Makers of History

 Richard II. 

 BY JACOB ABBOTT

 WITH ENGRAVINGS

 NEW YORK AND LONDON

 HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS

 1901

 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-eight, by

 HARPER & BROTHERS, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 

 Copyright, 1886, by BENJAMIN VAUGHAN ABBOTT, AUSTIN ABBOTT, LYMAN ABBOTT, and EDWARD ABBOTT. 

[Illustration: PARLEY WITH THE INSURGENTS. ]

PREFACE. 

King Richard the Second lived in the days when the chivalry of feudaltimes was in all its glory. His father, the Black Prince; his uncles, the sons of Edward the Third, and his ancestors in a long line, extending back to the days of Richard the First, were among the mostillustrious knights of Europe in those days, and their history aboundsin the wonderful exploits, the narrow escapes, and the romanticadventures, for which the knights errant of the Middle Ages were sorenowned. This volume takes up the story of English history at thedeath of Richard the First, and continues it to the time of thedeposition and death of Richard the Second, with a view of presentingas complete a picture as is possible, within such limits, of the ideasand principles, the manners and customs, and the extraordinarymilitary undertakings and exploits of that wonderful age. 

CONTENTS. 

 Chapter Page

 I. RICHARD'S PREDECESSORS 13

 II. QUARRELS 37

 III. THE BLACK PRINCE 81

 IV. THE BATTLE OF POICTIERS 103

 V. CHILDHOOD OF RICHARD 140

 VI. ACCESSION TO THE THRONE 166

 VII. THE CORONATION 185

 VIII. CHIVALRY 197

 IX. WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION 225

 X. THE END OF THE INSURRECTION 255

 XI. GOOD QUEEN ANNE 273

 XII. INCIDENTS OF THE REIGN 290

 XIII. THE LITTLE QUEEN 310

 XIV. RICHARD'S DEPOSITION AND DEATH 324

ENGRAVINGS. 

 Page

 PARLEY WITH THE INSURGENTS _Frontispiece. _

 RUINS OF AN ANCIENT CASTLE 15

 MAP--SITUATION OF NORMANDY 23

 KING JOHN 29

 CAERNARVON CASTLE 51

 PORTRAIT OF EDWARD THE SECOND 55

 WARWICK CASTLE 61

 KENILWORTH CASTLE 66

 A MONK OF THOSE DAYS 69

 BERKELEY CASTLE 71

 CAVES IN THE HILL-SIDE AT NOTTINGHAM CASTLE 75

 MORTIMER'S HOLE 79

 MAP--CAMPAIGN OF CRECY 85

 VIEW OF ROUEN 87

 GENOESE ARCHER 94

 OLD ENGLISH SHIPS 105

 MAP--CAMPAIGN OF POICTIERS 110

 STORMING OF THE CASTLE OF ROMORANTIN 116

 RICHARD RECEIVING THE VISIT OF HIS UNCLE JOHN 152

 PORTRAIT OF RICHARD'S GRANDFATHER 165

 EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE 169

 THE BULL 177

 STORMING OF A TOWN 205

 KNIGHTS CHARGING UPON EACH OTHER 220

 VIEW OF THE TOWER OF LONDON 235

 THE SAVOY 248

 RUINS OF THE SAVOY 252

 COSTUMES 282

 FASHIONABLE HEAD-DRESSES 283

 SEAL OF RICHARD II 300

 HENRY OF BOLINGBROKE--KING HENRY IV 340

 PONTEFRACT CASTLE 342

KING RICHARD II. 

CHAPTER I. 

RICHARD'S PREDECESSORS. 

Three Richards. --Richard the Crusader. --King John. --Character of thekings and nobles of those days. --Origin and nature of theirpower. --Natural rights of man in respect to the fruits of theearth. --Beneficial results of royal rule. --The power of kings andnobles was restricted. --Disputes about the right of succession. --Caseof young Arthur. --The King of France becomes his ally. --Map showingthe situation of Normandy. --Arthur is defeated and made prisoner. --Johnattempts to induce Arthur to abdicate. --Account of the assassination ofArthur. --Various accounts of the mode of Arthur's death. --Uncertaintyin respect to these stories. --League formed against him by hisbarons. --Portrait of King John. --Magna Charta. --Runny Mead. --Theagreement afterward repudiated. --New wars. --New ratifications of MagnaCharta. --Cruelties and oppressions practiced upon the Jews. --Extractfrom the old chronicles. --Absurd accusations. --The story of thecrucified child. --John Lexinton. --Confessions extorted bytorture. --Injustice and cruelty of the practice. --Anecdotes of thenobles and the king. 

There have been three monarchs of the name of Richard upon the Englishthrone. 

Richard I. Is known and celebrated in history as Richard the Crusader. He was the sovereign ruler not only of England, but of all the Normanpart of France, and from both of his dominions he raised a vast army, and went with it to the Holy Land, where he fought many years againstthe Saracens with a view of rescuing Jerusalem and the other holyplaces there from the dominion of unbelievers. He met with a greatmany remarkable adventures in going to the Holy Land, and with stillmore remarkable ones on his return home, all of which are fullyrelated in the volume of this series entitled King Richard I. 

Richard II. Did not succeed Richard I. Immediately. Several reignsintervened. The monarch who immediately succeeded Richard I. WasJohn. John was Richard's brother, and had been left in command, inEngland, as regent, during the king's absence in the Holy Land. 

After John came Henry III. And the three Edwards; and when the thirdEdward died, his son Richard II. Was heir to the throne. He was, however, too young at that time to reign, for he was only ten yearsold. 

The kings in these days were wild and turbulent men, always engaged inwars with each other and with their nobles, while all the industrialclasses were greatly depressed. The nobles lived in strong castles invarious places about the country, and owned, or claimed to own, verylarge estates, which the laboring men were compelled to cultivate forthem. Some of these castles still remain in a habitable state, butmost of them are now in ruins--and very curious objects the ruins areto see. 

[Illustration: RUINS OF AN ANCIENT CASTLE. ]

The kings held their kingdoms very much as the nobles did theirestates--they considered them theirs by right. And the people generallythought so too. The king had a _right_, as they imagined, to live inluxury and splendor, and to lord it over the country, and compel themass of the people to pay him nearly all their earnings in rent andtaxes, and to raise armies, whenever he commanded them, to go and fightfor him in his quarrels with his neighbors, because his father haddone these things before him. And what right had his father to do thesethings? Why, because _his_ father had done them before him. Very well;but to go back to the beginning. What right had the first man to assumethis power, and how did he get possession of it? This was a questionthat nobody could answer, for nobody knew then, and nobody knows now, who were the original founders of these noble families, or by whatmeans they first came into power. People did not know how to read andwrite in the days when kings first began to reign, and so no recordsere made, and no accounts kept of public transactions; and when atlength the countries of Europe in the Middle Ages began to emergesomewhat into the light of civilization, these royal and noble familieswere found every where established. The whole territory of Europe wasdivided into a great number of kingdoms, principalities, dukedoms, andother such sovereignties, over each of which some ancient family wasestablished in supreme and almost despotic power. Nobody knew how theyoriginally came by their power. 

The people generally submitted to this power very willingly. In thefirst place, they had a sort of blind veneration for it on account ofits ancient and established character. Then they were always taughtfrom infancy that kings had a right to reign, and nobles a right totheir estates, and that to toil all their lives, and allow their kingsand nobles to take, in rent and taxes, and in other such ways, everything that they, the people, earned, except what was barely sufficientfor their subsistence, was an obligation which the God of nature hadimposed upon them, and that it would be a sin in them not to submit toit; whereas nothing can be more plain than that the God of natureintends the _earth_ for _man_, and that consequently society ought tobe so organized that in each generation every man can enjoy somethingat least like his fair share of the products of it, in proportion tothe degree of industry or skill which he brings to bear upon the workof developing these products. 

There was another consideration which made the common people moreinclined to submit to these hereditary kings and nobles than we shouldhave supposed they would have been, and that is, the government whichthey exercised was really, in many respects, of great benefit to thecommunity. They preserved order as far as they could, and punishedcrimes. If bands of robbers were formed, the nobles or the king sentout a troop to put them down. If a thief broke into a house and stolewhat he found there, the government sent officers to pursue and arresthim, and then shut him up in jail. If a murder was committed, theywould seize the murderer and hang him. It was their interest to dothis, for if they allowed the people to be robbed and plundered, or tolive all the time in fear of violence, then it is plain that thecultivation of the earth could not go on, and the rents and the taxescould not be paid. So these governments established courts, and madelaws, and appointed officers to execute them, in order to protect thelives and property of their subjects from all common thieves andmurderers, and the people were taught to believe that there was noother way by which their protection could be secured except by thepower of the kings. We must be contented as we are, they said tothemselves, and be willing to go and fight the king's battles, and topay to him and to the nobles nearly every thing that we can earn, orelse society will be thrown into confusion, and the whole land will befull of thieves and murderers. 

In the present age of the world, means have been devised by which, inany country sufficiently enlightened for this purpose, the peoplethemselves can organize a government to restrain and punish robbersand murderers, and to make and execute all other necessary laws forthe promotion of the general welfare; but in those ancient times thiswas seldom or never done. The art of government was not thenunderstood. It is very imperfectly understood at the present day, butin those days it was not understood at all; and, accordingly, therewas nothing better for the people to do than to submit to, and notonly to submit to, but to maintain with all their power the governmentof these hereditary kings and nobles. 

It must not be supposed, however, that the power of these hereditarynobles was absolute. It was very far from being absolute. It wasrestricted and curtailed by the ancient customs and laws of the realm, which customs and laws the kings and nobles could not transgresswithout producing insurrections and rebellions. Their own right to thepower which they wielded rested solely on ancient customs, and, ofcourse, the restrictions on these rights, which had come down bycustom from ancient times, were as valid as the rights themselves. 

Notwithstanding this, the kings were continually overstepping thelimits of their power, and insurrections and civil wars were all thetime breaking out, in consequence of which the realms over which theyreigned were kept in a perpetual state of turmoil. These wars arosesometimes from the contests of different claimants to the crown. If aking died, leaving only a son too young to rule, one of his brothers, perhaps--an uncle of the young prince--would attempt to seize thethrone, under one pretext or another, and then the nobles and thecourtiers would take sides, some in favor of the nephew and some infavor of the uncle, and a long civil war would perhaps ensue. This wasthe case immediately after the death of Richard I. When he died hedesignated as his successor a nephew of his, who was at that time onlytwelve years old. The name of this young prince was Arthur. He was theson of Geoffrey, a brother of Richard's, older than John, and he wasaccordingly the rightful heir; but John, having been once installed inpower by his brother--for his brother had made him regent when he wentaway on his crusade to the Holy Land--determined that he would seizethe crown himself, and exclude his nephew from the succession. 

So he caused himself to be proclaimed king. He was in Normandy at thetime; but he immediately put himself at the head of an armed forceand went to England. 

The barons of the kingdom immediately resolved to resist him, and tomaintain the cause of the young Arthur. They said that Arthur was therightful king, and that John was only a usurper; so they withdrew, every man to his castle, and fortified themselves there. 

In cases like this, where in any kingdom there were two contestedclaims for the throne, the kings of the neighboring countries usuallycame in and took part in the quarrel. They thought that by takingsides with one of the claimants, and aiding him to get possession ofthe throne, they should gain an influence in the kingdom which theymight afterward turn to account for themselves. The King of France atthis time was named Philip. He determined to espouse the cause ofyoung Arthur in this quarrel. His motive for doing this was to have apretext for making war upon John, and, in the war, of conquering someportion of Normandy and annexing it to his own dominions. 

So he invited Arthur to come to his court, and when he arrived therehe asked him if he would not like to be King of England. Arthur saidthat he should like to be a king very much indeed. "Well, " saidPhilip, "I will furnish you with an army, and you shall go and makewar upon John. I will go too, with another army; then, whatever Ishall take away from John in Normandy shall be mine, but all ofEngland shall be yours. "

The situation of the country of Normandy, in relation to France and toEngland, may be seen by the accompanying map. 

[Illustration: SITUATION OF NORMANDY. ]

Philip thought that he could easily seize a large part of Normandy andannex it to his dominions while John was engaged in defending himselfagainst Arthur in England. 

Arthur, who was at this time only about fourteen years old, was, ofcourse, too young to exercise any judgment in respect to suchquestions as these, so he readily agreed to what Philip proposed, andvery soon afterward Philip assembled an army, and, placing Arthurnominally at the head of it, he sent him forth into Normandy tocommence the war upon John. Of course, Arthur was only nominally atthe head of the army. There were old and experienced generals whoreally had the command, though they did every thing in Arthur's name. 

A long war ensued, but in the end Arthur's army was defeated, andArthur himself was made prisoner. John and his savage soldiery gotpossession of the town where Arthur was in the night, and they seizedthe poor boy in his bed. The soldiers took him away with a troop ofhorse, and shut him up in a dungeon in a famous castle called thecastle of Falaise. You will see the position of Falaise on the map. 

After a while John determined to visit Arthur in his prison, in orderto see if he could not make some terms with him. To accomplish hispurpose more effectually, he waited some time, till he thought thepoor boy's spirit must be broken down by his confinement and hissufferings. His design was probably to make terms with him by offeringhim his liberty, and perhaps some rich estate, if he would only giveup his claims to the crown and acknowledge John as king; but he foundthat Arthur, young as he was, and helpless as was his condition in hislonely dungeon, remained in heart entirely unsubdued. All that hewould say in answer to John's proposal was, "Give me back my kingdom. "At length, John, finding that he could not induce the prince to giveup his claims, went away in a rage, and determined to kill him. IfArthur were dead, there would then, he thought, be no fartherdifficulty, for all acknowledged that after Arthur he himself was thenext heir. 

There was another way, too, by which John might become the rightfulheir to the crown. It was a prevalent idea in those days that noperson who was blind, or deaf, or dumb could inherit a crown. To blindyoung Arthur, then, would be as effectual a means of extinguishing hisclaims as to kill him, and John accordingly determined to destroy theyoung prince's right to the succession by putting out his eyes; so hesent two executioners to perform this cruel deed upon the captive inhis dungeon. 

The name of the governor of the castle was Hubert. He was a kind andhumane man, and he pitied his unhappy prisoner; and so, when theexecutioners came, and Hubert went to the cell to tell Arthur thatthey had come, and what they had come for, Arthur fell on his kneesbefore him and began to beg for mercy, crying out, Save me! oh, saveme! with such piteous cries that Hubert's heart was moved withcompassion, and he concluded that he would put off the execution ofthe dreadful deed till he could see the king again. 

John was very angry when he found that his orders had not been obeyed, and he immediately determined to send Arthur to another prison, whichwas in the town of Rouen, the keeper of which he knew to be anunscrupulous and merciless man. This was done, and soon afterward itwas given out through all the kingdom that Arthur was dead. Every bodywas convinced that John had caused him to be murdered. There wereseveral different rumors in respect to the way in which the deed wasdone. One story was that John, being at Rouen, where Arthur wasimprisoned, after having become excited with the wine which he haddrunk at a carousal, went and killed Arthur himself with his ownhand, and that he then ordered his body to be thrown into the Seine, with heavy stones tied to the feet to make it sink. The body, however, afterward, they said, rose to the surface and floated to the shore, where some monks found it, and buried it secretly in their abbey. 

Another story was that John pretended to be reconciled to Arthur, andtook him out one day to ride with him, with other horsemen. PresentlyJohn rode on with Arthur in advance of the party, until late in theevening they came to a solitary place where there was a high cliffoverhanging the sea. Here John drew his sword, and, riding up toArthur, suddenly ran him through the body. Arthur cried aloud, andbegged for mercy as he fell from his horse to the ground; but Johndragged him to the edge of the precipice, and threw him over into thesea while he was yet alive and breathing. 

A third story was that John had determined that Arthur must die, andthat he came himself one night to the castle where Arthur was confinedin Rouen on the Seine. A man went up to Arthur's room, and, waking himfrom his sleep, directed him to rise. 

"Rise, " said he, "and come with me. "

Arthur rose, and followed his guard with fear and trembling. Theydescended the staircase to the foot of the tower, where there was aportal that opened close upon the river. On going out, Arthur foundthat there was a boat there at the stairs, with his uncle and someother men in it. Arthur at once understood what these things meant, and was greatly terrified. He fell on his knees, and begged his uncleto spare his life; but John gave a sign, and Arthur was stabbed, andthen taken out a little way and thrown into the river. Some say thatJohn killed him and threw him into the river with his own hand. 

Which of these tales is true, if either of them is so, can nowprobably never be known. All that is certain is that John in some wayor other caused Arthur to be murdered in order to remove him out ofthe way. He justified his claim to the crown by pretending that KingRichard, his brother, on his death-bed, bequeathed the kingdom to him, but this nobody believes. 

At any rate, John obtained possession of the crown, and he reignedmany years. His reign, however, was a very troubled one. His title, indeed, after Arthur's death, was no longer disputed, but he wasgreatly abhorred and hated for his cruelties and crimes, and at lengthnearly all the barons of his realm banded themselves together againsthim, with the view of reducing his power as king within morereasonable bounds. 

[Illustration: KING JOHN. ]

The king fought these _rebels_, as he called them, for some time, buthe was continually beaten, and finally compelled to yield to them. They wrote out their demands in a full and formal manner uponparchment, and compelled the king to sign it. This document was calledthe MAGNA CHARTA, which means the great charter. The signing anddelivering this deed is considered one of the most important events inEnglish history. It was the first great covenant that was made betweenthe kings and the people of England, and the stipulations of it havebeen considered binding to this day, so that it is, in some sense, theoriginal basis and foundation of the civil rights which the Britishpeople now enjoy. 

The place of assembly where King John came out to sign this covenantwas a broad and beautiful meadow on the banks of the Thames, not farfrom Windsor Castle. The name of the field is Runny Mead. The word_mead_ is a contraction for meadow. 

The act of once signing such a compact as this was, however, notsufficient, it seems, to bind the English kings. There were a greatmany disputes and contests about it afterward between the kings andthe barons, as the kings, one after another, refused to adhere to theagreement made by John in their name, on the ground, perhaps, of thedeed not being a voluntary one on his part. He was forced to sign it, they said, because the barons were stronger than he was. Of course, when the kings thought that they, in their turn, were stronger thanthe barons, they were very apt to violate the agreement. One of thekings on one occasion obtained a dispensation from the Pope, absolvinghim from all obligation to fulfill this compact. 

In consequence of this want of good faith on the part of the kings, there arose continually new quarrels, and sometimes new civil wars, between the kings and the barons. In these contests the barons wereusually successful in the end, and then they always insisted on thevanquished monarch's ratifying or signing the Magna Charta anew. It issaid that in this way it was confirmed and re-established not lessthan _thirty times_ in the course of four or five reigns, and thus itbecame at last the settled and unquestioned law of the land. The powerof the kings of England has been restricted and controlled by itsprovisions ever since. 

All this took place in the reigns preceding the accession of RichardII. 

Besides these contests with the barons, the kings of those times wereoften engaged in contentions with the people; but the people, havingno means of combining together or otherwise organizing theirresistance, were almost always compelled to submit. They were oftenoppressed and maltreated in the most cruel manner. The great object ofthe government seems to have been to extort money from them in everypossible way, and to this end taxes and imposts were levied upon themto such an extent as to leave them enough only for bare subsistence. The most cruel means were often resorted to to compel the payment ofthese taxes. The unhappy Jews were the special subjects of theseextortions. The Jews in Europe were at this time generally excludedfrom almost every kind of business except buying and selling movableproperty, and lending money; but by these means many of them becamevery rich, and their property was of such a nature that it could beeasily concealed. This led to a great many cases of cruelty in thetreatment of them by the government. The government pretended oftenthat they were richer than they really were, while they themselvespretended that they were poorer than they were, and the governmentresorted to the most lawless and atrocious measures sometimes tocompel them to pay. The following extract from one of the historiansof the time gives an example of this cruelty, and, at the same time, furnishes the reader with a specimen of the quaint and curious styleof composition and orthography in which the chronicles of those daysare written. 

 =Furthermore, about the same time, the King taxed the Jewes, and greeuouslie tormented and emprisoned them bicause divers of them would not willinglie pay the summes that they were taxed at. Amongst other, there was one of them at Bristow who would not consent to give any fine for his deliverance; wherefore by the king's commandment he was put unto this penance, namely, that eurie daie, till he would agree to give to the king those ten thousand marks that he was siezed at, he would have one of his teeth plucked out of his head. By the space of seaun daies together he stood stedfast, losing euerie of those days a tooth. But on the eighth day, when he shuld come to have the eighth tooth, and the last (for he had but eight in all), draun out, he paid the monie to save that, who with more wisedome and less paine might have done so before, and so have saved his seven teeth which he lost with such torments; for those homelie toothdrauers used no great cunning in plucking them forth, as may be conjectured. =

The poor Jews were entirely at the mercy of the king in these cases, for they were so much hated and despised by the Christian people ofthe land that nobody was disposed to defend them, either by word ordeed, whatever injustice or cruelty they might suffer. The most absurdand injurious charges were made against them by common rumor, and weregenerally believed, for there was nobody to defend them. There was astory, for example, that they were accustomed every year to crucify aChristian child. One year a mother, having missed her child, searchedevery where for him, and at length found him dead in the bottom of awell. It was recollected that a short time before the childdisappeared he had been seen playing with some Jewish children beforethe door of a house where a certain Jew lived, called John Lexinton. The story was immediately circulated that this child had been taken bythe Jews and crucified. It was supposed, of course, that John Lexintonwas intimately connected with the crime. He was immediately seized bythe officers, and he was so terrified by their threats anddenunciations that he promised to confess every thing if they wouldspare his life. This they engaged to do, and he accordingly made whathe called his confession. In consequence of this confession a hundredand two Jews were apprehended, and carried to London and shut up inthe Tower. 

But, notwithstanding the confession that John Lexinton had made andthe promise that was given him, it was determined that he should notbe spared, but should die. Upon hearing this he was greatlydistressed, and he offered to make more confessions; so he revealedseveral additional particulars in regard to the crime, and implicatednumerous other persons in the commission of it. All was, however, ofno avail. He was executed, and eighteen other Jews with him. 

Judging from the evidence which we have in this case, it is highlyprobable that the alleged crime was wholly imaginary. Confessions thatare extorted by pain or fear are never to be believed. They may betrue, but they are far more likely to be false. It was the custom inancient times, and it still remains the custom among many ignorant andbarbarous nations, to put persons to torture in order to compel themto confess crimes of which they are suspected, or to reveal the namesof their accomplices, but nothing can be more cruel or unjust thansuch a practice as this. Most men, in such cases, are so maddened withtheir agony and terror that they will say any thing whatever that theythink will induce their tormentors to put an end to their sufferings. 

The common people could not often resist the acts of oppression whichthey suffered from their rulers, for they had no power, and they couldnot combine together extensively enough to create a power, and so theywere easily kept in subjection. 

The nobles, however, were much less afraid of the monarchs, and oftenresisted them and bid them defiance. It was the law in those daysthat all estates to which no other person had a legal claim_escheated_, as they called it, to the king. Of course, if the kingcould find an estate in which there was any flaw in the title of theman who held it, he would claim it for his own. At one time a kingasked a certain baron to show him the title to his estate. He wasintending to examine it, to see if there was any flaw in it. Thebaron, instead of producing his parchment, drew his sword and held itout before the king. 

"This is my title to my estate, " said he. "Your majesty will rememberthat William of Normandy did not conquer this realm for himselfalone. "

At another time a king wished to send two of his earls out of thecountry on some military expedition where they did not wish to go. They accordingly declined the undertaking. 

"By the Almighty, " said the king, "you shall either go or hang. "

"By the Almighty, " replied one of the earls, "we will neither go norhang. "

The nobles also often formed extensive and powerful combinations amongeach other against the king, and in such cases they were almost alwayssuccessful in bringing him to submit to their demands. 

CHAPTER II. 

QUARRELS. 

A. D. 1327

Classes of quarrels in which the kings and the people were engaged. --ThePope. --His claim of jurisdiction in England. --The Pope's legate andthe students at Oxford. --Great riot made by the students. --The endof the affair. --Plan to assassinate the king. --Margaret, theservant-girl. --Execution of Marish. --Ideas of the sacredness of theperson of a king. --Origin of the wars with Leolin, Prince ofWales. --Leolin's bride intercepted at sea. --The unhappy fate ofLeolin. --Fate of Prince David, his brother. --Occasional acts ofgenerosity. --Story of Lewin and the box of dispatches. --The fate ofLewin. --Origin of the modern title of Prince of Wales. --The firstEnglish Prince of Wales. --Piers Gaveston. --Edward II. And hisfavorite. --Their wild and reckless behavior. --The king goes away tobe married. --Edward's indifference on the occasion of his marriage. --Hisinfatuation in respect to Gaveston. --The coronation. --Bold andpresumptuous demeanor of Gaveston. --His unpopularity. --He isbanished. --His parting. --The Black Dog of Ardenne. --Gaveston'sreturn. --Gaveston made prisoner. --Consultation respecting him. --Hisfate. --The Spencers. --The queen and Mortimer. --Edward III. Proclaimedking. --Edward II. Made prisoner. --Edward II. Formally deposed atKenilworth. --The delegation require the king to abdicate thecrown. --Opinion of the monks. --Alarm of the nobles. --BerkeleyCastle. --Plot for assassinating the king. --Dreadful death. --Greathatred of Mortimer. --Situation of the castle of Nottingham. --Thecaves. --Entrance of the conspirators into the castle. --Isabella'sunhappy fate. --Mortimer's Hole. 

In the days of the predecessors of King Richard the Second, notwithstanding the claim made by the kings of a right on their partto reign on account of the influence exercised by their government inpromoting law and order throughout the community, the country wasreally kept in a continual state of turmoil by the quarrels which thedifferent parties concerned in this government were engaged in witheach other and with surrounding nations. These quarrels were ofvarious kinds. 

 1. The kings, as we have already seen, were perpetually quarreling with the nobles. 

 2. The different branches of the royal family were often engaged in bitter and cruel wars with each other, arising from their conflicting claims to the crown. 

 3. The kings of different countries were continually making forays into each other's territories, or waging war against each other with fire and sword. These wars arose sometimes from a lawless spirit of depredation, and sometimes were waged to resent personal insults or injuries, real or imaginary. 

 4. The Pope of Rome, who claimed jurisdiction over the Church in England as well as elsewhere, was constantly coming into collision with the civil power. 

From some one or other of these several causes, the kingdom ofEngland, in the time of Richard's predecessors, was seldom at peace. Some great quarrel or other was continually going on. There was agreat deal of difficulty during the reigns that immediately precededthat of Richard the Second between the kings and the Pope. The Pope, as has already been remarked, was considered the head of the wholeChristian Church, and he claimed rights in respect to the appointmentof the archbishops, and bishops, and other ecclesiastics in England, and in respect to the government and control of the monasteries, andthe abbeys, and to the appropriation and expenditure of the revenuesof the Church, which sometimes interfered very seriously with theviews and designs of the king. Hence there arose continual disputesand quarrels. The Pope never came himself to England, but he oftensent a grand embassador, called a legate, who traveled with great pompand parade, and with many attendants, and assumed in all his doings amost lofty and superior air. In the contests in which these legateswere engaged with the kings, the legates almost always came offconquerors through the immense influence which the Pope exercised overthe consciences and religious fears of the mass of the people. 

Sometimes the visits of the legates and their proceedings among thepeople led to open broils. At one time, for instance, the legate wasat Oxford, where the great University, now so renowned throughout theworld, already existed. He was lodged at an abbey there, and some ofthe scholars of the University wishing to pay their respects to him, as they said, went in a body to the gates of the abbey and demandedadmission; but the porter kept them back and refused to let them in. Upon this a great noise and tumult arose, the students pressingagainst the gates to get in, and the porter, assisted by the legate'smen, whom he called to his assistance, resisting them. 

In the course of the fray one or two of the students succeeded inforcing their way in as far as to the kitchen of the abbey, and thereone of them called upon a cook to help them. But the cook, instead ofhelping them, dipped out a ladle full of hot broth from a kettle andthrew it into the student's face. Whereupon the other students criedout, as the ancient chronicler relates it, "What meane we to sufferthis villanie, " and, taking an arrow, he set it in his bow, havingcaught up these weapons in the beginning of the fray, and let it flyat the cook, and killed him on the spot. 

This, of course, greatly increased the excitement. More students camein, and so great was the tumult and confusion that the legate was interror for his life, and he fled and concealed himself in the belfryof the abbey. After lying in this place of concealment for some time, until the tumult was in some measure appeased, he crept out secretly, fled across the Thames, and then, mounting a horse, made the best ofhis way to London. 

He made complaint to the king of the indignity which he had endured, and the king immediately sent a troop of armed men, with an earl atthe head of them, to rescue the remainder of the legate's men thatwere still imprisoned in the abbey, and also to seize all the studentsthat had been concerned in the riot and bring them to London. The earlproceeded to execute his commission. He apprehended thirty of thestudents, and, taking them to a neighboring castle, he shut them upthere as prisoners. 

In the end, besides punishing the individual students who had madethis disturbance, the regents and masters of the University werecompelled to come to London, and there to go barefooted through theprincipal street to a church where the legate was, and humbly tosupplicate his forgiveness for the indignity which he had suffered. And so, with great difficulty, they obtained their pardon. 

The students in those days, as students are apt to be in all countriesand in all ages, were a very impulsive, and, in some respects, alawless set. Whenever they deemed themselves injured, they pursued theobject of their hostility in the most reckless and relentless manner. At one time a member of the University became so excited against theking on account of some injury, real or imaginary, which he hadsuffered, that he resolved to kill him. So he feigned himself mad, andin this guise he loitered many days about the palace of Woodstock, where the king was then residing, until at length he became wellacquainted with all the localities. Then, watching his opportunity, heclimbed by night through a window into a bedchamber where he thoughtthe king was lying. He crept up to the bedside, and, throwing back theclothes, he stabbed several times into the bed with a dagger. He, however, stabbed nothing but the bed itself, and the pillow, for theking that night, as it happened, lay in another chamber. 

As the student was making his escape, he was spied by one of thechambermaids named Margaret Biset. Margaret immediately made a greatoutcry, and the other servants, coming up, seized the student andcarried him off to prison. He was afterward tried, and was convictedof treason in having made an attempt upon the king's life, and washanged. Before his death he said that he had been employed to kill theking by another man, a certain William de Marish, who was a noted andprominent man of those days. This William de Marish was afterwardtaken and brought to trial, but he solemnly denied that he had everinstigated the student to commit the crime. He was, however, condemnedand executed, and, according to the custom in those days in the caseof persons convicted of treason, his body was subjected after hisdeath to extreme indignities, and then was divided into four quarters, one of which was sent to each of the four principal cities of thekingdom, and publicly exhibited in them as a warning to all men of thedreadful consequences of attempting such a crime. 

Great pains were taken in those days to instill into the minds of allmen the idea that to kill a king was the worst crime that a humanbeing could commit. One of the writers of the time said that inwounding and killing a prince a man was guilty of homicide, parricide, Christicide, and even of deicide, all in one; that is, that in theperson of a king slain by the hand of the murderer the criminalstrikes not only at a man, but at his own father, and at Christ hisSavior, and God. 

A great many strange and superstitious notions were entertained by thepeople in respect to kings. These superstitions were encouraged, evenby the scholars and historians of those times, who might be supposedto know better. But it was so much for their interest to write whatshould be agreeable to the king and to his court, that they were by nomeans scrupulous in respect to the tales which they told, providedthey were likely to be pleasing to those in authority, and tostrengthen the powers and prestige of the reigning families. 

 * * * * *

The neighboring countries with which the kings of England were mostfrequently at war in those days were Scotland, Wales, and France. These wars arose, not from any causes connected with the substantialinterests of the people of England, but from the grasping ambition ofthe kings, who wished to increase the extent of their territories, andthus add to their revenues and to their power. Sometimes their warsarose from private and personal quarrels, and in these cases thousandsof lives were often sacrificed, and great sums of money expended torevenge slights or personal injuries of comparatively littleconsequence. 

For instance, one of the wars with Wales broke out in this manner. Leolin, who was then the reigning Prince of Wales, sent to France, andrequested the King of France that he might have in marriage a certainlady named Lady Eleanor, who was then residing in the French king'scourt. The motive of Leolin in making this proposal was not that hebore any love for the Lady Eleanor, for very likely he had never seenher; but she was the daughter of an English earl named Montfort, Earlof Leicester, who was an enemy of the King of England, and, havingbeen banished from the country, had taken refuge in France. Leolinthought that by proposing and carrying into effect this marriage, hewould at once gratify the King of France and spite the King ofEngland. 

The King of France at once assented to the proposed marriage, but theKing of England was extremely angry, and he determined to prevent themarriage if he could. He accordingly gave the necessary orders, andthe little fleet which was sent from France to convey Eleanor to Waleswas intercepted off the Scilly Islands on the way, and the wholebridal party were taken prisoners and sent to London. 

As soon as Leolin heard this, he, of course, was greatly enraged, andhe immediately set off with an armed troop, and made a foray upon theEnglish frontiers, killing all the people that lived near the border, plundering their property, and burning up all the towns and villagesthat came in his way. There followed a long war. The English were, onthe whole, the victors in the war, and at the end of it a treaty wasmade by which Leolin's wife, it is true, was restored to him, but hiskingdom was brought almost completely under the power of the Englishkings. 

Of course, Leolin was extremely dissatisfied with this result, and hebecame more and more uneasy in the enthralled position to which theEnglish king had reduced him, and finally a new war broke out. Leolinwas beaten in this war too, and in the end, in a desperate battle thatwas fought among the mountains, he was slain. He was slain near thebeginning of the battle. The man who killed him did not know at thetime who it was that he had killed, though he knew from his armor thathe was some distinguished personage or other. When the battle wasended this man went back to the place to see, and, finding that it wasthe Prince Leolin whom he had slain, he was greatly pleased. He cutoff the head from the body, and sent it as a present to the king. Theking sent the head to London, there to be paraded through the streetson the end of a long pole as a token of victory. After being carriedin this manner through Cheapside--then the principal street ofLondon--in order that it might be gazed upon by all the people, it wasset up on a high pole near the Tower, and there remained a long time, a trophy, as the king regarded it, of the glory and renown of avictory, but really an emblem of cruel injustice and wrong perpetratedby a strong against a weaker neighbor. 

Not long after this the King of England succeeded in taking PrinceDavid, the brother of Leolin, and, under the pretense that he had beenguilty of treason, he cut off his head too, and set it up on anotherpole at the Tower of London, by the side of his brother's. 

It must be admitted, however, that, although these ancient warriorswere generally extremely unjust in their dealings with each other, and often barbarously cruel, they were still sometimes actuated byhigh and noble sentiments of honor and generosity. On one occasion, for instance, when this same Edward the First, who was so cruel in histreatment of Leolin, was at war in Scotland, and was besieging acastle there, he wrote one day certain dispatches to send to hiscouncil in London, and, having inquired for a speedy and trustymessenger to send them by, a certain Welshman named Lewin was sent tohim. The king delivered the package to Lewin inclosed in a box, andalso gave him money to bear his expenses on the way, and then sent himforth. 

Lewin, however, instead of setting out on his journey, went to atavern, and there, with a party of his companions, he spent the moneywhich he had received in drink, and passed the night carousing. In themorning he said that he must set out on his journey, but before hewent he must go back to the castle and have one parting shot at thegarrison. Under this pretext, he took his cross-bow and proceededtoward the castle wall; but when he got there, instead of shooting hisarrows, he called out to the wardens whom he saw on guard over thegate, and asked them to let down a rope and draw him up into thecastle, as he had something of great importance to communicate to thegovernor of it. 

So the wardens let down a rope and drew Lewin up, and then took him tothe governor, who was then at breakfast. Lewin held out the box to thegovernor, saying, "Here, sir, look in this box, and you may read all the secrets of theKing of England. "

He said, moreover, that he would like to have the governor give him aplace on the wall, and see whether he could handle a cross-bow or notagainst the English army. 

Gunpowder and guns had not been introduced as means of warfare at thistime; the most formidable weapon that was then employed was thecross-bow. With the cross-bow a sort of square-headed arrow was usedcalled a _quarrel_. 

The governor, instead of accepting these offers on the part of Lewin, immediately went out to one of the turrets on the wall, and, callingto the English soldiers whom he saw below, he directed them to tellthe King of England that one of his servants had turned traitor, andhad come into the castle with a box of dispatches. 

"And tell him, " said the governor, "that if he will send some personshere to receive him, I will let the man down to them over the wall, and also restore the box of dispatches, which I have not opened atall. "

Immediately Lord Spencer, one of the king's chief officers, came tothe wall, and the governor of the castle let Lewin down to him by arope, and also passed the box of letters down. The King of England wasso much pleased with this generosity on the part of the governor thathe immediately ceased his operations against the castle, though hecaused Lewin to be hanged on a gallows of the highest kind. 

 * * * * *

But to return to Wales. After the death of Leolin and his brother thekingdom of Wales was annexed to England, and has ever since remained apossession of the British crown. The King of England partly inducedthe people of Wales to consent to this annexation by promising that hewould still give them a native of Wales for prince. They thought hemeant by this that they should continue to be governed by one of theirown royal family; but what he really meant was that he would make hisown son Prince of Wales. This son of his was then an infant. He wasborn in Wales. This happened from the fact that the king, in thecourse of his conquests in that country, had seized upon a placecalled Caernarvon, and had built a castle there, in a beautifulsituation on the Straits of Menai, which separate the main land fromthe isle of Anglesea. 

When his castle was finished the king brought the queen to Caernarvonto see it, and while she was there, her child, Prince Edward, whoafterward became Edward the Second, was born. 

This was the origin of the title of Prince of Wales, which has beenheld ever since by the oldest sons of the English sovereigns. 

[Illustration: CAERNARVON CASTLE. ]

This first English Prince of Wales led a most unhappy life, and hishistory illustrates in a most striking manner one of the classes ofquarrels enumerated at the head of this chapter, namely, the disputesand contentions that often prevailed between the sovereign of thecountry and his principal nobles. While he was a young man he formed avery intimate friendship with another young man named Piers Gaveston. This Gaveston was a remarkably handsome youth, and very prepossessingand agreeable in his manners, and he soon gained a complete ascendencyover the mind of young Edward. He was, however, very wild and dissolutein his habits, and the influence which he exerted upon Edward wasextremely bad. As long as the common people only were injured by thelawless behavior of these young men, the king seems to have borne withthem; but at last, in a riot in which they were concerned, they brokeinto the park of a bishop, and committed damage there which the kingcould not overlook. He caused his son, the young prince, to be seizedand put into prison, and he banished Gaveston from the country, andforbade his son to have any thing more to do with him. This was in 1305, when the prince was twenty-one years of age. 

In 1307, two years later, the king died, and the prince succeeded him, under the title of King Edward the Second. He immediately sent forGaveston to return to England, where he received him with the greatestjoy. He made him a duke, under the title of Duke of Cornwall; and asfor the bishop whose park he and Gaveston had broken into, and onwhose complaint Gaveston had been banished, in order to punish him forthese offenses, the young king seized him and delivered him intoGaveston's hands as a prisoner, and at the same time confiscated hisestates and gave them to Gaveston. Gaveston sent the bishop about fromcastle to castle as a prisoner, according as his caprice or fancydictated. 

These things made the barons and nobles of England extremelyindignant, for Gaveston, besides being a corrupt and dissipatedcharacter, was, in fact, a foreigner by birth, being a native ofGascony, in France. His character seemed to grow worse with hisexaltation, and he and Edward spent all their time in rioting andexcess, and in perpetrating every species of iniquity. 

Edward had been for some time engaged to be married to the PrincessIsabel, the daughter of the King of France. About six months after hisaccession to the throne he set off for France to be married. It washis duty, according to the ancient usages of the realm, to appointsome member of the royal family, or some prominent person from theancient nobility of the country, to govern the kingdom as regentduring his absence; but instead of this he put Gaveston in this place, and clothed him with all the powers of a viceroy. 

[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF EDWARD THE SECOND. ]

Edward was married to Isabel in Paris with great pomp and parade. Isabelwas very beautiful, and was a general favorite. It is said that therewere four kings and three queens present at the marriage ceremony. Edward, however, seemed to feel very little interest either in his brideor in the occasion of his marriage, but manifested a great impatienceto get through with the ceremonies, so as to return to England and toGaveston. As soon as it was possible, he set out on his return. Thebridal party were met at their landing by Gaveston, accompanied by allthe principal nobility, who came to receive and welcome them at thefrontier. The king was overjoyed to see Gaveston again. He fell into hisarms, hugged and kissed him, and called him his dear brother, while, onthe other hand, he took very little notice of the nobles and highofficers of state. Every body was surprised and displeased at thisbehavior, but as Edward was king there was nothing to be said or done. 

Soon afterward the coronation took place, and on this occasion all thehonors were allotted to Gaveston, to the utter neglect of the ancientand hereditary dignitaries of the realm. Gaveston carried the crown, and walked before the king and queen, and acted in all respects as ifhe were the principal personage in the country. The old nobles were, of course, extremely indignant at this. Hitherto they had expressedtheir displeasure at the king's favoritism by private murmurings andcomplaints, but now, they thought, it was time to take some concertedpublic action to remedy the evil; so they met together, and framed apetition to be sent to the king, in which, though under the form of arequest, they, in fact, demanded that Gaveston should be dismissedfrom his offices, and required to leave the country. 

The king was alarmed. He, however, could not think of giving hisfavorite up. So he said that he would return them an answer to thepetition by-and-by, and he immediately began to pursue a moreconciliatory course toward the nobles. But the effect of his attemptsat conciliation was spoiled by Gaveston's behavior. He became more andmore proud and ostentatious every day. He appeared in all publicplaces, and every where he took precedence of the highest nobles ofthe land, and prided himself on outshining them in the pomp and paradewhich he displayed. He attended all the jousts and tournaments, and, as he was really a very handsome and well-formed man, and well skilledin the warlike sports in fashion in those days, he bore away most ofthe great prizes. He thus successfully rivaled the other nobles ingaining the admiration of the ladies of the court and the applause ofthe multitude, and made the nobles hate him more than ever. 

Things went on in this way worse and worse, until at last the generalsentiment became so strong against Gaveston that the Parliament, whenit met, took a decided stand in opposition to him, and insisted thathe should be expelled from the country. A struggle followed, but theking was obliged to yield. Gaveston was required to leave the country, and to take an oath never to return. It was only on these conditionsthat the Parliament would uphold the government, and thus the king sawthat he must lose either his friend or his crown. 

Gaveston went away. The king accompanied him to the sea-shore, andtook leave of him there in the most affectionate manner, promising tobring him back again as soon as he could possibly do it. Heimmediately began to manoeuvre for the accomplishment of thispurpose. In the mean time, as Gaveston had only sworn to leave_England_, the king sent him to Ireland, and made him governor generalof that country, and there Gaveston lived in greater power andsplendor than ever. 

At length, in little more than a year, Gaveston came back. His oathnot to return was disposed of by means of a dispensation which KingEdward obtained for him from the Pope, absolving him from theobligation of it. When he was reinstated in the king's court hebehaved more scandalously than ever. He revenged himself upon thenobles who had been the means of sending him away by ridiculing themand giving them nicknames. One of them he called Joseph the Jew, because his face was pale and thin, and bore, in some respects, aJewish expression. Another, the Earl of Warwick, he called the BlackDog of Ardenne. When the earl heard of this, he said, clenching hisfist, "Very well; I'll make him feel the Black Dog's teeth yet. "

In a word, the nobles were excited to the greatest pitch of rage andindignation against the favorite, and, after various struggles andcontentions between them and the king, they at length broke out intoan open revolt. The king at this time, with Gaveston and his wife, were at Newcastle, which is in the north of England. The barons fellupon him here with the intention of seizing Gaveston. Both the kingand Gaveston, however, succeeded in making their escape. Gaveston fledto a castle, and shut himself up there. The king escaped by sea, leaving his wife behind, at the mercy of the conspirators. The baronstreated the queen with respect, but they pressed on at once in pursuitof Gaveston. They laid siege to the castle where he sought refuge. Finding that the castle could not hold out long, Gaveston thought itbest to surrender while it yet remained in his power to make termswith his enemies; so he agreed to give himself up, they stipulatingthat they would do him no bodily harm, but only confine him, and thatthe place of his confinement should be one of his own castles. 

When he came down into the court-yard of the castle, after signingthis stipulation, he found there ready to receive him the Earl ofWarwick, the man to whom he had given the nickname of the Black Dog ofArdenne. The earl was at the head of a large force. He immediatelytook Gaveston into custody, and galloped off with him at the head ofhis troop to his own castle. The engraving represents a view of thisfortress as it appeared in those days. 

When they had got Gaveston safe into this castle, the chiefs held asort of council of war to determine what should be done with theirprisoner. While they were consulting on the subject, intendingapparently to spare his life as they had agreed, some one called out, "It has cost you a great deal of trouble to catch the fox, and now, ifyou let him go, you will have a great deal more trouble in hunting himagain. "

This consideration decided them; so they took the terrified prisoner, and, in spite of his piteous cries for mercy, they hurried him away toa solitary place a mile or two from the castle, and there, on a littleknoll by the side of the road, they cut off his head. 

[Illustration: WARWICK CASTLE. ]

One would have supposed that by this time the king would have been curedof the folly of devoting himself to favorites, but he was not. Hemourned over the death of Gaveston at first with bitter grief, and whenthis first paroxysm of his sorrow was passed, it was succeeded with astill more bitter spirit of revenge. He immediately took the fieldagainst his rebellious barons, and a furious civil war ensued. He soon, too, found a new favorite, or, rather, two favorites. They werebrothers, and their names were Spencer. They are called in history theSpencers, or the Despensers. The quarrels and wars which took placebetween the king and these favorites on one hand, and the barons andnobles on the other, were continued for many years. The queen took sideswith the nobles against her husband and the Spencers. She fled toFrance, and there formed an intimacy with a young nobleman namedMortimer, who joined himself to her, and thenceforth accompanied her andmade common cause with her against her husband. With this Mortimer sheraised an army, and, sailing from Flanders, she landed in England. Onlanding, she summoned the barons to join her, and took the field againsther husband. The king was beaten in this war, and fled again on board avessel, intending to make his escape by sea. The two Spencers, one afterthe other, were taken prisoners, and both were hung on gibbets fiftyfeet high. They were hung in their armor, and after they were dead theirbodies were taken down and treated as it was customary to treat thebodies of traitors. [A]

[Footnote A: In cases of treason the condemned man was firstdisemboweled; then his head was taken off; then the body was cut intoquarters. The head and the four quarters of the body were then sent tovarious parts of the kingdom, and set up in conspicuous places inlarge cities and towns. ]

In the midst of these proceedings the barons held a sort ofParliament, and made a solemn declaration that the king, by hisflight, had abdicated the throne, and they proclaimed his son, theyoung Prince of Wales, then about fourteen years old, king, under thetitle of Edward the Third. In the mean time, the king himself, who hadattempted to make his escape by sea, was tossed about in a storm forsome days, until at last he was driven on the coast in South Wales. Heconcealed himself for some days in the mountains. Here he was huntedabout for a time, until he was reduced to despair by his destitutionand his sufferings, when at length he came forth and delivered himselfup to his enemies. 

[Illustration: KENILWORTH CASTLE. ]

He was made prisoner and immediately sent to Kenilworth Castle, andthere secured. Afterward he was brought to trial. He was accused ofshameful indolence and incapacity, and also of cowardice, cruelty, andoppression, and of having brought the country, by his vices andmaladministration, to the verge of ruin. He was convicted on thesecharges, and the queen, his wife, confirmed the verdict. 

Not being quite sure, after all, that by these means the dethronementof the king was legally complete, the Parliament sent a solemndeputation to Kenilworth Castle to depose the monarch in form. Theking was brought out to meet this deputation in a great hall of thecastle. He came just as he was, dressed in a simple black gown. Thedeputation told him that he was no longer king, that all allegiancehad been withdrawn from him on the part of the people, and thathenceforth he must consider himself as a private man. As they saidthis, the steward of the household came forward and broke his whitewand, the badge of his office, in token that the household wasdissolved, and he declared that by that act all the king's servantswere discharged and freed. This was a ceremony that was usuallyperformed at the death of a king, and it was considered in this caseas completely and finally terminating the reign of Edward. 

The delegation also exacted from him something which they consideredas a resignation of the crown. His son, the young prince, it was said, was unwilling to ascend the throne unless the barons could induce hisfather voluntarily to abdicate his own rights to it. They were themore desirous in this case of completely and forever extinguishing allof King Edward's claims, because they were afraid that there might bea secret party in his favor, and that that party might gain strength, and finally come out openly against them in civil war, in which case, if they were worsted, they knew that they would all be hung astraitors. 

[Illustration: A MONK OF THOSE DAYS. ]

Indeed, soon after this time it began to appear that there were, infact, some persons who were disposed to sympathize with the king. Hisqueen, Isabel, who had been acting against him during the war, was nowjoined with Mortimer, her favorite, and they two held pretty much thewhole control of the government, for the new king was yet too young toreign. Many of the monks and other ecclesiastics of the time openlydeclared that Isabel was guilty of great sin in thus abandoning herhusband for the sake of another man. They said that she ought to leaveMortimer, and go and join her husband in his prison. And it was notlong before it began to be rumored that secret plots were forming toattempt the king's deliverance from his enemies. This alarmed the noblesmore than ever. The queen and some others wrote sharp letters to thekeepers of the castle for dealing so gently with their prisoner, andgave them hints that they ought to kill him. In the end, the fallenmonarch was transported from one fortress to another, until at length hecame to Berkeley Castle. The inducement which led Mortimer and thequeen to send the king to these different places was the hope that someone or other of the keepers of the castles would divine their wishes inregard to him, and put him to death. But no one did so. The keeper ofBerkeley Castle, indeed, instead of putting his prisoner to death, seemed inclined to take compassion on him, and to treat him more kindlyeven than the others had done. Accordingly, after waiting some time, Mortimer seized an opportunity when Lord Berkeley, having gone away fromhome, was detained away some days by sickness, to send two fierce andabandoned men, named Gourney and Ogle, to the castle, with instructionsto kill the king in some way or other, but, if possible, in such amanner as to make it appear that he died a natural death. These mentried various plans without success. They administered poisons, andresorted to various other diabolical contrivances. At last, one night, dreadful outcries and groans were heard coming from the king'sapartment. They were accompanied from time to time with shrieks ofterrible agony. These sounds were continued for some time, and they wereheard in all parts of the castle, and in many of the houses of the town. The truth was, the executioners whom Mortimer had sent were murderingthe king in a manner almost too horrible to be described. [B] The peoplein the castle and in the town knew very well what these dreadfuloutcries meant. They were filled with consternation and horror at thedeed, and they spent the time in praying to God that he would receivethe soul of the unhappy victim. 

[Footnote B: They came to him while he was asleep, and pressed himdown with heavy feather beds, which they cast upon him to stifle hiscries, and then thrust a red-hot spit up into his bowels through ahorn, as some said, or a part of the tube of a trumpet, according toothers, so as to kill him by the internal burning without making anyoutward mark of the fire on his person. Notwithstanding their effortsto stifle his cries, he struggled so desperately in his agony aspartly to break loose from them, and thus made his shrieks andoutcries heard. ]

[Illustration: BERKELEY CASTLE. ]

After this, Mortimer and the queen for two or three years held prettynearly supreme power in the realm, though, of course, they governed inthe name of the young king, who was yet only fourteen or fifteen yearsof age. There was, however, a great secret hatred of Mortimer amongall the old nobility of the realm. This ill-will ripened at last intoopen hostility. A conspiracy was formed to destroy Mortimer, and todepose the queen-mother from her power, and to place young Edward inpossession of the kingdom. Mortimer discovered what was going on, andhe went for safety, with Edward and the queen, to the castle ofNottingham, where he shut himself up, and placed a strong guard at thegates and on the walls. 

This castle of Nottingham was situated upon a hill, on the side ofwhich was a range of excavations which had been made in a chalky stoneby some sort of quarrying. There was a subterranean passage from theinterior of one of these caves which led to the castle. The castleitself was strongly guarded, and every night Isabel required thewarden, on locking the gates, to bring the keys to her, and she keptthem by her bedside. The governor of the castle, however, made anagreement with Lord Montacute, who was the leader in the conspiracyagainst Mortimer, to admit him to the castle at night through thesubterranean passage. It seems that Mortimer and the queen did notknow of the existence of this communication. They did not even knowabout the caves, for the mouths of them were at that time concealed byrubbish and brambles. 

[Illustration: CAVES IN THE HILL-SIDE AT NOTTINGHAM CASTLE. ]

It was near midnight when Montacute and the party who went with himentered the passage. They crowded their way through the bushes andbrambles till they found the entrance of the cave, and then went in. They were all completely armed, and they carried torches to light theirway. They crept along the gloomy passage-way until at last they reachedthe door which led up into the interior of the castle. Here the governorwas ready to let them in. As soon as they entered, they were joined byyoung Edward at the foot of the main tower. They left their torcheshere, and Edward led them up a secret staircase to a dark chamber. Theycrept softly into this room and listened. They could hear in anadjoining hall the voices of Mortimer and several of his adherents, whowere holding a consultation. They waited a few minutes, and then, makinga rush into the passage-way which led to the hall, they killed twoknights who were on sentry there to guard the door, and, immediatelybursting into the apartment, made Mortimer and all his friendsprisoners. 

The queen, who was in her bed in an adjoining room at this time, rushed frantically out when she heard the noise of the affray, and, with piteous entreaties and many tears, she begged and prayed Edward, her "sweet son, " as she called him, to spare the gentle Mortimer, "herdearest friend, her well-beloved cousin. " The conspirators did sparehim at that time; they took him prisoner, and bore him away to aplace of safety. He was soon afterward brought to trial on a charge oftreason, and hanged. Isabel was deprived of all her property, and shutup in a castle as a prisoner of state. In this castle she afterwardlived nearly thirty years, in lonely misery, and then died. 

The adjoining engraving represents a near view of the subterraneanpassage by which Lord Montacute and his party gained admission to thecastle of Nottingham. It is known in modern times as MORTIMER'S HOLE. 

[Illustration: MORTIMER'S HOLE. ]

CHAPTER III. 

THE BLACK PRINCE. 

A. D. 1336-1346

Parentage of the Black Prince, Richard's father. --Reason for thename. --Situation of Crecy. --Nature of Edward's claim to the crownof France. --The Salic law. --Reason for it. --Edward's case. --Edwardraises an army and sets out for France. --Map. --The army reachesRouen. --Progress of the army. --Arrival at Amiens. --Progress of thetwo armies down the Somme. --Edward's anxiety about crossing theriver. --Danger from the tide. --Edward posts himself at Crecy. --Planof the battle. --The Black Prince in command. --Picture of the Genoesearcher. --Philip gets out of patience. --The rain. --The battle. --Moredifficulty with the archers. --They send for help for the Prince ofWales. --Flight of the King of France from the field of battle. --Accountof the old King of Bohemia. --Origin of the motto and device of thePrince of Wales. --Fate of Calais. --The six citizens. --Margaret ofCalais. --John of Gaunt. 

The father of King Richard the Second was a celebrated Prince ofWales, known in history as the Black Prince. The Black Prince, as histitle Prince of Wales implies, was the oldest son of the King ofEngland. His father was Edward the Third. The Black Prince was, ofcourse, heir to the crown, and he would have been king had it nothappened that he died before his father. Consequently, when at lasthis father, King Edward, died, Richard, who was the oldest son of theprince, and, of course, the grandson of the king, succeeded to thethrone, although he was at that time only ten years old. 

The Christian name of the Black Prince was Edward. He was called theBlack Prince on account of the color of his armor. The knights andwarriors of those days were often named in this way from somepeculiarity in their armor. 

Edward, being the oldest son of the king his father, was Prince ofWales. He was often called the Prince of Wales, and often simplyPrince Edward; but, inasmuch as there were several successiveEdwards, each of whom was in his youth the Prince of Wales, neither ofthose titles alone would be a sufficiently distinctive appellation forthe purposes of history. This Edward accordingly, as he became verycelebrated in his day, and inasmuch as, on account of his dying beforehis father, he never became any thing more than Prince of Wales, isknown in history almost exclusively by the title of the Black Prince. 

But, although he never attained to a higher title than that of prince, he still lived to a very mature age. He was more than forty years oldwhen he died. He, however, began to acquire his great celebrity whenhe was very young: he fought at the great battle of Crecy, in France, as one of the principal commanders on the English side, when he wasonly about seventeen years old. 

Crecy, or Cressy, as it is sometimes called, is situated on the banksof the River Somme, in the northeast part of France. The circumstancesunder which the battle in this place was fought are as follows. TheKing of England, Edward the Third, the father of the Black Prince, laid claim to the throne of France. The ground of his claim was that, through his grandmother Isabel, who was a daughter of the Frenchking, he was the nearest blood-relation to the royal line, all theother branches of the family nearer than his own being extinct. Nowthe people of France were, of course, very unwilling that the King ofEngland should become entitled to the French crown, and theyaccordingly made a certain Prince Philip the king, who reigned underthe title of Philip the Sixth. Philip was the nearest relative afterEdward, and he derived his descent through males alone, while Edward, claiming, as he did, through his grandmother Isabel, came through afemale line. 

Now there was an ancient law prevailing in certain portions of France, called the Salic law, [C] by which female children were excluded frominheriting the possessions of their fathers. This principle was atfirst applied to the inheriting of private property, but it wasafterward extended to rights and titles of all sorts, and finally tothe descent of the crown of France. Indeed, the right to rule over aprovince or a kingdom was considered in those days as a species ofproperty, which descended from father to child by absolute right, over which the people governed had no control whatever. 

[Footnote C: The Salic law is very celebrated in history, andquestions growing out of it gave rise, in ancient times, toinnumerable wars. It derived its name from a tribe of people called_Saliens_, by whom it was first introduced. ]

The chief reason why the Salic law was applied to the case of thecrown of France was not, as it might at first be supposed, because itwas thought in those days that women were not qualified to reign, butbecause, by allowing the crown to descend to the daughters of the kingas well as to the sons, there was danger of its passing out of thecountry. The _princes_ of the royal family usually remained in theirown land, and, if they married at all, they married usually foreignprincesses, whom they brought home to live with them in their nativeland. The _princesses_, on the other hand, when they grew up, werevery apt to marry princes of other countries, who took them away tothe places where they, the princes, respectively lived. If, now, theseprincesses were allowed to inherit the crown, and, especially, if theinheritance were allowed to pass through them to their children, casesmight occur in which the kingdom of France might descend to someforeign-born prince, the heir, or the actual ruler, perhaps, of someforeign kingdom. 

This was precisely what happened in Edward's case. The Salic law hadnot then been fully established. Edward maintained that it was notlaw. He claimed that the crown descended through Isabel to him. TheFrench, on the other hand, insisted on passing him by, and decidedthat Philip, who, next to him, was the most direct descendant, andwhose title came through a line of males, should be king. 

In this state of things Edward raised a great army, and set out forFrance in order to possess himself of the French crown. The warcontinued many years, in the course of which Edward fitted out severaldifferent expeditions into France. 

It was in one of these expeditions that he took his son, the BlackPrince, then only seventeen years of age, as one of his generals. Theprince was a remarkably fine young man, tall and manly in form, andpossessed of a degree of maturity of mind above his years. He wasaffable and unassuming, too, in his manners, and was a great favoriteamong all the ranks of the army. 

The map on the following page shows the course of the expedition, andthe situation of Crecy. The fleet which brought the troops over landedthere on a cape a little to the westward of the region shown upon themap. From the place where they landed they marched across the country, as seen by the track upon the map, toward the Seine. They tookpossession of the towns on the way, and plundered and wasted thecountry. 

[Illustration: MAP--CAMPAIGN OF CRECY. ]

[Illustration: VIEW OF ROUEN, FROM THE WEST SIDE OF THE RIVER. ]

They advanced in this manner until at length they reached the riveropposite Rouen, which was then, as now, a very large and important town. It stands on the eastern bank of the river. On reaching Rouen, Edwardfound the French army ready to meet him. There was a bridge of boatsthere, and Edward had intended to cross the river by it, and get intothe town of Rouen. He found, however, on his arrival opposite the town, that the bridge was gone. The French king had destroyed it. He thenturned his course up the river, keeping, of course, on the western andsouthern side of the stream, and looking out for an opportunity tocross. But as fast as he ascended on one side of the river, Philipascended on the other, and destroyed all the bridges before Edward'sarmies could get to them. In this way the two armies advanced, each onits own side of the river, until they reached the environs of Paris, theEnglish burning and destroying every thing that came in their way. Therewas a good deal of manoeuvring between the two armies near Paris, in thecourse of which Edward contrived to get across the river. He crossed atPoissy by means of a bridge which Philip had only partially destroyed. While Philip was away, looking out for his capital, Paris, which Edwardwas threatening, Edward hastened back to get possession of the bridge, repaired it, and marched his army over before Philip could return. 

Both armies then struck across the country toward the River Somme. Philip reached the river first. He crossed at Amiens, and then wentdown on the right or eastern bank of the river, destroying all thebridges on the way. Edward, when he reached the river, found no placeto cross. He tried at Pont St. Remi, at Long, and at other places, butfailed every where. In the mean time, while his own forces hadgradually been diminishing, Philip's had been rapidly increasing. Philip now divided his force. He sent down one portion on the easternside of the river to prevent the English from crossing. With the otherportion he came back to the left bank, and began to follow Edward'sarmy down toward the mouth of the river. Edward went on in this way asfar as Oisemont, and here he began to find himself in great danger ofbeing hemmed in by Philip's army in a corner between the river and thesea. 

He sent scouts up and down to try to find some place where he couldcross by a ford, as the bridges were all down; but no fording-placecould be found. He then ordered the prisoners that he had taken to beall brought together, and he offered liberty and a large reward inmoney to any one of them that would show him where there was a ford bywhich he could get his army across the river. He thought that they, being natives of the country, would be sure to know about thefording-places, if any there were. One of the prisoners, a countrymannamed Gobin, told him that there was a place a little lower down theriver, called White Spot, where people could wade across the riverwhen the tide was low. The tide ebbed and flowed in the river here, on account of its being so near the sea. 

This was in the evening. King Edward was awake all night with anxiety, expecting every moment that Philip would come suddenly upon him. Herose at midnight, and ordered the trumpets to sound in order to arousethe men. The officers were all on the alert, the young prince amongthem. All was movement and bustle in the camp. As soon as the daydawned they commenced their march, Gobin leading the way. He was wellguarded. They were all ready to cut him to pieces if he should fail tolead them to the ford which he had promised. But he found the ford, though at the time that the army reached the spot the tide was high, so that they could not cross. Besides this, the king saw that on theopposite bank there was a large body of French troops posted to guardthe passage. Edward was obliged to wait some hours for the tide to godown, being in a terrible state of suspense all the time for fear thatPhilip should come down upon him in the rear, in which case hissituation would have been perilous in the extreme. 

At last the tide was low enough to make the river fordable, and Edwardordered his troops to dash forward into the river. The men advanced, but they were met in the middle of the stream by the troops that hadbeen posted on the bank to oppose them. There was a short anddesperate conflict in the water, but Edward at last forced his waythrough, and drove the French away. 

It then required some hours for all his army to cross. They had barelytime to accomplish the work before the tide came up again. Just atthis time, too, Philip's army appeared, but it was too late for themto cross the ford, and so Edward escaped with the main body of hisarmy, though a portion of those in the rear, who were not able to getacross in time, fell into Philip's hands, and were either killed ortaken prisoners on the margin of the water. 

The young prince was, of course, as much rejoiced as his father atthis fortunate escape. The army were all greatly encouraged, too, bythe result of the battle which they had fought on the bank of theriver in landing; and, finally, Edward resolved that he would notretreat any farther. He determined to choose a good position, and drawup his army in array, and so give Philip battle if he chose to comeon. The place which he selected was a hill at Crecy. Philip soon aftercame up, and the battle was fought; and thus it was that Crecy becamethe scene of the great and celebrated conflict which bears its name. 

King Edward arrayed his troops in successive lines on the declivity ofthe hill, while he himself took his station, with a large reserve, onthe summit of it. He committed the general charge of the battle to hisgenerals and knights, and one of the chief in command was the youngprince, who was placed at the head of one of the most important lines, although he was at this time, as has already been said, only seventeenyears old. 

The King of France, with an immense host, came on toward the placewhere Edward was encamped, confident that, as soon as he could come upwith him, he should at once overwhelm and destroy him. His army wasvery large, while Edward's was comparatively small. Philip's army, however, was not under good control. The vast columns filled the roadsfor miles, and when the front arrived at the place where Edward's armywas posted, the officers attempted to halt them all, but those behindcrowded on toward those in front, and made great confusion. Then therewas disagreement and uncertainty among Philip's counselors in respectto the time of making the attack. Some were in favor of advancing atonce, but others were for waiting till the next day, as the soldierswere worn out and exhausted by their long march. 

[Illustration: GENOESE ARCHER. ]

There was a large body of Genoese archers who fought with cross-bows, a very heavy but a very efficient weapon. The officers who commandedthese archers were in favor of waiting for the attack till the nextday, as their men were very weary from the fatigue of carrying theircross-bows so far. They had marched eighteen miles that day, veryheavily laden. Philip was angry with them for their unwillingness togo at once into battle. 

"See, " he cried out, "see what we get by employing such scoundrels, who fail us at the very moment when we want them. "

This made the archers very angry, but nevertheless they formed inorder of battle at the command of their officers, and went forward tothe van. There went with them a large troop of horsemen under theFrench general. The horses of this troop were splendidly equipped, andwere fierce for the fight. 

While these preparations were making, a very black cloud was seenrising in the sky, until the whole heavens were darkened by it. Thewind blew, and immense flocks of crows flew screaming through the air, over the heads of the army. Presently it began to rain. The rainincreased rapidly, until it fell in torrents, and every body wasdrenched. There was, however, no possibility of shelter or escape fromit, and the preparations for the fight accordingly still went on. 

At length, about five o'clock, it cleared up, just as the battle wasabout to begin. The Genoese archers were in front with the horsemen, but the English, who had all this time remained calm and quiet attheir posts, poured such a volley of arrows into their ranks that theywere soon broken and began to be thrown into confusion. Other Englishsoldiers ran out from their ranks armed with knives set into the endsof long poles, and they thrust these knives into the horses of thetroop. The horses, terrified and maddened with the pain, turned roundand ran in among the Genoese archers, and trampled many of them underfoot. This made the whole body of archers waver and begin to fallback. Then Philip, who was coming on behind at the head of otherbodies of troops, fell into a great rage, and shouted out in athundering voice, "Kill me those scoundrels, for they only stop our way without doingany good. "

Of course, this made the confusion worse than ever. In the mean time, the English soldiers, under the command of Prince Edward and the otherleaders, pressed slowly and steadily forward, and poured in such anincessant and deadly fire of darts and arrows upon the confused andentangled masses of their enemies, that they could not rally or getinto order again. Some of the French generals made desperate effortsin other parts of the field to turn the tide, but in vain. 

At one time, when the battle was very hot in the part of the fieldwhere the young English prince was fighting, messengers went up thehill to the place where the king was stationed, near a wind-mill, whence he was watching the progress of the fight, to ask him to sendsome succor to the troops that were fighting with the prince. 

"Is my son killed?" asked the king. 

"No, sire, " said the messenger. 

"Is he unhorsed or wounded?" asked the king. 

"No, sire, " replied the messenger. "He is safe thus far, and isfighting with his troop, but he is very hard beset. "

"No matter for that, " said the king. "Go and tell him he can not haveany help from me. I intend that the glory of this victory shall be forhim alone, and for those to whom I have intrusted him. "

Things went on in this way for some time, until at length the wholeFrench army was thrown into utter confusion, and the men were flyingin all directions. Night was coming on, and it was beginning to beimpossible to distinguish friend from foe. A French knight rode up tothe King of France, and, seizing his horse by the bridle, turned himaway, saying to the king, "Sire, it is time to withdraw. By remaining here any longer you willonly sacrifice yourself to no purpose. Reserve yourself to win thevictory some other day. "

So the king turned and fled, a small party of his officersaccompanying him. He fled to a castle in the neighborhood, called theCastle of La Broye, and sought refuge there. When the party arrivedthe gates were shut, for it was late and dark. They summoned thecastellan, or keeper of the castle. He came out upon the battlementsand demanded who was there. 

The king called out, "Open, castellan, open. It is the fortune of France. "

The castellan knew the king's voice, and ordered the gate to beopened, and the drawbridge to be let down. The king and his party, which consisted of only five persons, went in. They remained at thecastle only a short time to take some wine and other refreshment, andthen set out again, at midnight, with guides furnished them by thecastellan, and rode to Amiens, which, being a large and well-fortifiedtown, was at least a temporary place of safety. 

But, though the king himself thus made his escape, a great many of theknights and generals in his army would not fly, but remained fightingon the field until they were killed. There was one of the king'sallies, the King of Bohemia, whose death, if the legends which havecome down to us respecting this battle are true, occurred under veryextraordinary circumstances. He was present with the army, not as acombatant, for he was old and blind, and thus completely helpless. Hecame, it would seem, to accompany his son, who was an active commanderin Philip's army. His son was dangerously wounded, and forced toabandon the field, and the old king was so overwhelmed with chagrin atthe result of the battle, and so enraged at the fate of his son, thathe determined to charge upon the enemy himself. So he placed himselfbetween two knights, who interlaced the bridle of his horse with thebridles of theirs, for the king himself could not see to guide thereins, and in this manner they rode into the thickest of the fight, where the Black Prince was contending. They were all almostimmediately killed. 

Prince Edward was so much struck with this spectacle, that he adoptedthe motto on the old king's shield for his. This motto was the Germanphrase _Ich dien_, under three plumes. The words mean _I serve_. Thismotto and device have been borne in the coat of arms of the Prince ofWales from that day to this. 

At the close of the battle the soldiers kindled up great fires onaccount of the darkness of the night, and in the light of them KingEdward came down from his post on the hill, his heart full ofexultation and joy at the greatness of the victory which his army hadachieved, and at the glory of his son. In front of the whole army, hetook his son in his arms and kissed him, and said, "My dear son, God give you grace to persevere as you have begun. Youare my true son, for loyally you have acquitted yourself this day, andwell do you deserve a crown. "

Edward received these honors in a very modest and unassuming manner. He bowed reverentially before his father, and attributed to othersrather than to himself the success of the day. His modesty andgenerosity of demeanor, connected with the undaunted bravery which hehad really evinced in the fight, caused the whole army to feel anenthusiastic admiration for him, and, as fast as tidings of theseevents extended, all Europe was filled with his fame. 

After gaining this great battle Edward marched to Calais, a veryimportant sea-port on the coast, to the northward of the mouth of theSomme, and laid siege to that town; and, although it was so stronglyfortified that he could not force his way into it, he succeeded atlength in starving the inhabitants into a surrender. He was soexasperated at the obstinate resistance of the people, that at last, when they were ready to surrender, he declared that he would onlyspare their lives on condition that six of the principal inhabitantsshould come out to his camp barefooted, bareheaded, and with haltersabout their necks, in order that they might be hung immediately. Thesecruel terms were complied with. Six of the principal inhabitants ofthe town volunteered to give themselves up as victims. They proceededto Edward's camp, but their lives were saved by the interposition ofPhilippa, the queen, Prince Edward's mother. The king was exceedinglyunwilling to spare them, but he could not resist the entreaties ofPhilippa, though he said he wished she had been somewhere else, so asnot to have interfered with his revenge. 

Edward and all his army, with the queen and Prince Edward, marchedinto Calais with great pomp and parade. Soon after their entrance intothe town a daughter was born to Philippa, who was called, from theplace of her nativity, Margaret of Calais. 

Besides this sister Margaret, Prince Edward had a brother born on theContinent of Europe. His name was John, and he was born in Ghent. Hewas called John of Ghent, or, as the English historians generallywrote it, John of Gaunt. 

After the taking of Calais there were other campaigns and battles, andmore victories, some upon one side and some upon the other; and then, when both parties were so exhausted that their strength was gone, while yet their hostility and hate continued unappeased, a truce wasmade. Then after the truce came new wars, and thus years rolled on. During all this time the Black Prince distinguished himself greatly asone of the chief of his father's generals. He grew up to full manhood;and while, like the other warlike chieftains of those days, his lifewas devoted to deeds of rapine and murder, there was in his demeanortoward those with whom he was at peace, and toward enemies who wereentirely subdued, a certain high-toned nobleness and generosity ofcharacter, which, combined with his undaunted courage, and hisextraordinary strength and prowess on the field of battle, made himone of the greatest lights of chivalry of his age. 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE BATTLE OF POICTIERS. 

A. D. 1356-1360

The Black Prince sets out for France. --Plymouth. --The ships of thosedays. --The prince ravages the country. --Progress of the BlackPrince. --The country laid waste. --The King of France comes to meet theBlack Prince. --Ambuscade near Romorantin. --Reconnoitring party. --TheEnglish troop surprised. --The French surprised in their turn. --TheFrench retreat to the castle. --The castle besieged. --Crossing theditch. --Engines. --The castle taken. --King John and his foursons. --Attempt of the Pope's legate to make peace. --Negotiations of thePope's legate. --The English camp. --The cardinal obtains a truce. --Theking's pavilion. --King John's demands. --Prince Edward will not yield tothem. --Story of the two knights. --Coats of arms. --Quarrel between thetwo knights. --Preparations for the battle. --English position. --Thehorses and the barbed arrows. --The English victorious. --Fate of theking's sons. --The victory announced to the prince. --The men calledin. --Gathering at the prince's tent. --Two barons sent to look for theking. --The King of France and his son taken prisoners. --Quarrel aboutthem. --The two barons take possession of the prisoners. --Denys. --Hisprevious adventures. --The king's surrender to him. --Prince Edwardmakes a supper for his prisoners. --Generous demeanor of theprince. --Disposition of the prisoners. --English prisoners. --Douglas'sextraordinary escape from his captors. --Prince Edward conveys the Kingof France to London. --Entrance into London. --Magnanimous treatment ofthe prisoner. --The war ended. --The king ransomed. --Prince Edward'srenown. --Edward the heir apparent to the crown. 

In process of time, Philip, the King of France, against whom thesewars had been waged, died, and John succeeded him. In the course ofthe reign of John, the Black Prince, when he was about twenty-fiveyears of age, set out from England, at the head of a large body ofmen, to invade France on the southern and western side. His firstdestination was Gascony, a country in the southern part of France, between the Garonne, the Pyrenees, and the sea. [D]

[Footnote D: See map on page 110. ]

From London he went to Plymouth, where the fleet had been assembled inwhich he was to sail. He was accompanied on his march by an immensenumber of nobles and barons, all splendidly equipped and armed, andfull of enthusiastic expectations of the glory which they were toacquire in serving in such a campaign, under so famed and brilliant acommander. 

The fleet which awaited the army at Plymouth consisted of threehundred vessels. The expedition was detained for a long time in theport, waiting for a fair wind and good weather. At length thefavorable time arrived. The army embarked, and the ships set sail insight of a vast assemblage, formed by people of the surroundingcountry, who crowded the shores to witness the spectacle. 

The ships of those times were not large, and, judging from some of thepictures that have come down to us, they were of very oddconstruction. On the adjoining page is a copy of one of thesepictures, from an ancient manuscript of about this time. 

These pictures, however, are evidently intended rather as _symbols_ ofships, as it were, than literally correct representations of them. Still, we can deduce from them some general idea of the form andstructure actually employed in the naval architecture of those times. 

[Illustration: ANCIENT REPRESENTATION OF ENGLISH SHIPS. ]

Prince Edward's fleet had a prosperous voyage, and his army landedsafely in Gascony. Soon after landing he commenced his march through thecountry to the eastward, pillaging, burning, and destroying wherever hewent. The inhabitants of the country, whom the progress of his marchthus overwhelmed with ruin, had nothing whatever to do with the quarrelbetween his father and the King of France. It made very littledifference to them under whose reign they lived. It is not at allunlikely that far the greater portion of them had never even heard ofthe quarrel. They were quietly engaged in their various industrialpursuits, dreaming probably of no danger, until the advance of thisarmy, coming upon them mysteriously, no one knew whither, like a plague, or a tornado, or a great conflagration, drove them from their homes, andsent them flying about the country in all directions in terror anddespair. The prince enjoyed the credit and the fame of being a generousand magnanimous prince. But his generosity and magnanimity were onlyshown toward knights, and nobles, and princes like himself, for it wasonly when such as these were the objects of these virtues that he couldgain credit and fame by the display of them. 

In this march of devastation and destruction the prince overran allthe southern part of France. One of his attendants in this campaign, aknight who served in the prince's household, in a letter which hewrote back to England from Bordeaux, gave the following summary of theresults of the expedition:

 "=My lord rode thus abroad in the countrie of his enimies eight whole weekes and rested not past eleven daies in all those places where he came. And know it for certeine that since this warre began against the French king, he had never such losse or destruction as he hath had in this journie; for the countries and good townes which were wasted in this journie found to the King of France everie yeare more to the maintainance of his warre than half his realme hath doon beside, except, &c. "=

[Illustration: MAP--CAMPAIGN OF POICTIERS. ]

After having thus laid waste the southern coast, the prince turned hiscourse northward, toward the heart of the country, carryingdevastation and destruction with him wherever he came. He advancedthrough Auvergne and Berri, two provinces in the central part ofFrance. His army was not very large, for it consisted of only abouteight thousand men. It was, however, very compact and efficient, andthe prince advanced at the head of it in a very slow and cautiousmanner. He depended for the sustenance of his soldiers on the supplieswhich he could obtain from the country itself. Accordingly, he movedslowly from town to town, so as not to fatigue his soldiers by toolong marches, nor exhaust them by too frequent battles. "When he wasentered anie towne, " says the old chronicler, "that was sufficientliestored of things necessarie, he would tarrie there two or threedaies to refresh his soldiers and men of warre, and when they dislodgedthey would strike out the heads of the wine vessels, and burne thewheat, oats, and barlie, and all other things which they could not takewith them, to the intent that their enimies should not therewith besustained and nourished. "

At length, while the prince was advancing through the province ofBerri, and approaching the River Loire, he learned that the King ofFrance, John, had assembled a great army at Paris, and was coming downto meet him. Large detachments from this army had already advanced asfar as the banks of the Loire, and all the important points on thatriver had been taken possession of, and were strongly guarded by them. The king himself, at the head of the main force, had reached Chartres, and was rapidly advancing. The prince heard this news at a certaincastle which he had taken, and where he had stopped some days torefresh his men. 

A council of war was held to determine what should be done. Theprevailing voice at this council was in favor of not attempting tocross the Loire in the face of such an enemy, but of turning to thewestward toward the province of Poitou, through which a way of retreatto the southward would be open in case a retreat should be necessary. The prince determined to accept this advice, and so he put his army inmotion toward the town of Romorantin. 

Now the King of France had sent a detachment of his troops, under thecommand of three famous knights, across the Loire. This detachmentconsisted of about three hundred horsemen, all armed from head tofoot, and mounted on swift chargers. This squadron had been hoveringin the neighborhood of the English army for some days, watching for anopportunity to attack them, but without success. Now, foreseeing thatEdward would attempt to enter Romorantin, they pushed forward in astealthy manner to the neighborhood of that town, and placedthemselves in ambush at the sides of a narrow and solitary gorge inthe mountains, through which they knew the English must necessarilypass. 

On the same day that the French knights formed this ambush, several ofthe commanders in Edward's army asked leave to take a troop of twohundred men from the English army, and ride forward to the gates ofthe town, in order to reconnoitre the place, and ascertain whether theway was clear for the main body of the army to approach. Edward gavethem permission, and they set forward. As might have been expected, they fell into the snare which the French knights had laid for them. The Frenchmen remained quiet and still in their hiding-places, andallowed the English to pass on through the defile. Then, as soon asthey had passed, the French rushed out and galloped after them, withtheir spears in their rests, all ready for a charge. 

The English troop, hearing the sound of the galloping of horses in theroad behind them, turned round to see what was coming. To theirdismay, they found that a troop of their enemies was close upon them, and that they were hemmed in between them and the town. A furiousbattle ensued. The English, though they were somewhat fewer in numberthan the French, seem to have been made desperate by their danger, andthey fought like tigers. For a time it was uncertain which way thecontest would turn, but at length, while the victory was stillundecided, the van of the main body of the English army began toarrive upon the ground. The French now saw that they were in danger ofbeing overpowered with numbers, and they immediately began to retreat. They fled in the direction of the town. The English followed them in aheadlong pursuit, filling the air with their shouts, and with theclanking of their iron armor as the horses galloped furiously along. 

At length they reached the gates of the town, and the whole throng ofhorsemen, pursuers and pursued, pressed in together. The Frenchsucceeded in reaching the castle, and, as soon as they got in, theyshut the gates and secured themselves there, but the English gotpossession of the town. As soon as Edward came in, he sent a summonsto the people in the castle to surrender. They refused. Edward thenordered his men to prepare for an assault on the following day. 

Accordingly, on the following day the assault was made. The battle wascontinued all day, but without success on the part of the assailants, and when the evening came on Edward was obliged to call off his men. 

[Illustration: STORMING OF THE CASTLE OF ROMORANTIN. ]

The next morning, at a very early hour, the men were called to armsagain. A new assaulting force was organized, and at sunrise the trumpetsounded the order for them to advance to the attack. Prince Edwardhimself took the command at this trial, and by his presence and hisexample incited the men to make the greatest possible efforts to batterdown the gates and to scale the walls. Edward was excited to a highdegree of resentment and rage against the garrison of the castle, notonly on account of the general obstinacy of their resistance, butbecause, on the preceding day, a squire, who was attendant upon him, andto whom he was strongly attached, was killed at his side by a stonehurled from the castle wall. When he saw this man fall, he took a solemnoath that he would never leave the place until he had the castle and allthat were in it in his power. 

But, notwithstanding all the efforts of his soldiers, the castle stillheld out. Edward's troops thronged the margin of the ditch, and shotarrows so incessantly at the battlements that the garrison couldscarcely show themselves for an instant on the walls. Finally, theymade hurdles and floats of various kinds, by means of which largenumbers succeeded, half by swimming and half by floating, to getacross the ditch, and then began to dig in under the wall, while thegarrison attempted to stop their work by throwing down big stones upontheir heads, and pots of hot lime to eat out their eyes. 

At another part the besiegers constructed great engines, such as wereused in those days, in the absence of cannon, for throwing rocks andheavy beams of wood, to batter the walls. These machines also threw acertain extraordinary combustible substance called Greek fire. It wasthis Greek fire that, in the end, turned the scale of victory, for itcaught in the lower court of the castle, where it burned so furiouslythat it baffled all the efforts of the besieged to extinguish it, andat length they were compelled to surrender. Edward made the principalcommanders prisoners, but he let the others go free. The castle itselfhe utterly destroyed. 

Having thus finished this work, Edward resumed his march, passing onto the westward through Touraine, to avoid the French king, who heknew was coming down upon him from the direction of Chartres at thehead of an overwhelming army. King John advanced to the Loire, andsending different detachments of his army to different points, withorders to cross at any bridges that they could find, he himself cameto Blois, where he crossed the river to Amboise, and thence proceededto Loches. Here he learned that the English were moving off to thewestward, through Touraine, in hopes to make their escape. He set offafter them at full speed. 

He had four sons with him in his army, all young men. Their names wereCharles, Louis, John, and Philip. 

At length the two armies began to approach each other near the town ofPoictiers. 

In the mean time, while the crisis had thus been graduallyapproaching, the Pope, who was at this time residing at Avignon inFrance, sent one of his cardinals to act as intercessor between thebelligerents, in hopes of bringing them to a peace. At the time whenthe two armies had drawn near to each other and the battle seemedimminent, the cardinal was at Poictiers, and just as the King ofFrance was marshaling his troops in the order of battle, and preparingfor the onset, the cardinal, at the head of his suite of attendants, galloped out to the king's camp, and, riding up to him at full speed, he begged him to pause a moment that he might speak to him. 

The king gave him leave to speak, and he thus began:

"Most dear sire, " said he, "you have here with you a great andpowerful army, commanded by the flower of the knighthood of your wholekingdom. The English, compared with you, are but a handful. They arewholly unable to resist you. You can make whatever terms with them youplease, and it will be far more honorable and praiseworthy in you tospare their lives, and the lives of your gallant followers, by makingpeace with them on such terms as you may think right, without abattle, than to fight with them and destroy them. I entreat you, therefore, sire, that before you proceed any farther, you will allowme to go to the English camp to represent to the prince the greatdanger he is in, and to see what terms you can make with him. "

"Very well, " replied the king. "We have no objection. Go, but makehaste back again. "

The cardinal immediately set off, and rode with all speed into theEnglish camp. The English troops had posted themselves at a spot wherethey were in a great measure concealed and protected among hedges, vineyards, and groves. The cardinal advanced through a narrow lane, and came up to the English prince at last, whom he found in avineyard. The prince was on foot, and was surrounded by knights andarmed men, with whom he was arranging the plan of the battle. 

The prince received the cardinal very graciously, and heard what hehad to say. The cardinal represented to him how overwhelming was theforce which the King of France had brought against him, and howimminent the danger was that he and all his forces would be totallydestroyed in case of a conflict, and urged him, for the sake ofhumanity as well as from a proper regard for his own interest, toenter into negotiations for peace. 

Prince Edward replied that he had no objection to enter into suchnegotiations, and that he was willing to accept of terms of peace, provided his own honor and that of his army were saved. 

The cardinal then returned to the King of France, and reported to himwhat the prince had said, and he entreated the king to grant a truceuntil the next morning, in order to afford time for the negotiations. 

The knights and barons that were around the king were very unwillingthat he should listen to this proposal. They were fierce for thebattle, and could not brook the idea of delay. But the cardinal was sourgent, and he pleaded so strongly and so eloquently for peace, that, finally, the king yielded. 

"But we will not leave our posts, " said he. "We will remain on theground ready for the onset to-morrow morning, unless our terms areaccepted before that time. "

So they brought the royal tent, which was a magnificent pavilion ofred silk, and pitched it on the field for the king. The army weredismissed to their quarters until the following day. 

The time when this took place was early in the morning. The day wasSunday. During all the rest of the day the cardinal was employed inriding back and forth between the two armies, conveying proposals andcounter-proposals, and doing all in his power to effect anarrangement. But all his efforts were unsuccessful. King Johndemanded that four of the principal persons in Edward's army should begiven up unconditionally to his will, and that the whole army shouldsurrender themselves as prisoners of war. This Prince Edward would notconsent to. He was willing, he said, to give up all the Frenchprisoners that he had in custody, and also to restore all the castlesand towns which he had taken from the French. He was also willing tobind himself for seven years not to take up arms against the King ofFrance. But all this did not satisfy John. He finally offered that, ifthe prince would surrender himself and one hundred knights asprisoners of war, he would let the rest of the army go free, anddeclared that that was his ultimatum. Prince Edward positively refusedto accept any such conditions, and so the cardinal, greatlydisappointed at the failure of his efforts, gave up the case ashopeless, and returned with a sad and sorrowful heart to Poictiers. 

An anecdote is related in this connection by one of the ancientchroniclers, which illustrates curiously some of the ideas and mannersof those times. During the course of the day, while the truce was inforce, and the cardinal was going back and forth between the twoarmies, parties of knights belonging to the two encampments rode outfrom time to time from their own quarters along the lines of theenemy, to see what was to be seen. In these cases they sometimes meteach other, and held conversation together, both parties being boundin honor by the truce not to commit any act of hostility. There was acertain English knight, named Sir John Chandos, who in this way met aFrench knight named Clermont. Both these knights were mounted andfully armed. It was the custom in those days for each knight to havesomething peculiar in the style of his armor to distinguish him fromthe rest, and it was particularly the usage for each one to have acertain device and motto on his shield, or on some other conspicuousposition of his clothing. These devices and mottoes are the origin ofthe _coats of arms_ in use at the present day. 

It happened that the device of these two knights was nearly the same. It consisted of a representation of the Virgin Mary embroidered inblue, and surrounded by a radiance of sunbeams. Clermont, onperceiving that the device of Chandos was so similar to his own, called out to him when he came near, demanding, "How long is it, sir, since you have taken the liberty to wear myarms?"

"It is you yourself who are wearing mine, " said Chandos. 

"It is false, " replied Clermont; "and if it were not for the truce, Iwould soon show you to whom that device rightfully belongs. "

"Very well, " replied Chandos. "To-morrow, when the truce is over, youwill find me on the field ready to settle the question with you byforce of arms. "

With that the angry noblemen parted, and each rode back to his ownlines. 

Early on Monday morning both armies prepared for battle. The cardinal, however, being extremely unwilling to give up all hope of preventingthe conflict, came out again, at a very early hour, to the Frenchcamp, and made an effort to renew the negotiations. But the kingperemptorily refused to listen to him, and ordered him to be gone. Hewould not listen, he said, to any more pretended treaties orpacifications. So the cardinal perceived that he must go away, andleave the armies to their fate. He called at Prince Edward's camp andbade him farewell, saying that he had done all in his power to savehim, but it was of no avail. He then returned to Poictiers. 

The two armies now prepared for battle. The King of France clothedhimself in his royal armor, and nineteen of his knights were armed inthe same manner, in order to prevent the enemy from being able tosingle out the king on the field. This was a common stratagem employedon such occasions. The English were strongly posted on a hill side, among vineyards and groves. The approach to their position was througha sort of lane bordered by hedges. The English archers were postedalong these hedges, and when the French troops attempted to advance, the archers poured such a shower of barbed arrows into the horses'sides, that they soon threw them into confusion. The barbed arrowscould not be withdrawn, and the horses, terrified with the stingingpain, would rear, and plunge, and turn round upon those behind them, until at length the lane was filled with horses and horsemen piledtogether in confusion. Now, when once a scene of confusion like thisoccurred upon a field of battle, it was almost impossible to recoverfrom it, for the iron armor which these knights wore was so heavy andso cumbersome, that when once they were unhorsed they could not mountagain, and sometimes could not even rise, but writhed and struggledhelplessly on the ground until their squires came to relieve them. 

The battle raged for many hours, but, contrary to the universalexpectation, the English were every where victorious. Whether this wasowing to the superior discipline of the English troops, or to thereckless desperation with which their situation inspired them, or tothe compact disposition that the prince had made of his forces, or tothe shelter and protection afforded by the trees, and hedges, andvines, among which they were posted, or to the superior talents of theBlack Prince as a commanding officer, or to all these causes combined, it is impossible to say. The result was, however, that the French wereevery where overcome, thrown into confusion, and put to flight. Threeof the French king's sons were led off early from the field, theirattendants excusing their flight by their anxiety to save the princesfrom being taken prisoners or put to death. A large squadron weredriven off on the road to Poictiers. The inhabitants of Poictiers, seeing them coming, shut the gates to keep them out, and the horsemen, pursuers and pursued, became jammed together in a confused mass at thegates, and on the causeway leading to them, where they trampled uponand killed each other by hundreds. In every other direction, too, detached portions of the two armies were engaged in desperateconflicts, and the air was filled with the clangor of arms, the notesof the trumpets, the shouts of the victors, and the shrieks and groansof the wounded and dying. 

At length Sir John Chandos, who had fought in company with PrinceEdward all the day, advanced to the prince, and announced to him thathe thought the battle was over. 

"Victory!" said he, "victory! The enemy is beaten and driven whollyoff the ground. It is time to halt and to call in our men. They aregetting greatly scattered. I have taken a survey of the ground, and Ido not see any where any French banners flying, or any considerablebodies of French troops remaining. The whole army is dispersed. "

So the king gave orders to halt, and the trumpets blew the signal forthe men to cease from the pursuit of their enemies, and to gatheragain around the prince's banner. They set up the banner upon a highbush, near where the prince was standing, and the minstrels, gatheringaround it, began to play in honor of the victory, while the trumpetsin the distance were sounding to recall the men. 

The officers of the prince's household brought the royal tent, abeautiful pavilion of crimson silk, and pitched it on the spot. Theybrought wine, too, and other refreshments; and as the knights, andbarons, and other noble warriors arrived at the tent, the princeoffered them refreshments, and received their congratulations on thegreat deliverance which they had achieved. A great many prisoners werebrought in by the returning knights to be held for ransom. 

While the knights and nobles were thus rejoicing together around theprince's tent, the prince asked if any one knew what had become of theKing of France. No one could answer. So the prince dispatched twotrusty barons to ride over the field and see if they could learn anytidings of him. The barons mounted their horses at the door of thepavilion and rode away. They proceeded first to a small hillock whichpromised to afford a good view. When they reached the top of thishillock, they saw at some distance a crowd of men-at-arms coming alongtogether at a certain part of the field. They were on foot, and wereadvancing very slowly, and there seemed to be some peculiar excitementamong them, for they were crowding and pushing each other in aremarkable manner. The truth was, that the men had got the King ofFrance and his youngest son Philip in their possession, and wereattempting to bring them in to the prince's tent, but were quarrelingamong themselves as they came along, being unable to decide which ofthem was entitled to the custody of the prisoners. The baronsimmediately put spurs to their horses, and galloped down the hill tothe spot, and demanded what was the matter. The people said that itwas the King of France and his son who had been made prisoners, andthat there were no less than ten knights and squires that claimedthem. These men were wrangling and contending together with so muchviolence and noise that there was danger that the king and the youngprince would be pulled to pieces by them. The king, in the mean time, was entreating them to be quiet, and begging them to deal gently withthem, and take them at once to Prince Edward's tent. 

"Gentlemen, gentlemen, " said he, "I pray you to desist, and conduct meand my son in a courteous manner to my cousin the prince, and do notmake such a riot about us. There will be ransom enough for you all. "

The contending knights and barons, however, paid little heed to thesewords, but went on vociferating, "It is _I_ that took him. "

"I tell you he is _my_ prisoner. "

"No, no, _we_ took him. Let him alone. He belongs to _us_. "

The two barons pressed their horses forward into the midst of thecrowd, and drove the knights back. They ordered them all, in the nameof the prince, to let go the prisoners and retire, and they threatenedto cut down on the spot any man who refused to obey. The barons thendismounted, and, making a profound reverence before the king, theytook him and his son under their protection, and conducted them to theprince's tent. 

The prince received the royal prisoners in the kindest and mostrespectful manner. He made a very low obeisance to the king, andtreated him in every respect with the utmost consideration. Heprovided him with every thing necessary for his comfort, and orderedrefreshments to be brought, which refreshments he presented to theking himself, as if he were an honored and distinguished guest insteadof a helpless prisoner. 

Although there were so many English knights and barons who claimed thehonor of having made the King of France prisoner, the person to whomhe really had surrendered was a French knight named Denys. Denys hadformerly lived in France, but he had killed a man in a quarrel there, and for this crime his property had been confiscated, and he had beenbanished from the realm. He had then gone to England, where he hadentered into the service of the king, and, finally, had joined theexpedition of the Prince of Wales. This Denys happened to be in thepart of the field where the King of France and his son Philip wereengaged. The king was desperately beset by his foes, who were callingupon him all around in English to surrender. They did not wish to killhim, preferring to take him prisoner for the sake of the ransom. Theking was not willing to surrender to any person of inferior rank, sohe continued the struggle, though almost overpowered. Just then Denyscame up, and, calling out to him in French, advised him to surrender. The king was much pleased to hear the sound of his own language, andhe called out, "To whom shall I surrender? Who are you?"

"I am a French knight, " said Denys; "I was banished from France, and Inow serve the English prince. Surrender to me. "

"Where is the prince?" said the king. "If I could see him I wouldspeak to him. "

"He is not here, " said Denys; "but you had better surrender to me, andI will take you immediately to the part of the field where he is. "

So the king drew off his gauntlet, and gave it to Denys as a tokenthat he surrendered to him; but all the English knights who werepresent crowded around, and claimed the prisoner as theirs. Denysattempted to conduct the king to Prince Edward, all the knightsaccompanying him, and struggling to get possession of the prisoner bythe way. It was while the contention between Denys and these hiscompetitors was going on, that the two barons rode up, and rescued theking and his son from the danger they were in. 

 * * * * *

That night Prince Edward made a sumptuous supper for the king and hisson. The tables were spread in the prince's pavilion. The greater partof the French knights and barons who had been taken prisoners wereinvited to this banquet. The king and his son, with a few Frenchnobles of high rank, were placed at an elevated table superblyappointed and arranged. There were side tables set for the squires andknights of lower degree. Prince Edward, instead of seating himself atthe table with the king, took his place as an attendant, and servedthe king while he ate, notwithstanding all the entreaties of the kingthat he would not do so. He said that he was not worthy to sit at thetable of so great a king and of so valiant a man as the king hadshown himself to be that day. 

In a word, in all his demeanor toward the king, instead of triumphingover him, and boasting of the victory which he had achieved, he didevery thing in his power to soothe and assuage the fallen monarch'ssorrow, and to diminish his chagrin. 

"You must not allow yourself to be dejected, sire, " said he, "becausethe fortune of war has turned against you this day. By the manner inwhich you acquitted yourself on the field, you have gainedimperishable renown; and though, in the decision of divine Providence, the battle has gone against you for the moment, you have nothingpersonally to fear either for yourself or for your son. You may relywith perfect confidence upon receiving the most honorable treatmentfrom my father. I am sure that he will show you every attention in hispower, and that he will arrange for your ransom in so liberal andgenerous a spirit that you and he will henceforth become warm andconstant friends. "

This kind and respectful treatment of his prisoners made a very strongimpression upon the minds of all the French knights and nobles, andthey were warm in their praises of the magnanimity of theirvictorious enemy. He treated these knights themselves, too, in thesame generous manner. He liberated a large number of them on theirsimple promise that they would send him the sums which he namedrespectively for their ransoms. 

Although Edward was thus, on the whole, victorious in this battle, still many of the English knights were killed, and quite a number weretaken prisoners and carried off by the French to be held for ransom. One of these prisoners, a Scotch knight named Douglas, made his escapeafter his capture in a very singular manner. He was standing in hisarmor among his captors late in the evening, at a place at somedistance from the field, where the French had taken him and some otherprisoners for safety, and the French were about to take off his armor, which, from its magnificence, led them to suppose that he was a personof high rank and importance, as he really was, and that a grand ransomcould be obtained for him, when another Scotch knight, named Ramsay, suddenly fixing his eyes upon him, pretended to be in a great rage, and, advancing toward him, exclaimed, "You miserable wretch! How comes it that you dare to deck yourself outin this way in your master's armor? You have murdered and robbed him, I suppose. Come here and pull off my boots. "

Douglas understood at once Ramsay's design, and so, with pretendedtremblings, and looks of guilt and fear, he came to Ramsay and pulledoff one of his boots. Ramsay took up the boot and struck Douglas uponthe head with it. The other English prisoners, wondering, asked Ramsaywhat he meant. 

"That is Lord Douglas, " said they. 

"Lord Douglas?" repeated Ramsay, in a tone of contempt. "No suchthing. It is his servant. He has killed his master, I suppose, andstolen his armor. " Then, turning to Douglas and brandishing the bootover him again, he cried out, "Off with you, you villain! Go and look over the field, and find yourmaster's body, and when you have found it come back and tell me, thatI may at least give him a decent burial. "

So saying, he took out forty shillings, and gave the money to theFrenchmen as the ransom of the pretended servant, and then droveDouglas off, beating him with the boot and saying, "Away with you! Begone!"

Douglas bore this all very patiently, and went away with the air of adetected impostor, and soon got back safely to the English camp. 

 * * * * *

After the battle of Poictiers Prince Edward moved on toward thewestward with his army, taking with him his royal prisoners, andstopping at all the large towns on his way to celebrate his victorywith feastings and rejoicings. At last he reached Bordeaux on thecoast, and from Bordeaux, in due time, he set sail with his prisonersfor London. In the mean time, news of the victory, and of the comingof the King of France as prisoner to England, had reached London, andgreat preparations were made there for the reception of the prince. The prince took a fleet of ships and a large force of armed men withhim on the voyage, being afraid that the French would attempt tointercept him and rescue the prisoners. The King of France and hissuite had a ship to themselves. The fleet landed at a place calledSandwich, on the southern coast of England, and then the cortége ofthe prince proceeded by slow journeys to London. 

The party was received at the capital with great pomp and parade. Besides the cavalcades of nobles, knights, and barons which came outto meet them, all the different trades and companies of Londonappeared in their respective uniforms, with flags and banners, andwith the various emblems and insignia of their several crafts. AllLondon flocked into the streets to see the show. 

One would have supposed, however, from the arrangements which PrinceEdward made in entering the city, that the person whom all this pompand parade was intended to honor was not himself, but the king hiscaptive; for, instead of riding at the head of the procession intriumph, with the King of France and his son following as captives inhis train, he gave the king the place of honor, while he himself tookthe station of one of his attendants. The king was mounted on a whitecharger very splendidly caparisoned, while Prince Edward rode a smallblack horse by his side. The procession moved in this way through theprincipal streets of the city to a palace on the banks of the river atthe West End, which had been fitted up in the most complete andsumptuous manner for the king's reception. Soon after this, the Kingof England, Prince Edward's father, came to pay his captive cousin avisit, and, though he retained him as a captive, he treated him inother respects with every mark of consideration and honor. 

The King of France and his son remained captives in England for sometime. The king and the queen treated them with great consideration. They often visited King John at his palace, and they invited him tothe most sumptuous entertainments and celebrations made expressly todo him honor. 

In the mean time, the war between England and France still went on. Many battles were fought, and many towns and castles were besieged andtaken. But, after all, no great progress was made on either side, andat length, when both parties had become wearied and exhausted in thestruggle, a peace was concluded, and King John, having paid a suitableransom for himself and for those who were with him, was allowed toreturn home. He had been in captivity for about five years. 

 * * * * *

The conduct of Prince Edward at the battles of Crecy and of Poictiers, in both which contests the English fought against an immensesuperiority of numbers, and the great eclat of such an achievement ascapturing the French king, and conducting him a prisoner to London, joined to the noble generosity which he displayed in his treatment ofhis prisoners, made his name celebrated throughout the world. Everybody was sounding the praises of the Black Prince, the heir apparentto the English throne, and anticipating the greatness and glory towhich England would attain when he should become king. 

This was an event which might occur at any time, for King Edward hisfather was drawing gradually into the later years of life, and hehimself was now nearly forty years of age. 

CHAPTER V. 

CHILDHOOD OF RICHARD. 

A. D. 1366-1370

Prince Edward becomes Prince of Aquitaine. --Various calls madeupon him. --Don Pedro. --Edward's plans and arrangements. --LordD'Albret. --Lord D'Albret offers a thousand men. --King Edward offershis aid. --John of Gaunt. --Why the princess wishes to have Edward'sdeparture postponed. --Prince Edward's letter to Lord D'Albret. --LordD'Albret is very angry. --His determination. --Lord D'Albret's letterto the prince. --Edward in want of money. --Don Pedro pledges histhree daughters. --The baptism of the young Prince Richard. --Richardreceives a visit from his uncle John. --Richard at Bordeaux. --DonPedro's troubles and perplexities. --King Charles determines to callPrince Edward to account. --The commissioners arrive, and are receivedby the prince. --The lawyer reads the letter. --The prince is very muchdispleased. --He dismisses the commissioners. --Indignation of theprince. --He wishes to arrest the commissioners. --The commissionersseized and imprisoned. --Death of Richard's brother. --The princedetermines to go to England. --Prince Edward's farewell speech. --Hesails for England. --Little Richard at sea. --Pleasant and prosperousvoyage. --Portrait of Edward III. --Richard's first entrance intoEngland. 

The child of Edward the Black Prince, who afterward became Richard theSecond, king of England, was born at Bordeaux, in the southwesternpart of France, in the year 1367, in the midst of a scene of greatmilitary bustle and excitement. The circumstances were these. 

When peace was finally made between England and France, after the warsdescribed in the last chapter were over, one of the results of thetreaty which was made was that certain provinces in the southwesternpart of France were ceded to England, and formed into a principalitycalled Aquitaine, and this principality was placed under the dominionof the Black Prince. The title of the prince was thenceforth not onlyPrince of Wales, but also Prince of Aquitaine. The city of Bordeaux, near the mouth of the Garonne, as shown by the map, [E] was the chiefcity of Aquitaine. There the prince established his court, andreigned, as it were, for several years in great splendor. The famewhich he had acquired attracted to his court a great number of knightsand nobles from all lands, and whenever a great personage had anywrongs, real or imaginary, to be redressed, or any political end togain which required the force of arms, he was very likely to come tothe Prince of Aquitaine, in order, if possible, to secure his aid. Prince Edward was rather pleased than otherwise with theseapplications, for he loved war much better than peace, and, though heevinced a great deal of moderation and generosity in his conduct inthe treatment of his vanquished enemies, he was none the less reallyexcited and pleased with the glory and renown which his victoriesgained him. 

[Footnote E: See map on page 110. ]

About six months before Richard was born, while Edward was living withthe princess, his wife, in Bordeaux, he received an application foraid from a certain Don Pedro, who claimed to be King of Navarre inSpain, but who had been expelled from his kingdom by his brother. There was also a certain James who claimed to be the King of Majorca, a large island in the Mediterranean Sea, who was in much the samesituation in respect to _his_ kingdom. Prince Edward promised to aidDon Pedro in recovering his throne, and he forthwith began to makepreparations to this end. He also promised James that, as soon as hehad accomplished the work which he had undertaken for Don Pedro, hewould fit out an expedition to Majorca, and so restore him too to hiskingdom. 

The preparations which he made for the expedition into Spain wereprosecuted in a very vigorous manner. Don Pedro was destitute of meansas well as of men, and Edward was obliged to raise a large sum ofmoney for the provisioning and paying of his troops. His vassals, thenobles and barons of his principality, were obliged to furnish themen, it being the custom in those times that each vassal should bringto his lord, in case of war, as many soldiers as could be spared fromamong his own tenants and retainers--some fifty, some one hundred, andsome two hundred, or even more, according to the extent andpopulousness of their estates. One of the nobles in Prince Edward'sservice, named Lord D'Albret, had offered to bring a thousand men. Theprince had asked him on some public occasion, in presence of otherknights and noblemen, how many men he could furnish for theexpedition. 

"My lord, " replied Lord D'Albret, "if you really wish for all thestrength that I can furnish, I can bring you a thousand lances, andstill have enough at home to guard the country. "

The prince was surprised at this answer. He did not know, it seems, how powerful the barons of his principality were. 

"By my head!" said he, addressing Lord D'Albret and speaking inFrench, which was, of course, the language of Aquitaine, "that will bevery handsome. "

He then turned to some English nobles who were near, and speaking inEnglish, said it was worth while to rule in a country where one baroncould attend his lord with a thousand lances. He was ashamed not toaccept this offer, for, according to the ideas of these times, itwould not be at all consistent with what was expected of a prince thathe should not be able to maintain and pay as many troops as his baronscould bring him. So he said hastily, turning to D'Albret, that heengaged them all. 

Although, in the end, Don Pedro, if he succeeded in regaining hiskingdom, was to refund the expenses of the war, yet, in the firstinstance, it was necessary for the prince to raise the money, and hesoon found that it would be very difficult for him to raise enough. Hewas unwilling to tax too heavily the subjects of his principality, andso, after collecting as much as he thought prudent in that way, hesent to England to his father, explaining the nature and design ofthe proposed expedition, and soliciting his father's approval of it, and, at the same time, asking for aid in the way of funds. King Edwardreplied, cordially approving of the enterprise. He also promised tosend on the prince's brother John, with a body of troops to accompanythe expedition. This John was the one who has already been mentionedas born in Ghent, and who was called, on that account, John of Gaunt. He was also Duke of Lancaster, and is often designated by that name. Edward was very much attached to his brother John, and was very muchpleased to hear that he was coming to join him. 

The King of England also, Edward's father, made arrangements forsending to his son a large sum of money. This was of great assistanceto him, but still he had not money enough. So he broke up his plate, both gold and silver, and caused it to be coined, in order to assistin filling his treasury. Still, notwithstanding all that he could do, he found it difficult to provide sufficient funds for the purchase ofthe provisions that he required, and for the pay of the men. 

It was rather late in the season when the prince first formed the planof this expedition. He was very anxious to set out as soon aspossible, for he had the Pyrenees to cross, in order to pass fromFrance into Spain, and it would be impossible, he knew, to conduct anarmy over the mountains after the winter should set in; so he hastenedhis preparations as much as possible. He was kept in a continued feverby his impatience, and by the various delays and disappointments whichwere constantly occurring. In the mean while, time moved on, and itbegan at length to be doubtful whether he should be ready to marchbefore the winter should set in. 

To add to his perplexity, his wife begged him to postpone hisdeparture till the spring, in order that he might remain at home withher until after their child should be born. She was dejected inspirits, and seemed particularly sad and sorrowful at the thought ofher husband's going away to leave her at such a time. She knew, too, the undaunted recklessness with which he was accustomed to exposehimself to danger in his campaigns, and if he went away she could notbut think that it was uncertain whether he would ever return. 

Finally, the prince concluded to put off his departure until spring. This determination, however, in some sense increased his perplexities, for now he had a large proportion of his force to maintain and paythrough the winter. This made it necessary that he should curtail hisplans in some degree, and, among other things, he resolved to notifythe Baron D'Albret not to bring his whole complement of one thousandmen. It was a great humiliation to him to do this after havingformally agreed to engage the men, but he felt compelled, by thenecessity of the case, to do so, and he accordingly wrote to the baronthe following letter:

 "MY LORD D'ALBRET, "Whereas, out of our liberal bounty, we have retained you, with a thousand lances, to serve under us in the expedition which, through the grace of God, we intend speedily to undertake and briefly to finish, having duly considered the business, and the costs and expenses we are at, we have resolved that several of our vassals should remain at home in order to guard the territories. For these causes, it has been determined in our council that you shall serve in this expedition with two hundred lances only. You will choose the two hundred out from the rest, and the remainder you will leave at home to follow their usual occupations. 

 "May God have you under his holy protection. 

 "Given at Bordeaux, the eighth day of December. 

 "EDWARD. "

This letter was sealed with the great seal of the prince, and sent toD'Albret, who was in his own country, busily engaged in assembling andequipping his men, and making the other necessary preparations. Thebaron was exceedingly indignant when he received the letter. In thosedays, every man that was capable of bearing arms liked much better tobe taken into the service of some prince or potentate going to warthan to remain at home to cultivate the ground in quiet industry. D'Albret knew, therefore, very well, that his vassals and retainerswould be all greatly disappointed to learn that four fifths of theirwhole number were, after all, to remain at home, and then, besidesthis, his own importance in the campaign would be greatly diminishedby reducing the force under his command from one thousand to twohundred men. He was extremely angry when he read the letter. 

"How is this?" he exclaimed. "My lord the Prince of Wales trifles withme when he orders me to disband eight hundred knights and squireswhom, by his command, I have retained, and have diverted from othermeans of obtaining profit and honor. " Then he called for a secretary, and said to him in a rage, "Write what I shall dictate to you. "

The secretary wrote as follows from his master's dictation:

 "MY DEAR LORD, "I am marvelously surprised at the contents of the letter which you have sent me. I do not know and can not imagine what answer I can make. Your present orders will do me a great injury, and subject me to much blame. For all the men-at-arms whom I have retained by your command have already made their preparations for entering your service, and were only waiting your orders to march. By retaining them for your service I have prevented them from seeking honor and profit elsewhere. Some of the knights had actually made engagements to go beyond sea, to Jerusalem, to Constantinople, or to Russia, in order to advance themselves, and now, having relinquished these advantageous prospects in order to join your enterprise, they will be extremely displeased if they are left behind. I am myself equally displeased, and I can not conceive what I have done to deserve such treatment. And I beg you to understand, my lord, that I can not be separated from my men; nor will they consent to be separated from each other. I am convinced that, if I dismiss any of them, they will all go. "

The baron added other words of the same tenor, and then, signing andsealing the letter, sent it to the prince. The prince was angry in histurn when he received this letter. 

"By my faith, " said he, "this man D'Albret is altogether too great aman for my country, when he seeks thus to disobey an order from mycouncil. But let him go where he pleases. We will perform thisexpedition, if it please God, without _any_ of his thousand lances. "

This case presents a specimen of the perplexities and troubles inwhich the prince was involved during the winter, while organizing hisexpedition and preparing to set out in the spring. The want of moneywas the great difficulty, for there was no lack of men. Don Pedroagreed, it is true, that when he recovered his kingdom he would payback the advances which Edward had to make, but he was so unprincipleda man that Edward knew very well that he could not trust to hispromises unless he gave some security. So Don Pedro agreed to leavehis three daughters in Edward's hands as hostages to secure thepayment of the money. 

The names of the three princesses thus pledged as collateral securityfor money borrowed were Beatrice, Constance, and Isabel. 

At length, on the third day of April, the child was born. Theprincess was in a monastery at the time, called the monastery of St. Andrew, whither she had retired for privacy and quiet. Immediatelyafter the event, Prince Edward, having made every thing ready before, gave orders that the expedition should set forward on the road toSpain. He himself was to follow as soon as the baptism of the childshould be performed. The day on which the child was born wasWednesday, and Friday was fixed for the baptism. The baptism tookplace at noon, at a stone font in the church of the monastery. TheKing of Majorca, whom the prince had promised to restore to hiskingdom, was one of the godfathers. The child was named Richard. 

On the Sunday following the prince bade his wife and the little infantfarewell, and set out from Bordeaux with great pomp, at the head of animmense cavalcade, and went on to join the expedition which wasalready on its way to Spain. 

[Illustration: RICHARD RECEIVING THE VISIT OF HIS UNCLE JOHN. ]

The birth of Richard was an event of great importance, for he was notonly the son of the Prince of Aquitaine, but he was the grandson of theKing of England, and, of course, every one knew that he might one day bethe King of England himself. Still, the probability was not very greatthat this would happen, at least for a long period to come; for, though his father, Prince Edward, was the oldest son of the King ofEngland, he himself was not the oldest son of his father. He had abrother who was some years older than himself, and, of course, therewere three lives that must be terminated before his turn should come toreign in England--his grandfather's, his father's, and his brother's. 

It happened that all these three lives _were_ terminated in acomparatively brief period, so that Richard really became King ofEngland before he grew up to be a man. 

The first important occurrence which took place at the monastery atBordeaux, where little Richard remained with his mother after hisfather had gone, was the arrival of his uncle John, that is, John ofGaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, who was on his way from England at thehead of an army to accompany his brother into Spain. John stopped atBordeaux to see the princess and the infant child. He was veryjoyfully received by the princess, and by all the ladies in attendanceupon her. The princess was very fond of her brother, and she was muchpleased that he was going to join her husband in the war in Spain;besides, he brought her late and full news from England. The duke, however, did not remain long at Bordeaux, but, after a brief visit tohis sister, he put himself again at the head of his troops, andhurried forward to overtake the prince, who was already far on his waytoward the Pyrenees and Spain. 

Little Richard remained in Bordeaux for three or four years. Duringthis time he had his brother for a playmate, but he saw little of hisfather. It was some time before his father returned from Spain, andwhen he did return he came home much depressed in spirits, andharassed and vexed with many cares. He had succeeded, it is true, inconquering Don Pedro's enemies, and in placing Don Pedro himself againupon the throne; but he had failed in getting back the money that hehad expended. Don Pedro could not or would not repay him. What PrinceEdward did with the three daughters of the king that had been leftwith him as hostages I do not know. At any rate, he could not pay hisdebts with them, or raise money by means of them to silence hisclamorous troops. He attempted to lay fresh taxes upon the people ofAquitaine. This awakened a great deal of discontent. The barons whohad had disagreements of any sort with Edward before, took advantageof this discontent to form plots against him, and at last several ofthem, D'Albret among the rest, whom he had mortally offended bycountermanding his orders for the thousand men, combined together andsent to the King of France, complaining of the oppressions which theysuffered under Edward's rule, and inviting him to come and help themfree themselves. The king at once determined that he would do this. 

This King of France was, however, not King John, whom Edward had madeprisoner and sent to London. King John had died, and the crown haddescended to his successor, Charles the Fifth. 

King Charles determined first to send two commissioners to summon thePrince of Aquitaine into his presence to give an account of himself. He did this under the pretext that Aquitaine was part of France, andthat, consequently, Prince Edward was in some sense under hisjurisdiction. 

The two commissioners, with their attendants, left Paris, and set outon their journey to Bordeaux. People traveled very slowly in thosedays, and the commissioners were a long time on the way. At length, however, they reached Bordeaux. They arrived late in the evening, andtook up their quarters at an inn. The next day they repaired to themonastery where the prince was residing. 

They informed the attendants who received them at the monastery thatthey had been sent by the King of France with a message to the prince. The attendants, who were officers of the prince's court, informed theprince of the arrival of the strangers, and he ordered them to bebrought into his presence. 

The commissioners, on being brought before the prince, bowed very lowin token of reverence, and presented their credentials. The prince, after reading the credentials, and examining the seals of the King ofFrance by which they were authenticated, said to the commissioners, "It is very well. These papers show that you are duly commissionedembassadors from the King of France. You are welcome to our court. Andyou can now proceed to communicate the message with which you havebeen charged. "

Of the two commissioners, one was a lawyer, and the other a knight. The knight bore the singular name of Caponnel de Caponnal. The lawyer, of course, was the principal speaker at the interview with the prince, and when the prince called for the communication which had been sentfrom the King of France, he drew forth a paper which he said containedwhat the King of France had to say, and which, he added, they, thecommissioners, had promised faithfully to read in the prince'spresence. 

The prince, wondering greatly what the paper could contain, orderedthe lawyer to proceed with the reading of it. 

The lawyer read as follows:

 "Charles, by the grace of God, King of France, to our nephew the Prince of Wales and Aquitaine, health. 

 "Whereas several prelates, barons, knights, universities, fraternities, and colleges of the country and district of Gascony, residing and inhabiting upon the borders of our realm, together with many others from the country and duchy of Aquitaine, have come before us in our court to claim justice for certain grievances and unjust oppressions which you, through weak counsel and foolish advice, have been induced to do them, and at which we are much astonished;

 "Therefore, in order to obviate and remedy such things, we do take cognizance of their cause, insomuch that we, of our royal majesty and sovereignty, order and command you to appear in our city of Paris in person, and that you show and present yourself before us in our chamber of Paris, to hear judgment pronounced upon the aforesaid complaints and grievances done by you to our subjects, who claim to be heard, and to have the jurisdiction of our court. 

 "Let there be no delay in obeying this summons, but set out as speedily as possible after having heard this order read. 

 "In witness whereof we have affixed our seal to these presents. 

 "Given at Paris the twenty-fifth day of January, 1369. 

 "CHARLES R. "

On hearing this letter read, the prince was filled with astonishmentand indignation. He paused a moment, with his eyes fixed upon thecommissioners, as if not knowing what to reply. At length, with anexpression of bitter irony upon his countenance, he said, "We shall willingly appear at the appointed day at Paris, since theKing of France sends for us, but it will be with our helmet on ourhead, and accompanied by sixty thousand men. "

The commissioners, seeing how much the prince was displeased, beganimmediately to entreat him not to be angry with them as the bearers ofthe message. 

"Oh no, " said the prince, "I am not in the least angry with you, butonly with those that sent you hither. Your master, the King ofFrance, has been exceedingly ill advised in thus pretending to claimjurisdiction over our dominion of Aquitaine, and in taking the part ofour discontented subjects against us, their rightful sovereign. Whenhe surrendered the provinces to the King of England, my father, as hedid by solemn treaty, he relinquished forever all jurisdiction overthem, and in the exercise of my government I acknowledge no superiorexcept my father. Tell the King of France that is what I claim andwill maintain. It shall cost a hundred thousand lives before it shallbe otherwise. "

Having spoken these words in a calm and quiet, but very resolute anddetermined tone, the prince walked off out of the apartment, leavingthe commissioners in a great state of astonishment and alarm. Theyseemed to know not what to do. 

Some of the courtiers came to them and advised them to withdraw. "Itis useless, " said they, "for you to attempt any thing more. You havedelivered your message faithfully, and the prince has given hisanswer. It is the only answer that he will give, you may depend, andyou may as well return with it to the king. "

So the messengers went back to the inn, and on the evening of the sameday they set out on their return to Paris. In the mean time, PrinceEdward continued to feel extremely indignant at the message which hehad received. The more he reflected upon it, indeed, the more angry hebecame. He felt as if he had been insulted in having had such asummons from a foreign potentate served upon him by a lawyer in hisown house. The knights and barons around him, sharing his anger, proposed that they should pursue and seize the commissioners, with aview of punishing them for their audacity in bringing such a message. At first the prince was unwilling to consent to this, as the personsof embassadors and messengers of all sorts sent from one sovereign toanother were, in those days as now, considered sacred. At last, however, he said that he thought the men were hardly to be consideredas the messengers of the King of France. 

"They are virtually, " said he, "the messengers of D'Albret and theother factious and rebellious barons among our own subjects, whocomplained to the King of France and incited him to interfere in ouraffairs, and, as such, I should not be sorry to have them taken andpunished. "

This was sufficient. The knights who heard it immediately sent off asmall troop of horsemen, who overtook the commissioners before theyreached the frontier. In order not to compromise the prince, they saidnothing about having been sent by him, but arrested the men on acharge of having taken a horse which did not belong to them from theinn. Under pretense of investigating this charge, they took the men toa neighboring town and shut them up in a castle there. 

Some of the attendants of the commissioners, who had come with themfrom France, made their escape, and, returning to Paris, they reportedto the King of France all that had occurred. It now came his turn tobe angry, and both parties began to prepare for war. 

The King of England took sides with his son, and so was drawn at onceinto the quarrel. Various military expeditions were fitted out on bothsides. Provinces were ravaged, and towns and castles were stormed. ThePrince of Wales was overwhelmed with the troubles and perplexitieswhich surrounded him. His people were discontented, his finances werelow, and the fortune of war often turned against him. His health, too, began to fail him, and he sank into a state of great dejection anddespondency. To complete the sum of his misfortunes, his oldest son, Richard's brother, fell sick and died. This was a fortunate event forRichard, for it advanced him to the position of the oldest survivingson, and made him thus his father's heir. It brought him, too, onestep nearer to the English throne. Richard was, however, at this timeonly four years old, and thus was too young to understand thesethings, and probably, sympathizing with his father and mother, hemourned his brother's death. The parents, at any rate, wereexceedingly grieved at the loss of their first-born child, and thedespondency of the prince was greatly increased by the event. 

At last the physicians and counselors of Edward advised that he shouldleave his principality for a time and repair to England. They hopedthat by the change of scene and air he might recover his spirits, andperhaps regain his health. The prince resolved on following thisadvice. So he made arrangements for leaving his principality under thegovernment and care of his brother, John of Gaunt, and then ordered avessel to be made ready at Bordeaux to convey himself, the princess, and Richard to England. 

When every thing was ready for his departure, he convened an assemblyof all the barons and knights of his dominions in a hall of audienceat Bordeaux, and there solemnly committed the charge of theprincipality to his brother John in the presence of them all. 

He said in the speech that he made to them on that occasion, thatduring all the time that he had been their prince, he had alwaysmaintained them in peace, prosperity, and power, so far as depended onhim, against all their enemies, and that now, in the hope ofrecovering his health, which was greatly impaired, he intended toreturn to England. He therefore earnestly besought them to placeconfidence in, and faithfully serve and obey, his brother, the Duke ofLancaster, as they had hitherto served and obeyed him. 

The barons all solemnly promised to obey these injunctions, and theytook the oath of fealty and homage to the duke. They then bid theprince farewell, and he soon afterward embarked on board the ship withhis wife and son, and set sail for England. 

The fleet which accompanied the prince on the voyage, as convoy to theprince's ship, contained five hundred men-at-arms, and a large body ofarchers besides. This force was intended to guard against the dangerof being intercepted by the French on the way. The prince and theprincess must, of course, have felt some solicitude on this account, but Richard, being yet only four years old, was too young to concernhimself with any such fears. So he played about the ship during thevoyage, untroubled by the anxieties and cares which weighed upon thespirits of his father and mother. 

The voyage was a very prosperous one. The weather was pleasant and thewind was fair, and after a few days' sail the fleet arrived safely atSouthampton. The king, with his family and suite, disembarked. Theyremained two days at Southampton to refresh themselves after thevoyage, and to allow the prince, who seemed to be growing worse ratherthan better, a little time to gather strength for the journey toLondon. When the time arrived for setting out, he was found too ill totravel by any of the ordinary modes, and so they placed him upon alitter, and in this way the party set out for Windsor Castle. 

The party traveled by easy stages, and at length arrived at thecastle. Here Richard for the first time saw his grandfather, Edwardthe Third, King of England. They were all very kindly received by him. After remaining a short time at Windsor Castle, the prince, with hiswife and Richard, and the knights, and barons, and other attendantswho had come with him from Aquitaine, proceeded to a place calledBirkhamstead, about twenty miles from London, and there took up hisabode. 

[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF EDWARD THE THIRD, RICHARD'S GRANDFATHER. ]

And thus it was that Richard for the first time entered the countrywhich had been the land of his ancestors for so long a time, and overwhich he was himself so soon to reign. 

CHAPTER VI. 

ACCESSION TO THE THRONE. 

A. D. 1376

John of Gaunt. --His thoughts in respect to the kingdom. --Laws ofsuccession. --Prince Edward grows worse. --He dies. --Grand burialof the prince at Canterbury. --Richard is declared heir to thecrown. --Grand entertainment at Christmas. --Bad character of theking. --Alice Perrers. --Death of the king. --A council of governmentappointed. --Chivalry. --Fear of the French. --Embargo. --Some accountof Wickliffe the reformer. --The Pope's bulls. --Meaning of theterm. --The golden bull. --Trial of Wickliffe in London. --Theassembly. --Violent disputes. --Rudeness of the Duke ofLancaster. --Indignation of the people. --Priest murdered. --Alarm ofthe mayor and aldermen. --Deputation sent to the young king. --TheLondoners summoned. --Richard holds a court. --The whole difficultyamicably settled. 

Young Richard lived in comparative retirement with his mother forabout six years after his return to England. His father's sicknesscontinued. Indeed, the prince was so feeble in body, and so dejectedand desponding in mind, that he was well-nigh incapable of taking anypart in public affairs. His brother, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, remained for some time in Aquitaine, and was engaged in continual warswith France, but at length he too returned to England. He was a man ofgreat energy of character and of great ambition, and he began torevolve the question in his mind whether, in case his brother, thePrince of Wales, should die, the inheritance of the kingdom of Englandshould fall to him, or to Richard, the son of his brother. 

"My brother Edward is older than I, " he said to himself, "and if heshould live till after our father the king dies, then I grant that heshould succeed to the throne. But if he dies before the king, then itis better that I should succeed to the throne, for his son Richard isbut a child, and is wholly unfit to reign. Besides, if the oldest sonof a king is dead, it is more reasonable that the next oldest shouldsucceed him, rather than that the crown should go down to the childrenof the one who has died. "

The laws of succession were not absolutely settled in those days, sothat, in doubtful cases, it was not uncommon for the king himself, orthe Parliament, or the king and Parliament together, to select fromamong different claimants, during the life-time of the king, the onewhom they wished to succeed to the crown. 

All were agreed, however, in this case--the king, the Parliament, andthe people of the country--that if Edward should survive his father, he was the rightful heir. He was a universal favorite, and people hadbeen long anticipating a period of great prosperity and glory for thekingdom of England when he should be king. 

In the mean time, however, his health grew worse and worse, and atlength, in 1376, he died. His death produced a great sensation. Provision was made for a very magnificent funeral. The prince died atWestminster, which was then a mile or two west from London, though nowLondon has become so extended that Westminster forms the west end ofthe town. It was determined to bury the prince in the Cathedral atCanterbury. Canterbury is in the south-eastern part of England, andwas then, as now, the residence of the archbishop, and the religiousmetropolis, so to speak, of the kingdom. When the day of the funeralarrived, an immense cavalcade and procession was formed atWestminster. All the nobles of the court and the members of Parliamentjoined in the train as mourners, and followed the body through thecity. The body was placed on a magnificent hearse, which was drawn bytwelve horses. Immense throngs of people crowded the streets and thewindows to see the procession go by. After passing through the city, the hearse, attended by the proper escort, took the road toCanterbury, and there the body of the prince was interred. A monumentwas erected over the tomb, upon which was placed an effigy of theprince, dressed in the armor in which the illustrious wearer hadgained so many victories and acquired such lasting renown. 

[Illustration: EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. --This engraving represents theeffigy of the Black Prince, as now seen upon his monument on the northside of the Cathedral at Canterbury. ]

The King of France, although the prince had been one of his mostimplacable enemies all his life, and had been engaged in incessantwars against him, caused funeral solemnities to be celebrated in Parison the occasion of his death. 

The ceremonies were performed with great magnificence in the chapel ofthe royal palace, and all the barons, knights, and nobles of the courtattended in grand costume, and joined in rendering honor to the memoryof their departed foe. 

It was about midsummer when Richard's father died. Richard's uncle, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, was in London, and he had a largeparty in his favor, though generally he was very unpopular in England. He had not yet openly claimed the right to inherit the crown, nor didany one know positively that he intended to do so. In order toprevent, if possible, any dispute on this question, and to anticipateany movements which John might otherwise make to secure the crown tohimself, the Parliament petitioned the king to bring the young PrinceRichard before them, that they might publicly receive him, andrecognize him formally as heir to the crown. This the king did. Richard was dressed in royal robes, and conveyed in great state to thehall where Parliament was convened. Of course, the spectacle of a boyof ten years old brought in this manner before so august an assemblyexcited universal attention. The young prince was received with greathonor. A solemn oath of allegiance was taken by all present, including the members of the Parliament, the great officers of state, and a number of nobles of high rank, including the Duke of Lancasterhimself. In this oath, the claims of Richard to succeed hisgrandfather as King of England were recognized, and those taking theoath bound themselves forever to maintain his rights against all whoshould ever call them in question. 

At Christmas of that year the king gave a great entertainment to allthe lords and nobles of his court. At this entertainment he gavePrince Richard the highest place, next to himself, putting his uncleJohn, and all his other uncles, below him. This was to signify that hewas now the second person in the kingdom, and that his uncles mustalways henceforth yield precedence to him. 

The king was now sixty-five years of age. His health was very infirm. It was made so, in great measure, by his mode of life, which wasscandalous. He associated with corrupt men and women, who led him intogreat excesses. As the spring of the year came on he grew worse, buthe would not abandon his evil habits. He lived at one of his palaceson the Thames, a short distance above London, near Richmond. Hisgovernment fell into great disorder, but he did nothing to restrainor correct the evils that occurred. In a word, he was fast relapsinginto utter imbecility. 

There was a young woman, named Alice Perrers, who had for some timebeen the favorite of the king, and had openly lived with him, greatlyto the displeasure of many of his people. She was now with him at hispalace. The nobles and courtiers who had been in attendance upon theking, seeing that he was soon to die, began to withdraw from him, andleave him to his fate. They saw that there was nothing more to beobtained from him, and that, for their future prospects, they mustdepend on the favor of Prince Richard or of his uncle John. It is truethat Richard's right to the succession had been acknowledged, but thenhe was yet a child, and it was supposed that his uncle John, being thenext oldest son of the king, would probably be appointed regent untilhe should come of age. So the courtiers left the dying monarch to hisfate, and went to court the favor of those who were soon to succeed tohis power. Some went to the palace of the Duke of Lancaster; othersproceeded to Kennington, where the prince and his mother wereresiding. The poor king found himself forsaken of all the world, andleft to die neglected and alone. It is said that Alice Perrers wasthe last to leave him, and that she only remained after the rest forthe sake of a valuable ring which he wore upon his finger, and whichshe wished to get away from him as soon as the dying monarch was toofar gone to be conscious of the robbery. 

The counselors and nobles, though they thus forsook the king, were notwholly unmindful of the interests of the kingdom. They assembledimmediately after his death, and determined that during Richard'sminority the government should be administered by a council, and theyselected for this council twelve men from among the highest nobles ofthe land. They determined upon this plan rather than upon a regencybecause they knew that if a regent were appointed it would benecessary that the Duke of Lancaster should be the man, and they wereunwilling to put the power into his hands, for fear that he would notsurrender it when Richard should come of age. 

Besides, it would be in his power, in case he had been appointedregent, to have caused Richard to be put to death in some secret way, if he chose to do so, and then, of course, the crown would, withoutdispute, pass next to him. It was not wholly unreasonable to fearthis, for such crimes had often been committed by rival against rivalin the English royal line. A man might be in those days a very braveand gallant knight, a model in the eyes of all for the unsulliedpurity of his chivalric honor, and yet be ready to poison or starve anuncle, or a brother, or a nephew, without compunction or remorse, iftheir rights or interests conflicted with his own. The honor ofchivalry was not moral principle or love of justice and right; it wasmere punctiliousness in respect to certain conventional forms. 

Immediately on the death of the king, orders were sent to all theports in the southern part of England forbidding any ship or boat ofany kind from going to sea. The object of this was to keep the deathof the king a secret from the King of France, for fear that he mightseize the opportunity for an invasion of England. Indeed, it was knownthat he was preparing an expedition for this purpose before the kingdied, and it was considered very important that he should not hear ofthe event until the government should be settled, lest he should takeadvantage of it to hasten his invasion. 

The making of these arrangements, and the funeral ceremonies connectedwith the interment of the king, occupied some days. There was also adifficulty between the Duke of Lancaster and the citizens of Londonto be settled, which for a time threatened to be quite embarrassing. The case was this. 

In all accounts of the Reformation in England, among the earliest ofthose who first called in question the supremacy of the Pope, the nameof Wickliffe is always mentioned. Indeed, he has been called themorning star of the English Reformation, as he appeared before it, and, by the light which beamed from his writings and his deeds, announced and ushered its approach. He was a collegian of the greatUniversity of Oxford, a very learned man, and a great student ofecclesiastical and civil law. During the reign of Edward, Richard'sgrandfather, who had now just died, there had been some disputesbetween him and the Pope in relation to their respective rights andpowers within the realm of England. This is not the place to explainthe particulars of the dispute. It is enough here to say that therewere two parties formed in England, some taking sides with the Church, and others with the king. The bishops and clergy, of course, belongedto the former class, and many of the high nobility to the latter. Atlength, after various angry discussions, the Pope issued a bull, addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury and to the Bishop of London, two of the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries of the realm, commanding them to cause Wickliffe to be apprehended and broughtbefore them for trial on the charge of heresy. 

The decrees of popes were in those days, as now, generally calledbulls. The reason why they were called by this name was on account oftheir being authenticated by the Pope's seal, which was impressed upona sort of button or boss of metal attached to the parchment by a cordor ribbon. The Latin name for this boss was _bulla_. Such bosses weresometimes made of lead, so as to be easily stamped by the seal. Sometimes they were made of other metals. There was one famous decreeof the Pope in which the boss was of gold. This was called the goldenbull. 

On the adjoining page we have an engraving, copied from a very ancientbook, representing an archbishop reading a bull to the people in achurch. You can see the boss of metal, with the seal stamped upon it, hanging down from the parchment. 

[Illustration: THE BULL. ]

 * * * * *

As soon as the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Londonreceived the bull commanding them to bring Wickliffe to trial, theycaused him to be seized and brought to London. On hearing of hisarrest, a number of his friends among the nobles came at once to Londontoo, in order that they might support him by their countenance andencouragement, and restrain the prelates from carrying their hostilityagainst him too far. Among these were the Duke of Lancaster and acertain Lord Percy, a nobleman of very high rank and station. The trialtook place in the Church of St. Paul's. Wickliffe was called upon toanswer to the charges made against him before a very imposing court ofecclesiastics, all dressed magnificently in their sacerdotal robes. Theknights and barons who took Wickliffe's side were present too in theirmilitary costume, and a great assembly besides, consisting chiefly ofthe citizens of London. 

The common people of London, being greatly under the influence of thepriests, were, of course, against Wickliffe, and they looked with evileyes upon the Duke of Lancaster and the other nobles who had comethere to befriend him. In the course of the trial, which it seems wasnot conducted in a very regular manner, the prelates and the noblesgot into a dispute. The dispute at last became so violent that theDuke of Lancaster had the rudeness to threaten the Bishop of Londonthat if he did not behave better he would drag him out of the churchby the hair of his head. This was certainly very rough language toaddress to a bishop, especially at a time when he was sitting, underauthority from the Pope, as a judge in a high spiritual court, andclothed in all the paraphernalia of his sacred office. The Londonerswere excessively angry. They went out and called their fellow-citizensto arms. The excitement spread and increased during the night, and thenext morning a mob collected in the streets, threatening vengeanceagainst the duke and Lord Percy, and declaring that they would killthem. The duke's arms, which were displayed in a public place in thecity, they reversed, as was customary in the case of traitors, andthen growing more and more excited as they went on, they directedtheir steps toward the palace of the Savoy, where they expected tofind the duke himself. The duke was not there, but the men would haveset fire to the palace had it not been for the interposition of theBishop of London. He, hearing what was going on, repaired to the spot, and with great difficulty succeeded in restraining the mob and savingthe palace. They, however, proceeded forthwith to the house of LordPercy, where they burst through the doors, and, ransacking all therooms, tore and broke every thing to pieces, and threw the fragmentsout at the windows. They found a man dressed as a priest, whom theytook to be Lord Percy in disguise, and they killed him on the spot. 

The murdered man was not Lord Percy, however, but a priest in his ownproper dress. Lord Percy and the duke were just preparing to sit downto dinner quietly together in another place, when a messenger camebreathless and informed them what was going on. They immediately fled. They ran to the water-side, got into a boat, and rowed themselves overto Kennington, a place on the southern side of the river, nearlyopposite to Westminster, where the young Prince Richard and his motherwere then residing; for all this took place just before King Richard'sgrandfather died. 

The lord-mayor and aldermen of London were greatly alarmed when theyheard of this riot, and of the excesses which the citizens of Londonhad committed. They were afraid that the Duke of Lancaster, whoseinfluence and power they knew was already very great, and which wouldprobably become vastly greater on the death of the king, would holdthem responsible for it. So they went in a body to Richmond, where theking was lying sick, and made very humble apologies for theindignities which had been offered to the duke, and they promised todo all in their power to punish the transgressors. The king was, however, too far gone to pay much attention to this embassy. The mayorand aldermen then sent a deputation to Prince Richard at Kennington, to declare their good-will to him, and their readiness to accept himas their sovereign upon the death of his grandfather, and to promisefaithful allegiance to him on their own part individually, and on thepart of the city of London. They hoped by this means to conciliate thegood opinion of Richard and of his mother, as well as of the otherfriends around him, and prepare them to judge leniently of their casewhen it should come before them. 

All this, as has already been remarked, took place just before KingEdward's death. Immediately after his death Richard and his motherwent to Richmond, and took up their residence in the palace whereEdward died. On the next day a deputation was sent to the mayor andaldermen of London in Richard's name, calling upon them to appear atRichmond before the king, together with the Duke of Lancaster and hisfriends, in order that both sides might be heard in respect to thesubject-matter of the dispute, and that the question might beproperly decided. The Duke of Lancaster, they were informed, hadagreed to this course, and was ready to appear. They were accordinglysummoned to appear also. 

The Londoners were at first rather afraid to obey this injunction. They did not think that a boy of eleven years of age was reallycompetent to hear and decide such a case. Then they were afraid, too, that the Duke of Lancaster, being his uncle, would have such aninfluence over him as to lead him to decide just as he, the duke, should desire, and that thus, if they submitted to such a hearing ofthe case, they would place themselves wholly in the duke's power. After some hesitation, however, they finally concluded to go, stipulating only that, whatever disposal might be made of the case, there should, in no event, any personal harm befall the mayor or thealdermen. 

This condition was agreed to, and the parties appeared on theappointed day before the little king to have the case tried. Richardwas, of course, surrounded by his officers and counselors, and thebusiness was really transacted by them, though it was done in theyoung king's name. There was no difficulty in settling the disputeamicably, for all parties were disposed to have it settled, and insuch cases it is always easy to find a way. In this instance, theadvisers of Richard managed so well that the duke and his friends werequite reconciled to the Londoners, and they all went out from thepresence of the king at last, when the case was concluded, as goodfriends apparently as they had ever been. 

The settling of this dispute was the first act of King Richard'sreign. Considering how violent the dispute had been, and how powerfulthe parties to it were, and also considering that Richard was yetnothing but a small though very pretty boy, we must admit that it wasa very good beginning. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE CORONATION. 

A. D. 1377

Nature and design of a coronation. --Arrangements made for Richard'scoronation. --Conduits of wine. --Golden snow. --The younggirls. --Procession. --Crowds of people in the streets. --Ceremoniesof the coronation. --Bewildering scene. --Oath administered to thepeople. --Ceremony of anointing. --Richard clothed in his royalrobes. --The crown. --The globe. --The sceptre. --Richard makes hisofferings at the altar. --Richard is entirely exhausted withfatigue. --Creation of earls. --Rude amusements. --Wine. --Frenchinvasions. --Richard's uncles. --His bright prospects. 

The coronation of a monarch is often postponed for a considerable timeafter his accession to the throne. There is no practical inconveniencein such a postponement, for the crowning, though usually a very augustand imposing ceremony, is of no particular force or effect in respectto the powers or prerogatives of the king. He enters upon the fullenjoyment of all these prerogatives and powers at once on the death ofhis predecessor, and can exercise them all without restraint, as thepublic good may require. The coronation is merely a pageant, which, assuch, may be postponed for a longer or shorter period, as occasion mayrequire. 

Richard was crowned, however, a very short time after his father'sdeath. It was thought best, undoubtedly, to take prompt measures forsealing and securing his right to the succession, lest the Duke ofLancaster or some other person might be secretly forming plans tosupplant him. King Edward, Richard's grandfather, died on the 22d ofJune. The funeral occupied several days, and immediately afterwardarrangements began to be made for the coronation. The day wasappointed for the 16th of July. On the 15th the king was to proceed instate from the palace in the environs of London where he had beenresiding, through the city of London, to Westminster, where thecoronation was to take place; and as the people of London desired tomake a grand parade in honor of the passage of the king through thecity, the arrangements of the occasion comprised two celebrations ontwo successive days--the procession through London on the 15th, andthe coronation at Westminster on the 16th. 

On the morning of the 15th, an imposing train of the nobility, led byall the great officers of state, assembled at the residence of theking to receive him and to escort him through the city. Richard wasdressed in magnificent robes, and mounted upon a handsome charger. Anobleman led his horse by the bridle. Another nobleman of high rankwent before him, bearing the sword of state, the emblem of the regalpower. Other nobles and prelates in great numbers, mounted many ofthem on splendidly-caparisoned horses, and in full armor, joined inthe train. Bands of musicians, with trumpets and other martialinstruments in great numbers, filled the air with joyful sounds, andin this manner the procession commenced its march. 

In the mean time, the Londoners had made great preparations for thereception of the _cortége_. Conduits were opened in various parts ofthe city, to run with wine instead of water, in token of the generaljoy. In the heart of the city an edifice in the form of a castle waserected in honor of the occasion. This castle had four towers. In eachof the towers were four beautiful young girls, all about Richard'sage. They were dressed in white, and their duty was, as the king wentby, to throw out a quantity of little leaves of gold, which, fallingupon and all around the king, produced the effect of a shower ofgolden flakes of snow. 

The procession stopped before the castle. There were conduits flowingwith wine upon two sides of it. The young girls descended from thetowers, bringing golden cups in their hands. These cups they filledwith wine at the fountains, and offered them to the king and to thenobles who accompanied him. On the top of the castle, between the fourtowers, there stood a golden angel with a crown in his hand. By someingenious mechanism, this angel was made to extend his arm to theking, as if in the act of offering him the crown. This was a symbolrepresenting the idea often inculcated in those days, that the rightof the king to reign was a divine right, as if the crown were placedupon his head by an angel from heaven. 

After pausing thus a short time at the castle, the procession movedon. The streets were filled with vast crowds of people, who drownedthe music of the trumpets and drums by their continual acclamations. 

In this way the royal procession passed on through London, and atlength arrived at the gate of the palace in Westminster. Here Richardwas assisted to dismount from his horse, and was conducted into thepalace between two long lines of knights and soldiers that werestationed at the entrance and upon the staircase to honor his arrival. He was glad that the ceremony was over, for he was beginning to bevery tired of riding on horseback so many hours, and of being so longin the midst of scenes of so much noise, excitement, and confusion. 

The next day was the day appointed for the coronation itself. Richardwas dressed in his royal robes, and shortly before noon he wasconducted in great state from the palace to the church. He wasreceived by a procession of bishops and monks, and conducted by themto the grand altar. The pavement before the altar was covered withrich tapestry. Here Richard kneeled while prayers were said and theLitany was sung by the priests. His barons and nobles, and the greatofficers of state, kneeled around him. After the prayers were over, hewas conducted to an elevated seat, which was richly decorated withcarvings and gold. 

A bishop then ascended to a pulpit built against one of the vastGothic columns of the church, and preached a sermon. The sermon was onthe subject of the duty of a king; explaining how a king ought toconduct himself in the government of his people, and enjoining uponthe people, too, the duty of being faithful and obedient to theirking. 

Richard paid little attention to this sermon, being already tired ofthe scene. He was, moreover, bewildered by the multitude of peoplecrowded into the church, and all gazing intently and continually uponhim. There were bishops and priests in their sacerdotal robes ofcrimson and gold, and knights and nobles brilliant with nodding plumesand glittering armor of steel. When the sermon was finished, the oathwas administered to Richard. It was read by the archbishop, Richardassenting to it when it was read. As soon as the oath had thus beenadministered, the archbishop, turning in succession to each quarter ofthe church, repeated the oath in a loud voice to the people, fourtimes in all, and called upon those whom he successively addressed toask whether they would submit to Richard as their king. The people oneach side, as he thus addressed them in turn, answered, with a loudvoice, that they would obey him. This ceremony being ended, thearchbishop turned again toward Richard, pronounced certain additionalprayers, and then gave him his benediction. 

The ceremony of anointing came next. The archbishop advanced toRichard and began to take off the robes in which he was attired. Atthe same time, four earls held over and around him, as a sort ofscreen, a coverture, as it was called, of cloth of gold. Richardremained under this coverture while he was anointed. The archbishoptook off nearly all his clothes, and then anointed him with the holyoil. He applied the oil to his head, his breast, his shoulders, andthe joints of his arms, repeating, as he did so, certain prayers. Thechoir, in the mean time, chanted a portion of the Scriptures relatingto the anointing of King Solomon. When the oil had been applied, thearchbishop put upon the king a long robe, and directed him to kneel. Richard accordingly kneeled again upon the tapestry which covered thefloor, the archbishop and the bishops kneeling around him. While inthis position the archbishop offered more prayers, and more hymns weresung, and then he assisted Richard to rise from his kneeling posture, and proceeded to dress and equip him with the various garments, andarms, and emblems appropriate to the kingly power. In putting on eachseparate article the archbishop made a speech in Latin, according to aform provided for such occasions, beginning with, Receive this cloak, receive this stole, receive this sword, and the like. [F]

[Footnote F: The stole was a long narrow scarf, fringed at the ends. It was wound about the neck and crossed over the breast, and was wornas a badge. ]

In this manner and with these ceremonies Richard was invested with asplendidly-embroidered coat and cloak, a stole, a sword, a pair ofspurs, a pair of bracelets, and, finally, with a garment over allcalled the pallium. All these things, of course, had been madeexpressly for the occasion, and were adapted to the size and shape ofa boy like Richard. The archbishop was assisted in putting thesethings on by certain nobles of the court, who had been designated forthis purpose, and who considered themselves highly honored by the partthat was assigned them in the ceremony. 

When the dressing had been completed, the archbishop took the crown, and after having invoked a blessing upon it by his prayers andbenedictions, all in the Latin tongue, he placed it upon Richard'shead, repeating, at the same time, a Latin form, the meaning of whichwas that he received the crown from God Almighty, and that to Godalone he was responsible for the exercise of his royal power. 

Then came a certain grand officer of the court with a red globe, anemblem of royalty which has long been used in England. This globe thearchbishop blessed, and then the officer put it into Richard's hands. In the same manner the sceptre was brought, and, after being blessedby means of the same ceremonies and prayers, was also put intoRichard's hands. 

Richard was now completely invested with the badges and insignia ofhis office. The archbishop then, raising his hands, pronounced uponhim his apostolic benediction, and the ceremony, so far, was ended. The bishops and nobles then came up to congratulate and salute Richardon having thus received his crown, after which they conducted him tohis seat again. 

Richard now began to be very tired and to wish to go home, but therewas a great deal more yet to come before he could be set at liberty. There was an anthem to be sung by the choir, and more prayers to besaid, after which there came what was called the offertory. This was aceremony in which a person was led to the altar, to lay down upon itwhatever offering he chose to make for the service of the Church. Theking rose from his seat and was led forward to the altar, having, ofcourse, been previously told what he was to do. He had in his hand asum of money which had been provided for the occasion. He laid downthis money first upon the altar, and then his sword. It was the customin these coronations for the king thus to offer his sword, in token ofthe subordination of his royal power to the law and will of God, andthen the sword was afterward to be redeemed with money by thesword-bearer, the officer whose duty it was, on leaving the church, tobear the sword in procession before the king. 

Accordingly, after Richard had returned from the altar, the earl whoseoffice it was to bear the sword went to the altar and redeemed it witha sum of money, and carried it back to the place where Richard wassitting. 

Then came the service of the mass, which occupied a long time, so thatRichard became very tired indeed before it was ended. After the masscame the communion, which it was necessary for Richard to partake. Thecommunion was, of course, accompanied with more prayers and morechantings, until the poor boy thought that the ceremonies would neverbe ended. When at last, however, all was over, and the procession wasready to form again to leave the church, Richard was so worn out andexhausted with the fatigue that he had endured that he could not ridehome; so they brought a sort of litter and placed him upon it, andfour of the knights bore him home on their shoulders. His uncle theDuke of Lancaster and the Earl Percy went before him, and a long trainof bishops, nobles, and grand officers of state followed behind. Inthis way he was brought back to the palace. As soon as the partyreached the palace, they carried Richard directly up to a chamber, took off all his grand paraphernalia, and put him to bed. 

He rested a little while, and then they brought him something to eat. His troubles were, however, not yet over, for there was to be a greatbanquet that afternoon and evening in the hall of the palace, and itwas necessary that he should be there. Accordingly, after a shorttime, he was arrayed again in his royal robes and insignia, andconducted down to the hall. Here he had a ceremony to perform ofcreating certain persons earls. Of course it was his counselors thatdecided who the persons were that were to be thus raised to thepeerage, and they told him also exactly what he was to do and say inthe programme of the ceremony. He sat upon his throne, surrounded byhis nobles and officers of state, and did what they told him to do. When this ceremony had been performed, the whole company sat down tothe tables which had been prepared for a banquet. 

They continued their feasting and carousing to a late hour, and thenamused themselves with various boisterous games common in those days. In the court-yard of the palace a pillar was set up, with pipes at thesides of it, from which there were flowing continually streams of wineof different kinds, and every body who pleased was permitted to comeand drink. A part of the amusement consisted in the pushings andstrugglings of the people to get to the faucets, and the spilling ofthe wine all over their faces and clothes. The top of the pillar wasadorned with a large gilt image of an eagle. 

The next day there were more processions and more celebrations, butRichard himself was, fortunately for him, excused from taking any partin them. In the mean time, the people who managed the government inRichard's name heard the news that the French had learned, in someway, the tidings of King Edward's death, and had landed in thesouthern part of England, and were burning and destroying all beforethem. So they made all haste to raise an army to go and repel theinvaders. 

It was finally concluded, also, to appoint Richard's two uncles, namely, John, Duke of Lancaster, and Edmund, Earl of Cambridge, as hisguardians until he should become of age. Some persons thought it wasnot safe to trust Richard to the Duke of Lancaster at all, but othersthought it would be better to conciliate him by treating him withrespect, than to make him an open enemy by passing over him entirely. 

Richard was considered, at this time, a very amiable and good boy, andit was generally believed by the people of England that, with a rightand proper training, he would grow up to be a virtuous and honest man, and they anticipated for him a long and happy reign. And yet, in alittle more than ten years after he became of age, he was disgracedand dethroned on account of his vices and crimes. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CHIVALRY. 

A. D. 1378-1380

Edmund, Earl of Cambridge. --Thomas of Woodstock. --Richard's youngcousin, Henry of Bolingbroke. --A boy king in France. --Richard andHenry Bolingbroke. --French incursions into the Isle of Wight. --Curiousstory of the Scotch borderers. --Their strange ideas of the grace ofGod. --Nature of the royal government. --The House of Commons. --Luxuryand extravagance of the nobility. --Wars. --Modes ofwarfare. --Mining. --Besieging engines. --The Duke of Lancaster'ssow. --Gunpowder. --Story of the Welsh knight, Evan. --Siege ofMortain. --Situation of the castle. --Evan's hostility to theEnglish. --Hatred of the English against Evan. --John Lamb. --John Lambarrives at Mortain. --His reception by Evan. --State of thesiege. --Curious manners and customs. --John Lamb accomplishes hispurpose. --Death of Evan. --Interview between John Lamb and thegovernor of the castle. --The knights loved fighting for its ownsake. --Their love of glory. --Story of De Langurant. --His men. --Hechallenges the governor of the castle to single combat. --Encounterof the knights. --Use of lances. --Manner in which such combats werefought. --Result of the combat between De Langurant and Bernard. --DeLangurant refuses to surrender. --His fate. --Intolerable tyranny ofthe nobles in those days. --Oppression of the tax-gatherers. --Richard'shelplessness. 

Besides his uncle John, Duke of Lancaster, Richard had two otheruncles, who each acted an important part in public affairs at thecommencement of his reign. They were, 1. His uncle Edmund, who was the Earl of Cambridge, and afterward Duke of York. Of course he is sometimes called, in the histories of those times, by one of these names, and sometimes by the other. 

 2. His uncle Thomas. Thomas was born in the palace of Woodstock, and so was often called Thomas of Woodstock. He was the Earl of Buckingham, and afterward the Duke of Gloucester. 

Besides these uncles, Richard had a cousin just about his own age, whoafterward, as we shall see, played a very important part indeed inRichard's history. This cousin was named Henry Bolingbroke. He was theson of Richard's uncle John, the Duke of Lancaster. He and Richardwere now both about eleven years of age; or rather, Richard waseleven, and his cousin Henry was about ten. 

Of course, Richard was altogether too young to exercise any realcontrol in respect to the government of the country. Every thing was, consequently, left to the Parliament and the nobles. His unclesendeavored to assume the general direction of affairs, but there wasnevertheless a strong party against them. There were no means ofdeciding these disputes except by the votes in Parliament, and thesevotes went one way and the other, as one party or the other, for thetime being, gained the ascendency. Every one watched very closely theconduct of Richard's uncle John. He was the next oldest son of Edwardthe Third, after Edward, the Prince of Wales, Richard's father. Ofcourse, if Richard were to die, he would become king; and if hehimself were to die before Richard did, and then Richard were to diebefore he grew up and had children of his own, then his son, Richard'scousin, Henry Bolingbroke, would be entitled to claim the kingdom. Thus, while Richard remained unmarried and without heirs, this HenryBolingbroke was in the direct line of succession, and, of course, nextto Richard himself, he was, perhaps, the most important personage inthe kingdom. There was, it is true, another child, the grandchild ofan older uncle of Richard's, named Lionel; but he was very young atthis time, and he died not long afterward, leaving Henry Bolingbrokethe only heir. 

It is curious enough that, a year or two after this, the French kingdied, and was succeeded by his son, a boy of about twelve years ofage. This boy was Charles the Sixth. He was crowned in France withceremonies still more splendid and imposing in some respects thanthose which had been observed in London on the occasion of Richard'scoronation. Thus the hopes and fears of all the millions of peopleinhabiting France and England respectively, in regard to thesuccession of the crown and the government of the country, wereconcentrated in three boys not yet in their teens. 

Of course, Richard and his cousin Henry Bolingbroke were rivals fromthe beginning. Richard and his friends were jealous and suspicious ofHenry and of his father, and were always imagining that they werewishing that Richard might die, in order that they might come into hisplace. Thus there was no cordial friendship in the family, nor couldthere be any. Of the other nobles and barons, some took sides in oneway and some in the other. The boys themselves, both Richard andHenry, were too young to know much about these things; but the leadingbarons and courtiers formed themselves into parties, rangingthemselves some on one side and some on the other, so as to keep up acontinual feeling of jealousy and ill-will. 

In the mean time, the French began to retaliate for the invasions oftheir country which the English had made, by planning invasions ofEngland in return. One expedition landed on the Isle of Wight, andafter burning and destroying the villages and small towns, they laidsome of the large towns under a heavy contribution; that is, they madethem pay a large sum of money under a threat that, if the money wasnot paid, they would burn down their town too. So the citizenscollected the money and paid it, and the French expedition set sailand went away before the government had time to send troops fromLondon to intercept them. 

The French, too, besides invading England themselves on the south, incited the Scotch to make incursions into the northern provinces, forScotland was then entirely independent of England. A curious story isrelated illustrating the religious ignorance which prevailed among thecommon people of Scotland in those days. It seems that someremarkable epidemic prevailed in 1379 in the northern part of England, which was extremely fatal. Great numbers of people died. The Scotchsent messengers across the border to ascertain what the cause of thesickness was. The English people told them that they did not know whatthe cause was. It was a judgment from God, the nature and operation ofwhich was hidden from them. They added, however, this pious sentiment, that they submitted themselves patiently to the dispensation, for theyknew "that every calamity that could befall men in this world camefrom the grace of God, to the end that, being punished for their sins, they might be led to repent and reform their wicked lives. "

The messengers went home, and reported to the Scottish borderers thatthe English people said that the plague came from the grace of God, not being able, it would seem, to remember the rest of the message. Sothe priests arranged a form of prayer, addressed to certain saints, which was to be said by the people every morning. This prayer imploredthe saints to deliver the people from the grace of God, and thedreadful plagues which were sent by it upon men. The form was this:[G]

[Footnote G: The form was in Latin. We give here the English of it. ]

The head of the family would first say, "Blessed be, " and the otherswould respond, "The Lord. "

Then the head of the family would say, "God and Saint Mango, Saint Romane and Saint Andro, Shield us this day from God's grace, and the foul death that Englishmen die of. "

And all the others would say "Amen. "

Thus they considered the grace of God as an evil which they were topray to be delivered from. 

Indeed, the common people at this time, not only in Scotland, butthroughout England, were in a state of great ignorance anddegradation. The barons, and knights, and soldiers generally lookeddown with great contempt upon all who were engaged in any industrialpursuits. In the country, the great mass of those who were employed intilling the ground were serfs or slaves, bought and sold with theland, and at the disposal, in almost all respects, of their haughtymasters. The inhabitants of the towns, who lived by the manufacturingarts or by commerce, were more independent, but the nobles, andknights, and all who considered themselves gentlemen looked down withsomething like contempt upon these too, as, in fact, theirsuccessors, the present aristocracy of England, do at the presentday, regarding them as persons in a very mean condition, and engagedin low and ignoble pursuits. Still, the industrial classes hadincreased greatly in wealth and numbers, and they began to have and toexpress some opinion in respect to public affairs. They hadconsiderable influence in the House of Commons; and the governmentwas, in a great measure, dependent upon the House of Commons, and wasbecoming more and more so every year. It is true, the king, or ratherthe great lords who managed the government in his name, could make warwhere they pleased, and appoint whom they pleased to carry it on. Still, they could not assess any tax except by the consent of theCommons, and thus, in carrying on any great operations, they werebecoming every year more and more dependent on the public sentiment ofthe country. 

The country began to be very much dissatisfied with the management ofpublic affairs within two or three years after the commencement ofRichard's reign. Large sums of money were raised, and put into thehands of Richard's uncles, who spent it in organizing greatexpeditions by land and sea to fight the French; but almost all ofthese expeditions were unsuccessful. The people thought that theywere mismanaged, and that the money was squandered. Some of the noblesexpended immense sums upon themselves. In the case of one expeditionthat put to sea from the southern coast of England, the nobleman whocommanded it had twenty-five vessels loaded with his own personalproperty and baggage, and that of his servants and attendants. Thisman had fifty-two new suits of apparel, made of cloth of gold, immensely expensive. The fleet was wrecked, and all this property waslost in the sea. 

A great many of the expeditions that were fitted out in England werefor the purpose of carrying on wars in Brittany and Aquitaine, inFrance, for the benefit exclusively of the nobles and knights whoclaimed possessions in those countries; the mass of the people ofEngland, at whose expense the operations were carried on, having nointerest whatever in the result. The worst of it was, that in thesewars no real progress was made. Towns were taken and castles werestormed, first by one party and then by the other. The engravingrepresents the storming of one of these towns, and, being copied froman ancient picture, it shows truthfully the kind of armor and the modeof fighting employed in those days. 

[Illustration: STORMING OF A TOWN. ]

Almost the only way of forcing a passage into a castle or fortifiedtown was by climbing over the walls by means of ladders, andoverpowering the garrison upon the top of them by main force, asrepresented in the engraving. Sometimes, it is true, the besiegers ofa castle undermined the walls, so as to make them fall in and thusopen a breach. At the present day, mines dug in this way are blown upby gunpowder. But people were little acquainted with the use ofgunpowder then, and so they were obliged to shore up the walls whilethey were digging them by means of posts and beams, and these, afterthe miners had withdrawn, were pulled out by ropes, and thus the wallswere made to fall down. 

Great engines were sometimes used, too, to batter down the walls ofcastles and towns. There was one kind of engine, used by the Duke ofLancaster in one of his campaigns in France in the early part ofRichard's reign, which was called a _sow_. The sow was made in manyparts, at a distance from the place besieged, wherever a suitablesupply of beams and timber could be obtained, and then was brought oncarts to the spot. When it was framed together and put in operation, it would hurl immense stones, which, striking the walls, made breachesin them, or, going over them, came down into the interior of theplace, crushing through the roofs of the houses, and killing sometimesmultitudes of men. The sow was made, too, so as to afford shelter andprotection to a great number of persons, who could ride upon it whileit was drawn or pushed up near the walls, and thus reach a point wherethey could begin to undermine the walls, or plant their ladders forscaling them. The Duke of Lancaster caused one sow to be made whichwould carry, in this way, one hundred men. 

Gunpowder, however, began to be used about this time, though in a veryimperfect and inefficient manner. At one siege, namely, that of St. Malo, a town on the northwestern coast of France, it is said that theDuke of Lancaster had four hundred cannon. They were all, however, ofvery little avail in taking the town. 

The wars waged between the English and the French in these chivalroustimes were much more personal in their character than wars are at thepresent day. In that period of the world, every great duke, or baron, or knight was in some sense an independent personage, having his ownseparate interests to look out for, and his own individual rights andhonor to maintain, to a degree far greater than now. The consequenceof this was, that the narratives of wars of those times containaccounts of a great many personal incidents and adventures which makethe history of them much more entertaining than the histories ofmodern campaigns. I will give one or two examples of these personalincidents. 

At one time, while the Duke of Lancaster was besieging St. Malo withhis four hundred cannon, there was a famous Welsh knight, named Evan, known in history as Evan of Wales, who was besieging a castlebelonging to the English. The name of the castle was Mortain. It wason the River Garonne, in the country of Aquitaine. The castle was sostrong that Evan had no hope of taking it by force, and so he investedit closely on all sides, and sat down quietly waiting for the garrisonto be starved into a surrender. 

The castle was near the river. Evan built three block-houses on thethree sides of it. One of these block-houses was on the edge of a rockbefore the castle, on the river side. The second was opposite apostern gate, and was intended particularly to watch the gate, inorder to prevent any one from coming out or going in. The thirdblock-house was below the castle, between the lower part of it and thewater. To guard the fourth side of the castle, Evan had takenpossession of a church which stood at some little distance from it, and had converted the church into a fort. Thus the castle wascompletely invested, being watched and guarded on every side. Thegarrison, however, would not surrender, hoping that they might receivesuccor before their provisions were entirely exhausted. They remainedin this condition for a year and a half, and were at length reduced togreat distress and suffering. Still, the governor of the castle wouldnot surrender. 

It may seem strange that Evan, a knight from Wales, should be fightingagainst the English, since Wales had some years before been annexed tothe realm of England. The reason was, that Evan's family had beendriven out of Wales by the cruelties and oppressions of the English. His father, who had formerly been Prince of Wales, had been beheaded, and Evan, in his infancy, had been saved by his attendants, who fledwith him to France. There he had been received into the family of theFrench king, John, and, after he had grown up, he had fought underJohn many years. The older he grew, the more his heart was filled withresentment against the English, and now he was engaged, heart andhand, in the attempt to drive them out of France. Of course, theEnglish considered him a traitor, and they hated him much more thanthey did any of the French commanders, of whom nothing else was to beexpected than that they should be enemies to the English, and fightthem always and every where. Evan they considered as in some sense oneof their own countrymen who had turned against them. 

There was another circumstance which increased the hatred of theEnglish against Evan, and that was, that he had taken one of theirknights prisoner, and then refused to ransom him on any terms. TheEnglish offered any sum of money that Evan would demand, or theyoffered to exchange for him a French knight of the same rank; but Evanwas inexorable. He would not give up his prisoner on any terms, butsent him to Paris, and shut him up in a dungeon, where he pined away, and at length died of misery and despair. 

In consequence of these things, a plot was formed in England forassassinating Evan. A Welshman, by the name of John Lamb, wasappointed to execute it. 

John Lamb set out from England, and crossed the Channel to France. Hewas a well-educated man, speaking French fluently, and he was wellreceived every where by the French, for he told them that he was acountryman of Evan's, and that he was going to Mortain to join him. The French, accordingly, treated him well, and helped him forward onhis journey. 

When he reached Mortain, he came into the presence of Evan, and, falling on his knees before him, he said that he was his countryman, and that he had come all the way from Wales to enter into his service. Evan did not suspect any treachery. He received the man kindly, andmade many inquiries of him in respect to the news which he broughtfrom Wales. 

John gave him very favorable accounts of the country, and spokeparticularly of the interest and affection which was every where feltfor him. 

"The whole country, " said he, "are thinking and talking continuallyabout you, and are anxiously desiring your return. They wish to haveyou for their lord. "

These and other flatteries quite won the heart of Evan, and he tookLamb into his service, and appointed him to a confidential post abouthis person. 

For a time after this there were occasional skirmishes between thegarrison of Mortain and the besiegers, but, as the strength of thegarrison gradually failed, these contests became less and lessfrequent, until at last they ceased entirely. The soldiers of Evanthen had nothing to do but to watch and wait until the progress ofstarvation and misery should compel the garrison to surrender. Therewas no longer any danger of sorties from the walls, and the besiegersceased to be at all on their guard, but went and came at their easeabout the castle, just as if there were no enemy near. 

Evan himself used to go out in the morning, when the weather was fine, into the fields in front of the castle before he was dressed, andthere have his hair combed and plaited a long time; for, like most ofthe knights and gentlemen soldiers of those days, he was veryparticular about his dress and his personal appearance. On theseoccasions he often had nobody to attend him but John Lamb. There was aplace where there was a fallen tree, which formed a good seat, at aspot which afforded a commanding view of the castle and of thesurrounding country. He used often to go and sit upon this tree whilehis hair was combed, amusing himself the while in watching to see whatwas going on in the castle, and to observe if there were any signsthat the garrison were going to surrender. 

One morning, after a very warm night, during which Evan had not beenable to sleep, he went out to this place very early. He was notdressed, but wore only a jacket and shirt, with a cloak thrown overhis shoulders. The soldiers generally were asleep, and there wasnobody with Evan but John Lamb. Evan sat down upon the log, andpresently sent John Lamb to the block-house for his comb. 

"Go and get my comb, " said he, "and comb my hair. That will refresh mea little. "

So John went for the comb. As he went, however, it seemed to him thatthe time for the execution of his plan had come. So he brought withhim from the block-house a Spanish dagger, which he found there inEvan's apartment. As soon as he reached Evan, who had thrown off hiscloak, and was thus almost naked and entirely off his guard, heplunged the dagger into him up to the hilt at a single blow. Evan sankdown upon the ground a lifeless corpse. Lamb left the dagger in thewound, and walked directly to the gate of the castle. 

The guards at the gate hailed him and demanded what he wanted. He saidhe wished to see the governor of the castle. So the guards took himin, and conducted him into the presence of the governor. 

"My lord, " said Lamb, "I have delivered you from one of the greatestenemies you ever had. "

"From whom?" asked the governor. 

"From Evan of Wales, " said Lamb. 

The governor was very much astonished at hearing this, and demanded ofLamb by what means he had delivered them from Evan. Lamb then relatedto the governor what he had done. 

The first impression produced upon the governor's mind by thestatement which Lamb made was a feeling of displeasure. He looked atthe assassin with a scowl of anger upon his face, and said sternly, "Wretch! you have murdered your master. You deserve to have your headcut off for such a deed; and, were it not that we are in such greatstraits, and that we gain such very great advantage by his death, Iwould have your head cut off on the spot. However, what is done cannot be undone. Let it pass. "

The garrison did not derive any immediate advantage, after all, fromthe death of Evan, for the French were so incensed by the deed whichJohn Lamb had perpetrated that they sent more troops to the spot, andpressed the siege more closely than ever. The garrison was, however, not long afterward relieved by an English fleet, which came up theriver and drove the French away. 

The knights and barons of those days were not accustomed to considerit any hardship to go to war against each other, but rather apleasure. They enjoyed fighting each other just as men at the presentday enjoy hunting wild beasts in the forest; and that chieftain wasregarded as the greatest and most glorious who could procure for hisretainers the greatest amount of this sort of pleasure, providedalways that his abilities as a leader were such that they could havetheir full share of victory in the contests that ensued. It was onlythe quiet and industrial population at home, the merchants of London, the manufacturers of the country towns, and the tillers of the land, who were impoverished and oppressed by the taxes necessary for raisingthe money which was required, that were disposed to complain. Theknights and soldiers who went forth on these campaigns liked to go. They not only liked the excitements and the freedom of the wild lifethey led in camp, and of the marches which they made across thecountry, but they liked the fighting itself. Their hearts were filledwith animosity and hatred against their foes, and they were at anytime perfectly willing to risk their lives for the opportunity ofgratifying these passions. They were also greatly influenced by a lovefor the praise and glory which they acquired by the performance of anygreat or brilliant feat of arms. 

This led them often to engage in single personal combats, such, forexample, as this. There was a certain French knight, named DeLangurant: he was making an incursion into the English territories inthe neighborhood of Bordeaux. One day he was scouring the country atthe head of about forty troopers, armed with lances. At the head ofthis troop he came into the neighborhood of a village which was in thehands of the English, and was defended by an English garrison. When heapproached the village he halted his men, and posted them in ambush ina wood. 

"You are to remain here a while, " said he. "I am going on alone beforethe town, to see if I can not find some body to come out to fight mein single combat. "

The object of De Langurant in this plan was to show his daring, and toperform a brave exploit which he might have to boast of, and gloryover afterward among his brother soldiers. 

The men did as he had commanded them, and concealed themselves in thewood. De Langurant then rode on alone, his lance fixed in its rest, and his helmet glittering in the sun, until he reached the gate of thetown. Then he halted and challenged the sentinel. 

The sentinel demanded what he wanted. 

"Where is the captain of this garrison?" said the trooper. "I wish youto go and find him, and tell him that Lord De Langurant is at thegates of the town, and wishes to have a tilt with him. I dare him tocome and fight with me, since he pretends that he is such a valiantman. Tell him that if he does not come, I will proclaim him everywhere as a coward that did not dare to come out and meet me. "

The name of the captain whom De Langurant thus challenged was BernardCourant. It happened that one of Bernard's servants was upon the gate, near the sentinel, at the time this challenge was given. Heimmediately called out to De Langurant, saying, "I have heard what you have said, Sir Knight, and I will goimmediately and inform my master. You may rely upon seeing him in afew minutes, if you will wait, for he is no coward. "

Bernard was greatly incensed when he heard the impertinent andboasting message which De Langurant had sent him. He started upimmediately and called for his arms, commanding, at the same time, that his horse should be saddled. He was very soon equipped andready. The gate was opened, the drawbridge let down, and he salliedforth. De Langurant was waiting for him on the plain. 

[Illustration: KNIGHTS CHARGING UPON EACH OTHER. --This engravingrepresents the manner in which knights rode to the encounter of eachother in single combat. They are each well protected with a helmet, ashield or buckler, and other armor of iron, and are provided with lancesand other weapons. These lances were very long, and were made of thetoughest wood that could be obtained. The object of each combatant insuch an encounter is to strike his antagonist with the point of hisweapon so as either to pierce his armor and kill him, or else to throwhim off his horse by the shock and force of the blow. If a knight wereunhorsed, he lay generally helpless on the ground, being unable to riseon account of the weight of his armor. Of course, in this situation hewas easily vanquished by his adversary. ]

The knights were both mounted on furious chargers; and, after a moment'spause, during which they eyed each other with looks of fierce defiance, they put spurs to their horses, and the horses began to gallop towardeach other at the top of their speed. Each of the knights, as headvanced, had one end of his lance supported in its rest, while hepointed the other directly toward his antagonist, with a view ofstriking him with it as he rode by, watching, at the same time, theterrible point which was coming toward him, in hopes to avoid it ifpossible, and, if not, to bear up against the blow so firmly as not tobe unhorsed. The lances were very long, and were made of very solidwood, but the chief momentum of the blow which they were intended togive came from the end of them being supported in a rest, which wasconnected with the saddle in such a manner that the whole impetus of thehorse, as it were, was communicated to the lance, and this impetus wasso great, that if a lance struck in such a manner that it could notglance off, and did not overthrow the man, but met with a solidresistance, it was often shivered to atoms by the shock. This happenedin the present case. The lances of both combatants were shivered at thefirst encounter. The riders were, however, uninjured. The horseswheeled, made a short circuit, and rushed toward each other again. Atthe second encounter, Bernard brought down so heavy a blow with abattle-axe upon the iron armor that covered De Langurant's shoulder, that the unfortunate trooper was hurled out of his saddle and thrown tothe ground. 

As soon as Bernard could rein in his horse again and bring him round, he galloped up to the spot where De Langurant had fallen, and foundhim attempting to raise himself up from the ground. At the same time, the horsemen whom De Langurant had left in the wood, and who had beenwatching the combat from their place of ambush, seeing their masterunhorsed, began to put themselves in motion to come to his rescue. Bernard, who was a man of prodigious strength, reached down from hishorse as he rode over his fallen enemy, and seized hold of his helmet. His horse, in the mean time, going on, and Bernard holding to thehelmet with all his force, it was torn off from its fastenings, and DeLangurant's head was left unprotected and bare. 

Bernard threw the helmet down upon the ground under his horse's feet. Then drawing his dagger, he raised it over De Langurant's head, andcalled upon him to surrender. 

"Surrender!" said he. "Surrender this instant, or you are a dead man. "

The men in ambush were coming on, and De Langurant hoped they would beable to rescue him, so he did not reply. Bernard, knowing that he hadnot a moment to spare, drove the dagger into De Langurant's head, andthen galloped away back through the gates into the town, just in timeto avoid the troop of horsemen from the ambush, who were bearing downat full speed toward the spot, and were now just at hand. 

The gates of the town were closed, and the drawbridge was taken up themoment that Bernard had entered, so that he could not be pursued. Thehorsemen, therefore, had nothing to do but to bear away their woundedcommander to the nearest castle which was in their possession. Thenext day he died. 

 * * * * *

While the barons and knights were thus amusing themselves at thebeginning of Richard's reign with fighting for castles and provinces, either for the pleasure of fighting, or for the sake of the renown orthe plunder which they acquired when they were fortunate enough togain the victory, the great mass of the people of England were taxedand oppressed by their haughty masters to an extent almost incredible. The higher nobles were absolutely above all law. One of them, who wasgoing to set off on a naval expedition into France, seized, in theEnglish sea-port which he was leaving, a number of women, the wivesand daughters of the citizens, and took them on board his ship, to beat the disposal there of himself and his fellow grandees. For thisintolerable injury the husbands and fathers had absolutely no remedy. To crown the wickedness of this deed, when, soon after the fleet hadleft the port, a storm arose, and the women were terrified at thedanger they were in, and their fright, added to the distress they feltat being thus torn away from their families and homes, made themcompletely and uncontrollably wretched, the merciless nobles threwthem overboard to stop their cries. 

Taxes were assessed, too, at this time, upon all the people of thekingdom, that were of an extremely onerous character. These taxes were_farmed_, as the phrase is; that is, the right to collect them wassold to contractors, called farmers of the revenue, who paid a certainsum outright to the government, and then were entitled to all thatthey could collect of the tax. Thus there was no supervision over themin their exactions, for the government, being already paid, cared fornothing more. The consequence was, that the tax-gatherers, who wereemployed by the contractors, treated the people in the most oppressiveand extortionate manner. If the people made complaints, the governmentwould not listen to them, for fear that if they interfered with thetax-gatherers in collecting the taxes, the farmers would not pay somuch the next time. 

Richard himself, of course, knew nothing about all these things, or, if he did know of them, he was wholly unable to do any thing toprevent them. He was completely in the power of his uncles, and of theother great nobles of the time. The public discontent, however, grewat last so great that there was nothing wanted but a spark to cause itto break out into a flame. There was such a spark furnished at lengthby an atrocious insult and injury offered to a young girl, thedaughter of a tiler, by one of the tax-gatherers. This led to aformidable insurrection, known in history as Wat Tyler's insurrection. I shall relate the story of this insurrection in the next chapter. 

CHAPTER IX. 

WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION. 

A. D. 1381

Real name of Wat Tyler. --State of the country. --Names of Walter'sconfederates. --Character of these men. --Condition of the lowerclasses at this time. --Ball's proposal. --Other orators. --Theirdiscourses. --Mixture of truth and error in theircomplaints. --Necessary inequality among men. --The true doctrine ofequality. --Origin of Wat Tyler's insurrection. --The tax-gatherer inWalter's family. --Intolerable outrage. --The tax-gatherer killed. --Planof the insurgents to march to London. --Re-enforcements by theway. --Oaths administered. --The Archbishop of Canterbury. --Case ofSir John Newton. --Sir John Newton is sent as an embassador to theking. --Interview between Sir John and the king at the Tower. --SirJohn returns to the insurgents. --The king goes down to meet theinsurgents. --Scene on the bank of the river. --Parley with theinsurgents. --The king retires. --The insurgents resolve to go intoLondon. --The bridge. --Excitement in the city. --The gates opened. --Theinsurgents occupy the streets of London. --Destruction of the Duke ofLancaster's palace. --Destruction of the Temple. --Assassination ofRichard Lyon. --Excesses of the mob. --They bivouac near the Tower. 

The insurrection to which a large portion of the people of Englandwere driven by the cruel tyranny and oppression which they suffered inthe early part of King Richard's reign is commonly called Wat Tyler'sinsurrection, as if the affair with Wat Tyler were the cause andmoving spring of it, whereas it was, in fact, only an incident of it. 

The real name of this unhappy man was John Walter. He was a tiler bytrade--that is, his business was to lay tiles for the roofs of houses, according to the custom of roofing prevailing in those days. So he wascalled John Walter, the Tiler, or simply Walter the Tiler; and fromthis his name was abridged to Wat Tyler. 

The whole country was in a state of great discontent and excitement onaccount of the oppressions which the people suffered before Walterappeared upon the stage at all. When at length the outbreak occurred, he came forward as one of the chief leaders of it; there were however, several other leaders. The names by which the principal of them wereknown were Jack Straw, William Wraw, Jack Shepherd, John Milner, HobCarter, and John Ball. It is supposed that many of these names werefictitious, and that the men adopted them partly to conceal their realnames, and partly because they supposed that they should ingratiatethemselves more fully with the lower classes of the people by assumingthese familiar and humble appellations. 

The historians of the times say that these leaders were all very badmen. They may have been so, though the testimony of the historians isnot conclusive on this point, for they belonged to, and wrote in theinterest of the upper classes, their enemies. The poor insurgentsthemselves never had the opportunity to tell their own story, eitherin respect to themselves or their commanders. 

Still, it is highly probable that they were bad men. It is notgenerally the amiable, the gentle, and the good that are first torise, and foremost to take the lead in revolts against tyrants andoppressors. It is, on the other hand, far more commonly the violent, the desperate, and the bad that are first goaded on to assume thisterrible responsibility. It is, indeed, one of the darkest features oftyranny that it tends, by the reaction which follows it, to investthis class of men with great power, and to commit the best interestsof society, and the lives of great numbers of men, for a time atleast, entirely to the disposal of the most reckless and desperatecharacters. 

The lower classes of the people of England had been held substantiallyas slaves by the nobles and gentry for many generations. They had longsubmitted to this, hopeless of any change. But they had graduallybecome enlightened in respect to their natural rights; and now, whenthe class immediately above them were so grievously oppressed andharassed by the taxes which were assessed upon them, and still more bythe vexatious and extortionate mode in which the money was collected, they all began to make common cause, and, when the rebellion brokeout, they rose in one mass, freemen and bondmen together. 

There was a certain priest named John Ball, who, before the rebellionbroke out, had done much to enlighten the people as to their rights, and had attempted to induce them to seek redress at first in apeaceable manner. He used to make speeches to the people in themarket-place, representing to them the hardships which they endured bythe oppressions of the nobility, and urging them to combine togetherto petition the king for a redress of their grievances. "The king willlisten to us, I am sure, " said he, "if we go to him together in a bodyand make our request; but if he will not hear us, then we must redressour grievances ourselves the best way we can. "

The example of Ball was followed by many other persons; and, as alwayshappens in such cases, the excitement among the people, and theireagerness to hear, brought out a great many spectators, whose onlyobject was to see who could awaken the resentment and anger of theiraudiences in the highest degree, and produce the greatest possibleexcitement. These orators, having begun with condemning theextravagant wealth, the haughty pretensions, and the cruel oppressionsof the nobles, and contrasting them with the extreme misery and wantof the common people, whom they held as slaves, proceeded at length todenounce all inequalities in human condition, and to demand that allthings should be held in common. 

"Things will never go on well in England, " said they, "until all thesedistinctions shall be leveled, and the time shall come when thereshall be neither vassal nor lord, and these proud nobles shall be nomore masters than ourselves. How ill have they used us! And whatright have they to hold us in this miserable bondage? Are we not alldescended from the same parents, Adam and Eve? What right have one setof men to make another set their slaves? What right have they tocompel us to toil all our lives to earn money, that they may live atease and spend it? They are clothed in velvets and rich stuffs, ornamented with ermine and furs, while we are half naked, or clothedonly in rags. They have wines, and spices, and fine bread, while wehave nothing but rye, and the refuse of the straw. They have manorsand handsome seats, while we live in miserable cabins, and have tobrave the wind and rain at our labor in the fields, in order that, with the proceeds of our toil, they may support their pomp and luxury. And if we do not perform our services, or if they unjustly think thatwe do not, we are beaten, and there is no one to whom we can complainor look for justice. "

There is obviously some truth and some extravagance in thesecomplaints. Men deprived of their rights, as these poor English serfswere, and goaded by the oppressions which they suffered almost todespair, will, of course, be extravagant in their complaints. None butthose totally ignorant of human nature would expect men to bemoderate and reasonable when in such a condition, and in such a stateof mind. 

The truth is, that there always has been, and there always willnecessarily be, a great inequality in the conditions, and a greatdifference in the employments of men; but this fact awakens nodissatisfaction or discontent when those who have the lower stationsof life to fill are treated as they ought to be treated. If they enjoypersonal liberty, and are paid the fair wages which they earn by theirlabor, and are treated with kindness and consideration by those whoseduties are of a higher and more intellectual character, and whoseposition in life is superior to theirs, they are, almost withoutexception, satisfied and happy. It is only when they are urged anddriven hard and long by unfeeling oppression that they are everaroused to rebellion against the order of the social state; and then, as might be expected, they go to extremes, and, if they get the powerinto their hands, they sweep every thing away, and overwhelmthemselves and their superiors in one common destruction. 

Young persons sometimes imagine that the American doctrine of theequality of man refers to equality of condition; and even grownpersons, who ought to think more clearly and be more reasonable, sometimes refer to the distinctions of rich and poor in this countryas falsifying our political theories. But the truth is, that, in ourpolitical theory of equality, it is not at all equality of condition, but equality of _rights_, that is claimed for man. All men--thedoctrine is simply--have an equal right to life, liberty, and thepursuit of happiness. Even when all are in the full enjoyment of theirrights, different men will, of course, attain to very differentdegrees of advancement in the objects of their desire. Some will berich and some will be poor; some will be servants and some masters;some will be the employers and some the employed; but, so long as allare equal _in respect to their rights_, none will complain--or, atleast, no _classes_ will complain. There will, of course, be here andthere disappointed and discontented individuals, but their discontentwill not spread. It is only by the long-continued and oppressiveinfringement of the natural rights of large masses of men that the wayis prepared for revolts and insurrections. 

It was by this process that the way was prepared for the insurrectionwhich I am now to describe. The whole country for fifty miles aboutLondon was in a very sullen and angry mood, ready for an outbreak themoment that any incident should occur to put the excitement inmotion. This incident was furnished by an occurrence which took placein the family of Walter the Tiler. 

It seems that a personal tax had been levied by the government, theamount of which varied with the age of the individual assessed. Children paid so much. Young men and young women paid more. The linebetween these classes was not clearly defined, or, rather, thetax-gatherers had no means of determining the ages of the young peoplein a family, if they suspected the parents reported them wrong. Insuch cases they were often very insolent and rude, and a great manyquarrels took place, by which the people were often very muchincensed. The tax-gatherer came one day into Walter's house to collectthe tax. Walter himself was away, engaged at work tiling a housenearby. The only persons that were at home were his wife and a youngdaughter just growing to womanhood. The tax-gatherer said that thegirl was full-grown, and that they must pay the higher tax for her. Her mother said, "No, she is not full-grown yet; she is only a child. "The tax-gatherer then said he would soon find out whether she was awoman or not, and went to her to take hold of her, offering herrudeness and violence of the worst possible character. The poor girlscreamed and struggled to get away from him. Her mother ran to thedoor, and made a great outcry, calling for help. Walter, hearing thecries, seized for a club a heavy implement which he used in tiling, and ran home. As soon as he entered the house, he demanded of theofficer, who had now left his daughter and came forward to meet him, what he meant by conducting in so outrageous a manner in his house. The officer replied defiantly, and advanced toward Walter to strikehim. Walter parried the stroke, and then, being roused to perfectphrensy by the insult which his daughter had received and theinsolence of the tax-gatherer, he brought his club down upon thetax-gatherer's head with such a blow as to break his skull and killhim on the spot. The blow was so violent that the man's brains werescattered all about the floor. 

The news of this occurrence spread like wildfire through the town. Thepeople all took Walter's part, and they began to assemble. It seemsthat a great many of them had had their daughters maltreated in thesame way by the tax-gatherers, but had not dared to resist or tocomplain. They now, however, flocked around the house of Walter, andpromised to stand by him to the end. The plan was proposed that theyshould march to London, and in a body appeal to the king, and callupon him to redress their wrongs. 

"He is young, " said they, "and he will have pity upon us, and be justto us. Let us go in a body and petition him. "

The news of the movement spread to all the neighboring towns, and verysoon afterward a vast concourse collected, and commenced their marchtoward London. They were joined on the road by large companies thatcame from the villages and towns on the way, until at length Walterand his fellow-leaders found themselves at the head of from sixty toone hundred thousand men. 

[Illustration: VIEW OF THE TOWER OF LONDON, AS SEEN FROM THE RIVER. ]

The whole country was, of course, thrown into a state of great alarm. The Duke of Lancaster, who was particularly obnoxious to the people, wasabsent at this time. He was on the frontiers of Scotland. The king wasin his palace; but, on hearing tidings of the insurrection, he went tothe Tower, which is a strong castle built on the banks of the river, inthe lower part of London. A number of the nobles who had most cause tofear the mob went with him, and shut themselves up there. The Princessof Wales, Richard's mother, happened to be at Canterbury at the time, having gone there on a pilgrimage. She immediately set out on her returnto London, but she was intercepted on the way by Tyler and his crowd offollowers. The crowd gathered around the carriage, and frightened theprincess very much indeed, but they did her no harm. After detaining herfor some time, they let her pass on. She immediately made the best ofher way to the Tower, where she joined her son. 

As fast as companies of men came from the villages and towns along theroad to join the insurgents, the leaders administered to them an oath. The oath bound them, 1. Always to be faithful and true to King Richard. 

 2. Never to submit to the reign of any king named John. This was aimed at the Duke of Lancaster, whose name was John, and whom they all specially hated. 

 3. Always to follow and defend their leaders whenever called upon to do so, and always to be ready to march themselves, and to bring their neighbors with them, at a moment's warning. 

 4. To demand the abrogation of all the obnoxious taxes, and never to submit again to the collection of them. 

In this manner the throngs moved on along the roads leading to London. They became gradually more and more excited and violent as theyproceeded. Soon they began to attack the houses of knights, andnobles, and officers of the government which they passed on the way;and many persons, whom they supposed to be their enemies, they killed. At Canterbury they pillaged the palace of the archbishop. TheArchbishop of Canterbury, then as now, drew an immense revenue fromthe state, and lived in great splendor, and they justly conceived thatthe luxury and ostentation in which he indulged was in some degree thecause of the oppressive taxation that they endured. 

They assaulted a castle on the way, and made prisoner of a certainknight named Sir John Newton, whom they found in it, and compelled himto go with them to London. The knight was very unwilling to go withthem, and at first seemed determined not to do so; but they disposedof his objections in a very summary manner. 

"Sir John, " said they, "unless you go with us at once, and in everything do exactly as we order you, you are a dead man. "

So Sir John was compelled to go. They took two of his children withthem also, to hold as security, they said, for their father's goodbehavior. 

There were other parties of the insurgents who made prisoners in thisway of men of rank and family, and compelled them to ride at the headof their respective columns, as if they were leaders in theinsurrection. 

In this manner the throngs moved on, until at length, approaching theThames, they arrived at Blackheath and Greenwich, two villages belowLondon, farther down than the Tower, and near the bank of the river. Here they halted, and determined to send an embassage to the king todemand an audience. The embassador that they were to send was theknight, Sir John Newton. 

Sir John did not dare to do otherwise than as the insurgents directed. He went to the river, and, taking a boat, he crossed over to theTower. The guards received him at the gate, and he was conducted intothe presence of the king. 

He found the king in an apartment with the princess his mother, andwith a number of the nobles and officers of his court. They were allin a state of great suspense and anxiety, awaiting tidings. They knewthat the whole country was in commotion, but in respect to what theywere themselves to do in the emergency they seem to have had no idea. 

Sir John was himself one of the officers of the government, and so hewas well known to all the courtiers. He fell on his knees as soon ashe entered the king's presence, and begged his majesty not to bedispleased with him for the message that he was about to deliver. 

"I assure your majesty, " said he, "that I come not voluntarily, but oncompulsion. "

The king said to him that he had nothing to fear, and directed him toproceed at once and deliver his message. 

The knight then said that the people who had assembled wished to seethe king, and he urgently requested that his majesty would come andmeet them at Blackheath. 

"They wish you to come by yourself alone, " said he. "And your majestyneed have no fear for your person, for they will not do you the leastharm. They have always respected you, and they will continue torespect and honor you as their king. They only wish to tell you somethings which they say it is very necessary that your majesty shouldhear. They have not informed me what it is that they wish to say, since they desire to communicate it themselves directly to yourmajesty. "

The knight concluded by imploring the king to grant his subjects afavorable answer if he could, or at least to allow him to return tothem with such a reply as would convince them that he, theirmessenger, had fairly delivered his message. 

"Because, " said he, "they hold my children as hostages, and unless Ireturn they will surely put them to death. "

The king replied that the knight should have an answer very soon, andhe immediately called a council of his courtiers to consider whatshould be done. There was much difference of opinion, but it wasfinally concluded to send word to the men that the king would comedown the river on the following day to speak with them, and that, ifthe leaders would come to the bank of the river opposite Blackheath, he would meet them there. 

So Sir John Newton left the Tower, and, recrossing the river in hisboat, went back to the camp of the insurgents, and reported to theleaders the answer of the king. 

They were very much pleased to hear that the king was coming to meetthem. The news was soon communicated to all the host, and it gaveuniversal satisfaction. There were sixty thousand men on the ground, it is said, and, of course, they were very insufficiently providedwith food, and not at all with shelter. They, however, began to makearrangements to spend the night as well as they could where they were, in anticipation of the interview with the king on the following day. 

On the following morning the king attended mass in solemn state in thechapel of the Tower, and then immediately afterward entered his barge, accompanied by a grand train of officers, knights, and barons. Thebarge, leaving the Tower stairs, was rowed down the river to the placeappointed for the interview. About ten thousand of the insurgents hadcome to the spot, and when they saw the barge coming in sight with theroyal party on board, they burst out into such a terrific uproar, withyells, screams, shouts, outcries, and frantic gesticulations, thatthey seemed to the king and his party like a company of demons. Theyhad Sir John Newton with them. They had brought him down to the bankof the river, because, as they said, if the king were not to come, they should believe that he had imposed upon them in the message whichhe had brought, and in that case they were going to cut him to pieceson the spot. 

The assembly seemed so noisy and furious that the nobles inattendance on the king were afraid to allow him to land. They advisedhim to remain in the barge, at a little distance from the shore, andto address the people from the deck. The king resolved to do so. Sothe barge lay floating on the river, the oarsmen taking a few strokesfrom time to time to recover the ground lost by the drift of thecurrent. The king stood upon the deck of the barge, with his officersaround him, and asked the men on the shore what they wished for. 

"I have come at your request, " said he, "to hear what you have tosay. "[H]

[Footnote H: See Frontispiece. ]

Such an arrangement as this for communicating with a mass of desperateand furious men would not have been safe under circumstances similarto those of the present day. A man standing in this way on the deck ofa boat, within speaking distance of the shore, might, with a rifle, oreven with a musket, have been killed in a moment by any one of thethousands on the shore. In those days, however, when the only missileswere spears, javelins, and arrows, a man might stand at his easewithin speaking distance of his enemies, entirely out of reach oftheir weapons. 

When the crowd upon the shore saw that the king was waving his handto them in order to silence them, and that he was trying to speak, they became in some measure calm; and when he asked again what theywished for, the leaders replied by saying that they wished him to comeon shore. They desired him to land, they said, so that he could betterhear what they had to say. 

One of the officers about the king replied that that could not be. 

"The king can not land among you, " he said. "You are not properlydressed, nor in a fit condition, in any respect, to come into hismajesty's presence. "

Hereupon the noise and clamor was renewed, and became more violentthan ever, the men insisting that the king should land, and fillingthe air with screams, yells, and vociferations of all sorts, whichmade the scene truly terrific. The counselors of the king insistedthat it was not safe for the king to remain any longer on the river, so the oarsmen were ordered to pull their oars, and the bargeimmediately began to recede from the shore, and to move back up theriver. It happened that the tide was now coming in, and this assistedthem very much in their progress, and the barge was swept back rapidlytoward the Tower. 

The insurgents were now in a great rage. Those who had come down tothe bank of the river to meet the king went back in a throng to theplace where the great body of the rebels were encamped on the plain. The news that the king had refused to come and hear their complaintswas soon spread among the whole multitude, and the cry was raised, ToLondon! To London! So the whole mighty mass began to put itself inmotion, and in a few hours all the roads that led toward themetropolis were thronged with vast crowds of ragged andwretched-looking men, barefooted, bareheaded; some bearing rudely-madeflags and banners, some armed with clubs and poles, and such othersubstitutes for weapons as they had been able to seize for theoccasion, and all in a state of wild and phrensied excitement. 

The people of London were greatly alarmed when they heard that theywere coming. There was then but one bridge leading into London fromthe southern side of the river. This bridge was on the site of thepresent London Bridge, about half a mile above the Tower. There was agate at the end of the bridge next the town, and a drawbridge outsideof it. The Londoners shut the gate and took up the drawbridge, toprevent the insurgents from coming in. 

When the rioters reached the bridge, and found that they were shutout, they, of course, became more violent than before, and they beganto burn and destroy the houses outside. Now it happened that many ofthese houses were handsome villas which belonged to the rich citizensof the town. These citizens became alarmed for their property, andthey began to say that it would be better, after all, to open thegates and let the people come in. 

"If we let them come in, " said they, "they will wander about thestreets a while, but they will soon get tired and go away; whereas, byopposing and thwarting them, we only make them the more violent andmischievous. "

Then, besides, there were a great many of the common people of Londonthat sympathized with the rioters, and wished to join them. 

"They are our friends, " said they. "They are striving to obtainredress for grievances which we suffer as well as they. Their cause isour cause. So let us open the gates and let them come in. "

[Illustration: THE SAVOY. ]

In the mean time, the whole population of the city were becoming moreand more alarmed every hour, for the rioters were burning and destroyingthe suburbs, and they declared that if the Londoners did not open thegates, they would, after ravaging every thing without the walls, takethe city by storm, and burn and destroy every thing in it. So it wasfinally concluded to open the gates and let the insurgents in. 

They came in in an immense throng, which continued for many hours topour over the bridge into the city, like a river of men above, flowingathwart the river of water below. As they entered the city, theydivided and spread into all the diverging streets. A portion of themstormed a jail, and set all the prisoners free. Others marched throughthe streets, filling the air with dreadful shouts and outcries, andbrandishing their pikes with great fury. The citizens, in hopes toconciliate them, brought out food for them, and some gave them wine. On receiving these provisions, the insurgents built fires in thestreets, and encamped around them, to partake of the food andrefreshments which the citizens had bestowed. They were rendered moregood-natured, perhaps, by this kind treatment received from thecitizens, but they soon became excited by the wine which they drank, and grew more wild and noisy than ever. At length a large party ofthem began to move toward the palace of the Duke of Lancaster. Thispalace was called the Savoy. It stood on the bank of the river, between London and Westminster, and was a grand and imposing mansion. 

The Duke of Lancaster was an especial object of their hatred. He wasabsent at this time, as has been said, being engaged in militaryoperations on the frontiers of Scotland. The mob, however, weredetermined to destroy his palace, and every thing that belonged to it. 

So they broke into the house, murdering all who made any resistance, and then proceeded to break and destroy every thing the palacecontained. They built fires in the court-yard and in the street, andpiled upon them every thing movable that would burn. The plate, andother such valuables as would not burn, they broke up and threw intothe Thames. They strictly forbade that any of the property should betaken away. One man hid a silver cup in his bosom, intending topurloin it; but he was detected in the act, and his comrades threwhim, cup and all, as some say, upon the fire; others say they threwhim into the Thames; at any rate, they destroyed him and his bootytogether. 

"We are here, " said they, "in the cause of truth and righteousness, toexecute judgment upon a criminal, and not to become thieves androbbers ourselves. "

[Illustration: RUINS OF THE SAVOY. ]

When they had destroyed every thing that the palace contained, theyset fire to the building, and burned it to the ground. A portion ofthe walls remained standing afterward for a long time, a desolate andmelancholy ruin. 

The insurgents felt a special animosity against lawyers, whom theyconsidered mercenary instruments in the hands of the nobles foroppressing them. They hung all the lawyers that they could get intotheir hands, and after burning the Savoy they went to the Temple, which was a spacious edifice containing the courts, the chambers ofthe barristers, and a vast store of ancient legal records. They burnedand destroyed the whole. 

It is said, too, that there was a certain man in London, a richcitizen, named Richard Lyon, who had formerly been Walter the Tiler'smaster, and had beaten him and otherwise treated him in a cruel andoppressive manner. At the time that he received these injuries Walterhad no redress, but now the opportunity had come, he thought, forrevenge. So he led a gang of the most desperate and reckless of theinsurgents to Lyon's house, and, seizing their terrified victim, theydragged him out without mercy, and cut off his head. The head theystuck upon the top of a pike, and paraded it through the streets, awarning, as they said, to all cruel and oppressive masters. 

A great many other heads, principally those of men who had madethemselves particularly obnoxious to the insurgents, were paradedthrough the streets in the same manner. 

After spending the day in these excesses, keeping all London in astate of dreadful confusion and alarm, the various bands began to movetoward night in the direction of the Tower, where the king and hiscourt had shut themselves up in great terror, not knowing what to doto escape from the dreadful inundation of poverty and misery which hadso suddenly poured in upon them. The rioters, when they reached theTower, took possession of a large open square before it, and, kindlingup great bonfires, they began to make arrangements for bivouackingthere for the night. 

CHAPTER X. 

THE END OF THE INSURRECTION. 

A. D. 1381

Anxiety and embarrassment of the king. --Consultations in theTower. --Various counsels. --Mile-End. --A meeting appointed withthe rioters at Mile-End. --The king meets the insurgents atMile-End. --Parley with them. --The king accedes to theirdemands. --Effect of the concessions. --Preparation of thedecrees. --Scenes in the night in and around London. --The nextmorning. --The king meets the insurgents at Smithfield. --Anotherparley. --Walter advances. --His orders to his men. --Doubt aboutthe fairness of the accounts. --Conversation between Walter andthe king. --Walter gets into a quarrel with the king's squire. --Walteris at last assaulted and killed. --Excitement among his men. --Courageand coolness of the king. --Alarm conveyed to London. --Troops broughtto the ground. --The insurgents surrender their banners anddisperse. --The king's interview with his mother. --Final results ofthe rebellion. 

In the mean time, within the Tower, where the king and his courtiersnow found themselves almost in a state of siege, there were continualconsultations held, and much perplexity and alarm prevailed. Some ofRichard's advisers recommended that the most decisive measures shouldbe adopted at once. The king had in the Tower with him a considerablebody of armed men. There were also in other parts of London andvicinity many more, amounting in all to about four thousand. It wasrecommended by some of the king's counselors that these men should allbe ordered to attack the insurgents the next morning, and kill themwithout mercy. It is true that there were between fifty and onehundred thousand of the insurgents; but they had no arms, and noorganization, and it was not to be expected, therefore, that theycould stand a moment, numerous as they were, against the king'sregular troops. They would be slaughtered, it was said, like sheep, and the insurrection would be at once put down. 

Others thought that this would be a very hazardous mode of proceeding, and very uncertain as to its results. 

"It is much better, " said they, "that your majesty should appeasethem, if possible, by fair words, and by a show of granting what theyask; for if we once attempt to put them down by force, and should notbe able to go through with it, we shall only make matters a great dealworse. The commonalty of London and of all England would then jointhem, and the nobles and the government will be swept away entirelyfrom the land. "

These counsels prevailed. It was decided not to attack the riotersimmediately, but to wait a little, and see what turn things wouldtake. 

The next morning, as soon as the insurgents were in motion in thegreat square, they began to be very turbulent and noisy, and tothreaten that they would attack the Tower itself if the king did notopen the gates to them. It was finally determined to yield in part totheir requests. 

There was a certain place in the suburbs of London known by the nameof Mile-End--so called, perhaps, because it was at the end of a milefrom some place or other. At this place was an extended meadow, towhich the people of London were accustomed to resort on gala days forparades and public amusements. The king sent out a messenger from theTower to the leaders of the insurgents with directions to say to themthat if they would all go to Mile-End, he would come out and meet themthere. 

They took him at his word, and the whole immense mass began to setitself in motion toward Mile-End. 

They did not all go there, however. Those who really desired to havean interview with the king, with a view to a redress of theirgrievances, repaired to the appointed place of rendezvous. But of therest, a large party turned toward London, in hopes of pillage andplunder. Others remained near the Tower. This last party, as soon asthe king and his attendants had gone to Mile-End, succeeded in forcingtheir way in through the gates, which, it seems, had not been leftproperly guarded, and thus gained possession of the Tower. Theyransacked the various apartments, and destroyed every thing which camein their way that was at all obnoxious to them. They broke into thechamber of the Princess of Wales, Richard's mother, and, though theydid not do the princess any personal injury, they terrified her somuch by their violence and noise that she fainted, and was borne awayapparently lifeless. Her attendants carried her down thelanding-stairs on the river side, and there put her into a coveredboat, and rowed her away to a place of safety. 

The people in the Tower did not all get off so easily. The Archbishopof Canterbury was there, and three other prelates of high rank. Thesemen were particularly obnoxious to the rioters, so they seized them, and without any mercy dragged them into the court and cut off theirheads. The heads they put upon the ends of poles, and paraded them inthis way through the streets of London. 

In the mean time, the king, followed by a numerous train ofattendants, had proceeded to Mile-End, and there met the insurgents, who had assembled in a vast concourse to receive him. Several of theattendants of the king were afraid to follow him into the danger towhich they thought he was exposing himself by going among such animmense number of lawless and desperate men. Some of them deserted himon the way to the place of meeting, and rode off in differentdirections to places of safety. The king himself, however, though soyoung--for he was now only about sixteen years of age--had no fear. Assoon as he came to the meadow at Mile-End, where the insurgents hadnow assembled to the number of sixteen thousand, he rode forwardboldly into the midst of them, and opened the conference at once byasking them what they desired. 

The spokesman whom they had appointed for the occasion stated theirdemands, which were that they should be made free. They had hithertobeen held as serfs, in a bondage which exposed them to all sorts ofcruelties and oppressions, since they were amenable, not to law, butwholly to the caprice and arbitrary will of individual masters. Theydemanded, therefore, that Richard should emancipate them from thisbondage, and make them free. 

It was determined by Richard and his counselors that this demandshould be complied with, or, at least, that they should pretend tocomply with it, and that decrees of emancipation for the differentcounties and districts which the various parties of insurgents hadcome from should be immediately issued. This decision seemed tosatisfy them. The leaders, or at least a large portion of them, saidthat it was all they wanted, and several parties immediately began toset out on their return to their several homes. 

But there were a great many who were not satisfied. An insurrectionlike this, whatever may be the object and design of the originalmovers in it, always brings out into prominence, and invests withtemporary power, vast numbers of desperate and violent men, whosepassions become inflamed by the excitement of movement and action, andby sympathy with each other, and who are never satisfied to stop withthe attainment of the objects originally desired. Thus, in the presentinstance, although a great number of the rebels were satisfied withthe promises made by the king at Mile-End, and so went home, multitudes still remained. Large parties went to London to join thosewho had already gone there in hopes of opportunities for pillage. Others remained at their encampments, doubting whether the king wouldreally keep the promises which he had made them, and send the decrees. Then, besides, fresh parties of insurgents were continually arrivingat London and its neighborhood, so that the danger seemed by no meansto have passed away. 

The king immediately caused the decree to be prepared. Thirtysecretaries were employed at once to write the several copiesrequired. They were all of the same form. They were written, as wascustomary with royal decrees in those times, in the Latin language, were engrossed carefully upon parchment, signed by the king, andsealed by his seal. The announcement that the secretaries werepreparing these decrees, when the work had been commenced, tendedgreatly to satisfy the insurgents, and many more of them went home. Still, vast numbers remained, and the excitement among them, and theirdisposition for mischief, was evidently on the increase. 

Such was the state of things during the night of Friday. The variousparties of the insurgents were encamped in and around London, theglare of their fires flashing on the buildings and lighting up thesky, and their shouts, sometimes of merriment and sometimes of anger, filling the air. The peaceable inhabitants passed the night in greatalarm. Some of them endeavored to conciliate the good-will of theinsurgents by offering them food and wine. The wine, of course, excited them, and made them more noisy than ever. Their numbers, too, were all the time increasing, and no one could foresee how or when thetrouble would end. 

The next morning, a grand consultation among the rebels was determinedupon. It was to be held in a great open space called Smithfield--aspace set apart as a cattle-market, at the outskirts of London, towardthe north. All the leaders who had not returned to their homes werepresent at the consultation. Among them, and at the head of them, indeed, was Wat Tyler. 

The king that morning, it happened, having spent the night at theprivate house down the river where his mother had sought refuge aftermaking her escape from the Tower, concluded to go to Westminster toattend mass. His real motive for making this excursion was probably toshow the insurgents that he did not fear them, and also, perhaps, tomake observations in respect to their condition and movements, withoutappearing to watch them. 

He accordingly went to Westminster, accompanied and escorted by asuitable cortége and guard. The mayor of the city of London was withthe party. After hearing mass at Westminster, the king set out on hisreturn home; but, instead of going back through the heart of London, as he had come, he took a circuit to the northward by a road which, asit happened, led through Smithfield, where a great body of theinsurgents had assembled, as has already been said. Thus the king cameupon them quite unexpectedly both to himself and to them. When he sawthem, he halted, and the horsemen who were with him halted too. Therewere about sixty horsemen in his train. 

Some of his officers thought it would be better to avoid are-encounter with so large a body of the insurgents--for there wereabout twenty thousand on the field--and recommended that the king'sparty should turn aside, and go home another way; but the king said"No; he preferred to speak to them. "

He would go, he said, and ascertain what it was that they wanted more. He thought that by a friendly colloquy with them he could appeasethem. 

While the king and his party thus halted to consider what to do, theattention of the leaders of the insurgents had been directed towardthem. They knew at once that it was the king. 

"It is the king, " said Walter. "I am going to meet him and speak withhim. All the rest of you are to remain here. You must not move fromthis spot until I come back, unless you see me make this signal. "

So saying, Walter made a certain gesture with his hand, which was tobe the signal for his men. 

"When you see me make this signal, " said he, "do you all rush forwardand kill every man in the troop except the king. You must not hurt theking. We will take him and keep him. He is young, and we can make himdo whatever we say. We will put him at the head of our company, as ifhe were our commander, and we were obeying his orders, and we will doevery thing in his name. In this way we can go wherever we please, allover England, and do what we think best, and there will be noopposition to us. "

When I say that Walter gave these orders to his men, I mean that thesewords were attributed to him by one of the historians of the time. As, however, all the accounts which we have of these transactions werewritten by persons who hated the insurgents, and wished to presenttheir case in the most unfavorable light possible, we can not dependabsolutely on the truth of their accounts, especially in cases likethis, when they could not have been present to hear or see. 

At any rate, Walter rode up alone to meet the king. He advanced sonear to him that his horse's head touched the king's horse. While inthis position, a conversation ensued between him and the king. Walterpointed to the vast concourse of men who were assembled in the field, and told the king that they were all under his orders, and that whathe commanded them to do they would do. The king told him that if thatwere the case, he would do well to recommend them all to go to theirrespective homes. He had granted the petition, he said, which they hadoffered the day before, and had ordered decrees to be preparedemancipating them from their bondage. He asked Walter what more theyrequired. 

Walter replied that they wanted the decrees to be delivered to _them_. 

"We are not willing to depart till we get all the decrees, " said he. "There are all these men, and as many more besides in the city, and wewish you to give us all the decrees, that we may take them homeourselves to our several villages and towns. "

The king said that the secretaries were preparing the decrees as fastas they could, and the men might depend that those which had not yetbeen delivered would be sent as soon as they were ready to thevillages and towns. 

"Go back to your men, " he added, "and tell them that they had betterreturn peaceably to their homes. The decrees will all arrive there indue time. "

But Walter did not seem at all inclined to go. He looked around uponthe king's attendants, and seeing one that he had known before, asquire, who was in immediate attendance on the king's person, he saidto him, "What! You here?"

This squire was the king's sword-bearer. In addition to the king'ssword, which it was his duty to carry, he was armed with a dagger ofhis own. 

Walter turned his horse toward the squire and said, "Let me see that dagger that you have got. "

"No, " said the squire, drawing back. 

"Yes, " said the king, "let him take the dagger. "

The king was not at all afraid of the rebel, and wished to let him seethat he was not afraid of him. 

So the squire gave Walter the dagger. Walter took it and examined itin all its parts very carefully, turning it over and over in his handsas he sat upon his horse. It was very richly ornamented, and Walterhad probably never had the opportunity to examine closely any thing sobeautifully finished before. 

After having satisfied himself with examining the dagger, he turnedagain to the squire:

"And now, " said he, "let me see your sword. "

"No, " said the squire, "this is the king's sword, and it is not goinginto the hands of such a lowborn fellow as you. And, moreover, " headded, after pausing a moment and looking at Walter with anexpression of defiance, "if you and I had met somewhere alone, youwould not have dared to talk as you have done, not for a heap of goldas high as this church. "

There was a famous church, called the Church of St. Bartholomew, nearthe place where the king and his party had halted. 

"By the powers, " said Walter, "I will not eat this day before I haveyour head. "

Seeing that a quarrel was impending, the mayor of London and a dozenhorsemen rode up and surrounded Walter and the squire. 

"Scoundrel!" said the mayor, "how dare you utter such threats asthose?"

"What business is that of yours?" said Walter, turning fiercely towardthe mayor. "What have you to do with it?"

"Seize him!" said the king; for the king himself was now beginning tolose his patience. 

The mayor, encouraged by these words, and being already in a state ofboiling indignation and rage, immediately struck a tremendous blowupon Walter's head with a cimeter which he had in his hand. The blowstunned him, and he fell heavily from his horse to the ground. One ofthe horsemen who had come up with the mayor--a man named JohnStandwich--immediately dismounted, and thrust the body of Walterthrough with his sword, killing him on the spot. 

In the mean time, the crowd of the insurgents had remained whereWalter had left them, watching the proceedings. They had receivedorders not to move from their position until Walter should make thesignal; but when they saw Walter struck down from his horse, andstabbed as he lay on the ground, they cried out, "They have killed ourcaptain. Form the lines! form the lines! We will go and kill every oneof them. "

So they hastily formed in array, and got their weapons ready, preparedto charge upon the king's party; but Richard, who in all thesetransactions evinced a degree of bravery and coolness very remarkablefor a young man of sixteen, rode forward alone, and boldly, to meetthem. 

"Gentlemen, " said he, "you have no leader but me. I am your king. Remain quiet and peaceable. "

The insurgents seemed not to know what to do on hearing these words. Some began to move away, but the more violent and determined kepttheir ground, and seemed still bent on mischief. The king went back tohis party, and asked them what they should do next. Some advised thatthey should make for the open fields, and try to escape; but the mayorof London advised that they should remain quietly where they were. 

"It will be of no use, " said he, "for us to try to make our escape, but if we remain here we shall soon have help. "

The mayor had already sent horsemen into London to summon help. Thesemessengers spread the cry in the city, "TO SMITHFIELD! TO SMITHFIELD!THEY ARE KILLING THE KING!" This cry produced universal excitement andalarm. The bands of armed men quartered in London were immediatelyturned out, and great numbers of volunteers too, seizing such weaponsas they could find, made haste to march to Smithfield; and thus, in ashort time, the king found himself supported by a body of seven oreight thousand men. 

Some of his advisers then urged that the whole of this force shouldfall at once upon the insurgents, and slaughter them without mercy. This it was thought that they could easily do, although the insurgentswere far more numerous than they; for the king's party consisted, ingreat measure, of well-armed and well-disciplined soldiers, while theinsurgents were comparatively a helpless and defenseless rabble. 

The king, however, would not consent to this. Perhaps somebody advisedhim what to do, or perhaps it was his own prudence and moderationwhich suggested his course. He sent messengers forward to remonstratecalmly with the men, and demand of them that they should give up theirbanners. If they would do so, the messengers said that the king wouldpardon them. So they gave up their banners. This seemed to be thesignal of disbanding, and large parties of the men began to separatefrom the mass, and move away toward their homes. 

Next, the king sent to demand that those who had received decrees ofemancipation should return them. They did so; and in this way aconsiderable number of the decrees were given up. The king tore themto pieces on the field, upon the plea that they were forfeited by themen's having continued in rebellion after the decrees were granted. 

The whole mass of the insurgents began now rapidly to get intodisorder. They had no head, no banners, and the army which wasgathering against them was increasing in strength and resolution everymoment. The dispersal went on faster and faster, until at last thosethat remained threw down their weapons and fled to London. 

The king then went home to his mother. She was overjoyed to see himsafely returning. 

"My dear son, " said she, "you can not conceive what pain and anguish Ihave suffered for you this day. "

"Yes, mother, " said Richard, "I have no doubt you have suffered agreat deal. But it is all over now. Now you can rejoice and thank God, for I have regained my inheritance, the kingdom of England, which Ihad lost. "

 * * * * *

After this there was no farther serious trouble. The insurgents weredisheartened, and most of them were glad to make the best of their wayhome. After the danger was past, Richard revoked all the decrees ofemancipation which he had issued, on the ground that they had beenextorted from him by violence and intimidation, and also that thecondition on which they had been granted, namely, that the men shouldretire at once quietly to their homes, had not been complied with ontheir part. He found it somewhat difficult to recover them all, but hefinally succeeded. He also sent commissions to all the towns andvillages which had been implicated in the rebellion, and caused greatnumbers of persons to be tried and condemned to death. Many thousandswere thus executed. Indeed, the rebellion had extended far and wide;for, besides the disturbances in and near London, there had beenrisings in all parts of the kingdom, and great excesses committedevery where. 

When the rebellion was thus quelled, things returned for a time intosubstantially the same condition as before, and yet the bondage of thepeople was never afterward so abject and hopeless as it had been. Aconsiderable general improvement was the result. Indeed, suchoutbreaks as this against oppression are like the earthquakes of SouthAmerica, which, though they cause for the time great terror, and oftenmuch destruction, still have the effect to raise the general level ofthe land, and leave it forever afterward in a better condition thanbefore. 

The cause of these rebels, moreover, badly as they managed it, was inthe main a just cause; and it is to precisely such convulsivestruggles as these, that have been made from time to time by thecommon people of England in the course of their history, that theirdescendants, the present commons of England and the people of America, are indebted for the personal rights and liberties which they nowenjoy. 

CHAPTER XI. 

GOOD QUEEN ANNE. 

A. D. 1382-1394

The planning of Richard's first marriage. --Journey of the bridal partytoward England. --Their way is cut off by sea. --The bride entersCalais. --Great display. --The bride arrives in England. --Greatexcitement in London. --A contrast. --The bride enters London. --Paradesand rejoicings. --Character of the queen. --Why she was called Good QueenAnne. --Ancient drawings. --Curious fashions of those times. --Costumesof Richard's time. --The Cracows. --Origin of the name. --The hornedcaps. --Description of the horns. --Pins. --Side-saddles. --QueenAnne's useful and busy life. --Shene. --Grand celebration. --Thetournament. --Knights. --Magnificence of the king's mode of life. --Deathof Queen Anne. --The king inconsolable. --The funeral. --Inscription onQueen Anne's tomb. 

King Richard was married twice. His first queen was named Anne. Shewas a Bohemian princess, and so is sometimes called in history Anne ofBohemia. She was, however, more commonly called Good Queen Anne. 

The marriage was planned by Richard's courtiers and counselors whenRichard himself was about fifteen years old. The negotiations wereinterrupted by the troubles connected with the insurrection describedin the two last chapters; but immediately after the insurrection wasquelled they were renewed. The proposals were sent to Bohemia byRichard's government. After suitable inquiries had been made by Anne'sparents and friends, the proposals were accepted, and preparationswere made for sending Anne to England to be married. Richard was nowabout sixteen years of age. Anne was fifteen. Neither of them had everseen the other. 

In due time, when every thing had been made ready, the princess setout on her journey, accompanied by a large train of attendants. Shewas under the charge of a nobleman named the Duke of Saxony, and ofhis wife the duchess. The duchess was Anne's aunt. Besides the duke, there were in the party a number of knights, and other persons ofdistinction, and also several young ladies of the court, who went toaccompany and wait upon the princess. There were also many otherattendants of lower degree. 

The party traveled slowly, as was the custom in those days, until atlength they reached Flanders. Here, at Brussels, the capital, theprincess was received by the Duke and Duchess of Brabant, who were herrelatives, and was entertained by them in a very sumptuous manner. She, however, heard alarming news at Brussels. The intention of theparty had been to take ship on the coast of Flanders, and proceed toCalais by water. Calais was then in the hands of the English, and anembassador with a grand suite had been sent from Richard's court toreceive the princess on her arrival there, and conduct her across theChannel to Dover, and thence to London. 

The reason why the princess and her party did not propose to go byland all the way to Calais was that, by so doing, they wouldnecessarily pass through the territories of the King of France, andthey were afraid that the French government would intercept them. Itwas known that the government of France had been opposed to the match, as tending to give Richard too much influence on the Continent. 

But now, on their arrival at Brussels, the bridal party learned thatthere was a fleet of Norman vessels, ten or twelve in number, thatwere cruising to and fro on the coast, between Brussels and Calais, with a view of blocking up the princess's way by sea as well as byland. Both she herself and the Duke of Saxony were much chagrined atreceiving this information, and for a time they did not know what todo. At length they sent an embassage to Paris, and after somedifficulties and delay they succeeded in obtaining the consent of theFrench government that the princess should pass through the Frenchterritories by land. The embassadors brought back a passport for herand for her party. 

Although the King of France thus granted the desired permission, hedid it in a very ungracious manner, for he took care to say that heyielded to the Duke of Saxony's request solely out of kindness to hisgood cousin Anne, and a desire to do her a favor, and not at all outof regard to the King of England. 

The princess was detained a month in Brussels while they werearranging this affair, and when at last it was settled she resumed herjourney, taking the road from Brussels to Calais. The Duke of Brabantaccompanied her, with an escort of one hundred spearmen. This, however, was an escort of honor rather than of protection, as the dukerelied mainly upon the French passport for the safety of the party. 

As the party were approaching Calais, they were received at the townof Gravelines by the English embassador and his suite, who had comeout from Calais to meet them. This embassador was the Earl ofSalisbury. He was attended by a force of one thousand men, namely, five hundred spearmen and five hundred archers. Conducted by thisgrand escort, and accompanied by a large cavalcade of knights andnobles, all clad in full armor, and splendidly mounted, the princessand the ladies in her train made a magnificent entry into Calais, through the midst of a vast concourse of spectators, with trumpetssounding and banners waving, and their hearts beating high withecstasy and delight. In passing over the drawbridge and through thegates of Calais, Anne felt an emotion of exultation and pride inthinking that she was here entering the dominions of her futurehusband. 

The princess did not remain long in Calais. She set out on thefollowing day for Dover. The distance across is about twenty miles. They were dependent wholly on the wind in those days for crossing theChannel; but the princess had a prosperous passage, and arrived safelyat Dover that night. News then spread rapidly all over the country, and ran up to London, that the queen had come. 

The news, of course, produced universal excitement. No certain tidingsof the movements of the bride had been heard for some weeks before, and no one could tell when to expect her. Her arrival awakeneduniversal joy. Parliament was in session at the time. They voted alarge sum of money to be expended in arrangements for receiving theyoung queen in a proper manner, and in public rejoicings on theoccasion. They then immediately adjourned, and all the world began toprepare for the arrival of the royal cortége in London. 

The princess, after resting a day in Dover, moved on to Canterbury, admiring, as she journeyed, the beautiful scenery of the country overwhich she was henceforth to be queen. Richard's uncle Thomas, the Dukeof Gloucester, with a large retinue, was ready there to receive her. He conducted her to London. As they approached the city, thelord-mayor of London and all the great civic functionaries, with along train of attendants, came out in great state to receive her andescort her into town. The place of their meeting with her wasBlackheath, the same place which a year before had been the bivouac ofthe immense horde of ragged and miserable men that Wat Tyler and hisfellow-insurgents had brought to London. But how changed now was thescene! Then the country was excited by the deepest anxiety and alarm, and the spectacle on the field was that of one immense mass of squalidpoverty and wretchedness, of misery reduced by hopeless suffering torecklessness and despair. Now all was gayety and splendor in thespectacle, and the whole country was excited to the highest pitch ofexultation and joy. 

At Blackheath the grand cavalcade was formed for passing throughLondon. Splendid preparations had been made in London to receive thebride, and to do honor to her passage through the city. Many of thesepreparations were similar to those which had been made on the occasionof the king's coronation. There was a castle and tower, with younggirls at the top throwing down a shower of golden snow, and fountainsat the sides flowing with wine, with fancifully-dressed pagesattending to offer the princess drink from golden cups. In a word, theyoung and beautiful bride was received by the civic authorities ofLondon with the same tokens of honor and the same public rejoicingsthat had been accorded to the king. 

In a few days the marriage took place. The ceremony was performed inthe chapel royal of the king's palace at Westminster. The kingappeared to be very much pleased with his bride, and paid her greatattention. After a week spent with her and the court in festivitiesand rejoicings in Westminster, he took her up the river to the royalcastle at Windsor. His mother, the Princess of Wales, and other ladiesof rank, went with them, and formed part of their household. Theylived here very happily together for some time. 

The young queen soon began to evince those kind and gracious qualitiesof heart which afterward made her so beloved among the people ofEngland. Instead of occupying herself solely with her own greatnessand grandeur, and with the uninterrupted round of pleasures to whichher husband invited her, she began very soon to think of thesufferings which she found that a great many of the common people ofEngland were enduring, and to consider what she could do to relievethem. The condition of the people was particularly unhappy at thistime, for the king and the nobles were greatly exasperated againstthem on account of the rebellion, and were hunting out all who couldbe proved, or were even suspected to have been engaged in it, andpersecuting them in the most severe and oppressive manner, and theywere bloody and barbarous beyond precedent. The young queen, hearingof these things, was greatly distressed, and she begged the king, forher sake, to grant a general pardon to all his subjects, on theoccasion of her coronation, which ceremony was now soon to beperformed. The king granted this request, and thus peace andtranquillity were once more fully restored to the land. 

After this, during all her life, Anne watched for every opportunity todo good, and she was continually engaged in gentle but effectiveefforts to heal dissensions, to assuage angry feelings, and toalleviate suffering. She was a general peace-maker; and her loftyposition, and the great influence which she exercised over the king, gave her great power to accomplish the benevolent purposes which thekindness of her heart led her to form. 

The arrival of the young queen produced a great sensation among theladies of Richard's court, in consequence of the new fashions whichshe introduced into England. The fashions of dress in those days werevery peculiar. We learn what they were from the pictures, drawn withthe pen or painted in water-colors, in the manuscripts of those daysthat still remain in the old English libraries. There are a great manyof these drawings, and, as they agree together in the style andfashion of the costumes represented, there is no doubt that they giveus correct ideas of the dresses really worn. Besides, there are manyallusions in the chronicles of those times, and in poems and books ofaccounts, which correspond precisely with the drawings, and thusconfirm their correctness and accuracy. 

The engravings on the following page are copied from one of theseancient manuscripts. 

Observe the singular forms of the caps, both those of the men and ofthe women. The men wore sometimes jackets, and sometimes long gownswhich came down to the ground. The most singular feature of thedresses of the men, however, is the long-pointed shoes. Were it notthat fashions are often equally absurd at the present day, we shouldthink it impossible that such shoes as these could ever have beenmade. 

[Illustration: MALE COSTUME IN THE TIME OF RICHARD II. ]

[Illustration: FEMALE COSTUME IN THE TIME OF RICHARD II. ]

These shoes were called Cracows. Cracow was a town in Poland which wasat that time within the dominions of Anne's father, and it is supposedthat the fashion of wearing these shoes may have been brought intoEngland by some of the gentlemen in Anne's train, when she came toEngland to be married. It is known that the queen did introduce agreat many foreign fashions to the court, and, among the rest, afashion of head-dress for ladies, which was quite as strange as peakedshoes for the gentlemen. It consisted of what was called the hornedcap. 

[Illustration: FASHIONABLE HEAD-DRESSES. ]

These horns were often two feet high, and sometimes two feet wide fromone side to the other. The frame of this head-dress was made of wireand pasteboard, and the covering was of some glittering tissue orgauze. There were other head-dresses scarcely less monstrous thanthese. Some of them are represented in the engraving. These fashions, when introduced by the queen, spread with great rapidity among all thecourt ladies, and thence to all fashionable circles in England. 

It is said, too, that it was this young queen who first introducedpins into England. Dresses had been fastened before by little skewersmade of wood or ivory. Queen Anne brought pins, which had been madefor some time in Germany, and the use of them soon extended all overEngland. 

Side-saddles for ladies on horseback were a third fashion which QueenAnne is said to have introduced. The side-saddle which she broughtwas, however, of a very simple construction. It consisted of a seatplaced upon the horse's back, with a sort of step depending from it onone side for the feet to rest upon. Both feet were placed upon thisstep together. 

Queen Anne, after her marriage, lived very happily with her husbandfor twelve years. She was devotedly attached to him, and he seemssincerely to have loved her. He was naturally kind and affectionate inhis disposition, and, while Anne lived, he yielded himself to the goodinfluences which she exerted over him. She journeyed with him whereverhe went, and aided him in the accomplishment of all his plans. Whenever he became involved in any difficulty, either with his noblesor with his subjects, she acted the part of mediator, and almostalways succeeded in allaying the animosity and healing the feud beforeit proceeded to extremes. She resided with her husband sometimes atone palace and sometimes at another, but her favorite residence was atthe palace of Shene, near the present town of Richmond. 

Although the king was crowned at the time of his accession to thethrone, he did not fully assume the government at that time on accountof his youth, for you will remember that he was then only about elevenyears old; nor did he, in fact, come fully into possession of power atthe time of his marriage, for he was then under sixteen. At that time, and for several years afterward, his uncles and the other influentialnobles managed the government in his name. At length, however, whenhe was about twenty-one years old, he thought it was time for him toassume the direction of affairs himself, and he accordingly did so. Atthis time there was another grand celebration, one scarcely inferiorin pomp and splendor to the coronation itself. 

Among other performances on this occasion there was a tournament, inwhich knights mounted on horseback, and armed from head to foot withiron armor, fought in the lists, endeavoring to unhorse each other bymeans of their spears. The tournament was held at Smithfield. Raisedplatforms were set up by the side of the lists for the lords andladies of the court, and a beautiful canopy for the queen, who was toact as judge of the combat, and was to award the prizes. The prizesconsisted of a rich jeweled clasp and a splendid crown of gold. 

The queen went first to the ground, and took her place with herattendants under her canopy. The knights who were to enter the liststhen came in a grand cavalcade through the streets of London to thepalace. There were sixty ladies mounted on beautiful palfreys, accoutred with the new-fashioned side-saddles. Each of these ladiesconducted a knight, whom she led by a silver chain. They were precededby minstrels and bands of instrumental music, and the streets werethronged with spectators. 

After the tournament there was a grand banquet at the palace of theBishop of London, with music and dancing, and other such amusements, which continued to a late hour of the night. 

 * * * * *

For some years after this the king and queen lived together in greatprosperity. Outwardly things went pretty well with the king's affairs, and, as he was fond of pomp and display, he gradually acquired habitsof very profuse and lavish expenditure. Indeed, he is said to havemade it an object of his ambition to surpass, in the magnificence ofhis style of living, all the sovereigns of Europe. He kept manyseparate establishments in his different palaces, and at all of themgave entertainments and banquets of immense magnificence and of themost luxurious character. It is said that three hundred persons wereemployed in his kitchens. 

At length, in the year 1394, when Richard was preparing for anexpedition into Ireland to quell a rebellion which had broken outthere, the queen was seized with a fatal epidemic which was thenprevailing in England, and after a short illness she died. She was ather palace of Shene at this time. The king hastened to attend her themoment that he heard the tidings of her illness, and was with her whenshe died. He was inconsolable at the loss of his wife, for he hadloved her sincerely, and she had been a singularly faithful anddevoted wife to him. He was made almost crazy by her death. Heimprecated bitter curses on the palace where she died, and he orderedit to be destroyed. It was, in fact, partially dismantled, inobedience to these orders, and Richard himself never occupied itagain. It was, however, repaired under a subsequent reign. 

Richard gave up, for the time being, his expedition into Ireland, being wholly absorbed in his sorrow for the irreparable loss he hadsuffered. He wrote letters to all the great nobles and barons ofEngland to come to the funeral, and the obsequies were celebrated withthe greatest possible pomp and parade. Two months were expended inmaking preparations for the funeral. When the day arrived, a very longprocession was formed to escort the body from Shene to Westminster. This procession was accompanied by an immense number of torch-bearers, all carrying lighted torches in their hands. So great was the numberof these torches, that a large quantity of wax was imported fromFlanders expressly for the purpose. 

The tomb of Anne was not made until a year after her death. Richardhimself attended to all the details connected with the construction ofit. The inscription was in Latin. The following is an exacttranslation of it:

 "Under this stone lies Anne, here entombed, Wedded in this world's life to the second Richard. To Christ were her meek virtues devoted: His poor she freely fed from her treasures; Strife she assuaged, and swelling feuds appeased; Beauteous her form, her face surpassing fair. On July's seventh day, thirteen hundred ninety-four, All comfort was bereft, for through irremediable sickness She passed away into interminable joys. "

By the death of his wife, Richard was left, as it were, almost alonein the world. His mother, the Princess of Wales, had died some timebefore, and Anne had had no children. There were his uncles and hiscousins, it is true, but they were his rivals and competitors ratherthan his friends. Indeed, they were destined soon to become his openenemies. 

Richard was afterward married again, to his "little wife, " as we shallsee in a future chapter. 

CHAPTER XII. 

INCIDENTS OF THE REIGN. 

A. D. 1382-1396

Jealousy of Richard and his mother against the uncles. --Plotsand manoeuvres. --Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. --Province ofParliament. --Prerogative of the king. --The Commons threaten theking. --He is compelled to yield. --Council appointed. --Richard'sdiscontent. --The court at Nottingham. --Preparations for war. --Richardand his party overcome. --Execution of Burley. --Queen Anne's fruitlessintercession. --The king determines to resume his power. --His interviewwith his council. --Surprise of the barons. --The great seal. --Richardappoints a new chancellor. --Richard appoints new officers ofgovernment. --The wars in which Richard was engaged. --Story of SirMiles, the Bohemian knight. --The archers and the squires. --A squirekilled. --Sir Ralph Stafford is displeased and alarmed. --Lord Hollandis enraged. --He meets Lord Stafford in a narrow lane. --Staffordis killed. --Lord Holland's unconcern. --Richard's perplexity anddistress. --His mother's anguish. --Extraordinary marriage of the Dukeof Lancaster. --Indignation and rage of the ladies of the court. 

In giving some general account of the character of Richard's reign, and of the incidents that occurred during the course of it, we now goback a little again, so as to begin at the beginning of it. 

When Richard was married, he was, as has already been said, only aboutfifteen or sixteen years of age. As he grew older, after this time, and began to feel that sense of strength and independence whichpertains to manhood, he became more and more jealous of the power andinfluence of his uncles in the government of the country. His mother, too, who was still living, and who adhered closely to him, was verysuspicious of the uncles. She was continually imagining that they wereforming plots and conspiracies against her son in favor of themselvesor of their own children. She was particularly suspicious of the Dukeof Lancaster, and of his son Henry Bolingbroke. It proved in the endthat there was some reason for this suspicion, for this HenryBolingbroke was the means at last of deposing Richard from his thronein order to take possession of it himself, as we shall see in thesequel. 

In order to prevent, as far as possible, these uncles from findingopportunity to accomplish any of their supposed designs, Richard andhis mother excluded them, as much as they could, from power, andappointed other persons, who had no such claims to the crown, to allthe important places about the court. This, of course, made the unclesvery angry. They called the men whom Richard thus brought forward hisfavorites, and they hated them exceedingly. This state of things ledto a great many intrigues, and manoeuvres, and plots, andcounterplots, the favorites against the uncles, and the uncles againstthe favorites. These difficulties were continued for many years. Parties were formed in Parliament, of which sometimes one was in theascendency and sometimes the other, and all was turmoil and confusion. 

When Richard was about twenty years old, one of his uncles--his uncleThomas, at that time Duke of Gloucester--gained such an influence inParliament that some of Richard's favorites were deposed from officeand imprisoned. The duke was imboldened by this success to take afarther step. He told the Parliament that the government would neverbe on a good footing until they themselves appointed a council tomanage in the king's name. 

When Richard heard of this plan, he declared that he would neversubmit to it. 

"I am the King of England, " said he, "and I will govern my realm bymeans of such officers as I choose to appoint myself. I will not haveothers to appoint them for me. "

The ideas which the kings of those days entertained in respect to theprovince of Parliament was that it was to vote the necessary taxes tosupply the king's necessities, and also to mature the details of alllaws for the regulation of the ordinary business and the socialrelations of life, but that the government, strictly so called--thatis, all that relates to the appointment and payment of executiveofficers, the making of peace or war, the building and equipment offleets, and the command of armies, was exclusively the king'sprerogative, and that for the exercise of his prerogative in theseparticulars the sovereign was responsible, not to his subjects, but toGod alone, from whom he claimed to have received his crown. 

The people of England, as represented by Parliament, have neverconsented to this view of the subject. They have always maintainedthat their kings are, in some sense, responsible to the people of therealm, and they have often deposed kings, and punished them in otherways. 

Accordingly, when Richard declared that he would not submit to theappointment of a council by Parliament, the Commons reminded him ofthe fact that his great-grandfather, Edward the Second, had beendeposed in consequence of having unreasonably and obstinately resistedthe will of his people, and they hinted to him that it would be wellfor him to beware lest he should incur the same fate. Some of thelords, too, told him that the excitement was so great in the countryon account of the mismanagement of public affairs, and the corruptionsand malpractice of the favorites, that if he refused to allow thecouncil to be appointed, there was danger that he would lose his head. 

So Richard was obliged to submit, and the council was appointed. Richard was in a great rage, and he secretly determined to lay hisplans for recovering the power into his own hands as soon as possible, and punishing the council, and all who were concerned in appointingthem, for their audacity in presuming to encroach in such a mannerupon his sovereign rights as king. 

The council that was appointed consisted of eleven bishops andnobles. Richard's uncle Thomas, the Duke of Gloucester, was at thehead of it. This council governed the country for more than a year. Every thing was done in Richard's name, it is true, but the real powerwas in the hands of the Duke of Gloucester. Richard was very angry andindignant, but he did not see what he could do. 

He was, however, all the time forming plans and schemes to recover hispower. At last, after about a year had passed away, he called togethera number of judges secretly at Nottingham, toward the northern part ofthe kingdom, and submitted to them the question whether such a councilas the Parliament had appointed was legal. It was, of course, understood beforehand how the judges would decide. They decreed thatthe council was illegal; that for Parliament to give a council suchpowers was a violation of the king's prerogative, and was consequentlytreason, and that, of course, all who had been concerned in thetransaction had made themselves liable to the penalty of death. 

It was Richard's plan, after having obtained this decree, to cause theprominent members of the council to be arrested, and he came to Londonand began to make his preparations for accomplishing this purpose. Butas soon as his uncle Thomas, the Duke of Gloucester, heard of theseplans, he, and some great nobles who were ready to join with himagainst the king, collected all their forces, and began to march toLondon at the head of forty thousand men. Richard's cousin Henry, theDuke of Lancaster's son, joined them on the way. Richard's friends andfavorites, on hearing of this, immediately took arms, and preparationsbegan to be made for civil war. In a word, after having successfullymet and quelled the great insurrection of the serfs and laborers underWat Tyler, Richard was now to encounter a still more formidableresistance of his authority on the part of his uncles and the greatbarons of the realm. These last, indeed, were far more to be fearedthan the others, for they had arms and organization, and they enjoyedevery possible facility for carrying on a vigorous and determined war. Richard and his party soon found that it was useless to attempt toresist them. Accordingly, after a very brief struggle, the royal partywas entirely put down. Richard's favorites were arrested. Some of themwere beheaded, others were banished from the realm, and the governmentof the country fell again into the hands of the uncles. 

One of Richard's favorites who was executed on this occasion was aman whose untimely death grieved and afflicted both Richard and thequeen very much indeed. His name was Sir Simon Burley. He had beenRichard's friend and companion all his life. Richard's father, Edward, the Black Prince, had appointed Sir Simon Richard's tutor whileRichard himself was a mere child, and he had been with him ever sincethat time. Queen Anne was much attached to him, and she wasparticularly grateful to him on account of his having been thecommissioner who negotiated and arranged her marriage with Richard. Richard made every possible exertion to save his tutor's life, but hisuncle Gloucester was inexorable. He told Richard that his keeping thecrown depended on the immediate execution of the traitor. Queen Annefell on her knees before him, and begged and entreated that Sir Simonmight be spared, but all was of no avail. 

So Richard was compelled to submit; but he did not do so withoutsecret muttering, and resolutions of revenge. He allowed thegovernment to remain in his uncle's hands for some time, but atlength, about a year afterward, he found himself strong enough toseize it again. The plea which his uncles had hitherto made formanaging the government themselves was, that Richard was not yet ofage. But now he became of age, and he resolved on what might be calleda _coup d'état_, to get possession of the government. He planned thismeasure in concert with a number of his own friends and favorites, whohoped, by this means, that they themselves should rise to power. 

He called a grand council of all the nobles and great officers ofstate. The assembly convened in the great council-chamber, and waitedthere for the king to come in. 

At length the king arrived, and, walking into the chamber, he took hisseat upon the throne. A moment afterward he turned to one of the chiefofficers present and addressed him, saying, "My lord, what is my age at the present time?"

The nobleman answered that his majesty was now over twenty years ofage. 

"Then, " said the king, speaking in a very firm and determined manner, "I am of years sufficient to govern mine own house and family, andalso my kingdom; for it seemeth against reason that the state of themeanest person in my kingdom should be better than mine. Every heirthroughout the land that has once come to the age of twenty years ispermitted, if his father be not living, to order his business himself. And that which is permitted by law to every other person, of howevermean degree, why is it denied to me?"

The king spoke these words with an air of such courage anddetermination that the barons were astonished. The foremost of them, after a brief pause, seemed ready to accede to his proposals. Theysaid that there should henceforth be no right abridged from him, butthat he might take upon himself the government if he chose, as it wasnow manifestly his duty to do. 

"Very well, " said the king. "You know that I have been a long timeruled by tutors and governors, so that it has not been lawful for meto do any thing, no matter of how small importance, without theirconsent. Now, therefore, I desire that henceforth they meddle no morewith matters pertaining to my government, for I will attend to themmyself, and after the manner of an heir arrived at full age. I willcall whom I please to be my counsel, and thus manage my own affairsaccording to my own will and pleasure. "

The barons were extremely surprised to hear these determinations thusresolutely announced by the king, but had nothing to say in reply. 

"And in the first place, " continued Richard, "I wish the chancellorto give me up the great seal. "

The great seal was a very important badge and emblem of the royalprerogative. No decree was of legal authority until an impress fromthis seal was attached to it. The officer who had charge of it wascalled the chancellor. A new seal was prepared for each sovereign onhis accession to the throne. The devices were much the same in all. They consisted of a representation of the king seated on his throneupon one side of the seal, and on the other mounted on horseback andgoing into battle, armed from head to foot. The legends orinscriptions around the border were changed, of course, for eachreign. 

The engraving on the following page represents one side of kingRichard's seal. The other side contained an image of the king seatedon his throne, and surrounded by various insignia of royalty. 

"I wish the chancellor, " said the king, "to deliver me up the greatseal. "

[Illustration: SEAL OF RICHARD II. ]

So the nobleman who had been chancellor up to that time delivered theseal into the hands of the king. The seal was kept in a beautiful box, richly ornamented. It was always brought to the council by the lordchancellor, who had it in charge. The king proceeded immediatelyafterward to appoint a new chancellor, and to place the box in hishands. In the same summary manner the king displaced almost all theother high officers of state, and appointed new ones of his own insteadof them. The former officers were obliged to submit, though sorelyagainst their will. They were powerless, for the king had now attainedsuch an age that there was no longer any excuse for withholding from himthe complete possession of his kingdom. 

From this time, accordingly, Richard was actually as well as nominallyking of England; but still he was often engaged in contentions andquarrels with his uncles, and with the other great nobles who took hisuncle's part. 

The queen--for good Queen Anne was at this time still living--was sogentle and kind, and she acted her part as peace-maker so well, thatshe greatly softened and soothed these asperities; but Richard led, nevertheless, a wild and turbulent life, and was continually gettinginvolved in the most serious difficulties. Then there were wars to becarried on, sometimes with France, sometimes with Scotland, andsometimes with Ireland. Richard's uncles, the Dukes of Lancaster andGloucester, generally went away in command of the armies to carry onthese wars. Sometimes Richard himself accompanied the expeditions; buteven on these occasions, when he and his knights and nobles wereengaged together in a common cause, and apparently at peace with eachother, there were so many jealousies and angry heartburnings amongthem, that deadly quarrels and feuds were continually breaking out. 

As an example of these quarrels, I will give an account of one whichtook place not very long after Richard was married. He was engagedwith his uncles in an expedition to Scotland. There was a knight inattendance upon him named Sir Miles. This knight was a friend of thequeen. He was a Bohemian, and had come from Bohemia to pay Anne avisit, and to bring the news to her from her native land. The king, out of affection to Anne, paid him great attention. This made theEnglish knights and nobles jealous, and they amused themselves withmimicking and laughing at Sir Miles's foreign peculiarities. Theparticular friends of the queen, however, took his part, oneespecially, named the Earl of Stafford, and his son, the young LordRalph Stafford. Lord Ralph Stafford was one of the most courteous andpopular knights in England. 

In the course of the expedition to Scotland the party came to a towncalled Beverley, which is situated in the northern part of England, near the frontier. One day, two archers belonging to the service ofLord Ralph Stafford, in riding across the fields near Beverley, foundtwo squires engaged in a sort of quarrel with Sir Miles. The cause ofthe quarrel was something about his lodgings in the town. The squires, it seems, knowing that the knights and nobles generally disliked SirMiles, were encouraged to be very bold and insolent to him inexpressing their ill-will, and when the archers came up they werefollowing him with taunts, and ridicule, and abuse, while Sir Mileswas making the best of his way toward the town. 

The archers took the Bohemian's part. They remonstrated with thesquires for thus abusing and teasing a stranger and a foreigner, apersonal friend, too, and guest of the queen. 

"What business is it of yours, villainous knave, whether we laugh athim or not?" said the squires. "What right have you to intermeddle?What is it to you?"

"What is it to us?" repeated one of the archers. "It is a great dealto us. This man is the friend of our master, and we will not stand byand see him abused. "

Upon hearing this, one of the squires uttered some words of defiance, and advanced as if to strike the archer; but the archer, having hisbow and arrow all ready, suddenly let the arrow fly, and the squirewas killed on the spot. 

Sir Miles had already gone on toward the town. The other squire, seeing his companion dead, immediately made his escape. The twoarchers, leaving the man whom they had killed on the ground where hehad fallen, made the best of their way home, and told their master, Sir Ralph Stafford, what they had done. 

Sir Ralph was extremely concerned to hear of the occurrence, and hetold the archer who killed the squire that he had done very wrong. 

"But, my lord, " said the archer, "I could not have done otherwise; forthe man was coming up to us with his sword drawn in his hand, and wewere obliged either to kill him or to be killed ourselves. "

The archers, moreover, told Sir Ralph that the squires were in theservice of Sir John Holland. Now Sir John Holland was a half brotherof the king, being the child of his mother, the Princess of Wales, bya former husband. When Sir Ralph heard this, he was still more alarmedthan before. He told the archers who killed the squire that they mustgo and hide themselves somewhere until the affair could be arranged. 

"I will negotiate with Lord Holland for your pardon, " said he, "eitherthrough my father or in some other way. But, in the mean time, youmust keep yourselves closely concealed. "

The Earl of Stafford, Lord Ralph Stafford's father, was a nobleman ofthe very highest rank, and of great influence. 

It is a curious indication of the ideas that prevailed in those days, and of the relations that subsisted between the nobles and theirdependants, that the slaughter of a man in an affray of this kind wasa matter to be _arranged_ between the masters respectively of the menengaged in it. 

The archers went away to hide themselves until Lord Ralph couldarrange the matter. 

In the mean time, the squire who had escaped in the fray hurried homeand related the matter to Lord Holland. Lord Holland was greatlyenraged. He uttered dreadful imprecations against Lord Ralph Staffordand against Sir Miles, whom he seemed to consider responsible for thedeath of his squire, and declared that he would not sleep until he hadhad his revenge. So he mounted his horse, and, taking some trustyattendants with him, rode into Beverley, and asked where Sir Miles'slodgings were. While he was going toward the place, breathing fury anddeath, suddenly, in a narrow lane, he came upon Lord Ralph, who wasthen going to find him, in order to arrange about the murder. It wasnow, however, late in the evening, and so dark that the parties didnot at first know each other. 

"Who comes here?" said Lord Holland, when he saw Sir Ralphapproaching. 

"I am Stafford, " replied Sir Ralph. 

"You are the very man I want to see, " said Lord Holland. "One of yourservants has killed my squire--the one that I loved so much. "

As he said this, he brought down so heavy a blow upon Sir Ralph's headas to fell him from his horse to the ground. He then rode on. Theattendants hurried to the spot and raised Sir Ralph up. They found himfaint and bleeding, and in a few moments he died. 

As soon as this fact was ascertained, one of the men rode on afterLord Holland, and, coming up to him, said, "My lord, you have killed Lord Stafford. "

"Very well, " said Lord Holland; "I am glad of it. I would rather itwould be a man of his rank than any body else, for so I am the morecompletely revenged for the death of my squire. "

As fast as the tidings of these events spread, they produced universalexcitement. The Earl of Stafford, the father of Sir Ralph, was plungedinto the most inconsolable grief at the death of his son. The earl wasone of the most powerful nobles in the army, and, if he had undertakento avenge himself on Lord Holland, the whole expedition would perhapshave been broken up into confusion. On the king's solemn assurancethat Holland would be punished, he was appeased for the time; but thenthe Princess of Wales, Richard's mother, who was Lord Holland'smother too, was thrown into the greatest state of anxiety anddistress. She implored Richard to save his brother's life. All theother nobles and knights took sides too in the quarrel, and for a timeit seemed that the dissension would never be healed. Lord Holland, inthe mean while, fled to the church at Beverley, and took sanctuarythere. By the laws and customs of the time, they could not touch himuntil he came voluntarily out. 

Richard resisted all the entreaties of his mother to spare themurderer's life until he found that her anxiety and distress werepreying upon her health so much that he feared that she would die. Atlast, to save his mother's life, he promised that Holland should bespared. But it was too late. His mother fell into a decline, and atlength died, as it was said, of a broken heart. What a dreadful death!that of a mother worn out by the agony of long-continued andapparently fruitless efforts to prevent one of her children from beingthe executioner of another for the crime of murder. 

Besides these fierce, deadly contests among the knights and nobles, the ladies of the court had their feuds and quarrels too. They wereoften divided into cliques and parties, and were full of envyings, jealousies, and resentments against each other. One of the mostserious of these difficulties was occasioned by a marriage of the Dukeof Lancaster, which took place toward the close of his life. This washis third marriage, he having been successively married to two ladiesof high rank before. The lady whom he now married was of acomparatively humble station in life. She was the daughter of aforeign knight. Her name, originally, was Catharine de Rouet. She hadbeen, in her early life, a maiden in attendance on the Duchess ofLancaster, the duke's second wife. While she was in his family theduke formed a guilty intimacy with her, which was continued for a longtime. They had three children. The duke provided well for thesechildren, and gave them a good education. After a time, the duke, becoming tired of her, arranged for her to be married to a certainknight named Swinton, and she lived with this knight for some time, until at length he died, and Catharine became a widow. 

The Duchess of Lancaster died also, and then the duke became for thesecond time a widower, and he now conceived the idea of makingCatharine Swinton his wife. His motive for this was not his love for_her_, for that, it is said, had passed away, but his regard for thechildren, who, on the marriage of their mother to the father of thechildren, would be legitimatized, and would thus become entitled tomany legal rights and privileges from which they would otherwise bedebarred. The other ladies of the court, however, particularly thewives of the other dukes--the Duke of Lancaster's brothers--weregreatly incensed when they heard of this proposed marriage, and theydid all they possibly could do to prevent it. All was, however, of noavail, for the Duke of Lancaster was not a man to be easily thwartedin any determination that he might take into his head. So he wasmarried, and the poor despised Catharine was made the first duchess inthe realm, and became entitled to take precedence of all the otherduchesses. 

This the other duchesses could not endure. They could not bear it, they said, and they _would_ not bear it. They declared that they wouldnot go into any place where this woman, as they called her, was to be. As might have been expected, an interminable amount of quarreling andill-will grew out of this affair. 

About the time of this marriage of the duke, the king himself wasmarried a second time, as will be related in the next chapter. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

THE LITTLE QUEEN. 

A. D. 1395-1396

Some account of Isabella of France, the little queen. --Richard opensnegotiations with the King of France. --A grand embassage sent toFrance. --Their reception. --Interview of the embassadors with littleIsabella. --The negotiations go on satisfactorily. --The marriageceremony is performed by proxy. --Richard makes arrangements to goand receive his bride. --Grand preparations for the expedition. --Themeeting on the French frontier. --The pavilions. --Precautions to guardagainst violence or treachery. --Ceremonious interviews. --Grandentertainment. --Richard receives his bride. --The palanquin. --Excitementin London. --Reception of the little queen. --The little queen's mode oflife in England. 

King Richard's second wife was called the little queen, because shewas so young and small when she was married. She was only about nineyears old at that time. The story of this case will show a little howthe marriages of kings and princesses in those days were managed. 

It was not long after the death of good Queen Anne before some ofRichard's courtiers and counselors began to advise him to be marriedagain. He replied, as men always do in such cases, that he did notknow where to find a wife. The choice was indeed not very large, beingrestricted by etiquette to the royal families of England and of theneighboring countries. Several princesses were proposed one afteranother, but Richard did not seem to like any of them. Among otherladies, one of his cousins was proposed to him, a daughter of the Dukeof Gloucester. But Richard said no; she was too nearly related to him. 

At last he took it into his head that he should like to marry littleIsabella, the Princess of France, then about nine years old. The ideaof his being married to Isabella was calculated to surprise people fortwo reasons: first, because Isabella was so small, and, secondly, because the King of France, her father, was Richard's greatest andmost implacable enemy. France and England had been on bad terms witheach other not only during the whole of Richard's reign, but through agreat number of reigns preceding; and now, just before the period whenthis marriage was proposed, the two nations had been engaged in a longand sanguinary war. But Richard said that he was going to make peace, and that this marriage was to be the means of confirming it. 

"But she is altogether too young for your majesty, " said Richard'scounselors. "She is a mere child. "

"True, " said the king; "but that is an objection which will grow lessand less every year. Besides, I am in no haste. I am young enoughmyself to wait till she grows up, and, in the mean time, I can haveher trained and educated to suit me exactly. "

So, after a great deal of debate among the king's counselors and inParliament, it was finally decided to send a grand embassage to Paristo propose to the King of France that he should give his littledaughter Isabella in marriage to Richard, King of England. 

This embassage consisted of an archbishop, two earls, and twentyknights, attended each by two squires, making forty squires in all, and five hundred horsemen. The party proceeded from London to Dover, then crossed to Calais, which was at this time an English possession, and thence proceeded to Paris. 

When they arrived at Paris they entered the city with great pomp andparade, being received with great honor by the French king, and theywere lodged sumptuously in quarters provided for them. 

The embassadors were also very honorably received at court. The kinginvited them to dine with him, and entertained them handsomely, butmany objections were made to the proposed marriage. 

"How can we, " said the French counselors, "give a Princess of Francein marriage to our worst and bitterest enemy?"

To this the embassadors replied that the marriage would establish andconfirm a permanent peace between the two countries. 

Then there was another objection. Isabella was already engaged. Shehad been betrothed some time before to the son of a duke of one ofthe neighboring countries. But the embassadors said that they thoughtthis could be arranged. 

While these negotiations were going on, the embassadors askedpermission to see the princess. This at first the king and queen, Isabella's father and mother, declined. They said that she was onlyeight or nine years old, and that such a child would not know at allhow to conduct at such an interview. 

However, the interview was granted at last. The embassadors wereconducted to an apartment in the palace of the Louvre, where theprincess and her parents were ready to receive them. On coming intothe presence of the child, the chief embassador advanced to her, and, kneeling down before her, he said, "Madam, if it please God, you shall be our lady and queen. "

The princess looked at him attentively while he said this. She was avery beautiful child, with a gentle and thoughtful expression ofcountenance, and large dark eyes, full of meaning. 

She replied to the embassador of her own accord in a clear, childishvoice, "Sir, if it please God and my lord and father that I be Queen ofEngland, I should be well pleased, for I have been told that there Ishall be a great lady. "

Isabella then took the kneeling embassador by the hand and lifted himup. She then led him to her mother. 

The embassadors were extremely pleased with the appearance andbehavior of the princess, and were more than ever desirous ofsucceeding in their mission. But, after some farther negotiations, they received for their answer that the French court were disposed toentertain favorably the proposal which Richard made, but that nothingcould be determined upon the subject at that time. 

"We must wait, " said the king, "until we can see what arrangement canbe made in regard to the princess's present engagement, and then, ifKing Richard will send to us again, next spring we will give a finalanswer. "

So slow are the movements and operations in such a case as this amongthe great, that the embassadors were occupied three weeks in Paris inadvancing the business to this point. They were, however, wellsatisfied with what they had done, and at length took their leave, andreturned to London in high spirits with their success, and reportedthe result to King Richard. He himself was well satisfied too. 

The negotiations went on prosperously during the winter, and in thespring another embassage was sent, larger than the preceding. Theattendants of this embassage were several thousand in number, and theyoccupied a whole street in Paris when they arrived there. By thisembassage the arrangement of the marriage was finally concluded. Theceremony was in fact performed, for Isabella was actually married toRichard, by proxy as it is called, a customary mode of conductingmarriages between a princess and a king. One of the embassadors, agrand officer of state, personated King Richard on this occasion, andthe marriage was celebrated with the greatest possible pomp andsplendor. 

Besides the marriage contracts, there were various other treaties andcovenants to be drawn up, and signed and sealed. All this businessrequired so much time, that this embassage, like the other, remainedthree weeks in Paris, and then they returned home to London, andreported to Richard what they had done. 

Still the affair was not yet fully settled. A great many of the noblesand the people of England very strenuously opposed the match, for theywished the war with France to be continued. This was particularly thecase with Richard's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester. He had greatlydistinguished himself in the war thus far, and he wished it to becontinued; so he did all he could to oppose the consummation of themarriage, and the negotiations and delays were long protracted. Richard, however, persevered, and at length the obstacles were so farremoved, that in the fall of 1396 he began to organize a grandexpedition to go with him to the frontiers of France to receive hisbride. 

Immense preparations were made on both sides for the ceremonial ofthis visit. The meeting was to take place on the frontier, sinceneither sovereign dared to trust himself within the dominions of theother, for fear of treachery. For the same reason, each one deemed itnecessary to take with him a very large armed force. Great stores ofprovisions for the expedition were accordingly prepared, and sent onbeforehand; portions being sent down the Thames from London, and therest being purchased in Flanders and other countries on the Continent, and forwarded to Calais by water. The King of France also, for the useof his party, sent stores from Paris to all the towns in theneighborhood of the frontier. 

Among the ladies of the court on both sides there was universalemulation and excitement in respect to plans and preparations whichthey had to make for the wedding. Great numbers of them were toaccompany the expedition, and nothing was talked of but the dressesand decorations which they should wear, and the parts that they shouldrespectively perform in the grand parade. Hundreds of armorers, andsmiths, and other artisans were employed in repairing and embellishingthe armor of the knights and barons, and in designing and executingnew banners, and new caparisons for the horses, richer and moresplendid than were ever known before. 

There was a great deal of heartburning and ill-will in respect to theDuke of Lancaster's new wife, with whom the other ladies of the courthad declared they would not associate on any terms. The king wasdetermined that she should go on the expedition, and the other ladiesconsequently found themselves obliged either to submit to herpresence, or forego the grandest display which they would ever havethe opportunity to witness as long as they should live. They concludedto submit, though they did it with great reluctance and with a veryill grace. 

At length every thing was ready, and the expedition, leaving London, journeyed to Dover, and then crossed the Straits to Calais. A longtime was then consumed in negotiations in respect to the peace; for, although Richard himself was willing to make peace on almost anyterms, so that he might obtain his little bride, his uncles and theother leading nobles made great difficulties, and it was a long timebefore the treaties could be arranged. At length, however, every thingwas settled, and the preparations were made for delivering to Richardhis bride. 

Two magnificent pavilions were erected near the frontier, one on theFrench and the other on the English side. These pavilions were for theuse of the two monarchs respectively, and of their lords and nobles. Then, in the centre, between these, and, of course, exactly upon thefrontier, a third and more open pavilion was set up. In this centralpavilion the two kings were to have their first meeting. For either ofthe kings to have entered first into the dominions of the other wouldhave been, in some sense, an acknowledgment of inferiority on hispart. So it was contrived that neither should first visit the other, but that they should advance together, each from his own pavilion, andmeet in the central one, after which they could visit each other as itmight be convenient. The first interview therefore took place in thecentre pavilion. It was necessary, however, to take some strongprecautions against treachery. Accordingly, before the meeting, anoath was administered to both monarchs, by which each one solemnlyasseverated that he was acting in good faith in this transaction, andthat he had no secret reservation or treachery in his heart, andpledged his sacred honor that the other should suffer no violence, damage, molestation, arrest, constraint, or any other inconveniencewhatever during the interview. 

As an additional precaution, a strong force, consisting of fourhundred knights on each side, all fully armed, were drawn up onopposite sides of the central pavilion, the English troops on theEnglish side, and the French on the French side. [I] These troops werearranged in such a manner that the King of England should pass betweenthe ranks of the English knights in going to the pavilion, and theFrench king between the French knights. 

[Footnote I: Besides these knights, each of the kings had a strongforce stationed in reserve, at a little distance from their respectivepavilions, to be ready in case of any difficulty. ]

Things being thus arranged, at the appointed hour the two kings setout together from their own pavilions, and walked, accompanied eachby a number of dukes and nobles of high rank, to the centralpavilion. Here the kings, both being uncovered, approached each other. They saluted each other in a very friendly manner, and held a briefconversation together. Some of the accounts say that the French king, then taking the English king by the hand, led him to the French tent, the French dukes who had accompanied him following with the Englishdukes who had accompanied Richard, and that there the whole partypartook of refreshment. 

However this may be, the first interview was one mainly of ceremony. Afterward there were other interviews in the different pavilions. These alternating visits were continued for several days, until atlength the time was appointed for a final meeting, at which the littlequeen was to be delivered into her husband's hands. 

This final grand ceremony took place in the French pavilion. The orderof proceeding was as follows. First there was a grand entertainment. The table was splendidly laid out, and there was a sideboard loadedwith costly plate. At the table the kings were waited upon by dukes. During the dinner, Richard talked with the King of France about hiswife, and about the peace which was now so happily confirmed andestablished between the two countries. 

After dinner the cloth was removed and the tables were taken away. When the pavilion was cleared a door was opened, and a party of ladiesof the French court, headed by the queen, came in, conducting thelittle princess. As soon as she had entered, the King of France tookher by the hand and led her to Richard. Richard received her with awarm welcome, and, lifting her up in his arms, kissed her. He told theKing of France that he was fully sensible of the value of such a gift, and that he received it as a pledge of perpetual amity and peacebetween the two countries. He also, as had been previously agreedupon, solemnly renounced all claim to the throne of France on accountof Isabella or her descendants, forever. 

He then immediately committed the princess to the hands of the Duchessof Lancaster, and the other ladies, and they at once conveyed her tothe door of the tent. Here there was a sort of palanquin, magnificently made and adorned, waiting to receive her. The princesswas put into this palanquin, and immediately set out for Calais. Richard and the immense train of knights and nobles followed, andthus, at a very rapid pace, the whole party returned to Calais. 

A few days after this the marriage ceremony was performed anew betweenRichard and Isabella, Richard himself being personally present thistime. Great was the parade and great the rejoicing on this occasion. After the marriage, the little queen was again put under the charge ofthe Duchess of Lancaster and the other English ladies who had beenappointed to receive her. 

In the mean time, all London was becoming every day more and moreexcited in expectation of the arrival of the bridal party there. Greatpreparations were made for receiving them. At length, about afortnight after taking leave of her father, Isabella arrived inLondon. She spent the first night at the Tower, and on the followingday passed through London to Westminster in a grand procession. Animmense concourse of people assembled on the occasion. Indeed, suchwas the eagerness of the people to see the queen on her arrival inLondon, that there were nine persons crushed to death by the crowd onLondon Bridge when she was passing over it. 

The queen took up her residence at Windsor Castle, where she was underthe charge of the Duchess of Lancaster and other ladies, who were tosuperintend her education. King Richard used to come and visit hervery often, and on such occasions she was excused from her studies, and so she was always glad to see him; besides, he used to talk withher and play with her in a very friendly and affectionate manner. Hewas now about thirty years old, and she was ten. He, however, likedher very much, for she was very beautiful, and very amiable andaffectionate in her manners. She liked to have Richard come and seeher too, for his visits not only released her for the time from herstudies, but he was very gentle and kind to her, and he used to playto her on musical instruments, and sing to her, and amuse her invarious other ways. She admired, moreover, the splendor of his dress, for he always came in very magnificent apparel. 

In a word, Richard and his little queen, notwithstanding the disparityof their years, were both very well pleased with the match which theyhad made. Richard was proud of the youth and beauty of his wife, andIsabella was proud of the greatness, power, and glory of her husband. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

RICHARD'S DEPOSITION AND DEATH. 

A. D. 1397-1399

Difficulties of Richard's position. --His rivals. --Plotdiscovered. --Richard arrests his uncle Gloucester. --Extraordinarycircumstances of the arrest. --Richard becomes extremelyunpopular. --His excesses. --Remorse. --His fear of HenryBolingbroke. --Coventry. --Preparation for the combat. --The combatarrested. --Henry is banished from England. --Case of Lady DeCourcy. --Her dismissal from office. --Richard seizes his cousinHenry's estates. --Ireland. --Richard's farewell to the littlequeen. --A rebellion. --Misfortunes of the king. --ConwayCastle. --The king is made prisoner. --His interview with Henryat the castle in Wales. --The king is conveyed a prisoner toLondon. --Parliament convened. --Charges preferred against theking. --Interview between Richard and Henry in the Tower. --Rageof Richard. --Portrait of Henry. --The king is compelled to abdicatethe crown. --Henry desires that Richard should be killed. --Assassinationof Richard. --Disposal of the body. --The little queen. --Her return toFrance. --Sequel of the story of the little queen. 

It was not long after Richard's marriage to the little queen beforethe troubles and difficulties in which his government was involvedincreased in a very alarming degree. The feuds among his uncles, andbetween his uncles and himself, increased in frequency and bitterness, and many plots and counterplots were formed in respect to thesuccession; for Isabella being so young, it was very doubtful whethershe would grow up and have children, and, unless she did so, some oneor other of Richard's cousins would be heir to the crown. I havespoken of his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke as the principal of theseclaimants. There was, however, another one, Roger, the Earl of March. Roger was the grandson of Richard's uncle Lionel, who had died longbefore. The Duke of Gloucester, who had been so bitterly opposed toRichard's marriage with Isabella, and had, as it seemed, now becomehis implacable enemy, conceived the plan of deposing Richard andmaking Roger king. Isabella, if this plan had been carried intoeffect, was to have been shut up in a prison for all the rest of herdays. There were several great nobles joined with the Duke ofGloucester in this conspiracy. 

The plot was betrayed to Richard by some of the confederates. Richardimmediately determined to arrest his uncle and bring him to trial. Itwas necessary, however, to do this secretly, before any of theconspirators should be put upon their guard. So he set off one nightfrom his palace in Westminster, with a considerable company of armedmen, to go to the duke's palace, which was at some distance fromLondon, planning his journey so as to arrive there very early in themorning. The people of London, when they saw the king passing at thatlate hour, wondered where he was going. 

He arrived very early the next morning at the duke's castle. He sentsome of his men forward into the court of the castle to ask if theduke were at home. The servants said that he was at home, but he wasnot yet up. So the messengers sent up to him in his bedchamber toinform him that the king was below, and to ask him to come down andreceive him. Gloucester accordingly came down. He was much surprised, but he knew that it would be very unwise for him to show anysuspicion, and so, after welcoming the king, he asked what was theobject of so early a visit. The king assumed a gay and unconcernedair, as if he were out upon some party of pleasure, and said he wishedthe duke to go away with him a short distance. So the duke dressedhimself and mounted his horse, the king, in the mean time, talking ina merry way with the ladies of the castle who had come down into thecourt to receive him. When they were ready the whole party rode out ofthe court, and then the king, suddenly changing his tone, ordered hismen to arrest the duke and take him away. 

The duke was never again seen or heard of in England, and for a longtime it was not known what had become of him. It was, however, at lastsaid, and generally believed, that he was put on board a ship, andsent secretly to Calais, and shut up in a castle there, and was, aftera time, strangled by means of feather beds, or, as others say, by wettowels put over his face, in obedience to orders sent to the castle byRichard. Several other great noblemen, whom Richard supposed to beconfederates with Gloucester, were arrested by similar stratagems. Twoor three of the most powerful of them were brought to a trial beforejudges in Richard's interest, and, being condemned, were beheaded. Itis supposed that Richard did not dare to bring Gloucester himself totrial, on account of the great popularity and vast influence which heenjoyed among the people of England. 

Richard was very much pleased with the success of his measures forthus putting the most formidable of his enemies out of the way, andnot long after this his cousin Roger died, so that Richard washenceforth relieved of all special apprehension on his account. Butthe country was extremely dissatisfied. The Duke of Gloucester hadbeen very much respected and beloved by the nation. Richard was hated. His government was tyrannical. His style of living was so extravagantthat his expenses were enormous, and the people were taxed beyondendurance to raise the money required. While, however, he thus sparedno expense to secure his own personal aggrandizement and glory, it wasgenerally believed that he cared little for the substantial interestsof the country, but was ready to sacrifice them at any time to promotehis own selfish ends. 

In the mean time, having killed the principal leaders opposed to him, for a time he had every thing his own way. He obtained the control ofParliament, and caused the most unjust and iniquitous laws to bepassed, the object of which was to supply him more and more fullywith money, and to increase still more his own personal power. He wenton in this way until the country was almost ripe for rebellion. 

Still, with all his wealth and splendor, Richard was not happy. He washarassed by perpetual suspicions and anxieties, and his consciencetortured him with reproaches for the executions which he had procuredof his uncle Gloucester and the other noblemen, particularly the Earlof Arundel, one of the most powerful and wealthy nobles of England. Heused to awake from his sleep at night in horror, crying out that theblood of the earl was all over his bed. 

He was afraid continually of his cousin Henry, who was now in thedirect line of succession to the crown, and whom he imagined to beconspiring against him. He wished very much to find some means ofremoving him out of the way. An opportunity at length presenteditself. There was a quarrel between Henry and a certain nobleman namedNorfolk. Each accused the other of treasonable designs. There was along difficulty about it, and several plans were formed for a trial ofthe case. At last it was determined that there should be a trial bysingle combat between the parties, to determine the question which ofthem was the true man. 

The town of Coventry, which is in the central part of England, wasappointed for this combat. The lists were prepared, a pavilion for theuse of the king and those who were to act as judges was erected, andan immense concourse of spectators assembled to witness the contest. All the preliminary ceremonies were performed, as usual in those daysin personal combats of this character, except that in this case thecombatants were to fight on horseback. They came into the lists withhorses magnificently caparisoned. Norfolk's horse was covered withcrimson velvet, and the trappings of Henry's were equally splendid. When all was ready, the signal was given, and the battle commenced. After the combatants had made a few passes at each other withouteffect, the king made a signal, and the heralds cried out, Ho! Ho!which was an order for them to stop. The king then directed that theirarms should be taken from them, and that they should dismount, andtake their places in certain chairs which had been provided for themwithin the lists. These chairs were very gorgeous in style andworkmanship, being covered with velvet, and elegantly embroidered. 

The assembly waited a long time while the king and those with him helda consultation. At length the king announced that the combat was toproceed no farther, but that both parties were deemed guilty, and thatthey were both to be banished from the realm. The term of Henry'sbanishment was ten years; Norfolk's was for life. 

The country was greatly incensed at this decision. There was no proofwhatever that Henry had done any thing wrong. Henry, however, submitted to the king's decree, apparently without murmuring, and tookhis departure. As he journeyed toward Dover, where he was to embark, the people flocked around him at all the towns and villages that hepassed through, and mourned his departure; and when finally heembarked at Dover and went away, they said that the only shield, defense, and comfort of the commonwealth was gone. 

Henry went to Paris, and there told his story to the King of France. The king took his part very decidedly. He received him in a verycordial and friendly manner, and condemned the course which Richardhad pursued. 

Another circumstance occurred to alienate the King of France stillmore from Richard. There was a certain French lady, named De Courcy, who had come from France with the little queen, and had since occupieda high position in the queen's household. She was Isabella's governessand principal lady of honor. This lady, it seemed, lived in quite anexpensive style, and by her influence and management greatly increasedthe expense of the queen's establishment, which was, of course, entirely independent of that of the king. This Lady De Courcy kepteighteen horses for her own personal use, and maintained a large trainof attendants to accompany her in state whenever she appeared inpublic. She had two or three goldsmiths and jewelers, and two or threefurriers, and a proportionate number of other artisans all the time atwork, making her dresses and decorations. Richard, under pretense thathe could not afford all this, dismissed the Lady De Courcy from heroffice, and sent her home to France. Of course she was very indignantat this treatment, and she set out on her return home, prepared togive the King of France a very unfavorable account of his son-in-law. It was some time after this, however, before she arrived at Paris. 

About three months after Henry of Bolingbroke was banished from therealm, his father, the Duke of Lancaster, died. He left immenseestates, which of right should have descended to his son. Richard hadgiven Henry leave to appoint an attorney to act as his agent duringhis banishment, and take care of his property; but, instead ofallowing this attorney to take possession of these estates, and holdthem for Henry until he should return, the king confiscated them, andseized them himself. He also, at the same time, revoked the powerswhich he had granted to the attorney. This transaction awakened onegeneral burst of indignation from one end of England to the other, andgreatly increased the hatred which the people bore to the king, andthe favor with which they were disposed to regard Henry. 

It must be admitted, in justice to Richard, that his mind was greatlyharassed at this time with the troubles and difficulties thatsurrounded him, and with his want of money. To complete hismisfortunes, a rebellion broke out in Ireland. He felt compelled to gohimself and quell it. So he collected all the money that he couldobtain, and raised an army and equipped a fleet to go across the IrishSea. He left his uncle, the Duke of York, regent during his absence. 

Before setting out for Ireland, the king went to Windsor to bid thelittle queen good-by. He took his leave of her in a church atWindsor, where she accompanied him to mass. On leaving the churchafter service, he partook of wine and refreshments with her at thedoor, and then lifting her up in his arms, he kissed her many times, saying, "Adieu, madame. Adieu till we meet again. "

As soon as Richard was gone, a great number of the leading andinfluential people began to form plans to keep him from coming backagain, or at least to prevent his ever again ruling over the realm. Henry, who was now in Paris, and who, since his father was dead, wasnow himself the Duke of Lancaster, began to receive letters from manypersons urging him to come to England, and promising him their supportin dispossessing Richard of the throne. 

Henry determined at length to comply with these proposals. He foundmany persons in France to encourage him, and some to join him. Withthese persons, not more, it is said, than sixty in all, he set sailfrom the coast of France, and, passing across the Channel, approachedthe coast of England. He touched at several places, to ascertain whatwas the feeling of the country toward him. At length he was encouragedto land. The people received him joyfully, and every body flocked tohis standard. 

The Duke of York, whom Richard had left as regent, immediately calleda council of Richard's friends to consider what it was best to do. Onconsultation and inquiry, they found that the country would notsupport them in any plan for resisting Henry. So they abandonedRichard's cause at once in despair, and fled in various directions, intent only on saving their own lives. 

The Duke of York went to Windsor Castle, took the queen and herattendants, and conveyed them up the river to the Castle ofWallingford, where he thought they would be more safe. 

In the mean time, the king's expedition to Ireland resulteddisastrously, and he returned to England. To his utter dismay, helearned, on his arrival, that Henry had landed in England, and wasadvancing toward London in a triumphant manner. He had no sufficientforce under his command to enable him to go and meet his cousin withany hope of success. The only question was how he could save himselffrom Henry's vengeance. He dismissed the troops that remained withhim, and then, with a very few attendants to accompany him, he soughtrefuge for a while among the castles in Wales, where he was reduced togreat destitution and distress, being forced sometimes to sleep onstraw. At length he went to Conway, which is a town near the northernconfines of Wales, and shut himself up in the castle there--thatfamous Conway Castle, the ruins of which are so much visited andadmired by the tourists of the present day. 

In the mean time, Henry, although he had marched triumphantly throughEngland at the head of a large, though irregular force, had notproclaimed himself king, or taken any other open step inconsistentwith his allegiance to Richard. But now, when he heard that Richardwas in Wales, he went thither himself at the head of quite a largearmy which he had raised in London. He stopped at a town in NorthWales called Flint, and, taking his lodgings there, he sent forward anearl as his messenger to Conway Castle to treat with Richard. Theearl, on being introduced into Richard's presence, said that hiscousin was at Flint Castle, and wished that he would come there toconfer with him on matters of great moment. Richard did not know whatto do. He soon reflected, however, that he was completely in Henry'spower, and that he might as well make a virtue of necessity, andsubmit with a good grace; so he said he would accompany the earl toFlint Castle. 

They had not gone far on the road before a large number of armed menappeared at the road side, in a narrow place between the mountains andthe sea, where they had been lying in ambush. These men were under theearl's command. Little was said, but Richard saw that he was aprisoner. 

On his arrival at Flint Castle, [J] Richard had an interview withHenry. Henry, when he came into the king's presence, treated him withall due reverence, as if he still acknowledged him as his sovereign. He kneeled repeatedly as he advanced, until at length the king tookhim by the hand and raised him up, saying, at the same time, [Footnote J: There is some discrepancy in the accounts in respect tothe castle where this interview was had, but this is not material. ]

"Dear cousin, you are welcome. "

Henry replied, "My sovereign lord and king, the cause of my coming at this time is tohave again the restitution of my person, my lands, and my heritage, through your majesty's gracious permission. "

The king replied, "Dear cousin, I am ready to accomplish your will, so that you mayenjoy all that is yours without exception. "

After some farther insincere and hypocritical conversation of thissort, breakfast was served. After breakfast, Henry conducted the kingto a window on the wall, from which, on looking over the plain, a vastnumber of armed men, who had come from London with Henry, were to beseen. Richard asked who those men were. Henry replied that they werepeople of London. 

"And what do they want?" asked Richard. 

"They want me to take _you_, " said Henry, "and carry you prisoner tothe Tower; and there will be no pacifying them unless you go with me. "

Richard saw at once that it was useless to make any resistance, so hesubmitted himself entirely to such arrangements as Henry might make. Henry accordingly set out with him on the journey to London, ostensibly escorting him as a king, but really conveying him as aprisoner. On the journey, the fallen monarch suffered many marks ofneglect and indignity, but he knew that he was wholly in the power ofhis enemies, and that it was useless to complain; indeed, his spiritwas completely broken, and he had no heart to make even a struggle. Onreaching London, he was conducted to the Tower. He was lodged there ashe had often been lodged before, only now the guards which surroundedhim were under the command of his enemies, and were placed there toprevent his escape, instead of to protect him from danger. 

Henry immediately convened a Parliament, issuing the writs, however, in the king's name. This was necessary, to make the Parliamenttechnically legal. When the Parliament met, articles of accusationwere formally brought against Richard. These articles werethirty-three in number. They recapitulated all the political crimesand offenses which Richard had committed during his life, hiscruelties and oppressions, his wastefulness, his maladministration ofpublic affairs, the illegal and unjust sentences of banishment or ofdeath which he had pronounced upon peers of the realm, and variousother high crimes and misdemeanors. 

While these measures were pending, Richard's mind was in a state ofdreadful suspense and agitation. Sometimes he sank into the greatestdepths of despondency and gloom, and sometimes he raved like a madman, walking to and fro in his apartment in his phrensy, vowing vengeanceon his enemies. 

He had interviews from time to time with Henry and the other nobles. At one time Henry went with the Duke of York and others to the Tower, and sent a messenger to the king, requesting him to come to theapartment where they were, as they wished to see him. 

"Tell Henry of Lancaster, " said the king, "that I shall do no suchthing. If he wishes to see me, let him come to me. "

So they came to the king's apartment. Henry took off his cap as hecame in, and saluted the king respectfully. The Duke of York was withHenry at this time. Richard was very angry with the Duke of York, whomhe had left regent of England when he went away, but who had made noresistance to Henry's invasion. So, as soon as he saw him, he brokeforth in a perfect phrensy of vituperation and rage against him, andagainst his son, who was also present. This produced a violentaltercation between them and the king, in which one of them told theking that he lied, and threw down his bonnet before him in token ofdefiance. Richard then turned to Henry, and demanded, in a voice offury, why he was placed thus in confinement, under a guard of armedmen. 

"Am I your servant, " he demanded, "or am I your king? And what do youintend to do with me?"

"You are my king and lord, " replied Henry, calmly, "but the Parliamenthave determined that you are to be kept in confinement for thepresent, until they can decide in respect to the charges laid againstyou. "

Here the king uttered a dreadful imprecation, expressive of rage anddespair. 

[Illustration: HENRY OF BOLINGBROKE--KING HENRY IV. ]

He then demanded that they should let him have his wife. But Henryreplied that the council had forbidden that he should see the queen. This exasperated the king more than ever. He walked to and fro acrossthe apartment, wringing his hands, and uttering wild and incoherentexpressions of helpless rage. 

[Illustration: PONTEFRACT CASTLE, KING RICHARD'S PRISON. ]

The end of it was that Richard was forced to abdicate the crown. Hesoon saw that it was only by so doing that he could hope to save hislife. An assembly was convened, and he formally delivered up hiscrown, and renounced all claim to it forever. He also gave up theglobe and sceptre, the emblems of sovereignty, with which he had beeninvested at his coronation. In addition to this ceremony, a writtendeed of abdication had been drawn up, and this deed was now signed bythe king with all the necessary formalities. Proclamation having beenmade of Richard's abdication, Henry came forward and claimed the crownas Richard's rightful successor, and he was at once proclaimed king, and conducted to the throne. Richard was conducted back to the Tower, and soon afterward was conveyed, by Henry's order, to a more sureplace of confinement--Pontefract Castle, and here was shut up a closeprisoner. 

Things remained in this state a short time, and then a rumor arosethat a conspiracy was formed by Richard's friends to murder Henry, andrestore Richard to the throne. A spiked instrument was said to havebeen found in Henry's bed, put there by some of the conspirators, witha view of destroying him when he lay down. Whether this story of theconspiracy was false or true, one thing is certain, that the existenceof Richard endangered greatly the continuance and security of Henry'spower. Henry and his counselors were well aware of this; and one day, when they had been conversing on the subject of this danger, Henrysaid, "Have I no faithful friend who will deliver me from this man, whoselife is death to me, and whose death would be my life?"

Very soon after this, it was known that Richard was dead. Theuniversal belief was that he was murdered. There were various rumorsin respect to the manner in which the deed was perpetrated. Theaccount most precise and positive states that a man named Exton, whohad heard the remark of the king, repaired at once to the castle ofPontefract, accompanied by eight desperate men, all well armed, andgained admission to Richard's room while he was at table. Richard, seeing his danger, sprang up, and attempted to defend himself. Hewrenched a weapon out of the hands of one of his assailants, andfought with it so furiously that he cut down four of the ruffiansbefore he was overpowered. He was felled to the floor at last by ablow which Exton struck him upon his head, Exton having sprung up uponthe chair which Richard had sat in, and thus obtained an advantage byhis high position. 

It was necessary to make the fact of Richard's death very certain, andso, soon afterward, the body was placed upon a hearse, and drawn byfour black horses to London. Here it was left in a public place forsome time, to be viewed by all who desired to view it. There were noless than _twenty thousand_ persons that availed themselves of theopportunity of satisfying themselves, by the evidence of their senses, that the hated Richard was no more. 

 * * * * *

The little queen all this time had been confined in another castle. She was now about twelve years old. Her father, when he heard of themisfortunes which had befallen her husband, and of the forlorn andhelpless condition in which she was placed, was so distressed that hebecame insane. The other members of the family sent to England todemand that she should be restored to them, but Henry refused thisrequest. He wished to make her the wife of his son, who was now thePrince of Wales, but Isabella would not listen to any such proposals. Then Henry wished that she should remain in England as thequeen-dowager, and he promised that she should be treated with thegreatest respect and consideration as long as she lived; but neithershe herself nor her friends in France would consent to this. Atlength, after long delay, and many protracted negotiations, it wasdecided that she should return home. 

The little queen, on her return to France, embarked from Dover. Therewere five vessels appointed to receive her and her suite. There werein attendance upon her two ladies of the royal family, who had thecharge of her person, her governess, several maids of honor, and twoFrench chambermaids, whose names were Semonette and Marianne. Therewere many other persons besides. 

Isabella reached the French frontier at a town between Calais andBoulogne, and there was delivered, with much form and ceremony, to adeputation of French authorities sent forward to receive her. 

She lived in France after this for several years, mourning her husbandall the time with faithful and unchanging affection. At length amarriage was arranged for her with her cousin, a French prince. Shewas married when she was nineteen years old. She was very averse tothis marriage when it was first proposed to her, and could only speakof it with tears; but, under all the circumstances of the case, shethought that she was not at liberty to decline it, and after she wasmarried she loved her husband very sincerely, and made a very devotedand faithful wife. Three years after her marriage she had a son, and afew hours after the birth of the child she suddenly died. Her husbandwas almost distracted when he heard that his beloved wife was dead. His grief seemed, for a time, perfectly uncontrollable; but when theybrought to him his infant child, it seemed in some measure to comforthim. 

 THE END. 

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:

1. Minor changes have been made to correct typesetters' errors, and toensure consistent spelling and punctuation in this etext; otherwise, every effort has been made to remain true to the original book. 

2. The sidenotes used in this text were originally published asbanners in the page headers, and have been collected at the beginningof each chapter for the reader's convenience. 

3. The original Table of Contents mistakenly referred to Chapter V. Asbeginning on page 146; this has been corrected to show that that chapterbegins on page 140. 

4. Text in two places, in the original book, were typeset in an oldstyle font; these two paragraphs have been rendered in this extext witha = at the beginning and end of the paragraph.