Transcriber’s Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of correctionsis found at the end of the text. Inconsistencies in spelling andhyphenation have been maintained. A list of these words is found at theend of the text. Text surrounded with = was printed in a black-letter typeface in theoriginal. [Illustration: THE GREAT HORSE. _From an Allegorical Engraving by Albert Dürer. _] RAMBLES OF AN ARCHÆOLOGIST AMONG OLD BOOKS AND IN OLD PLACES: BEING =Papers on Art, = IN RELATION TO ARCHÆOLOGY, PAINTING, ART-DECORATION, AND ART-MANUFACTURE. BY FREDERICK WILLIAM FAIRHOLT, F. S. A. , AUTHOR OF "DICTIONARY OF TERMS IN ART, " ETC. =Illustrated with Two Hundred and Fifty-nine Wood Engravings. = LONDON: VIRTUE AND CO. , 26, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1871. EDITORIAL NOTE. The following Papers originally appeared in the _Art-Journal_, for whichthey were specially written. They are from the pen of that painstakingand accurate archæologist, the late F. W. FAIRHOLT, F. S. A. Theillustrations also were engraved from original sketches by the Author. It has been suggested that the results of so much labour and researchshould be still further utilised; and that the merit and value of theseEssays entitle them to a more lasting form than is afforded by the pagesof a magazine. The Editor confidently believes that the popular style inwhich these articles are written, and the fund of anecdote and curiousinformation they contain, will render them acceptable to a large numberof general readers. A second series of Art-papers, by the same Author, is in the press, andwill shortly be published, under the title of “Homes, Haunts, and Worksof Rubens, Vandyke, Rembrandt, and Cuyp; and of the DutchGenre-Painters. ” _January, 1871. _ CONTENTS. RAMBLES OF AN ARCHÆOLOGIST AMONG OLD BOOKS AND IN OLD PLACES. Ancient art--Mediæval art--The Renaissance--Heraldry--Enamelling--Mosaic--Glass-painting--Gothic metal work--Raffaelle ware--Woodpanelling--Decorative furniture--Book illumination--Engraved bookornaments--Metal-workers--Ancient jewellery--Decorative art in thesixteenth century--The Renaissance style--Italian art--The Gothic 1-44 GROTESQUE DESIGN, AS EXHIBITED IN ORNAMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL ART. Origin of the term _grotesque_--Egyptian boxes and spoons--Roman knivesand lamps--Mediæval grotesque--Misereres, bosses, and capitals--Domesticutensils--The _Ars Memorandi_--Decorative plate--The Italian, German, and French goldsmiths--Book illustrations--Grotesque pottery 45-70 FACTS ABOUT FINGER-RINGS. _Antique rings_:--Egyptian rings--Legend concerning the ring ofPolycrates--Assyrian, Etruscan, and Greek rings--Roman rings--Inscriptions and devices--Key rings--Gaelic, Celtic, and Saxon rings. _Mediæval rings_:--Episcopal rings--Thumb rings--Religiousrings--Charm rings--The crapaudine, or toad-stone--The “Kings ofCologne”--Mottoes, or “reasons”--“Tower” rings--Martin Luther’swedding-ring. _Modern rings_:--Signet rings--Story connected with thering of the Earl of Essex--Shakespere’s ring--“Gimmal” rings--Wedding-rings and their “poesies”--Poison rings--Modern versionsof the Eastern tale of “The Fish and the Ring”--Memorial and relicrings--Death’s-head rings--“Giardinetti” rings--Indian and Moorishrings--“Harlequin-rings”--“Regard-rings”--“Fisherman’s ring” of thePope 71-157 ANCIENT BROOCHES AND DRESS FASTENINGS. Greek and Roman fibulæ--Roman enamelled brooches--Bow or harp-shapedfibulæ--Bust of the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus--Early grotesquebrooches--Circular fibulæ--Anglo-Saxon pins--Irish and Scotch broochesand pins 159-183 ALBERT DÜRER: HIS WORKS, HIS COMPATRIOTS, AND HIS TIMES. Nürnberg--Birth of Dürer--His early youth--Michael Wohlgemuth--Dürer’searly works--He settles at Nürnberg--His house--Martin Kötzel--NürnbergCastle--Dürer’s paintings, woodcuts, and engravings--MelchiorPfintzing--Pirkheimer--Peter Vischer--Shrine of St. Sebald--AdamKrafft--Veit Stoss--Hans Sachs, “the cobbler-bard”--AlbertKügler--Death of Dürer--The Cemetery of St. John, Nürnberg--Graveof Dürer 185-259 [Illustration] RAMBLES OF AN ARCHÆOLOGIST AMONG OLD BOOKS AND IN OLD PLACES. RAMBLES OF AN ARCHÆOLOGIST AMONG OLD BOOKS AND IN OLD PLACES. CHAPTER I. Long after the extinction of the practical art-power evolved from themaster-minds of Greece and Rome, though rudely shattered by the northerntribes, it failed not to enforce from them an admission of its grandeur. Loving, as all rude nations do, so much of art as goes to the adornmentof life, they also felt that there was a still higher aim in theenlarged spirit of classic invention. It is recorded that one of theseancient chieftains gazed thoughtfully in Rome upon the noble statuary ofthe fallen race, and declared it the work of men superior to any thenremaining, and that all the creations of such lost power should becarefully preserved. The quaint imaginings of uncivilisedart-workmanship bore the impress of a strong but ruder nature;elaboration took the place of elegance, magnificence that of grandeur. Slowly, as centuries evolved, the art-student came back to the purity ofantique taste; but the process was a tardy one, each era preferring theimpress of its own ideas: and though the grotesque contortions ofmediæval statuary be occasionally modified by the influence of betterart on the Gothic mind, it was not till the revival of the study ofclassic literature, in the fifteenth century, that men began to inquireinto the art of the past ages, and endeavoured to obtain somewhat of itssacred fire for the use of their own time. The study was rewarded, andthe style popularly known as that of the _Renaissance_ rapidly spreadits influence over the world of art, sanctioned by the favour of suchmaster-minds as Raphael, and the great men of his era. [Illustration: Fig. 1. ] It was not, however, to be expected that any style should beresuscitated in all its purity without the admixture of some peculiarityemanating from the art which adopted it, and which was more completelythe mode of the era. The Renaissance is, therefore, a Gothicclassicality, engrafting classic form and freedom on the decorativequaintnesses of the middle ages. Fig. 1 is as pertinent a specimen ascould be obtained of this characteristic: the Greek volute and the Romanfoliage are made to combine with the hideous inventions of monkery, thegrotesque heads that are exhibited on the most sacred edifices, andwhich are simply the stone records of the strife and rivalry thatprevailed between monks and friars up to the date of the Reformation, and are therefore of great value to the student of ecclesiology andecclesiastical history. In this instance they seem to typify death andhell, over whom the Saviour was victorious by his mortal agony: theemblems of which occupy the central shield, and tell with much simpleforce the story of man’s redemption. Mediæval art has not unfrequentlythe merit of much condensation of thought, always particularly visiblein its choice of types by which to express in a simple form a precisereligious idea, at once appealing to the mind of the spectator, andbringing out a train of thought singularly diffuse when its slightorigin is considered. [Illustration: Fig. 2. ] The easy applicability of the revived art to the taste for fancifuldisplay which characterised the fifteenth century, led to its universaladoption in decoration; but the wilder imaginings of the living artistalways tampered with the grand features of the design. The panel, Fig. 2, is an instance. The griffins have lost their classic character, andhave assumed the Gothic; the foliations are also subjected to the sameprocess. The design is, however, on the whole, an excellent example ofthe mode in which the style appeared as a decoration in the houses ofthe nobility, whose love of heraldic display was indulged by the woodcarver in panelled rooms rich with similar compartments. [Illustration: Fig. 3. ] Heraldry, with all its adjuncts, had become so great a passion with thenoble, that the invention of the artist and student was taxed for badgesand mottoes by noble families. The custom flourished most in Italy, where the _impresa_ of a noble house spoke to the eye at once, whetherit was found on a sword-hilt or over a church-door. We give as aninstance, in Fig. 3, that adopted by the bold Dukes of Burgundy, sovereigns in their own dominions, and exciting much terror of rivalryin the minds of the kings of France themselves. Their _badge_, or_impresa_, was indicative of their rude power; a couple of knottedclubs, saltier-wise, help to support a somewhat conventional figure ofthe steel used for striking the flint to produce fire; the wholesurmounted by the crown, and intended to indicate by analogousreflection the vigour of the ducal house. As a bold defiance, a rivalhouse adopted the _rabot_, or carpenter’s plane, by which they indicatedtheir determination to smooth by force the formidable knots from theclubs of the proud rulers of Burgundy. [Illustration: Fig. 4. ] [Illustration: Fig. 5. ] The art of enamelling, which had reached a high degree of perfection inthe Roman era, was refined upon in the middle ages, and ultimately itscharacter was so much altered thereby that it ended in rivallingpainting, rather than retaining its own particular features, as all artsshould do. It may be fairly considered that originally it was usedsimply to enrich, by vitrified colour, articles of use and ornament. Metal was incised, and the ornamental spaces thus obtained filled withone tint of enamel colour, each compartment having its own. By thismeans very brilliant effects were often produced, all the more strikingfrom the pure strength of their simplicity. It was not till the twelfthcentury that an attempt at floating colours together was made, and thisled ultimately to a pictorial treatment of enamel which destroyed itstruest character. The very old form was, however, practised in thelatest days of its use; and our engraving of the very beautifulknife-handle designed by Virgil Solis at the end of the sixteenthcentury (Figs. 4 and 5), was intended to be filled with a dark blueenamel, in the parts here represented in black, while the interstices ofthe cross-shaped ornaments above would receive some lighter tint ofwarmer hue. The birds and foliage would be carefully engraved, the linesof shadow filled with a permanent black, thus assuring a generalbrilliancy of effect. Such knives were by no means an uncommondecoration of the table at the period when this was designed: it is nowa branch of art utilised until all trace of design has gone from it; forwe cannot accept the slight scroll work and contour of a modern silverknife-handle as a piece of art-workmanship, when we remember thebeautiful objects of the kind produced in the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, gorgeous in design and colour, and occasionally enriched byjewels or amber. [Illustration: Fig. 6. ] [Illustration: Fig. 7. ] There is one class of ancient manufacturing art which has been revivedfor the use of the modern world with considerable success. We allude tothe Roman works in mosaic, which have furnished designs for ourencaustic tile-manufacturers and our floor-cloth painters. Quaint andpeculiar in its necessary features, it is singularly well adapted forartisans in both materials. There is also a great variety in theornamental details of ancient pavements, at home and abroad; thegeometric forms being at times very peculiar, as in the specimen we givein the previous page (Fig. 6), which has been selected from onediscovered at Aldborough, in Yorkshire (the _Isurium Brigantum_ of theRomans), a lonely spot, containing many traces of its ancientimportance, and which has furnished an abundance of relics for thenotice of the antiquary from the days of Camden, who describes it withthat happy brevity that accompanies full knowledge. The pavement weengrave may be seen in full coloured detail in Mr. Ecroyd Smith’s volumeon _Isurium_; the borders placed on each side are portions of otherpavements from the same place, selected as showing the commonest and themost unusual patterns. The variety and beauty of design and colour inencaustic tiles adopted by mediævalists, may be slightly illustrated bythe quaint specimen of foliation copied in Fig. 7. The conjunction offour such tiles produces great variety in pattern, and excellentcontrasts of colour. [Illustration: Figs. 8 and 9. ] Geometric form, in all its endless variety, was particularly studied inthe Middle Ages, and decorative enrichments of all kind subjected to itsruling control. We add two specimens of glass-painting (Figs. 8 and 9), which are in reality the same design slightly varied in the dispositionof the tints, and the interlacing of the double or strap-lines of one, while the other has them single only. The striking variety that anygiven design may elicit, by a mere rearrangement of this interlacedwork, or by a different disposition of the coloured compartments, willat once be apparent; it was worked out with singularly good effect bythe older artists in decoration of all kinds. The key (Fig. 10) and thelatch (Fig. 11) are examples of quaint old Gothic metal works. Thelatter is copied from the old Hôtel de Ville of Bruges; the dragon isused as a lever to lift the latch, and is one of those grotesqueimaginings in which the old art-workmen frequently indulged. [Illustration: Fig. 10. ] [Illustration: Fig. 11. ] When the Dukes of Urbino, dazzled with the brilliancy of the Moorishpotters, had determined to rival their workmanship in manufactoriesupon their own principality, the so-called Raffaelle-ware soonafterwards fascinated the Italians, by the quaint design and beautifulcolour of the dishes and vases there produced. Though popularly namedafter the great painter, it was unlikely that he had aught to dotherewith; but his designs were occasionally adapted to its use by theworkmen. The circular plateau (Fig. 12) is a good example of the boldcharacter and vigour of effect occasionally produced in these works. [Illustration: Fig. 12. ] Wood panelling we have already alluded to, and the large amount ofdecoration it occasionally displayed. Fig. 13 is a beautiful instance ofthe grace that characterised the style known as the _Flamboyant_, fromthe flowing or flame-like curve adopted for the leading lines. In thisinstance they are happily blended with the earlier Gothic cusps, andthe quaint ivy-leaves that spring easily out of the severer lines. Theease with which heraldry may be introduced in the design, gave it apeculiar charm to our ancestors; in this instance the shields bear thesacred monograms--a purpose to which they were very commonly devoted inthe church; sometimes being further enriched with religious emblems, asterse and striking as the heraldic ones we have given in a previouspage. [Illustration: Fig. 13. ] [Illustration: Fig. 14. ] [Illustration: Fig. 15. ] We give two small drawings of cabinet-handles in Figs. 14 and 15, partof the elaborate fittings of a piece of furniture which occupied theplace of honour in the state-rooms of the wealthy, and upon which theart of the day was generally lavished with a most liberal hand. Ivory, ebony, and the rarest woods were employed in their construction, occasionally _plaques_ of lapis lazuli, or coloured marbles, were usedfor the panels; ultimately the whole surface became an encrusted mosaicof figures, birds, and flowers, in coloured wood and stone, occasionallyframed in the precious metals. The gorgeous taste of Louis Quatorzeexcited the fancy of the _ébenistes_ of his court to the most costlyinvention. Furniture inlaid with engraved metal-work, or embossed withcoloured stones, oppressed the sense of utility; and when tables, chairs, and picture-frames were made of silver, chased and overloadedwith the scroll-work he so abundantly patronised, common sense seems tohave yielded its place to mere display. Despite of the costly characterof such works, and their destination as the decoration of a palace, theyare positive vulgarisms, and we feel little regret when we read inhistory of the disastrous wars at the close of the king’s career, whichobliged him to melt down the silver furniture of Versailles, and convertit into cash for the payment of his soldiers. There was more honesty of purpose in the old art-workers, who neverswerved from a leading principle. Hence the educated eye can at oncedetect a piece of genuine old decorative furniture from a Wardour Streetmade-up bit of pseudo-imitation. It must be borne in mind thatspecimens of genuine old work are by no means common; the abundancewhich this street and other localities can supply to order by thecart-load, are ingenious adaptations of fragments of old work pieced andplaced together for a general effect; but which are sometimes ludicrous, from the mixture of bits of all ages and style in one cabinet orsideboard. Some twenty years ago the city of Rouen was a mine of wealthto furniture makers. The elaborately carved panels and chimney-pieces inthe stately houses of the old Norman capital, were converted into allkinds of articles for domestic display. The progress of “improvement, ”as well as the slower process of decay, have cleared that place of manyof its fine features of domestic architecture; but its beauties have hadan enduring memento in the curious volumes by the artist Langlois, ofPont-de-l’Arche, completed after his death by M. Delaquérrière. In thiswork every ancient building is carefully noted and described, throughoutevery street of the city; and the finest or most curious examplesengraved with a minute truthfulness for which Langlois was justlycelebrated; and which drew forth the plaudits of Dr. Dibdin, in thesumptuous work devoted to his foreign tour in search of rarities. [15-*] We propose presently to follow the Doctor in his investigation of oldbooks, and exhibit some few of the enrichments that artist and engravergave to the written or printed volumes which passed from their hands;at the same time we shall endeavour to take a more general survey of theadaptation of art to works of ordinary use. [Illustration: Fig. 16. ] The quaint manner in which letters were sometimes braced together may beseen in Fig. 16. Occasionally, a name thus formed in monogram wouldrequire much ingenuity to unravel, inasmuch as the entire letters madebut one interlaced and closely compacted group, each limb or portion ofa letter helping also to form part of another. In the hospital foundedat Edinburgh by the famous goldsmith, George Heriot, --the favouritegoldsmith and jeweller of James I. , a monarch who fully appreciated hisart, --the name of “Jingling Geordie, ” as his majesty playfully calledhim, is sculptured in such a group, which appears at first sight anenigma few could unravel; indeed, without knowing what letters to lookfor, and how to arrange them, it is a chance if they would be arrangedcorrectly. Such a mode of marking would, however, have its advantages, for it would enable those who were in the secret to unravel the mysteryof the true proprietorship of any valuable article unfairly abstracted. The shields in Fig. 13 are filled with monograms less elaborate, butbearing a sufficient affinity to those alluded to, to aid inunderstanding the rest. FOOTNOTES: [15-*] “Biographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in France andGermany. ” London, 1821. 3 vols. CHAPTER II. We owe the term _illumination_, as applied to the decoration of oldmanuscripts, to the mediæval Latin name of the artist himself, _alluminor_, the root of our English word _limner_, and of the Frenchword _enlumineur_, one who colours or paints upon paper or parchment, giving light and ornament to letters and figures. The brilliancy andbeauty of much of this ancient art are marvellous to look upon, but thenames of few of the patient artists, who devoted their lives to bookillustration, have descended to us. There are, however, one or two nameswell-known to us, a Julio Clovio and a Girolamo da Libri (JeromeVeronese), affording a sufficient warrant of the high-class minds whohonoured their art by honouring literature. There can be no greaterpleasure than in turning over the matchless pages of these old volumes, and seeing them reveal the passages of the poet or romancist, asunderstood by the men of the Middle Ages, to whom they were addressed, or giving us pictures of life and manners of which we possess no otherrecord. Their value as adjuncts to books, when simply decorative, is nowvery generally acknowledged; and the ladies of the present day rival thecloistered recluses in labouring, like them, to enrich a cherishedvolume. It is, however, the art of the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies that is now especially imitated, and the reason is to be foundin its showy elaboration of design and colour. There is an earlierstyle that presents strong claims to attention, that of the twopreceding centuries, specimens of which are given in Figs. 17-21. Inthem will be noticed the Orientalism that occasionally prevails, andshows its Byzantine parentage; a trace of the Greek volute and acanthusleaf is visible in Figs. 20 and 21; in the others we seem to look onTurkish design. The applicability of such fragments of ornament ismanifold. [Illustration: Fig. 17. ] [Illustration: Fig. 18. ] [Illustration: Fig. 19. ] [Illustration: Fig. 20. ] [Illustration: Fig. 21. ] [Illustration: Figs. 22, 23, 24, and 25. ] When the art of engraving aided the press in producing works of adecorative order, we occasionally turn over pages in which themaster-minds of the day taxed their powers of invention. The oldwood-engravers were supplied by designers with drawings of the bestclass, and very quaint and original are the ornaments which embellishthe books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, --particularly suchas were published in Germany, or at Lyons, the latter city being thenmost eminent for the taste and beauty of its illustrated volumes, theformer for a bolder but quainter character of art. There are usefulhints to be had in the pages of all, for such as would avail themselvesof minor book-ornament. To render our meaning more clear, we select aseries of scrolls (Figs. 22-25) for inscriptions from German books, ofthe early part of the sixteenth century, and which might be readily andusefully adapted to modern exigencies, when dates or mottoes arerequired either by the painter or sculptor. Ornamental frameworks forinscriptions abound in old books, and are not unfrequently of strikingdesign and peculiar elaboration; we give an example in Fig. 26, from avolume dated 1593, as an excellent specimen of this particular branch ofdesign. Such tablets not unfrequently headed the first page of avolume, and received in the centre the title of the book. Thewood-engraver is thus the legitimate successor of the older illuminator. [Illustration: Fig. 26. ] A large demand was made on the imaginative faculties of the designers ofthat day by the metal-workers, the gold and silversmiths, the jewellers, and all connected with such decorative manufactures as the luxury ofwealth and taste calls into exertion. The name of Cellini standsprominently forth as the inventor and fabricator of much that wasremarkable; the pages of his singular autobiography detail the peculiarbeauty of many of his designs; the Viennese collection still boasts someof the finest of the works so described, particularly the goldensalt-cellar he made for Francis I. Of France. The high art which hebrought to bear on design applied to jewellery was followed by otherartist-workmen, such as Stephanus of Paris, and Jamnitzer of Nuremberg. The metal-workers of the latter city, and of Augsburg, had a universalreputation at the close of the sixteenth century for their jewellery andplate, particularly the latter. They kept in employ the best designersof the day, and such men as Hans Holbein, Albert Aldegræf, VirgiliusSolis, and a host known as the “little masters, ” supplied the demandwith apparent abundance, but it could only be satisfied by themultiplication of these designs by means of the engraver’s art. Hence wehave at this period, and the early part of the seventeenth century, anabundance of small engravings, comprising a vast variety of designs forall articles of ornament; and from them we have selected, in Figs. 27and 28, two specimens of those intended to be used in the manufacture ofthe pendent jewels, then so commonly worn on the breast of rich ladies. These jewels were sometimes elaborately modelled with scriptural andother scenes in their centre, chased in gold, enriched by enamelcolours, and resplendent with jewels. The famed “Grüne Gewölbe” atDresden have many fine examples, in the Louvre are others, and some fewof a good kind are to be seen in the Museum at South Kensington. Theportraits of the age of Francis I. And our Queen Elizabeth, frequentlyrepresent ladies in a superfluity of jewellery, of a most elaboratecharacter. The portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots, in our NationalPortrait Gallery, is loaded with chains, brooches, and pendants, enoughto stock the show-case of a modern manufacturer. This love of elaboratejewellery was a positive mania with many nobles in the olden time. James I. Was childishly fond of such trinkets, and most portraitsrepresent the king with hat-bands of jewels, or sprays of jewellery attheir sides. His letters to his favourite, Buckingham, are often full ofdetails of the jewels in which his majesty delighted. [Illustration: Fig. 27. ] [Illustration: Fig. 28. ] [Illustration: Fig. 29. ] Perhaps no article of personal ornament has exhibited a greater varietyof design and decorative enrichment than the cross. It has at once beenmade an embellishment and a badge of faith. We select in Fig. 29 one ofsingular elaboration and beauty, now the property of Lady Londesborough. It is a work of the early part of the sixteenth century; the ground isof frosted gold, upon which is a foliated ornament in _cloissonné_enamel of various colours. It is also enriched with pearl and crystal;the lower part of this cross is furnished with a loop, from which ajewel of value might be suspended. [Illustration: Figs. 30 and 31. ] By way of curious contrast, as well as to show the style of various agesin the article of necklaces, we give, in Figs. 30 and 31, two examplesof widely different eras. The upper one is that of a Roman lady, whoseentire collection of jewellery was accidentally discovered at Lyons, in1841, by some workmen who were excavating the southern side of theheights of Fourvières, on the opposite side of the Seine. From aninscribed ring and some coins deposited in the jewel-box, the ladyappears to have lived in the time of the Emperor Severus, and to havebeen the wife of one of the wealthy traders, who then, as now, wereenriched by the traffic of the Rhone. The necklace we engrave is ofgold, set with pearls and emeralds; the cubical beads are cut in lapislazuli, as are the pendants which hang from others. This love of pendentornament was common to all antique necklaces, from the days of ancientGreece to the end of the sixteenth century. Our second specimen is anillustration of this: it is copied from the portrait of a lady (bearingdate 1593), and composed of a series of enamelled _plaques_, with jewelsinserted, connected with each other by an ornamental chain. [Illustration: Figs. 32 and 33. ] We have already alluded to the constant demand on the inventive facultyof the art-workman for articles of all kinds in the olden times; nothingwas thought unworthy his attention. We give a selection of articles ofordinary use which have received a considerable amount of decorativeenrichment. The spur-rowels (Figs. 32 and 33), from the collection of M. Sauvageot, of Paris, are remarkable proofs of the faculty of inventionpossessed by the ancient armourers. So simple a thing as a spur-rowel, in our days of utilitarianism, would seem to be incapable of variety, or at least unworthy to receive much attention. It was not so in pasttimes, when workmen even delighted to adorn their own tools. We engravean armourer’s hammer (Figs. 34 and 35), from the collection of LordLondesborough, which has received an amount of enrichment of a veryvaried character. The animals on one side, and in foliated scrolls, connect the design across the summit of the implement with a totally newcomposition on the opposite side. We would not insist on any part of thedesign as remarkable for high character; it is simply given as aninstance of the love of decoration so prevalent in the sixteenthcentury. [Illustration: Figs. 34 and 35. ] The highly-enriched knocker and door-handle (Fig. 36) were sketched fromthe original, on one of the ancient houses of the quaint city ofNuremberg. The bell-pull beside it (Fig. 37) is also from the samelocality. There is probably no town in Germany where more artistic oldiron-work is to be seen than in this place, --once the richest of tradingcommunities, when Albert Durer flourished within its walls, and theEmperor Maximilian held royal state in its old castle. To all who wouldrealise the chivalric days of the old German Empire, we would say, “Goto Nuremberg. ” [Illustration: Figs. 36 and 37. ] The bellows of carved chestnut-wood (Fig. 39) is in the possession ofthe Count de Courval. It is of simpler and “severer” design thancommon, inasmuch as it was usual to enrich these useful domesticimplements with an abundance of elaborate designs, and fill theircentres with scenes from sacred and profane history. [Illustration: Fig. 38. ] When ladies delighted in lace-working, and in starching and preparingtheir produce most carefully, they showed their good housewifery inwashing and ironing it with their own hands. It was gallantry on thepart of their spouses to make befitting presents of all things requisitefor their labours, and worthy their use. The box-iron we engrave in Fig. 39 is one which has thus been given; it bears the monogram of the fairlady who originally owned it, engraved within a “true lover’s knot. ” Thecupidons of the handle ending in flowers may be an emblem of Love andHymen, forming an appropriate embellishment. [Illustration: Fig. 39. ] CHAPTER III. Applicability is the most useful characteristic of the style popularlyknown as the Renaissance; it is confined to no one branch of art, but iscapable of extension to all, from the most delicate work of the jewellerto the boldest scroll-ornament adopted by the sculptor in wood or stone. The Loggie of the Vatican is the best original example of the style asperfected by Raffaelle and his scholars, and applied to wall-painting. It was a free rendering of the antique fresco ornament then justdiscovered in the Baths of Petus, where extensive excavations wereundertaken in 1506, under the superintendence of the Papal authorities. The classic forms were “severer” than those in use by the artists whoresuscitated the style, and were somewhat overlaid with ornament. Thedetails of Raffaelle’s own work will not always bear adverse criticism, inasmuch as there are heterogeneous features introduced occasionally, which are not visible in the purer style of antiquity. As the fashionfor this decoration travelled northward, it increased in freedom fromclassic rule, and more completely deserved the term “grotesque, ” whichit occasionally received, a term derived from _grotte_, an undergroundroom of the ancient baths, and which we now use chiefly in the sense ofa ludicrous composition. Such compositions were not unfrequent on thewalls of Greek and Roman buildings; and the German and Flemish artists, with a nationally characteristic love of whimsical design, occasionallyran riot in invention, having no rule beyond individual caprice. Thisunfortunate position offering too great a licence to mere whimsicality, was felt in ancient as well as in modern times. Pliny objected, on thegrounds of false or incongruous taste, to the arabesques of Pompeii, though they approached nearer to the Greek model; and Vitruvius, withthat purity of taste which was his grand characteristic, endorsed theopinion, and enforced it in his teaching. We are often in error when weblindly admire, or unhesitatingly adopt, the works of the ancients asperfection. In Athens and Rome in past time, as in Paris and London atpresent, we may meet with instances of bad taste; for vulgarity belongsto no age or station, and may be visible in the costly decoration of arich mansion, whose owner is uneducated in art, and insists on havingonly what he comprehends. The decadence of the better-class Renaissance design was a naturalconsequence of the licence its features might assume, and in theprogress of the sixteenth century it became thoroughly vitiated. Thetroubles which distracted Europe in the later part of that century, andwhich led to the devastating wars and revolutions of the earlier part ofthe following one, completed the debasement of art-workmanship. LouisXIV. Had the glory, such as it was, of its resuscitation; but his tastewas merely that of an over-wealthy display, which not unfrequentlylapses into positive vulgarisms. The style known distinctively by thename of this monarch--with all its heterogeneous elements, its scrollsof the most obtrusive form, fixed to ornament having no proper cohesion, and overlaid with festoons of flowers and fruit--is more remarkable forthe oppressive ostentation which was the characteristic of the monarchand his age, than for good taste or real elegance. What a very littleexaggeration could make of this style may be seen in the productions ofthe era of his successor, and which the Italians stigmatised by the term_rococo_. [Illustration: Fig. 40. ] [Illustration: Fig. 41. ] The examples of Renaissance given in our pages exhibit a fair average ofits applicability. The pendent ornament (Fig. 40) includes detailsadopted by jewellers. The shield, with the sacred monogram (Fig. 41), issuch as appeared in wood-panelling. The handle (Fig. 42) exhibits asmuch freedom of design as the style could admit; it is quaint andpeculiar, but not without elegance in the mode of bringing the classicdolphin within the scope of the composition. [Illustration: Fig. 42. ] The distinctive features of the style may be more readily comprehendedby contrasting it with a few specimens of the so-called “Gothic style, ”a style which possesses the strongest original features, and one whichwill yield to none in peculiar beauty and applicability. We give twoexamples--the one German, the other French; they are both wood panel, filled with tracery which bears the distinctive characteristics of thetwo schools. The German (Fig. 43) is remarkable for the suddentermination of its flowing lines, which occasionally gives to thecarving of the epoch an appearance of having been suddenly broken, orchopped off, in parts. At Nuremberg this peculiarity is very observable;our specimen is selected from the church at Rottweil, in the BlackForest, which bears the date of 1340. The French (Fig. 44) is afavourable example of the Flamboyant style, which gave freedom to themediæval rigidity of the Gothic, and paved the way for the readyadoption of the style of Francis I. , which was based on that of theItalians. [Illustration: Fig. 43. ] [Illustration: Fig. 44. ] Figs. 45 and 47 display one peculiarity in this northern adaptation--theintroduction of busts, in high relief, in central medallions. It issometimes introduced so unscrupulously in the carved panelling ofElizabethan mansions, that it has almost the effect of a row of woodendolls peeping through shutters. The latter of the two examples may bereceived as one of the best of its kind, exhibiting the utmostenrichment of which the style was generally capable, and as fewheterogeneous features, though here they are not entirely absent. By wayof useful contrast, we give in Fig. 48, a very pure specimen of a panelin Italian workmanship, from a tomb of the sixteenth century, in thechurch of the Ara Cœli, at Rome. The flow of line here is exceedinglygraceful; the whole of the details are characterised by a delicacyunknown to the artists of Germany and Flanders; the torches and volutespoint unmistakably to the classic origin of the whole. [Illustration: Fig. 45. ] [Illustration: Fig. 46. ] [Illustration: Fig. 47. ] [Illustration: Fig. 48. ] It was not natural to the Roman people ever to forget their greatart-works of antiquity; the influence of the “departed spirits” still“ruled them from their urns, ” as Byron truthfully expresses it. Theartists of Greece and Rome based their compositions on the unvaryingtruth of nature; and though the barbaric mind might bear sway forawhile, it could not triumph but through ignorance. Rome is now thegreat art-teacher only because it is the conservator of its ancientrelics; and they have had their influence undiminished from the days ofRaffaelle and Michael Angelo. There are many pleasing bits of design inthe antique city, that show the classic source of inspiration from whichtheir inventors obtained them. The boy and dolphins, forming thepleasing domestic fountain we engrave in Fig. 51, is an evident instanceof the influence of antique taste. The abundant supply of water was thegrand feature of the Rome of the Cæsars, as it still is of the Rome ofthe Popes; and the liberality with which every house is served hasfrequently induced the owners of large mansions to decorate one cornerof their external walls with a fountain, at which all wayfarers may besupplied. In a recess of the lowermost story of one of the great_palazzi_ which line the principal street of Rome, “the Corso, ” oursecond specimen (Fig. 52) is placed. It represents a wine-merchantliberally pouring from the bung-hole of his barrel its inexhaustiblecontents. On great _festas_ in the olden time it was not unusual to makepublic fountains run with wine for an hour or two, and this may haveoccurred with the one engraved; it is a work of the latter part of thesixteenth century, when luxury reigned in Rome. As a design it isexceedingly simple and appropriate, reminding, by its quaintness, ofGerman rather than Italian design. The old Teutonic cities present verymany striking inventions of the kind: and the promoters and designers ofour drinking fountains may obtain good and useful hints from thatquarter. [Illustration: Fig. 49. ] [Illustration: Fig. 50. ] [Illustration: Fig. 51. ] [Illustration: Fig. 52. ] Our street architecture has shown recently a greater freedom of design, and range of study, than was ever exhibited before. We may owe this, insome degree, to the excellent works on the domestic and palatialedifices of the Low Countries, which have issued from the press, andhave vindicated the true character of the great mediæval builders. Germany--taking the term for the nation in its widest sense--can show inits antique cities a vast variety of fancy in architecture and itsornamental details. Each city may be made a profitable residence forthe study of a young architect; and the superior knowledge of theleading principles of mediæval art, now exhibited in their adaptation ofthe style to home events, is a clear proof that the fact has been feltand acted on. The “infinite variety” of the old decorator is everywhereapparent, and the play he gave to his invention. We give in Fig. 53, asone instance, the ornamental mouldings of the Chapel of St. Nicholas, inthe Cathedral of Aix; in this instance the rigidity of the rule whichenforces geometric form to the whole is softened by the introduction ofthe cable moulding to a portion thereof, with singularly good effect. Itis a work executed under the rule of Armand de Hesse, Archbishop ofCologne, and Provost of Aix, probably about 1480. [Illustration: Fig. 53. ] The Gothic, therefore, of the best era, was by no means the stiff andmonotonous style imagined by those who only know its details by theremains of our own ecclesiastical buildings; not that we infer them tobe without much freedom and beauty occasionally, as in the Percy shrineat Beverley Minster, or the tomb of Aylmer de Valence, in WestminsterAbbey. But we have fewer domestic buildings of a florid Gothic stylethan are to be found abroad, and the artists who designed for that styledelighted in new ideas. It is even visible in the works of theirpainters and engravers: thus the tracery over the doorway in Durer’sprint of “The Crucifixion, ” one of his series of the life of theVirgin, while it conforms to the leading principle of architecturaldesign, is composed of branches and leaves which flow with a freedombelonging more to the painter than the architect. Similar instancesabound in old pictures. [Illustration: Fig. 54. ] The foliation of German work was generally crisp and full ofconvolutions in its minor features, though the leading lines were boldlyconceived. We give an example from a panel carved in wood, in theCathedral of Stuttgard, a work of the middle of the fifteenth century. It is almost a return to the old acanthus leaf, and so completes a cycleof fine art. Brief as the review has necessarily been of the decorative arts adorninglife throughout the centuries which have passed in rapid successionbefore us, they have taught two great facts--the beauty of art as anadjunct to the most ordinary demands of domesticity, and the value ofthe study of the varied arts of past ages as an addition to therequirements of our own. “Ever changing, ever new, ” may be the lessonderived from the investigation of any epoch. How much then may beobtained from a general review of all! Seroux d’Agincourt deduced ahistory of art from its monuments;[41-*] and men of the present day havethe advantage of all that the world has produced brought easily, by aidof the burin and the printing-press, to their own firesides. We areevidently less original in idea than our ancestors, from the associationof their labours with our thought; but we may yet live in the hope ofseeing some new and peculiar feature in the progress of moderndecorative art obtained by retrospective glances at the past. It is to the duty of thus learning from the past, we desire to directthe attention of our readers. Slavishly to copy, or systematically toimitate, are evils scarcely less reprehensible than to neglect themaltogether; but frequent study of the great masters in any art isindispensable to those who would excel. It is to the absence of suchstudy that we may trace most of the defects of the British artisan. Unhappily, he seldom either examines, reads, or thinks; generally he iscontent to work, like a horse in a mill, pursuing the same monotonousround, producing only that which has been produced before, withoutalteration, and without improvement. Until within the last few years, this defect could hardly have been urged against him as an offence. Hisemployers did not require advancement, seldom encouraged intelligentworkmen, and rather preferred the mere machine who was content to do nomore than his fathers had done, and who looked upon new inventions ascostly whims or expensive absurdities. There were exceptions--gloriousexceptions; but the rule was, undoubtedly, as we have stated. This deplorable disadvantage exists no longer; in nearly every town inthe kingdom, of any size, there is some institution where knowledge maybe obtained readily and cheaply. The societies in connection with theDepartment of Science and Art now abound with competent masters andteachers, and all the appliances of instruction. The South Kensington Museum is alone a mine of wealth. Not only are theartisans enabled to resort to it freely, but every possible inducementis held out to them to do so; the superintendents there almost go intothe highways to “compel them to come in. ” There is no calling of anysort or kind that may not be educated here; the masters, as well as theworkmen, of all trades may here receive the education, “free of charge, ”which no sum of money could have procured for them twenty years ago. Ignorance, nowadays, is, therefore, totally without excuse. No doubt the seed that has been so extensively and abundantly planted isgrowing rapidly up; in some places it has borne fruit. It is utterlyimpossible that the existing race of art-workmen, and their successors“rising up, ” can be ignorant as were their predecessors. If they usetheir eyes merely, and permit their minds to remain blanks, they mustimprove. There is no street in London now that will not teach themsomething; every shop window contains a lesson; and it requires no verylarge observation to perceive advancement in every class of Britishart-manufacture--not, certainly, so marked as to produce content, butexhibiting ample proof that we are progressing in the right direction, and leading to the conclusion that at no very distant period we shallnot have to incur the reproach that our artisans are worse educated thanthose of Germany, Belgium, and France. These remarks result from thebrief insight we have given in these pages into the rich volumes whichthe past has filled for the use of the present. The books to which wehave resorted, and the places in which we have sought for rarities, areopen to most of those who desire to examine them, and who will find anexpenditure of time and labour to any amount, be it large or small, produce an extent of remuneration of which the searcher will have noidea until he begins to gather in the profit he has made. We had intended to supply a list of books, to be obtained either at theBritish Museum or the Museum at South Kensington, to which we desire todirect the attention of our art-producers and art-workmen; but thus tooccupy space is needless. The requisite information can be easilyprocured: any of the superintendents, at either place, will gladlydirect the searcher, on receiving information as to his wants. Moreover, it is permitted, under certain restrictions, to take sketches ofengravings or drawings, and from objects exhibited; aids to do thisreadily present themselves. Books, however, should be regarded only as auxiliaries; they will supplyin abundance material for suggestion or adaptation; although, as we havealready observed, “slavishly to copy, or systematically to imitate, ” areevils to be avoided. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [41-*] “Histoire de l’Art par les Monumens, depuis sa Décadence auIV^{e. } Siècle jusqu’à son Renouvellement au XVI^{e. }” GROTESQUE DESIGN, AS EXHIBITED IN ORNAMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL ART. GROTESQUE DESIGN, AS EXHIBITED IN ORNAMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL ART. Among the quaint terms in art to which definite meanings are attached, but which do not in themselves convey any such definite construction, wemay class the term _grotesque_. The term _grotesque_ was first appliedas a generic appellation in the latter part of the fifteenth century, when the “grottoes, ” or baths of ancient Rome, and the lowermostapartments of houses then exhumed, exhibited whimsically designedwall-decorations, which attracted the attention of Raffaelle and otherartists, who resuscitated and modified the style; adopting it for thefamous Loggie of the Vatican and for garden pavilions or grottoes. We may safely go back to the earliest era in art for the origin of thestyle, if, indeed, the grotesque does not so intimately connect itselfwith the primeval art of all countries as to be almost inseparable. Indeed, it requires a considerable amount of classical education to seeseriously the meaning, that ancient artists desired in all gravity toexpress, in works which now excite a smile by their inherent comicality. Hence the antiquary may be occasionally ruffled by the remarks of someirreverent spectator, on a work which the former gravely contemplates, because he feels the design of its maker, and is familiar with theantique mode of expression. Thus the early Greek figures of Minerva, whether statues or upon coins, have occasionally an irresistiblyludicrous expression: but, as art improved, this expression softened, and ultimately disappeared, the grotesque element taking a more positiveform and walk of its own. In that cradle of art and science, the ancient land of Egypt, we shallfind grotesque art flourishing in various forms. Their artists did notscruple to decorate the walls of tombs with pictures of real life, inwhich comic satire often peeps forth amid the gravest surroundings. Thuswe find representations of persons at a social gathering evidently theworse for wine-drinking; or the solemn procession of the funeral boatsinterrupted by a ludicrous delineation of the “fouling” or upsetting oneunlucky boat and its crew, which had drifted in the way; while the mostimpressive of all scenes, the final judgment of the soul before Osiris, is depicted at Thebes with the grotesque termination of the forcedreturn of a wicked soul to earth, under the form of a pig, in a boatrowed by a couple of monkeys. In the British Museum is a singularpapyrus, upon which are drawn figures of animals performing the actionsof mankind; and among the large number of antiquities which swell theEgyptian galleries, there are many that exhibit the partiality of thisancient people for the grotesque. [Illustration: Figs. 55-58. ] Our first examples consist of a group of wooden boxes and spoons, all ofwhimsical form, and selected from the great work by Sir John GardnerWilkinson on the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians. [49-*]They were formed to contain cosmetics of divers kinds, and served todeck the dressing-table, or a lady’s boudoir. They are carved in variousways, and loaded with ornamental devices in relief, sometimesrepresenting the favourite lotus-flower, with its buds and stalks, or agoose, gazelle, fox, or other animal. Fig. 55 is a small box, made inthe form of a goose; and Fig. 56, also in the shape of the same bird, dressed for the cook. The spoon which succeeds this, Fig. 57, takes theform of the cartouche, or oval, in which royal names were inscribed, andis held forth by a female figure of graceful proportions. Fig. 58 is astill more grotesque combination; a hand holds forth a shell, the armbeing elongated and attenuated according to the exigencies of thedesign, and terminating in the head of a goose. The abundance of quaintfancy that may be lavished on so simple a thing as a spoon cannot bebetter illustrated than it has been by an American author, whopublished, in New York, in 1845, an illustrated octavo volume on thehistory of “The Spoon: Primitive, Egyptian, Roman, Mediæval, andModern. ” Speaking of these antique Egyptian specimens, he says, --“Inthese forms we have the turns of thought of old artists; nay, casts ofthe very thoughts themselves. We fancy we can almost see a Thebanspoonmaker’s face brighten up as the image of a new pattern crossed hismind; behold him sketch it on papyrus, and watch every movement of hischisel or graver as he gradually embodied the thought, and published itin one of the forms portrayed on these pages--securing an accession ofcustomers and a corresponding reward in an increase of profit. We takeit for granted that piratical artisans were not permitted to pounce onevery popular invention which the wit of another brought forth. Hadthere been no checks to unprincipled usurpers of other men’sproductions, the energies of inventors would have been paralysed, andthe arts could hardly have attained the perfection they did among someof that famous people of old. ” [Illustration: Figs. 59-61. ] The graceful head and neck of the swan formed for many centuries thefavourite termination for the handles of _simpula_, or ladles. TheGreeks and Romans adopted it, as they freely did grotesque art ingeneral; and the walls of Pompeii and Herculaneum exhibit it inuntrammelled style; while many articles of ornament and use wereconstructed in the most whimsical taste. We must restrict ourselves tothree specimens of Roman works, as many hundreds might be readilybrought together from public museums. Our group consists of twoclasp-knives and a lamp. The knife, Fig. 59, was found at Arles, in thesouth of France; the handle is of bone, and has been rudely fashionedinto the human form: the second example, Fig. 60, is of bronze, andrepresents a _canis venati_, of the greyhound species, catching a hare;the design is perforated, so that the steel blade shows through it. Itwas found within the bounds of the Roman station of Reculver, in Kent;another of similar design was found at Hadstock, in Essex: nor are thesesolitary examples of what appears to have been a popular design inBritain. The superiority of the British hunting dogs has been celebratedby Roman writers, and induced their frequent exportation to the capitalof the world. The lamp, with the quaint head of an ivy-wreathed satyr, Fig. 61, was found in the bed of the Thames, while removing thefoundations of old London Bridge. The protruding mouth of this verygrotesque design holds forth the lighted wick. In nothing more than inlamps did the quaint imaginings of the Roman artists take the wildestlicense. When the successful incursions of northern barbarism had quenched thelight of classic art, the struggle made by such artists as the Goths hadat command to embody the ideas of power or grace they wished toindicate, were often as absurd as the work of a modern child. Hence thegrotesque is an inseparable ingredient in their designs, often quiteaccidental, and frequently in express contradiction to the intention ofthe designer, who imagined in all seriousness many scenes that now onlyexcite a smile. A strong sense of the ludicrous was, however, felt bymediæval men, and embodied in the art-works they have left for ourcontemplation. With it was combined a relish for satire of a practicalkind. A very good and amusing instance is given in Fig. 62, which iscopied from a carved corner-post of an old house in Lower Brook Street, Ipswich. It depicts the old popular legend of the Fox and Geese, thelatter attracted toward Reynard by his apparent innocence and sanctity, as he reads a homily from a lectern, and meeting the reward of theirfoolish trustfulness, in the fattest of their number being carried offby the crafty fox. Both incidents are, as usual with these ancientdesigners, represented side by side on different angles of the post. [Illustration: Fig. 62. ] [Illustration: Fig. 63. ] Our next engraving, Fig. 63, is a very striking specimen of grotesquedesign in ironwork of the fourteenth century. It is a door handle from achurch in the High Street of Gloucester, and a more extraordinaryadmixture of incongruous details could not very readily be imagined. The ring hangs from the neck of a monster with a human head having ass’sears, the neck is snake-like, bat’s wings are upon the shoulders, thepaws are those of a wolf. To the body is conjoined a grotesque head withlolling tongue, the head wrapped in a close hood. Grotesque design, forthe reason already stated, frequently appears in the details of churcharchitecture and furniture during the Middle Ages, particularly from thethirteenth to the seventeenth century. The capital of a column was thefavourite place for the indulgence of the mason’s taste in caricature;the _misereres_, or folding scats of the choir, for that of thewood-carver. It is impossible to conceive anything more droll than manyof the scenes depicted on these ancient benches. Emblematic pictures ofthe months, secular games of all kinds, or illustrations of popularlegends, frequently appeared; but as frequently satirical and grotesquescenes, often bordering on positive indelicacy; and occasionally satireson the clerical character, which can be only understood when we rememberthe strength of the _odium theologicum_, and how completely thewell-established regular clergy disliked the wandering barefootedfriars, who mixed with the people free of all clerical pretence, andinduced unpleasant comparison with the ostentatious pride of the greaterdignitaries. The Franciscans were in this way especially obnoxious, andbetween them and the well-established Benedictines an incessant feudexisted. The tone of feeling that pervaded the middle and humblerclasses found a mouth-piece in that curious satire, the Vision of PiersPloughman, than which Luther never spoke plainer. [Illustration: Fig. 64. ] One very prevailing form in early Gothic design was that of the mythicdragon, whose winged body and convoluted tail were easily and happilyadapted to mix with the foliage or other decorative enrichments theseartists chose to adopt. Hence we find no creature more common in earlyart than this purely fanciful one, rendered still more fanciful bygrotesque combination. The bosses from which spring the vaulted ribs ofWells Cathedral furnish us with the instance engraved in Fig. 64; heretwo dragons twine round a bunch of foliage, biting each other’s tails. [Illustration: Fig. 65. ] Domestic utensils were often made to represent living things; thetendency to convert a globular vase or jug into a huge head or a fatfigure, has been common to all people in all ages. The highly civilisedGreeks indulged the whim, and our own potters continue it. In thefourteenth and fifteenth centuries, vessels for liquids were oftenconstructed of bronze, taking the form of lions, or mounted knights onhorseback, of which specimens may be seen in our British Museum. Themanufacturers of earthenware imitated these at a cheaper rate, and weengrave (Fig. 65) one example of their skill, the original being rudelycoloured with a blue and yellow glaze on the surface of the brown claywhich forms the body. The door-knocker (Fig. 66), whimsically constructed in form of a humanleg, the heel hitting against the door, is also a work of the fourteenthcentury; it is affixed to a house in the Rue des Conseils, at Auxerre, and is very characteristic in execution. [Illustration: Fig. 66. ] Our selection (Fig. 67) comprises a most rare domestic antiquity, towhich a date cannot so readily be assigned, but which cannot be moremodern than the sixteenth century, and may be older. It is atoasting-fork in the form of a dog, to whose breast a ring is attachedfor holding a plate. It is entirely constructed of wrought-iron, thebody cut from a flat sheet of metal. It was found in clearing away thefoundations of one of the oldest houses in Westminster. The tail of thedog forms a convenient handle; to the front foot a cross bar is appendedto preserve its due equilibrium. [Illustration: Fig. 67. ] Grotesque design was adopted by the artists who decorated books from thevery earliest time. The margins of ancient manuscripts are oftenenriched with whimsical compositions, as well as with flowing designs ofmuch grace and beauty. Occasionally the two styles are very happilycombined, and a humorous adjunct gives piquancy to a scholasticcomposition. The early printed books often adopted a similar style inart, and we give two curious specimens. The letter F, whimsicallycomposed of two figures of minstrels (Fig. 68), one playing the trumpetand the other the tabor, is copied from an alphabet, entirely composedin this manner, and now preserved in the British Museum; it bears nodate, but the late Mr. William Young Ottley, keeper of the prints there, was of opinion that it was executed about the middle of the fifteenthcentury. This quaint alphabet has been repeated by the artists of eachsucceeding generation, with variations to adapt the letters to thecostume or habit of each era; but in this unique series we seem to seethe origin of them all. [Illustration: Fig. 68. ] One of the most singular books ever issued from the press, was publishedabout the same period; it is known as the _Ars Memorandi_. [59-*] As itstitle imports, it was intended to assist the memory in retaining thecontents of the Gospels in the New Testament. This is done by making thebody of the design of the emblematic figure indicative of each, eitherthe eagle, angel, ox, or lion; in combination with this figure are manysmall groups, symbolic of the contents of the various chapters. Thecopy we give (Fig. 69), from the second print devoted to St. Luke’sGospel, will make the plan of this singular picture-book clearer. Thewinged bull is spread out as a base to the group of minor emblems, uponits head rests a funeral bier, and in front of it a pot of ointment; thenumeral 7 alludes to the chapter, the principal contents being thuscalled to memory. The bier alludes to the Saviour’s miraculousrestoration to life of the widow’s son, whom He met carried out on abier as He entered the city of Nain; the ointment pot alludes to theanointing of His feet by Mary Magdalene. The bag upon which the figure 8is placed, indicates the fable of the sower, it is the seed-bag of thehusbandman; the boat alludes to the passage of the Lake when the Saviourquelled the storm. The singular group of emblems in the centre of thefigure indicates--the power given to the disciples by the key; theSaviour in his transfiguration, by the sun; and the miraculousmultiplication of the five loaves; as narrated in the 9th chapter of St. Luke. The following chapter has its chief contents noted by the scrollindicative of the law; the sword which wounded the traveller fromJerusalem whom the good Samaritan aided; and the figure of Marycommended by Jesus. No. 11 is typical of the casting out a devil whoseback is depicted broken: and No. 12, of the teaching of that chapter inthe Gospel; for here the heart is set upon a treasure-chest, an act weare especially taught to avoid. [Illustration: Fig. 69. ] These great treasure-chests were important pieces of furniture inancient houses, and were generally placed at the foot of the master’sbed for the greater safety; in them were packed the chief valuables hepossessed, particularly the household plate. At a time when banking wasunknown, property was converted into plate, as a most convenient mode ofretaining it. Decorative plate increased the public state of its owner, was a portable thing, and could be easily hidden in time of danger, orpledged in time of want. Hence the nobility and gentry of the fourteenthand fifteenth centuries gave abundant employment to the goldsmith. Cellini, in his Memoirs, has noted many fine pieces of ornamental platehe was called upon to design and execute; and one of the finest stillexists in the _Kunst-Kammer_, at Vienna--the golden salt-cellar he madefor Francis I. , of France. The “salt” was an important piece of plateon all tables at this period, and to be placed above or below it, indicated the rank, or honour, done to any seated at the banquet. Thelarge engraving (Fig. 70) delineates a very remarkable salt-cellar, being part of the collection of antique plate formed by the late LordLondesborough. This curious example of the quaint designs of the oldmetal-workers, is considered to have been the work of one of the famousAugsburg goldsmiths at the latter part of the sixteenth century. It is acombination of metals, jewels, and rare shells in a singularly grotesquegeneral design. The salt was placed in the large shell of the then rare_pecten_ of the South Seas, which is edged with a silver-gilt rim chasedin floriated ornament, and further enriched by garnets; to it is affixedthe half-length figure of a lady, whose bosom is formed of the larger_orange-coloured pecten_, upon which a garnet is affixed to represent abrooch; a crystal forms the caul of the head-dress, another is placedbelow the waist. The large shell is supported by the tail of the whaleon one side, and on the other by the serpent which twists around it; inthis reptile’s head a turquoise is set, the eyes are formed of garnet, and the tongue of red onyx. The whole is of silver-gilt, and within themouth is a small figure of Jonah, whose adventure is thus strangelymixed with the general design. The sea is quaintly indicated by thecircular base, chased with figures of sea-monsters disporting in thewaves. It would not be easy to select a more characteristic specimen ofantique table-plate. The inventories of similar articles once possessedby the French king, Charles V. , and his brother, the Duke of Anjou, Kingof Naples and Provence (preserved in the Royal Library, Paris), givedescriptive details of similar quaint pieces of art-manufacture, inwhich the most grotesque and heterogeneous features are combined, andthe work enriched by precious stones and enamels. Jules Labarteobserves, “the artists of that period indulged in strange flights offancy in designing plate for the table, they especially delighted ingrotesque subjects: a ewer or a cup may often be seen in the shape of aman, animal, or flower, while a monstrous combination of several humanfigures serves to form the design of a vase. ” [Illustration: Fig. 70. ] But quaint and fanciful as were the works of the Parisian goldsmiths, they were outdone by the grotesque designs of the German artificers. They invented drinking-cups of the strangest form, the whole animalkingdom, fabulous and real, birds, and sea-monsters, were constructed tohold liquids. A table laid out with an abundance of thisstrangely-designed plate, must have had a ludicrous effect. Many oftheir works, though costly in character, refined in execution, andthoroughly artistic in detail, are absolute caricatures. There is one inLord Londesborough’s collection, and another in that of BaronRothschild, made in the form of a bagpipe; the bag holds wine, and issupported on human feet; arms emerge from the sides and play on thechanter, which is elongated from the nose of a grotesque face, the haira mass of foliage. Dozens of similar examples might be cited, of themost extraordinary invention, which the metal-workers of the seventeenthcentury particularly gave their imaginations licence to construct. Indeed, the German artists of that period seem to have had a spice oflunacy in their compositions, and the works of Breughel were rivalledand outdone by many others whose fancies were of most unearthly type. Salvator Rosa in Italy, and Callot in France, occasionally depictedwhat their grotesque and mystic imaginings suggested, and Teniers gavethe world witch-pictures; but for the wild and wondrous, Germany hasalways carried the palm from the rest of the world in art as inliterature. [Illustration: Fig. 71. ] [Illustration: Fig. 72. ] We engrave a fine example of a vase handle (Fig. 71), apparently thework of an Italian goldsmith at the early part of the seventeenthcentury. The bold freedom of the design is utilised here by the upheavedfigure grasped by the monster, and which gives hold and strength to thehandle; the flowing character throughout the composition accords wellwith the general curve of the vase to which it is affixed. There is aprevailing elegance in the Italian grotesque design which is not seen inthat of other nations. The knife handle by Francisco Salviati, which wehave also selected for engraving (Fig. 72), is a favourable example ofthis feeling; nothing can be more _outré_ than the figure of the monsterwhich crowns the design; yet for the purpose of utility, as a firm holdto the handle, it is unobjectionable; while the graceful convolutions ofthe neck, and the flow of line in the figure, combined with thismonster, give a certain quaint grace to the design, which is furtherrelieved by enriched foliage. [Illustration: Fig. 73. ] With one specimen of the later work of the silversmith, we take ourleave of grotesque design as applied to art-manufacture; but that workis as whimsical as any we have hitherto seen. It is a pair of silversugar-tongs (Fig. 73), evidently a work of the conclusion of theseventeenth or beginning of the eighteenth century. It is composed ofthe figure of Harlequin, who upholds two coiled serpents, forminghandles; the body moves on a central pivot, fastened at the girdle, andthe right arm and left leg move with the front, as do the others withthe back of the body, which is formed by a double plate of silver, thejunctures being ingeniously hidden by the chequers of the dress. [Illustration: Fig. 74. ] We have already had occasion to allude to the adoption of grotesquedesign in book illustrations, it is often seen in manuscripts, andabounds in early printed works. When wood engraving was extensivelyapplied to the enrichment of the books which issued in abundance fromthe presses of Germany and France, the head and tail-pieces of chaptersgave great scope to the fancies of the artists of Frankfort and Lyons. The latter city became remarkable for the production of elegantlyillustrated volumes, which have never been surpassed. Our concludingcuts represent one of these tail-pieces (Fig. 74), in which a fancifulmask combines with scroll-work; and a head-piece (Fig. 75), (one halfonly being given), where the grotesque element pervades the entirecomposition to an unusual extent, without an offensive feature. Yet itwould not be easy to bring together a greater variety of heterogeneousadmixtures than it embraces. Fish, beasts, insects, and foliage, combinewith the human form to complete its _ensemble_. The least natural of thegroup is the floriated fish, whose general form has evidently been basedon that of the dolphin. When Hogarth ridiculed the taste for _virtu_, which the fashionable people of his own era carried to a childishextent, and displayed its follies in his picture of “Taste in highlife, ” and in the furniture of his scenes of the “Marriage-à-la-mode, ”he exhibited a somewhat similar absurdity in porcelain ornament. In thesecond scene of the “Marriage” is an amusing example of falsecombination, in which a fat Chinese is embowered in foliage, above whomfloats in air a brace of fish, which emerge from the leaves, and seem tobe diving at the lighted candles. Hogarth’s strong sense of theludicrous was always pertinently displayed in such good-humoured satire. [Illustration: Fig. 75. ] The pottery manufacturers were always clever at the construction ofgrotesques. We have noted their past ability, and our readers may notetheir present talent in many London shops. The French fabricants furnishus with the most remarkable modern works, and very many of the smallerarticles for the toilette, or for children’s use, are designed with astrong feeling for the grotesque. Little figures of Chinese, rich incolour, twist about in quaint attitudes, to do duty as tray-holders ormatch-boxes. Lizards make good paper-weights, and wide-mouthed frogs areconverted into small jugs with perfect ease. There is evidently apeculiar charm possessed by the grotesque, which appeals to, and isgladly accepted by, our volatile neighbours. We are ashamed to laugh ata child-like absurdity, and take it to our hearts with the thoroughdelight which they do not scruple to display. In this we more resemblethe Germans, and, like them, we have a sombre element even in ouramusements. This subject, though entering so largely into the decorative designs ofall countries and every age, has never been treated with any attentionas a branch of fine art. It is by no means intended here to direct studyto the reproduction of anything so false as the grotesque; but as it hasexisted, and does still exist, its presence cannot be ignored, and willbe recognised constantly by all who study art. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [49-*] “History of Ancient Egyptians. ” [59-*] “Ars Memorandi notabilis per Figuras Evangelistarum, ” etc. FACTS ABOUT FINGER-RINGS. FACTS ABOUT FINGER-RINGS. CHAPTER I. ANTIQUE RINGS. Archæology, which was formerly considered by the majority of persons tobe a dull and uninteresting study, abounding with dry details of smallgeneral interest, which, when not pompously pretentious, were, in theother extreme, of trifling insignificance, has, by a better acquaintancewith its true position as the handmaid of history, become so popularthat most English counties have societies especially devoted to itsdistrict claims, and our large cities have their archæologicalinstitutes also. This is due to the good sense which has divested thestudy of its drier details, or has had the tact to hide them beneathagreeable information. It is not too much to assert that archæology inall its branches may be made pleasurable, abounding as it does incurious and amusing details, sometimes humorously contrasting with ourmodern manners. In taking up one of these branches--the history of finger-rings--weshall briefly show the large amount of anecdote and curious collateralinformation it abounds in. Our illustrations depict the great variety ofdesign and ornamental detail embraced by so simple a thing as a hoopfor the finger. It would be easy to multiply the literary and theartistic branch of this subject until a volume of no small bulk resultedfrom the labour. Volumes have been devoted to the history ofrings--Gorlæus among the older, and Edwards, [74-*] of New York, amongthe modern authors. The ancients had their _Dactyliotheca_, orcollection of rings; but they were luxurious varieties of rings forwear. The modern collections are historic, illustrative of past tastesand manners. Of these the best have been formed by the late LordLondesborough (whose collection was remarkable for its beauty andvalue), and Edmund Waterton, Esq. , F. S. A. , who still lives to possessthe best chronological series of rings ever brought together. We havehad the advantage of the fullest access to each collection. It is in the oldest of histories, the books of Moses, that we find theearliest records of the use of the finger-ring. It originally appears tohave been a signet, used as we now use a written autograph; and it isnot a little curious that the unchanged habit of Eastern life rendersthe custom as common now as it was three thousand years ago. When Tamardesired some certain token by which she should again recognise Judah, she made her first request for his signet, and when the time ofrecognition arrived, it was duly and undoubtingly acknowledged byall. [74-†] Fig. 76 exhibits the usual form assumed by these signets. It has a somewhat clumsy movable handle, attached to a cross-bar passingthrough a cube, engraved on each of its facets with symbolical devices. Sir John Gardner Wilkinson[75-*] speaks of it as one of the largest andmost valuable he has seen, containing twenty pounds’ worth of gold. “Itconsisted of a massive ring, half an inch in its largest diameter, bearing an oblong plinth, on which the devices were engraved, one inchlong, six-tenths in its greatest and four-tenths in its smallestbreadth. On one face was the name of a king, the successor of AmunophIII. , who lived about B. C. 1400; on the other a lion, with the legend‘lord of strength, ’ referring to the monarch: on one side a scorpion, and on the other a crocodile. ” Judah’s signet was, of course, formed ofless valuable material, and had probably a single device only. [Illustration: Fig. 76. ] [Illustration: Fig. 77. ] The lighter kind of hooped signet, as generally worn at a somewhat morerecent era in Egypt, is shown in Fig. 77. The gold loop passes through asmall figure of the sacred beetle, the flat under side being engravedwith the device of a crab. It is cut in carnelian, and once formed partof the collection of Egyptian antiquities gathered by our consul atCairo--Henry Salt, the friend of Burckhardt and Belzoni, who firstemployed the latter in Egyptian researches, and to whom our nationalmuseum owes many of its chief Egyptian treasures. From a passage in Jeremiah (xxii. 24) it appears to have been customaryfor the Jewish nation to wear the signet-ring on the right hand. Thewords of the Lord are uttered against Zedekiah--“though Coniah, the sonof Jehoiakim, King of Judah, were the signet on my right hand, yet wouldI pluck thee thence. ” The transition from such signets to the solid finger-ring was naturaland easy. The biblical record treats them as contemporaneous even atthat early era. Thus the story of Judah and Tamar is immediatelyfollowed by that of Joseph, when we are told “Pharaoh took off the ringfrom his hand and put it upon Joseph’s hand, ” when he invested him withauthority as a ruler in Egypt. Dr. Abbott, of Cairo, obtained a mostcurious and valuable ring, inscribed with a royal name. It is nowpreserved, with his other Egyptian antiquities, at New York, and is thusdescribed in his catalogue:--“This remarkable piece of antiquity is inthe highest state of preservation, and was found at Ghizeh, in a tombnear that excavation of Colonel Vyse’s called ‘Campbell’s Tomb. ’ It isof fine gold, and weighs nearly three sovereigns. The style of thehieroglyphics is in perfect accordance with those in the tombs about theGreat Pyramid; and the hieroglyphics within the oval make the name ofthat Pharaoh (Cheops) of whom the pyramid was the tomb. ” Fig. 78represents this ring, and beside it (Fig. 79) is placed the hieroglyphicinscription upon the face of the ring, which is cut with the most minuteaccuracy and beauty. [Illustration: Fig. 78. ] [Illustration: Fig. 79. ] [Illustration: Fig. 80. ] [Illustration: Fig. 81. ] Rings of inferior metal, bearing royal names, were worn, probably, byofficials of the king’s household. Henry Salt had one such in hiscollection, which was afterwards in the remarkable collection of ringsformed by the late Lord Londesborough. It is represented in Fig. 80, andis entirely of bronze. The name of Amunoph III. Is engraved on the ovalface of the ring, exactly as it appears on the tablet of Abydus in theBritish Museum. Amunoph (who reigned, according to Wilkinson, B. C. 1403-1367) is the same monarch known to the Greeks as Memnon; and thecolossal “head of Memnon, ” placed in the British Museum through theagency of Mr. Salt, has a similar group of hieroglyphics sculptured onits shoulder. There was another kind of official ring, which we canrecognise from the description of Pliny, and of which we give anengraving (Fig. 81) from the original in the author’s possession. It isof bronze, and has engraved upon its face the figure of the scarabæus;such rings were worn by the Egyptian soldiers. [Illustration: Fig. 82. ] The lower classes, who could not afford rings of precious metals, but, like their modern descendants, coveted the adornment, purchased thosemade of ivory or porcelain. In the latter material they abounded, andare found in Egyptian sepulchres in large quantities; they are veryneatly moulded, and the devices on their faces, whether depicting gods, emblems, or hieroglyphics, are generally well and clearly rendered. This fondness for loading the fingers with an abundance of rings is welldisplayed on the crossed hands of a figure of a woman (Fig. 82) upon amummy case in the British Museum. Here the thumbs as well as the fingersare encircled by them. The left hand is most loaded; upon the thumb is asignet with hieroglyphics on its surface; three rings on the forefinger;two on the second, one formed like a snail-shell; the same number onthe next, and one on the little finger. The right hand carries only athumb-ring, and two upon the third finger. These hands are cut in wood, and the fingers are partially broken. Wilkinson observes--“The left was considered the hand peculiarlyprivileged to bear these ornaments; and it is remarkable that its thirdfinger was decorated with a greater number than any other, and wasconsidered by them, as by us, _par excellence_, the ring-finger; thoughthere is no evidence of its having been so honoured at the marriageceremony. ” Herodotus narrates a curious antique legend he obtained in Egypt, concerning the ring of Polycrates. It is remarkable as having spreadinto the legendary history of all countries, being still credited by thecommonality. We shall have hereafter to note its existence as an oldLondon tradition; but the version of the Greek historian is brieflythus:--Amasis, King of Egypt, conceived an extraordinary friendship forthe Greek, Polycrates, and, observing that the latter was attended byunusual success in all his adventures, reflected that such unvaryingfelicity seldom lasted through life, and the end of such a career wasoften calamitous. He therefore advised him to propitiate future fortuneby seeking some object whose loss would produce most regret, andvoluntarily casting it away from him where it could never be recovered. Polycrates attached most value to a signet-ring he constantly wore; itwas of gold, set with an emerald cut by Theodorus of Samos, a famedengraver of gems. He went out in a galley far on to the open sea, andthen cast his precious ring into its waters, returning in an excess ofgrief. Some six days afterwards a fisherman came to his gate, bearing afish so fine and large he deemed it to be only fitted for the table ofPolycrates. The King of Samos accepted the gift, the fish was sent tothe royal kitchen, and on opening it a valuable ring was found in itsstomach. It was at once taken to Polycrates, who immediately recognisedhis abandoned treasure, which he now valued the more as it seemed to bereturned by divine interposition. [Illustration: Fig. 83. ] [Illustration: Fig. 84. ] In the comparatively modern era of Roman rule in Egypt, rings of morefanciful construction were occasionally worn. In the British Museum is aremarkable one (Fig. 83), having the convolutions of a serpent, the headof Serapis at one extremity and of Isis at the other; by thisarrangement one or other of them would always be correctly posited; ithas also the further advantage of being flexible, owing to the greatsweep of its curve. The ancient Assyrians, though remarkable for that love of jewellerywhich has ever been the characteristic of the Eastern nations, appear tohave worn no finger-rings. Yet many of their bracelets are admirablydesigned for the purpose if produced on a limited scale; and they wereworn by men as well as by women. Bonomi, in his “History of Nineveh andits Palaces, ” observes, “that not a single case occurs, amidst all thisdisplay of personal jewellery, of a finger-ring; the entire absence ofthis ornament in sculpture, wherein details of this nature are soelaborately and carefully attended to, leads to the conclusion that thefinger-ring was an ornament then unknown. ” [Illustration: Fig. 85. ] [Illustration: Fig. 86. ] Among the earliest traces of western civilisation the finger-ringappears. Fig. 84 is an Etruscan ring of gold, now in the British Museum;upon the face are chimeræ opposing each other. The style and treatmentof this subject partake largely of the ancient character of Eastern art, and, like that, is very decisive and conventional. The Greeks and Romans literally revelled in rings of all styles andsizes. Nothing can be more beautiful in design and exquisite in finishthan Greek jewellery, and the custom of decorating their dead with themost valued of these ornaments has furnished modern museums with anabundance of fine specimens. Figs. 85 and 86 are copied from originalsfound in the more modern Etruscan sepulchres, and are probablycontemporary with the earliest days of the Roman empire. Fig. 85 isadmirably adapted to the finger; being made of the purest gold, it isnaturally slightly elastic; but the hoop is not perfected, eachextremity ending in a broad leaf-shaped ornament, most delicately bandedwith threads of beaded and twisted wire, acting as a brace upon thefinger. Fig. 86 is equally meritorious; the solid half-ring is completedby a small golden chain attached to it by a loop passing over studs; thelinks of this chain are perfectly flexible, and of extreme delicacy;they resemble the modern guard-chain, or to speak more properly, themodern chain imitates the ancient one; and we shall meet in the courseof our researches with very many other instances of the oft-repeatedfact, that “there is nothing new under the sun. ” This ring mania was not content with considering the ring as anornament, or even as a talisman; a new science was revealed, the_Dactyliomancia_, so named from two Greek words, signifying _ring_ and_divination_. The performance of its mysteries was in itself so simple, that it was deemed expedient to add certain formulæ, in order to makethem more expressive. A ring was held, suspended by a fine thread, overa round table, on the edge of which were placed counters engraved withthe letters of the alphabet. The thread was shaken until the ring, touching the letters, had united as many as formed an answer to aquestion previously put. This operation was preceded and accompanied bycertain ceremonies. The ring was consecrated with divers mysteriousforms. The person who held it was arrayed in linen only; a circle wasshaved round his head, and in his hand he held a branch of vervain. Before commencing the gods were appeased by prayer. [82-*] This practicelong prevailed, and is mentioned by Gibbon as having given rise to thepersecutions for the crime of magic, in the reign of the Emperor Valens, at Antioch. [83-*] [Illustration: Fig. 87. ] [Illustration: Fig. 88. ] The simplest and most useful form of ring, and that, by consequence, adopted by the people of all early nations, was the plain elastic hoop, as shown in Fig. 87. Cheap in construction and convenient in wear, itmay be safely said to have been generally patronised from the mostancient to the most modern times. Fig. 88 gives us the old form of aring made in the shape of a coiled serpent, equally ancient, equallyfar-spread in the old world, and which has had a very large sale amongourselves revived as a “decided novelty. ” In fact it has been the mostsuccessful design our ring-makers have produced of late years. Yet thisantique ring may add another “new idea” to the modern designer. It is“made on the principle of some of our steel rings which we use to holdhousehold keys, widening their circle by pressure. In this finger-ringthe part in the mouth is inserted loose, so as to draw out and increaseto the size of the circle needed. ”[83-†] [Illustration: Fig. 89. ] [Illustration: Fig. 90. ] Though a great variety of form and detail was adopted by Greek and Romangoldsmiths for the rings they so largely manufactured, the most generaland lasting resembled Fig. 89, a Roman ring, probably of the time ofHadrian, which is said to have been found in the Roman camp atSilchester, Berkshire. The gold of the ring is massive at the face, making a strong setting for the carnelian, which is engraved with thefigure of a female bearing corn and fruit. By far the greater majorityof Roman rings exhumed at home and abroad are of this fashion, whichrecommends itself by a dignified simplicity, telling, by quantity andquality of metal and stone, its true value, without any obtrusive aid. Sometimes a single ring was constructed to appear like a group of two orthree upon the finger. Mr. Edwards has furnished us with the example, Fig. 90. “It has the appearance of three rings united, widened in thefront and tapering within the hand. Upon the wide part of each are twoletters, the whole forming ZHCAIC, ‘Mayest thou live. ’ The Romans oftenpreferred the Greek language in their most familiar customs. ” Among the beautiful objects of antique art collected by B. Hertz, Esq. , and sold by auction in 1859, by Messrs. Sotheby and Wilkinson, were manyantique rings inscribed with sentences and mottoes of a remarkable kind. Those bearing Greek inscriptions were the wordiest; such as--“I lovenot lest I go astray; but I observe well, and I laugh. ”--“They say whatthey will; let them say, I care not. ” Many were evidently memorials offriendship; one represented a hand pulling the lobe of an ear, with theword “Remember;” another, with a similar device, with the motto “Remindme of the noble character. ” Others were inscribed--EYTYXI--“Good luck toyou, ” and “I bring luck to him who wears this ring. ” Among the Latininscriptions were simple good wishes expressed in the words “Vivas” and“Bene;” or sentiments expressed in few words, such as--“Love me, I willlove thee;” “Come, I will not;” “Be greeted, Fabiana. ” Many were simplyinscribed with the names of the persons to whom they were presented, such as VLP. PRISCELLÆ (“Ulpia Priscilla”); others with the names of theowners, as Valeria Cleopatra and Hermadion Cæsaris. A massive silverring inscribed with the name “Sabbina” is engraved (Fig. 91) from theoriginal in the Londesborough collection. [Illustration: Fig. 91. ] [Illustration: Fig. 92. ] We place beside it a ring with a very different device, but one thatcannot fail to be looked on with singular interest. It is marked withthe _Labarum_, the oldest sacred monogram of Christianity, whichConstantine believed he saw in a vision, and placed upon his victoriousstandard and his coins, with the motto--“In hoc signo vinces!” This ringcame from the Roman sepulchre of an early Christian, and the hand forwhich it was originally fashioned may have aided in the conquering warof the first Christian emperor; or may have been convulsed in anagonising death, “thrown to the beasts” of the circus, but reposingafter death with the first martyrs to the faith. [Illustration: Fig. 93. ] Clement of Alexandria suggests to the Christians of his era, that theyshould have engraved devices of symbolic meaning allusive to theirfaith, in place of the heathen deities and other subjects cut by Romanlapidaries; such as a dove, which symbolises life eternal and the HolySpirit; a palm-branch, peace; an anchor, hope; a ship in full sail, thechurch; and others of similar import. Gorius has preserved a representation of a gold ring (Fig. 93) which hebelieves to have been presented by a Roman lady to the victoriouscharioteer in the horse-races; it is of peculiar form, but one that wasa favourite with Roman wearers. The bust of the donor appears on thesummit of the ring, and on each side are the heads of reined horses, asshown in our cut. Her name is engraved on the lower part of the hoop, and on each side AMOROSPIS. The latter properly being HOSPES, having theaspirate omitted and an I for an E, induces Gorius to consider it a latework of the Roman era. [Illustration: Fig. 94. ] We have already spoken of the ring-hand and the ring-finger, but havenot noted the origin of the custom of placing the wedding ring on thatfinger. It resulted from an inaccurate belief that a nerve went fromthence to the heart. That the ancients were indiscriminate in the use oftheir fingers as recipients for rings we have already shown; Mr. Waterton has placed in his curious _Dactyliotheca_ the forefinger from abronze statue of late Roman workmanship, wearing a large ring upon thesecond joint. In Germany it is still customary to wear the ring in thisfashion, a custom they evidently borrowed from their Roman subjugators, and have retained through every century of change since then. As the luxury of Rome increased, the wearing of rings increased also, and the emperors relaxed the law of restraint. Thus Tiberias, in A. D. 22, gave permission for gold rings to be worn by all persons whosefathers and grandfathers possessed property to the value of 200, 000sesterciæ. The Emperors Severus and Aurelian ultimately gave the rightof wearing gold rings to all soldiers of the empire; and the EmperorJustinian at length gave a similar right to all who had legal claims toRoman citizenship. Distinction once broken through, and wealthincreasing, ring-wearing became general. Seneca, describing the luxuryand ostentation of his time, says, “We adorn our fingers with rings, anda jewel is displayed on every joint. ” The ridiculous excess to which thecustom was carried may be understood from Martial’s description ofCharinus, who wore as many as sixty rings on his hands at one time, andso fond was he of his jewellery that he kept them upon his fingers whenin bed. They were decorated with a vast variety of subjects, originallycut in the metal of which the ring was made, whether gold, silver, orbrass; ultimately the devices were cut upon stones and gems, occasionally representing the tutelar deity of the wearer. Thus JuliusCæsar wore one with Venus Victrix upon it, and his partisans did thesame. Pompey’s ring was engraved with three trophies, indicating hisvictories in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Many used merely fanciful oremblematic devices; thus Mæcenas had a frog upon his ring. Others worethe portraits of their ancestors or friends. Publius Lentulus had thatof his grandfather. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, younger son of the greatAfricanus, wore the portrait of his father; but, as he was a degenerateson of an illustrious sire, the people gave expression to their disgustat his conduct by depriving him of his ring, saying he was unworthy towear the portrait of so great a man. [Illustration: Fig. 95. ] This ring-wearing became one of the troubles of the wealthy, and as theSybarite complained of the folded rose-leaf inconveniencing his bed, therich Roman was fatigued with his rings. Hence came the custom of wearinglight or heavy rings, or as they termed them, summer or winter rings, according to the season. That there really was some reason in thecomplaint, will be granted by the reader who looks on Fig. 95, copiedfrom Montfaucon. [89-*] It is a thumb-ring of unusual magnitude, and ofcostly material; it has upon it a bust in high relief of the EmpressPlotina, the consort of Trajan; she wears the imperial diadem, which ishere composed of precious stones cut into facets. This bust would ofcourse come outside the hand, the narrower part of the wreathed ringpassing between the thumb and first finger. The gorgeous inconvenienceof the whole thing is at once apparent. It probably decorated the handof some member of the imperial family. [Illustration: Fig. 96. ] [Illustration: Fig. 97. ] The enormous sums expended by the wealthy on rings may be bestunderstood by an allusion to the recorded value of two belonging toempresses of Rome. Thus, the ring of Faustina, we are told, cost£40, 000, and that of Domitia £60, 000, reckoning the Roman sestertia atits modern value. Sometimes the decoration of a ring was not confined to a single gem, though such rings were comparatively rare. Valerian speaks of the_annulus bigemmis_, and Gorleus furnishes us with the specimen engravedin Fig. 96; the larger gem has cut upon it a figure of Mars, holdingspear and helmet, but wearing only the chlamys; the smaller gem isincised with a dove and myrtle branch. Beside it are placed two examplesof the emblematic devices and inscriptions adopted for classic rings, when used as memorial gifts. The first is inscribed, “You have a lovepledge;” the second, “Proteros (to) Ugiæ, ” between conjoined hands--atype of concord still familiar to us. Though the ancients seem scarcely to have thought of decorating thecirclet of the ring, they occasionally varied its form, producingnovelty at the expense of convenience. Fig. 98 is a whimsical example;it may, however, have been principally used as a signet. The same may besaid of Fig. 99, which has a very broad face, set with an incised stonebearing a figure of Hygeia. [Illustration: Fig. 98. ] [Illustration: Fig. 99. ] The ancients tell us of charmed rings; such was the ring of Gyges, whichwas reported to have rendered him invisible when he turned the stoneinwardly, and closed it in his palm. Execetus, tyrant of the Phocians, carried two rings, which he was accustomed to strike together, to divineby the sound emitted what he had to do, or what was to happen to him. The most curious adaptation of the finger-ring to a double use was madeby the Romans. It was a combination of a ring and a key, as representedin Figs. 100 and 101, from originals engraved by Montfaucon in his greatwork on Roman antiquities. He has published many varieties, for they arevery commonly discovered in all places where the Romans locatedthemselves. Many have been found in London, York, Lincoln, and other oldcities, as well as in the neighbourhood of Roman camps. The use of theserings is apparent: they opened the small cabinets or boxes in which themost precious articles were preserved, and they were less likely to belost, mislaid, or improperly used by others, when thus worn night andday on the finger. [Illustration: Fig. 100. ] [Illustration: Fig. 101. ] It is recorded of the poisoning Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia), that hecaused a somewhat similar key to be used in opening a cabinet; but thePope’s key was poisoned in the handle, and provided with a small sharppin, which gave a slight puncture sufficient to allow the poison to passbelow the skin. When the Holy Father wished to rid himself of anobjectionable friend, he would request him to unlock his cabinet; as thelock turned rather stiffly, a little pressure was necessary on thekey-handle, sufficient to give the trifling wound that ultimately provedmortal. Poisoned rings were known to the ancients; when Hannibal, theCarthaginian general, was overcome by Scipio Africanus, it is recordedthat he fled to Bithynia, and ended his life by poison, which for thatpurpose he had reserved in a ring. [Illustration: Fig. 102. ] [Illustration: Fig. 103. ] Rings formed of bone, amber, and glass, were provided for the poorerclasses, as was the case in ancient Egypt. They were also used asmortuary rings, and are found on the hands of the dead in Italiansepulchres. The Waterton collection supplies us with two specimens. Fig. 102 is of amber, cut to appear as if set with a stone. Fig. 103 is ofglass, also made as if set with a jewel. The body of this ring is darkbrown with bands of white crossing it; the jewel is yellow. [Illustration: Fig. 104. ] [Illustration: Fig. 105. ] In the later days of the Roman empire the simplicity and purity indecorative design that the Romans obtained from the Greeks, gave way tothe ostentatious love of gaudy decoration taught at Byzantium. Jewellerybecame complicated in design; enrichment was considered before elegance. The old simple form of finger-ring varied much. Fig. 104 is given byMontfaucon. Fig. 105 is in the Londesborough collection, and was foundupon the hand of a lady’s skeleton, buried with her child in asarcophagus discovered in 1846, in a field near Amiens, called “Le Campde Cæsar;” on two of her fingers were rings, one of which was set withten round pearls, the other (here engraved) is of gold, in which is seta red carnelian, engraved with a rude representation of Jupiter ridingon the goat Amalthea. The child also wore a ring with an engraved stone. The whole of the decorations for the person found in this tomb proclaimthemselves late Roman work, probably of the time of Diocletian. [Illustration: Fig. 106. ] [Illustration: Fig. 107. ] In 1841 a curious discovery was made at Lyons of the jewel case of aRoman lady, containing a complete _trousseau_, including the rings hereengraved. Fig. 106 is of gold; the hoop is slightly ovular, and curvesupward to a double leaf, supporting three cup-shaped settings, one stillretaining its stone, an African emerald. Fig. 107 is also remarkable forits general form, and still more so for its inscription, VENERI ETTVTELE VOTVM, explained by M. Comarmond as a dedication to Venus and thelocal Tutela, the guardian of the navigators of the Rhine; hence heinfers these jewels to have belonged to the wife of one of these richtraders in the reign of Severus. Carrying back our researches to the pre-historic era of our own island, and searching in the tumuli of the early British chieftain and hisfamily, we shall discover the utmost simplicity of adornment; notprobably the result of indifference to personal decoration, but simplyto the rudeness of his position. The wild Gaelic hunter, located in thegloomy fastnesses of wood and morass, had little or no communicationwith the southern sea-margin of our isle: and when we find the southCymry of Britain much advanced in civilisation, owing to connection withBelgic Gaul, and Phœnician colonists of Spain, and the Greek colonistsof the Mediterranean, we find the tribes inhabiting the midland andnorthern counties still barbaric, and little advanced in the arts thatmake life pleasant. Such decoration as they adopted seems to haveoriginated in the basket-weaving, for which the British Islands werefamous even at Rome, where noble dames coveted these works from thefar-off and mysterious _Cassiteridæ_. Plaited or interlaced-work, resembling the convolutions of wicker and rush, was imitated in threadsof metal; thus circlets for the neck, bracelets for the arms, or ringsfor the fingers, were but twisted strands of gold. The simplest form of finger-ring worn by these Gaelic ancestorsconsisted of a band of metal, merely twisted round to embrace thefinger, and open at either end. Fig. 108 shows one of these rings, foundin excavating at Harnham Hill, near Salisbury, a locality celebratedfrom the very earliest recorded time as the true centre of ancientBritain. This ring was found on the middle finger of the right hand of aperson of advanced age. Sometimes several rings were found on one hand. “Among the bones of the fingers of the left hand of an adult skeletonwas found a silver ring of solid form, another of spiral form, and aplain gold ring. ”[96-*] Mr. Akerman, who superintended these researches, says, “Similar rings have been found at Little Wilbraham, at LintonHeath, at Fairford, and other localities. They are for the most part ofan uniform construction, being so contrived that they could be expandedor contracted, and adapted to the size of the finger of thewearer. ”[96-†] [Illustration: Fig. 108. ] [Illustration: Fig. 109. ] The prevailing form of the old Celtic finger-ring is shown in Fig. 109. It is formed of thick twisted wires of pure gold. This fashion seems tohave been in most favour with all the early Celtic tribes, such ringsbeing found in the grave-mounds of Gaul, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, and Scotland. A discovery of many similar rings was made in oneof the Western Islands of Scotland; they were formed of from three toeight wires each, elaborately and beautifully enwreathed. [Illustration: Fig. 110. ] [Illustration: Fig. 111. ] The south Saxons retained to the last the simple form of wire-ring, which originated, as we have already shown, with the most ancientpeople. Its comparative cheapness and ease of construction were no doubtits great recommendations. Similar rings are still made for the poorerclasses in the East: the author has seen such worn in modern Egypt. Specimens have been obtained in Anglo-Saxon grave-mounds in England, andothers, identical in form, in the old Saxon cemeteries of Germany. [97-*]Fig. 110 represents one of the plainest of these wire-rings; it wasexhumed from a tumulus on Chartham Downs, a few miles from Canterbury, Kent, in 1773, by the Rev. Bryan Faussett, who says, “the bones werethose of a very young person. ” Upon the neck was a cross of silver, afew coloured earthen beads, and “two silver rings with sliding knots. ” The industry of the same collector furnishes us with Fig. 111, aspecimen of a wire-ring so twisted as to resemble a seal ring, or oneset with a stone: the wire round the finger has been beaten out flat. Itwas discovered in the extensive Saxon cemetery on Kingston Downs, nearCanterbury, on the Dover Road. The tumulus was evidently the lastresting-place of a person of small wealth, as this copper ring and twosmall beads only were found in it; and it was customary to bury theornaments of the deceased, however valuable, with them. [98-*] [Illustration: Fig. 112. ] [Illustration: Fig. 113. ] Ireland seems to have boasted a higher civilisation at an earlier periodthan the sister kingdoms, and her ancient art-works are remarkable fortheir skilled and tasteful elaboration. Gold, too, appears to have beenused more commonly there, and the museum of the Royal Irish Academy canshow a more wonderful collection of personal ornaments in that preciousmetal, as once worn by the native nobles, than is to be seen in thenational museums of any other country, with the exception of Denmark. The gold is of the purest kind and richest colour, and the manner of itsworking could not be excelled by a modern goldsmith. The Londesboroughcollection includes two remarkable rings (Figs. 112 and 113), whichwere found with other gold ornaments near the very remarkable tumulusknown as “New Grange, ” a few miles from Drogheda. They were accidentallydiscovered in 1842 by a labouring man, within a few yards of theentrance to the tumulus, at the depth of two feet from the surface ofthe ground, and without any covering or protection from the earth aboutthem. Two bracelets of thick twisted gold, and a chain, also of gold, were found with them. Another labouring man, hearing of this discovery, carefully searched the spot whence they were taken, and found a denariusof Geta, which may aid us in arriving at some conclusion as to the ageof these curious works. The stone set in both rings is a cut agate. [Illustration] CHAPTER II. MEDIÆVAL RINGS. The rings worn by the higher class of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors duringthe Heptarchy were often very beautiful, and of imposing form. One ofthe finest we have seen belonged to the Rev. H. B. Hutchings, ofAppleshaw, Hants, [100-*] and was found in a meadow at Bosington, nearStockbridge, in the same county, by a labourer who saw it among a heapof peat. We give a side and front view of this interesting relic; thewhole is of gold, and is of considerable weight and thickness; the goldthreads are all beautifully reeded, and the lettering and head executedwith great care. The inscription reads--NOMEN EHLLA FID IN XPO, equivalent to its owner saying, “My name is Ella, my faith is inChrist. ” [Illustration: Fig. 114. ] [Illustration: Fig. 115. ] The beautiful and remarkable collection of rings formed by EdmundWaterton, Esq. , F. S. A. , to which allusion has already been made, includes a ring of South Saxon workmanship, which was found in theThames at Chelsea in 1856. The face of this ring (Fig. 116) is anelongated oval, with a circular centre. Within this circle is theconventional figure of a dragon, surrounded by convoluted ornament, reminding us forcibly of the prevailing enrichments so lavishly bestowedon old Runic monuments, at home and abroad. Four quaintly-formed headsof dragons occupy the triangular spaces, above and below this centre. This ring is of silver. The ground between the ornament has been cutdown, probably for the insertion of niello or enamel colours. [Illustration: Fig. 116. ] [Illustration: Fig. 117. ] Fig. 117 is an historic relic of singular interest, and a remarkablework of early art. It is the ring of Ethelwulf, King of Wessex (thefather of Alfred the Great), who reigned A. D. 836-838, and bears theroyal name upon it. It was found in the parish of Laverstock, Hants, ina cart-rut, where it had become much crushed and defaced. The form isremarkable, the front rising pyramidally. Two birds of conventional formface each other, a flower ornament dividing them; these decorations, like those on Mr. Waterton’s ring just described, are relieved by aground of glossy bluish-black enamel, cavities having been cut betweenthe ornament for its infusion. This ring is of gold, weighing 11 dwts. 14 grs. ; it is now preserved in the British Museum. [Illustration: Fig. 118. ] Mr. Waterton is the fortunate possessor of a ring second only ininterest and value to this royal relic. It is the ring of Ahlstan, Bishop of Sherborne, the friend and counsellor of King Ethelwulf, whoflourished A. D. 817-867. It was discovered in Carnarvonshire, and hasthe name of the bishop in divided letters distributed on the circularrosettes of the design; they are connected by lozenge-shaped floriatedornaments, having dragons in their centres. Our cut (Fig. 118) gives thegeneral form and detail of this beautiful ring, which is remarkable forthe elegance of its design. It is of gold, like the preceding ring;both being admirable illustrations of the _champ-levé_ process ofenamelling as practised in the ninth century. [Illustration: Fig. 119. ] [Illustration: Fig. 120. ] A remarkable discovery of coins and treasure was made in 1840 by workmenemployed in digging at Cuerdale, near Preston, in Lancashire. Itconsisted of a large mass of silver, in the form of ingots or bars ofvarious sizes, a few armlets and rings, and portions of other ornaments, cut into pieces as if for remelting. With them were packed nearly seventhousand coins of various descriptions, consisting of Anglo-Saxonpennies, others struck by the second race of French kings, a fewOriental coins, and others which appear to have been coined by some ofthe piratical northern chieftains. This treasure was minutely examinedby E. Hawkins, F. R. S. , of the British Museum, and he came to theconclusion that it had been deposited about the year 910, and that theornaments must be considered such as were worn about the time of Alfred, or perhaps somewhat earlier. The rings retain much of the primitiveBritish form, as will be seen on examining the two selected forengraving here. Fig. 119 is beaten out into a broad face, which iscovered with an indented ornament produced by a chisel-shaped punch oftriangular form, the points of two conjoined in one pattern, the edgeof the ring on each side further enriched by a series of dots. Fig. 120has a still broader face, which is decorated by groups of three circleseach, somewhat irregularly distributed over the surface, with indentedlines between them. The open end of this ring has been drawn togetherand secured by a coil of wire. Such rings were probably worn by themiddle classes. The passion for gems and jewellery was excessive among all the Gothicnations. When Alaric pillaged Rome, his booty in this way was enormous;and it is recorded that his princess, Placidia, received as a presentfrom the conqueror’s brother, fifty basins filled with precious stonesof inestimable value. Not only were the persons of these sovereigns andnobles covered with gems, inserted in girdles, sword-scabbards, onborders of garments or shoes; but vases, dishes, bowls, drinking-cups, as well as portable articles of furniture, caskets, &c. , were similarlyenriched. The Ostrogoth and Wisigoth kings amassed, in Tolosa andNarbonne, immense treasures in gems and gold and silver vessels. WhenNarbonne was pillaged, the number of ornaments of pure gold enrichedwith gems that fell to the conquerors would scarcely be credited, werethe details recorded by less trustworthy authors, or not corroborated bysome few works of the same age which have fortunately descended to us. The Church shared largely in this wealth; crosses, reliquaries, andsacred vessels of all kinds, were made of the most costly material, andencrusted with gems. One of these ancient works may still be seen inCologne Cathedral--the _chasse_, or reliquary, containing the reputedskulls of the three Magi, of whom we shall soon have to speak morefully. This remarkable work is studded all over with engraved intagliosof Roman workmanship. Churchmen at this time were clever artificers; andSt. Dunstan, great statesman as he was, in the British, and St. Eloi inthe Gallic, church, both skilled working goldsmiths, have since becomethe patron saints of confraternities of their followers. [Illustration: Fig. 121. ] [Illustration: Fig. 122. ] The higher clergy on all solemn occasions displayed much personaldecoration. A jewelled ring was part of the adornment of a bishop whenarrayed in full pontificals. It indicated his rank, was made for him, and buried with him. The treasuries of our old cathedrals still possessa few of these rings. One of the earliest and most curious is kept bythe Dean of Winchester, and is represented in Fig. 121. It was foundduring the repair of the choir under the tomb of William Rufus, and issupposed to have been the pontifical ring of Henry de Blois, Cardinal, and Bishop of Winchester, A. D. 1129. It is a massive ring of solid gold, set with an oval irregularly-shaped sapphire, _en cabochon_, polishedonly, not cut; held in its heavy socket by four fleur-de-lys, and stillfurther secured by drilling through its centre a passage for a goldwire--a reckless way of treating valuable jewels, which ischaracteristic of almost all these early works. Fig. 122 is an ordinary pontifical gold ring of investiture, used in theAnglican Church about this time. It was found at Winchester, and ispreserved with Fig. 121, described above. It has a very massive settingfor a large blue sapphire, and is very characteristic, though simple inits design. [Illustration: Fig. 123. ] [Illustration: Fig. 124. ] Dignity, as exhibited by weight and simplicity, seems to have beenchiefly regarded in the design of these old episcopal insignia. In thesacristy at York Minster is preserved a very excellent specimen, Fig. 123. This was found in the tomb of Archbishop Sewall, who died in 1256. With it is kept another fine ring of more elaborate design (Fig. 124), which was discovered in the tomb of Archbishop Greenfield, who died in1315. The foliations which curl around the central stone and itssetting, take the prevailing forms adopted in architectural enrichmentsof the archbishop’s age. The stones usually chosen for such rings wereruby, emerald, or crystal, and had a significance usual with all thingsconnected with the Roman Catholic Church; ruby indicated its glory, emerald its tranquillity and happiness, and crystal its simplicity andpurity. The diamond typified invulnerable faith; the sapphire, hope; theonyx, sincerity; the amethyst, humility. In the old romance of “Sir Degrevant, ” we are told that at the marriageof the hero there came “Archbishops with rings More than fifteen. ” In the romance of “King Athelstan” (also a work of the fourteenthcentury), the king exclaims to an offending archbishop-- “Lay doun thy cross, and thy staff, Thy miter, and _thy ring_, that I to thee gaff: Out of my land thou flee. ” [Illustration: Fig. 125. ] The episcopal ring, being thus necessarily a mark of rank, was wornabout this time over the gloves: sometimes as a thumb-ring, and often ofvery large size. The ornaments of the clergy became more massive as thewealth of the Church increased. As the clergy were during church serviceseparated from the laity, many of the latter were at a considerabledistance from them. This may be a reason for the size adopted forepiscopal rings. A late Dean of St. Patrick’s had in his collection avery large ring of this kind, represented in Fig. 125, from a sketchmade by the author when it was in the possession of W. Huxtable, F. S. A. , in 1847. It was of bronze, thickly gilt, and set with a crystal. This peculiar form was generally adopted for rings at this period. TheLondesborough collection furnishes us with a curious specimen (Fig. 126), formed of gilt copper, and set with a small ruby, which must havestood forth from the finger in what would now be considered as a mostinconvenient manner. Fig. 127 exhibits the form of the plain hoopedring, simply decorated with quatrefoils on each side of the stone (inthis instance a small irregularly-shaped sapphire), which is embedded ina somewhat solid setting projecting from the ring. [Illustration: Fig. 126. ] [Illustration: Fig. 127. ] In the _Gentleman’s Magazine_ for 1848 is engraved a massive ring, alsoof brass, thickly gilt, the hoop chased with the arms of Pope PiusII. [108-*] (the famed Æneas Sylvius), and his name, _Papa Pio_, betweenthe tiara and the cross-keys. On each of the four sides of this ringappears one of the four beasts of the Revelation, typifying theEvangelists: they are executed in high relief. It is set with a largetopaz. This ring has since passed into Mr. Waterton’s fine collection, who is the fortunate possessor of others of the same class. One in theLondesborough collection is here engraved, Fig. 128, as a good specimenof the general design adopted for such rings. The crossed-keys surmounta coat of arms on one side of the ring; the keys alone appear on theopposite side; foliated ornament fills the space above the circlet oneither side. This ring is set with a large crystal. [Illustration: Fig. 128. ] [Illustration: Fig. 129. ] [Illustration: Fig. 130. ] We close our series of episcopal rings with one found in the cathedralat Hereford during the repairs of the choir in 1843, which rendered theremoval of the beautifully carved alabaster monument of Bishop Stanberyunavoidable. This bishop held the See from 1452 until his death in May, 1474. Upon opening the tomb a few fragments of bone were discovered, very small portions of the mere remains of the silk of the robes inwhich the body of the bishop was enveloped, and this beautiful ring, ofwhich views are given in Figs. 129 and 130. It is of gold, set with asapphire; the sides of the ring are decorated with sprays and flowers ona ground of dark enamel; and inside is the motto “=en bon an=. ” [Illustration: Fig. 131. ] [Illustration: Fig. 132. ] A very large ring, bearing great general resemblance to the episcopalring, was occasionally worn as a thumb-ring by the laity. A specimen ofsuch a one is selected from the Londesborough collection in Fig. 131. Itis somewhat roughly formed of mixed metal, and has upon the circularface a conventional representation of a monkey looking at himself in ahand-mirror. This is surrounded by a cable moulding, and on each side isset two large stones. The outer edge of this ring is also decorated witha heavy cable moulding: inside, next the finger, is the cross and sacredmonogram, placed on each side of the mystic word _anamzapta_, which weshall immediately have to explain more fully when speaking of the ringscommonly worn as charms. These massive thumb-rings were indicative of wealth or importance, whenworn by the middle classes who had obtained any municipal position. WhenFalstaff speaks of his slenderness in his youth, he declares that hecould then have “crept through an alderman’s thumb-ring. ” Like themassive gold chains still worn by that honourable fraternity, they toldof a trader’s wealth. The inventories of personal property belonging toburgesses in the Middle Ages, contain frequent allusions to such rings, without which they would have felt shorn of an important part of theirhead-earned honours. Among the wills and inventories preserved at BurySt. Edmund’s, published by the Camden Society, is one made by EdwardLee, of that town, bearing date 1535, in which he bequeaths to a friend, “my double wreathed ryng of gold, whych I ware on my thumbe. ” From thisdescription it is evident that this ring must have borne greatresemblance to that given in Fig. 131, with its outer cable or doublewreathed pattern. There is a brass in Hastings Church, Sussex, with theeffigy of a gowned citizen wearing such a ring. That such rings becamein the end indicative of that class, and were retained in fashion forthis reason when they had been long discarded from general use, may besafely inferred from the description of a character introduced in theLord Mayor’s Show in the year 1664, who is said to be “habited like agrave citizen--gold girdle and gloves hung thereon, rings on hisfingers, and a seal ring on his thumb. ” Such rings were evidently usedaccording to the most ancient mode as personal signets, by such as werenot entitled to bear arms; hence originated the quaint inventions knownas “merchant’s marks, ” which were impressed on merchandise, painted onshields instead of armorial bearings, inserted in memorial windows ofstained glass, and worn on the thumb for constant use in sealing. A veryfine ring of this kind is engraved in the Journal of the ArchæologicalInstitute, vol. Iii. , and is here copied in Fig. 132. It was found inthe bed of the Severn, near Upton, and is probably a work of thefifteenth century; it is of silver, and has been strongly gilt. The hoopis spirally grooved, and upon the circular face is a large letter H, surrounded by branches. [Illustration: Fig. 133. ] [Illustration: Fig. 134. ] The custom of placing initial letters on rings is a very old one, andthey are sometimes surmounted by crowns or coronets; hence they havefrequently been mistakenly appropriated to royalty. Fig. 133 is a ringof this kind, with a crowned I upon it; hence it was once called “KingJohn’s ring. ” It is most probably the initial of the Saviour’s name asKing of the Jews, in the same way that the crowned M may indicate theVirgin Mary as “Queen of Heaven, ” a favourite popish designation. Suchrings may have been worn from religious feeling, or from thesuperstitious belief in the efficacy of holy names as preservatives fromevil. The baseness of the metal of which they are often made, and theirconsequent small value, precludes the possibility of their havingbelonged to royalty. The same remark will apply to a ring also engravedin the Journal of the Archæological Institute, and now in the possessionof the Rev. Walter Sneyd. It is there described as of mixed yellow metalgilt; on either side of the hoop there is a crown (Fig. 134), of theform commonly seen on coins of the twelfth century, and on the signetare the words, ROGERIVS REX, chased in high relief. In the form of thecharacter they correspond closely with legends upon coins of Roger, second Duke of Apulia, of that name, crowned King of Sicily A. D. 1129;he died A. D. 1152. This ring has every appearance of genuine character, but it is difficult to explain for what purpose it was fabricated, theinscription not being inverted, and the letters in relief ill suited forproducing an impression. It seems very improbable that King Roger shouldhave worn a ring of base metal; and the conjecture may deserveconsideration, that it was a signet not intended for the purpose ofsealing, but entrusted in lieu of credentials to some envoy. The popularliterature of the Middle Ages abundantly proves this custom to have beenin general use. The tale of Ipomydon, in Weber’s “Ancient MetricalRomances, ” notes the gift of a ring to the hero from his mother, whichis to be used as a token of recognition to his illegitimate brother, andwhich is brought secretly to his notice by being dropped into hisdrinking horn. In the “Romance of Florence and Blancheflor, ” a ringserves the purpose of letters of introduction when the hero is on histravels, and ensures him hospitality when he deserves it. Rings sometimes bore the name and title of the Saviour in full, as inFig. 135 from the Londesborough collection. Two hands are clasped infront; it was, therefore, most probably a gift, or betrothal ring. It issilver, somewhat rudely fashioned. The inscription (here engraved belowit) is in uncial characters, and shorn of its somewhat awkwardabbreviation, reads “Jesus Nazareneus Rex. ” [Illustration: Fig. 135. ] [Illustration: Fig. 136. ] [Illustration: Fig. 137. ] The same collection furnishes us with the specimen of a religious ring(Fig. 136), apparently a work of the fourteenth century. It has a heartin the centre, from which springs a double flower. On the upper edge ofthe ring are five protuberances on each side; they were used to mark acertain number of prayers said by the wearer, who turned his ring as hesaid them, and so completed the series in the darkness of the night. Such rings are of very common occurrence, and must have been in generaluse. They are sometimes furnished with more prominent knobs, as in Fig. 137. They are termed decade rings when furnished with ten bosses, whichwere used to count the repetition of ten _aves_, but they areoccasionally seen with one or two additional bosses; when there areeleven, they notify ten _aves_ and a _paternoster_; the addition of thetwelfth marks the repetition of a creed. Allusion has already been made to the mystic virtues attributed tostones during the Middle Ages, and for the fondness for collectingantique gems. They were coveted not only as works of art, but for theirsupposed power over the circumstances of life, or the welfare ofindividual wearers. The idea very probably originated with the Gnosticsof the East, who engraved stones with mystic figures believed to impartgood luck or to keep off evil influences. So completely had this beliefgained hold on all classes, that a Gnostic gem set as a ring was foundon the finger of the skeleton of an ecclesiastic, in the Cathedral ofChichester, “affording indubitable evidence that these relics werecherished in the Middle Ages by those whose express duty it was toreprove and check such gross superstition. ”[115-*] This belief was ultimately reduced to a system. An old French_Lapidaire_, compiled in the thirteenth century, assures us that a stoneengraved with the figure of Pegasus or Bellerophon is good for warriors, “giving them boldness and swiftness in flight, ” very contradictoryqualifications, it must be allowed. One with the figure of Andromeda hadthe power of conciliating love between man and woman. “A gem bearing thefigure of Hercules slaying a lion or other monster, was a singulardefence to combatants. The figure of Mercury on a gem rendered thepossessor wise and persuasive. The figure of Jupiter with the body of aman and the head of a ram, made the man who bore it beloved byeverybody, and he was sure to obtain anything he asked. If you find astone bearing the figure of a hare, it will be a defence against thedevil; if you find a dog and a lion on the same stone, it will be apreservative against dropsy or pestilence. The figure of Orion wasbelieved to give victory in war. If you find a stone, in which isPerseus holding in his right hand a sword, and in his left the Gorgon’shead, it is a preservative against lightning and tempest and against theassaults of devils. A stone on which is engraved a long-bearded mansitting on a plough, with a bending in his neck, and four men lyingdown, and holding in his hand a fox and a vulture, this, suspended aboutthe neck, enables you to find treasures. If you find a dove, with abranch of olive in its mouth, engraved in pyrites, and mount it in asilver ring, and carry it with you, everybody will invite you to be hisguest, and people will feast you much and frequently. The figure of asyren, sculptured in a jacinth, rendered the bearer invisible. A fairhead, well combed, with a handsome face, engraved on a gem, gave to thebearer joy, reverence, and honour. Such were the qualities attached toancient gems in the Middle Ages. ”[116-*] Many plain stones were also believed to have magical virtues. Thus, theamethyst prevented drunkenness, and was consequently often set upon winecups. The crystal clouded if evil was about to happen to its wearer. Amber was good against poison, hence drinking-cups were formed from it. The topaz cured and prevented lunacy, increased riches, assuaged angerand sorrow, and averted sudden death. Such was the faith placed instones until the end of the sixteenth century. Dr. Donne speaks of “A compassionate turquoise, that doth tell, By looking pale, the wearer is not well. ” But the most curious of all these superstitious beliefs attached itselfto the _crapaudine_, or toad-stone. It is most unattractive to sight, ofan opaque dirty-brown tint, and known to mineralogists as a variety oftrap-rock. It was believed to have most sovereign virtues against poisonif pounded and drank, and, like the turquoise, to give warning of itspresence by a change of colour, when simply worn in a ring. It wasbelieved to exist in the head of the toad. Fenton, writing in 1569, says, “There is found in the heads of old and great toads a stone whichthey call borax or stelon; it is most commonly found in the head of ahe-toad. ” It was not easily attained, for the toad “envieth so much thatman should have that stone, ” says old Lupton, in his “Thousand NotableThings. ” Hence came a true test for such stones, according to the samecredulous author, who thus enlightens us:--“To know whether thetoad-stone called _crapaudina_ be the right and perfect stone or not, holde the stone before a toad so that he may see it, and if it be aright and true stone, the toad will leap toward it, and make as thoughhe would snatch it from you. ” It should be obtained, says a mediævalauthor, while the toad is living, and this is to be done by simplyplacing him upon a piece of scarlet cloth, “wherewithal they are muchdelighted, so that while they stretch out themselves as it were in sportupon that cloth, they cast out the stone of their head, but instantlythey sup it up again, unless it be taken from them through some secrethole in the same cloth. ”[117-*] [Illustration: Fig. 138. ] [Illustration: Fig. 139. ] [Illustration: Fig. 140. ] Lupton, whom we have just quoted, tells us of “a rare good way to getthe stone out of the toad, ” which has the advantage of greatersimplicity. It is to be done thus:--“Put a great or overgrown toad(first bruised in divers places) into an earthen pot; put the same intoan ants’ hillocke, and cover the same with earth, which toad at lengththe ants will eat, so that the bones of the toad and stone will be leftin the pot. ” Boethius relates how he watched a whole night an old toadhe had laid on a red cloth to see him cast forth the stone, but thetedious watch was not rewarded; the toad retained his jewel, and he hadnothing from thence to “gratify the great pangs of his whole night’srestlessness. ” The Londesborough collection supplies us with two remarkable specimensof rings connected with toad superstition. Fig. 138 is of mixed metalgilt, having upon it the figure of a toad swallowing a serpent. There isa mediæval story of a necromancer introducing himself to anotherprofessor of magic by showing him a serpent ring, upon which the latter, who did not desire any one to interfere with his practice, produced histoad-stone ring, observing that the toad might swallow the serpent, thereby intimating his power to overcome him. Fig. 139 is curious, notonly as containing the true toad-stone, but also that the stone isembossed with the figure of a toad, according to the description ofAlbertus Magnus, who describes the most valuable variety of this covetedgem as having “the figure of the reptile imprinted upon it. ” The elder poets have, as usual with them, turned into a moralisationthis fabulous bit of natural history. Lyly, in his “Euphues, ” observes, “the foule toad hath a faire stone in his head. ” Shakspere hasimmortalised the superstition in the most effective and beautifulmanner, when he declares how “Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Yet wears a precious jewel in its head. ” Superstition did not confine its belief to a few charms; it ranged overmore than we can now record. In the Londesborough collection is themassive thumb-ring delineated in Fig. 140, having the tooth of someanimal as its principal gem, fondly believed by its original owner tohave mystic power over his well-being. To “make assurance doubly sure, ”it is set all round with precious stones, all believed to have magicalvirtues. [Illustration: Fig. 141. ] [Illustration: Fig. 142. ] Superstition was not confined to the real world of animal life, butranged over the fabulous natural history which mixed largely with thetrue, in all men’s minds, at this credulous era of the world’s history, when persons put more faith in false charms for the cure of disease orthe prevention of evil, than in the power of medicine, or the value ofproper preventives. The horn of the unicorn, the claw of the griffin, and other relics of equal verity and value, were sought eagerly bythose rich enough to procure them, and when obtained were believed toensure much good fortune to the possessor. A fear of the “evileye”--that bugbear which still disturbs the happiness of the lower classItalians and of the Eastern nations generally--was carefully providedagainst. One great preservative was the wearing of a ring with thefigure of a cockatrice upon it. This imaginary creature was supposed tobe produced from that rarest of all rare things, a cock’s egg, foolishlybelieved to be laid on certain occasions under magic influence andplanetary agencies. Sir Thomas Browne, in his “Vulgar Errors, ” describesthis imaginary creature “with legs, wings, a serpentine and windingtail, and a crest or comb somewhat like a cock. ” The Londesboroughcollection supplies us with a thumb-ring (Fig. 141), having twocockatrices cut in high relief upon an agate. The eye of the livingcockatrice was believed to be so deadly as to kill by a look, to whichShakspere alludes in _Twelfth Night_, and again in _Romeo and Juliet_:-- “Say thou but _I_, And that base vowel _I_ shall poison more Than the death-darting eye of cockatrice. ” There was, however, a counteraction to the danger, for it was alsobelieved that if a person saw the creature before it saw him, then thecockatrice died from the effect of the human eye. To this Drydenalludes:-- “Mischiefs are like a cockatrice’s eye, If they see first they kill, if seen they die. ” The figure of this bird merely gave security against the evil eye; ithad no other effect; and for this purpose various engraved stones wereused. Thus, Fig. 142, from the same collection, has set in its centre aGnostic gem with cabalistic figures, believed able to avert the dreadfulglance. Such stones were, of course, “far sought, dear bought;” and ringsbelieved to possess such covetable power had a high money value. Howthen were the poor, still more ignorant and superstitious, to be aided?Craft came to the aid of faith: demand, as usual, produced supply, andinscriptions took the place of costly jewels. Rings were fabricated insilver and baser metals, having cabalistic words upon them, the names ofspirits or of saints. To meet the poorest ring-wearer they were evencast in lead, and sold on the cheapest terms. They were believed toprevent cramp and epilepsy. One in the Londesborough collection isinscribed with the mystic word _Anamzapta_. In a manuscript of thefourteenth century, in the library at Stockholm, we have this recipe“for the falling sickness. Say the word _anamzaptus_ in his ear when heis fallen doun in that evyll, and also in a woman’s ear _anamzapta_, andthey shall never more after feel that evyll. ” [Illustration: Fig. 143. ] In the Journal of the Archæological Institute, vol. Iii. , is anengraving of a curious magical ring, copied in Fig. 143. It was found onthe coast of Glamorganshire, near to “the Worm’s Head, ” the westernextremity of the county, where numerous objects have been found atvarious times on the shifting of the sand, such as firearms, anastrolabe, and silver dollars. This ring is of gold, much bent anddefaced, and inscribed with mystic words inside and outside the hoop. Their talismanic character seems to be sufficiently proved by theEnglish medical manuscript preserved at Stockholm, already alluded to, in which, among various cabalistic prescriptions, is one “for peynes intheth. . . . Boro berto briore + vulnera quinque dei sint medicina mei +Tahebal + Ghether + + + Othman. ” The last word should probably be readGuthman, and it is succeeded by five crosses, possibly in allusion tothe five wounds of the Saviour. [Illustration: Fig. 144. ] [Illustration: Fig. 145. ] As a preventive of peril by travel and sudden death, the names of thethree Magi, or the “Kings of Cologne, ” as they were more popularlytermed, were believed to be most efficacious. Their bodies travelledfirst to Constantinople, thence to Milan, and lastly to Cologne, byvarious removals. The faithful may still view the skulls of the Arabiankings who visited the Saviour in the manger (if they can believe the oldlegend), in the richly-jewelled reliquary, guarded so sacredly in theCathedral of Cologne. Their possession brought enormous revenues to thebuilding, and a heavy tax is still imposed on all who would see them. Itwas once (and may be still) believed that anything which had touchedthese skulls had a protective virtue. Their names acted as a charm, andwere inscribed on such articles of wearing apparel as girdles orgarters, of which many specimens exist in the curious collection of Mr. C. Roach Smith, and were found at London in excavations or in theThames. Upon rings they are most common; two are here selected from theLondesborough collection. Fig. 144 is a thick gold hoop, inscribed withtheir names, Jasper, Melchior, Balthazar, and the abbreviated motto, “in· god · is · a · r. , ” which the late Mr. Crofton Croker, who compiled adescriptive catalogue of these rings, thought might probably mean “inGod is a remedy. ” Fig. 145 furnishes a good example of a fashion ofhoop-ring prevalent in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, flatinside and angular outside. Each face is inscribed with the sametalismanic names. It is formed of cheap mixed metal, was found inLondon, and presented to the collection by Mr. Roach Smith. [Illustration: Fig. 146. ] [Illustration: Fig. 147. ] Inscriptions on rings became at this time very common, nor were theyconfined to mystic or sacred words. Mottoes of love and gallantry werefrequent, as well as moral sentences, and those strictly heraldic. Inthe curious inventory of the plate and jewels of the Duke of Anjou, compiled about 1360, mention is made of a ring with a large squareemerald, surrounded by letters in black enamel. In “Archæologia, ” vol. Xxxi. , is a fine example of such an engraved ring. The representation iscopied in Fig. 146. It is a weighty ring of fine gold, and was found in1823 at Thetford, in Suffolk. The device which appears upon this ring isan eagle displayed; on the inner side is engraved a bird, with the wingsclosed, apparently a falcon, with a crown upon its head. The followingpoesy, or motto, commencing on the outer side, is continued on theinterior of the ring:--=deus me ouroge de bous senir a gree--com mouncouer desire=--“God work for me to make suit acceptably to you, as myheart desires. ” The devices appear to be heraldic, and the motto that ofa lover, or a suitor to one in power. The eagle is the bearing ofseveral ancient Suffolk families; it was also a badge of the House ofLancaster, and Thetford was one portion of the Duchy of Lancaster. These mottoes, or “reasons, ” as they were sometimes termed, wereoccasionally engraved in relief. Fig. 147 represents a specimen from theLondesborough collection. It is of gold, and was found in the Thames. The inscription upon it is--=sans bilinie=--“without baseness, ”--a mottothat may have been adopted by some Bayard of the Middle Ages. [Illustration: Fig. 148. ] [Illustration: Figs. 149 and 150. ] A very early ring, with an unusual pretty poesy, is in the collection ofJ. Evans, Esq. , F. S. A. , and is engraved (Fig. 148). It is of gold, setwith a small sapphire, and is inscribed--IE. SVI ICI EN LI’V D’AMI--[“Iam here in place of a friend]. ” It was probably made at the beginning ofthe fourteenth century. Fig. 149 is chased with the Nortons’ motto, “Godus ayde;” and Fig. 150 is inscribed withinside with the sentence, “Mulier, viro subjecta esto. ” Both are works of the fifteenth century. In Bromsgrove Church, Staffordshire, are the fine monumental effigies ofSir Humphrey Stafford and his wife (1450), remarkable alike for the richarmour of the knight and the courtly costume of the lady. She wears aprofusion of rings, every finger, except the little finger of the righthand, being furnished with one. They exhibit great variety of design, and are valuable as exponents of the fashion of that day. We engrave inFig. 151 the hands of the lady, as uplifted in prayer, with four of therings, the full size of the originals. [Illustration: Fig. 151. ] Recurring to the ancient people whose sacred records gave us theearliest knowledge of the use of rings, we may profitably devote someattention to the very beautiful rings, formerly used by the Hebrews forbetrothals and weddings. The Londesborough collection furnishes us withthe two fine examples engraved in Figs. 152 and 153. They are oftentermed “tower rings, ” from the figure of the sacred temple placed ontheir summit. In the first specimen it takes the form of a sexagonalbuilding, with a domed roof of an Eastern character; in the second it issquare, with a deeply pitched roof, having movable vanes at the angles, and is probably the work of some German goldsmith. Upon the roof of thefirst is inscribed in enamelled letters the best wish--“joy be withyou”--that a newly-married couple would command. The same words areinscribed in more richly-designed letters on the curve of the secondring. Both are of gold, richly chased, enamelled, and enriched byfiligree work, and are sufficiently stately for the most imposingceremonial. [Illustration: Fig. 152. ] [Illustration: Fig. 153. ] A third Hebrew ring of less striking appearance, but of equal or greatercuriosity, is also engraved from the same rich collection, in Fig. 154. It bears on its surface a representation (in high relief) of thetemptation of our first parents, who are surrounded by various animals, real and imaginary, their joint residents in Paradise. The workmanshipof all these rings has been dated to the commencement of the sixteenthcentury. [Illustration: Fig. 154. ] We close our series with a wedding-ring, commemorative of a marriagewhich excited the marked attention of the entire Christian community, asa vigorous protest against monkery by that “solitary monk that moved theworld”--Martin Luther. Renouncing the faith of Rome, he revoked his vowof celibacy, and completed his total severance from its creed bymarrying a lady who had been once a nun, named Catharine Boren. Thering, here engraved, is that used on the occasion. It is of elaboratedesign and execution; a group of emblems of the Saviour’s Passion, thepillar, the scourge, the spear, and various other objects, combine witha representation of the Crucifixion, a small ruby being set in thecentre of the ring above the head of the Saviour. We engrave this mostinteresting object of personal decoration as it appears to the eye, andalso the full design _in plano_; beneath it are the names and dateinscribed on the inside of the ring. [Illustration: Fig. 155. ] CHAPTER III. MODERN RINGS. The period known as mediæval commences with the fall of ancient Romeunder the Gothic invasion, and concludes with the capture ofConstantinople by the Turks in 1453. The modern era therefore commencesin the middle of the fifteenth century, during the reign of Henry VI. As private wealth increased, finger-rings became much more ornamental;to the art which the goldsmith and jeweller devoted to them, was addedthat of the engraver and enameller. Fig. 156, from the Londesboroughcollection, is decorated with floral ornament, engraved and filled withgreen and red enamel colours. The effect on the gold is extremelypleasing, having a certain quaint sumptuousness peculiarly its own. Fig. 157 is a fine specimen, from the same collection, of a signet-ring, bearing “a merchant’s mark” upon its face. These marks varied with everyowner, and were as peculiar to himself as is the modern autograph; theywere a combination of initials or letter-like devices, frequentlysurmounted by a cross, or a conventional sign, believed to represent thesails of a ship, in allusion to their trading vessels. The marks wereplaced upon the bales of merchandize, and were constantly used where thecoat-armour or badge of persons entitled to bear arms would be placed. The authority vested in such merchants’ rings is curiously illustratedin one of the historical plays on the life and reign of Queen Elizabeth, written by Thomas Heywood, and to which he gave the quaint title, “Ifyou know not me, you know nobody. ” Sir Thomas Gresham, the great Londonmerchant, is one of the principal characters, and in a scene where he isabsent from home, and in sudden need of cash, he exclaims, “Here, John, take this seal-ring; bid Timothy presently send me a hundred pound. ”John takes the ring to the trusty Timothy, saying, “Here’s hisseal-ring; I hope a sufficient warrant. ” To which Timothy replies, “Uponso good security, John, I’ll fit me to deliver it. ” Another merchant, inthe same play, is made to obtain his wants by similar means:-- “---- receive thou my seal-ring: Bear it to my factor; bid him by that token Sort thee out forty pounds’ worth of such wares As thou shall think most beneficial. ” [Illustration: Fig. 156. ] [Illustration: Fig. 157. ] The custom must have been common to be thus used in dramatic scenes ofreal life, which the plainest audience would criticise. These plays wereproduced in 1606, and serve to show that the value attached to aseal-ring descended from very ancient to comparatively modern times. In the Waterton collection is a massive gold signet-ring, with the rebusof the Wylmot family quaintly designed in the taste of the fourteenthcentury. In the centre is a tree; on one side of it the letters WY, andon the other OT. Supposing the tree to be an _elm_, the name readsWy-_elm_-ot, or Wylmot. [Illustration: Fig. 158. ] [Illustration: Fig. 159. ] In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries religious figures werefrequently engraved on rings. Fig. 158 represents a ring upon which isvery delicately engraved a representation of St. Christopher bearing theSaviour on his shoulder across an arm of the sea, in accordance with theold legendary history of this saint. The circle is formed by tenlozenges, each of which bears a letter of the inscription, =de boen cuer=. The figure of St. Christopher was used as an amulet against suddendeath--particularly by drowning; for it was popularly believed that nosudden or violent death could occur to any person on any day when he hadreverently looked upon this saint’s effigy. Hence it was not uncommonfor charitable individuals to place such figures outside their houses, or paint them on the walls. There is a colossal figure (and St. Christopher was said to have been of gigantic stature), thus painted, beside the great gate of the ancient city of Treves, on the Moselle. The enameller and engraver were both employed on the ring Fig. 159, alsofrom the Londesborough collection. The hoop is richly decorated, withquaint floriated ornament cut upon its surface, and filled in with_niello_, then extensively used by goldsmiths in enriching their works, as it is still in Russia. This beautiful ring is inscribed withinsidewith the motto =mon cor plesor=--“my heart’s delight”--and was doubtless a_gage d’amour_. [Illustration: Fig. 160. ] [Illustration: Fig. 161. ] Of Elizabeth of England and Mary of Scotland, interesting mementoes arepreserved in the shape of rings. Fig. 160 represents the goldsignet-ring of Mary, now preserved in the British Museum. Upon the faceis engraved the royal arms and supporters of Scotland, with the mottoIN .  DEFENS, and her initials M. R. But the most curious portion of the ringis the inner side of the seal, as shown in the cut, where a crownedmonogram is engraved, which might have been an unsolved enigma, but forthe existence in our State Paper Office of a letter written by Mary toQueen Elizabeth, in which she has drawn this identical monogram aftersigning her name. Sir Henry Ellis, who first traced out this curioushistory, says, “It is clearly formed of the letters M and A (for Maryand Albany), and gives countenance to the opinion that the writtenmonogram was intended for Elizabeth and Burleigh to study; thesubsequent creation of the title of Duke of Albany in Lord Darnleyultimately opening their eyes to the enigma. ” Elizabeth’s intensedislike to the Darnley marriage is well known, as she endeavoured toforce Mary into a match with one of her own favourites, the Earl ofLeicester. The Waterton collection boasts a gem of no inferior interest inconnection with this unhappy marriage. It is the ring of Henry, LordDarnley, husband to Mary Queen of Scots. On the bezel it bears the twoinitials M. H. United by a lover’s knot, and within the hoop the nameengraved of HENRI . L . DARNLEY, and the year of the marriage, 1565. Thecut, Fig. 161, shows the face of the ring with the initials; below isengraved a fac-simile of the interior of the ring as a plane surface. Queen Elizabeth’s history, and that of her unfortunate favourite, theEarl of Essex, has a tragic story connected with a ring. The narrativeis popularly known, and may be briefly told. It is said that the queen, at a time when she was most passionately attached to the earl, gave hima ring, with the assurance that she would pardon any fault with which hemight be accused when he should return that pledge. Long after this, when he was condemned for treason, she expected to receive this token, and was prepared to have granted the promised pardon. It came not. Thequeen was confirmed in the belief that he had ceased to care for her, and pride and jealousy consigned him to the death of a traitor. But theearl had, in the last extremity of despair, entrusted the ring to theCountess of Nottingham, wife of the Lord High Admiral, an enemy to theunfortunate Essex, who forbade his wife to take any proceedings in thematter, but to conceal the trust entirely, and secrete the ring. Whenthe countess lay upon her death-bed, she sent for her royal mistress, for the first time told her guilt, “and humbly implored mercy from Godand forgiveness from her earthly sovereign, who did not only refuse togive it, but having shook her as she lay in bed, sent her, accompaniedwith most fearful curses, to a higher tribunal. ” Such is the awfulaccount of the scene by Francis Osborne. Dr. Birch says the words usedby Elizabeth were, “God may forgive you, but I never can. ” It was thedeath-blow to the proud old queen, whose regret for the death of Essexcould not be quenched by her pride and belief in his ingratitude. Aconfirmed melancholy settled upon her; she died lonely andbroken-hearted. [Illustration: Fig. 162. ] [Illustration: Fig. 163. ] [Illustration: Fig. 164. ] This ring is now in the possession of the Rev. Lord John Thynne, andthree views of it are given in Figs. 162, 163, and 164. It is of gold, of extremely delicate workmanship throughout. A cameo head of the queenis cut on hard onyx and set as its central jewel; the execution of thishead is of the highest order, and may possibly have been the work ofValerio Vincentino, an Italian artist who visited England and cutsimilar works for Elizabeth and Burleigh. It is one of the most minutebut the most striking likenesses. The hoop of the ring is enriched withengraving, and the under surface decorated with floriated ornament, relieved by blue enamel. It has descended from Lady Frances Devereux, Essex’s daughter, in unbroken succession from mother and daughter, tothe present possessor. Although the entire story has met withdisbelievers, the most sceptical must allow that whether this be _the_ring or not, it is valuable as a work of art of the Elizabethan era. [Illustration: Fig. 165. ] [Illustration: Fig. 166. ] A ring possessing even greater claim to notice, but depending for itsappropriation on its own internal evidence, is the next on our list(Figs. 165 and 166). It purports to be the seal-ring of WilliamShakspere, and was found March 16, 1810, by a labourer’s wife, in themill close adjoining Stratford-on-Avon churchyard. It passed into thepossession of R. B. Wheler, Esq. , the historian of the town; and hissister, at his death, presented it to the museum of Shaksperian relicsformed in the birthplace of the poet. It is of gold, weighing 12 dwts. ;having the initials W. S. Braced together by a tasselled cord; the onlyother ornament upon the ring being a band of pellets and lines on theouter edge of the bezel. Is it Shakspere’s? It is evidently a gentleman’s ring, and of the poet’sera. It is just such a ring as a man in his station would fittinglywear--gentlemanly, but not pretentious. There was but one other personin the small town of Stratford at that time to whom the same initialsbelonged. This was one William Smith, but _his_ seal is attached toseveral documents preserved among the records of the corporation, and istotally different. [136-*] Mr. Halliwell, in his “Life of Shakspere, ”observes that “little doubt can be entertained that this ring belongedto the poet, and it is probably the one he lost before his death, andwas not to be found when his will was executed, the word _hand_ beingsubstituted for _seal_ in the original copy of that document. ”[136-†] In the great poet’s will, five of his friends have bequests of memorialrings. Two are his townsmen, Hamlett Sadler and William Raynoldes, whoeach have twenty-six shillings and eightpence left them “to buy themringes;” the other three being the actors (“my fellows, ” as heaffectionately terms them) John Heminge, Richard Burbage, and HenryCondell, [137-*] each of whom has a similar sum. Rings were at this time an almost necessary part of the toilet of agentleman; they indicated rank and character by their style or theirdevices. Hence the wills and inventories of the era abound with noticesof rings, many persons wearing them in profusion, as may be seen in theportraits painted at this time. The Germans particularly delighted inthem, and wore them upon many fingers, and upon different joints of thefingers, the forefinger especially; a custom still followed by theirdescendants. The ladies even wreathed them in the bands of theirhead-dresses. Rabelais speaks of the rings Gargantua wore because hisfather desired him to “renew that ancient mark of nobility. ” On theforefinger of his left hand he had a gold ring, set with a largecarbuncle; and on the middle finger one of mixed metal, then usuallymade by alchemists. On the middle finger of the right hand he had “aring made spire-wise, wherein was set a perfect balew ruby, a pointeddiamond, and a Physon emerald of inestimable value. ” Italy now furnished the most splendid and tasteful jewellery; theworkmen of Venice exceeding all others. The Londesborough collectionsupplies us with a graceful example, Fig. 167. The claws support thesetting of a sharply-pointed pyramidal diamond, such as was then covetedfor writing on glass. It was with a similar ring Raleigh wrote the wordson the window-pane--“Fain would I rise, but that I fear to fall”--towhich Queen Elizabeth added, “If thy heart fail thee, do not rise atall;” an implied encouragement which led him on to fortune. [Illustration: Fig. 167. ] [Illustration: Fig. 168. ] In Burgon’s life of Sir Thomas Gresham is engraved the wedding ring ofthat merchant-prince. “It opens horizontally, thus forming two rings, which are, nevertheless, linked together, and respectively inscribed onthe inner side with a Scripture poesy. _Quod Deus conjunxit_ is engravedon one half, and _Homo non seperet_ on the other. ” It is here copied, Fig. 168. In Ben Jonson’s comedy, _The Magnetic Lady_, the parson compelled toform a hasty wedding asks-- “Have you a wedding ring?” To which he receives as answer-- “Ay, and a poesy: _Annulus hic nobis, quod sic uterque, dabit_. ” He at once exclaims-- “. . . Good! _This ring will give you what you both desire. _ I’ll make the whole house chant it, and the parish. ” Such rings were known as Gemel or Gimmal rings, the word being derivedfrom the Latin _gemellus_, twins. The two making one, and thoughseparate, indivisible, peculiarly fitted them for wedding rings. Theirstructure will be best understood from the very fine specimen in theLondesborough collection, Fig. 169. The ring, as closed and worn on thefinger, is shown in the uppermost figure (_a_). It is set with sapphireand amethyst, the elaborate and beautiful design enriched by colouredenamels. The lower figure shows the ring parted (_b_), displaying theinscription on the flat side of each section, which is also enriched byengraving and _niello_. Dryden, in his play of _Don Sebastian_, describes such a ring:-- “A curious artist wrought them With joints so close as not to be perceived; Yet they are both each other’s counterpart. (Her part had _Juan_ inscribed, and his had _Zaida_: You know those names were theirs), and in the midst A heart divided in two halves was placed. Now if the rivets of those Rings inclosed Fit not each other, I have forged this lie: But if they join, we must for ever part. ” A complete illustration of this passage of the poet is afforded in Fig. 170, from the same collection. It also illustrates Dr. Nares’s remarkthat “Gimmal rings, though originally double, were by a furtherrefinement made triple, or even more complicated; yet the name remainedunchanged. ” So Herrick:-- “Thou sent’st to me a true love knot; but I Return a ring of jimmals, to imply Thy love had one knot, mine a triple tye. ” [Illustration: Fig. 169. ] [Illustration: Fig. 170. ] This ring (Fig. 170) is shown (_a_) as it appears when closed. It partsinto three hoops, secured on a small pivot, as seen (_b_); the toothededge of the central hoop forming an ornamental centre to the hoop of thering, and having two hearts in the middle; a hand is affixed to the sideof the upper and lower hoop; the fingers slightly raised, so that whenthe hoops are brought together, they link in each other, and close overthe hearts, securing all firmly. A mechanical ring of still greater mystic significance is shown, Fig. 171, and is one of the most curious of the Londesborough series. Theoutside of the hoop is perfectly plain, and is set with a ruby andamethyst. Upon pressing these stones, a spring opens, and discovers thesurface covered with magical signs and names of spirits; among themAsmodiel, Nachiel, and Zamiel occur, a similar series occupying theinterior of the hoop. Such a ring might be worn without suspicion of itstrue import, looking simplicity itself, but fraught with unholy meaning. It was probably constructed for some mystic philosopher, or student ofthe occult sciences, searching for the philosopher’s stone, the elixirof life, and the power given to man to control the unseen world ofspirits. [Illustration: Fig. 171. ] [Illustration: Fig. 172. ] [Illustration: Fig. 173. ] We close our review of the art of ring-making in the sixteenth centurywith two very beautiful examples. Fig. 172, from the Londesboroughcollection, has a ruby in a very tall setting, enriched by enamel. Thesides of the hoop are highly decorated with flowers and scroll ornament, also richly enamelled. The Waterton collection gives us Fig. 173, a goldenamelled ring, set with a large turquoise in the centre, and surroundedby six raised garnets. This ring is stated to have subsequently belongedto Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, whose cipher is upon it. [Illustration: Fig. 174. ] [Illustration: Fig. 175. ] We must not, however, end this portion of our history without areference to the simple, but most important, “plain gold ring” ofmatrimony. It was at this time almost universally inscribed with a“poesy” of one or two lines of rhyme. Two specimens are here engraved. Fig. 174 is formed like the badge of the Order of the Garter, with thebuckle in front, and the motto of the order outside the hoop; withinsideare the words “I’ll win and wear you. ” The ordinary form of ring isshown in Fig. 175, and is inscribed “Let likinge laste. ” They wereinvariably inscribed _withinside_ the hoop. Thus Lyly, in his “Euphues, ”1597, addressing the ladies, hopes they will favour his work, “writingtheir judgments as you do the poesies in your rings, which are alwaysnext to the finger, not to be seen of him that holdeth you by the hand, and yet known by you that wear them on your hands. ” Such jingling rhymeswere in great request, and exerted the ingenuity of poetasters and smallwits. In 1624 a small collection of them was printed, with the quainttitle, “Love’s Garland; or poesies for rings, handkerchiefs, and gloves, and such pretty tokens that lovers send their loves. ” They are generallyin double, seldom in triple lines of rhyme. The Rev. R. Brooke, ofGateforth House, Selby, has presented a curious collection of such ringsto the South Kensington Museum. The six following poesies are selectedfrom this series, as they are good examples of the average inspirationsof ring-poets:-- “Seithe God hath wrought this choice in thee, So frame thyselfe to comfourth mee. ” “United hearts death only parts. ” “Let us share in joy and care. ” “A faithfull wife preserveth life. ” “As God decreed, so we agreed. ” “Love and live happily. ” The custom of thus inscribing rings continued until the middle of thelast century. There is a story told of Dr. John Thomas, Bishop ofLincoln, in 1753, that he inscribed his _fourth_ wife’s ring with thesewords:-- “If I survive I’ll make them five. ” Horace Walpole says--“My Lady Rochford desired me t’other day to giveher a motto for a ruby ring, ” so that at that time poesies were notconfined to wedding rings. Allusion has already been made in Chapter I. To the custom of usingrings as receptacles for relics or poisons. The most famed belonged toCæsar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI. , both adepts in poisoning; agrasp from the hand wearing this ring ensured a very slow, but certaindeath: it contained a virulent poison, which found vent through a smallspike, pressed out by a spring when the hand was grasped, and which wasso slight in its operation as to be scarcely felt, and not usuallynoticed by the person wounded during the excitement of the heartyfriendship so well simulated. When conspiracies against the life ofWilliam of Orange were rife under the influence of the court of Spain[_circa_ 1582], the unworthy son of Count Egmont “had himself undertakento destroy the prince at his own table by means of poison which he keptconcealed in a ring. Saint Aldegonde (his friend and counsellor) was tohave been taken off in the same way, and a hollow ring filled withpoison is said to have been found in Egmont’s lodgings. ”[144-*] [Illustration: Fig. 176. ] [Illustration: Fig. 177. ] Fig. 176 represents a curious Venetian ring, the bezel formed like a boxto contain relics. The face of the ring (in this instance the cover ofthe box) has a representation of St. Mark seated, holding his gospel, and giving the benediction. The spaces between this figure and the ovalborder are perforated, so that the interior of the box is visible, andthe relic enshrined might be seen. Fig. 177 is another ring of the sameconstruction: it is richly engraved and set with two rubies and apyramidal diamond; the collet securing the latter stone opens with aspring, and exhibits a somewhat large receptacle for such virulentpoisons as were concocted by Italian chemists in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. The elaborate character of design adopted at this time for Venetianrings, the highly artistic taste that governed it, as well as the beautyof the stones employed in settings, combined to perfect _bijouterie_that has never been surpassed. Fig. 178 is a ring of very peculiardesign. It is set with three stones in raised bezels; to their bases areaffixed, by a swivel, gold pendent ornaments, each set with a garnet; asthe hand moves these pendants fall about the finger, the stonesglittering in the movement. This fashion was evidently borrowed from theEast, where people delight in pendent ornaments, and even affix them toarticles of utility. Fig. 179 is a ring of silver, of East Indianworkmanship, discovered in the ruins of one of their most ancienttemples; to its centre are affixed bunches of pear-shaped hollow dropsof silver, which jingle with a soft low note as the hand moves. [Illustration: Fig. 178. ] [Illustration: Fig. 179. ] We have already alluded to the old Eastern tale of “The Fish and theRing, ” invented some thousands of years since. It has survived to ourown day, and is still related and believed by the commonalty to the eastof London. In the church at Stepney is a tomb to the memory of LadyRebecca Berry, who died 1696, in whose coat-of-arms a fish and anannulet appear. She has hence been supposed the heroine of a oncepopular ballad, the scene of which is laid in Yorkshire; it is entitled, “The Cruel Knight, or Fortunate Farmer’s Daughter, ” and narrates how oneof knightly rank in passing a village heard the cry of a woman intravail, and was told by a witch that he was pre-doomed to marry thatgirl on her arrival at womanhood. The knight in deep disgust draws aring from his finger, and casting it into a rapid river, vows he willnever do so unless she can produce that ring. After many years a fish isbrought to the farmer’s daughter to dress for dinner, and she finds thering in its stomach, enabling her to win a titled husband, who no longerfights against his fate. The civic arms of Glasgow exhibit a fish holding a ring in its mouth. This alludes to an incident in the life of St. Kentigern, patron of theSee, as related in the “Acta Sanctorum. ” The queen, who was hispenitent, had formed an attachment to a soldier, and had given him aring she had received from her husband. The king knew his ring, butabided his revenge, until one day discovering the soldier asleep by thebanks of the Clyde, he took the ring from his finger and threw it in thestream. He then demanded of his queen a sight of his old love gift, arequest she was utterly unable to comply with. In despair, she confessedall to St. Kentigern, vowing a purer life in future. The saint went tothe river, caught a salmon, and took from its stomach the missing ring, which restored peace to all parties. [147-*] The occurrence of the fish and ring in the arms of Glasgow and in theStepney monument, is “confirmation strong as proofs of holy writ” of thetruth of these stories, in the minds of the vulgar, who would regardscepticism in the same light as religious infidelity. [Illustration: Fig. 180. ] [Illustration: Fig. 181. ] Memorial rings were sometimes made to exhibit a small portrait, and onsome occasions to conceal one beneath the stone. Such is the ring, Fig. 180, from the Londesborough collection, which was made for some devotedadherent of King Charles I. , when such devotion was dangerous. Atable-cut diamond is set within an oval rim, acting as a lid to a smallcase opening by means of a spring, and revealing a portrait of Charlesexecuted in enamel. The face of the ring, its back, and side portionsof the shank, are decorated with engraved scroll-work, filled in withblack enamel. “Relics” of this kind are consecrated by much higherassociations than what the mere crust of time bestows upon them; andeven were they not sufficiently old to excite the notice of theantiquary, they are well deserving of attention from their exhibiting“memorials of feelings which must ever command respect and admiration. ”Horace Walpole had in the Strawberry Hill collection, “one of the onlyseven mourning rings given at the burial of Charles I. It has the king’shead in miniature behind a death’s head; between the letters C. R. Themotto, ‘Prepared be to follow me. ’” A much more lugubrious memorial is presented from the same collection, Fig. 181. Two figures of skeletons surround the finger and support asmall sarcophagus. The ring is of gold enamelled, the skeletons beingmade still more hideous by a covering of white enamel. The lid of thesarcophagus is also enamelled, with a Maltese cross in red, on a blackground studded with gilt hearts. This lid is made to slide off, anddisplay a very minute skeleton lying within. These doleful decorations first came into favour and fashion at thecourt of France, when Diana of Poictiers became the mistress of HenryII. At that time she was a widow, and in mourning; so black and whitebecame fashionable colours: jewels were formed like funeral memorials;golden ornaments shaped like coffins, holding enamelled skeletons, hungfrom the neck; and watches made to fit in little silver skulls wereattached to the waist. In the Duke of Newcastle’s comedy, _The Country Captain_, 1649, a ladyof title is told that when she resides in the country a great show offinger-rings will not be necessary: “Shew your white hand with but onediamond when you carve, and be not ashamed to wear your own weddingringe with the old poesy. ” That many rings were worn by persons of bothsexes is clear from another passage in the same play, where a fop isdescribed, “who makes his fingers like jewellers’ cards to set ringsupon. ” The stock of rings described in the same author’s play, _The Varietie_, as the treasure of an old country lady, is amusingly indicative of pastlegacies or memorials, as well as of the tastes of the yeomanry: “Atoad-stone, two Turkies (Turquoise), six thumb-rings, three alderman’sseals, five gemels, and foure death’s head. ” The enumeration concludeswith the uncomplimentary observation, “these are alehouse ornaments. ” These death’s-head rings were very commonly worn by the middle classesin the latter part of the sixteenth and the early part of theseventeenth centuries; particularly by such as affected a respectablegravity. Luther used to wear a gold ring, with a small death’s head inenamel, and these words, “Mori sæpe cogita” (Think oft on death); roundthe setting was engraved “O mors, ero mors tua” (Death, I will be thydeath). This ring is preserved at Dresden. Shakspere, in his Love’s_Labour’s Lost_ (Act V. Scene 2), makes his jesting courtier, Biron, compare the countenance of Holophernes to “a death’s face in a ring. ” Wehave already adverted to a similar ring worn by one of Shakspere’sfellow townsmen. [Illustration: Fig. 182. ] [Illustration: Figs. 183 and 184. ] In the “Recueil des Ouvrages d’Orfeverie, ” by Gilles l’Egaré, publishedin the early part of the reign of Louis XIV. , is an unusually gooddesign for one of these rings, which we copy, Fig. 182. It is entirelycomposed of mortuary emblems, on a ground of black enamel. Fig. 183 isan English memorial ring set with stones; on the circlet is engraved anelongated skeleton, with crossbones above the skull, and a spade andpick-axe at the feet; the ground is black enamel. It has been convertedinto a memorial by its original purchaser, who caused to be engravedwithinside the hoop, “C. R. , Jan. 30, 1649, Martyr. ” It is now in theLondesborough collection, from whence we obtain Fig. 184, a very goodspecimen of a mourning ring of the early part of the last century, withwhich we take leave of this branch of the subject. [Illustration: Fig. 185. ] [Illustration: Fig. 186. ] The jewellers of the last century do not seem to have bestowed the sameattention on design as their predecessors did. Rings appear to havereached their highest excellence in design and execution in the_ateliers_ of Venice. We meet with little originality of conception, andcertainly great inferiority of execution, in the works then issued. Insouthern Europe, where jewellery is deemed almost a necessary of life, and the poorest will wear it in profusion, though only made of copper, greater scope was given to invention. Fig. 185 is a Spanish silver ringof the early part of the century. In its centre it has a heart, wingedand crowned; the heart is transfixed by an arrow, but surrounded byflowers. It is possibly a religious emblem. Fig. 186 is another Spanishring of more modern manufacture, but of very light and elegant design. The flowers are formed of rubies and diamonds, and the effect isextremely pleasing. [Illustration: Fig. 187. ] [Illustration: Fig. 188. ] Such works may have originated the “giardinetti” rings, of which a goodcollection of specimens may be seen in the South Kensington Museum, twobeing here copied in Figs. 187 and 188. They are there described asEnglish works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and appear tohave been used as guards, or “keepers, ” to the wedding-ring. They are ofpleasing floriated design, and of very delicate execution. Much tastemay be exhibited in the selection of coloured stones for the flowers ofsuch rings, which are certainly a great ornament to the hand. [Illustration: Fig. 189. ] [Illustration: Figs. 190 and 191. ] Recurring to the Eastern nations, in whose eyes jewellery has alwaysfound great favour, we find that the Indians prefer rings with largefloriated faces, spreading over three fingers like a shield. When madefor the wealthy in massive gold, the flower leaves are of cut jewels, but the humbler classes, who equally love display, are content with themin cast silver. Such a ring is engraved, Fig. 189, from an original inthe British Museum, from whence we also obtain the two specimens ofrings beside it, being such as are worn by the humblest classes. Fig. 190 is of brass, Fig. 191 of silver, the latter boasting a sort ofapology for a jewelled centre. [Illustration: Fig. 192. ] [Illustration: Figs. 193 and 194. ] A triplicate of Moorish rings will enable us to understand theirpeculiarities. Fig. 192 has a large circular face, composed of a clusterof small bosses, set with five circular turquoise, and four rubies; thecentre being a turquoise, with a ruby and turquoise alternating roundit. The ring is of silver. It is in the Londesborough collection, asalso is Fig. 193, another silver ring set with an octangular bloodstone, with a circular turquoise on each side. Fig. 194 is a signet ring, bearing the name of its original owner engraved on a carnelian. Thisalso is of silver. The modern Egyptians indulge greatly in finger-rings. The wife of thepoorest peasant will cover her hands with them, though they be only castin pewter, decorated with gems of coloured glass, and not worth a pennyeach. For ladies of the higher class very pretty rings are designed. Oneof them is here engraved (Fig. 195), from an original purchased by theauthor in Cairo. It is a simple hoop of twisted gold, to which isappended a series of pendent ornaments, consisting of small beads ofcoral, and thin plates of gold, cut to represent the leaves of a plant. As the hand moves, these ornaments play about the finger, and a verybrilliant effect might be produced if diamonds were used in thependants. Fig. 196 is the ring commonly worn by the middle classEgyptian men. They are usually of silver, set with mineral stones, andare valued as the manufacture of the silversmiths of Mecca, that sacredcity being supposed to exert a holy influence on all the works itoriginates. There is also a curious ring, with a double “keeper, ” worn by Egyptianmen, as shown in Fig. 197. It is composed entirely of common castsilver, set with mineral stone. The lowermost keeper of twisted wire isfirst put on the finger, then follows the ring, the second keeper isthen brought down upon it; the two being held by a brace which passes atthe back of the ring, and gives security to the whole. [Illustration: Fig. 195. ] [Illustration: Fig. 196. ] [Illustration: Fig. 197. ] At the commencement of the present century, “harlequin-rings” werefashionable in England. They were so called because set round withvariously-coloured stones, in some way resembling the motley costume ofharlequin. To these succeeded “regard-rings, ” the stones selected sothat the initial of the name of each spelt altogether the word _regard_, thus:-- R--Ruby. E--Emerald. G--Garnet. A--Amethyst. R--Ruby. D--Diamond. These pleasing and agreeable _gages d’amitie_ originated with the Frenchjewellers, and were soon made to spell proper names. Where preciousstones could not be obtained with the necessary initial, mineral stones, such as _lapis-lazuli_, and _verde antique_, were pressed into theservice. These rings are now occasionally made. Her Royal Highness thePrincess of Wales is said to possess one having the familiar name of thePrince, “Bertie, ” spelt thus upon it. [Illustration: Fig. 198. ] [Illustration: Fig. 199. ] With two specimens of modern French work we close our selection ofdesigns. Fig. 198 is a signet ring, the face engraved with acoat-of-arms. At the sides two _cupidons_ repose amid scroll-workpartaking of the taste of the Renaissance. The same peculiarityinfluences the design of Fig. 199. Here a central arch of five stones, in separate settings, is held by the heads and outstretched wings of_Chimeras_, whose breasts are also jewelled. Both are excellent designs. [Illustration: Fig. 200. ] The last ring we shall bring before the reader’s notice (Fig. 200) isthe famous “Fisherman’s ring” of the Pope. It is a signet ring of steelused for the briefs issued from the Romish Court. “When a brief iswritten to any distinguished personage, or has relation to religious orgeneral important matter, the impression from the Fisherman’s ring issaid to be made upon a gold surface; in some other cases it appears uponlead; and these seals are generally attached by strings of silk. Impressions of this seal are also made in ink direct upon the substanceon which the brief is written. ” Mr. Edwards calls attention to theclassic form of the boat and oar, showing direct derivation from anantique original. The seal is also made in the fashion of a Romansignet. A new one is made for every pope, and Mr. Edwards thus narratesthe ceremonies connected therewith:--“When a pope dies, the CardinalChamberlain, or Chancellor, accompanied by a large number of the highdignitaries of the papal court, comes into the room where the body lies, and the principal or great notary makes an attestation of thecircumstance. Then the Cardinal Chamberlain calls out the name of thedeceased pope three times, striking the body each time with a goldhammer, and as no response comes, the chief notary makes anotherattestation. After this the Cardinal Chancellor demands the Fisherman’sring, and certain ceremonies are performed over it; and then he strikesthe ring with a golden hammer, and an officer destroys the figure ofPeter by the use of a file. From this moment all the authority and actsof the late pope pass to the College or Conclave of Cardinals. When anew pope is consecrated, it is always the Cardinal Chancellor, orChamberlain, who presents the renewed Fisherman’s ring, and thispresentation is accompanied by imposing ceremonies. ” The facts we have gathered about finger-rings are scattered over thehistory of many ages and nations; and in the selection of illustrationswe have been guided by their historic value as well as their artisticmerits, so that they may be referred to as authorities to test the ageand country of other works of their class, if brought to them forcomparison. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [74-*] “History and Poetry of Finger-rings. ” [74-†] Genesis, chap. Xxxviii. [75-*] “Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, ” vol. Iii. P. 373. [82-*] Barrera, “History of Gems and Jewels. ” [83-*] “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ” chap. Xxv. [83-†] “The History and Poetry of Finger-rings, ” by Charles Edwards. [89-*] “Antiquité Expliquée et Representée en Figures. ” [96-*] “Account of Excavations at Harnham Hill. ” _Archæologia_, vol. Xxxv. [96-†] “Remains of Pagan Saxondom, ” p. 71. [97-*] In the museum at Augsburg are several which were found in cuttingfor the railway near that city. A large series of personal ornaments isalso preserved there, which are so exactly similar to others found nearRichborough, in Kent, that they would appear to have come from the samemanufactory. As the Romans introduced their arts wherever they went, sothe Saxons seem to have continued theirs in all their colonies. [98-*] See the “Inventorium Sepulchrale: an Account of some Antiquitiesdug up by the Rev. Bryan Faussett, of Heppington, Kent. ” Edited by C. Roach Smith. [100-*] Engraved as an illustration to the volume describing thecongress of the British Archæological Association at Winchester, in1845. [108-*] He was elected 1418, and died 1464. [115-*] J. Y. Akerman on Gnostic Gems, in _Archæologia_, vol. Xxxii. [116-*] T. Wright, M. A. , &c. , in _Archæologia_, vol. Xxx. [117-*] Masarius, quoted in Topsel’s “History of Serpents, ” 1611. [136-*] He was a draper; and his seal has a device upon it consisting ofa skull with a bone in the mouth; the letters W. S. Are under it, andvery small. This ring was most probably of silver. It is unlikely that asmall trader like Smith should wear a heavy gold ring, like this whichclaims to be Shakspere’s. [136-†] The concluding words of the will are--“in witness whereof I havehereunto put my seale, ” the last word being struck through with a pen, and _hand_ substituted. [137-*] Heminge was the old stage-manager, who, like Shakspere, becamevery wealthy by the profession. Burbage was the great tragedian, and theoriginal performer of Richard III. Condell was a comedian, part-proprietor of the Globe Theatre; it is to him and Heminge we areindebted for the first complete edition of Shakspere’s works, the folioof 1623. [144-*] Motley’s “Rise of the Dutch Republic. ” [147-*] In the Koran this wild version of the story occurs:--“Solomonentrusted his signet with one of his concubines, which the devilobtained from her, and sat on the throne in Solomon’s shape. After fortydays the devil departed, and threw the ring into the sea. The signet wasswallowed by a fish, which being caught and given to Solomon, the ringwas found in its belly, and thus he recovered his kingdom. ”--SALE’S_Koran_, chap. Xxxviii. ANCIENT BROOCHES AND DRESS FASTENINGS. ANCIENT BROOCHES AND DRESS FASTENINGS. Every artist who paints an historical picture knows the difficulty ofobtaining the necessary _minutiæ_, in order to give _vraisemblance_ tohis picture, as the authorities are widely scattered, and can only bebrought together by those who know where to look for them; for oftenthey lie hidden in illuminated MSS. , or in books of considerable rarity, seldom looked at by the general reader, and only fully appreciated byliterary men and students. We propose to show how varied and curious thehistory of any article of dress becomes if studied carefully, and howsuch minor details indicate clearly defined periods, as faithfully asany other historic _data_ left for our guidance. The use of the fibula, or brooch, was, in all probability, first adoptedby men to secure the outer cloak upon the shoulders. It originated amongthe ancient Greeks, and appears to have been considered as acharacteristic of Greek costume, even after it had long been adopted bythe Romans, as may be understood from a passage of Suetonius in his lifeof Augustus. “He distributed among various other persons, togæ andpallia, and made a law that the Romans should wear the Greek habit, andthe Greeks the Roman habit;” that is, that the Greeks should wear thetoga, and the Romans the pallium. Now, though it is certain that thepallium, or cloak, was peculiar to the Greeks, and that many authors, besides Suetonius, testify the same, yet it is as evident that thisarticle of dress became afterwards the common habit of Greeks andRomans. [Illustration: Fig. 201. ] The earliest form in which we meet with a fibula is that of a circulardisc, having a pin crossing it behind, which passed through the folds ofthe cloak, and was hidden from sight by this outer disc. It retainedthat form for ages, and is rarely seen upon antique monuments in anyother shape. It is very clearly represented upon the statue of Paris, asshown in Fig. 201. It will be seen that the cloak covered the left arm, the opening being upon the right one, where the brooch reposed on theshoulder, leaving the right arm free. There is a very beautiful andwell-known antique statue of Diana, representing the goddess fasteningher mantel in the same manner. The character of this outer garment varied with the seasons, but whetherheavy and warm, or light and cool, it was usually plain in itscharacter, or simply decorated with a border, and corner ornament. Sometimes, when worn by great personages, it appears to have beendecorated with needlework, and shot with threads of gold. Such a one isdescribed in the Odyssey (book xix. ) as worn by Ulysses:-- “In ample mode A robe of military purple flow’d O’er all his frame: illustrious on his breast The double-clasping gold the king confest. In the rich woof a hound, mosaic drawn, Bore on full stretch, and seized a dappled fawn: Deep in the neck his fangs indent their hold; They pant and struggle in the moving gold. ” When the brooch secured the short military cloak of the Romans, it wasusually worn in the centre of the breast. As the desire for personaldisplay increased, a brooch was worn on each shoulder; the ladies oftenwearing a row of them to close the sleeve left open down the arm. Occasionally, they were also used to fasten the tunic above the knee, inthe way that Diana, “Queen and huntress, chaste and fair, ” appears to have secured hers before she indulged in the chase. As luxury increased in the Roman Empire, these articles of utilitybecame also ornaments of much cost and splendour. The art of thegoldsmith was devoted to enrichments for them; that of the enameller tobrilliant colouring. They increased in size greatly, and becamedistinctive of rank and wealth. The influence of Eastern taste, whenthe seat of royalty was transferred from Rome to Constantinople, wasvisible in the jewellery afterwards usually worn; nor was the taste byany means confined to the fair sex, the men in the East being still asfond of jewellery as the ladies of the harem. The poorest personseagerly wear what their limited means allow, and load themselves withcheap ornaments, although a pound weight of them would not be worth fiveshillings. These enamelled brooches are frequently found in places where Romantowns once stood. They may, in fact, be said to abound in most museums. We select two, as examples, from the York Museum, a collectionsingularly rich in relics of Roman art. York was one of the mostimportant stations in England, and here died the Emperor SeptimusSeverus, in the year 211, at the age of sixty-five, “worn out withanxiety, fatigue, and disease, ” says the Rev. C. Wellbeloved, thehistorian of York. He had returned from his successful war in the north, but had achieved victory with the loss of fifty thousand of hissoldiers. Caracalla, his eldest son, was with him at the time, butimmediately set out for Rome. In the year 304, when the empire wasdivided between the Cæsars, Galerius, Maximianus, and ConstantiusChlorus, Britain fell to the share of the latter, who immediately cameover, and fixed his residence in York. He died two years afterwards, andhis son, Constantine the Great, by Helena, a British princess, succeededhim, being proclaimed emperor by the army at York, where he was at thetime of his father’s death. The first of these elegant brooches is ofcircular form (Fig. 202), like a raised shield divided into severalcompartments. The side view placed with it will enable the reader tounderstand the arrangement of the pin, which moves freely on a pivot, the point held by a curve in the lower projecting bar. The secondexample (Fig. 203) was found near Bootham bar, and is of more elaboratedesign. The raised centre is divided into ornamental compartments, filled with rich purple and white enamel colours. The point of the pinis here brought closer to the brooch, as if it had been intended tofasten a finer kind of material than the preceding one, which from itswidth would take in a coarser texture. [Illustration: Fig. 202. ] [Illustration: Fig. 203. ] The use of enamel colours as enrichments to metal ornaments belongs tothe later days of Rome. Sometimes the work is very coarse, but specimensoccur (though rarely) of extremely delicate execution. It was executedin what the French antiquaries term the _champ-levé_ manner; that is, the part to be enamelled was cut, or hollowed, by a graving tool, in thesurface, and then filled with fusible colours, rubbed when cool to alevel surface. This decoration was not confined to small articles ofjewellery, but was used for belts and sword-handles. An admirableexample of a small bronze vase, thus beautifully enriched, was found inexcavating the triple tumuli popularly known as the Bartlow Hills, inCambridgeshire. Horse-trappings were highly enriched in the same manner. Boxes, and small articles of furniture, were also inlaid with enamelledplaques of metal. [Illustration: Fig. 204. ] A tendency to great variety of design characterised the jewellery of theByzantine empire; and the old circular fibula, that had been worncontentedly for so very many centuries, was discarded for new forms;which were again cast aside at the caprice of the wearer, attracted bythe ever-varying designs of the jeweller. The bow or harp-shaped fibula, however, retained its place when once introduced, nearly as long as itscircular forerunner. One of the finest specimens of a fibula of thiskind is here given, copied from the original, which was discovered abouttwenty years ago by labourers employed on the railway near the town ofAmiens, at a spot where other objects of the Gallo-Roman period were metwith. The place may probably have been the cemetery of the town, whenthe masters of the world ruled there. The workmen found a leaden coffinof great thickness, which contained two skeletons, the smaller havingwithin it many articles of female ornament. These consisted of a pair ofgold ear-rings of very peculiar and original design; a gold ring setwith a carnelian, on which was engraved a youthful figure riding on agoat; a pair of slender armlets of gold; a pendent ornament of glass, evidently formed to wear as a charm to keep off the baneful effect ofthe evil eye, so much dreaded by the ancients; and this buckle (Fig. 204). The latter is constructed of the finest gold, the bow decoratedwith an upright row of pellets, and three small flowerets across thecentre. The shaft is covered with most delicate chased ornament, orreeded patterns, soldered to the surface; a row of raised studs are eachin the middle of a curved quatrefoil, the outer border raised in linesof indented decoration. The whole bears traces of the influence of Greekart, the workmen of that highly-cultivated and artistic nation alwaysexcelling their Roman brethren, and the richer classes in Romepatronising them in preference. Nothing can exceed the delicacy andbeauty of Greek jewellery; the Roman being of a heavier and lessartistic taste. The character of the two nations may thus be clearlytraced in so insignificant an article as a breast-pin. Figs. 205 and 206 represent two of the most ordinary forms of the bronzebow-shaped fibulæ, as worn by the ordinary classes. Fig. 205 was foundat Strood, in Kent, in a brick-field opposite Rochester Castle, on theother side of the Medway, which field had been the cemetery of the citywhen the Romans ruled it. [Illustration: Fig. 205. ] [Illustration: Fig. 206. ] The reader will notice, in both the latter instances, the pin is acontinuation of a coil of strong metal, of which it is formed, and whichgives it great strength and elasticity. When the latter was passedthrough the several folds of the dress, and the end secured in thestrong metal catch below, it would not be easy to unfasten the garmentor lose the pin. The second example is less stiff in contour, and fromit the reader may more clearly comprehend the arrangement for securingthe pin. Here, again, the pin proceeds from spirals at the upper part ofthe brooch. These common articles were sometimes made more attractive to the eye bydecorating the upper portion with coarse enamel colours; a specimen isgiven in Fig. 207; it is of clumsy form, and cheap construction; it wasfound, with many other minor antiquities, among heaps of bones, in thewell-known caves at King’s Scarr, about two miles north-east of Settle, in Yorkshire--caves that are conjectured to have been the homes of theold Britons who once lived a semi-savage life in them. In the excellent museum at Boulogne are preserved many articles found inthe immediate neighbourhood, and belonging to the Gallo-Roman period. Among them is the bronze fibula Fig. 208, which shows the very decidedarc formed by the upper part, and the mode by which the point of the pinwas secured in the sheath below. [Illustration: Fig. 207. ] [Illustration: Fig. 208. ] Sometimes these bow-shaped fibulæ were made with an extremely large andugly bow, as in Fig. 209, which hung over the dress. They areoccasionally met with six inches in width, with a pin an inch or twolonger: being used for the heavier winter cloaks. The gore-shapedpendant is made hollow, and is often decorated with incised lines andzigzag patterns. They appear to have been in most favour among the Romanprovincials in Gaul and Britain, particularly as the nature of thewinters obliged them to seek in the heavy woollen _sagum_, or in theskin mantle, some greater protection against the inclemency of theweather than their southern conquerors required. [Illustration: Fig. 209. ] Allusion has already been made to the extreme taste for showy jewellery, and gaudy personal decoration, indulged in by the later Roman rulers, after the seat of government had been removed to Constantinople. Itseems to have increased as their power decayed: for the rude paintingsand mosaics of the eighth and ninth centuries depict emperors andempresses in dresses literally covered with ornament andjewellery--indeed, the artists must have put forth their best strengthin depicting the dresses, as if they had received similar orders tothose given by good Mrs. Primrose, who expressly desired the painter ofher portrait to put as many jewels on her stomacher “as he could for themoney. ” [Illustration: Fig. 210. ] Fig. 210, the bust of the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus (so called fromthe ample beard the monarch wore), is an example of male foppery. Thisemperor came to the throne A. D. 668, and died in 685. It will beperceived that two brooches fasten his outer garment, one upon eachshoulder. That upon the right one is highly enriched, but the original, as really worn by the emperor, was most probably much more so, bychasing, enamel, and jewels which the artist had not space, or perhapsability, to express. From it hang three chains, which were most probablyformed of hollow gold beads, cast in an ornamental matrix; such havingbeen found in Crimean graves; and less frequently in those of theGermanic and Gaulish chieftains and aristocrats. To the ends of thesechains were affixed circular ornaments, sometimes decorated with enamel, like the York fibulæ already described, and sometimes with cameos, setin a gold framework: for as the Arts decayed, the finer works of thiskind, executed in the palmy days of Rome, were much prized and valued asthe works of a race who were acknowledged to be mentally superior. The empresses naturally wore a greater abundance of jewellery than theirlords; they also wore great circular brooches on each shoulder, but theyincreased the pendent ornaments by adding heavy gold chains, which hungacross the breast, and from the brooches on both sides nearly to thewaist; at the ends of these chains was a group of smaller chains, eachsupporting a jewel of varied form, so that a heavy bunch of them wasformed. Ultimately other chains with pendent jewels were attached to thechain that passed across the breast, and completely covered that part ofthe person with decoration. [Illustration: Fig. 211. ] In the museum at Mayence is preserved a very curious monumentalsculpture, upon which is presented the effigy of the man for whom it waserected, his wife, and son. He was a sailor, who died at the ripe age ofseventy-five, and appears to have been generous to his lady in thearticle of jewellery, according to the usual habit of his craft. Mr. C. Roach Smith, who first published this curious monument in his“Collectanea Antiqua, ” observes that “she had evidently dressed for theportrait. ” She wears a vest, fitting closely to the arms and bust, andat the neck gathered to a frill, which is enclosed by a torque, or goldnecklet. Over this hangs a garment, which falls gracefully down infront, and is crossed at the breast over the left arm. The jewellery ofthe widow is of no common description, nor niggardly bestowed. Upon thebreast, below the torque, is a rose-shaped ornament or brooch, andbeneath that a couple of fibulæ; two more of a similar pattern fastenthe upper garment near the right shoulder, and upon the left arm, justabove the elbow; an armlet encircles the right arm, and bracelets thewrist. Fig. 211 gives the upper portion of the form of this lady:judging from the style of her head-dress she may have lived in the reignof the Emperor Hadrian. Probably many years younger than hersailor-husband, she appears to have tempered her grief with judgment, and to have taken advantage of his death to set herself forth to theworld in her gayest costume. [Illustration: Figs. 212-214. ] As barbarism increased, and subverted good taste, brooches of the mostabsurd forms were invented, and made more grotesque by unnatural enamelcolours. Birds, fish, men on horseback, formed the face of thesebrooches, which would never have been understood by a modern eye, hadthey not been found with the pins attached to them behind. Threeexamples from the great work of Montfaucon are given in Figs. 212, 213, and 214, they were found in Italy and Germany. The first represents acombination of two warlike implements on one handle--the upper one anaxe, the lower a bipennis. The second specimen is made like a bird: wehave given it at an angle, to show the way the pin was fastened at theback of it. The third specimen is a fish, which might pass as a fairrepresentation of some member of the finny tribe, whose proper name neednot be too curiously asked for; but unluckily the designer of thebrooch, indulging in the grotesque, has represented some monstrous birdwith bat’s ears emerging from one side of the fish. [Illustration: Fig. 215. ] [Illustration: Fig. 216. ] We give two specimens, one from the banks of the Rhine, the other foundopposite our own shores. Fig. 215 represents a bird, probably of thehawk kind, whose eye has been made the socket for a garnet, and theextremity of his tail a receptacle for another piece of jewellery. Itwas found on the site of the Roman station at Cologne. Fig. 216, whichis of plain bronze, is more fortunate as an attempt to represent a cock;it was discovered, with many other curious antiquities, at Etaples, nearBoulogne, and is preserved in the museum of the latter town. [Illustration: Fig. 217. ] A very distinct character pervades the ornamental works of the ancientnations that once inhabited the British Isles. A curious discovery of the fibula, Fig. 217, was made at Stamford, Lincolnshire. It was found in the process of enlarging a stone-pit inthe parish of Castle Bytham. It is described by Mr. Akerman, in his“Pagan Saxondom, ” as “a ring fibula, of white metal, gilt, in veryexcellent preservation, and set with four gems closely resemblingcarbuncles. An irregular interlacing pattern is worked over the wholefront surface, but it is perfectly plain behind. ” Mr. Akerman isinclined to think that it has a Scandinavian character, and favours thesupposition that its owner was a Danish lady. [Illustration: Fig. 218. ] This supposition seems borne out by the researches of Dr. Davies, in hisinteresting ethnographical sketch of the various ancient populations whohave invaded and inhabited Anglia in pre-historic times, prefixed tothat very valuable work, the “Crania Britannica. ” He is of opinion thatabout the time of Cæsar, the population of our island throughout thenorthern and midland counties was derived from the tribes of Jutland andNorth Germany, and that the southern portions of the island wereexclusively filled by the Saxon immigrants. A fibula of very peculiar form is found in these northern counties ingreat abundance. We give an example in Fig. 218. It is of bronze, andwas found at Driffield, Yorkshire, in the grave of a female. Sometimesthese fibulæ are richly ornamented with interlaced patterns, and headsof strange birds and animals. They are then generally gilt, and havebeen found of enormous size, eight inches in length by six in breadth. Iimagine these very large brooches fastened the heavy outer cloak, thesmaller being used for lighter portions of the dress. [Illustration: Fig. 219. ] [Illustration: Fig. 220. ] The ordinary form of brooch worn by the humbler classes is shown in thetwo specimens (Figs. 219 and 220), both are of bronze, with very slightattempt at ornament, and were found by labourers employed in repairingthe road on the line of the Watling Street, about a mile from theRomano-British settlement at Cesterover, between Bensford Bridge and theroad leading from Rugby to Lutterworth. [Illustration: Fig. 221. ] [Illustration: Fig. 222. ] Two specimens of the circular fibulæ of the southern Anglo-Saxons aregiven in Figs. 221 and 222. They were both found in Kent, where thewealthiest and most refined Saxons were located. It is curious to notehow completely in design and execution they resemble such as are foundin South Germany. In the Augsburg Museum are some identical in designand execution with Kentish specimens in the Mayer Museum at Liverpool. They appear as if made by the same workmen. These fibulæ are generally much enriched on the upper surface. A softenamel, or slices of pearl (which have generally perished), probablyfilled the outer rim in Fig. 221; the centre is here raised, and isformed of pearl, in the centre of which is a garnet, and slices ofgarnet are cut to fit the triangular ornaments; to give them greaterbrilliancy, they are laid on a thin piece of gold foil. Fig. 222 is ofmore elaborate design; the use of garnet is again apparent, but thespaces between the jewellery are filled with a double row of incurvatedornaments, made of fine threads of gold; sometimes these threads of goldare reeded, or plaited, of two or three finer gold threads. I have beenassured by practical goldsmiths that more delicate work could not bedone in the present day. All these small ornaments are made singly, andthen fastened in their places. They excite astonishment at the greatrefinement that must have characterised the Anglo-Saxons, and which iscarried out in other articles found in their tumuli. Fig. 223 represents a group of Anglo-Saxon pins. The first specimen isof the simplest design, with no attempt at ornament, except the doublecross roughly incised in the bronze. The middle pin, on the contrary, isone of the finest kind; the head is ornamented with jewellery andgoldsmith’s work, the stem is of bronze. The pin beside it is of silvergilt, the centre decorated with a raised garnet. I have placed in frontof them a very remarkable specimen of a double pin, connected by achain, exactly similar to such as were universally fashionable a fewyears ago. Though fashion may be “ever changing, ” it is not “ever new. ” [Illustration: Fig. 223. ] The ancient Irish brooch was unlike others worn in Scotland or England. It had a long central pin, with an open ring at its summit, allowingfree motion to the bar which passed through it, and formed ahalf-circle, supporting a lunette-shaped pendant, covered with elaboratedecoration and jewellery. They varied in size and decoration accordingto the rank of the wearer. The highest price of a silver one for a king, according to Vallancey, was thirty heifers, when made of refined silver;the lowest value attached to them being three heifers. I have seen avery large specimen, of the intrinsic value of three pounds. The pin is9-1/2 inches long, and the circular brooch 5 inches in diameter. Largerspecimens have been found and mistaken for poniards. They were made thuslarge and strong to pass easily through the thick woollen garmentsnecessary to the cold, wet climate. [Illustration: Fig. 224. ] This old style of design in ornament continued in use in Ireland untilthe twelfth or thirteenth century--in fact, until the inhabitants haddestroyed its civilisation by internecine war. Many works, like the bellof St. Patrick at Belfast, might, at the first glance, be attributed tothe same era as the famous “Durham book, ” or book of St. Cuthbert, nowone of the chief treasures of the British Museum library, and which isbelieved to have been executed as early as the seventh century byEadfrith, afterwards of Lindisfarne, who died in 721. We are, however, certain as to the date of the bell, for an inscription is upon it, stating it was made to the order of Donnell O’Lochlain, one of the oldIrish kings, who came to the throne in 1083, and died in 1121. [Illustration: Fig. 225. ] The first brooch discovered in Ireland is in the possession of Mr. Waterhouse, the goldsmith, of Dublin. It is represented in Fig. 224, and is engraved the full size of the original, but the length of thelong plain pin has been curtailed. It was found accidentally by apeasant near Drogheda. It is of bronze, decorated with gems and ornamentin enamel, and may probably be of no earlier date than the bell justalluded to. [Illustration: Fig. 226. ] A simpler kind of ornamental pin was worn by the lower classes, of whichI give two specimens in Fig. 225, _a_, _b_. They are engraved about halfthe size of the originals. The first is a plain pin, with a small ringhanging from its head. The second is unique in its character, having anold man’s head at its summit: it is of bronze, gilt. As we descend inthe scale of rank, these pins become plainer, the poorer classes usingthem of bone, roughly fashioned by themselves. The common kind of Scottish pins was of very similar character, as theexample placed beside those last described will show. The head of thepin _c_ projects some distance in advance of it, as seen in the sideview. A small cross is in the centre of the upper part; the otherornament is convoluted, and is brought into relief by chasing. The ordinary form of the later Scottish brooch is that of a broad opencircle, decorated with intricate knot-work, or floral designs. Dr. Wilson, in his “Archæology and Pre-historic Annals of Scotland, ” hasengraved one very similar, and says, “The interlaced knot-work appearsto have been a favourite device of Celtic art (Fig. 226). It occurs onthe sculptures, the jewellery, the manuscripts, and the decoratedshrines and bookcases of Early Irish Christian art, and has beenperpetuated almost to our own day on the weapons and personal ornamentsof the Scottish Highlanders. ” “The brooch has always been a favourite Celtic ornament, and is, indeed, almost indispensable to the Highland costume. It is worn universally bythe Scottish Highlanders, both male and female; and in many Highlandfamilies of various ranks, favourite brooches have been preservedthrough many generations as heirlooms, which no pecuniary inducementwould tempt their humblest owner to part with. ” [Illustration] ALBERT DÜRER: HIS WORKS, HIS COMPATRIOTS, AND HIS TIMES. [Illustration: DURER’S WIFE. ALBERT DURER. PIRKHEIMER. ] ALBERT DÜRER: HIS WORKS, HIS COMPATRIOTS, AND HIS TIMES. Dürer is the one great name which represents early German art in itspure nationality. In his works we see all its peculiarities and maystudy all its merits. It is not without its defects also, but as theymay be honestly considered a part of the whole, it becomes a necessarything to consider them with the beauties to which they may beconjoined; nor must we be deterred in our search for the latter qualityby such occasional drawbacks, if we would investigate the efforts of theartist-mind toward excellence, for that was its characteristic featurefrom the fall of Rome to the period in which Dürer flourished. In thesomewhat gaudy glories of the Byzantine school, we can trace only thefailing powers of a great empire conscious of its old dignity but notfully able to display it. In the barbaric night which succeeded, we findart sunk to the most childish attempt at imitating simple nature; whichwas “copied most vilely. ” In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries wetrace the latent wish for the delineation of beauty struggling againinto life; but it was simply the wish rather than the power to delineatethe graceful, that we find displayed in the contorted figures which theartists of these days attempted to picture as graceful beings. Still, crude and strange, or even grotesque, as they may appear, they are notto be despised. Amid much that is repulsive to modern cultivated taste, we occasionally find _naïve_ delineations of simple beauty, naturalexpression, and touches of human pathos, which tell how honestly and howeagerly these old artists worked; how truly they wished to do more thanthey had power to accomplish; and though clogged to the earth by thedark age they lived in, how earnestly they wished to soar above thatposition. The archaisms of old Greece are not better than such works;and as we can trace the onward course of those ancient masters of artfrom the rude outlines on the vases of Etruria, to the glorious works ofPhidias and Praxiteles--even so, if we wish to know the true course ofthe revival of modern art, must we trace it in the sculpture, wall-painting, and missal-drawing, of the middle ages, until we find itassume a more definite and better-regulated style in the fifteenthcentury; that period of the revival of classical tastes, and brightday-spring of art in Italy, from which we ourselves still drinkinspiration as from the “well undefiled. ” The influence of the Italian school after the era of Raffaelle may besaid to be paramount. As his works became known and studied, they gavelaws to other artists; and the mannerisms and peculiarities of earlierschools were softened down and disappeared. Gothic art--if such a termmay be applied to the art which was the hand-maiden of Gothicarchitecture (the term _Gothic_ being by no means understood as meaning_barbaric_)--had run its course by aid of its own experience alone, possessing qualifications of its own, but being in some degree moreremarkable for its strength of feeling than grace of expression. TheItalian school inoculated it with elegance; but it naturally possessedan independent power, together with a vigour and native grace whichrewarded those who sought for it, rather than courted them by itspalpable display. Gothic art in its native strength, as it had growngradually and achieved its own position, may be seen in the works of thenorthern contemporaries of Raffaelle; the study of its rise and progressis no unworthy study of the human mind in its onward course towardexcellence, nor should we allow prejudice to weigh with us incontemplating these labours. It has been well observed that “in art asin many other branches of human knowledge and industry, exclusiveness, or the tendency to depreciate that which does not conform to our owntaste and feelings, is a fertile source of error and mischief. Such adisposition deprives mankind of the free and unrestrained enjoyment ofmuch that is calculated to cheer and improve them. The _naïveté_ of theearly German and Italian painters, the earnest simplicity with whichthey conceived and expressed the devotional subjects treated by them, and the moral beauty of the subjects themselves, may excite ouradmiration, without disqualifying us for duly admiring the brilliantbreadth of light and shadow of Rembrandt, or the genuine truth andhumour of Wilkie. ”[190-*] In this spirit must we study the works of theearly native artists of the northern schools, and in this way comprehendtheir true philosophic position, and the æsthetics of their style. Germany, a great and powerful nation, was in the fifteenth century thehome of northern intelligence; and nowhere was it more fully madevisible than in the old town of Nürnberg; it was the centre of trade, the abode of opulence, the patron of literature and the arts. Here, amidcongenial spirits, lived Albert Dürer--“in him, ” says Dr. Kügler, “thestyle of art already existing attained its most peculiar and its highestperfection. He became the representative of German art at this period. ”To himself and his works, therefore, must we look for a true knowledgeof the German school; and to Nürnberg, as it was in his epoch, for anacquaintance with the characteristics of the refined life of the Germanpeople. It is no unprofitable labour to unveil these ancient andforgotten times; much in man’s history, great and good, is hidden in thepages of old chronicles, and it is a worthy task to call back forgottenglories that may induce modern emulation, or at least vindicate the trueposition of the great departed. “From the barred visor of antiquity, Reflected, shines the eternal light of truth As from a mirror. ”[191-*] The modern traveller who visits Nürnberg will see an old city mostsingularly unaltered. For the last two centuries it would seem to haveremained almost stationary; its inhabitants succeeding each otherwithout a wish for change, living in the old houses of theirprogenitors, and quietly retaining a certain stolid position which hasneither lost nor won in the great battle of life around them. Onapproaching its walls it is difficult at first to believe that a city soquaint and peculiar still exists intact. It is precisely like looking ata pictured town in an old missal, with its series of square towers, andlong curtain wall embracing its entire circumference; its old castleperched on the rock, and its great massive round towers proudlyprotecting its chief gates upon all sides. There is a strange“old-world” look about everything within these walls also, and wescarcely feel that we have arrived at the nineteenth century as weindulge in the thoughts they call forth. It is a place to dream in overthe past, to carry one’s mind away from the bustle of modern life to thethoughtful contemplation of that once enjoyed here by generations longdeparted. It seems no place for the actual realities of our railroaddays, and there is a sort of impertinence in bringing us by such meansclose to its quiet old walls; you feel thrown, as it were, from thego-a-head rapidities of modern times into the calm, heavy, slow-goingdays of Kaiser Maximilian, without time to consider the change. It is aplace for a poet, one imbued with a love of old cities and theirdenizens, like Longfellow, --and how admirably in a few lines has hedescribed the feeling it engenders, and the aspect of the city and itssuburbs!-- “In the valley of the Pegnitz, where across broad meadow lands, Rise the blue Franconian mountains, Nürnberg, the ancient, stands. Quaint old town of toil and traffic, quaint old town of art and song, Memories haunt thy pointed gables, like the rooks that round them throng. Memories of the middle ages, when the emperors, rough and bold, Had their dwelling in thy castle, time-defying, centuries old. And thy brave and thrifty burghers boasted in their uncouth rhyme, That their great imperial city stretched its hand through every clime. ” [Illustration: Fig. 228. --The Town Walls, Nürnberg. ] The “uncouth rhyme” was the familiar old proverb which told of theuniversal trade of the old city, couched in the few words-- _Nürnberg’s hand, Geht durch alle land;_ and which may be rendered in our modern vernacular-- “Nürnberg’s hand Goes through every land. ” This proud boast was more truthful than boasts are in general; itsartisans literally sent their handiwork far and wide, their connectionswere great, and their city was the centre of trade between the East andWest; for, prior to the discovery of the circumnavigation of the Cape ofGood Hope, it was the depôt for eastern merchandise, which wasprincipally sent with their own productions from Venice and Genoa; itsconvenient central position in Europe enabling its traders to distributesuch produce, and all others coming to it, by means of the Danube andthe Rhine to the north and west of Europe. Its own manufacturers werealso much esteemed, and their works in metal highly valued, whetherconsisting of armour for the knight or bijouterie for his lady. Thecity, in fact, held within its warehouses the combined results of thetaste, luxury, and necessities of the age, and was busied in exchangingthem with the great trading towns of the low countries, --Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp, --the trade of the latter rising on the decline of that ofold Nürnberg, whose inland position kept it far away from thesea-traffic which resulted from the discovery already alluded to. Thereligious wars contributed ultimately to accelerate its downfall at thecommencement of the seventeenth century, and when peace was againrestored, prosperity had flown in the turmoil. [Illustration: Fig. 229. --The Castle, Nürnberg. ] It was during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that Nürnbergattained its greatest prosperity. At this time it was a free city of theGerman empire, possessing an independent domain around it extendingtwenty-three German miles, and was enabled to furnish the Emperor withsix thousand soldiers. Its castle had been the home of these rulers fromthe twelfth century: memories of such inhabitants may still be traced. “In the court-yard of the castle, bound with many an iron band, Stands the mighty linden, planted by Queen Cunigunde’s hand. ” The old tree still overshadows the inner yard of the castle, and the“Heathen Tower” tells of still earlier times. The entire place is fullof antique memories; it has no sympathy with modern life; and you standin its quiet crumbling walls, and expect, if the silence be broken atall, it will be by the heavy tread and clanking echo of a mail-cladknight. Maximilian himself and his knights, so quaintly delineated byHans Burgmair, might rise from their graves, and enter their oldquarters as if they had but left them yesterday, so unchanged is theaspect of the picturesque old castle which crowns the rock, and was erstthe proud home of Germany’s proudest rulers. But why dwell on the past glories of the warlike great? rather let usagain quote the words of Longfellow, and exclaim “Not thy councils, not thy Kaisers, win for thee the world’s regard; But thy painter Albert Dürer, and Hans Sachs the cobbler bard. ” Of the latter worthy we shall discourse anon; but the place of honourand our primary attention must now be given to the artist. [Illustration: Fig. 230. ] In the city of Nürnberg, on the 20th of May, in the year 1471, the houseof the goldsmith, Albert Dürer, rejoiced over the birth of a son. Albertwas thrifty, industrious, and had achieved for himself a good positionamong the burghers of the old town. He was a native of Cola in Hungary, but had sought congenial employ early in life where patronage was morerife, and had entered the service of the goldsmith, Jerome Haller, whohad perfected him in a knowledge of his art, and finding the young manworthy, he had ultimately given him his daughter in marriage, living torejoice with him over his increasing prosperity, and to congratulate himon the birth of his son, who was destined to bear the same names as hisfather, and to give them an undying celebrity. The young Albert grew upa handsome, intellectual lad, and his tastes were such as an artisticlife in early youth might lead him to. The old goldsmiths were indeedthe best patrons of ancient art; but for them an important branch ofit--ornamental design--would have wanted the constancy of inventivespur, and the art of engraving and printing from incised platesoriginated in their workshops. They were intimately connected with theartists of their day; and the greatest among them did not disdain tofurnish designs for their artisans. Hence the great variety and flow offancy exhibited in their works. This intercommunication benefited bothparties, and should be a lesson to modern exclusiveness, as it is a sortof key to the reason why the artistic beauty of the past eclipses muchof the artisan’s work of the present age; and why also it displays anabundance of creative ingenuity, which can scarcely be compatible withthe narrow studio a modern workshop has made itself. The earlyintercourse of young Dürer with art and artists, spurred him on todesire to occupy himself in greater works than he could find himselfemployed upon in his father’s house. He had learned nearly all he couldlearn there, and had diligently acquired the power to execute good worksas a goldsmith by the time he had reached his sixteenth year; but he waswearied with the task of copying, and wished to join the ranks of themaster spirits of whom he occasionally caught a glimpse in the hours ofbusiness. He also would be an artist, and communicated his higheraspirations to his father. The elder Dürer had worked his way patientlyon by a slow and steady course, and could not understand why his son, now a good workman, with a fair prospect of equally succeeding in trade, should not be content to do as he had done. He had also that unpoeticthrifty style of looking at the whole question, which led him toconsider his son as making a total wreck of the many years’ study whichhe had already gone through to fit him for the goldsmith’s trade; and hewas, consequently, much displeased. He considered the question in thelight of a positive loss for an uncertain gain, and somewhat rudelydismissed it from his mind. Like the majority of men, he could not bearthat his son should shape himself a new course by the aid of the strongwill of his own genius, when he considered the old course the best. Hehad rested on the hope of his son’s aid, which he saw he was well ableto give him; and the prospect of his quietly succeeding him as a thriftygoldsmith of Nürnberg he thought enough to satisfy the most ardent hope. It was long before he could patiently listen to his son’s contrary modeof reasoning, and it was not until the young Albert, by reiteratedattacks of earnest argument, closely but carefully enforced, had in somedegree shaken him, that he would turn a willing ear to his wishes. Oncehaving done this, and become fully aware of the strength of his son’shopes, and the eagerness of his aspirations, the elder Dürer changed hiswhole conduct, and with laudable zeal sought the best artist by whom hisson should be instructed. There were always many in Nürnberg, but nonehad better reputation than Michael Wohlgemuth; he also was an earnest, busy man, constantly employed in many branches of his profession, possessing in fact a great deal of the trading spirit, and therefore hewas the man with whom Dürer would most desire to see his son studying. It was ultimately arranged that the young Albert should be bound to himfor the term of three years to learn the art of painting. [Illustration: Fig. 231. --Michael Wohlgemuth. ] Wohlgemuth was at this period in the full vigour of his life, and wasperforming an abundance of labour; he painted pictures, he furnisheddesigns for goldsmiths and artisans, he illustrated books, and was athriving and prosperous man. His works would not delight any eye now asthey once charmed the Nürnbergers. They are essentially stiff and hard, exhibiting the exaggeration of form and attitude which makes early artlook grotesque: he was fond of stern drawing, and generally painted afirm black outline to his figures, which has a very harsh effect. Hiscolouring is equally positive, and his saints are generally arrayed inprismatic tints, relieved by the gold backgrounds which prevailed soconstantly in early art. His portrait painted by Dürer at a later periodof his life, is characteristic of the man. It is now in the Pinacothekat Munich, and has been well described by Dr. Kügler, as delineating “astrangely sharp, bony, and severe countenance. ” Wohlgemuth was born atNürnberg in 1434, and died in 1519. His native city still contains someof his best works, particularly in the Moritzkapelle, that sacredresting-place of quaint old art, thus religiously preserved for an agewhich brings to it few worshippers. It is but justice, however, to onewho was great in his own day, to observe that he occasionally risesabove the level of the bald style above indicated; and the eminentwriter we have just now quoted, observes, --“whenever tranquil feeling isto be shown, he then exhibits many indications of a sense for grace inform, and tenderness in expression;” and at a later period of hislife, --“the sharp cutting style, which strikes us so disagreeably in hisearly works, is much softened: the colouring is also warm and powerful. ”He was certainly the best of the Nürnberg painters until his pupileclipsed him. Dr. Waagen considers the picture in the south aisle of theFrauenkirche as one of the best works now possessed by his native city;it represents St. Gregory celebrating mass amid many other saints; butthe men of Nürnberg seem most to value those in the Moritzkapelle, andwhich he painted in 1487 for the high altar of the Schusterkirche, atthe expense of the family of Peringsdorfer. They represent varioussaints life-size, and are drawn with much vigour, and coloured withconsiderable power; the outlines are strongly marked in black, and theyexhibit his full merits. We select the figure of St. Margaret as anexample of his style; the somewhat constrained and angular attitude ofthe right arm carries the mind back to the missal paintings of theprevious century; the small, pinched, and confused folds of the drapery, belong to the German school almost entirely; and to it may be tracedDürer’s errors in this particular portion of art. In the figure we haveselected from his works for comparison, we see the same peculiar, “crinkled, ” minute folds, completely destructive of dignity or breadth, and untrue to nature: but we see also a grandeur of general conception, and the bold leading lines of the composition unbroken by such minutiæ, which are secondary to the main idea. It represents St. Anne (the motherof the Virgin) clasping her hands in anguish at the refusal of the highpriest to accept the offering of herself and husband in the temple atJerusalem, and occurs in the first of Dürer’s series of woodcutsillustrating the life of the Virgin. [Illustration: Fig. 232. --St. Margaret, after Wohlgemuth. ] [Illustration: Fig. 233. --St. Anne, after Dürer. ] This striking peculiarity of treatment adopted by the early Germanartists in their draperies, was once explained to us by an old nativeartist, who assured us that it was entirely caused by the models forstudy which they universally employed. These were small lay figures, over which draperies were cast formed in _wet paper_, disposed accordingto the artist’s fancy, and allowed to dry and set in the rigid form wesee in their pictures. We have nowhere met with this key to the mode ofstudy adopted by them; but it so completely accords with the characterof their drawings, and would be so easy to attain in this material, andso difficult in any other, that it seems to bear the impress ofaccuracy. The work of Wohlgemuth, by which he is now most familiarly known, arethe illustrations of the _Nürnberg Chronicle_, of Hartmann Schedel, published in 1493, which he executed in conjunction with WilliamPleydenwurff. This once famous history is a folio, full of historiclearning, and illustrated by more than a thousand woodcuts, many ofwhich are very large. It would appear that Pleydenwurff executed theviews of cities and minor illustrations, and his greater fellow-labourerdesigned and drew upon the wood the historical scenes. In conformitywith the custom of ancient chronicles, the history begins with thecreation of the world, the various incidents connected therewith beingall delineated. There is considerable invention, but great lack ofgrace, in all these designs; they bear, however, strong resemblances tothe leading characteristics of Wohlgemuth’s paintings, and they aresuperior to the woodcuts that preceded him, particularly as regards theamount of finish and chiaroscuro they exhibit. The earliest woodcuts byDürer bear some resemblance to these works, and are in the dry hardstyle of a master who evidently valued positive drawing at a higher ratethan the blandishments of colour; this, indeed, has always been acharacteristic of German art. The three years of Dürer’s pupilage having expired, in conformity withthe usual German custom, he travelled to see the world and improvehimself. Of the early works of his genius we have no certain trace. Thathe was a good portrait painter we may be assured by the examination ofhis own picture in the gallery of the Uffizi at Florence, painted in1498, and that of his father, in the Pinacotheck at Munich; but earlierchalk drawings exist, showing his proficiency in this branch of art atthe age of fourteen. In the course of his peregrinations in Germany hevisited his brother artists, returning to his native city in 1494. Hisearliest works on his return seem to have been designs on wood, for in1498 appeared the series of woodcuts, illustrating the Revelations ofSt. John. Dr. Kügler says “we should regard them as proofs of hisactivity in the years immediately preceding; such at least is the casein similar works. In these compositions the artist has already attainedgreat and peculiar excellence, but in these, as might be expected fromthe subject, the fantastic element forms the groundwork of the whole. These mystical subjects are conceived in a singularly poetical spirit;the wonderful and monstrous meet us in living bodily forms. Some of themexhibit a power of representation to the eye, and a grandeur ofconception the more surprising, since the shapeless exuberance of thescriptural visions might easily have led the artist astray, as hasindeed frequently happened in the case of others who have attemptedthese subjects. ” In artistic effects these cuts are inferior to hislatter works, and the drawing is sometimes more defective; but ininventive power they are master-pieces, and no artist before or sincehas so successfully treated these mysteries. The reputation of Dürer waswell-established by these cuts, and gave him a good position in hisnative town, which he never left afterwards, except for a journey toVenice in 1506, and to the Netherlands in 1520. All Dürer’s tastes were essentially national, if indeed they may not besaid to be narrowed within the circle of the town of Nürnberg and itsneighbourhood. He married soon after his return; and living entirely athome, prosecuted his art with unwearied assiduity, the avarice of hiswife urging still further his constant labours. His studies seem to havebeen made from the people around him, or from the scenes whichconstantly met his eye. Thus, in his scripture prints, the people ofNürnberg and the peasants of the neighbourhood, figure asrepresentatives of the ancient Jews. St. Joseph is a Nürnberg carpenter, and the Virgin herself seems to have been modelled from some fair maidenof the city. The stout burghers, who witness the happy meeting of St. Joachim and Anne at the golden gate of the temple, in his series ofprints illustrative of the Life of the Virgin, are such as Dürer mighthave seen daily loitering by the tower gate opposite his own windows;and the modest-looking maiden with the extravagantly fashionablehead-dress, whom he has introduced in his “Marriage of the Virgin, ” hasbeen absolutely copied from nature; the original sketch, made by his ownhand from a Nürnberg damsel, is preserved with many similar studies byhim in the British Museum. He was untiring in his converse with natureas he saw it around him; and the minutely careful sketches which nowenrich our national collection, testify to his industry and anxiety fortruth as the basis of his labours. [Illustration: Fig. 234. --View from Dürer’s House. ] The old town of Nürnberg was eminently picturesque, and was enrichedwith artistic works by the best men of the day. The wealth of itsinhabitants was expended on their houses within and without, and thechurches were lavishly adorned with paintings and sculpture, as well aswith other riches of art connected with the service of religion. In itsquaint old streets might be studied the fruits of the faith and feelingof its inhabitants. Numerous figures of the Holy Mother decorated thestreet corners, or were enshrined over the portals of the doors of themerchantmen, the light burning before each serving the double purpose ofreligion and utility, in a city of dark tortuous lanes. The ingenuity ofthe mason and sculptor was taxed in varied inventions for the furtheradornment of the homes of the wealthy; and the numerous specimens ofartistic ironwork still remaining attest the taste and opulence of themerchant princes of the old city. Art was thus wedded to utility as wellas to luxury, and at every step in Nürnberg the attention will still bearrested by its influence. [Illustration: Fig. 235. --The Residence of Albert Dürer. ] Dürer lived in a large mansion at one extremity of the town, close tothe gate from whence he could in a few minutes escape from the pent-upcity to the open fields. His house is one of those roomy buildings inwhich there is enough timber to build at least a dozen modern houses. The lower portion is stone, the upper, with its open galleries, of wood. The view from his doors embraced the town gate, and the picturesquetower, known as the Thiergartenthor, beside it. The house between thatand the narrow lane which leads up the castle hill was the property atthat time of one Martin Kötzel, who, having twice employed himself inpilgrimages to Jerusalem, and in measuring the number of paces theSaviour trod on the Via Dolorosa, had determined on his return toconsider his house as the representative of Pilate’s house, the Gate ofNürnberg as that of Jerusalem, the churchyard of St. John in the fieldsbeyond, as Calvary, and the road between as the Via Dolorosa, and tocause representations of the events of the Saviour’s journey in the lineof this road at the various distances where they were traditionallysupposed to occur; and the chief sculptor of Nürnberg, Adam Kraft, wasemployed to execute the sculptures, which still stand a monument of thepiety of the old citizen, whose house (known by the figure of an armedknight at its angle) is still familiarly called “Pilate’s House. ” Timehas written strange alterations on these old works, and wanton injuryhas also been done to them, but there still remains enough to show theability of their conception and execution. [Illustration: Fig. 236. --The Himmelsthor, Nürnberg Castle. ] The castle comprises the somewhat rambling series of buildings of allages, styles, and dates, which crown the rock above. The singular mannerin which this isolated mass of stone suddenly rises from the sandyplain may have induced the first foundation of the city, by the securelocality it afforded the castle of a ruler in days of old. Its earlyhistory is shrouded in obscurity--one of its towers has been attributedto the Romans; it can still show undoubted works of the ninth century inthe chapels of Sts. Ottmar and Margaret, from which time it receivedalterations and additions of all kinds, ending in leaving it thepicturesque assemblage of quaint old buildings which it at presentremains. The Himmelsthor, or “tower of heaven, ” is the name given to thelarge round tower which is built within the castle precincts on thehighest point of the rock, and which, as its title implies, soars towardheaven, and forms a prominent feature in all views of Nürnberg. Thepanorama from its summit is singularly striking, comprising the entirecountry for an immense distance round. The _alt Feste_, whereWallenstein encamped, in his memorable defence of these lines and of thecity when besieged by Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, and the blue hillsknown as the Franconian Switzerland, terminating with the Moritzberg, give relief to the otherwise flat vicinity. This tower has beenintroduced in the background of some of Dürer’s designs, as well asother portions of the castle. The old town-walls also figure in thosescenes from Holy Writ he so frequently designed. The anachronisms whichresult from such a mode of realising scenes in past history weresufficiently familiar in his own day to save them from all adversecriticism; indeed, it had become the formula of early art, thus toverify sacred events by adapting them to the experiences of every-daylife around, to which it never appealed in vain. To comprehend fully theart of any one period, and the talent of any artist of that period, wemust go back mentally to the time in which he flourished, and measurehim by such as had preceded him. In this way alone can we form a rightjudgment of his powers, and award him his due place in art. [Illustration: Fig. 237. --Entrance Hall of Dürer’s House. ] In the days of Albert Dürer the street in which he resided was known as“die Zisselgasse;” it is now appropriately named after the great artisthimself. When he lived and worked in his roomy old mansion, Nürnberg wasnot quite so crowded within its own walls as it has since become by thepressure of modern exigencies; and Dürer’s house appears to have hadout-buildings, and, most probably, a small garden, such as was awardedto better-class houses in mediæval times. Dr. Frederick Campe tells usthat he bought, in 1826, from the proprietor of the house, a balcony inwhich Dürer worked in summer time, and which originally must havecommanded some sheltered space wherein a few trees might grow. The househas since been purchased by a society of artists, who honour themselvesby that act, and do honour to Dürer by preserving it as much as possiblein the state in which he left it, and exhibiting his works in the rooms. The interior of the house has undergone some renovation, but it hasbeen done cautiously, and in strict character with the originalportions: it chiefly consists of new panelling and new doors, and theyare quaintly carved in the style of the sixteenth century. The externaldoor of the house still retains its old ironwork and lockfittings. [212-*] We pass through from the street, and enter a roomyhall, with a wide passage on one side, and an equally wide staircase onthe other, which leads to the upper floors. A ponderous beam supportsthe ceiling, and a massive wooden pillar props the centre of this beam. The profusion of timber, and abundance of space accorded to passages andstaircase, are indicative of past times, when wood was of less valuethan it has since become. The floor on which this pillar rests isflagged with stones; a small parlour is to the right; we pass it, andmidway in the passage come to a low door leading into a small squareroom, --it was the studio of Dürer. “Here, when art was still religion, with a simple, reverent heart, Lived and laboured Albert Dürer, the Evangelist of Art. ”[212-†] It is lighted from the street by a long narrow window about five feetfrom the ground inserted in the top of an arch in the wall, as seen fromthe inside, beneath which is a shelf of capacious breadth. A smallrichly-carved altar-piece is now placed within it, and a few chairs. Itis a quiet secluded room, having no communication with any other. Thetop of the walls and turrets of the old town, and a small patch of sky, may be seen by an upward glance at the window; but there is no featureto distract the denizen of the apartment: it is a place forconcentration of mind, and such must have been Dürer’s habits, as theenormous amount of his works show. Leaving this room and proceedingfarther, we reach the quaintly constructed kitchen, with its enormousfire-place half filling the apartment. The one small window to thestreet lets in a gleam of light such as Rembrandt would have admired. The arched door is fitted with a lock of that peculiar form andcharacter which assure the spectator that it is the handwork of aningenious smith of Dürer’s day; its broad plate is decorated with asimple ornament consisting of the favourite gnarled twigs and leaves, soconstantly adopted in German decorations of all kinds, at the end of thefifteenth, and during the sixteenth century. We leave the ground floorand ascend the wide stairs. The front room on the first floor commands apleasant view of the small _Platz_ opposite the house, as it fronts theThiergartenthor, and the castled crag rises grandly over the housesbeside it. The walls are panelled, and the beams across the woodenceiling chamfered, and slightly carved. The aspect of the whole room isstriking, and it is rendered more impressive by the many examples ofDürer’s genius placed within it, as well as of others by his masterWohlgemuth. The woodcuts are framed, and comprise the best examples ofboth masters; there is also an original drawing on vellum testifying tothe minute accuracy of Dürer’s studies. It is the figure of a lion, bearing date 1512, drawn with all that patient care which characteriseshis transcripts from nature. In the British Museum is a large volumecontaining numerous studies for his principal works, and it is awonderful record of truth-seeking patience, as the minute parts of hisdesigns appear to have been drawn from nature as carefully as if suchsketches had been parts of a finished picture; his unwearied assiduityin his profession has never been exceeded. [Illustration: Fig. 238. --Dürer’s Studio. ] [Illustration: Fig. 239. --Kitchen in Dürer’s House. ] Nürnberg contains fewer of Dürer’s works than a stranger might be led toexpect. [215-*] The print-room of our British Museum, with its greatnumber of engravings and drawings, and its wonderful sculpture inhone-stone by him, is a far better place to study the works of thisartist. There is, however, one work of singular interest preserved inthe old city, which is worth a long journey to see. It is the portraitof the old Nürnberg patrician--Jerome Holzschuher, the friend and patronof the artist. It represents a cheerful, healthy man over whose headfifty-seven years have passed without diminishing his freshness andbuoyancy of spirit; the clear complexion, searching eye, and generalvigour which characterise the features, almost seem to contradict thewhite hair that falls in thick masses over the forehead. For freshness, power, and truth, this portrait may challenge comparison with any of itsage. Time has also dealt leniently with the picture, for it is as clearand bright as the day it was painted, and is carefully preserved in itsoriginal frame, into which a sliding wooden panel is made to fit andcover it: the outside being emblazoned with the _armes parlantes_ of thefamily of Holzschuher--a _wooden shoe_, raised from the ground in themanner of the Venetian _chopine_. The picture was painted in 1526, and“combines, ” says Kügler, “the most perfect modelling with the freesthandling of the colours; and is certainly the most beautiful of all thismaster’s portraits, since it plainly shows how well he could seizenature in her happiest moments, and represent her with irresistiblepower. ” It still remains in the possession of the Holzschuher family, and is located in their mansion at the back of the Egidienkirche, whereit is politely shown to strangers on proper application; and should thevisitor have the advantage accorded to the writer, of the attendance ofthe last representative of the family, he will see that the same cleareye and expressive features have also descended as a heir-loom in thehouse. It is at Florence, Vienna, and Munich, that Dürer’s paintings areprincipally located. The Castle at Nürnberg possesses his portraits ofthe Emperors Charlemagne and Sigismund. In the Moritzkapelle is thepicture which he painted for the church of St. Sebald in Nürnberg, bythe order of Holzschuher. It represents the dead Saviour just removedfrom the cross, and mourned over by his mother and friends. It ispeculiarly brilliant in colour, and there is considerable force in thedeep rich draperies with which the figures are clothed, but it has thedefect visible in the works of Dürer’s master--a love of hard blackoutlines. In this picture the faces, hands, and feet are delineated bylines very slightly relieved by shadow, and reminding the spectator toomuch of his woodcuts. This love for expressing firm outline is betteradapted to such works as his wall-paintings in the Rathhaus, orTown-hall. They are executed on the north wall of the grand saloon, andare divided by the principal door leading from the gallery; on one sideof which is an allegory of the “Unjust Judge” (which formed one of theseries of moral broadsheets published by Hans Sachs); and a group ofmusicians in a gallery, probably representing those that belonged to thetown; on the other side of the door the entire length of the wall isoccupied by the allegorical triumphal car of the Emperor Maximilian I. , a work which Dürer copied on wood in a series of large cuts, publishedin 1522. In a fanciful car, drawn by many horses, sits the emperor inregal state, attended by all the virtues and attributes which may besupposed to wait on moral royalty. The very nature of such a work isbeset with difficulties, and it is seldom that any artist has entirelysurmounted them. State allegories present small fascinations to any butthe statesman glorified; but Dr. Kügler in his criticism of this work, while he acknowledges its defects, is prepared to say that some of thefigures “display motives of extraordinary beauty, such as might haveproceeded from the graceful simplicity of Raphael. ”[218-*] This paintinghas suffered from time, and “restoration;” the design may be beststudied in the woodcut made from it. [Illustration: Fig. 240. --House of Melchior Pfintzing. ] The Emperor Maximilian was a great patron of the arts, but particularlyof that branch which had newly arisen--the art of wood-engraving--whichhe fostered with continual care, and by the help of such men as Dürer, Burgmeyer, Schaufflein, and Cranach, produced works which have neverbeen excelled. During this period, extending over the first quarter ofthe sixteenth century, a series of elaborate woodcuts were executedunder his own auspices, which were, however, principally devoted to hisown glorification. Two of these are the well-known “Adventures of SirThuerdank, ” and “The Wise King, ” written in ponderous folios after thefashion of the old romances, by Melchior Pfintzing, who resided in theold parsonage house of St. Sebald (he being a canon of that church), apicturesque building on the sloping ground beside it, which rises upwardto the Schlossberg, and which still retains the aspect it bore in hisdays; its beautiful oriel and open balcony still testify to the taste ofmediæval architects. It is but a short distance from Dürer’s house, andhe must have frequently visited here. Here also, came the emperor toexamine the progress of these works: and the great interest he took insuperintending them has been recorded; for it is said that during thetime when Jerome Retzsch was engaged in engraving on wood the triumphalcar from the drawing by Dürer, the emperor was almost a daily visitantto his house. This anecdote may naturally lead here to the considerationof the question--did Dürer _engrave_ the cuts which bear his name, ordid he only _draw them_ upon the wood for the engraver? It is generallyconsidered that all cuts bearing an artist’s mark are engraved by thatartist, but this is in reality an error resulting from modern practice. It is now the custom for wood-engravers to place _their_ names or markson their cuts, and very seldom those of the artists who draw the designsfor them upon the wood. It was the reverse in the old time; then it wasusual to place that of the designer alone, and as he drew upon woodevery line to be engraved, after the manner of a pen-and-ink drawing, the engraver had little else to do than cut the wood from between thespaces: hence his art was a very mechanical one, and his name was seldomrecorded. That of Retzsch does not appear on the car just named, but themark of Dürer solely; and when we consider the vast amount of labourperformed by Dürer as an artist, it is not likely that he wasted time inthe mechanical labour of cutting out his own drawings when he couldemploy it more profitably. The Baron Derschau, himself a collector ofold cuts, assured Dr. Dibdin “that he once possessed a journal ofDürer’s, from which it appeared that he was in the habit of drawing uponthe blocks, and that his men performed the remaining operation ofcutting away the wood. ” Bartsch is decidedly of opinion “that he hadnever employed himself in this kind of work. ” Mr. W. A. Chatto, in hisanonymous “History of Wood Engraving, ” has gone into this question withmuch research and learning, and comes to the same conclusion; which isstrengthened by the fact, that the names of fourteen engravers, and theinitials of several others, were found engraved on the backs of the cutsthey executed for the “Triumph of Maximilian, ” now preserved in theimperial library at Vienna; the names of others are incidentallypreserved; and among the drawings by Dürer in the British Museum, is oneof a young lady, whom he has designated “wood engraver, ” and who wasmost probably employed by him. There is also a sufficient difference inthe style and manner of cutting his designs, which shows they must havebeen done by different hands. It is not possible to note here a tithe ofthe cuts done from his drawings. [221-*] His great serials are the“Apocalypse, ” published in 1498, the two series of the “Passion ofChrist, ” and the “Life of the Virgin” (from which we give a specimen, Fig. 241, “Christ bidding Farewell to his Mother”), all published in1511. His largest woodcut was published in 1515, the “Triumphal Arch ofthe Emperor Maximilian, ” and this, like the car already alluded to, wasengraved on a series of ninety-two wood blocks, and then the impressionspasted together, forming a large print ten feet high. It is a work ofgreat labour, and displays considerable invention. [Illustration: Fig. 241. --Christ bidding farewell to his Mother. ] Of Dürer’s powers as a painter we have already spoken; but he excelledalso as an engraver on copper, and his prints of “Adam and Eve, ”“Melancholia, ” and the small “Life of Christ, ” have not been surpassed. To him also we owe the invention of etching; he practised the art oniron and on copper, and it is impossible to overvalue its utility. Inaddition to his other labours he executed several pieces of sculpture, one of which, the “Naming of John the Baptist, ” we have already alludedto as preserved in the British Museum, and some few others inhone-stone, bearing his well-known mark, exist. He also wrote on Art, and a portion of the original manuscripts of his book on theproportions of the human figure, is still preserved in the library ofthe old Dominican monastery at Nürnberg. He was a good mathematician, healso studied engineering, and is believed to have designed andsuperintended the additional fortifications in the town walls beside thecastle, which are remarkable as the earliest examples of the more modernsystem of defence, which originated in the south of Europe, and withwhich Dürer became acquainted during his sojourn in Venice, and thefruits of which he thus practically brought to the service of his nativecity. [223-*] He published too an essay on the fortification of towns. Infact, there were few subjects to which his mind was directed that he didnot make himself complete master of. Thus lived and laboured Dürer in the city of his adoption, studyingnature most diligently, and combining therewith high imaginings of hisown. In 1506 he undertook a journey to Venice, and its influence improvedhim greatly. In the letters he wrote on this journey to his intimatefriend Pirkheimer he acknowledges this; in one of them he declares “thethings which pleased me eleven years ago please me no longer. ” He alsonotes the popularity which had preceded him, and says, “the Italianartists counterfeit my works in the churches and wherever else they canfind them, and yet they blame them, and declare that as they are not inaccordance with ancient art they are worthless. ”[223-†] But thoughsubjected to the slights of the unworthy, Dürer gratefully records thenobler acts of nobler men, and notes that Giovanni Bellini publiclypraised him before many gentlemen, “so that I am full of affection forhim. ” This noble old man did not confine his acts to praise alone, butcame to Dürer’s lodging and requested him to paint him a picture, as hewas desirous to possess one of his works, and he would pay liberally forit. Dürer at this time was far from rich, was merely paying his way bythe practice of his art; and the small sums of money he notes as sendingfor the use of his wife and widowed mother in Nürnberg, sufficientlyattest this, as well as his request to Pirkheimer to help them with loanswhich he would repay. [Illustration: Fig. 242. --Gate of Pirkheimer’s House. ] Pirkheimer’s name is so intimately connected with Dürer, and he remainedthroughout his life so steady and consistent a friend, that no memoir ofDürer can be written, however briefly, without his name appearing. Hewas a man of considerable wealth and influence in Nürnberg, a member ofthe Imperial Council, and frequently employed in state affairs. He hadit, therefore, in his power to aid Dürer greatly; he did so, and Dürerreturned it with a gratitude which ripened to affection, he declares inone of his letters that he had “no other friend but him on earth, ” andhe was equally attached to Dürer. The constant intercourse and kindlyadvices of his friend were the few happy relaxations Dürer enjoyed. Pirkheimer was a learned man, and cheerful withal, as his facetious book“_Laus Podagræ_, ” or the “Praise of the Gout, ” can testify. The house inwhich he resided is still pointed out in the _Egidien Platz_; it hasundergone alterations, but the old doorway remains intact, throughwhich Dürer must have frequently passed to consult his friend. “What ismore touching in the history of men of genius than that deep andconstant attachment they have shown to their early patrons?” asks Mrs. Jameson. [225-*] How many men have been immortalised by friendships ofthis kind; how many of the greatest been rendered greater and happierthereby? When the Elector John Frederick of Saxony met with hisreverses in 1547, was driven from his palace, and was imprisoned forfive years, the painter Lucas Cranach, whom he had patronised in hisdays of prosperity, shared his adversity and his prison with him, givingup his liberty to console his prince by his cheerful society, anddiverting his mind by painting pictures in his company. He thuslightened a captivity and turned a prison into a home of art andfriendship; thus the kindness and condescension of a prince werereturned in more value “than much fine gold, ” in the bitter hour of hisadversity, by his humble but warm-hearted artist-friend. That brotherly unity which ought to bind professional men of allkinds--isolated as they must be from the general world--was more of anecessity in the past time than in the present; and the artists formed alittle band of friends within the walls of ancient Nürnberg, consultingwith and aiding each other. The peculiarity of thought and tendency ofhabit which constitute the vitality of the artist-mind, are altogetherunappreciated by the general world; completely misunderstood, and mostfrequently contemned by men of a trading spirit, who look upon artistsas “eccentrics, ” upon art as a “poor business, ” and judge of picturessolely by their “market value. ” These things should bind professors morestrongly together. Their numbers are few; their time for socialitieslimited; their world a small select circle; few can sympathise withtheir cares or their more exquisite sensibilities; they must, therefore, be content with the few whose minds respond to theirs, and they oughtnot to make the narrow circle narrower, by unworthy jealousies orcaptious criticism. Well would it be for us all, and infinitely betterfor the world of art, if we practised still more “Those gentler charities which draw Man closer with his kind, Those sweet humilities which make The music which they find. ”[227-*] Dürer was essentially a man to love. His nature was kindly and open; heknew no envy, and was never known to condemn the work of anotherartist, --which, if bad, he would only criticise with a smile, and a“Well! the master has done his best. ” His general information was sogood, that it was declared of him by a contemporary, that his power asan artist was his least qualification. His personal appearance wasdignified, and his face eminently handsome. [227-†] Yet, with all thesemeans of being happy, and making others so, few men endured more misery. In an evil hour his family made a match for him in the household of HansFrei, whose daughter Agnes he married, and scarcely knew peace after. She was a heartless, selfish woman, who could have no feeling in commonwith her husband, and who only valued his art according to the money itrealised. “She urged him to labour day and night solely to earn money, even at the cost of his life, that he might leave it to her, ” saysPirkheimer, in one of his letters to Tscherte, their mutual friend theViennese architect. All his friends she insulted and drove from thehouse, in order that their visits might not interfere with his labours. His aged mother, whom he had taken into his house after his father’sdeath, was subject to contempt and ill-treatment. His letters fromVenice are sad, and show no pleasant home-thoughts. Yet he did much forthe bad woman to whom he was wedded, and seems to have thought of hergratification by numerous presents. His amiable heart would not allowhim to separate from her, thus he bore her ill humours for his life, andpatiently endured his lot. [228-*] There were few men more adapted tomake a woman happy than Dürer: he had a handsome person, much fame, goodfriends, great talent, and the most kindly amiability; but his wife wasperhaps the worst on record, on whom all this was thrown away. Yet shewas of very religious habit, and preserved all the externals ofpropriety; but, as Pirkheimer observes, “one would rather choose a womanwho conducts herself in an agreeable manner, than a fretful, jealous, scolding wife, however devout she may be. ” Banished from the society of friends, Dürer’s only solace was in hisart. Here only he found peace and pleasure. How earnestly and deeply helaboured, the long catalogue of his productions can prove. Thetruthfulness of his style is shown in his patient studies from nature, and his works are the reflex of such a habit. The figure of the burlytownsman of Jerusalem who lifts his cap in acknowledgment of Joachim andAnna, as they meet at the Golden Gate, in his illustrations of the Lifeof the Virgin (Fig. 243), may be cited for its homely truth, acharacteristic which runs through all Dürer’s works, and gives them acertain _naïveté_. The figure is an evident study of an honest townsmanof Nürnberg, and is as little like an ancient Jew as possible, thoughadmirable as a transcript from nature. Of far higher order are thefigures of the apostles, John, Peter, Mark, and Paul, which he paintedin 1526, and presented to his native city. [229-*] We engrave the figureof Paul, the drapery of which is simple and majestic. A study for thisdrapery, made as early as 1523, is in the collection of the ArchdukeCharles of Austria. In these pictures, which are painted of life-size, he has exerted his utmost ability, and eschewed any peculiarities of hisown which might interfere with the greatness of his design. “Thesepictures are the fruit of the deepest thought which then stirred themind of Dürer, and are executed with overpowering force. Finished asthey are they form the first complete work of art produced byProtestantism. [229-†] What dignity and sublimity pervade those headsof such varied character![230-*] What simplicity and majesty in thelines of the drapery! what sublime and statue-like repose in theirattitudes! Here we no longer find any disturbing element: there are nosmall angular breaks in the folds, no arbitrary or fantastic featuresin the countenances, or even in the fall of the hair. The colouring toois very perfect, true to nature in its power and warmth. There isscarcely any trace of the bright glazing, or of those sharply definedforms seen in other works by him, but everywhere a free pure impasto. Well might the artist now close his eyes, he had in this pictureattained the summit of his art--here he stands side by side with thegreatest masters known in history. ”[231-*] [Illustration: Fig. 243. --Figure from Dürer’s Life of the Virgin. ] [Illustration: Fig. 244. --St. Paul, after Dürer. ] Of the great contemporaries of Dürer--whose works have given undyingcelebrity to the old town of their residence--we must now discourse alittle. Honoured as these works still are by the Nürnbergers, they arelittle known out of Germany; although, as exemplars of art in general atthe particular period when they were executed, they may challenge theirdue position anywhere. The most remarkable is the bronze shrine of St. Sebald, the work of Peter Vischer and his five sons, which still standsin all its beauty in the elegant church dedicated to the saint. Theshrine encloses, amid the most florid Gothic architecture, the oakenchest encased with silver plates, containing the body of the veneratedsaint; this rests on an altar decorated with basso-relievos, depictinghis miracles. [231-†] The architectural portion of this exquisiteshrine partakes of the characteristics of the Renaissance formsengrafted on the mediæval, by the influence of Italian art. Indeed, thelatter school is visible as the leading agent throughout the entirecomposition. The figures of the Twelve Apostles and others placedaround it, scarcely seem to belong to German art: they are quite worthyof the best Trans-alpine master. The grandeur, breadth and repose ofthese wonderful statues cannot be excelled. Vischer seems to havecompletely freed his mind from the conventionalities of his nativeschools: we have here none of the constrained “crumpled draperies, ” thehome-studies for face and form, so strikingly present in nearly all theworks of art of this era; but noble figures of the men elevated abovethe earthly standard by companionship with the Saviour, exhibitingtheir high destiny by a noble bearing, worthy of the solemn and gloriousduties they were devoted to fulfil. We gaze on these figures as we do onthe works of Giotto and Fra Angelico, until we feel human nature maylose nearly all of its debasements before the “mortal coil” is “shuffledoff, ” and that mental goodness may shine through and glorify its earthlytabernacle, and give an assurance in time present of the superioritiesof an hereafter. Dead, indeed, must be the soul that can gaze on suchworks unmoved, appealing as they do to our noblest aspirations, andvindicating humanity from its fallen position, by asserting its innate, latent glories. Here we feel the truth of the scriptural phrase--“In hisown image made He them. ” [Illustration: Fig. 245. --Shrine of St. Sebald. ] [Illustration: Fig. 246. --Peter Vischer’s House. ] The memory of Peter Vischer is deservedly honoured by his townsmen. Thestreet in which his house is situated, like that in which Dürer’sstands, has lost its original name, and is now only known as “PeterVischer’s Strasse;” but these two artists are the only ones thusdistinguished. [234-*] Vischer was born in 1460, and died in 1529. Hewas employed by the warden of St. Sebald’s, and magistrate of Nürnberg, Sebald Schreyer, to construct this work in honour of his patron saint;he began it in 1506, and finished it in 1519. Thirteen years of labourwere thus devoted to its completion, for which he received sevenhundred and seventy florins. “According to tradition, Vischer wasmiserably paid for this great work of labour and art; and he hashimself recorded in an inscription upon the monument, that ‘hecompleted it for the praise of God Almighty alone, and the honour ofSt. Sebald, Prince of Heaven, by the aid of pious persons, paid bytheir voluntary contributions. ’”[235-*] The elaboration of the entirework is marvellous; it abounds with fanciful figures, seventy-two innumber, disposed among the ornaments, or acting as supporters to thegeneral composition. Syrens hold candelabra at the angles; and thecentre has an air of singular lightness and grace. It is supported atthe base by huge snails. At the western end there is a small bronzestatue of Vischer, which we copy (Fig. 247): he holds his chisels inhis hand, and in his workman’s dress, with capacious, leather apron, stands unaffectedly forth as a true, honest labourer, appealing only tosuch sympathies as are justly due to one who laboured so lovingly andso well. [Illustration: Fig. 247. --Peter Vischer. ] [Illustration: Fig. 248. --Adam Krafft’s Sacramentshauslein. ] Sharing the palm with Vischer for perfect mastery in sculpture (theone as a worker in metal, the other in stone) stands Adam Krafft, whose works are still the principal ornaments of the city. To him werehis fellow-townsmen indebted for the grand gate of the Frauenkirche, the series of sculptures on the “Via Dolorosa, ” numerous others inthe churches and public buildings, but principally for the“Sacramentshauslein, ” in the Church of St. Laurence (Fig. 248). Thismarvellous work is placed against a pillar beside the high altar, andis intended as a receptacle for the consecrated bread and wine in itsservice; a small gallery runs round the lower portion, in which the“host” is kept; over this the sculpture ascends upwards in a seriesof tapering columns and foliage of the most light and fancifuldescription, until it reaches the spring of the arched roof, where thecrowning pinnacle “bows its beautiful head like the snowdrop on itsstem, ” in the curve of the arch, gracefully completing a work which, for originality, delicacy, and the most extraordinary elaboration ofdesign, is a perfect marvel of stone-carving. The foliations are soflowing and delicate, that it has given rise to a popular traditionthat Krafft was possessed of some secret for making stone plastic. Wehave nothing so delicate in this country, unless it be some of theleaflets on the Percy shrine, and screen of Beverley Minster. Krafft’sleaves are as thin and delicate, as crisp and free, as if moulded fromnature in plaster of Paris, while the grand curves of his ornamentaladjuncts are astonishing, when we reflect on the mass of stonenecessarily cut away to produce these boldly-flowing enrichments. Krafft was born at Ulm in 1430, and died 1507. His father was theprinter, Ulrich Krafft. He commenced this work in the year 1496, andcompleted it in 1500. In it we see the perfect mastery produced by alife of labour, and in front of it he has sculptured his own effigy, kneeling, mallet in hand, and supporting his favourite work. There isa touching simplicity in this union of the artist and his labours, made in these instances all the more impressive by its utter want ofpretension. There is no affectation--no studied artistic or classicalportraying; we have simply the man and his work before us, appealingby their dumb native eloquence to that homage and love, which aretheir due by their own inherent greatness. [Illustration: Fig. 249. --Adam Krafft. ] [Illustration: Fig. 250. --The Goose-seller. ] That works based on truth and nature will always possess this power, maybe proved by the admiration bestowed on a small work by a pupil ofVischer’s, which is popularly loved by the Nürnbergers, and known as“Das Gänsemänchen” (Fig. 250). It forms the central figure of a smallfountain beside the Frauenkirche, and represents a country boor leaningagainst a small pillar, with a goose under each arm, waiting a customerin the market; from the mouth of each goose a stream of water descends. The figure is not more than eighteen inches high, and is, from thesmallness of its size, compared with the greatness of its celebrity, ageneral disappointment to those who see it for the first time. It rivalsin celebrity the work of Vischer himself, and was executed by hisscholar, Pancratius Labenwolf (born 1492, died 1563); the fountain inthe quadrangle of the “Rathhaus” is also by him. The Goose-seller owesits popularity to its perfect truth and simplicity. Another artist of this era, inferior to none in taste and delicacy ofsentiment, was Veit Stoss. He was a native of Poland, born at Cracow in1447; making Nürnberg the city of his adoption, and dying there in1542. [240-*] The same exquisite grace and purity which characterises theworks of Vischer is seen in those of Stoss. He devoted himself tosculpture in wood, and in this way is said to have furnished models tothose who worked in stone, as well as to goldsmiths, and other artisanswho required designs. “The Crowning of the Virgin, ” still preserved inthe old castle at Nürnberg, had all the delicacy and grace of the missalpaintings of Julio Clovio. [Illustration: Fig. 251. --“The Nativity, ” by Veit Stoss. ] There is an exquisite repose about his works, only to be gained by greatmastership in art. At times a tenderness of sentiment singularlybeautiful is apparent in these too-much-forgotten works. We engrave, asan illustration of this, one of the compartments of the“Rosenkranztafel, ” preserved in the same locality, and representing the“Nativity. ” The Virgin in the stable at Bethlehem, piously rejoices inthe birth of the Lord, and is about to wrap the sacred infant in thefolds of her own garments, having no other clothing. She has reverentlylaid the babe in a corner of her mantle, when, penetrated with a senseof the divinity, she clasps her hands in prayer before the InfantSaviour; while her husband Joseph, who holds the lantern beside her, feeling the same emotion, drops on one knee, and reverently lifts hishat in acknowledgment of the Immortal One. [Illustration: Fig. 252. --“The Entombment, ” by Adam Krafft. ] It is this fervent devotion, this pure, high, yet simple-mindedness, which gives vitality to ancient works of art, and is to be felt by allwho are not insensible to its agency in the time present. Anothertouching incident is seen in the sculpture by Adam Krafft over the graveof Schreyer, representing “The Entombment. ”[243-*] The dead body of ourSaviour is being reverently lifted into the tomb; the sorrowing mother, loving as only mothers love, partially supports the wounded body of herinanimate son; in process of movement the Saviour’s head falls languidlyon one side, and the dead cheek is again greeted with the fervent kissof love, which still burns in the breast of the sorrowing mother. Whoshall rudely criticise the perspective, the draperies, the absence of“scholastic rule, ” in this touching work of a true-hearted man? Not thewriter of these lines! Let it be rather his province to vindicate forthese old artists their due position, among the few forming that galaxyof the great and good, elevating and adorning human nature. Our parting glance at “the Athens of Germany” must comprehend a view ofthe life and manners of the people among whom Dürer and his compatriotslived. Theirs were the palmy days of the old city, for its gloriesrapidly fell to decay toward the end of the sixteenth century. Itsaspect now is that of a place of dignity and importance left toloneliness and the quiet wear of time; like an antique mansion of anoble not quite allowed to decay, but merely existing shorn of its fullglories. “Nürnberg--with its long, narrow, winding, involved streets, its precipitous ascents and descents, its completely Gothicphysiognomy--is by far the strangest old city I ever beheld; it hasretained in every part the aspect of the Middle Ages. No two housesresemble each other: yet, differing in form, in colour, in height, inornament, all have a family likeness; and with their peaked and carvedgables, and projecting central balconies, and painted fronts, stand upin a row, like so many tall, gaunt, stately old maids, with the toquesand stomachers of the last century. Age is here, but it does not suggestthe idea of dilapidation or decay; rather of something which has beenput under a glass case, and preserved with care from all extraneousinfluences. But, what is most curious and striking in this old city, isto see it stationary, while time and change are working such miraclesand transformations everywhere else. The house where Martin Behaim, fourcenturies ago, invented the sphere, and drew the first geographicalchart, is still the house of a map-seller. In the house where cards werefirst manufactured, cards are now sold. In the very shops where clocksand watches were first seen, you may still buy clocks and watches. Thesame families have inhabited the same mansions from one generation toanother for four or five centuries. ”[244-*] In a city where all its associations of greatness are with the past, andits memories essentially connected with those who have been longnumbered with the dead, it is natural we should find a strong tendencyto remembrances of events and personages generally forgotten in otherand more stirring cities. The Nürnbergers lovingly preserve all thatwill connect them with the glorious days of Kaiser Maximilian, whentheir “great Imperial City” held the treasures of the Holy Roman empire, the crown and royal insignia of Charlemagne, as well as the still moreprecious “relics” which he had brought from the Holy Land. [245-*] Among all their literary magnates none is better remembered than “Hans Sachs, the cobbler-bard, ” and statuettes of this great poet of small things are to be seen in mostNürnberg book and print shops. Since the days of Lope de Vega no writerscribbled so fluently and so well on the thousand-and-one incidents ofhis own day, or fancies of his own brain. Sachs was born at Nürnberg in1494 and was the son of a poor tailor, who insured his education in thefree-school of the town, and at fifteen he was apprenticed to ashoemaker; when the period of servitude had expired, in accordance withthe German practice, he set out on his travels to see the world. It wasa stirring time, and men’s eyes were rapidly opened to the corruptionsof church and state; the great principles of the Reformation weremaking way. Hans possessed much of that stirling common sense, andshrewd practical observation which belong to many of the lower class, and make them outspoken rude despisers of courtiership. On his return heapplied for admission as a fellow rhymester among the master-singers’fraternity of Nürnberg, a corporation of self-styled poets, whosurrounded the “divine art” with all kinds of routine ordinances, andregulated the length of lines and number of syllables which each “poem”(?) should contain, so magisterially that they reduced it to amathematical precision, and might class it among the “exact sciences. ”Before this august tribunal the muse of Sachs appeared, his poem wasread, its lines were measured, its syllables counted, and he wasadmitted to the honour of being an acknowledged master of song. Fromthat hour till his death, he cobbled and sang to the wonderful amusementof the good citizens; and when seventy-seven years had passed gaily overhis head, “he took an inventory of his poetical stock-in-trade, andfound, according to his narrative, that his works filled thirty volumesfolio, and consisted of 4, 273 songs, 1, 700 miscellaneous poems, and 208tragedies, comedies and farces, making an astounding sum-total of 6, 181pieces of all kinds. The humour of his tales is not contemptible; helaughs lustily and makes his reader join him; his manner, so far asverse can be compared to prose, is not unlike that of Rabelais, but lessgrotesque. ”[246-*] His most popular productions were broadsheets withwoodcuts, devoted to all kinds of subjects, sold about the streets, andstuck “like ballads on the wall” of old English cottages; speakingboldly out to the comprehension and tastes of the people on subjectsthey were interested in. From a large volume of these “curiosities ofliterature” now lying before the writer, his immense popularity with thepeople can be well understood. Here we find fables of never-dyinginterest, such as “The Old Man and his Ass, ” reproduced in doggerel theycould enjoy, with a humour they could relish, and headed by boldwoodcuts. If they wanted morality they had it in “pious chansons” aboutfair Susannah, “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, ” “Daniel in theLions’ Den, ” “Twelve short Sermons, ” &c. Moral allegories suited toevery-day life wooed their attention in his “Christian Patience, ” wherethe whole human family is depicted as a solitary in a ship on a stormysea, with the world, death, and the devil, as adversaries to oppose hissafe entry into his port, “das vaterland, ” but who is mercifully guardedby the Most High. If amusing satire were required, it might be found inhis “Women setting Traps for Fools;” while the strong religioustendencies of the Reformers were enforced in his rhymes of the “True andFalse Way, ” above which was printed a large cut where the Saviourinvites all to the open door of his fold, while the pope and his priestshinder all from entering, except by back-doors, holes, and corners. Atthis period Nürnberg was torn by religious faction; and it ultimatelybecame enthusiastically Protestant. There is no doubt that Hans Sachshelped greatly to foster the feeling in its favour, as his “broadsides”told forcibly, and were immensely popular. They were in fact the onlybooks of the poor. [Illustration: Fig. 253. --Hans Sachs. ] The portrait of the old cobbler was painted in 1568 by Hans Hoffman, andis a strikingly characteristic resemblance of a man whose “age is as a lusty winter, Frosty, but kindly. ” There is an intensity of expression in the clear, deep-set eye, a shrewdobservant look in the entire features, while it shows a capacity offorehead that will make Hans pass muster with modern phrenologists. Thecobbler-bard wrote and sung, and mended his neighbours’ boots in anunpretending domicile in a street leading from the principal market, which street now goes by his name. Since his time the house has beenalmost rebuilt and entirely new fronted. Its old features have beenpreserved in an etching by Fleischmann, after a sketch by J. A. Klein, at which period it was a beershop known by the sign of the “GoldenBear. ” Hans died full of years and honour in the year 1576, and isburied with the great men of his city in the cemetery of St. John. [Illustration: Fig. 254. --The House of Hans Sachs. ] The domestic life of the old Nürnbergers seems to have beencharacterised by honourable simplicity, and their posterity appear tofollow laudably in their footsteps. They delight in the antiquity oftheir city, and reverently preserve the relics of their past glories. Their houses seem built for a past generation, their public edifices forthe Middle Ages; their galleries abound in the art of the fifteenthcentury, and admit nothing more modern than the seventeenth. In the oldgarden upon the castle bastion is a quaint quadrangular tower[250-*]having its entrance therefrom, and this has been fitted up with antiquefurniture, to give a true idea of the indoor life of Dürer’s days. Itcontains a hall hung with tapestries, from which a staircase leads to asuite of rooms, one fitted as a kitchen, another as a music-room, filledwith the most quaint and curious antique instruments, which have ceased“discoursing most eloquent music” for the last two hundred years. Thethird room (a view of which we engrave) is a boudoir, containing thelarge antique German stove, built up with ornamental tiles cast inrelief, with stories from bible history of saints, and arabesque. Besideit is a bronze receptacle for water, shaped like a huge acorn, the taphaving a grotesque head, and the spigot being a small seated figure;this was gently turned when wanted, and a thin stream of water trickledover the hands into the basin beneath; an embroidered napkin hangsbeside it; and above it is the old-fashioned set of four hour-glasses, so graduated that each ran out a quarter of an hour after the other. Thefurniture and fittings of the entire building are all equally curious, and reproduce a faithful picture of old times, worthy of being copiedin National Museums elsewhere. [Illustration: Fig. 255. --Apartment in the Garden of the Castle ofNürnberg. ] Nürnberg being a “free city” was governed by its own appointedmagistrates, having independent courts of law. The executive council ofstate consisted of eight members, chosen from the thirty patricianfamilies who, by the privilege granted to them from the thirteenthcentury, ruled the city entirely. In process of time these privilegesassumed the form of a civic tyranny, which was felt to be intolerable bythe people, and occasionally opposed by them. The fierce religious warsof the sixteenth century assisted in destroying this monopoly of powerstill more; yet now that it is gone for ever, it has left fearful tracesof its irresponsible strength. All who sigh for “the good old times, ”should not moralise over the fallen greatness of the city, and itsalmost deserted but noble town-hall; but descend below the building intothe dark vaults and corridors which form its basement; the terriblesubstructure upon which the glorious municipal palace of a free imperialself-ruled city was based in the Middle Ages, into whose secrets nonedared pry, and where friends, hope, life itself, were lost to those whodared revolt against the rulers. There is no romance-writer who hasimagined more horrors than we have evidences were perpetrated under thename of justice in these frightful vaults, unknown to the busy citizensaround them, within a few feet of the streets down which a gay weddingprocession might pass, while a true patriot was torn in every limb, andracked to death by the refined cruelty of his fellow-men. The heartsickens in these vaults, and an instinctive desire to quit them takespossession of the mind, while remaining merely as a curious spectatorwithin them. The narrow steps leading to them are reached through adecorated doorway, and the passage below receives light through a seriesof gratings. You shortly reach the labyrinthine ways, totally excludedfrom external light and air, and enter one after another confineddungeons, little more than six feet square, cased with oak to deadensounds, and to increase the difficulty of attempted escape. To makethese narrow places even more horrible, strong wooden stocks are insome, and day and night prisoners were secured in total darkness, in anatmosphere which even now seems too oppressive to bear. In closeproximity to these dungeons is a strong stone room, about twelve feetwide each way, into which you descend by three steps. It is thetorture-chamber. The massive bars before you are all that remain of theperpendicular rack, upon which unfortunates were hung with weightsattached to their ankles. Two such of stone, weighing each fifty pounds, were kept here some years back, as well as many other implements oftorture since removed or sold for old iron. The raised stone bencharound the room was for the use of the executioner and attendants. Thevaulted roof condensed the voice of the tortured man, and an aperture onone side gave it freedom to ascend into the room above, where thejudicial listeners waited for the faltering words which succeeded theagonising screams of their victim. So much we know and still see, butworse horrors were dreamily spoken of by the old Nürnbergers; there wasa tradition of a certain something that not only destroyed life, butannihilated the body of the person sacrificed. The tradition took a moredefinite form in the seventeenth century, and the “kiss of the Virgin”expressed this punishment, and was believed to consist in a figure ofthe Virgin, which clasped its victim in arms furnished with poignards, and then opening them, dropped the body down a trap on a sort of cradleof swords, arranged so as to cut it to pieces, a running stream belowclearing all traces of it away. [Illustration: Fig. 256. --The Torture-chamber. ] These frightful traditions were received with doubt by many, and withpositive disbelief by others, until a countryman of our own, withunexampled patience and perseverance, fully substantiated the truth ofall, and after many years traced the absolute “Virgin” herself, whichhad been hurriedly removed from Nürnberg during the French Revolution, two or three days before the French army entered the town, and thenpassed into the collection of a certain Baron Diedrich, and was kept byhim in a castle called Feistritz, on the borders of Steinmark. Determined to persevere in tracing this figure, our countryman visitedthis castle in 1834, and there was the machine; it was formed of barsand hoops covered with sheet iron, representing a Nürnberg maiden of thesixteenth century in the long mantle generally worn. It opened withfolding doors, closing again over the victim, and pressing a series ofpoignards into the body, two being affixed to the front of the face, topenetrate to the brain through the eyes. “That this machine had formerlybeen used cannot be doubted; because there are evident blood-stains yetvisible on its breast and part of the pedestal. ” This machine wasintroduced to Nürnberg in 1533, and is believed to have originated inSpain, and to have been transplanted into Germany during the reign ofCharles V. , who was monarch of both countries. At this period there weregreat tumults in Germany and continual quarrels at Nürnberg between theCatholics and Protestants: the men of that city had no doubt to thank“the most holy Inquisition” for this importation of horrors. The great leading principles of the Reformation interested Dürer as theydid other thinking men. He examined by the biblical test the unwholesomepower and pretensions of the papacy, and found it wanting. We havealready noted the exhortation to abide by “the written word” which heappended to his famous picture of the Apostles. In his journal he breaksforth into uncontrolled lamentations over the crafty capture of Luthermade by his friend the Elector of Saxony, who conveyed him thus out ofharm’s way, and kept him nearly a twelvemonth in the Wartburg. Heexclaims, “And is Luther dead? who will now explain the Gospel soclearly to us? Aid me, all pious Christians, to bewail this man ofheavenly mind, and pray God for some other as divinely enlightened. ” Hethen exhorts Erasmus to “come forth, defend the truth, and deserve themartyr’s crown, for thou art already an old man. ” Dürer had paintedErasmus’s portrait at Brussels in 1520, and appears to have beenintimate with that great man as he was with Melancthon, who said ofDürer, that “his least merit was that of his art. ” [Illustration: Fig. 257. --The Cemetery of St. John. ] Amid the strong dissensions of the Reformation, at a time when oldNürnberg was tottering to its fall, worn down by mental toil, andwithered at heart by one of the worst wives on record, died Albert Dürerat the age of fifty-seven. [Illustration: Fig. 258. --The Grave of Albert Dürer. ] In the old cemetery of St. John lies all that is mortal of the artistwho has given lasting celebrity to Nürnberg. Let us take a walk in thatdirection. Passing out of the town by the gate opposite Dürer’s house, the sculptured representations of the scenes of Christ’s Passion, byAdam Krafft, already alluded to, will guide our footsteps on our way. About three-quarters of a mile from the town, we reach the gate besidewhich stands Krafft’s group of the Crucifixion. [257-*] We enter, andstand in a graveyard thickly covered with gravestones. Here the burgheraristocracy of Nürnberg have been buried for centuries. The heavy slabs which cover the graves are in many instances highlyenriched by bronze plates elaborately executed, containing coats ofarms, emblems, or full-length figures. Each grave is numbered, and thatof Dürer is marked 649. The stone had fallen into decay, when Sandrartthe painter had it renewed in 1681. [258-*] This honourable act of lovefrom a living artist to a dead brother, enabled the memorial to standanother century of time. The artists of Nürnberg now look after itsconservation; it has recently been repaired by them, and on theanniversary of the Spring morning when the great master departed, theyreverently visit his resting-place. The inscription upon it runs thus:-- ME. AL. DU. QUICQUID ALBERTI DURERI MORTALE FVIT SUB HOC CONDITUR TUMULO. EMIGRAVIT. VIII. IDUS. APRILIS M. D. XXVIII. The sentiment of this epitaph has been beautifully rendered byLongfellow-- “_Emigravit_ is the inscription on the tombstone where he lies; Dead he is not, --but departed--for the artist never dies. ” Thus ends our brief review of the life and labours of Dürer and hisfellow artists. If it has “called up forgotten glories, ” it has not beena labour ill-bestowed. If it should induce others to leave England forNürnberg, as the writer hereof was induced, he can venture to predictfull satisfaction from the journey. Any one who may ramble through itsstreets, know its past history, feel its poetic associations, like theAmerican bard we have just quoted, will say, as he has done, of oldNürnberg and the great and good Albert Dürer-- “Fairer seems the ancient city, and the sunshine seems more fair, That he once has trod its pavement, that he once has breathed its air!” FINIS. PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO. , CITY ROAD, LONDON. FOOTNOTES: [190-*] Sir E. Head’s introduction to the English translation ofKügler’s “Handbook of Painting. ” Part II. [191-*] Longfellow’s “Spanish Student. ” [212-*] Engravings of these will be found in the _Art-Journal_ for 1854, pp. 307-8. [212-†] Longfellow. [215-*] They have been presented from time to time to such potentates asthe townsmen wished to conciliate. Thus, his Four Apostles, bequeathedby the artist to his native town, was presented by the council to theElector Maximilian I. , of Bavaria, and are now in the Pinacothek inMunich. [218-*] “Guido seems to have availed himself of some of these figures inhis celebrated fresco of the Car of Apollo, preceded by Aurora, andaccompanied by the Hours. ”--CHATTO’S _History of Wood Engraving_, p. 303. [221-*] For a general notice of Dürer’s works, and several engravings ofthe best of them, see the _Art-Journal_ for 1851, pp. 141-144 and pp. 193-196. See also, “Vignettes d’Albert Dürer, ” par George Franz. [223-*] These incipient bastions and horn-works may be seen in our cut, p. 194. [223-†] Marc Antonio had copied Dürer’s cuts on copper, but they arepoor substitutes for the originals. They, however, did Dürer an injuryof which he complained. [225-*] In her “Visits and Sketches of Art at Home and Abroad, ” 4 vols. 8vo. , 1834. [227-*] L. E. L. [227-†] Mrs. Jameson speaks of his portrait as “beautiful, like the oldheads of our Saviour; and the predominant expression is calm, dignified, intellectual, with a tinge of melancholy. This picture was painted atthe age of twenty-eight; he was then suffering from that bitter domesticcurse, a shrewish, avaricious wife, who finally broke his heart. ” Wehave engraved this portrait in the head-piece to this subject (p. 187), along with those of his wife and of his friend Pirkheimer. [228-*] Leopold Schefer has constructed a _novelette_ on his domesticcareer, which has been cleverly translated by Mrs. Stodart. It isentitled “The Artist’s Married Life, being that of Albert Dürer. ” Itteaches much by its pure philosophy. [229-*] They are now in the Pinacothek at Munich. [229-†] Dürer had warmly espoused the Reformation, and had placedquotations from the gospels and epistles of the Apostles beneath eachpicture, containing pressing warnings not to swerve from the writtenword, or listen to false prophets and perverters of the truth. When thetown presented these pictures to the Roman Catholic Elector MaximilianI. , of Bavaria, in 1627, they cut off these inscriptions, and affixedthem to the copies they had made for themselves by Vischer, and whichare now in the Landauer Gallery at Nürnberg. [230-*] There is an old tradition that Dürer intended these figures alsoas embodiments of the four mental temperaments--John, representing themelancholic; Peter, the meditative, or phlegmatic; Mark, the sanguine;and Paul, the resolute or choleric. [231-*] Kügler. Mrs. Jameson, in her “Visits at Home and Abroad, ” alsospeaks of them as “wonderful! In expression, in calm religious majesty, in suavity of pencilling, and the grand, pure style of the heads anddrapery, quite like Raffaelle. ” [231-†] Among the rest is the very marvellous one performed during ajourney in winter, when he was nearly destroyed by cold, and entered apeasant’s cottage, hoping to find relief. The poor man had no fuel, sothe saint made up a fire from the icicles which hung around the house, completing his good acts by mending his broken kettle, “by blessing it, at the request of his host, ” and converting stones into bread by thesame simple process. [234-*] Vischer’s house is situated on the other side of the RiverPegnitz, which divides the town; it is in a steep street rising suddenlyfrom the water. The house has undergone some alterations in its externalaspect, apparently about the latter half of the seventeenth century. Itis now a baker’s shop, having that quiet aspect which characterises suchtrades in Germany, the central window on the ground-floor being thatthrough which bread is passed to applicants, who may mount the steps infront, or rest on them while waiting. The beam projecting from the largewindow in the roof is used as a crane to lift wood and heavy stores tothe upper floors, which are the depositaries for such necessities, andnot the cellars, as with us. [235-*] Murray’s “Handbook of Germany. ” [240-*] His grave is in the cemetery of St. John, No. 268. [243-*] This grave, surrounded by sculpture, forms a little externalchapel, at the back of the choir of St. Sebald’s Church. We have alreadymentioned Schreyer as the originator of Vischer’s shrine in that church. [244-*] Mrs. Jameson, “Sketches of Art at Home and Abroad. ” The curiousseries of views in Nürnberg, published there by Conrad Monath, about1650, are remarkably identical with the present aspect of each localityengraved. [245-*] The crown and royal robes of Charlemagne were those found in histomb at Aix-la-Chapelle, afterwards used in the coronation of the Germanemperors for many centuries, and only transferred to Vienna during thegreat political changes of the last century. “The sacred relics” arealso at Vienna, and were among the most valued and venerated of churchtreasures. They also were publicly exhibited at the coronations, andconsisted of the lance which pierced the Saviour’s side when upon thecross; a piece of the cross, showing the hole made by the nail whichpierced one of the Saviour’s hands; one of the nails; and five of thethorns of the crown put upon his head by the soldiers; a portion of themanger of Bethlehem; a piece of the table-cloth used at the Last Supper;and a piece of the towel with which Christ wiped the Apostles’ feet; anarm-bone of St. Anne; a tooth of St. John the Baptist; a piece of thecoat of St. John the Evangelist; and three links of the chains whichbound St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. John in the Roman prison. [246-*] Edgar Taylor’s “Lays of the Minnesingers. ” [250-*] It is seen in our view from Albert Dürer’s house, and is closebeside the gate of the town. [257-*] Our engraving (Fig. 257) is taken from a sketch made on thisspot, looking back towards the city, and its ancient castle on the rock. Krafft’s sculptures are seen to the left, at intervals, on theroad-side. [258-*] He also is interred in this cemetery. So is Dürer’s friend, Pirkheimer; his grave is No. 1414. Transcriber’s Note Corrections: 95 Gealic changed to Gaelic 173 Figs 212, changed to Figs. 212, 174 Fig 215 represents changed to Fig. 215 represents 247 classical pourtraying changed to classical portraying cross bar / cross-bar Dürer / Durer DÜRER / DURER Dürer’s / Durer’s ironwork / iron-work Pinacotheck / Pinacothek