any sudden doubt about the safetyof the slope you are on, make quickly for the nearest rocks stickingup. 

If there are trees near get among them as quickly and quietly as youcan. 

If the snow begins to slip and you see no chance of Ski-ing quicklyaway from the dangerous place, get your Skis off. This is where toebindings may be safer than heel bindings as they come off quicker. 

Never follow a track across a slope, about which you are doubtful, thinking hopefully that the runner who cut it knew more than yourself. 

Never cut a track across a dangerous place at your own risk if thereis the slightest chance of misleading another runner into dangerlater. 

Remember that though you yourself may be on a safe slope, the slopeabove or below you may be so steep that the snow may slip off byitself and your slope may be involved. This applies equally to runningalong the bottom of a valley. The slopes on either side may bedangerous, and if the snow slips you will be buried. 

There are so many perfectly safe runs that it is folly to risk beingkilled by an avalanche, when it can easily be avoided by a littleforethought and common sense. 

Even if you do not mind the risk yourself, think not only of yourpeople waiting below, but also of the people who have to come and lookfor your body. There have been several cases where the search partyhave been overwhelmed by a second avalanche while digging for peoplecarried away by the first. 

January and March are probably the most dangerous months from theavalanche point of view. In January the fresh snow is apt to slidebefore it has settled. A few days after a new snowfall, most of theavalanches will have come down and the ordinary runs will be safeagain, but every snowfall entails the same risk. There are some slopeswhere the snow will never stay in February, but unless a Föhn wind orrain make the snow heavy, most slopes are pretty safe below a gradientof 25°. 

In March when the thaw begins more avalanches will fall. These usuallycome down well-known tracks and can easily be avoided for this reason. 

This chapter may appear to be somewhat intimidating, but it is betterto be safe than sorry. Very few experienced Ski runners get intoavalanches and if ordinary precautions are taken and the advice ofexperts followed beginners need have no fear. 

The Ski-ing maps usually show the more dangerous places, but everyrunner should keep his own eyes open and learn all he can ofsnow-craft in order to be able to explore new country as he becomesproficient. 

ACCIDENTS

Some people will think that I lay too much stress on the dangers ofSki-ing. Considering the thousands of people who ski every Winter andthe extraordinarily small number of accidents, I admit that I haveexaggerated the dangers. But I do so quite deliberately because it isonly by realizing risks that they can be avoided, and my experienceproves to me that the average town-bred man and woman, boy and girlhave very little appreciation of life lived up against Nature. Theyset out so lightheartedly and often so fool-hardily on an expedition, without telling anyone where they propose to go, or when they expectto be home, and without having provided themselves with the extraequipment which may prove to be very necessary before the day isfinished. 

While writing this book I have constantly had in mind Ski-ing centresabove 5, 000 feet, whence tours are made among the glaciers and at highlevels where the cold may be a danger during the months of January andFebruary. Much of what I have said of the necessity of carrying spareclothing in good quantity does not apply so much to places below 5, 000feet unless high tours are undertaken. But wherever people ski thereis a possibility of accidents due to falls, and though these areseldom serious, they need attention. 

When someone is really lamed by knee or ankle, Ski-ing becomes verydifficult, except to the expert, who can ski mainly on one foot, andwalking through the deep snow, sinking at every step, is an agony, sothat some form of stretcher becomes necessary. 

Two or, better still, four Skis tied together, side by side, form anexcellent sledge, which will travel straight downhill every easily. It practically refuses to traverse a slope so that the case has to beslipped straight down to the bottom of the slope and along the valleyor level below. 

Skis usually have holes through the flat part of the tip in front. A piece of strong wire should be threaded through these, care beingtaken that the Skis lie parallel their whole length and that the tipsare not drawn together too much. A stick must be tied to the wire andthe Ski tips to keep them in position and to take the pull when thesledge is drawn along. If there are trees about, a branch can be cutto serve this purpose. If not, a Ski stick must be cut in half andused. It should not project beyond the Skis on either side, or it willcatch in the snow. 

The other half of the Ski stick or another branch must be tied acrossthe Skis, by the toe irons, to keep the Skis parallel there also, andto give solidity to the sledge. People sometimes tie a strap or stringround the Skis, including their running surfaces, forgetting that thiswill soon cut through with the friction of the snow. 

To finish the sledge, put some fir branches on it, the bushy part ofwhich will make it more comfortable to lie on. The thick wood of thebranch part should point towards the front of the Skis and be fixedthere. If branches are not available, Rucksacks can be used for theinjured person to lie on. He will probably be more comfortable goingdownhill if he can be laid head-first downwards on the sledge. 

To draw the sledge along, join a lap thong or sealskin or rope orputtee to the outer Ski tips, and also to the ends of the stick acrossthem. In order to prevent this from pulling these Skis forward toomuch it is well to tie a string to the inner Ski tips also and jointhem to the pulling rope. 

Another rope or thong should be attached to the stick and centre toeirons, so that this can be held from behind to prevent the sledgetravelling too fast downhill. Experienced runners will be able totravel on Skis while getting this sledge down, but beginners will dowell to wade on foot, especially the rear man, who has to control thespeed. Neither the pulling nor control rope should be attached to thebody of the person holding it because a sudden jerk may pull him overand the sledge be stopped suddenly with a jar to the person hurt. 

Most club huts are provided with excellent ambulance sledges, whichmay be used, and which should be conscientiously returned to theRettungschef of the locality. 

There is a Rettungschef in every mountainous district whose duty it isto help with accidents when these are reported to him. He arranges tosend out Guides and porters with an ambulance sledge to the assistanceof any party in trouble. If, therefore, your accident be a seriousone, and you are far from home, the wisest plan may be to send one ortwo of the best runners down to the nearest village for help, whilethe remainder stay with the injured person. For this reason it isalways unwise to go out with fewer than three in a party. Five or sixare a better number on a long day's run. 

Remember the people waiting at home, and when you have madearrangements for help to go to your party ring up your friends andtell them what has happened and what you have arranged. Having oftenseen the anxiety of relations and friends when their party comes homelate, I know how important this is. Even if you are only delayed forsome small reason such as a train being late, it is kind to ring up, and this is easily done, as there are telephones in almost everyvillage. 

While on this subject I would again like to urge that before going offon an expedition of any length the Concierge and someone should betold in writing the destination, the route, and the hour anticipatedfor return. Then, if the party does not turn up and no news comesthrough, a search party can be sent out with some hope of findingthem within a reasonable time. Time is very important in Januaryand February, when the weather is cold, as people can be badlyfrost-bitten if benighted. 

Search parties are expensive luxuries, as it is risky work for theGuides, who deserve to be well paid for it. I have only once followeda Rettungschef with his five assistants and their ambulance sledge, and shall never forget the pace at which their lantern went ahead ofus, dancing like a will-of-the-wisp. A runner had come home at 5 p. M. With news that one of the party had hurt his knee some four miles fromhome. This runner had already wisely rung up the Rettungschef from thefirst house he came to, and a party of Guides was being collected. Idecided to go out with some friends in case the accident was a seriousone and we could bring the remainder of the party home, and so savethe Guides that duty. They were all beginners who were benighted. 

We followed the lantern and saw it stop and knew the Guides hadreached the people in trouble. When we caught up they already had thepatient looking like a mummy, rolled up in blankets in a canvas bag onthe sledge. I could hear him choking over the brandy which was beingpoured down his throat. He had only hurt his knee, but his friends, who were all real novices, had had a wearing time getting him down. 

The way in which the Guides handled the job filled me with admirationand confidence. When they found we were ready to herd the party home, they shot off with their sledge and the lantern soon became a speck oflight in the distance again. 

I also had a lantern that night, and found it delightful to ski by, but doubt whether anyone else profited much by its light except as aguide to direction. 

When a person is hurt and helpless at a high level, in winter, cold isthe most immediate danger, and all spare clothing should be piled onhim, and his limbs should be rubbed to prevent frost-bite. When hecannot be moved, a fire might well be lit if below tree level wherewood is available, because, though the lighting of fires is forbiddenin the Swiss forests, a breach of the law would surely be overlookedin case of danger to life. The heat of the fire would help to keepthe patient warm, while its light would act as a beacon to the searchparty. 

The following is the code of signals in use among the Alps:

_The Alpine Signal of Distress_--

(a) By Day. --The waving of anything (a flag or stick with an articleof clothing attached) six times in a minute, repeated after aninterval of one minute without signals. 

(b) By Night. --A light flashed six times a minute, repeated after aninterval of one minute without signals. 

(c) By Sound. --Six sharp calls, or whistles, in the minute, repeatedafter an interval of one minute without signals. 

_The Answering Call_--

(d) Anything waved, a light flashed, a sharp call, or whistle threetimes in the minute, repeated after an interval of one minute withoutsignals. 

If a Ski runner does not remember the exact signal any regular signalrepeated a definite number of times in a minute, with a minute'sinterval, should prove sufficient. Similarly, if you hear a signalrepeated at short regular intervals, you should always suspect a callfor help. 

An ordinary whistle is hardly loud enough for the sound to carry anydistance and a siren might be better. Newspaper could be used for aflare if the party does not possess a lantern or electric torch, butit would not last long. 

Finally, may I suggest that everyone who takes up Ski-ing seriously, and who carries gear to be used in emergency, should be proficient inthe use of such gear and not wait till it is needed to find out how tofit it. 

To experiment in making an ambulance sledge while an injured personlies beside you and when your fingers are cold and people are buzzinground you with suggestions, which may or may not be better than yourown ideas, is a bad plan. It is wiser to have made the experiment athome and to have got someone to drag you down a hill on the result, and then you will know something about it. A new game for the Nurseryslopes, and what fun for the spectators who already think all Skiersmad!

I would like to add at the end of this chapter on accidents thatduring the many years I have enjoyed Ski-ing, and with the hundreds ofbeginners I have helped, I have never met with a single really seriousaccident. 

One or two knees and ankles twisted and now and then a cut or severebruise have been among the worst cases I have come across. 

THE ATTRACTIONS OF SKI-ING

Though some runners are content merely to enjoy the actual practice ofSki-ing with all the difficulties to be overcome and the various turnsto be perfected, the greater proportion probably ski mainly on accountof the exhilaration obtained, the freedom enjoyed, and the wonderfulbeauty of the places reached. 

The amazing thing is that Skis were not used sooner among the Alps. They have already in less than thirty years entirely altered the lifeof the young people in far-away villages, who used to be practicallyshut up during the winter months, but who can now ski from one placeto another on Sundays and holidays, enjoying the companionship oftheir friends and widening their outlook by mixing with strangers. This will probably have a very good effect on the population of theHigh Alps, who will be less inclined to leave their homes in orderto get away from the monotony of the long winters. So much is thisappreciated that Ski-ing is now part of the school curriculum in somedistricts, often taking the place of gymnastics during the winter. 

It is amusing to watch the classes of children out on the Nurseryslopes with their teachers. While we foreign women Ski-runners areprovided with elaborate costumes, including breeches or trousers, thelittle Swiss girls ski in frocks and cotton pinafores without cap orhat, and often without gloves. Led by their teacher they wearily climbup the slopes, and then comes the mad career home to the midday meal. Twenty or thirty little girls all dashing down together practisingturns as they go, or making as straight down as they dare in theireffort to outpace their rivals. 

The boys carry the sport still further and most local Ski-jumpingcompetitions start with a demonstration by the boys, who often do notlook more than 10 or 12 years old, and who go over the big jump asstraight as their elders and usually a good deal more gaily, as theyhave not begun to appreciate the dangers. The smaller boys line thesides of the jump and pour out at the word of the judge on to thesteep landing-slope like a lot of little goblins, jumping on theirSkis horizontally to flatten away any track or hole made by a jumperwho has failed to jump perfectly. Little chaps of seven or eight runthrough the woods on these occasions, swanking their turns through thetrees and putting most grown-up runners to shame by their nimbleness. At Pontresina one winter I was much amused by one of these smallchildren wearing a British third-class test badge which he must havepicked up. I asked him where he got it, but he hurried away for fearI would claim it, and his Christianias through the big trees made mevery envious. 

Many of the children ski to school and back, getting endless practiceall through the winter months. 

May I here appeal to British runners who may have old Skis, evenbroken ones to throw away, to offer them to the local branch of theSwiss Ski Club as there is an organization which mends them or cutsthem down for lending or giving to the school children, who are toopoor to provide themselves with Skis. 

When the beginner has learnt the elements of straight running andturns and begins to go off among the mountains the real interest ofSki-ing is begun, with the slow climb up in single file, first of allthrough woods and then out on to the open slopes. This is usually asilent game as breath is needed for the climb, and it is dull workkeeping up a conversation with the back ahead. Sometimes, as oneinadvertently steps on the Skis ahead, a gruff word is flung back andthe trespasser is wise who stops, pretending to attend to his binding, or to look at the view--the view is usually worth looking at, too, asthere is usually something to see. If it is not a distant view of theGreat Alps or of the valley below, it is of trees or rocks, which, ifexamined carefully, usually show some sign of life. I remember beingsnubbed by an ardent Ski-er because I ventured to ask "What are thoseblack birds?" "Who wants to know about birds when he is ski-ing?" wasthe answer. I did want to know, and I found out that they were Alpinechoughs and I still want to know when I see the inhabitants of themountains or their tracks. 

Most of the wild animals use old Ski tracks as highways now, evenfinding it worth while to follow the zigzag of an uphill traverse. Foxes, hares and roe deer all use them, the roe deers' feet showing somuch tinier than the chamois, who leaves a deep rough track as theyusually run in each other's footsteps. The hare's track when runningis two holes abreast and then two single ones. The fox runs ratherlike a dog. The squirrel hops two feet at a time, often leaving aslight ruffle on the snow as he swishes his tail. Among the cembratrees in the Engadine the snow may be sprinkled with the nuts out ofthe cones. They are delicious eating, being very like the Italianstone pine nut, or pinelli, and they attract the squirrels as much asthey do the nutcracker bird. 

Martens and pole cats leave distinct footmarks. Weasels, also, andthese are easily recognized as they usually start from a hole under abush or a rock. One day when a party of us were silently traversing aslope above Mürren a tiny brown ball came rolling down, which, whenpicked up, proved to be the warm dead body of a mouse. Looking up wesaw a weasel peering out of his hole anxious as to the fate of hisdinner. A mouse's track also usually starts from a tiny hole and thetwo feet go abreast, while the tail leaves a line all the way. 

We nearly always see chamois and roe deer when ski-ing in the woodsat Pontresina as it is a protected area and they are not shot andtherefore become very tame. The chamois are driven down into the woodsin search of the lichen which hangs like a beard from the branches ofthe cembra trees. On Muottas Celerina this winter we saw four chamoisbelow us in the wood. Without a word our guide, Caspar Gras, dasheddown the slope after them and very nearly caught one round the neck, as they were surprised, and knowing there was a precipice beyond thescrub below them, they could not make up their minds which way to go. 

The roe deer scrape away the snow below the trees in search ofalpenrose or bear berry leaves or dry blades of grass. They suffermore than the chamois after a heavy snowfall because they are not sostrong and cannot scamper through it. At the beginning of this season, Klosters had a snowfall of some two metres and the roe deer weredriven down to the villages where the peasants fed them in stablestill the weather improved. Four were caught on the railway, having goton to the line at a crossing and being unable to spring out over thehigh banks of snow. 

Ibex are being let loose in order to re-establish them where they wereexterminated a few years ago. They can usually be seen through thetelescope at Bernina Hauser above Pontresina, and also oppositeMürren. The ibex, or steinbock, is used as the Coat of Arms of theCanton of Graubünden, and is familiar to Ski runners as the badge ofthe local Ski Club of Zuoz in the Engadine. 

After some controversy eagles are being encouraged to increase, havingbeen almost exterminated. We saw a beauty sailing over the MuottasMuraigl Valley one day. There is even talk of trying to get bear back, but the peasants obstruct this as they were so destructive to sheep. As a child at Davos I saw three bears brought in dead by hunters, and remember with pride, mixed with disgust, tasting a bear's paw. Apeasant told me of how as a boy he looked after the village sheep nearthe Silvretta Glacier, and of a bear who used to come and kill a sheepand then bury it in the ice for future eating. 

Ski runners shudder at the idea of meeting a bear while on a run, butthey need not worry as the bears roll up and sleep through the winterso that unless the Ski-er took an unusually heavy fall into the bear'shole, he would be safe enough on the surface. Besides which it is saidthat a bear cannot traverse down a slope, so that the Ski-er couldeasily get away unless the bear rolled to the bottom, and then ranalong and waited for him. As there are no bears in Switzerland now, perhaps it is waste of time to start a controversy about the best turnwith which to circumvent a bear. Cows are much more dangerous. I waspursued down the village street at Pontresina by a playful cow, whohad been taken to the pump to drink. She put down her head and stuckup her tail and I wasted no time in pushing away from her. 

Another animal which hibernates through the winter is the marmot, andI often think of them sound asleep under the snow as I pass along theslopes of some high valley. They are said to have breathing holes, butI have never seen them, unless this was the explanation of some holeswhich puzzled me on the Schiltgrat above Mürren. I was traversinguphill a long way ahead of my party and noticed some isolated holes inthe snow, very like Ski stick holes, but with no Ski tracks near. As Ipassed a grey hen flew out of one of the holes, and, looking back, Isaw several black cocks and grey hens flying away. It is more likelythat they had made their own holes to shelter in rather than thatthese were marmot holes. 

Ptarmigan often greet one on the higher ridges and sometimes acapercailzie will get up with a noise which is very apt to upset one. 

The choughs are persistent followers of a Ski-ing party, flying overone's head and chirruping for lunch. When at last we stop and take ournosebags out of our Rucksacks, they perch on a cliff near and waittill we move on, when they immediately fly down to see what we haveleft for them. I have seen a paper lunch-bag, which they were unableto tear, absolutely surrounded by a circle of their footmarks, someeight feet in diameter. How they must have worried it and each otherin their endeavour to get at the contents. 

At Mürren a pair of ravens also accompany the Ski-ers. They take theirperch high up and watch the many luncheon parties, croaking now andthen to remind us of their wish to share our slices of beef andsausage. These "packed lunches" are usually so plentiful that thechoughs and the ravens get a goodly feed. The tidy Ski-er who buriesall his paper and orange peel and other debris will often find nextday that the whole thing has been dug up by a fox. 

At many of the Alpine huts, the snow-finch has adopted the habits ofthe sparrow and is often so tame that he will almost take crumbs fromone's hand. 

Another bird I love among the Alps is the dipper or water ouzel. Ski-ing along the snow banks of the rivers, I have often watched himhop down into the water and run along the bottom picking up whateverhis food is among the pebbles. 

Surely most Ski runners can spare time to watch all these littlepeople, whose rights to the snow fields are even greater than theirown. 

Very little vegetation shows in winter, but it is wonderful what a lotone can find if one looks carefully and it certainly makes Ski-ingmore interesting to me if I can recognize the trees, plants and seeds. 

A very fair estimate can be made of the different heights by noticingwhat grows. 

Corn stops at 2, 000 to 3, 000 feet, though a little rye may be grownup to 5, 000 feet in sunny places. Fruit trees and beech trees stop atabout 4, 000 feet. There is one beech tree above Davos about 5, 500 feetabove the sea, but it has never succeeded in topping the huge boulderwhich shelters it from the North. The silver fir is healthy at 4, 000feet, but is seldom found much above that level, while the spruce orfir goes up to 7, 000 feet and does best there. Larches seem to thrivebest at about 5, 000-6, 000 feet, but may be seen almost as high as thetop of the Bernina Pass on the south side facing Italy. The cembrapine, like a great cedar, is the finest tree in the Alps and doesbest at 6, 000 feet to 7, 000 feet. It is also called the Arolla pine, because of the forests near that place. In the Upper Engadine almostall the forests are of cembra and there is one splendid old tree knownas the "Giant Tree" near upper tree level on Muottas Celerina. Anothergroup of veterans grows just below the Little Scheidegg on theGrindelwald side. Many of these trees are said to be 600 or 700 yearsold and their wood is much used for panelling in Graubünden. It isrecognized by the big dark knots. The panels are usually formed ofboards reversed so that the knots form a symmetrical pattern. Larch isalso used and is very red, while sycamore goes to the making of tablesand chairs in the Bündner Stübli. Good examples of the modern useof these woods may be seen in the hotels, Vereina and Silvretta, atKlosters, while the museum at Zurich contains beautiful old panelledrooms from different districts. 

Creeping down steep avalanche slopes above 5, 000 feet we find _Pinusmontana_, whose long branches form a tangle in which to catch one'sSki tips. Below 5, 000 feet this pine will sometimes grow almostupright but never attains much height. Alder may also be a trap forSkis on an avalanche slope where it creeps downhill and provides avery slippery surface for the snow. I remember shooting down such aslope about 100 feet when the snow slipped with me in a safe place. 

Along the rivers the alder grows into quite a fine tree, and if itscatkins be picked at Christmas and are brought into the warm house, they soon blossom out and spread their green pollen over everything. Rather a nice way of bringing a reminder of Spring into one's Winterholiday. 

Birch and mountain ash grow happily up to 6, 000 feet on shelteredslopes but after 6, 000 feet there are no deciduous trees, except thetiny creeping willows buried deep under the snow. 

Juniper is the most ubiquitous shrub to be found, it seems to me. You get its various types at sea level in Italy and on the top ofmountains up to 8, 000 feet when it pokes up through the snow besidethe Alpine Rose or _Rhododendron ferrugineum_. 

On the top of ridges when the snow is blown away, all sorts oftreasures may be recognized. The creeping azalea with its weeevergreen leaves, which no one, thinking of the garden azaleas athome, would recognize as belonging to the same family. Little primulasand saxifrages sheltering in cracks in the rocks, with nothing butbunches of brown leaves to show them up. _Polygula Chamaebuxis_or Bastard Box almost always in flower on a sunny patch even inmidwinter. On the lower slopes, gentians or anemone plants with theirbuds waiting to open when the soft wind or rain of Spring calls tothem. _Erica carnea_ with its whitish buds waiting for Spring tocolour them, one of the earliest of the flowers. Or the seeds of_Gentiana lutea_ or _asclepedia_ or _purpurea_ and of Aconite orMonkshood on their strong stems standing high above the snow. 

One winter when at 4, 000 feet we had no snow at Christmas, we wentflower hunting instead of Ski-ing, and found thirty different sorts offlowers out. But this was exceptional and by no means satisfying tothe Ski runner, who has come out for the sport he loves and not onbotany intent. 

Later, when the snow begins to melt on South slopes in March, the massof purple and white crocuses open to the sun; nothing in the wholeworld can equal the mass of these crocuses. They push up as themiracle of Spring, impatiently thrusting through the snow, meltingholes for themselves. The soldanellas do the same, but not till latein March, and with them come gentians and the whole glory of theAlpine Spring has begun. By this time the Ski-er has to oil and putaway his Skis or climb to the glaciers and higher snow fields. Awonderful experience alternating between Spring and Winter as hechanges his levels. 

SUMMER SKI-ING

The only experience of Summer Ski-ing which I have had is on theJungfrau Joch, about 11, 900 feet above the sea. 

The Berner Oberland and Jungfrau Railways carry one up from Interlakento the Joch where there is an excellent new hotel, offering everypossible comfort. 

Good Ski-ing can be had on the glaciers and I am surprised that morepeople do not come out for practice during the Summer. 

The two great draw-backs to this Ski-ing are, firstly, the expenseand, secondly, the difficulty of breathing. The expense is unavoidablebecause the carriage of building materials, food, etc. To such aheight must necessarily entail high prices. Glacier Ski-ing, except onthe snow-field near the Joch, also usually necessitates the employmentof Guides. But these snow-fields are so extensive and so safe that aweek could be spent in practising without a Guide. 

After the first night on the Joch the feeling of breathlessness isreduced, and so long as all climbing is done slowly no bad effectsneed be expected by people in good health and condition. The JungfrauJoch can be reached from London in twenty-six hours, and keen runnerscould enjoy a week or a fortnight of amusing Ski-ing on snow whichlends itself particularly well to the practice of all turns. 

The Jungfrau Joch branch of the Swiss Ski Club holds an annual meet onthe Joch in the month of July, which is well attended by Runners andJumpers from all parts of Switzerland. 

First-Class Guides and Ski Instructors can be found at the Joch. 

People who would prefer not to sleep at so great a height could stayat the Scheidegg or Eiger Gletscher, at both of which places hotelsexist. 

In view of the shortness of Winter holidays, it seems a pity thatmore enthusiasts do not profit by the chance of practising which theJungfrau Joch Railway offers in Summer time. I have twice spent twodays up there and have enjoyed them immensely. The snow was verydifferent to anything I ever met in Winter, but also very easy andfilled me with confidence. In July and August the crevasses showclearly and need not inspire anxiety in anyone, except after a newfall of snow, which may hide the smaller ones temporarily again. 

There must be several square miles of perfectly safe Ski-ing on theglaciers behind the Joch, which provide Nursery slopes just as good asanything found in Winter. The gradients vary, but it is easy to findstretches of 10° to 30° unbroken by crevasses. 

Anyone coming out to ski on the glaciers in Summer time should bringwith them their own Skis or arrange to hire these at some WinterSports centre in the valleys. They should also be provided with allthe Ski-ing equipment they may need. A few pairs of Skis are kept forhiring purposes on the Jungfrau Joch, but they are not very good onesand it would be better not to depend on them. 

REGULATIONS OF THE BRITISH SKI TESTS

AS APPROVED BY

THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF BRITISH SKI CLUBS. 1923. 

GENERAL REGULATIONS. 

1. The British Standard Ski Tests have been drawn up by the FederalCouncil of British Ski Clubs, hereinafter referred to as "TheCouncil. " _The Council represents the following clubs, which are namedin the order of their foundation: The Davos Ski Club, the Ski Club ofGreat Britain, the Alpine Ski Club, the British Ski Association, andthe Ladies' Ski Club_. 

2. The British Standard Ski Tests are of two kinds: Cross CountrySki-ing Tests and Jumping Tests. There are three Tests of each kind, aFirst Class Test, a Second Class Test, and a Third Class Test. 

3. The Tests are open to all ski-runners without payment, butsuccessful candidates will only receive a certificate and badgeif they are members or prospective members of one of the Clubsrepresented on the Council. A candidate who has been proposedand seconded for a constituent Club, and who has paid a year'ssubscription, and whose election is pending, will be deemed aprospective member for the purpose of this rule. The following sumswill be payable for the badges. These sums may be paid through themembers' Clubs or direct to the Hon. Secretary of the Council. 

 First Class Badge 35s. Second Class Badge 3s. Third Class Badge 2s. 

4. In Switzerland francs will be accepted instead of shillings inpayment of badges. 

5. Certificates and badges will be awarded to any person who haspassed the Cross Country Ski-ing Tests: First Class, a goldbadge; Second Class, a silver badge; Third Class, a bronze badge. Certificates will be issued to those who have passed the correspondingJumping Tests, and these certificates will entitle the holder toreceive a Jumping badge when the Council authorizes the issue of newbadges. 

6. Application for the badges, accompanied by a certificate signed bytwo judges, shall be made either to the local representative of theClub or to the Hon. Secretary of the Council, K. R. Swan, Esq. , 1 EssexCourt, Temple, within three months of the passing of the Test. 

7. Certificate holders will alone be recognized as having passed thetests. _No certificate will be recognized as valid unless issued toa member of one of the constituent clubs of the Council_. A list ofthose certified as having passed any of the tests will be issuedperiodically by the Council. 

8. _Judges_. --No candidate can be judged for any test nor for any partof a test unless two qualified Judges are present. No candidate canbe passed for any part of a test except by being judged formally andknowing that he is being judged. 

9. The Judges are appointed by the Council; the appointment is forthe season only. Judges and Emergency Judges must be of Britishnationality. 

10. The Council also appoints an emergency committee, any one of whomshall have the power to appoint temporary judges for the season only, to act with a Judge elected by the Council. Such temporary judgesshall only be qualified to judge such tests as they have themselvespassed. The appointment of an Emergency Judge will not be recognizedby the Council unless the appointment is notified to the Secretary ofthe Council. 

CROSS COUNTRY SKI-ING TESTS. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES. 

The following definitions may be taken as applying to the three tests:

_Stemming Turns_. --For the purpose of these Tests, Judges must insistthat candidates shall adopt that type of stemming turn known as the"lifted stemming turn, " that is to say, the stemming turn which isfinished by lifting round the inside ski. 

_Telemarks_. --In the Telemark the back ski should drop behind, and thebend of the back ski should not be ahead of the ankle of the leadingfoot and should not be allowed to come forward till the turn iscompleted. Candidates who start the turn with a mixture of ordinarystemming should not be passed. 

_Christianias_. --The Christiania may be done _either_ by separatingthe points of the ski and completed by bringing them parallel--theso-called "open Christiania"; _or_ by keeping the ski parallelthroughout and jerking them round, the "jerked Christiania"; _or_ by avery slight stem, the ski being immediately brought parallel after theturn has started, the so-called "Closed or Stem Christiania. "

In every case the essence of the Christiania is that the swing shouldbe rapid, and that the preliminary stemming or diverging of the skisshould be as slight as possible. 

A turn started by pronounced stemming and completed as a Christianiashould not be passed. 

_Continuous Turns_ are sometimes known as "downhill turns. " They areused to connect one tack with another, and differ from stop or uphillturns in that the turn is made away from the hill instead of uptowards the hill. Candidates must not stop between two continuousturns. 

_Hard Snow_. --For the purpose of these tests, any well-beaten downpractice slope from which all traces of soft snow have disappeared maybe considered as hard snow. Hard crust superficially softened by thesun cannot be considered as hard snow. 

_Soft Snow_. --For the purpose of these tests, a deep layer of powdersnow resting on hard crust, or hard crust superficially softened bythe sun, but not breakable, may be considered as soft snow. 

_Form_. --The Judges must consider the "form" of the runner, as well ashis speed and steadiness. The distinguishing marks of good "form" arean easy balance without dependence on the sticks (see below), an erectposition, except on steep slopes, and a narrow single spoor in softsnow. 

_Use of the Sticks_. --Candidates should carry sticks throughout thesetests, but the sticks should not be used to reduce speed nor to helpout a turn. On the other hand, a candidate may be allowed a prod witha single stick at the end of a turn provided that he is carrying astick in each hand, or in the event of the candidate using a singlestick that this stick is only held in one of his hands. _He must notput both his sticks together, nor hold a single stick in his twohands, during any of these tests, unless expressly directed to do soby the Judge_. 

THE THIRD CLASS TEST (CROSS COUNTRY). 

The Third Class Test consists of three parts, which may be passed ondifferent days, and before different Judges. 

Part (a). --_The ascent of 1, 500 feet in not more than 1 hour 30minutes, and the descent of the same distance within a time whichshall be decided by the Judges. This time shall not be less than7 minutes, nor more than 20 minutes, and shall not exceed 12minutes unless sanctioned by a Second Class Judge or member of theEmergency Committee who is present and judging_. 

Part (b). --_Four continuous Lifted Stemming turns on a slope of hardsnow or hard snow covered by a shallow layer of soft snow. The angleof the slope to be between 15-20 degrees_. 

Part (c). --_Four continuous Telemarks in soft snow on a slope ofsimilar gradient_. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES. 

1. The course selected for Part (a) should include at least 200 feetof moderately difficult ground. Courses such as the Lauberhorn atWengen, which is an unbroken descent of 1, 500 feet that a good runnercould take straight, should not be chosen. No part of the courseshould be along a road. 

2. Throughout the Test candidates must carry rucksacks, which shouldweigh about six lbs. For men, and three lbs. For ladies. The ski mustnot be removed during the test, except to clean or repair them. 

3. The Judges should, if possible, appoint two time-keepers. Duringthe descent not more than six candidates must be judged in one batch. 

4. Not more than three attempts at Part (b), and not more than threeattempts at Part (c) are allowed on the same day. 

5. The attention of the Judges is directed to the GeneralInstructions. The gradient on which Third Class candidates areexpected to do their turns is gentle, as the intention is to securethat candidates should master the proper methods, so as to be ablelater to make real use of the turns on steep slopes. Judges aretherefore urged to insist that the stemming turns and Telemarks aredone correctly and in good style. Each turn should be short, welldefined, and not a mere change of direction. 

QUALIFYING TEST FOR THE SECOND CLASS (CROSS COUNTRY). 

No Candidate may enter for Parts (a), (b) and (c) of the Second ClassTest until he has passed the Qualifying Test, and no Candidate mayenter for the Qualifying Test until he has passed the Third ClassTest. 

The Qualifying Test consists of three parts, which may be passed ondifferent days and before different judges, but which must all bepassed in the same season. 

Part (a). --_Four continuous Lifted Stemming turns on a slope of hardsnow at an angle of 25-30 degrees_. 

Part (b). --_Four continuous Telemark turns on a slope of soft snow atan angle of 25-30 degrees_. 

Part (c). --_Christiania swings to a standstill (right and left) from adirect descent at a fair speed_. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES. 

1. Not more than three attempts at any one part should be allowed onthe same day. 

2. The Christianias should be done on the level or on a gentle slopeafter a descent from a steep slope, as a stop Christiania is moredifficult on the level than on the slope. 

3. The Judges must require a considerably higher standard ofsteadiness and certainty than in the Third Class Test. The object ofthe Third Class Test is to ensure that candidates learn the correctmethods of making the turns. The object of the Second Class Test isto ensure that candidates can make practical use of these turns onmoderately steep slopes. 

THE SECOND CLASS TEST (CROSS COUNTRY). 

The Second Class Test consists of three parts, which must all bepassed in the same season, and should, if possible, be judged by thesame Judges. 

Part (a). --_A descent of not less than 2, 500 feet, mainly on softsnow. The course selected should provide opportunities for straightrunning on reasonably steep slopes_. 

Part (b). --_A descent of not less than 1, 000 feet on hard snow, suchas unbreakable crust or snow which has been thoroughly beaten down_. 

Part (c). --_A descent of at least 500 feet of woodrunning, denseenough to prevent straight running, but not too dense to preventcontinuous turns_. 

1. A Second Class runner may be defined as a runner who can run ata good speed on hard or soft snow of unvarying quality, and whois, above all, thoroughly steady on his turns. A runner who runsrecklessly without judgment, and who shows little power of selectinga safe line, should not be passed even if he takes slopes straight atthe expense of frequent falls. _The Second Class Test is, in the main, a test of steady controlled ski-ing at a good, but not at a racingspeed_. 

2. Candidates must not use their sticks to control speed nor to helpout a turn except under very exceptional circumstances and with theexpress permission of the Judges. The Judges must, however, satisfythemselves that the Candidates understand the use of the stick, andcould, in emergencies, where speed is vital, increase their speed andsteadiness on difficult snow by the use of the stick. 

QUALIFYING TEST FOR THE FIRST CLASS (CROSS COUNTRY). 

No candidate may enter for Parts (a), (b) and (c) of the First ClassTest until he has passed the Qualifying Test that entitles him to bejudged for the First Class Test, and no candidate may enter for thisQualifying Test until he has passed the Second Class Test. 

The Qualifying Test consists of five parts, which may be judged ondifferent days and before different Judges, but which must all bepassed in the same season. 

Part (a). --_Four continuous lifted Stemming turns on a slope of hardsnow at an angle of not less than 30 degrees_. 

Part (b). --_Four continuous Telemark turns on a slope of soft snow atan angle of not less than 30_. 

Part (c). --_Four consecutive jump-turns to connect downhill tacks on aslope of breakable crust at an angle of about 30 degrees_. 

Part (d). --_Christiania swings to a standstill (right and left) from adirect descent at a very high speed_. 

Part (e). --_Four continuous Christiania (see General Instructions) ona slope of about 20 degrees_. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES. 

1. The turns must be done round sticks or flags placed by the Judges. 

2. Not more than three attempts at any one part are allowed on thesame day. 

3. Soft breakable crust will usually be found on slopes with asoutherly exposure just after the sun has struck them or just beforethe sun leaves them. 

FIRST CLASS TEST (CROSS COUNTRY SKI-ING). 

The First Class Test consists of three parts, which must all be passedin the same season and should, if possible, be passed by the sameJudges. If this is impracticable, Judges must indicate on the Testforms which parts they have judged. Not more than two parts shall bejudged on the same day. 

Part (a). --_A descent of not less than 2, 500 feet, which should, ifpossible, be continuous without any intervening stretches of level oruphill. The course selected must provide ample opportunity for fast, straight running, and must also include a fair proportion of steep anddifficult ground_. 

Part (b). --_A descent of not less than 1, 000 feet on reallydifficult snow, such as hard, wind-swept, unbreakable crust, on whichLifted Stemming turns are practicable but Telemarks impossible, variedby breakable crust in which only Jump turns are practicable_. 

Part (c). --_A descent of not less than 500 feet of difficultwoodrunning in which continuous turns are just possible for afirst-class runner. _. 

The above represents a minimum, rather than a maximum. If Judges candevote sufficient time to the Test, each section may well be repeatedon different days in order that the Judges may have ample opportunityof coming to a decision. 

For a descent of about 500 feet, the candidate should lead in orderto test his capacity for choosing a good line. During the rest of theTest one of the Judges must lead and must set a first-class speed. Theother Judge must remain behind the candidate in order to compare hisspeed and steadiness with that of the leading Judge. 

A First Class runner turns as little as possible and slows up aslittle as possible before each turn. His turns are done at a highspeed on all but very steep ground. 

_The candidate must satisfy the Judges that his running combines highspeed, thorough steadiness on difficult ground and difficult snow, andan easy, effortless control of his ski_. 

SKI-JUMPING TESTS. 

GENERAL REGULATIONS. 

1. The length of a jump shall be measured with a taut tape from theedge of the take-off to that point at which the hindermost ski touchesthe alighting track with the part immediately below the binding. 

2. To constitute a standing jump the runner must not fall withina distance of 40 metres from the edge of the take-off or within adistance of 60 metres where the jump, as in the First Class Test, exceeds 30 metres. If the runner comes to a standstill without fallingwithin this distance he will be held to have stood. 

3. If a runner saves himself from falling by supporting himself withhis hands, he shall be considered to have fallen. 

THIRD CLASS TEST (JUMPING). 

1. Every Candidate is required to make two standing jumps of not lessthan 10 metres. Four attempts are allowed on the same day. 

2. Any two Judges appointed by the Council for the Cross CountrySki-ing Tests are qualified to judge this Test. 

SECOND CLASS TEST (JUMPING). 

1. Every Candidate is required to make two standing jumps of not lessthan 20 metres. Four attempts are allowed on any one day. 

2. Any two Second Class Judges appointed by the Federal Council forCross Country Ski-ing Tests may judge this Test. Any Candidate who haspassed this Test may replace one of the Second Class Judges. 

FIRST CLASS TEST (JUMPING). 

1. Every Candidate is required to make two standing jumps of not lessthan 30 metres. Four attempts are allowed on any one day. 

2. Two Second Class Judges appointed by the Federal Council for CrossCountry Ski-ing may judge this Test. Any Candidate who has passed theSecond Class Jumping Test may act in place of one of the Second ClassJudges. 

INDEX

AccidentsAdelbodenAlpine Club HutsAmbulance SledgeAndermattAneroidArosaAttractions of Ski-ingAvalanches

BergunBernese OberlandBerninaBindingsBoots

CampferCapCare of EquipmentCelerinaClothingClubsCoatsCompassCost of Ski-ing HolidayCramponsCutting the Track

Dangerous tracksDavosDiableretsDiscarded Skis, disposal of

Elements of Ski-ingEngadineEngelbergEquipmentEquipment ListEtiquette

FallsFex ThalFinding the WayFirst Aid EquipmentFoot plates

GlovesGradientsGraubunden or GrisonsGrindelwaldGstaadGuides

HatHeightsHistory of Ski-ing

Inn ValleyInstructorsIron for waxing

Julier PassJungfrau Joch

KanderstegKeschKlostersKnife

LanternLap ThongLauterbrunnenLenzerheideLightLifting a Ski

MalojaMapsMending OutfitMontanaMorginsMuottas MuraiglMurren

Nursery Slopes

Oiling Skis Boots Bindings

Para IronParsennPocketsPontresinaPutteesPutting on Skis

Rettungs ChefRhone ValleyRight of WayRucksackRunaway Skis

SaanenmoserSamadenScheideggSchulsScraperSearch PartiesSide SlippingSide SteppingSignals of DistressSilvaplanaSils-MariaSki-ing CentresSkins (Seal)SkisSnow Soft Hard Crust StickySocksSpare BindingSpare ClothingSpare Ski TipSpectaclesSplugenSticksSt. MoritzStockingsStraight RunningSummer Ski-ingSweaters

Tests Elementary Third Class Second Class First Class Regulations JumpingToe IronsTraversing

Uphill Work

Villars

WaxWengenWind Jacket

Zuoz