Transcriber's Notes: Greek words and some characters may not displayproperly--in that case, try another version. Words italicized in theoriginal are surrounded by _underscores_. Some typographical andpunctuation errors have been corrected. A complete list follows thetext. 

PRIMITIVE PSYCHO-THERAPYAND QUACKERY

BY

ROBERT MEANS LAWRENCE, M. D. AUTHOR OF "THE MAGIC OF THE HORSE-SHOE, " ETC. 

BOSTON AND NEW YORKHOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANYThe Riverside Press Cambridge1910

COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY ROBERT MEANS LAWRENCE

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

_Published October 1910_

 They have observed but little, who have not remarked how much Imagination contributes to give success to the curative power of a medicine. VICESIMUS KNOX, D. D. _Winter Evenings_, I, p. 154. 

 The mind has the same command over the body, as the master over the slave. ARISTOTLE. 

PREFACE

Certain historic modes of healing, including the use of medical amuletsand charms, which have been regarded from early times as magicalremedies, belong properly to the domain of Psychical Medicine. For thetherapeutic virtues of medical amulets are not inherent in theseobjects, but are due to the influence exerted by them upon theimaginative faculties of the individuals who employ them. They affordpowerful suggestions of healing. In this volume the writer has sought toemphasize the fact that the efficiency of many primitive therapeuticmethods, and the success of charlatanry, are to be attributed to mentalinfluence. The use of spells and incantations, the practice of laying-onof hands, the cult of relics, mesmerism, and metallo-therapy, have beenimportant factors in the evolution of modern mental healing. The methodof their operation, a mystery for ages, is revealed by the wordsuggestion. Thus may be traced some of the steps in the development ofpsycho-therapy. One ruling force, namely, the power of the imagination, has always been the potent therapeutic agent, whether in the word ofcommand, in medical scripts, or in the methods of quackery. R. M. L. 

177 BAY STATE ROAD, BOSTON, MASS. May 20, 1910. 

CONTENTS

 I. MEDICAL AMULETS 3

 II. TALISMANS 19

 III. PHYLACTERIES 24

 IV. THE POWER OF WORDS 30

 V. THE CURATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE IMAGINATION 53

 VI. THE ROYAL TOUCH 73

 VII. THE BLUE-GLASS MANIA 93

 VIII. THE TEMPLES OF ESCULAPIUS 97

 IX. STYPTIC CHARMS 105

 X. HEALING-SPELLS IN ANCIENT TIMES 111

 XI. MEDICINAL RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS 135

 XII. METALLO-THERAPY 139

 XIII. ANIMAL MAGNETISM 143

 XIV. ANCIENT MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS 155

 XV. REMEDIAL VIRTUES ASCRIBED TO RELICS 165

 XVI. THE HEALING INFLUENCE OF MUSIC 172

 XVII. THE HEALING INFLUENCE OF MUSIC (_continued_) 185

XVIII. QUACKS AND QUACKERY 201

 XIX. QUACKS AND QUACKERY (_continued_) 223

APPENDIX: SOME NOTED IRREGULAR PRACTITIONERS:

 PARACELSUS 243

 HEINRICH CORNELIUS AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM 249

 JEROME CARDAN 251

 GIUSEPPE BALSAMO 253

 VALENTINE GREATRAKES 255

 JOHANN BAPTIST VAN HELMONT 260

 ROBERT FLUDD 263

 MICHEL DE NOTREDAME 265

 WILLIAM LILLY 268

 JOHANN JOSEPH GASSNER 271

INDEX 273

PRIMITIVEPSYCHO-THERAPY AND QUACKERY

CHAPTER I

MEDICAL AMULETS

Among the various subjects which belong to the province of medicalfolk-lore, one of the most interesting relates to amulets and protectivecharms, which represent an important stage in the gradual development ofMedicine as a science. And especially noteworthy among medical amuletsare those inscribed with mystic sentences, words, or characters, for bytheir examination and study we may acquire some definite knowledge ofthe mental condition of the people who made use of them. 

Satisfactorily to explain the derivation of the English word "amulet"has taxed the ingenuity of etymologists, and its origin is admittedlyobscure. According to some authorities, the Latin _amuletum_ was derivedfrom _amoliri_, to avert or repel; but the greater weight of evidencepoints to the Arabic verb _hamala_, meaning "to carry. " The definitionsusually given embody both of these ideas; for amulets, in the ancientmedical conception of the term, were any objects, ornamental orotherwise, worn on the bodies of men or animals, and believed toneutralize the ill effects of noxious drugs, incantations, witchcrafts, and all morbific agencies whatever. [4:1] To the Oriental mind amuletssymbolize the bond between a protective power and dependent mundanecreatures; they are prophylactics against the forces of evil, and may beproperly characterized as objects superstitiously worn, whose allegedmagical potency is derived from the faith and imagination of thewearer. [4:2]

The use of amulets has been attributed to religious sentimentality orreligiosity. The latter word has been defined as "an excessivesusceptibility to the religious sentiments, especially wonder, awe, andreverence, unaccompanied by any correspondent loyalty to divine law indaily life. "[4:3]

Any one desirous of moralizing on the subject may find a themepresenting aspects both sad and comical. When, however, one reflectsthat amulets, in some one of their protean forms, have been investedwith supernatural preventive and healing powers by the people of alllands and epochs, and that they have been worn not only by kings andprinces, but by philosophers, prelates, and physicians of eminence aswell, it is evident that the subject deserves more than a passingconsideration. 

It would be vain to seek the origin of their employment, which lieshidden behind the misty veil of remote antiquity. The eastern nations ofold, as is well known, were much addicted to the use of amulets; andfrom Chaldea, Egypt, and Persia the practice was transmitted westward, and was thus extended throughout the civilized world. Among the greatnumber of popular amulets in ancient times, many were fashioned out ofmetals, ivory, stone, and wood, to represent deities, animals, birds, and fishes; others were precious stones or cylinders inscribed withhieroglyphics; necklaces of shell or coral, crescent- or hand-shapedcharms, and grotesque images. Their virtues were derived either from thematerial, from the shape, or from the magic rites performed at the timeof their preparation. According to a popular belief, which prevailedthroughout the East in the earlier centuries of the Christian era, allobjects, whether inanimate stones and metals, or brutes and plants, possessed an indwelling spirit or soul, which was the cause of theefficiency of all amulets. [5:1] They were therefore akin to fetishes, inthe present acceptation of the term; for a fetish, as defined in theclassification of medicines and therapeutic agents in the collections ofthe National Museum at Washington, D. C. , is a material object supposedto be the abode of a spirit, or representing a spirit, which may beinduced or compelled to help the possessor. 

According to Juvenal ("Satires, " Book III, v, 1), Grecian athletes woreprotective charms in the arena, to counterbalance the magical devices oftheir opponents. It is probable that the ethics of modern athleticcontests would not countenance such expedients. But so implicit was theconfidence of the Roman citizen in his amulet, that a failure to avertsickness or evil of any sort was not attributed to inherent lack ofpower in the charm itself, but rather to some mistake in the method ofits preparation. [6:1]

In the time of the Emperor Hadrian (A. D. 76-138), and of hissuccessors, the Antonines, the resources of occult science, known onlyto the initiated few, were believed to be sufficiently powerful, throughthe agency of spells and charms, to control the actions of evilspirits. [6:2] The early Christians readily adopted the pagan custom ofwearing amulets as remedies against disease, and as bodily safeguards, in spite of the emphatic condemnation of the Church. 

Origen (A. D. 186-253), a native of Alexandria, wrote that in his timeit was customary for a person ailing from any cause to write certaincharacters on paper or metal, and fasten the amulet, thus improvised, upon the part of the body affected. [7:1] Passages from the books of theGospel (literally "good spell") were especial favorites as suchpreservatives; they were usually inscribed on parchment, and were evenplaced upon horses. [7:2] Amulets were also employed to propitiate thegoddess Fortune, and to thwart her evil designs. So insistent was thebelief in the virtues of these objects, and to such a pitch of credulitydid the popular mind attain, that special charms in great variety weredevised against particular diseases, as well as against misfortunes andevil of whatever kind. [7:3]

Medieval astrology was a chief factor in promoting the use of amulets. Magic lent its aid to such an extent that, in certain lands, a chiefpart of Medicine consisted in the selection of suitable amulets againstdisease, and in their preparation. [7:4]

The almost universal dependence upon amulets, as prophylactics orhealing agencies, originated through popular ignorance and fear. 

With the advent of Christianity, many former superstitious beliefs wereabandoned. Yet the process was very gradual. 

The newest converts from paganism, while renouncing the forms which theyhad of necessity abjured, were disposed to attribute to Christiansymbols some of the virtues which they had believed to inhere in heathenemblems and tokens. [8:1] The amulets and charms used by prehistoric manwere silent appeals for protection against the powers of evil, thehostile forces which environed him. [8:2]

The doctrines of the Gnostics have been held by some writers to beresponsible for the introduction of many amulets and charms in the earlycenturies of this era. Notwithstanding the fact (says Edward Berdoe inhis "Origin of the Art of Healing") that the spirit of Christianity inits early day was strenuously opposed to all magical and superstitiouspractices, the nations which it subdued to the faith in Christ were sowedded to their former customs that they could not be entirely divorcedfrom them. Thus, in the case of amulets, it was found necessary tosubstitute Christian words and tokens for their heathen counterparts. 

Amulets and charms were much in vogue in ancient Egypt, and so great wasthe traditional reputation of the people of that country, as expertmagicians, that throughout Europe in medieval times, strollingfortune-tellers and Gypsies were called _Egyptians_, and by this namethey are still known in France. A written medical charm usuallyconsisted of a piece of skin or parchment, upon which were inscribed afew words or mystic symbols. This was enclosed in a small bag or case, which was suspended from the wearer's neck. 

The physician of the fifteenth century was wont to write hisprescription in mysterious characters, and bind it upon the affectedportion of the patient's body. [9:1]

In the rabbinical medicine, occult methods, involving astrology and thewearing of parchment amulets and charms, were more in evidence than theuse of drugs; and among the inhabitants of ancient Babylon, traditionalspells for driving out the demons of sickness were much employed. [9:2]

The forms of words embodied in charms and incantations were originallyintended to be sung, and usually contained some rhyme, jingle, oralliterative verses. 

The origin of these may be ascribed to the use of lullabies andcradle-songs, as a means of soothing infants, and lulling them to sleep. But formerly sick persons of all ages were comforted by these simplemelodies. Dr. Joseph Frank Payne, in the "Fitz-Patrick Lectures, "delivered at Oxford in 1904, remarked that many of the nursery rhymesof to-day are relics of literary forms which had formerly a deeper andsometimes a more formidable meaning. 

For a goodly proportion of these magical therapeutic formulas hadevidently a definite purpose, namely, the expulsion of the demons, whowere believed to be the originators of disease. 

Charm-magic, or the cure of disease through the instrumentality ofwritten medical charms, may be properly classed as one method ofutilizing the therapeutic force of suggestion. In ancient Assyria sacredinscriptions were placed upon the walls of the sick-room, and holy textswere displayed on either side of the threshold. 

The Roman writer, Quintus Serenus Samonicus, author of "Carmen deMedicina, " is said to have recommended as a cure for quartan ague, theplacing of the fourth book of the Iliad under the patient's head. [10:1]Charm-magic has been regarded as a survival of animism, the theory whichendows the phenomena of nature with personal life. It has also beendefined as the explanation of all natural phenomena, not due to obviousmaterial causes, by attributing them to spiritual agencies. 

According to this view, the majority of superstitious fancies are ofanimistic origin. These include, not only many methods of primitivepsycho-therapy, but also the belief in goblins, haunted houses, and theveneration of holy relics. 

Magic writings have been and often are efficient psychic remedies forfunctional affections, in direct proportion to the user's faith in them. A certain sense of mystery seems essential. Given that, and plenty ofconfidence, and it matters not whether the inscriptions are biblicalverses, unintelligible jargon, or even invocations of the Devil. 

As an illustration of the attitude of the clergy towards the practice ofheathen medical magic in Britain during the seventh century, we quotethe words of an eminent French writer, St. Eligius, Bishop of Noyon(588-659), as recorded by the English ecclesiastical historian, Rev. Samuel Roffey Maitland (1792-1866), in his series of essays, entitled"The Dark Ages":--

 Before all things I declare and testify to you that you shall observe none of the impious customs of the pagans, neither sorcerers, nor diviners, nor soothsayers, nor enchanters, nor must you presume for any cause, or for any sickness, to consult or inquire of them; for he who commits this sin loses unavoidably the grace of baptism. In like manner pay no attention to auguries, and sneezings; and when you are on a journey pay no attention to the singing of certain little birds. But whether you are setting out on a journey, or beginning any other work, cross yourself in the name of Christ, and say the Creed and the Lord's Prayer with faith and devotion, and then the enemy can do you no harm. . . . Let no Christian place lights at the temples, or the stones, or at fountains, or at trees . . . Or at places where three ways meet, or presume to make vows. Let none presume to hang amulets on the neck of man or beast; _even though they be made by the clergy, and called holy things, and contain the words of Scripture_; for they are fraught, not with the remedy of Christ, but with the poison of the Devil. Let no one presume to make lustrations, nor to enchant herbs, nor to make flocks pass through a hollow tree, or an aperture in the earth; for by so doing he seems to consecrate them to the Devil. 

 Moreover, as often as any sickness occurs, do not seek enchanters, nor diviners, nor sorcerers, nor soothsayers, or make devilish amulets at fountains or trees, or cross-roads; but let him who is sick trust only to the mercy of God, and receive the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ with faith and devotion; and faithfully seek consecrated oil from the church, wherewith he may anoint his body in the name of Christ and according to the Apostle, the prayer of faith shall save the sick, and the Lord shall raise him up. 

From very early times, says Lady Wilde, the pagan physicians of Ireland, who were famous as skilled practitioners, were prominent among theDruids. Although thoroughly conversant with the healing properties ofherbs, they appreciated keenly the influence exerted upon the minds oftheir patients by charms, fairy cures, and incantations. Therefore theirmethods of treatment were of a medico-religious character, the psychicelement being utilized in the form of various magic rites andceremonies, which were important healing factors. The ancient Druidiccharms are still in use among the Irish peasants, the titles of pagandeities being replaced, however, by the name of Christ and words of theChristian ritual. In this form they are regarded as magic talismans, when repeated over the sick, and the peasants have a strong faith inthese mystic formulas, which have a powerful hold upon theirimaginations, having been transmitted to them through many generationsof a credulous ancestry. [13:1]

The peasants of Ireland do not wholly depend upon the skill of theirfairy-women. On the contrary, every housekeeper has an intimateknowledge of the healing virtues of common herbs. The administration ofthese is always accompanied with a prayer. After domestic resources havebeen exhausted, especially if the ailment is believed to be ofsupernatural origin, recourse is had to the witch-doctress. 

In a volume entitled "Beware of Pickpockets" (1605), being a warningagainst charlatans, occurs this passage:

 Others, that they may colourably and cunningly hide their grosse ignorance, when they know not the cause of the disease, referre it unto charmes, witchcrafts, magnifical incantations and sorcerie. Vainely and with a brazen forehead, affirming that there is no way to help them but by characters, circles, figure-castings, exorcismes, conjurations and others impious and godlesse meanes. Others set to sale at a great price, certain amulets of gold and silver, stamped under an appropriate and selected constellation of the planets, with some magical characters, shamelessly boasting that they will cure all diseases and worke I know not what other wonders. 

The employment of amulets involves the idea of protection against diverskinds of malicious spirits, including the demons of disease, ghosts, fairies, and evil-minded sprites, surly elves, fiends, trolls, pixies, bogies, kelpies, gnomes, goblins, witches, devils, imps, _Jinn, et idomne genus_. Amulets served as preventives against bodily ailments orinjuries, misfortune and ill-luck generally. 

Medieval practitioners, while utilizing material remedies to someextent, relied more on the resources of occult science, whether in theform of incantations or the revelations of astrology. The adeptconsulted the stars to determine the prognosis of a case of fever, forexample. If he prescribed drugs only, his reputation suffered in thepopular estimation. In order to be abreast of the times, the shrewdmedieval physician needed to be well versed in star-craft, or at leastto make a pretense thereto. It is probable that many patients would havedespised a practitioner who looked only to his Herbal and store ofdrugs, and neglected _Capricornus_ and _Ursa Major_. [14:1]

In "Chambers's Cyclopædia, " published in 1728, an amulet is defined asa kind of medicament, hung about the neck, or other part of the body, toprevent or remove disease. And a charm is described as a magic power orspell, by which, with the assistance of the Devil, sorcerers and witcheswere supposed to do wondrous things, far surpassing the power of Nature. According to popular opinion, medicines were of some value as remedies, but to effect radical cures the use of magic spells was desirable. 

John Atkins wrote, in "The Navy Surgeon, or a Practical System ofSurgery" (1737), that the best method of employing medical amuletsconsisted in adapting them to the patients' imaginations. "Let thenewness and surprise, " wrote he, "exceed the invention, and keep up thehumor by a long roll of cures and vouchers; by these and such means, many distempers, especially of women, who are ill all over, or know notwhat they ail, have been cured more by a fancy to the physician than byhis prescription. Quacks again, according to their boldness and way ofaddressing, command success by striking the fancies of an audience. "

Edward Berdoe, in the "Origin and Growth of the Healing Art, " commentson the universality of amuletic symbols and talismans. They are peculiarto no age or region, and unite in one bond of superstitious brotherhoodthe savage and the philosopher, the Sumatran and the Egyptian, theBriton and the native of Borneo. When a medical written charm is whollyunintelligible, its curative virtue is thereby much enhanced. TheAnglo-Saxon document known as the _Vercelli manuscript_ by some meansfound its way to Lombardy. Its text being undecipherable, the preciouspages of the manuscript were cut up, to serve as amulets. 

Apropos of this subject, Charles M. Barrows, in "Facts and Fictions ofMental Healing, " remarks that whatever acts upon a patient in such a wayas to persuade him to yield himself to the therapeutic force constantlyoperative in Nature, is a means of healing. It may be an amulet, acabalistic symbol, an incantation, a bread-pill, or even sudden fright. It may be a drug prescribed by a physician, imposition of hands, mesmeric passes, the touch of a relic, or visiting a sacred shrine. 

Dr. Samuel McComb, in "Religion and Medicine, "[16:1] remarks that theefficacy of the amulets and charms of savages depends upon the fact thatthey are symbols of an inner mental state, the objects to which thedesire or yearning could attach itself--in a word, they areauto-suggestions, done into wood and stone. 

Professor Hugo Münsterberg has said that the less a patient knows aboutthe nature of suggestion, the more benefit he is likely to experiencetherefrom; but that, on the contrary, a physician may obtain the betterresults, the more clearly he understands the working of this therapeuticagent. 

It is also doubtless true that much good may result from the employmentof suggestion by a charlatan, in the form of a written medical charm, both parties being alike profoundly ignorant of the healing influenceinvolved. 

In the Talmud, two kinds of medical amulets are specified, viz: the"approved" and the "disapproved. " An approved amulet is one which hascured three persons, or which has been made by a man who has cured threepersons by means of other amulets. [17:1] A belief in the healing powerof amulets was very general among the Hebrews in the later periods oftheir history. No people in the whole world were more addicted to theuse of medicinal spells, exorcisms, and various enchantments. Thesimpler amulets consisted of pieces of paper, with a few words writtenupon them, and their use was quite general. Only one of the approvedkind was permitted to be worn abroad on the Sabbath. [17:2]

The Talmud therefore permits the use of superstitious modes of healing, the end sought justifying the means, and the power of mental influencebeing tacitly recognized. This principle is faithfully carried outto-day, says a writer in the "Journal of Biblical Literature, "[18:1] inall rural communities throughout the world. The Hebrew law-makers didnot make a concession to a lower form of religion by endorsing magicalremedies, but merely shared the contemporary belief in the demoniacorigin of disease. The patient was regarded as being in a condition ofenchantment or fascination, --under a spell, to use the popular phrase. To dissolve such a spell, recourse was had to amulets, written charms, or the spoken word of command. 

FOOTNOTES:

[4:1] Carolus Christianus Krause, _De Amuletis Medicis CogitataNonnulla_, vol. Iii, p. 4. Lipsia, 1758. 

[4:2] Jo. Christianus Teutscherus, _De Usu et Abusu Amuletorum_. Lipsiensis, 1720. 

[4:3] _Century Dictionary. _

[5:1] John William Draper, _History of the Intellectual Development ofEurope_, vol. I, p. 392. 

[6:1] _Chambers's Journal_, vol. Xvi, p. 57; 1861. 

[6:2] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy during the Middle Ages_, p. 78. 

[7:1] _The Reliquary_, vol. Vii, p. 162; 1893. 

[7:2] James Townley, _The Reasons of the Law of Moses_, vol. Ii, p. 944. 

[7:3] _Exercitationum Anatomico-Chirurgicarum Decades Duæ. De Amuletis. _Lugd: Batavorum, 1708. 

[7:4] _Encyclopédie des Gens du Monde_, art. "Amulette. "

[8:1] _The Catholic Encyclopædia. _

[8:2] Elwood Worcester, D. D. , _Religion and Medicine_. 

[9:1] C. J. S. Thompson, _The Mystery and Romance of Alchemy andPharmacy_, p. 124. 

[9:2] _Encyclopædia Biblica_, art. "Medicine. "

[10:1] William George Black, _Folk-Medicine_. 

[13:1] _Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland. _

[14:1] George Roberts, _The Social History of the People of the SouthernCounties of England_. 

[16:1] New York, 1908, p. 94. 

[17:1] Joseph Barclay, _The Talmud_. 

[17:2] John Kitto, _A Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature_. 

[18:1] Vol. Xxiii, 1904. 

CHAPTER II

TALISMANS

A talisman may be described as an emblematical object or image, accredited with magical powers, by whose means its possessor is enabledto enlist the aid of supernatural beings. Frequently it is a preciousstone, sometimes a piece of metal or parchment, whereon is engraved acelestial symbol, such as the representation of a planet or zodiacalsign; or the picture of an animal or fabulous monster. Mystic words andoccult phrases are oftentimes substituted, however, for such devices. Itis essential that talismans should be prepared under suitableastrological conditions and planetary influences; otherwise they are ofno value. Like amulets, they were formerly worn on the body, either asprophylactics or as healing agents. Tradition ascribes their inventionto the Persian philosopher Zoroaster, but their use was probably coevalwith the earliest civilizations: descriptions of cures wrought bymedical talismans are to be found in the works of Serapion, a physicianof the ancient sect of Empirics, who lived in Alexandria about 250B. C. ; and in those of Almansor (born 939), the minister of Hesham II, Sultan of Cordova. 

Talismans were fashioned out of various metals, and their mystic virtuesdiffered according to their forms and the symbols which they bore. Silver moon-shaped talismans, for example, were much in vogue aspreservatives from fleshly ills; and they were also believed to insuretravellers against mishaps. 

In medieval times talismans and amulets were generally used as remedialagents. A mystical emblem, representing the inexpressible name of God, which was preserved at the Temple in Jerusalem, is found on manyengraved gems. And two triangles, crossing each other, are said to havebeen the diagram of the Gnostics, with which many marvellous cures wereperformed. [20:1]

The pentacle, or wizard's foot, a mathematical figure, used in magicalceremonies, was considered to be a defence against demons. We read inSir Walter Scott's "Marmion":

 His shoes were marked with cross and spell: Upon his breast a pentacle. 

This symbol, says C. J. S. Thompson, in "The Mystery and Romance ofAlchemy and Pharmacy, " consisted of a five-rayed star, and was oftenchalked upon the door-steps of houses, to scare away fiends. Thus itserved the same purpose as the familiar horse-shoe, when the latter wasplaced with the prongs downward. 

The belief in the pentacle's demon-repelling power has been attributedto the fact that it resolves itself into three triangles, and is thus atriple emblem of the Trinity. Paracelsus, according to theabove-mentioned writer, ascribed a similar, although less marked virtue, to the hexagram. 

The Tyrolese physician, Joseph Ennemoser, in his "History of Magic"(1844), observed that in his time a peculiar influence was attributed bymesmerists to certain metals and precious stones. And he expressed thebelief that the popular faith in talismans, prevalent in the early ages, originated through similar ideas. The Buddhists credited the sapphirewith magical power. Probably the magnetic polarities of jewels, ratherthan their brilliancy, constitute their chief potency as talismans. Yetthe latter quality doubtless strongly influences the imagination. 

Talismans were formerly divided into three classes, _astronomical_, _magical_, and _mixed_. 

The first-named consisted usually of a magical figure, cut or engravedunder certain superstitious observances of the configuration of theheavens. 

It has been defined as the seal, figure, character, or image of aheavenly sign, constellation, or planet, engraved on a sympatheticstone, or on a metal corresponding to the star, in order to receive itsinfluences. [22:1]

Magical talismans were inscribed with mysterious symbols, words ofsuperstitious import, and the names of unknown angels; they were welladapted to inspire with awe the minds of the ignorant. The so-calledmixed talismans bore various unintelligible devices and barbaric names. Some of the most ancient protective and healing charms were fashionedout of roots, twigs, and plants. Whatever its form, the talisman wasbelieved to exert an extraordinary influence over the bearer, especiallyin warding off disease or injury. 

In its widest sense, the word talisman is synonymous with amulet. 

The Dutch historian, Johann Busch (1400-1477), told of his meeting awoman, the wife or daughter of a soldier, on some public festal occasionat Halle in Prussian Saxony. Observing that she wore a little bagsuspended from her neck, he asked her what it contained. Thereupon thewoman showed him a bit of parchment bearing divers mystic inscriptions, and the statement that Pope Leo guaranteed the bearer thereof againstbodily injuries, fainting spells, and drowning. Then followed the words, _Christus vincit; Christus regnat_, together with the names of thetwelve apostles, and those of the three Wise Men, Balthasar, Melchior, and Kaspar. [23:1]

This doubtless was a fair specimen of the inscribed amulets, worn byGerman peasants in the fifteenth century. 

Even nowadays the names of the three _magi_ are often to be seen, astalismanic symbols, upon the doors and walls of dwellings in certainRoman Catholic countries; a fact noted by the present writer, whilesojourning in the Austrian Tyrol a few years ago. 

FOOTNOTES:

[20:1] M. F. Blumler, _A History of Amulets_. 

[22:1] _The Century Dictionary. _

[23:1] Johann Heinrich Zedler, _Grosses Universal Lexicon_, art. "Talismans. " Leipzig und Halle, 1744. 

CHAPTER III

PHYLACTERIES

 They ware in their foreheads scrowles of parchment, wherein were written the tenne commaundements given by God to Moses, which they called _philaterias_. JOHN MARBECK, _Book of Notes and Common-Places_: 1581. 

 There were Phylacteries for the head, reaching from one ear to the other, and tied behind with a thong; and Phylacteries for the hand, fastened upon the left arme, above the elbow, on the inside, so that it might be near the heart. THOMAS GODWIN, _Moses and Aaron_: 1616. 

Among the Greeks of the first century A. D. The word phylacterion (fromφυλάσσειν, to guard, and equivalent to the Roman _amuletum_)signified a portable charm, which was believed to afford protectionagainst disease and evil spirits. Such charms, in their simplest form, consisted of rolls of parchment or ribbon, inscribed with magicalspells, and were hung around the wearer's neck, or attached to the hemof his garment. Among the Hebrews and early Christians similarprotectives were used, although the latter substituted Gospel texts forthe magic formulas. Some authorities have maintained that phylacterieswere not strictly amulets, but it is certain that they were held insuperstitious regard. [25:1] More elaborate phylacteries consisted oftiny leathern boxes, cubical in form, and containing four sections ofthe Mosaic Law, written on parchment and folded in the skin of a cleanbeast. These were carried either upon the head or left arm. [25:2]

The custom of wearing portions of the Gospels, suspended from the neck, was common in the East. Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) sent toTheodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, a box containing a copy of theGospels, as a charm against the evil spirits which beset children. [25:3]The origin of this practice is found in Deuteronomy VI, 6-9: "And thesewords, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: And thoushalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of themwhen thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, andwhen thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt bind themfor a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thineeyes. And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thygates. "

In the rabbinical Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Bible, cantoVIII, written about A. D. 500, occurs this passage: "The congregation ofIsrael hath said, I am chosen above all people, because I bind thePhylacteries on my left hand and on my head, and the scroll is fixed onthe right side of my door, the third part of which is opposite mybed-room, that the evil spirits may not have power to hurt me. "

Thus it would appear that the saying quoted by Grimm, "Christians placetheir faith in words, the Jews in precious stones, and the Pagans inherbs, " is not wholly correct, for the Jews added to a trust in stones, a faith in the long, embroidered, text-inscribed phylactery. [26:1]

At the beginning of the Christian era, the belief was general among theJews and pagans, that by means of magical formulas the evil influence ofthe Devil and demons could be successfully resisted. Therefore theHebrew exorcists found easily a fertile soil for the cultivation oftheir supernatural art. This, says a writer in the "JewishEncyclopædia, " was the atmosphere in which Christianity arose, with theclaim of healing all that were oppressed of the Devil. The name of Jesusbecame the power by which the host of Satan was to be overcome. Butpharisaism diagnosed the disease of the age differently, and insistedthat the observance of the Law was the best prophylactic againstdisease. The wearing of phylacteries indicates that they were regardedby the Jews as amulets. Belief in the power of the Law became theantidote against what may be termed "Satanophobia, " a pessimistic andhabitual dread of devils and demons. 

The wearing of phylacteries is a fundamental principle of the Jewishreligion. They are to be preserved with the greatest care. Indeed, theRabbis assert that the single precept of the phylacteries is equal invalue to all the commandments. [27:1] The Talmud says: "Whoever has thephylacteries bound to his head and arm, and the fringes thrown over hisgarments, and the Mezuza[27:2] fixed on his door-post, is safe from sin;for these are excellent memorials, and the angels secure him from sin;as it is written, 'The angel of the Lord encampeth round about them thatfear him, and delivereth them. '"[27:3] Maimonides, the Jewishphilosopher of the twelfth century, extolled the sacred influence of thephylacteries. For as long as one wears them on his head and arm, he isobliged to be meek and God-fearing, and must not suffer himself to becarried away by laughter or idle talk, nor indulge in evil thoughts, butmust turn his attention to the words of truth and uprightness. 

In order to emphasize their religious zeal, the Pharisees and scribes, in our Lord's time, were wont to "make broad their phylacteries. "[27:4]Josephus, the historian of the first century, speaks of the wearing ofphylacteries, as an established and recognized custom. According to the_Cabala_, they were significant of the wisdom and greatness of God, andtheir use distinguished the cultured and pious from the common people, who were ignorant of the Law. 

Great care was taken in the preparation of phylacteries, and noChristian, apostate, or woman was allowed to write the inscriptions uponthem. Even at the present time, there are Jews in Russia and Poland, whowear them during the whole day. [28:1]

It was customary to tie certain kinds of phylacteries into a knot. Reference to this ancient practice is found in certain Assyriantalismans, now in the British Museum. Following is a translation of oneof them: "Hea says: 'Go, my son! take a woman's kerchief, bind it roundthy right hand; loose it from the left hand. Knot it with seven knots;do so twice. Sprinkle it with bright wine; bind it round the head of thesick man. Bind it round his hands and feet, like manacles and fetters;sit down on his bed; sprinkle water over him. He shall hear the voice ofHea. Darkness shall protect him, and Marduk, eldest son of Heaven, shallfind him a happy habitation. '"[28:2]

While the practice of wearing phylacteries may not have originated in asuperstitious belief in their virtues as "appurtenances to make prayersmore powerful, " it would appear that they came to be regarded not onlyas protective charms, which is indicated by their name, but also asmagical remedies, having occult healing properties. [29:1] Their powerwas supposed to inhere in the written words, enclosed in the smallleathern case. 

At the present day, verses from the Scriptures, the Koran, and othersacred writings are sometimes worn upon the person and are also placedupon horses or camels, by Arabs, Turks, Grecians, and Italians, with theavowed purpose of averting malignant glances. [29:2]

FOOTNOTES:

[25:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica. _

[25:2] Samuel Burder, _Oriental Customs_, vol. Ii, p. 226. 

[25:3] Smith and Cheetham, _A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_. 

[26:1] William George Black, _Folk-Medicine_, p. 165. 

[27:1] Joseph Barclay, _The Talmud_. 

[27:2] Scroll of parchment, inscribed with passages of Scripture. 

[27:3] Psalm xxxiv, 7. 

[27:4] James Hastings, D. D. , _A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels_, 1908, p. 360. Matthew, xxiii, 5. 

[28:1] Philip Schaff, D. D. , _A Religious Encyclopædia_. 

[28:2] _Biblical Things not generally known_, 1879, pp. 177-8. _Marduk, the Chaldean Hercules. _

[29:1] James Hastings, _A Dictionary of the Bible_. 

[29:2] Frederick Thomas Elworthy, _The Evil Eye_. 

CHAPTER IV

THE POWER OF WORDS

 In every word there is a magic influence, and each word is in itself the breath of the internal and moving spirit. JOSEPH ENNEMOSER: _The History of Magic_. 

 There is magic in words, surely, and many a treasure besides Ali Baba's is unlocked with a verbal key. HENRY VAN DYKE: _Little Rivers_. 

 For it was neither herbs, nor mollifying plaster that restored them to health, but thy word, O Lord, which healeth all things. WISDOM OF SOLOMON, XVI, 12. 

The power of words in stimulating the imagination is well expressed inthe following sentences:--

 Words, when well chosen, have so great a force in them, that a description often gives us more lively ideas than the sight of the things themselves. The reader finds a scene drawn in stronger colors, and painted more to the life in his imagination, by the help of words, than by an actual survey of the scene which they describe. In this case the poet seems to get the better of nature. He takes indeed the landscape after her, but gives it more vigorous touches, heightens its beauty, and so enlivens the whole piece, that the images which flow from the objects themselves, appear weak or faint in comparison with those that come from the expressions. [30:1]

 The medical science of the ancient Romans was largely theurgical, and was founded on a pretended influence over spiritual beings, whether gods or demons. Their system of therapeutics included prayers, invocations, and magical sentences. In speaking of verbal charms, Lord Bacon commented on the fact that amongst the heathen nations, either barbarous words, without meaning, were used, or "words of similitude, " which were intended to feed the imagination. Also religious texts, which strengthen that faculty. Mystical expressions were favorites, as were also Hebrew sentences, as belonging to the holy tongue. No examples of magical formulas are found in the Bible, but Rabbinical literature contains a large number of them, the majority being designated as "heathen, " and their use forbidden. [31:1]

A belief in the potency of written or spoken words, for the productionof good or evil, has been characteristic of all historic epochs andnations. The exorcist of ancient Egypt relied on amulets and mysteriousphrases for the cure of disease; and a metrical petition traced on apapyrus-leaf, or a formula of prayer opportunely repeated, "put toflight the serpents, who were the instruments of fate. "[31:2]

The efficacy anciently attributed to verbal charms appears to have beenpartly due to a current opinion that names of persons and things werenot of arbitrary invention, but were in some mysterious manner evolvedfrom nature, and hence were possessed of a certain inherent force, which was potent either for good or evil. [32:1]

Our Lord, when on earth, went about healing the sick by the sole powerof words. A notable instance of this is the case of the centurion ofCapernaum, who deemed himself unworthy of the honor of having Christenter his dwelling, in order to cure his servant, who lay sick of thepalsy. "But speak the word only, " he said, "and my servant shall behealed. " And the Master replied: "Go thy way; and as thou hast believed, so be it done unto thee. " And his servant was healed in the self-samehour. That evening, we are told, many that were possessed with devilswere brought unto him; and he cast out the spirits with his word, andhealed all that were sick. [32:2] The popularity of Scriptural texts inprimitive therapeutics is doubtless largely due to the many wonderfulcures wrought by words, which are recorded in the Bible. 

Usually, in the Gospels, the healing word is addressed to the patient, but occasionally to his master, or to one of his parents. Whenever thebelief in the power of sacred words appears outside of Holy Writ, it isgenerally expressed in the guise of a superstitious formula. This beliefis found, however, in the mystical tenets of the ancient Jewish sect, known as the Essenes. It is also clearly stated in the Zend Avesta, asfollows: "One may heal with herbs, one may heal with the Law, one mayheal with the Holy Word; amongst all remedies, this is the healing one, that heals with the Holy Word; this one it is that will best drive awaysickness from the body of the faithful; for this one is the best healingof all remedies. "[33:1]

The religious and devotional sentences, which are so commonly seen abovethe entrances of dwellings in Germany and other European lands, and thepassages from the Koran similarly used among Moslems, are notnecessarily evidence of the piety of the members of a household. For, ashas been remarked, these sentences are often regarded merely asprotective charms. [33:2]

According to an old Welsh custom, fighting-cocks were provided withprophylactic amulets before entering the arena. These amulets consistedof biblical verses, inscribed on slips of paper, which were bound aroundthe cocks' legs. A favorite verse thus used was Ephesians, VI, 16:"Taking the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench allthe fiery darts of the wicked. "[33:3] Some of the old English medicalverse-spells are sufficiently quaint exponents of popular credulity. 

The following, for example, was in vogue as a remedy for cramp in theleg:--

 "The Devil is tying a knot in my leg, Mark, Luke and John, unloose it, I beg. "[34:1]

Mr. W. G. Black, in his "Folk-Medicine" (p. 170), remarks that many ofthe magic writings used as charms were nothing else than invocations ofthe Devil; and cites the case of a young woman living in Chelsea, England, who reposed confidence in a sealed paper, mystically inscribed, as a prophylactic against toothache. Having consented, at the request ofher priest, to examine the writing, this is what she found: "Good Devil, cure her, and take her for your pains. " This illustrates the somewhattrite proverb, "Where ignorance is bliss, 'twere folly to be wise, " andis a proof of the wisdom of the popular belief that the inscription of ahealing formula should not be seen by the wearer, inasmuch as its mysticwords are ordinarily invocations of spiritual Beings, and are nottherefore adapted for comprehension by the human intellect!

The mere remembrance of some traditional event in the life of our Lordhas been accounted of value in popular leech-craft, as in the followingcharm against ague, taken from a diary of the year 1751, and still usedin Lincolnshire within recent times: "When Jesus came near Pilate, hetrembled like a leaf, and the judge asked Him if He had the ague. Heanswered that He neither had the ague nor was He afraid; and whosoeverbears these words in mind shall never fear the ague or anythingelse. "[35:1]

Eusebius of Cæsarea, in his Ecclesiastical History, [35:2] gives the textof two letters alleged to have formed a correspondence between our Lordand Abgar, King of Edessa. They were said to have been originallywritten in Aramaic or Syro-Chaldaic characters, and were discoveredbeneath a stone some eighty miles from Iconium, the modern Konieh, inAsia Minor, in the year 97, and afterwards lost. Regarded as authenticby some learned authorities, they were nevertheless rejected asapocryphal by a church council at Rome, during the pontificate ofGelasius I, in the year 494. According to Eusebius, King Abgar, who wasafflicted with a grievous sickness, learning of the wonderful cureswrought by our Lord, wrote Him a letter begging Him to come to Edessa. And the Master, although not acceding to this request, wrote a reply tothe king, promising to send one of His disciples to heal him. And infulfilment of that promise, after His resurrection, Thomas the Apostle, by divine command, sent Thaddeus, one of the seventy disciples, toAbgar. Such is the popular tradition. Full particulars of the visit ofThaddeus, together with copies of the letters taken from a Book ofRecords preserved at Edessa, may be found in a work entitled, "AncientSyriac Documents, " edited by W. Cureton, D. D. Copies of these letterswere used as charms by the early Christians, and for this purpose wereplaced upon their door-lintels; they were still to be seen within recentyears in many a cottage of Shropshire and Devon, where they are valuedas preservatives from fever. [36:1] In the opinion of not a few scholarsthey are ingenious literary forgeries; but strong evidence in favor oftheir authenticity is afforded by the discovery, announced by ProfessorBohrmann to the archæological congress at Rome, April 30, 1900, ofcopies of the same letters, inscribed in Doric Greek, in the stone-workabove the gateway of the Palace of the Kings at Ephesus. The translatedtext of the rediscovered letters is as follows:

 _From Abgar to Christ:_ I have heard of Thee and the cures wrought by Thee without herb or medicine, for it is reported that Thou restoreth sight to the blind and maketh the lame to walk, cleanseth the leper, raiseth the dead, chaseth out devils and unclean spirits, and healeth those that are tormented of diseases of a long continuance. Hearing all this of Thee, I was fully persuaded that Thou art the very God come down from heaven to do such miracles, or that Thou art the son of God and performeth them. Wherefor I have sent Thee a few lines entreating Thee to come hither and cure my diseases. Hearing that the Jews murmur against Thee and continue to do Thee mischief, I invite Thee to my city, which is but a little one, but is beautiful and sufficient to entertain us both. 

 _Christ's reply to Abgar:_ Blessed art thou for believing me when thou hast not seen, for it is written of me that they that have seen me shall not believe, and that they that have not seen me shall believe and be saved. But concerning the matter thou hast written about, this is to acquaint thee that all things for which I was sent hither must be fulfilled and that I shall be taken up and returned to Him that sent me. But after my ascension I will send one of my disciples that shall cure thee of thy distemper and give life to all them that are with thee. [37:1]

John Gaule, in the "Magastromancer, "[37:2] declares that sacred wordsderive their force from occult divine powers, which are conveyed bymeans of such words, "as it were through conduit-pipes, to those whohave faith in them. "

Among the Hindus, the _mantra_ is properly a divinely inspired Vedictext; but quite generally at the present day it has degenerated into amere spell for warding off evil; the original religious or moral preceptbeing accounted of little force, when compared with the alleged magicalpotency of its component words. [37:3]

The exorcism of morbiferous demons was the chief principle of primitivetherapeutics, and as a means to this end, the written or spoken word hasalways been thought to exert a very great influence. Possibly indeed inremote antiquity the art of writing was first applied in inscribingmystic words or phrases on parchment or other material, for use asspells. [38:1]

In treating the sick, the Apache medicine-man mumbles incoherentphrases, a method adopted quite generally by his professional brethrenin many Indian tribes. He claims for such gibberish a mysterious facultyof healing disease. Much of its effectiveness, however, has beenattributed to the monotonous intonation with which the words areuttered, and which tends to promote sleep just as a lullaby soothes anailing child. [38:2]

It is noteworthy, however, that meaningless words have always been thefavorite components of verbal charms, whose power, in the opinion ofmedieval conjurers, was in direct ratio to their obscurity;[38:3] andthis fact is well shown in the incantations used by savages. 

According to the late Dr. D. G. Brinton, the principle involved is, either that the gods are supposed to comprehend what men fail tounderstand; or else that the verbal charm represents "the god expressinghimself through human organs, but in a speech unknown to humanears. "[39:1] Reginald Scott expressed a popular modern idea of the forceof certain words and characters, when he said that they were able ofthemselves to cure diseases, pull down, save, destroy and enchant, "without the party's assistance. "[39:2]

The term _incantation_ signifies a most potent method of magicalhealing; namely, "that resting on a belief in the mysterious power ofwords solemnly conceived and passionately uttered. "[39:3]

In the belief of the Australian aborigines, "no demon, howevermalevolent, can resist the power of the right word. "[39:4] Ignorantpeople are usually impressed by obscure phrases, the more so, if theseare well sprinkled with polysyllables. Cicero, in his treatise onDivination (LXIV) criticizes the lack of perspicuity in the style ofcertain writers, and supposes the case of a physician who shouldprescribe a snail as an article of diet, and whose prescription shouldread, "an earth-born, grass-walking, house-carrying, unsanguineousanimal. " Equally efficacious might be the modern definition of the samecreature as a "terrestrial, air-breathing, gastropodous mollusk. " Thedegree of efficiency of such prescriptions is naturally in inverseproportion to the patient's mental culture. An average Southern negro, for example, affected with indigestion, might derive some therapeuticadvantage from snail diet, but would be more likely to be benefited bythe mental stimulus afforded by the verbose formula. 

The Irish physicians of old had a keen appreciation of the healinginfluences of incantations upon the minds of their patients, and thelatter had moreover a strong faith in the ancient Druidic charms andinvocations. It is probable that in very early times, invocations weremade in the names of favorite pagan deities. After the introduction ofChristianity by Saint Patrick, the name of the Trinity and the words ofthe Christian ritual were substituted. Such invocations, when repeatedin the presence of sick persons, are regarded by the Irish peasants ofto-day as powerful talismans, effective through their magic healingpower. So great is the faith of these simple people in the ancienthereditary cures, that they prefer to seek medical aid from the wisewoman of the village, rather than from a skilled practitioner. [40:1]

The influence of the mind upon the physical organism, through theimagination, is well shown by the seemingly marvellous cures sometimeswrought by medical charms. But the efficacy of magical medicine has beenusually proportionate to the degree of ignorance prevalent during anyparticular epoch. Yet some of the most famous physicians of antiquityhad faith in superstitious remedies. The medical literature of the lastcentury before Christ, and from that period until late in the MiddleAges, was an actual treasury of conjuration and other mummeries. Eventhe great Galen, who was regarded as an oracle, openly avowed his beliefin the merits of magic cures. [41:1]

Galen wrote that many physicians of his time were of the opinion thatmedicines lost much of their efficacy, unless prescribed by theirBabylonian or Egyptian names. They fully appreciated mental influence asa factor in therapeutics. Hence, instead of regular prescriptions, theysometimes wrote mystic formulas, which their patients either carried ascharms, or rolled into pellets, which were then swallowed. [41:2]

In a "Book of Counsels to Young Practitioners" (1300) are to be foundsome interesting items regarding contemporary manners. Fledgling doctorsare therein advised to make use of long and unintelligible words, andnever to visit a patient without doing something new, lest the lattershould say, "He can do nothing without his book. " In brief, a reputationfor infallibility must be maintained. 

It is not surprising that curative spells were popular in the darkages. A modern-writer[42:1] has been quoted as saying that these were tobe used, not because they could effect direct physical changes, butbecause they brought the patient into a better frame of mind. We knowthat nervous affections were very prevalent in those times among theignorant masses of the people, and verbal charms were doubtless of valuein furnishing therapeutic mental impulses. The Germanic sooth-sayingphysicians maintained that every bodily ailment could be cured by theuse of magical spells and enchanted herbs. The medieval charlatanoculists inherited ancient medical formulas, by means of which theyprofessed to treat with success ophthalmic disorders. Their methodsincluded the recitation of ritualistic words, accompanied with suitablegestures, and passes over the affected eyes. [42:2]

In Cotta's "Short Discoverie of the Unobserved Dangers of several sortsof Ignorant and Unconsiderate Practisers of Physicke in England" (1612)occur the following passages, quoted also by Brand, in "PopularAntiquities of Great Britain. "[42:3]

 If there be any good or use unto the health by _spels_, they have that prerogative by accident, and by the power and vertue of fancie. If fancie then be the foundation whereupon buildeth the good of spels, spels must needs be as fancies are, uncertaine and vaine. So must also, by consequent, be their use and helpe, and no lesse all they that trust unto them. . . . How can religion or reason suffer men that are not void of both, to give such impious credit unto an insignificant and senseless mumbling of idle words contrary to reason, without president of any truly wise or learned, and justly suspected of all sensible men?

In the early part of the seventeenth century, many diseases wereregarded in the light of magic seizures. Therefore they were notamenable to treatment by _materia medica_. More could be accomplishedthrough the patient's faith and imagination. 

"Physicians, " wrote the German scholar, Valentine Schindler, "do notdiscover and learn everything that they ought to know, in theuniversities; they have often to go to old wives, gypsies, masters ofthe Black Art, old peasant-folk, and learn from them. For these peoplehave more knowledge of such things, than all the colleges anduniversities. "[43:1]

The influence of technical language on the uneducated patient isexemplified in the effect produced on his mind by the mention of Latinnames. The writer was impressed with this fact while engaged indispensary practice some years ago. Such a patient, affected with mumps, for example, appears to experience a certain satisfaction, and is aptto be somewhat puffed up mentally as well as physically, when he learnsthat his ailment is _Cynanche Parotidæa_; and he expects a prescriptioncommensurate with its importance. 

The effective force of a verbal charm is increased by the rhythmic flowof its words; the solemn recitation or murmuring of mystic phrases. "Hence, " said Jacob Grimm, "all that is strong in the speech wielded bypriest, physician, or magician is allied to the forms of poetry. "[44:1]In many a myth and fairy-tale, a cabalistic metrical verse pronounced bythe hero causes wonderful results. [44:2]

As already intimated, the manner of reciting prayers, charms, andformulas was anciently deemed to be of more moment than the meaning oftheir constituent words. In Assyria, for example, healing-spells wererepeated in a "low, gurgling monotone"; and in Egypt the magical forceof incantations was largely due, in the popular mind, to their frequentrepetition in a pleasing tone of voice. [44:3] The temper of mind whichprompts words of good cheer, is in itself a healing charm of no meanvalue. For we read in the Book of Proverbs: "A merry heart doeth goodlike a medicine, but a broken spirit drieth the bones. "[44:4]

In this progressive age, when men of science are seeking remediesagainst the so-called "dust nuisance, " which at times renders walking inour streets a penance, it may not be amiss to call to mind an ancientspell for the removal of particles of dust or cinders from the eyes. This consisted in chanting the ninety-first psalm thrice over water, which was then used as a lotion for the eye. [45:1]

Popular faith in spells as therapeutic agents, an inheritance fromChaldea and Egypt, was still strong even at the dawn of modern times;and the force of medical charms was supplemented by various magic ritesand by the ceremonial preparation of medicines. [45:2] The use ofcurative spells and characts comes within the province of white magic, which is harmless; so called to distinguish it from black magic, or theblack art, which involves a compact with the Evil One. In rude ages thepractice of the former as a means of healing, may be said to have foundits justification in its philanthropic purpose. 

According to Mungo Park, the natives of all portions of the DarkContinent are accustomed to wear written charms, called _saphies_, _grigris_, or fetiches, whose chief use is the warding-off or cure ofdisease. Although not themselves followers of Mohammed, the savageshave entire confidence in these charms, which are supplied by Moslempriests; but their confidence is based upon the supposed magic of thewriting, irrespective of its religious meaning. [46:1] The failure of acharm to perform a cure is attributed to the ingratitude and ficklenessof the spirits. [46:2] In Algeria it is not an uncommon experience ofphysicians who have prescribed for native patients, to meet such an onesome days after, with the prescription either suspended from his neck, or carefully hidden in his garments. [46:3] Evidently the sole idea ofsuch a patient, in applying for advice, was to obtain a written formulato serve as an amulet. The Moslems of Arabia and Persia have a custom ofapplying to any stranger, preferably a European, for their protectivewritten charms, which are the more highly esteemed if totallyunintelligible to themselves. Such a practice, however, is notsanctioned by orthodox followers of the Prophet, who is said to havejustified the use of healing-spells only upon condition that theinscribed words should be none other than the names of God, and of thegood angels and _jinn_. [46:4]

The Hon. John Abercromby, in the second volume of his work entitled"Pre- and Proto-historic Finns, "[46:5] gives a vast number of the magicsongs, or charms, of Finland, among which are to be found a collectionof formulas, under the caption, "words of healing power, " which wererecited for the cure of physical ailments of every description. For thepurpose of comparison the author has also grouped together manyspecimens of spells and incantations in vogue among the neighboringpeoples, as the Swedes, Slavs, and Lithuanians. He is of the opinionthat most of the magical Finnish songs were composed since the twelfthcentury, and in the transition period, before Christianity had fullytaken the place of paganism. During this period the recitation ofmetrical charms was no longer restricted to the skilled magician, butbecame popular in every Finnish household. Hence apparently the gradualevolution of a mass of incantations for use in every conceivableexigency or emergency of life. A chief feature of many of these medicalcharms consists in vituperation and personal abuse of the particularspirit of sickness addressed. 

The peasants of Greece have long been addicted to the use of charms forthe cure of various ailments. Following is the translation of a spellagainst colic which is in vogue amongst them: "Good is the householder, wicked is the housewife; she cooks beans, she prepares oil, vine-cuttings for a bed, stones for a pillow; flee pain, flee colic;Christ drive thee hence with his silver sword and his golden hand. "According to Dr. N. G. Polites, this charm originated in a traditionthat Christ when on earth begged a night's lodging at a house, themistress whereof was ill-tempered and unkind to the poor, while herhusband was hospitably disposed toward needy wayfarers. The husbandbeing absent, his wife bade Christ take shelter in the barn, and laterprovided him with some beans for supper, while she and the master of thehouse fared more sumptuously. In the night the woman had a severe colic, which the usual domestic remedies failed to relieve; and her husbandappealed to the poor wayfarer, who at once exorcised the demon ofcolic. [48:1]

Written charms were usually worn exposed to view, in order that evilspirits might see them and read their inscriptions. In course of timethey developed into ornaments. Wealthy Hebrews were wont to carryamulets made of gold, silver, bronze, and precious stones; while theirpoorer brethren were contented with modest bits of parchment, woolencloth, or lace. [48:2] In eastern countries a common variety of charmconsists of a small piece of paper or skin, duly inscribed. Manifold arethe virtues ascribed to such a charm! It may enable the bearer to findhidden treasure, to win the favor of a man or woman, or to recover arunaway wife. [48:3]

A written medical prescription of to-day, after having been filled andcopied by a druggist, is usually considered to have fulfilled itsmission, but the annals of popular medicine afford ample evidence of thenarrowness of such a view! The practice of swallowing the paper whereona recipe is written, as a veritable charm-formula, is of greatantiquity, and is still in vogue in many lands. The idea involved inthis singular custom is of course a superstitious regard for writing asa magical curative. 

In endeavoring to trace the origins of this and other analogous usages, one must study the records of the most ancient civilizations. Amongvarious African tribes, written spells, called _saphies_, are commonlyused as medicines by the native wizards, who write a prayer on a pieceof wood, wash it off with water, and cause the patient to drink thesolution. [49:1] Mungo Park, while in West Africa, was once asked by hislandlord, a Bambarra native, to prepare such a charm, the latterproffering his writing-board for the purpose. The traveller complied, and the negro, while repeating a prayer, washed the writing off withwater, drank the mixture, and then licked the board dry, in his anxietyto derive the greatest possible benefit from the writing. [49:2]

The eating of the paper on which a prescription has been written isstill a common expedient for the cure of disease in Tibet, where theLamas use written spells, known as "edible letters. "[50:1] The papercontaining cabalistic words and symbols, taken internally, constitutesthe remedy, and through its influence on the imagination is probablymore beneficial to the patient than are most of the so-called "bitters"and patent medicines of the present day. 

So likewise, when a Chinese physician cannot procure the drugs which hedesires in a particular case, he writes the names of these drugs on apiece of paper, which the patient is expected to eat;[50:2] and thismode of treatment is considered quite as satisfactory as the swallowingof the medicine itself. Sometimes a charm is burned over a cup of water, and the ashes stirred in, and drunk by the patient, while in other casesit is pasted upon the part of the body affected. [50:3]

In eastern countries generally, remedial qualities are ascribed to waterdrunk out of a cup or bowl, whose inner surface is inscribed withreligious or mystical verses; and specimens of such drinking-vesselshave been unearthed in Babylonia within recent years. The magicmedicine-bowls, still used in the Orient, usually bear inscriptions fromthe Koran. [50:4] In Flora Annie Steel's tale of the Indian Mutiny of1857, "On the Face of the Waters" (p. 293), we read of a native who wastreated for a cut over the eye by being dosed with paper pills inscribedwith the name of Providence. 

Dr. John Brown of Edinburgh (1810-1882) reported the case of a laboringman affected with colic, for whom he prescribed some medicine, directinghim to "take it and return in a fortnight, " assuring him that he wouldsoon be quite well. At the appointed time the man returned, entirelyrelieved and jubilant. The doctor was gratified at the manifestimprovement in his patient's condition, and asked to see theprescription which he had given him; whereupon the man explained that hehad "taken" it, as he had understood the directions, by swallowing thepaper. 

In Egypt, at the present time, faith in the power of written charms isgenerally prevalent, and forms one of the most characteristic beliefs ofthe people of that country. 

E. W. Lane, in "Modern Egyptians, " says that the composition of thesecharacts is founded chiefly upon magic, and devolves usually upon thevillage schoolmasters. They consist of verses from the Koran, and "namesof God, together with those of angels, genii, prophets, or eminentsaints, intermixed with combinations of minerals, and with diagrams, allof which are supposed to have great secret virtues. "

One of the most popular Egyptian methods of charming away disease issimilar to a practice already mentioned as in use among less civilizedpeoples. 

The sacred texts are inscribed on the inner surfaces of earthenwarebowls, in which water is stirred until the writing is washed off. Thenthe infusion is drunk by the patient, and without doubt the subsequentbenefit is exactly commensurate with the strength of his faith in theremedy. 

FOOTNOTES:

[30:1] Joseph Addison, _On the pleasures of the Imagination_. 

[31:1] _The Jewish Encyclopædia. _

[31:2] G. Maspero, _The Dawn of Civilization_, p. 214. 

[32:1] Larousse, _Dictionnaire_, art. "Charme. "

[32:2] Matthew, viii, 8, 13, 16. 

[33:1] _Encyclopædia Biblica_, art. "Medicine, " T. K. Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black. 

[33:2] Elworthy, _The Evil Eye_, p. 400. 

[33:3] Elias Owen, _Welsh Folklore_, p. 245. 

[34:1] Robley Dunglison, _Medical Dictionary_, p. 202. 

[35:1] _Notes and Queries_, 4th series, vol. Vii, p. 443. For otherversions of this charm see W. G. Black, _Folk-Medicine_, p. 82;Pettigrew, _Medical Superstitions_, p. 57. 

[35:2] Book i, ch. 13. 

[36:1] _Notes and Queries_, 5th Series, vol. I, pp. 325, 375. 

[37:1] _Boston Transcript_, May 2, 1900. 

[37:2] London, 1652, p. 231. 

[37:3] Monier-Williams, _Religious Thought in India_, p. 197. 

[38:1] C. W. King, _Early Christian Numismatics_, p. 179. 

[38:2] _Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, Washington, D. C. , 1887-8, p. 453. 

[38:3] R. M. Lawrence, _The Magic of the Horse-Shoe_, p. 300. 

[39:1] _Religions of Primitive Peoples_, p. 93. 

[39:2] _A Discourse concerning the Nature and Substance of Devils andSpirits_, p. 70; 1665. 

[39:3] M'Clintock and Strong, _Cyclopædia_, art. "Incantation. "

[39:4] D. G. Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_, p. 91. 

[40:1] Lady Wilde, _Ancient Charms, Cures, and Usages of Ireland_. 

[41:1] Dr. Hugo Magnus, _Superstition in Medicine_. 

[41:2] Otto A. Wall, M. D. , _The Prescription_. 

[42:1] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, vol. Ii, p. 112. 

[42:2] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy of the Middle Ages_, p. 195. 

[42:3] Vol. Iii, p. 322. 

[43:1] Johannes Janssen, _History of the German People at the Close ofthe Middle Ages_. 

[44:1] _Teutonic Mythology_, vol. Iii, p. 1223. 

[44:2] Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, vol. I, p. 101. 

[44:3] T. Witton Davies, _Magic, Divination, and Demonology_, p. 127. 

[44:4] Proverbs, xvii, v. 22. 

[45:1] London _Spectator_. 

[45:2] M'Clintock and Strong, art. "Incantation. "

[46:1] _Travels_, p. 56. 

[46:2] Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, p. 304. 

[46:3] _Mélusine_, t. Ix, p. 132; 1898. 

[46:4] Thomas Patrick Hughes, _A Dictionary of Islam_, art. "Da'wah. "

[46:5] London, 1898. 

[48:1] _Academy_, vol. Xxxi, p. 291; 1887. 

[48:2] Michael L. Rodkinson, _History of Amulets, Charms, andTalismans_. 

[48:3] George H. Bratley, _The Power of Gems and Charms_. 

[49:1] Sir John Lubbock, _The Origin of Civilization_. 

[49:2] _Travels_, vol. I, p. 357. 

[50:1] L. Austin Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_, p. 401. 

[50:2] Edward Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_, p. 133. 

[50:3] Hampton C. Du Bose, _The Dragon, Image and Demon_, p. 407. 

[50:4] Austen H. Layard, _Nineveh and Babylon_, p. 417. 

CHAPTER V

THE CURATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE IMAGINATION

At the present day the remarkable benefit which often results fromhygienic and mental influences combined is well shown in the so-calledKneipp cure, originated by Sebastian Kneipp, formerly parish priest ofWörishofen in Bavaria. Briefly, its chief principles are simple diet, the application of water by means of wet sheets, douches, hose, orwatering-pots; the covering of the wet body with dry underwear; andstimulation of the imagination, together with physical invigoration, bylong walks afield barefoot, or with sandals; and lastly, music andmental diversions. In a word, a modernized Esculapian treatment. 

The remedial virtue of verbal charms and incantations is derived fromthe human imagination, and upon this principle is founded the art ofmental therapeutics. The idea of a cure being formed in the mind reactsfavorably on the bodily functions, and thus are to be explained thesuccessful results oftentimes effected under the methods known asChristian Science, Mind Cure, and Faith Cure. [53:1] Mrs. Mary BakerEddy, the founder of the first-named system, avows that ChristianHealing places no faith in hygiene or medicines, but reposes all trustin mind, divinely directed. [54:1] She declares that the subconsciousmind of an individual is the only agent which can produce an effect uponhis body. [54:2] There is undoubtedly much that is good in the doctrinesof the Christian Scientists; but a fatal mistake therein is theircontempt for skilled medical advice in sickness. God has placed withinour reach certain remedies for the relief or cure of many bodilyailments; and whoever fails to provide such remedies for those dependentupon him, when the latter are seriously ill, is thereby wickedlynegligent. Mental influence is oftentimes extremely valuable, but itcannot always be an efficient substitute for opium or quinine, whenprescribed by a competent practitioner. We read in Ecclesiasticus, XXXVIII, 4, 10, 12: "The Lord hath created medicines out of the earth, and he that is wise will not abhor them. . . . My son, in thy sicknessbe not negligent, but pray unto the Lord, and He will make theewhole. . . . Then give place to the physician, for the Lord hath createdhim. Let him not go from thee, for thou hast need of him. "

In treatises on suggestive therapeutics stress is laid upon theexaltation of the imaginative faculty induced by hypnotism; and it iswell known that during induced sleep this faculty accepts as realimpressions which would not pass muster if inspected by the criticaleye of the waking intelligence. The whole secret of cures alleged tohave been wrought by animal magnetism or mesmerism, may be explained bymental influence; and so likewise those affected by metallic tractors, anodyne necklaces, and a host of other devices. We have indeed anintelligible explanation of the rationale of many therapeutic methods invogue at different periods of the world's history. 

But, to recur to Christian Science, or Eddyism, it is certain that thealleged cures of organic affections, by the methods of that system, arenot genuine. The many cases benefited by those methods have been and aresuch as are amenable to mental healing, of whatever kind. A writer inthe "American Medical Quarterly, " January, 1900, avers that Eddyism isan intellectual distemper, of a contagious character; that it isepidemic in this country, and that, in its causation, its rise andspread, it presents a close analogy to the great epidemics of history. 

The ancient magicians, in their various methods of treating the sick, strove ever after sensational means of healing, and their example hasbeen closely followed by the quacks of every succeeding age. They failedto appreciate that a tablet of powdered biscuit, discreetlyadministered, may be as beneficial therapeutically as any relic of aholy saint, because the healing force in either case is wholly mental, and resides in the patient. The exceptional notoriety achieved byParacelsus was largely due to his shrewdness in pandering to the love ofthe marvellous, while utilizing also _bona-fide materia medica_. 

Indeed, however strong may have been the belief in magical agencies ashealing factors, the most eminent early practitioners were ever ready toavail themselves of material remedies. For they maintained that theactions of the physician should not be hampered by metaphysicalconsiderations. [56:1] Not only did the magicians employ precious stonesand metals as remedies, on account of their intrinsic value and thepopular belief in their virtues, but they also prescribed the mostloathsome and repulsive substances. The early pharmacopœias and theworks of noted charlatans, together with the annals of folk-medicine, afford ample evidence of this fact. 

Apropos of this subject, we quote from a lecture given by Dr. RichardCabot at the Harvard Medical School, February 13, 1909:--

 In one of our great hospitals here it has been the custom for a long time to use for treatment by suggestion a tuning-fork which is known at that hospital as a magnet. It is not a magnet; it is merely an ordinary, plain, rather large tuning-fork. But people have, as you know, a very curious superstition about the action of magnets, and believing this tuning-fork to be a magnet, they attribute occult and wonderful powers to it. When placed upon a supposedly paralyzed limb or on the throat of a person who thinks he cannot speak, it has wonderful powers just because it is supposed to be a magnet, when in fact it is a tuning-fork. I remonstrated once with the gentleman who uses this tuning-fork because, so far as I could see, it was a lie, like all other forms of quackery; but he said, "Why, no, it does a great deal of good; it cures the patients. " I replied that I had no doubt of that. So does skunk oil and Omega oil; so does the magic handkerchief which Francis Truth has touched; so does the magic ring, the electric belt, and the porous plaster. They all cure, but they all deceive people, in so far as one supposes that something is going on which is not revealed, something like imaginary electricity in the ring, something like the supposed medical activity in the porous plaster. In another great hospital in this city electricity is used in the same way. Electricity has medical action of course, in some cases, but it is used also in a great number of cases where it is not supposed to have any medical action because it has so strong a psychical action. When one sees a brass instrument that looks like a trident approaching one's body, and feels long crackling sparks shoot out of its prongs against one's body, it naturally makes a very strong impression upon one's mind. 

How psychological methods may be employed in everyday life was thesubject of an address by Professor Hugo Münsterberg, of HarvardUniversity, before the Commercial Club of Chicago, December 13, 1908. The success of these methods in the field of medicine is attested bythe constantly increasing number of cures of nervous and otheraffections. "There is no magic fluid, " he said, "no mysterious powerafloat; it is just a state of mind. Every one can suggest something toevery one else. It is the idea that is strong enough to overcome theidea in another mind that produces the effects wondered at. Hypnotism isonly reënforced suggestion. It is a tool which no physician should bewithout. "

Psychological knowledge, according to the same authority, [58:1] isgradually leaking into the world of medicine. The power of suggestion, with its varied methods, is slowly becoming a most important therapeuticagent in the hands of reputable practitioners. The time has arrived whenmedical students, about to enter upon professional life, should beequipped with a knowledge of scientific psychology. Physicians do notnow deserve sympathy, if they are dumfounded when quacks and pretendersare successful where their own attempts at curing have failed. It isevident, however, that reform in this field is at hand, and it may beadmitted that even those knights-errant have helped, after manycenturies, to direct the public interest to the paramount importance ofpsychology in medicine. 

We may cite the invocations of the Egyptian priests to obtain a curefrom each god for those submitted to his influence; the magic formulas, which taught the use of herbs against disease; the medicine ofEsculapius's descendants, the Asclepiads, an order of Greek physicians, who practised medicine under the reputed inspiration of that deity, andwere bound by oath not to reveal the secrets of their art. Is itnecessary to speak of the king's touch, of the miraculous cures at thetomb of the French ascetic priest, François Paris (1690-1727), andespecially of Lourdes, and other noted pilgrimage resorts? Manyprofessional healers may be mentioned, "of whom some were honest andbelieved themselves to be endowed with supernatural powers like certainmagnetisers, and who used suggestion without knowing it, as for examplethe Irishman Greatrakes (1628-1700), the German priest Gassner(1727-1779), and many others whose fame does not extend beyond theregion where they exercised their mysterious power. "[59:1]

In the same category, as regards their _modus operandi_, may be classedmedical charms and healing-spells. These serve also to inspire hope, orthe expectation of cure, in the patient's mind, and thus act as tonics;they may also be useful as a means of diverting the mind of ahypochondriac, and changing the current of his thoughts, in which sensethey may be classed as mental alteratives. 

Allusion has been made to the magical spells, of ancient repute amongthe Hindus, which are known as _mantras_. They are available for sendingan evil spirit into a man, and for driving it out; for inspiring love orhatred; and for causing disease or curing it. The Hindus do not reposeconfidence in a physician, unless he knows, or assumes to know, theproper mantra for the cure of any ailment. And this is the reason whyEuropean practitioners, who are not addicted to the use of spells, donot find favor among them. The medical men who pretend to be versed inoccult lore, whether charlatans or magicians, are ready to furnishsuitable mantras at short notice, whether for healing, for the recoveryof stolen property, or for any other conceivable purpose. [60:1] Theethics of quackery are probably on the same plane everywhere; and notonly are the spells forthcoming, if sufficient compensation be assured, but they are also more or less effective, through the power ofsuggestion, as therapeutic agents. 

In nervous affections, where the imagination is especially active, amulets and healing-spells exert their maximum effect. [60:2] No one, however cultured or learned, is wholly unsusceptible to the physicalinfluence of this faculty of the mind; and it has been well said thateverybody would probably be benefited by the occasional administrationof a bread-pill at the hand of a trusted medical adviser. [61:1] Butfaith on the patient's part is essential. Pettigrew, in his work on"Medical Superstitions, " illustrates this by an example whose pertinenceis not lessened by a dash of humor. A physician, who numbered among hispatients his own father and his wife's mother, was asked why histreatment in the former case had been more successful than in thelatter. His reply was that his mother-in-law had not as much confidencein him as his father had, and therefore had failed to receive as muchbenefit. Similarly, if a verbal charm is to cure a physical ailment, thepatient must first form a mental conception of the cure, and believe inthe charm's efficacy. But faith in healing-spells of human devising issometimes cruelly misplaced, as is shown in the following anecdote, taken from the writings of Godescalc de Rozemonde, a Belgian theologian. A woman, suffering from a painful affection of the eyes, applied to astudent for a magical writing to charm away the trouble, and promisedhim a new coat as a recompense. The student, nothing loath, wrote asentence on a piece of paper, which he rolled in some rags and gave tothe woman, telling her to carry the charm always about her, and on noaccount to read the writing. The woman gladly complied, was cured of hereye-trouble, and loaned the charm to another woman, similarly affected, who also soon experienced relief. Thereupon a natural curiosityprompted them to examine the mystic spell, and this is what they read:"May the Devil pluck out thine eyes, and replace them with mud!"

In "Folk-Lore, " for September, 1900, there is an interesting article, giving an account of popular beliefs current in a remote village ofWiltshire, England, where medicines are usually regarded as charms. Aman who had pleurisy was told by his doctor to apply a plaster to hischest. On the doctor's next visit, he was informed that his patient wasmuch better and that the plaster had given great relief. Failing, however, on examination of the man's chest, to find any sign ofcounter-irritation of the skin, he was somewhat puzzled; but he soonlearned from the mistress of the house, that having no _chest_ at hand, she had clapped the plaster on a large box in the corner of thesick-chamber. 

Dr. Edward Jorden (1569-1632), an English physician, wrote regarding theoftentimes successful results of treatment by means of incantations, andleechdoms or medical formulas, that these measures have no inherentsupernatural virtue; but in the words of Avicenna, "the confidence ofthe patient in the means used is oftentimes more available to curediseases than all other remedies whatsoever. "

From the beginning of time, the fortune-teller, the sorcerer, theinterpreter of dreams, the charlatan, the wild medicine-man, theeducated physician, the mesmerist, and the hypnotist, have made use ofthe patient's imagination, to help them in their work. They have allrecognized the potency and availability of that force. [63:1]

Modern psychology explains the healing force of verbal charms as beingdue to the power of suggestion. For these suggest the idea of a cure tothe subjective mind, which controls the bodily functions and conditions. Robert Burton, in the "Anatomy of Melancholy, " said in reference to thissubject:

 All the world knows there is no vertue in charms; but a strong conceit and opinion alone, which forceth a motion of the humours, spirits and blood, which takes away the cause of the malady from the parts affected. The like we may say of the magical effects, superstitious cures, and such as are done by mountebanks and wizards. . . . Imagination is the _medium deferens_ of Passions, by whose means they work and produce many times prodigious effects. 

To give joy to the sick, said the Latin historian Cassiodorus, isnatural healing; for, once make your patient cheerful, and his cure isaccomplished. In like vein is an aphorism of Celsus: It is the mark of askilled practitioner to sit awhile by the bedside, with a blithecountenance. 

William Ramesey, M. D. , in "Elminthologia" (1668), remarks that fancydoth not only cause but also as easily cureth divers diseases. To thisagency may be properly referred many alleged magical and juggling cures, attributed to saints, images, relics, holy waters, avemarys, benedictions, charms, characters, and sigils of the planets. All suchcures, wrote this author, are to be ascribed to the force of theimagination. 

Written charms against toothache in Christian lands have usually amarked family resemblance; the theme being the same, but the number ofvariants legion. Saint Peter is represented as afflicted with thetoothache, and sitting on a marble stone by the wayside. Our Lord passesby, and cures him by a few spoken words. The following quaintlyilliterate version of this spell was in vogue in the north of Scotlandwithin recent years: "Petter was laying his head upon a marrable ston, weping, and Christ came by and said: 'What else [ails] thou, Petter?'Petter answered: 'Lord God, my twoth. ' 'Raise thou, Petter, and behealed. ' And whosoever shall carry these lines in My Name, shall neverfeel the twothick. "[64:1]

The following is a translation of a Welsh charm against toothache:

"As Peter was sitting alone on a marble stone, Christ came to him andsaid: 'Peter, what is the matter with you?' 'The toothache, my LordGod. ' 'Arise, Peter, and be free'; And every man and woman will becured of the toothache, who shall believe these words. I do this in thename of God. "[65:1]

Another version of this charm is popular in Newfoundland. The inscribedpaper, enclosed in a little bag, is hung around the neck of theafflicted person, from whom its contents are carefully concealed. "I'veseed it written, a feller was sitten on a marvel stone, and our Lordcame by; and he said to him, 'What's the matter with thee, my man?' Andhe replied, 'Got the toothache, Marster. ' Then said our Lord, 'FollowMe, and thee shall have no more toothache. '"[65:2]

Still another form of this spell is in use among Lancashire peasants. The paper, inscribed as follows, is stitched inside the clothing: "AssSant Petter sat at the geats of Jerusalm, our Blessed Lord and SevourJesus Christ Passed by, and sead, 'What eleth thee?' He sead, 'Lord, myteeth ecketh. ' Hee said, 'Arise and follow mee, and thy teeth shallnever eake eney mour. ' Fiat + Fiat + Fiat. "[65:3]

Every one is aware that it is a common experience to have an aversionfor certain articles of food, and to be affected unpleasantly by themere thought of them. Whereas, if a person partakes of such foodwithout knowledge of it, no ill effects may ensue. The sense of taste isaffected by the imagination. A man sent the cream from thebreakfast-table because it tasted sour, but found it sweet when it wasbrought back by a servant, supposing it to be a fresh supply. A laxativemedicine may produce sleep, in the belief that it is an opiate; andcontrariwise, an anodyne may act as a purgative, if the patient believesthat it was so intended. [66:1] Dr. Robert T. Edes, in "Mind Cures fromthe Standpoint of the General Practitioner, " remarks that mental action, whether intellectual or emotional, has little or no effect upon certainphysiological or pathological processes. Fever, for example, which issuch an important symptom of various acute diseases, does not appear tobe influenced by the imagination. Typhoid fever runs its course, and isnot directly amenable to treatment by suggestion; but nevertheless hope, courage, and an equable mental condition do undoubtedly assist the _vismedicatrix naturæ_. The confident expectation of a cure is a powerfulfactor in bringing it about, _doing that which no medical treatment canaccomplish_. 

In recent works on suggestive therapeutics, the curative power of theimagination is emphasized and reiterated. "It is not the faith itselfwhich cures, but faith sets into activity those powers and forces whichthe unconscious mind possesses over the body, both to cause disease andto cure it. "[67:1]

Reference has been made to a certain similitude of religion andsuperstition. Oftentimes there appears to exist also a remarkableaffinity between superstition and rheumatism, for these two are wont toflourish together, as in days of yore. Many a man of intelligence andeducation has been known to conceal a horse-chestnut in his pocket as ananti-rheumatic charm. A highly respected citizen, of undoubted sanity, was heard to remark that, were he to forget to carry the chestnut whichhad reposed in his waistcoat pocket for more than twenty years, heshould promptly have a recurrence of his ailment. [67:2]

Daniel Hack Tuke, M. D. , in referring to the systematic excitement of adefinite expectation or hope, in regard to the beneficial action oftotally inert substances, relates that a French physician, M. Lisle, especially recognized the efficiency of the imagination as a power intherapeutics. He therefore adopted the method of treating diversailments by prescribing bread-pills, covered with silver leaf, andlabelled _pilules argentées anti-nerveuses_. These pills were eagerlytaken by his patients, and the results were highly satisfactory. 

We may here appropriately cite one of several cases reported in the"British and Foreign Medical Review, " January, 1847. A naval officer hadsuffered for some years from violent attacks of cramp in the stomach. Hehad tried almost all the remedies usually recommended for the relief ofthis troublesome affection. For a short time bismuth had beenprescribed, with good results. The attacks came on about once in threeweeks, or from that to a month, unless when any unusual exposure broughtthem on more frequently. Although the bismuth was continued in largedoses, it soon lost its effect. Sedatives were given, but the reliefafforded by these was only partial, while their effect on the generalsystem was evidently very prejudicial. On one occasion, while sufferingfrom the effect of some preparation of opium, given for the relief ofthese spasms, he was told that on the next attack he would be given aremedy which was generally believed to be most effective, but which wasrarely used, owing to its dangerous qualities. Notwithstanding these, itshould be tried, provided he gave his assent. Accordingly, on the nextattack, a powder containing four grains of _ground biscuit_ wasadministered every seven minutes, while the greatest anxiety wasexpressed, within the patient's hearing, lest too much be given. Thefourth dose caused an entire cessation of pain, whereas half-drachmdoses of bismuth had never procured the same relief in less than threehours. Four times did the same kind of attack recur, and four times wasit met by the same remedy, and with like success! Dr. Tuke remarks thatthe influence of the mind upon the body, which is ever powerful inhealth, is equally powerful in disease, and this influence isexceedingly beneficial in aiding the _vis medicatrix_, and opposing the_vis vitiatrix naturæ_. 

He dwells upon the remarkable power exerted by the mind "upon any organor tissue to which the attention is directed, to the exclusion of otherideas, the mind gradually passing into a state in which, at the desireof the operator, portions of the nervous system can be exalted in aremarkable degree, and others proportionately depressed; and thus thevascularity, innervation and function of an organ or tissue can beregulated and modified according to the locality and nature of thedisorder. The psychical element in the various methods comprised underpsycho-therapeutics, is greatly assisted by physical means, as gentlefriction, pointing, passes, _et cetera_. "

At the siege of Breda, in the Netherlands, A. D. 1625, the Prince ofOrange, son of William the Silent, availed himself of the "force ofimagination" to cure his soldiers during a serious epidemic thenprevailing among them. He provided his army surgeons with small vialscontaining a decoction of wormwood, camomile, and camphor. The troopswere informed that a rare and precious remedy had been obtained in theEast, with much difficulty and at great expense. Moreover, so great wasits potency, that two or three drops in a gallon of water formed amixture of wonderful therapeutic value. These statements, made withgreat solemnity, deeply impressed the soldiers, and their expectation ofbeing cured was realized. For we are told that "they took the medicineeagerly, and grew well rapidly. "[70:1]

Thomas Fuller, in the "Holy State, " book III, chapter 2, relates thefollowing, which he styles a merry example of the power of imaginationin relieving fatigue:

"A Gentleman, having led a company of children beyond their usualljourney, they began to be weary, and joyntly cried to him to carry them;which because of their multitude he could not do, but told them he wouldprovide them horses to ride on. Then cutting little wands out of thehedge as nagges for them, and a great stake as a gelding for himself, thus mounted, Phancie put metall into their legs, and they camecheerfully home. "

In his ward at the _Hôpital Andral_, in Paris, Dr. Mathieu had a largenumber of tubercular patients. One morning, while making his rounds, helingered before one of them and remarked to the house physician and thestudents who were with him:

 That there had just been discovered in Germany a specific for tuberculosis--namely, "antiphymose. " Next day he again spoke of this antiphymose, and, in the hearing of the patients, as before, told of the wonderful results it yielded when employed in the treatment of tuberculosis. For a week the patients talked of nothing but that wonderful antiphymose; they couldn't understand why "the chief" didn't try the new drug. 

 Their wishes were at last acceded to, and the experiments with antiphymose, which Dr. Mathieu said he had obtained from Germany, began. To judge of the action of that drug, which was injected under the skin, it was determined that the house-physician himself should take the temperature and register the weight of the consumptives under treatment. 

 This was done, and soon it seemed evident that a powerful and highly beneficent medicine was at work. Under the influence of this new remedy, the patients' fever subsided and their weight increased. Some gained a kilogramme and a half, some two, and some even three kilogrammes. Meanwhile the cough ceased, and those who had been unable to touch food began to eat; those who had been unable to sleep now slept all night. And if, to complete the test, the injections of antiphymose were stopped, the fever returned and all the old symptoms reasserted themselves. The victims grew thin. 

 Now this famous antiphymose, this marvellous drug procured from Germany, was nothing but water, ordinary water, but sterilized in Dr. Mathieu's laboratory! All that talk before the patients about the discovery and therapeutic virtue of antiphymose, all those little bluffs involved in the house-physician's taking the temperature and the weight of the patients, were simply a _mise-en-scène_ designed to create a sort of suggestion and to reënforce it as much as possible. And it was manifestly suggestion, and not the injections of pure water, that checked the fever, arrested the cough, diminished the expectoration, revived the appetite, and increased the weight. [72:1]

A simple experiment, with a view to proving that a patient is accessibleto auto-suggestion, is described by Professor Münsterberg. Someinteresting-looking apparatus, with a few metal rings, is fastened uponhis fingers, and connected with a battery and electric keys. The key isthen pushed down in view of the patient, who is instructed to indicatethe exact time when he begins to feel the electric current. Thesensation will probably shortly be felt in one of his fingers; whereuponthe physician can demonstrate to him that there was no connection in thewires, and that the whole galvanic sensation was the result ofsuggestion. [72:2]

Joseph Jastrow, in "Fact and Fable in Psychology, " remarks that themodern forms of irregular healing present apt illustrations of occultmethods of treatment which were in vogue long ago. And chief among theseis the mental factor, whether utilized when the patient is awake or whenhe is unconscious, as a curative principle. The legitimate recognitionof the importance of mental conditions and influences in therapeutics isone of the results of the union of modern psychology and medicine. 

FOOTNOTES:

[53:1] Thomas Jay Hudson, _The Law of Psychic Phenomena_, p. 23. 

[54:1] _Christian Healing_, p. 14. 

[54:2] _Ibid. _, p. 7. 

[56:1] Dr. Hugo Magnus, _Superstition in Medicine_. 

[58:1] _McClure's Magazine_, November, 1909. 

[59:1] H. Bernheim, M. D. , _Suggestive Therapeutics_, p. 196. 

[60:1] Larousse, tome x, p. 1104. 

[60:2] Edward Berdoe, _The Healing Art_, p. 248. 

[61:1] Reuben Post Halleck, _Psychology and Psychic Culture_, p. 166. 

[63:1] Mark Twain, _Christian Science_, p. 34

[64:1] _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquarians of Scotland_, 3dSeries, vol. Iii, p. 492. Edinburgh, 1893. 

[65:1] _The Academy_, vol. Xxxi, p. 258; 1887. 

[65:2] _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. Viii, p. 287; 1895. 

[65:3] John Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-Lore_. 

[66:1] Alfred T. Schofield, M. D. , _The Unconscious Mind_, p. 288. 

[67:1] Alfred T. Schofield, M. D. , _The Unconscious Mind_, p. 366. 

[67:2] _Boston Herald_, February 20, 1909. 

[70:1] Adams, _The Healing Art_, vol. I, p. 202. 

[72:1] Dr. R. Romme, in _La Revue_. 

[72:2] _Psychotherapy_, p. 213. 

CHAPTER VI

THE ROYAL TOUCH

 _Malcolm. _ Well; more anon. --Comes the king forth, I pray you?

 _Doctor. _ Ay, sir; there are a crew of wretched souls That stay his cure: their malady convinces The great assay of art; but at his touch-- Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand-- They presently amend. 

 _Malcolm. _ I thank you, doctor. [_Exit Doctor. _

 _Macduff. _ What's the disease he means?

 _Malcolm. _ 'Tis called the evil: A most miraculous work in this good king; Which often, since my here-remain in England, I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven, Himself best knows: but strangely visited people, All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye, The mere despair of surgery, he cures, Hanging a golden stamp about their necks, Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken, To the succeeding royalty he leaves The healing benediction. With this strange virtue, He hath a heavenly gift of prophecy, And sundry blessings hang about his throne, That speak him full of grace. _Macbeth_, Act IV, Scene 3. 

The healing of physical ailments by laying-on of hands was in vogue inthe earliest historic times. Certain Egyptian sculptures have beenfound, illustrative of this practice, wherein one of the healer's handsis represented as touching the patient's stomach, and the other asapplied to his back. [74:1]

From numerous references to the subject in Holy Writ, three are heregiven: "Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee byprophecy, with the laying on of hands of the Presbytery. "[74:2] "Theyshall take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall nothurt them; they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall recover. ""And he could there do no mighty work, save that he laid his hands upona few sick folk, and healed them. "[74:3]

We are told that Asclepiades of Bithynia, a famous Grecian physician ofthe second century B. C. , who practised at Rome, systematically employedthe "induced trance" in the treatment of certain affections. Probably heconsidered this method to conform with certain principles which headvocated. For he professed that a physician's duty consisted in healinghis patients safely, speedily, and pleasantly; and as he met withconsiderable success, his system was naturally very popular. It seemscertain that the physicians of old had no true conception of thepsychological and physiological principles of healing by laying on ofhands. It is probable, on the other hand, that they used this method ina haphazard way, relying largely on the confidence of their patientsand the expectation of cure. [75:1]

Tacitus, in his "History, " book IV, chapter 81, relates that at theinstance of the God Serapis, a citizen of Alexandria, who had a maimedhand, entreated that he might be pressed by the foot and sole ofVespasian (A. D. 9-79). The Emperor at first ridiculed the request, andtreated it with disdain. However, upon learning the opinion ofphysicians that a cure might be effected through the application of ahealing power, and that it was the pleasure of the gods that he shouldbe the one to make the attempt, Vespasian, with a cheerful countenance, did what was required of him, while the multitude that stood by awaitedthe event in all the confidence of anticipated success. Immediately, wrote the historian, the functions of the affected hand were restored. 

The priests and magi of the ancient Druids possessed a wonderful facultyof healing. They were able to hypnotize their patients by the waving ofa wand, and while under the spell of this procedure, the latter couldtell what was happening afar off, being vested with the power ofclairvoyance. 

But the Druidic priests also effected cures by stroking with the hand, and this method was thought to be of special efficacy in rheumaticaffections. They also employed other remedies which appealed to theimagination, such as various mesmeric charms and incantations. [76:1]

John Timbs remarks in "Doctors and Patients, " that any person whoclaimed to possess the special gift of healing, was expected todemonstrate his ability by means of the touch; for this was theestablished method of testing the genuineness of any assumed orpretended curative powers. Among Eastern nations at the present time, European physicians are popularly credited with the faculty of healingby manual stroking or passes, and the same ideas prevail in remotecommunities of Great Britain. In the opinion of the author abovementioned, the belief in the transmission of remedial virtues by thehands is derived from the fact that these members are the usual agentsin the bestowal of material benefits, as, for example, in almsgiving tothe poor. 

According to the popular view, royal personages were exalted above otherpeople, "because they possessed a distinctive excellence, imparted tothem at the hour of birth by the silent rulers of the night. " In view ofthis belief, it was natural that sovereigns should be invested withextraordinary healing powers, and that they should be enabled, by atouch of the hand, to communicate to others an infinitesimal portion ofthe virtues with which they had been supernaturally endowed. Thesevirtues dwelt also in the king's robes. Hence arose the belief in themiraculous power of healing by the imposition of royal hands. [77:1]

 There is nothing that can cure the King's Evil, But a Prince. JOHN LYLY (1553-1606), _Euphues_. 

The treatment of scrofulous patients by the touch of a reigningsovereign's hand is believed to have originated in France. According toone authority, Clovis I (466-511) was the pioneer in employing thismethod of cure. Louis I (778-840) is reported to have added thereto thesign of the cross. The custom was in vogue during the reign of Philip I(1051-1108), but that monarch is said to have forfeited the power ofhealing, by reason of his immorality and profligacy. [77:2] During latermedieval times the Royal Touch appears to have fallen into disuse inFrance, reappearing, however, in the reign of Louis IX (1215-1270), andwe have the authority of Laurentius, physician to Henry IV, that FrancisI, while a prisoner at Madrid after the battle of Pavia, in 1525, "curedmultitudes of people daily of the Evil. "

The Royal Touch was a prerogative of the kings of England from beforethe Norman Conquest until the beginning of the Hanoverian dynasty, aperiod of nearly seven hundred years, and the custom affords a strikingexample of the power of the imagination and of popular credulity. TheEnglish annalist, Raphael Holinshed, wrote in 1577 concerning KingEdward the Confessor (1004-1066), that he had the gift of healing diversailments, and that "he used to help those that were vexed with theKing's Evil, and left that virtue, as it were, a portion of inheritance, unto his successors, the kings of this realm. "

But the earliest reference to this king as a healer by the touch wasmade by the English historian, William of Malmesbury (1095-1143), in hiswork, "De Gestis Regum Anglorum. " The story, wrote Joseph Frank Payne, M. D. , in "English Medicine in the Anglo-Saxon Times, " has the familiarfeatures of the legends and miracles of healing by the earlyecclesiastics, saints, or kings, as they are found in the histories andchronicles from the time of Bede, the Venerable (673-735). But thereappears to be no real historical evidence that Edward the Confessor wasthe first royal personage who healed by laying on of hands. 

John Aubrey, in his "Miscellanies, " asserts, on the authority of certainEnglish chronicles, that in the reign of King Henry III (1206-1272), there lived a child who was endowed with the gift of healing, and whosetouch cured many diseases. Popular belief, as is well known, ascribedthis prerogative also to a seventh son. 

Pettigrew, in his "Superstitions connected with the History andPractice of Medicine and Surgery, " said that Gilbertus Anglicus, theauthor of a "Compendium Medicinæ, " and the first practical writer onmedicine in Britain, who is believed to have flourished in the time ofEdward I (1239-1307), asserted that the custom of healing by the RoyalTouch was an ancient one. 

In the opinion of William George Black ("Folk-Medicine, " 1883), thesubject belongs rather to the domain of history than to that of popularsuperstitions. 

Thomas Bradwardin, an eminent English prelate of the fourteenth century, and Archbishop of Canterbury, described the usage in question as alreadylong-established in his time; and Sir John Fortescue, Lord Chief Justiceof England, during Henry the Sixth's reign, declared that the Englishkings had exercised this privilege from time immemorial. 

In a small tract published by His Majesty's command, entitled, "TheCeremonies for the Healing of them that be diseased with the King'sEvil, used in the Time of King Henry VII" (1456-1509), we find that itwas customary for the patients to kneel before the king during thereligious exercises, which were conducted by the chaplain. After layinghis hands upon them, the monarch crossed the affected portion of thebody of each patient with an "Angel of Gold Noble. " This coin bore asits device the archangel Michael, standing upon and piercing a dragon. In later reigns it was replaced by a small golden or silver medal, having the same emblem, and known as a _touch-piece_. 

Andrew Borde, in his "Breviary of Health" (1547, the last year of thereign of Henry VIII), in reference to the King's Evil, wrote as follows:"For this matter, let every man make friendes to the Kynges Majestie, for it doth perteyne to a Kynge to helpe this infirmitie, by the graceof God, the which is geven to a king anoynted. But forasmuch as some mendoth judge divers times a fystle or a French pocke to be the king'sevill, in such matters it behoveth not a kynge to medle withall. "

Queen Elizabeth, who reigned from 1558 to 1603, continued the practice, as we are informed by her chaplain, Rev. Dr. William Tooker, whopublished in 1590 a quarto volume on the subject, in which he claimedthat the power of healing by touch had been exercised by royalpersonages from a very early period. He asserted that the Queen neverrefused touching any one who applied for relief, if, upon examination byher medical advisers, the applicant was found to be affected with theKing's Evil. The Queen was especially disposed to touch indigentpersons, who were unable to pay for private treatment. Although averseto the practice, Queen Elizabeth continued to exercise the prerogative, doubtless from philanthropic motives, and in deference to the popularwish. William Clowes, an eminent contemporary practitioner, and chiefsurgeon of Bartholomew's Hospital, London, in a monograph issued in1602, wrote that the _struma_ or _evill_ was known to be "miraculouslyhealed by the sacred hands of the Queene's most royall majesty, even bydivine inspiration and wonderfull worke and power of God, above man'sskill, arte and expectation. "[81:1]

When, in 1603, on the death of Elizabeth, James VI of Scotland becameKing of England with the title of James I, he was sceptical regardingthe efficacy of the Royal Touch. The Scotch ministers, whom he broughtwith him, urged its abandonment as a superstitious ceremony; while hisEnglish counsellors recommended its continuance, maintaining that afailure so to do would amount to a debasing of royalty. Unwillinglytherefore he followed the advice of the latter. 

We do not find many references to the prevalence of this custom in thereign of Charles I, but there is evidence that it was in use at thattime. This is apparent in certain extracts from State Papers, relatingchiefly to medicine and pharmacy, published under the direction of theMaster of the Rolls, as follows:

 April 10, 1631. John, Lord Poulett, sent a child, a little girl, to the King, to be touched for the King's Evil, and she has come home safely, and mends every day in health. 

 January 15, 1632. Godre, Bois, a Frenchman, prisoner in the King's Bench, takes upon him to cure the King's Evil, and daily a great concourse of people flocked to him, although it is conceived that if such cures have been, it is rather by sorcery and incantation than by any skill he has in physic. _Endorsed:_ The Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench is to call him for examination, to be indicted for cosenage. 

 June 7, 1632. Sir Thomas Richardson, Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, to the Council, thinks there is not sufficient evidence to convict Bois Gaudre of cosenage or sorcery, but thinks he has committed a contempt worth punishment, in taking upon him to cure the King's Evil. He has imprisoned him, of which he complains bitterly. 

 June 7, 1632. Examination of James Philip Gaudre, Knight of St. Lazare, in France. Is a Frenchman, and has been in England for seven years, chiefly at Sir Thomas Wolseley's house, whose daughter he married, until two years past, he was arrested for debt. By his experience in surgery, has recovered many poor persons of the King's Evil, some before His Majesty touched them, and some after. Never made any benefit by his skill, other than sometimes those whom he had done good to would give him a Capon, or small sums paid by him for herbs and other things. Used his skill often in France, and cured many. Did not cure any in England until Midsummer last, when a poor man, who had but one son, who was sick of that disease, made moan to him, and he cured him. Thinks that by reason he is the youngest of seven sons, he performs that cure with better success than others, except the King. Has no skill in sorcery, witchcraft, or enchantment, nor ever used any such thing. [82:1]

The ceremony of the Royal Touch reached its height of popularity duringthe reign of Charles II (1630-1685). From the "Diary of John Evelyn, " welearn that His Majesty began to touch for the King's Evil, July 6, 1660. The King sat in state, attended by the surgeons and the LordChamberlain. The opening prayers and the Gospel having been read, thepatients knelt on the steps of the throne, and were stroked on eithercheek by the King's hand, the chaplain saying: "He put his hands uponthem and healed them. " Then the King hung a gold "angel" around the neckof each one. On March 28, 1684, so great was the concourse of people, with their children, anxious to be cured, that six or seven were crushedto death "by pressing at the Chirurgeon's door for tickets. "

Dr. Richard Wiseman, favorite surgeon of Charles II, wrote that a beliefin the Royal Touch was evidently a party tenet. It was thereforeencouraged by the sovereign, and upheld by all who were disposed toplease the Court. In commenting on the alleged efficacy of thistreatment, Dr. Wiseman expressed his conviction that the imagination ofthe patient was doubtless powerfully affected by the magnificence andsplendor of the ceremony. Failure to receive benefit was ascribed tolack of faith. It was said that Charles once handled a scrofulous Quakerwith such vigor, that he made him a healthy man and a sound Churchman ina moment. [83:1]

Women quacks were very numerous at this period, and throve exceedingly. Their resoluteness in thrusting their ignorant pretensions upon thepublic, gave evidence of the same dogged pertinacity which characterizesthe modern suffragettes in their fanatical efforts to obtain redress foralleged wrongs. 

Thus the psychic healing forces are ever potent, so long as the patienthas faith in the treatment employed. 

Dr. John Browne, a surgeon in ordinary to Charles II, published atreatise entitled "Charisma Basilicon, or the royal gift of healingstrumas, or king's-evil swellings, by contact or imposition of thesacred hands of our kings of England and France, given them at theirinaugurations. "

The elaborate ceremonies and the presentation of gold pieces wereregarded by the author as evidences of the great piety, charity, andhumility of the sovereign. He comments moreover on the admirable resultsof this treatment among people of many nationalities. 

 None ever hitherto mist thereof, wrote he, unless their little faith and incredulity starved their merits, or they received his gracious hand for curing another disease, which was not really allowed to be cured by him; and as bright evidences hereof, I have presumed to offer that some have immediately upon the very touch been cured; others not so easily, till the favour of a second repetition thereof. 

 Some also, losing their gold, their diseases have seized them afresh, and no sooner have these obtained a second touch and new gold, but their diseases have been seen to vanish, as being afraid of his majestie's presence. [85:1]

Of the vast numbers of patients who repaired to the healing receptionsof Charles II, doubtless many were attracted by curiosity, and others bythe desire for gold. 

In the Parliamentary Journal for July 2-9, 1660, it was stated that thekingdom having been for a long time troubled with the evil, by reason ofHis Majesty's absence, great numbers have lately flocked for cure. 

 His sacred majesty, on Monday last, touched 250, in the banquetting house; among whom, when his majesty was delivering the gold, one shuffled himself in, out of an hope of profit, which had not been stroked; but his majesty quickly discovered him, saying: "this man hath not yet been touched. " His majesty hath, for the future, appointed every Friday for the cure, at which 200, and no more, are to be presented to him, who are first to repair to Mr. Knight, the king's surgeon, being at the Cross Guns, in Russell Street, Covent Garden, over against the Rose Tavern, for their tickets. 

The presentation of the gold was regarded as a token of the king's goodwill, and a pledge of his wish for the patient's recovery. Silver coinswere sometimes used, but the sovereign power of gold was distinctlyadmitted, as the disease is reported to have returned, in some cases, upon the medal being lost. The presentation of a second goldentouch-piece was alleged to be effective in subduing the scrofula. 

The following announcement appeared in the "Public Intelligencer, " underdate of Whitehall, May 14, 1664:

"His Sacred Majesty, having declared it to be his Royal will and purposeto continue the healing of his People for the Evil during the month ofMay, and then to give over till Michaelmas next, I am commanded to givenotice thereof, that the people may not come up to Town in the interimand lose their labour. "

Charles II is said to have found the practice extremely lucrative. It isnot surprising that many practitioners in those days were credited withhaving wrought marvellous cures. 

We know that the undoubted influence of the mind on the body, and thepower of suggestion and expectant attention, apply only to subjectivestates and functional ailments. Thus it is intelligible why so manypeople of education and culture, on the principle that seeing isbelieving, were able to testify to miraculous cures in their ownexperience. [86:1]

William Andrews, in "Historic Romance, " says that the records of theTown of Preston, Lancashire, show that the local Corporation votedgrants of money to enable patients to make the journey to London, to betouched for the evil. In the year 1682 bailiffs were instructed to "payunto James Harrison, bricklayer, ten shillings, towards carrying his sonto London, in order to the procuring of His Majesty's touch. " Again, in1687, being the third year of James II, when the King was at Chester, the Preston Town Council passed a vote, ordering the payment to twoyoung women, of five shillings each, "towards their charge in going toChester to get His Majesty's touch. "

Thomas Cartwright, Bishop of Chester, wrote in his diary, August 27, 1687: "I was at His Majesty's levee, from whence, at nine o'clock, Iattended him into the closet, where he healed three hundred and fiftypersons. "

Queen Anne (1702-1714) was the last of the English sovereigns whoexercised the royal prerogative of healing by laying-on of hands. Shemade an official announcement in the London "Gazette, " March 12, 1712, of her intention to "touch publicly. " Samuel Johnson, then a child ofabout three years of age, was one of the last who tested the efficacy ofthis superstitious rite, and without success. Acting upon the advice ofSir John Floyer, a noted physician of Lichfield, Mrs. Johnson took herson to London, where he was touched by the Queen. When asked in lateryears if he could remember the latter, he used to say that he had a"confused, but somehow a sort of solemn recollection of a lady indiamonds and a long black hood. "[88:1] George I, the successor of QueenAnne, regarded the Royal Touch as a purely superstitious method ofhealing, and during his reign the practice fell into desuetude. 

The English jurist, Daines Barrington (1727-1800), in his "Observationsupon the Statutes, " relates the case of an old man whom he was examiningas a witness. This man stated that he had been touched for the evil byQueen Anne, when she was at Oxford. Upon being asked whether thetreatment had been effective, he replied facetiously that he did notbelieve that he ever had the evil, but that his parents were poor, anddid not object to the piece of gold. [88:2]

During the reign of George II, a writer of a speculative turn of mindqueried whether the disuse of this long-established custom might beattributed to the sullenness of the reigning prince, who, as wasgenerally known, had received many evidences of his subjects'displeasure; or whether the alleged divine power of healing by the RoyalTouch had been withdrawn from him. And it was replied that the sovereignhad as good a title as any of his predecessors to perform this holyoperation. Moreover, he was so much in love with all sorts of pageantryand acts of power that he would willingly do his part. But thedegeneracy and wickedness of the times, which tended to bring all piousand holy things into contempt, and then into disuse, was the reason forthis neglect. [89:1]

In the year 1746, or thereabouts, one Christopher Lovel, a native ofWells, in Somersetshire, but afterwards a resident of Bristol, beingsadly afflicted with the King's Evil, and having during many years madetrial of all the remedies which medical science could suggest, andwithout any effect, decided to go abroad in search of a cure. Proceedingto France, he was touched at Avignon by the eldest lineal descendant ofa race of kings, who had, for a long succession of ages, healed byexercising the royal prerogative. But this descendant and heir had notat that time been crowned. Notwithstanding this fact, however, the usualeffects followed, and from the moment that the man was touched, andinvested with the narrow ribbon, to which a small silver coin waspendant, according to the rites prescribed in the office appointed bythe Church for that solemnity, he began to mend, and recovered strengthdaily, arriving at Bristol in good health, after an absence of some fourmonths. 

Such, briefly, is an account of this remarkable case, as given in ThomasCarte's "History of England, " published about 1746. But a contributor tothe "Gentleman's Magazine, " January 13, 1747, who signed himself_Amicus Veritatis_, wrote in reference to the foregoing account, expressing surprise that sensible people should give credit to such atale, which was calculated to support the old threadbare notion of thedivine hereditary right of royal personages to cure by touch. The thenreigning sovereign, George II, wrote he, despised such childishdelusions. 

The report of this alleged wonderful case made a great noise among theignorant classes. But the sceptic writer above mentioned argued thatLovel's cure was but temporary, and that the benefit was due to changeof air and a strict regimen, rather than to the touch of the Pretender'shand at Avignon. For, queried he, can any man with a grain of reasonbelieve that such an idle, superstitious charm as the touch of a man'shand can convey a virtue sufficiently efficacious to heal so stubborn adisorder as the King's Evil?

French tradition ascribes the origin of the gift of healing by royaltouch, to Saint Marculf, a monk whose Frankish ancestry is shown by hisname, which signifies forest wolf. This personage was a native ofBayeux, and is reputed to have flourished in the sixth century A. D. Hisrelics were preserved in an abbey at Corbigny, and thither the Frenchmonarchs were accustomed to resort, after their coronation at Rheims, toobtain the pretended power of curing the King's Evil, by touching therelics of this saint. But according to the historian, François Eudes deMézeray (1610-1683), the gift was bestowed upon King Clovis (466-511) atthe time of his baptism. 

In 1515, the year of his accession, Francis I laid his hands on a numberof persons in the presence of the Pope, during the prevalence of anepidemic at Bologna, Italy. And in 1542 he issued the followingstatement: "On our return from Rheims, we went to Corbigny, where we andour predecessors have been accustomed to make oblations, and payreverence to the precious relics of Saint Marculf for the admirable giftof healing the King's Evil, which he imparted miraculously to the kingsof France, at the pleasure of the Creator. The grace we exercised in theusual way, by touching the parts affected, and signing them with thesign of the cross. "

Louis XIII of France (1601-1643) is said to have bestowed upon CardinalRichelieu all of his prerogatives, except the Royal Touch. 

His successor, Louis the Great, is credited with having touched sixteenhundred people on Easter Sunday, 1686, using the words, "_Le Roy tetouche, Dieu te guérisse. _" Every French patient received a present offifteen sous, while foreigners were given double that amount. [91:1]

According to the Swiss theologian, Samuel Werenfels (1657-1740), whopublished a treatise on "The Power of curing the King's Evil, " thisprerogative was shared by the members of the House of Hapsburg. And thesame authority relates that the kings of Hungary were able to healvarious affections by the Royal Touch, and to neutralize by this methodthe toxic effects of the bite of venomous creatures. 

FOOTNOTES:

[74:1] Joseph Ennemoser, _The History of Magic_, vol. I, p. 209. 

[74:2] 1 Timothy, iv, 14. 

[74:3] Mark, xvi, 18; vi, 5. 

[75:1] H. Addington Bruce, in _The Outlook_, September, 1909. 

[76:1] Lady Wilde, _Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland_. 

[77:1] J. Cordy Jeaffreson, _A Book about Doctors_. 

[77:2] _Chambers's Encyclopædia. _

[81:1] Pettigrew, _op. Cit. _, p. 132. 

[82:1] John Morgan Richards, _A Chronology of Medicine_. 

[83:1] Lord Macaulay, _The History of England_, vol. Iii, p. 379. 

[85:1] Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, _Medical Superstitions_. 

[86:1] _The Lancet_, vol. Ii, 1901. 

[88:1] _Once a Week_, vol. Xv (1866), p. 219. 

[88:2] E. Cobham Brewer, _A Dictionary of Miracles_. 

[89:1] _Common-sense_, August 13, 1737. 

[91:1] Hon. Daines Barrington, _Observations upon the Statutes_, 1766. 

CHAPTER VII

THE BLUE-GLASS MANIA

As illustrative of the power of the imagination, the so-calledblue-glass mania, which prevailed extensively in this country, affords astriking example. About the year 1868, General Augustus J. Pleasanton, of Philadelphia, made some experiments to determine whether or not raysof sunlight passing through colored glass had any therapeutic effect onanimals and plants. His selection of blue glass as a medium was probablybased upon the theory that the blue ray of the solar spectrum possessessuperior actinic or chemical properties. 

Experimenting first on plants, he adopted the method of inserting panesof blue and violet glass in the roof of his grapery, and noticed as aresult an apparent extraordinary rapidity and luxuriance of growth ofthe vines, and later a correspondingly large harvest of grapes. Encouraged by this success, he built a piggery, having a glass roof, ofwhich one portion was fitted with panes of blue glass, and the otherwith ordinary transparent glass. It was claimed that the pigs kept underthe former developed more rapidly than those under the latter. AnAlderney bull-calf, which was very small and feeble at birth, wasplaced in a pen under violet glass. In twenty-four hours it was able towalk and became quite animated. By the same method a mule was reportedto have been cured of obstinate rheumatism and deafness. Again, acanary-bird, which had been an exceptionally fine warbler, declined toeat or sing, and appeared to be in a feeble state of health. The bird inits cage was placed in the bath-room of its owner's dwelling, thewindows of which contained colored-glass panes. It was alleged that thelittle creature speedily improved; its voice became sweeter and moremelodious than ever, while its appetite was simply voracious. 

Notable cures of human beings were also reported. Cases of neuralgia andrheumatism were said to have been benefited, the development of younginfants vastly promoted, while as a tonic for producing hair on baldheads, blue glass was a veritable specific. During the year 1877 popularinterest in the craze reached its culmination. In this country thefurore assumed national proportions. Peddlers went from door to door inthe cities, selling blue glass, and did a thriving business; while manyinstances of remarkable cures effected by the new panacea were recordedin the newspapers. Then after a time came the reaction; the whole theorybecame a subject for ridicule and satire, and the public mind was readyto turn its attention to some other fad. 

But in spite of the fickleness of the popular mind, this well-knownfact remains, that a good sun-bath, with or without the medium ofcolored glass, is often of great hygienic value. There is truth in theItalian proverb: _Dove non va il sole, va il medico_: where the sunlightenters not, there goes the physician. 

I have thus attempted briefly to describe the blue-glass mania, becauseit seems aptly to illustrate the healing force of the imagination. Solong as people have confidence in blue glass and sunlight combined, tocure fleshly ills, these agents undoubtedly act in many cases "like acharm, " and may be classed as mental curatives. 

In recent years, however, efforts have been made to determine whethercertain colored rays of the spectrum were more potent than otherstherapeutically. Under the caption "Light-Cures, Old and New, " in"Everybody's Magazine, " October, 1902, Arthur E. Bostwick, Ph. D. , remarks that there was a germ of truth in the blue-glass craze, for ithas recently been shown that the red rays are injuriously stimulative ineruptive diseases, and of course the blue glass strained these rays out. It goes without saying that if there were simply health-giving qualitiesin the blue rays and no injurious ones in the red and yellow, ordinarylight would be as effective as that which had passed through blue glass;for the glass introduces no new quality or color into the light; it onlyabsorbs certain rays of the spectrum, allowing others to pass. If bluelight, therefore, is more healthful than white, it must be because theremainder of the spectrum has an injurious effect. 

An Austrian physician, Dr. Kaiser, has recently asserted, in a paperread before the Vienna Medical Society, that blue light is effective inreducing inflammation, allaying pain, and curing skin-disease, especially by promoting absorption of morbid humors. He asserts that abeam from a powerful lantern, after passing through blue glass, willkill cultures of various bacilli, when directed upon them at a distanceof fifteen feet for half an hour daily during six days. 

CHAPTER VIII

THE TEMPLES OF ESCULAPIUS

It has been truly said that temples were the first hospitals, andpriests the earliest physicians. [97:1] In the temples of Esculapius, inGreece, a main object of the various mystic rites was to exert apowerful influence on the patient's imagination. This was supplementedby practical therapeutic and hygienic treatment, such as baths, frictionof the skin, and a strict diet. These primitive sanatoria were built inplaces carefully chosen for their salubrity of climate and healthfulenvironment. Doubtless their founders were actuated by a belief thatEsculapius was ever ready to help those who first helped themselves. Inview, therefore, of the superior hygienic conditions, together withintelligent medical care, it is not surprising that seemingly marvellouscures should result, especially of impressionable persons affected withnervous disorders. 

The walls of those temples were adorned with bas-reliefs, of whichspecimens have been preserved. One of these represents a recumbentpatient, and a physician seated by the bedside. Near by stands a tall, erect personage, supposed to be the god of health, while the figures oftwo suppliants may be seen approaching him. [98:1] When a patient arrivedat the gate of the temple, he was not allowed to enter at once; forstrict cleanliness was deemed a prerequisite for admission to the god'spresence. And in order to place him in this desirable condition with thegreatest possible despatch, he was plunged into cold water, after whichhe was permitted to enter the sacred precincts. According to a poeticfancy of the Grecian pilgrim in search of health, the proper cure forhis ailment would be revealed by the god of healing to his worshipper inthe latter's dreams. [98:2] The interpretation of these dreams and therevelation to the patient of their alleged meaning was entrusted to apriest, who served as an intermediary between Esculapius and thepatient. Several of these oracular prescriptions, inscribed upon amarble slab, were found on the site of an Esculapian temple near Rome. Translations of two of them may serve as examples:

"Lucius, having a pleurisy, and being given over by everybody, receivedfrom the god this oracle, that he should come and take the ashes off hisaltar, and mixing them with wine, apply them to his side. Which done, hewas cured, and returned thanks to the god, and the people congratulatedhim upon his happy recovery. "

"The god gave this oracle to a blind soldier, named Valerius Aper, thathe should mingle the blood of a white cock with honey, and make acollyrium, which he should put upon his eyes three days together. Afterwhich he saw, and came publicly to return thanks. "[99:1]

Although usually regarded as a purely mythological being, Esculapius isbelieved by some writers to have been an historic personage. Accordingto tradition, he transmitted his professional knowledge to hisdescendants, the Asclepiadæ, a priestly caste, versed in medical lore. For centuries the most famous Grecian physicians were members of thisorder; and the great Hippocrates, styled "the Father of Medicine, " issaid to have claimed to be the seventeenth in direct descent fromEsculapius. [99:2] Although the god of healing may be said to have beenalso the first practising physician, his distinguished teacher Chiron, the wise Centaur, was without doubt the first medical professor whosename has been handed down. To Chiron is usually ascribed the honor ofhaving introduced among the Grecians the art of Medicine, in thethirteenth century B. C. He was reputed to have been a learned chief orprince of Thessaly, who was also a pioneer among equestrians, one whopreferred horseback as a means of locomotion, rather than the chariot, or other prototype of the chaise, buggy, automobile, or bicycle. Hencethe superstition of that rude age gave him a place among the Centaurs. He is reported moreover to have imparted instruction to the Argonauts, and to the warriors who participated in the siege of Troy. From thishero is derived the name of the plant centaury, owing to a legend of itshaving been used with success as a healing application to a wound inChiron's foot. 

The worship of Esculapius, as the god of healing, was widespread amongthe Greeks, and lasted even into Christian times. Patients repaired tothe temples, just as relief is sought to-day by a devotional pilgrimage, or by a resort to a sacred spring. The records of cures were inscribedupon the columns or walls of the temple, and thus is believed to haveoriginated the custom of recording medical and surgical cases. [100:1]

The priests exerted a powerful influence upon the minds of applicants byreciting wonderful tales, as they led them through the sacred precincts, explaining in mystical language the miraculous cures which had beenperformed there, and calling attention to the numerous votive offeringsand inscriptions upon the temple walls. It may readily be conceived, wrote Richard J. Dunglison, M. D. , [100:2] that these procedures made adeep impression upon the patients' minds, and the more so, because thepriests were wont to dwell especially upon the cures which had beeneffected in analogous cases. 

Moreover hydro-therapy was supplemented by massage, which often hadbeneficial results in nervous affections; and fumigation of thepatients, before they received advice from the oracle, lent an air ofmystery. Those who were cured returned to express their gratitude and tooffer presents to the god, as well as to the priests. They usually alsobrought some ornament for the adornment of the temple. 

The act of sleeping in a sanctuary, in order to obtain medical relief, either through revelations by dreams, or through a divine visitation, was termed _incubation_. 

According to the philosophy of oneiromancy, or the art of taking omensfrom dreams, during sleep the soul was released from the body, and thusenabled to soar into spiritual regions and commune with celestialbeings. Therefore memories of ideas suggested in dreams were cherishedas divine revelations. [101:1]

The opinion has been advanced that the methods employed to procure"temple sleep" were similar to those in use at the present time for theproduction of the hypnotic state. A cure was effected by awakening ahealing instinct in the patient's subconscious mind. [101:2]

So far as we are aware, no authentic rational explanation has beengiven of the phenomenal appearance of a god in the patient's presence. It seems plausible that Asklepios, the Grecian Esculapius, waspersonated by some priest of majestic mien, who gave oracular medicaladvice, which serves as a powerful therapeutic suggestion. Variousattendant circumstances doubtless contributed to impress the patient'shighly wrought imagination, such as the dim light, the sense of mystery, and, it may be, certain tricks of ventriloquism. 

In the earliest days of temple-sleep, that is, probably about theseventh century B. C. , this mode of treatment was practised without atinge of superstition, the applicants' faith being deep and sincere. Forin that era the belief was general that human art was powerless to curedisease, and the gods alone could furnish aid. Temple-sleep, wrote Dr. Hugo Magnus, was not degraded into superstition until the physicians hadcome to the conclusion that the phenomena of disease were not evidenceof divine displeasure, but that they were due to natural causes. Whentherefore this new belief became established, temple-sleep degeneratedinto a superstitious rite. As early as the fifth century B. C. , thecelebrated poet, Aristophanes, in his comedy, "Plutus, " severelycriticized this ceremony, as practised in his time. And, although themore enlightened among the Greeks came to regard it with disfavor, thecustom was never entirely abandoned by the ancient world. 

 Having bathed Plutus in the sea, says the servant Cario, we went to the temple of Esculapius; and when our wafers and preparatory sacrifices were offered on the altar, and our cakes on the flame of Vulcan, we laid him on a couch, as was proper, and made ready our own mattresses. When the priest had extinguished the lights, he told us to go to sleep, adding that if any of us heard the hissing we should by no means stir. We therefore all remained in bed, and made no noise. As for myself, I could not sleep, on account of the odor of a basin of savory porridge which an old woman had at the side of her bed, and which I longed for amazingly. Being, therefore, anxious to creep near it, I raised my head and saw the sacristan take the cakes and dried figs from the sacred table, and going the round of the altars, put all that he could find into a bag. It occurred to me that it would be meritorious in me to follow his example, so I arose to secure the basin of porridge, fearing only that the priest might get at it before me, with his garlands on. . . . The old woman, on hearing me, stretched forth her hand. But I hissed, and seized her fingers with my teeth, as if I were an Esculapian snake; then, drawing back her hand again, she lay down and wrapped herself up quickly, while I swallowed the porridge, and, when full, retired to rest. 

The surprising cures frequently effected were inexplicable, even to thescientific minds of antiquity. 

Victor Duruy, in his "History of Rome, "[103:1] relates the followinginstance, on the authority of the Greek writer Ælian. A man namedEuphronios, who had been an ardent follower of Epicurus, suffered fromsome obstinate affection which his physicians failed to cure. Hisrelatives therefore carried him into a neighboring Esculapian temple, where in the night, during sleep, he heard the voice of an oracle, saying, "In the case of this man, there is only one means ofrestoration, namely, to burn the hooks of Epicurus, to knead thesesacrilegious ashes with wax, and to cover the stomach and chest with thecompound. " These directions were carried out, and Euphronios waspromptly cured and converted. 

FOOTNOTES:

[97:1] J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_, p. 385. 

[98:1] _Archives générales de Médecine_, November, 1891, pp. 582 _etseq. _

[98:2] Frank Granger, _The Worship of the Romans_, p. 158. 

[99:1] Daniel Le Clerc, _The History of Physic_, p. 84. 

[99:2] Le Clerc, p. 109. 

[100:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, art. "Medicine. "

[100:2] _History of Medicine. _

[101:1] Mary Hamilton, _Incubation in Pagan Temples_. 

[101:2] Dr. Carl du Prel, _Die Mystik der alten Griechen_; Leipzig, 1888. 

[103:1] Vol. Vi, p. 399. 

CHAPTER IX

STYPTIC CHARMS

 Fancy can save or kill; it hath closed up wounds, when the balsam could not, and without the aid of salves, to think hath been a cure. CARTWRIGHT. 

 With bandage firm Ulysses' knee they bound; Then, chanting mystic lays, the closing wound Of sacred melody confessed the force; The tides of life regained their azure course. _The Odyssey_, XIX, 535. 

Probably the stanching of blood sometimes ascribed to the power of averbal charm should be accredited to the _vis medicatrix_ of Dame Natureherself. The mere sight of blood, as well as its loss, may inducesyncope, a condition favorable to the cessation of hemorrhage. Wherefaith in a magic spell is strong, it is conceivable that a psychic oremotional force should influence the circulation of the blood, andaffect its flow locally by a contraction or dilatation of thearterioles, through the agency of the vaso-motor nerves. Familiarinstances are to be seen in the sudden glow or pallor of the cheek, under the stress of intense emotion. 

In a curious English manuscript, thought to be of the fourteenthcentury, which is preserved in the Royal Library at Stockholm, are tobe found many specimens of healing-spells; and among them one which wasto be repeated in church, as follows: "Here bygynyth a charme for tostaunch ye blood. _In nomine Patris_, etc. Whanne oure Lord was don onye crosse yane come Longeus thedyr and smot hym yt a spere in hys syde. Blod and water yer come owte at ye wonde, and he wyppyd hys eyne andanon he sawgh kyth thorowgh ye vertu of yat God. Yerfore I conjure theblood yat yu come not oute of yis christen woman. _In nomine Patris etFilii_, " etc. [106:1]

The following "Charme to Stanch Blood" is taken from a manuscript of thefifteenth century: "Jesus, that was in Bethlehem born, and baptyzed wasin the flumen Jordane; as stente the water at hys comyng so stente theblood of this man N. Thy serwaunt, throw the virtu of thy holy name, Jesu, and of thy cosyn, swete sente Jon. And sey thys Charme fyve tymes, with fyve Pater Nostirs, in the worship of the fyve woundys. "

A popular medieval narrative charm for healing wounds and arrestinghemorrhage, is to be found in the "Compendium Medicinæ" of GilbertusAnglicus, physician to the Archbishop of Canterbury toward the close ofthe twelfth century. The work was first published at Lyons, France, inthe year of 1500. 

 "Write a cross of Christ, and sing thrice over the place these words, and a Pater Noster: _Longinus miles lancea punxit Dominum, et restitit sanguis et recessit dolor. _"

Longinus or Longeus is the traditional name of the Roman soldier whopierced with a spear the side of our Lord, upon the Cross. [107:1]

Verbal styptic charms were much in vogue among the Irish people in earlytimes. Translations of two such charms may serve as examples. "A childwas baptized in the river Jordan; and the water was dark and muddy, butthe child was pure and beautiful. " These words were repeated over thewound, a finger being placed on the site of the hemorrhage; and then:"In the name of God, and of the Lord Christ, let the blood be stanched. "

Another similar charm was as follows:

"There came a man from Bethlehem to be baptised in the river Jordan; butthe water was so muddy that it stopped flowing: So let the blood! Let itstop flowing in the name of Jesus, and by the power of Christ!"[107:2]

Homer tells in the Odyssey how the sons of Autolycus cured Ulysses, whohad been injured while hunting the wild boar, by stanching the bloodflowing from a wound in his leg, by means of a verbal charm. "Withnicest care the skilful artists bound the brave, divine Ulysses'ghastly wound; and th' incantations stanch'd the gushing blood. "[108:1]We have also the testimony of the Grecian lexicographer, Suidas, thatvarious maladies were cured by the repetition of certain words, in thetime of Minos, King of Crete. 

In Sir Walter Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel, " there are frequentreferences to the use of curative spells; as for example in thefollowing lines:

 She drew the splinter from the wound, And with a charm she stanch'd the blood. [108:2]

Again, in "Waverley, " the hero of that name, while on a stag hunt withsome Scottish chieftains, had the misfortune to sprain an ankle. Thevenerable Highlander, who officiated as surgeon, proceeded to treat theinjury with much ceremony. He first prepared a fomentation by boilingcertain herbs which had been gathered at the time of a full moon, acharm being recited the while, of which the following is a translation:"Hail to thee, thou holy herb, that sprung on holy ground! All in theMount Olivet, first wert thou found. Thou art boot for many a bruise, and healest many a wound; in our Lady's blessed name, I take thee fromthe ground. "

The leech next applied the lotion to Waverley's ankle, at the same timemurmuring an incantation; and to this latter procedure, rather than tothe medicinal virtue of the herbs, the subsequent alleviation of painand swelling was attributed by all who were present. 

In the rugged, mountainous districts of western Ireland, a regioninhabited mostly by shepherds and fishermen, medical practice stilldevolves largely upon "fairy-women" and "witch-doctors, " who rely uponherbs, prayers, and incantations in their treatment of the sick. InIreland, too, are individuals reputed to be masters of the art of"setting" charms for controlling hemorrhage; their method being therepetition of certain words arbitrarily selected, whose weirdness tendsto impress the patient with a sense of the mysterious. [109:1]

Spells for checking the flow of blood are plentiful in the earlyliterature of Germany, and are still employed to some extent. In Dr. G. Lammert's "Volksmedizin in Bayern" (Würzburg, 1869), many hemostaticformulas are given, which are popular among the peasantry in variousportions of the empire. They are usually adjurations or commandsaddressed to the blood, considered as a personality. Thus a spell invogue in the mountainous region of Odenwald in Hesse, is as follows:"Blood, stand still, as Christ stood still in the river Jordan. "

In "Folk-Lore, " March, 1908, reference is made to a styptic spell in useat the present time in northern Devonshire, among wise women who areskilled in the art of controlling hemorrhage by psychic methods. Thespell consists in repeating the verse, Ezekiel, XVI, 6. In the localityabove mentioned it is customary to seek the aid of one of theseprofessional "stenters, " instead of a surgeon or veterinarian, and thepeople have implicit faith in this mode of treatment. The presence ofthe wise woman is not essential. She merely pronounces the spellwherever she may happen to be, with the assurance that it will be foundeffectual, on the return of the messenger to the patient. 

The prevalence of similar beliefs is shown in the following verse from apopular poem of the seventeenth century:

 Tom Pots was but a serving-man; But yet he was a Doctor good; He bound his kerchief on the wound, And with some kind words stanch'd the blood. 

FOOTNOTES:

[106:1] _Archæologia_, vol. Xxx, p. 401; 1844. 

[107:1] J. F. Payne, M. D. , _English Medicine in the Anglo-Saxon Times_. 

[107:2] Lady Wilde, _Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland_. 

[108:1] This is the earliest mention of a medical charm in classicliterature, and hence originated the phrase "Homeric Cure, " as appliedto healing by magical verses. 

[108:2] Canto III, section xxiii. 

[109:1] James Mooney, _The Medical Mythology of Ireland_. 

CHAPTER X

HEALING-SPELLS IN ANCIENT TIMES

 Neither doth fansy only cause, but also as easily cure diseases; as I may justly refer all magical cures thereunto, performed, as is thought, by saints, images, relicts, holy waters, shrines, avemarys, crucifixes, benedictions, charms, characters, sigils of the planets, inverted words, etc. And therefore all such cures are rather to be ascribed to the force of the imagination, than to any virtue in themselves. RAMESEY, _Elminthologia_: 1668. 

 His night-spell is his guard, and charms his physicians. BISHOP HALL, _Characters of Vertues and Vices_. 

Certain Chaldean and Persian words were formerly believed to have aparticular efficacy against the demons of sickness. The languages ofmen, it was averred, were not of human origin, but were gifts from thegods; and inasmuch as magic had its source in Chaldea and other Easterncountries, it was reasoned that certain words of the languages spoken inthose places were possessed of an inherent magical value. [111:1] Hencethese words were used in invocations addressed to spirits. In thepopular belief of the ancient Babylonians, illnesses were caused by theentrance into the body of divers aerial spirits, and incantations werethe chief means employed for their expulsion. 

In Accadian medical magic, on the same principle, bedridden patientswere treated by fastening about their heads "sentences from a goodbook. "[112:1] Naturally, among nations where such views prevailed, physicians were but little esteemed, and the cure of disease devolvedupon exorcists and sorcerers. Medicine was merely a branch of Magic, andnot a rational science, as in more enlightened countries. Incantationsagainst the spirits of disease were usually recited by the priests, whowere supposed, by reason of their education and training, to bespecially expert in the choice of the most efficient formulas. 

The Chaldean medical amulets were of various kinds. Frequently theyconsisted of precious stones, engraved with mystic sentences; or stripsof cloth, upon which were written talismanic verses, after the manner ofJewish phylacteries. But of whatever form, the chief source of theirsupposed efficacy appears to have been the words and charactersinscribed upon them. [112:2] Gradually, however, a system of therapeuticswas evolved, and the use of charms and incantations yielded in a measureto practical methods. The later Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions (aboutB. C. 1640) contain references to classified diseases;[112:3] andalthough healing-spells were still largely in vogue, the employment ofvarious herbs and potions became an important feature in AssyrianMedicine. [113:1]

The therapeutic methods employed by the priests of Finland in earlytimes were chiefly magical. They exorcised the spirits of disease bymeans of sacred words and healing-spells, which they believed to be ofdivine origin. [113:2]

Adoration of the hidden forces of nature, and worship of superiorbeings, gave rise to incantations. It was believed moreover that by theuse of appropriate formulas these mysterious powers could be renderedsubservient to the will of man. In the popular imagination, even themoon could be made to descend to the earth at the command of anenchantress, by means of an appropriate spell. For, as Virgil sang:_Carmina vel possunt cœlo deducere lunam. _

Among the ancient Aryan peoples, incantations were an important factorin therapeutics, and naturally the use of the same methods persistedamong their descendants, after their dispersion and settlement indifferent parts of the world. 

Christianus Pazig, in his "Treatise on Magic Incantations, " remarkedthat the ancient origin of written spells is attested alike by sacredand profane literature. According to tradition, Ham, the son of Noah, inscribed mystic sentences on flinty rocks and metals at the time of theDeluge, in order to preserve them, "being influenced perhaps by the fearthat he would not be allowed to take into the Ark a book filled withthese vanities. " The secret art of preparing incantations is said tohave been imparted to others by Mizraim, the son of Ham, and as a resultEgypt and Persia were invaded by hordes of magicians, who aspired todominate universal nature, and to subject to their own wills not onlyhuman beings and the lower animals, but even inanimate objects as well. The Roman poet Lucan (born about A. D. 39) wrote in his"Pharsalia, "[114:1] that by the spells of Thessalian witches, thereflowed into the obdurate heart a love that entered not there in thecourse of nature. And to the same authority is accredited the sayingthat even the world might be made to stand still by means of a suitableincantation; a saying which voiced the popular belief in the miraculouspower of words. 

There is abundant evidence to show that the phenomena ofpsycho-therapeutics were known to the ancients, and that Assyrianpractitioners effected cures by the agency of suggestion, although theywere ignorant of the mode of its operation. The method of treating andcuring in a mysterious way has been a widely spread one. It was known inEgypt; in Greece there was the temple of Asklepios or Esculapius; itwas prevalent in Rome; it was in vogue during the Middle Ages. Therewere oracles and shrines and sacred grottos and springs; and theirexistence and the matters and facts relating to the practices and curesperformed at them are quite as well established as are those of Lourdesin France, or of Sainte Anne de Beaupré, in the Province of Quebec. Dr. Pierre Janet is of the opinion that always and everywhere these cureshave been effected under the same laws. The maladies that can be curedhave always been the same. There are illnesses that could not bevanquished at Asklepios; they are obdurate still at Lourdes. The samethings are done to-day that were done in the temples, and under the sameconditions and in the same way, and even in the same space of time. Thishistoric similitude shows us that the miraculous cures are all of themsubject to the same regular laws. In far-away Japan there existprecisely the same miracle cures as elsewhere. In fact, it seems to havebeen a matter of independent discovery by investigators all over theworld. Dr. Janet is of the opinion that it is not Asklepios that hascopied Assyria, or Lourdes that has patterned after the Greeks, but thatall have worked independently and have attained to a similar use of thesame natural laws. [115:1]

The Anglo-Saxon clergy sanctioned the use of the relics of saints ashaving curative virtues in nearly all diseases. A hair from a saint'sbeard, moistened in holy water and taken inwardly, was a favorite remedyfor fever. [116:1]

Direct healing power was also ascribed to the tombs of saints, andindeed to anything pertaining to the latter. In the popular view, sacredrelics were not only potent to heal, but also brought good fortune. Thiswas true in medieval times, but the early heathen nations had no suchbeliefs. [116:2] In a recent article in the "Century Magazine, " March, 1908, entitled "Christianity and Health, " Rev. Samuel McComb, D. D. , averred that the relic of a dead superstition may achieve as much, inthe cure of physical disorders, as faith in the living God. 

The ecclesiastical miracles in the Middle Ages, and the healing wondersin our own time, attested as they are by the highest medicalauthorities, show what curative power lies in the mere psychologicalstate of trust and confidence. Dr. A. T. Schofield says, [116:3] inexplanation of the many seemingly miraculous cures worked at Lourdes andelsewhere, that all the causative changes take place in the unconsciousmind, yet the patient is wholly ignorant of anything but the results inthe body. Therefore, in such cases, radical cures may be effectedinstantaneously. 

In a lecture on "Temples and Cults in Babylon and Assyria, " during hisLowell Institute course at Boston, January 18, 1910, Dr. Morris Jastrow, Jr. , spoke of incantation as a popular custom in ancient times. 

It is difficult, he said, to draw the line between public and privatecults. Divination by means of the liver was an official cult and boreonly on public affairs, and there was in its determination a ritual. Astrology, on the contrary, was largely a private affair, and needed butan observation of the heavens, which was done without religiousceremony. When, however, a cult became very popular, the priests werenot slow to add its ceremonies to their own. 

A most important cult of this nature was incantation. This was againstdisease and misfortune. Disease was caused by a witch or demon who tookpossession of the sick one, and cure depended on the ability to get ridof the demon. The elements of fire and water had much to do with thecombating of disease, and the two chief deities appealed to were Ea, godof water, and Marduk, god of the sun and fire. In both cases the ideawas one of purification. Extended rituals were recited, questions wereasked by the priests that demanded almost confessions for their replies. 

The physicians of ancient Egypt blended science and superstition intheir prescriptions. While fully appreciating the benefit of a stimulusto the patient's imagination, they did not, however, neglect theemployment of medicinal remedies. 

In a papyrus medical treatise of the sixteenth century B. C. , discoveredat Thebes in the winter of 1872-73, by the German Egyptologist GeorgeEbers, are to be found numerous incantations and conjurations. Nevertheless the same treatise affords evidence of a careful preparationof complex recipes. [118:1] Some of the prescriptions in this documentare considered by Miss Amelia B. Edwards to be of mythological origin, while others appear to have been derived from the medical lore ofSyria. [118:2]

Egyptian medical papyri contain both prescriptions for remedies to beused for various ailments, and conjurations for the expulsion of demons, together with petitions for the present intervention of deities. [118:3]

The Chaldean magi also employed many formulas and incantations forrepelling evil spirits and for the cure of disease. Specimens of suchformulas are to be seen on clay tablets exhumed from the ruins ofancient Nineveh. They consist chiefly in a description of some disease, with the expression of a desire for deliverance from it, and a commandenforcing its departure. [119:1] During the preparation of theirmedicines the ancient Egyptians offered prayers and invocations, ofwhich the following is a specimen:

"May Isis heal me, as she healed Horus, of all the ills inflicted uponhim when Set slew his father Osiris. O Isis, thou great Enchantress, free me, deliver me from all evil, bad and horrible things, from the godand goddess of evil, from the god and goddess of sickness, and from theunclean demon who presses upon me, as thou didst loose and free thy sonHorus. "[119:2]

The Egyptians held the theory that many diseases were due to the angerof Isis, who was also believed by them to have discovered variousremedies. Hence the propitiation of this goddess by invocations was anatural expedient. [119:3]

So great was the fondness of the Egyptians for amulets, that they werewont to hang them about the necks of mummies to ward off demons. [119:4]Apropos of this singular custom, we may remark, in passing, thatmummy-dust was prescribed by English physicians as late as during thereign of Charles II, to promote longevity. They reasoned that inasmuchas pulverized mummy had lasted a long time, it might, when assimilatedby their patients, assist the latter to do likewise. [120:1]

The worship of subterranean deities, representing the hidden forces ofnature, is said to have been a chief feature of the religion of theprehistoric Pelasgians inhabiting Greece; and it was believed that ifonce the particular formula or spell, wherein lay the secret of theirpower, could be discovered, these deities might be rendered subservientto the will of man. [120:2] Similarly, in many religions of antiquity, the names of deities were invested with great power, and whoever utteredthem was "master of the god. "[120:3]

Cato the Censor (B. C. 234-149), in his treatise "De Re Rustica, "chapter 157, recommended a written charm for the cure of fractures; andOvid (B. C. 43-A. D. 18), in his "Metamorphoses, " wrote these lines: "Bymeans of incantations I break in twain the viper's jaws. " In very earlytimes physicians were regarded as under the protection of the gods, andthe magical charms employed by them were therefore naturally investedwith supernatural curative power. Melampus, a noted mythical leech ofArgos, before the Trojan War, was said to have made use ofhealing-spells in his practice. 

Professor H. Blümner, in "The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, " chapter7, remarks that, in the early historic era, medicine developedespecially in two directions in Greece: namely, as practised by aregular medical fraternity; and secondly, "as a kind of religiousmystery in the hands of the priests. " The latter system was doubtlessconnected with the worship of Esculapius. But quacks and charlatans weremuch in evidence, even in that remote epoch. Francis Bacon, in his"Advancement of Learning, " chapter 2, says that "the poets wereclear-sighted in discerning the credulity of men in often preferring amountebank, or a cunning woman to a learned physician. Hence they madeEsculapius and Circe brother and sister, and both children of Apollo. "

The Grecians believed that petitions offered in a foreign tongue weremore favorably received than those in the vernacular; and as a reasonfor this belief it was alleged that the earliest languages, howeverbarbarous and strange to classic ears, contained words and names whichwere somehow more consonant to nature and hence more pleasing to theirdeities. [121:1] Especial magical efficacy has always been ascribed tocertain Hebrew, Arabian, and Indian words. [121:2]

Aëtius, who lived at Amida in Mesopotamia in the fifth century, thefirst Christian physician whose medical writings are extant, repeatedbiblical verses during the preparation of his medicines, in order toincrease their efficacy. [122:1] And until comparatively modern times, the employment of verbal charms, curative spells, and formulas, wasbelieved to enhance the therapeutic virtues of medicines. No remedy, weare told, was administered without mysterious ceremony and incantation. 

According to Suidas, a Greek lexicographer, supposed to have lived inthe tenth century, the method of curing diseases by the repetition ofcertain words had been practised ever since the time of the mythologicalKing Minos, of Crete. Indeed, among the peoples of antiquity, thescience of therapeutics was largely of a theurgic or supernaturalcharacter, and Sibylline verses were in great repute. In this connectionit is interesting to note that, according to one authority, the wordcarminative, a remedy which relieves pain "like a charm, " is derivedfrom the Latin _carminare_, to use incantations. 

Words of encouragement and a cheerful mien are good therapeutic agents;and the physician of Plato's day, we are told, sometimes took an oratoralong with him, in his visits to Grecian households, to persuade hispatients to take medicines. [122:2] Such an expedient may have beenwarranted in those days, but it is of course wholly unnecessary in thisage of palatable elixirs and chocolate-coated tablets. 

Alexander of Tralles, a Greek physician of the sixth century, recommended a verse of Homer for the cure of colic. In our advancedstage of culture, we should hardly be content with such a carminative, but should rather employ one of the modern aromatic remedies of thepharmacopœia. In the classic age, however, as well as at laterepochs, the use of verbal charms for the cure of disease was forbiddenunder severe penalties. The case is recorded of a woman of Achaia, whowas stoned to death for attempting to cure a fever by the repetition ofspells. This was in the fourth century, during the reign ofValentinian. [123:1]

The Greeks invoked Asklepios, the god of Medicine, and his daughtersHygeia, the goddess of Health, and Panacea, the All-Healer, whopersonified attributes of their father. Apollo, too, under the title ofPæan, was worshipped as a health-deity and physician of the gods. He wasaddressed both as a healer and destroyer; as one who inflicted diseases, but who likewise vouchsafed remedies for their cure. But there appearsto have been no incompatibility between the offering of prayers to theseheathen deities, and the use of magical spells, formulas and verses. Forreligion, the healing art, and magic seem to have been inextricablyblended in the early days of Greece and Rome, notwithstanding theteachings of Hippocrates, who first strove to liberate medicine from thesuperstition which enslaved it. 

The complex character of therapeutic methods in vogue among the ancientclassical peoples, finds a modern parallel in the case of Americanaborigines. In various tribes the functions of priest, doctor, andwizard are assumed by one and the same person. [124:1] Under theinfluence of civilization the leech and parson have their distinctprofessions, and the rôle of the magician loses much of its importance. In the present advanced stage of culture, many physicians devotethemselves to particular branches of their art, and each human organ, when ailing, may invoke assistance from its own special Esculapian. 

The Romans of the fourth century, says Edward Gibbon, [124:2] "dreadedthe mysterious power of spells and incantations, of potent herbs andmysterious rites, which could extinguish or recall life, inflame thepassions of the soul, blast the works of creation, and extort fromreluctant demons the secrets of futurity. " They held firmly to thebelief that this miraculous power was possessed by certain old hags andenchantresses, who lived in poverty and obscurity. The modern popularideas about witches having compacts with evil spirits, whereby theformer are enabled to operate supernaturally, appear to be of veryancient origin, as is evident from the folk-lore of different peoples. 

Magical arts, wrote Gibbon, although condemned alike by popular opinionand by the laws of Rome, were continually practised, because they tendedto gratify the most imperious passions of men's hearts. 

Among pagan nations prayers were somewhat akin to incantations, and werenot always regarded as petitions; but their value was supposed to inherein the power of the uttered words, a power which even the gods wereunable to withstand. [125:1] The mystic verses by means of which Athenianphysicians anciently invoked supernatural aid, were called _carmina_, charms, [125:2] their magical nature was incompatible with a purelydevotional spirit, and they were therefore incantations rather thanprayers. Invocations of deities and magic spells have one point incommon; both are appeals to spirits believed to possess supernaturalpowers. This very kinship may render verbal charms the more obnoxious todevout people, on the same principle which led Lord Bacon to declaresuperstition to be the more repulsive on account of its similitude toreligion, "even as it addeth deformity to an ape to be so like a man. "In the prayers offered by the Romans to their deities, the choice of aptphrases was considered to be of greater importance than the mentalattitude of the petitioner, because of the prevalent belief in theefficacy of appropriate words _per se_. 

Hence, we are told, when prayers for the welfare of the State werepublicly recited by a magistrate, it was customary for a high-priest todictate suitable expressions, lest an unhappy selection of words provokedivine anger. [126:1] Popular credence attributed to the classic writerMarcus Varro (B. C. 116-28), sometimes called "the most learned of theRomans, " the faculty of curing tumors by the direct expression of mentalforce, namely, by means of words. [126:2]

The Romans believed that the magical power of prayers was enhanced ifthey were uttered with a loud voice. Hence a saying attributed toSeneca: "So speak to God as though all men heard your prayers. " Of greatrepute among the healing-spells of antiquity was the cabalistic word_Abracadabra_, which occurs first in a medical treatise entitled"Præcepta de Medicina, " by the Roman writer Quintus Serenus Samonicus, who flourished in the second century. An inverted triangular figure, formed by writing this word in the manner hereinafter described, wasmuch valued as an antidote against fevers; cloth or parchment being thematerial originally used for the inscription. 

 Thou shalt on paper write the spell divine, _Abracadabra_ called, on many a line, Each under each in even order place, But the last letter in each line efface; As by degrees the elements grow few, Still take away, but fix the residue, Till at the last one letter stands alone, And the whole dwindles to a tapering cone. Tie this about the neck with flaxen string, Mighty the good 't will to the patient bring. Its wondrous potency shall guard his bed, And drive disease and death far from his head. [127:1]

Another favorite therapeutic spell, no less venerable than Abracadabra, was the mystical word _Abraxas_, which was first used by Basilides, aleader of the Egyptian Gnostics in the second century. This word, engraved on an antique precious stone, sometimes accompanied by amagical emblem and meaningless inscription, was commonly used as amedical amulet, and was well adapted to fire the imagination of ignorantpatients. 

The following curious extract is taken from a rare book published by W. Clowes, serjeant-surgeon to Queen Elizabeth, entitled, "A ProvedPractice for all Young Chirurgians, " 1588:

 It is not long since that a subtile deluder, verie craftely having upon set purpose his brokers or espials abroade, using sundry secret drifts to allure many, as did the syrens by their sweet sonets and melody seduce mariners to make them their pray, so did his brokers or espials deceive many, in proclayming and sounding out his fame abroade from house to house, as those use which crye, "Mistresse, have you any worke for the tincker?" At the lengthe they heard of one that was tormented with a quartaine; then in all post haste this bad man was brought unto the sicke patient by their craftie means, and so forth, without any tariance, he did compound for fifteene pounde to rid him within three fits of his agew, and to make him as whole as a fish of all diseases: so a little before the fit was at hand, he called unto the wife of the patient to bring him an apple of the biggest size, and then with a pinne writte in the rinde of the apple _Abracadabra_, and such like, and perswaded him to take it presently in the beginning of his fit, for there was (sayeth he) a secret in those words. To be short, the patient, being hungry of his health, followed his counsell, and devoured all and every peece of the apple. So soon as it was receyved, nature left the disease to digest the apple, which was to hard to do; for at length he fell to vomiting, then the core kept such a sturre in his throate, that wheretofore his fever was ill, now much worse, _a malo ad pejus_, out of the frying-pan into the fire: presently there were physitions sent for unto the sick patient, or else his fifteene pound had been gone, with a more pretious jewell: but this lewde fellow is better knowne at Newgate than I will heere declare. [128:1]

Certain mystic sentences of barbaric origin, mostly unintelligible, andknown as "Ephesian Letters, " engraved upon the famous statue of Diana atEphesus, were popular among the Greeks as charms wherewith to driveaway diseases, to render the wearer invincible in battle, or to purifydemon-infested places. Their invention was attributed to the fabulousDactyls of Phrygia, and they appear to have been held in equally greatesteem, whether pronounced orally as incantations, or inscribed uponstrips of parchment and worn as amulets. 

In ancient Hibernia, the former western limit of the known world, theDruids, in their medical treatment, relied much upon magic rites andincantations. [129:1] And the early Irish physicians, who belonged to theDruid priesthood, were devoted to mystical medicine, although they alsoprescribed various herbs with whose therapeutic use they werefamiliar. [129:2] In Ireland according to Lady Wilde, [129:3] invocationswere formerly in the names of the Phenician god Baal, and of the Syriangoddess Ashtoreth, representing the sun and moon respectively. . . . After the establishment of Christianity, formulas of invocation wereusually in the names of Christ or the Holy Trinity, and those of Mary, Peter, and numerous saints were also used. In Brand's "PopularAntiquities, "[129:4] we find a long list of the names of saints who wereinvoked for the cure of particular ailments; and the same authorityquotes from a work entitled "The Irish Hubbub, " by Barnaby Rich, 1619, these lines: "There is no disease, no sicknesse, no greefe, eitheramongst men or beasts, that hath not his physician among the saints. "

The devotion of the Teutonic tribes to magical medicine is notsurprising to any one versed in the mythological lore of Scandinavia, which is replete with sorcery. And throughout the Middle Ages, althoughmedical practice was largely in the hands of Christian priests andmonks, yet sorcerers and charlatans continued to employ old pagan usagesand magical remedies. The German physicians of the Carlovingian erapretended to cure ailments by whispering in the patient's ear, as wellas by the use of enchanted herbs. They inherited ceremonial formulasfrom the practitioners of an earlier age, for the treatment ofophthalmic diseases; and in addition to such spells, they made use ofvarious gestures, and were wont to thrice touch the affectedeyes. [130:1]

In Grimm's "Teutonic Mythology"[130:2] is to be found an old Germanspell against gout, as follows: "God, the Lord went over the land; theremet him 70 sorts of gouts and goutesses. Then spake the Lord: 'Ye 70gouts and goutesses, whither would ye?' Then spake the 70 gouts andgoutesses: 'We go over the land and take from men their health andlimbs. ' Then spake the Lord: 'Ye shall go to an elder-bush and break offall his boughs, and leave with [such an one, naming the patient] hisstraight limbs. '"

Many old German healing-spells contain the names of our Lord and of theVirgin, which probably superseded those of pagan deities and sacredmythological personages, the formulas remaining otherwise the same. Suchspells are akin to pious invocations or actual prayers. Others exhibit ablending of devotion and credulity, and appear to have degenerated intomere verbal forms. 

According to a tradition of the North, while Wodan and Baldur were onceon a hunting excursion, the latter's horse dislocated a leg; whereuponWodan reset the bones by means of a verbal charm. And the mere narrationof this prehistoric magical cure is in repute in Shetland as a remedyfor lameness in horses at the present day. 

A remarkable cure for intermittent fever, in a marshy district ofLincolnshire, is described in "Folk-Lore, " June, 1898 (page 186). An oldwoman, whose grandson had a bad attack of the fever, fastened upon thefoot-board of his bed three horse-shoes, with a hammer laid cross-wiseupon them. With the hammer the old crone gave each shoe a smart tap, repeating each time this spell: "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, nail theDevil to this post, one for God and one for Wod and one for Lok. . . . Yon's a sure charm, " said she, "that will hold the Old One as fast as t'church tower, when next he comes to shake un. " The chronicler of thiscurious incantation calls attention to the association of the name ofGod with two heathen personages: Wodan, the chief ruler, and Loki, thespirit of evil, in the mythology of the North. 

The early Saxons in England knew little of scientific medicine, andrelied on indigenous herbs. They were much addicted to the use of wizard_spells_, a term which originated with them; and were too ignorant toadopt the skilled methods of the practitioners of Greece and Italy. 

The invention of some especially forceful words for exorcising fiendsand illnesses was ascribed to Robert Grosseteste (about 1175-1253), Bishop of Lincoln; and the fact that a learned prelate should devoteattention to the subject is strong testimony to its importance inmedieval times. There is indeed abundant evidence that throughout thatperiod verbal charms were very commonly worn, whether devotionalsentences, prayer formulas written on vellum, or mystic letters, words, and symbols inscribed on parchment. [132:1] For many centuries medicalpractice consisted largely of prayers and incantations, the employmentof charms and talismans, and the performance of superstitious rites. Until the seventeenth century these methods were more or less in vogue. Thus, a verse from the Lamentations of Jeremiah was thought to be aspecific for rheumatism. [133:1]

The Atharva-Veda, one of the ancient Vedas, or religious books of theHindus, contains hundreds of healing-spells, as well as formulas tosecure prosperity, in expiation of sin, and as safeguards againstrobbers and wild beasts. They are repeated either by the personexpecting assistance therefrom, or by a magician for his benefit. Of thetherapeutic verses brief examples are here given:

(A charm against fever. ) "O _Takman_ (fever), along with thy brother_balasa_, along with thy sister cough, along with thy cousin _paman_, goto yonder foreign folk!"

(A charm against cough. ) "As a well-sharpened arrow swiftly to adistance flies, thus do thou, O Cough, fly along the expanse of theearth!"

(A charm against the demons of disease. ) "O amulet of ten kinds of wood, release this man from the demon and the fit which has seized upon hisjoints!"

While reciting the above formula, a talisman consisting of splintersfrom ten kinds of wood is fastened upon the patient, and ten of hisfriends rub him down. [133:2]

The following translation of an old Scottish incantation againstdisease is taken from a collection of charms, chiefly of the OuterHebrides Islands, and included by Alexander Carmichael in his "CarminaGaelica, " Edinburgh, 1900. 

 Peter and James and John, The Three of sweetest virtues in glory, Who arose to make the charm, Before the great gate of the City, By the right knee of God the Son, Against the keen-eyed men, Against the peering-eyed women, Against the slim, slender, fairy darts, Against the swift arrows of fairies. Two made to thee the withered eye, Man and woman in venom and envy, Three whom I will set against them. Father, Son, and Spirit Holy. Four-and-twenty diseases in the constitution of man and beast. God scrape them, God search them, God cleanse them, From out thy blood, from out thy flesh, From out thy fragrant bones, From this day, and each day that comes, Till thy day on earth be done. 

FOOTNOTES:

[111:1] A. J. L. Jourdan, _Histoire de la Médecine_, tome ii, p. 139. 

[112:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, art. "Babylonia. "

[112:2] François Lenormant, _Chaldean Magic_, p. 45. 

[112:3] Hermann Peters, _Pictorial History of Pharmacy_. 

[113:1] A. Laurent, _La Magie et le Divination chez lesChaldeo-Assyriens_, p. 33. 

[113:2] François Lenormant, _Chaldean Magic_, p. 244. 

[114:1] Book vi, 452. 

[115:1] _Lowell Institute Lecture_; Boston, November, 1906. 

[116:1] John Thrupp, _The Anglo-Saxon Home_, p. 277. 

[116:2] Jacob Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, p. 1177. 

[116:3] _The Unconscious Mind_, pp. 348-349. 

[118:1] _Journal of Science_, vol. Xiii, p. 101; 1876. 

[118:2] _Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers_, p. 219. 

[118:3] Alfred Wiedmann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 272. 

[119:1] François Lenormant, _Chaldean Magic_, p. 12. 

[119:2] Johann Hermann Baas, _The History of Medicine_, tr. By H. E. Henderson, p. 23. 

[119:3] R. Dunglison, _History of Medicine_, p. 23. 

[119:4] _Boston Transcript_, March 4, 1900. 

[120:1] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, vol. I, p. 96. 

[120:2] Larousse, _Grand Dictionnaire_, art. "Incantation. "

[120:3] T. Witton Davies, _Magic, Divination, and Demonology_, p. 62. 

[121:1] John Potter, _Antiquities of Greece_, vol. Ii, p. 244. 

[121:2] Georg Conrad Horst, _Zauber-Bibliothek_, vol. Iii, p. 62. 

[122:1] Alfred C. Garratt, M. D. , _Myths in Medicine_, p. 47; _DublinUniversity Magazine_, Feb. , 1874, p. 221. 

[122:2] J. P. Mahaffy, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 71. 

[123:1] J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_, p. 420. 

[124:1] Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, vol. Iii, p. 37. 

[124:2] _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. _

[125:1] M'Clintock and Strong, _Biblical Cyclopædia_, art. "Incantations. "

[125:2] Kurt Sprengel, _Histoire de la Médecine_, tome i, p. 123. 

[126:1] Rodolfo Lanciani, _A Manual of Roman Antiquities_, p. 357. 

[126:2] Frank Granger, _The Worship of the Romans_, p. 227. 

[127:1] C. W. King, _The Gnostics and their Remains_, p. 316. 

[128:1] _Archæologia_, vol. Xxx, pp. 427-28; 1884. 

[129:1] Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, vol. Iii, p. 269. 

[129:2] _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland_, vol. Ii, p. 74. 

[129:3] _Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland_, p. 9. 

[129:4] Vol. I, pp. 356 _seq. _

[130:1] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy during the Middle Ages_, p. 296. 

[130:2] Vol. Iv, p. 1698. 

[132:1] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy_, p. 296. 

[133:1] Robley Dunglison, _History of Medicine_, p. 18. 

[133:2] _The Sacred Books of the East_, edited by F. Max Müller, vol. Xlii, p. 2. 

CHAPTER XI

MEDICINAL RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

The discovery of the script of the ancient Germans, supposed to be ofEgyptian or Phenician origin, was attributed to Wodan, who was regardedas the chief expert in magical writing. The so-called noxious runes werethought to bring evil upon enemies; the helpful ones averted misfortune, while the medicinal runes were credited with healing properties. [135:1]These ancient characters formed the earliest alphabets among theGermanic peoples, and are found throughout Scandinavia, as well as inGreat Britain, France, and Spain, engraved upon monuments, stones, coins, and domestic utensils. The Gothic word _runa_ meant originally asecret magical character, and was used to signify a mysterious speech, song, or writing. The reputed inherent therapeutic qualities ofmedicinal runes were potent psychic factors, through the subconsciousmind, in healing disease. 

The Anglo-Saxons made use of runic inscriptions, not only as curatives, but also to banish melancholy and evil thoughts. After their conversionto Christianity, biblical texts were substituted for the runes, and theart of composing the former was studied with as much care as had beendevoted to the heathen charms. [136:1] The term _rune_ became a synonymfor knowledge and wisdom; an oracular, proverbial expression. [136:2] Thetraditional belief of the Anglo-Saxons in the efficacy of healing runespersisted in the fourteenth century. When foreign medical practitionerssettled in England at that period, the cures wrought by them wereattributed to the superior virtues of the charms employed, rather thanto their professional skill. [136:3]

The ancient Saxons, before their arrival in Britain, were wont to goforth into battle, having engraven upon their spears certain runiccharacters, which were valued as protective charms, and served toinspire confidence on the part of the warriors. These magic inscriptionswere believed to have been either invented or improved by Wodan, whotaught the art of putting them into rhyme, and engraving them upontables of stone. [136:4] In William Camden's "Britannia, "[136:5] aredescribed divers medicinal inscriptions, found in Cumberland. These wereused as spells among the borderers even as late as the close of theeighteenth century. A book of such charms, of that era, taken from thepocket of a moss-trooper or bog-trotter, contained among other things arecipe for the cure of intermittent fever by certain barbarous characts. 

In Paul B. Du Chaillu's work, "The Viking Age" (London, 1889), mentionis made of the ancient northern custom of employing runes as medicalcharms. 

One Egil went on a journey to Vermaland, and on the way he came to thehouse of a farmer named Thorfinn, whose daughter, Helga, had long beenill of a wasting sickness. "Has anything been tried for her illness?"asked Egil. "Runes have been traced by the son of a farmer in theneighborhood, " said Thorfinn. 

Then Egil examined the bed, and found a piece of whalebone with runes onit. He read them, cut them off, and scraped the chips into the fire. Healso burned the whalebone, and had Helga's clothes carried into the openair. Then Egil sang:

 As man shall not trace runes, except he can read them well, it is thus with many a man, that the dark letters bewilder him. I saw on the cut whalebone ten hidden letters carved, that have caused the woman a very long sorrow. 

Egil traced runes and placed them under Helga's pillow. It seemed toher as if she awoke from a sleep, and she said that she was thenhealed. [138:1]

The ancient northern peoples wore protective and defensive amulets, which were fastened around the arm, waist, or neck. These amulets werestyled _ligamenta_, _ligaturæ_, or _phylacteria_, by the writers of theearly Middle Ages. They were usually fashioned as gold, silver, or glasspendants. Cipher-writing and runes were commonly inscribed upon them, often for healing, but contrariwise, to bewitch and injure. [138:2]

Among the peoples of Western Europe, ancient magical healing formulas, relics of previous ages, were employed in medieval times by ruralcharlatans, who professed to cure ophthalmic disorders by the recitationof ritualistic phrases, together with suitable gestures of the arms andfingers over the affected eyes. Dislocations were said to have beenpromptly reduced by means of runic enchantments, which were doubtlesssupplemented by mechanical treatment; while fractured bones of man orbeast were alleged to unite readily under the influence of Odiniccharms. Wherever the Teutonic races were found, a knowledge of runicremedies appears to have prevailed. [138:3]

FOOTNOTES:

[135:1] M. Mallet, _Northern Antiquities_, p. 226. 

[136:1] John Thrupp, _The Anglo-Saxon Home_. 

[136:2] Nelson's _Encyclopædia_. 

[136:3] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, vol. Ii, p. 110. 

[136:4] Joseph Strutt, _Manners of the English_, vol. I, p. 17. 

[136:5] Vol. Iii, p. 455. 

[138:1] _The Egil's Saga_, chap. 72. 

[138:2] Jacob Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, pp. 1173-1174. 

[138:3] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy in the Middle Ages_. 

CHAPTER XII

METALLO-THERAPY

Metallo-therapy has been defined as a mode of treating variousaffections, chiefly those of a nervous character, by the externalapplication of metals. It was recommended by Galen and other medicalwriters, but they attributed its curative powers to the magicalinscriptions which the metals bore. 

Mesmer experimented with magnets extensively, but soon abandoned theiruse, as he found that he could obtain equally good results without them. 

The so-called "metallic tractors" originated with Dr. Elisha Perkins(1740-1799), a practising physician of Norwich, Connecticut, andconsisted of two rods, one of brass, and the other of steel. In cases ofrheumatism and various neuroses, the affected portions of the body werelightly stroked by means of the tractors, and many remarkable cures werereported. The new therapeutic method was endorsed by many reputablepractitioners, both in the United States and Europe, and its fame spreadlike wild-fire. 

It was soon discovered, however, that wooden tractors were fully asefficacious as the metallic ones, and that the many vaunted cures werepsychic. Thus Perkins's tractors afford a striking example of thecurative force of suggestion. 

Thereby (wrote John Haygarth, M. D. , Fellow of the Royal Medical Societyof Edinburgh, in a brief treatise on the Imagination, published in theyear 1800) is to be learned an important lesson in Medicine, namely, thewonderful and powerful influence of the passions of the mind, upon thestate and disorders of the body. This fact, he continued, was too oftenoverlooked in Practice, where sole dependence was placed upon materialremedies, without utilizing mental influence. To the latter, thissagacious physician, writing more than a century ago, was shrewd enoughto ascribe the marvellous cures attributed to the remedies of quacks, whose magnificent and unqualified promises inspire weak minds withconfidence. 

In one of his Lowell Institute lectures, at Boston, November 14, 1906, Dr. Pierre Janet described the development of metallo-therapy in Francebetween the years 1860 and 1880. Metallic discs were applied to thepatient's body. These discs were of different kinds, sometimes beingcomposed of two or more metals. In some cases a magnet was used. Different subjects, it was found, did not manifest sensitiveness to thesame metals, some being cured by iron, others by copper, while thegreatest number were susceptible to gold. Many interesting factsrelating to these cures were noted, such as periods of transition andoscillation in the maladies, and most curious of all, a kind oftransference. For example, should a paralysis or a contraction seatitself on the right side, the application of the discs would effect acure, but the malady would often return to the opposite side. And therewere other curious phenomena. A modification of sensation was invariablyobserved. 

Under the influence of the metal disc, the shin and muscles, whichbefore were numb, regained their normal states, and the return ofsensation preceded the cure, and was an indispensable condition. One canobtain exactly the same results with discs composed of inert substances. An old-fashioned letter-wafer, for instance, applied to the hand, hasproduced similar effects. According to Dr. Janet, these phenomena arewholly due to psychic agencies, partly akin to suggestion and partlydifferent. They depend upon the mechanism of attention. This faculty, when directed upon any organ, will bring into prominence sensations notordinarily felt. 

Consciousness is limited, in that it does not always take cognizance ofall the existing sensations. This explains the phenomenon oftransference, in that the suppression of those sensations which wereprominent brings to the surface others which were not before recognizedby the consciousness. 

As a result of the introduction of metallo-therapy in the hospitals ofParis, an enormous number of hysterical patients applied for treatment, influenced partly, no doubt, by the love of notoriety. 

CHAPTER XIII

ANIMAL MAGNETISM

Although curative attributes were ascribed to the magnet in ancienttimes, and the same belief prevailed in the Middle Ages, the notedcharlatan Paracelsus (1493-1541) was the first to propound the theory ofthe existence of magnetic properties in the human body. During theseventeenth century several persons in Great Britain claimed the abilityto cure diseases by stroking with the hand, and of these the mostnotable was the celebrated Irish empiric, Valentine Greatrakes(1628-1700). 

It was asserted, moreover, by certain practitioners, that by magnetizinga sword it could be made to cure any wound which the sword hadinflicted. And about the year 1625, Dr. Robert Fludd, an Englishphysician of learning and repute, introduced the famous "weapon-salve, "which became immensely popular. Its ingredients consisted of mossgrowing on the head of a thief who had been hanged, mummy dust, humanblood, suet, linseed oil, and Armenian bole, a species of clay. Allthese were mixed thoroughly in a mortar. The sword, after being dippedin the blood from the wound, was carefully anointed with the preciousmixture, and laid by in a cool place. Then the wound was cared foraccording to the most approved surgical methods, with thorough cleansingand bandaging. 

The successful results naturally attending this treatment wereattributed by the _ignobile vulgus_ to the wonderful ointment. Therewere sceptics who denied its efficacy, but the new remedy appealed tothe popular imagination. However, a certain Pastor Foster issued apamphlet entitled "A Spunge to wipe away the Weapon-Salve, " which latterthe writer affirmed to be an invention of the Devil, who gave it toParacelsus, by whom it was bequeathed to the eminent Italian physician, Giambattista della Porta, and finally was acquired by Doctor Fludd. Inreply to this attack, the latter published a vigorous refutation, underthe following caption: "The Squeezing of Parson Foster's Spunge, whereinthe Spunge-bearer's immodest carriage and behaviour towards hisbrethren, is Detected; the Bitter Flames of his slanderous reports are, by the sharp Vinegar of Truth, Corrected and quite Extinguished, andlastly, the virtuous validity of his Spunge in wiping away theWeapon-Salve, is crushed out and clean abolished. "

In commenting on certain superstitious methods in surgery, which were invogue in the sixteenth century, the noted chemist and physician, AndrewLibavius, a native of Halle, in Saxony, remarked that while wounds arehealed by nature, pretended magical remedies may be of use by directingthe natural forces to the spot, _through the imagination_. 

Another favorite remedy, somewhat akin to the weapon-salve, was theso-called "sympathetic powder, " which was said to consist of sulphate ofcopper prepared with mysterious ceremonies. 

According to popular report, the recipe was brought from the East by aCarmelite friar, and was introduced in England by Sir Kenelm Digby, anoted chemist and philosopher of the seventeenth century, who was also aGentleman of the Bedchamber of Charles I. He published a volume on thehealing of wounds by means of this preparation. Portions of thepatient's bloodstained apparel were immersed in a solution of thesympathetic powder, the wound meantime being cleansed and bandaged. Astrictly enforced regimen also formed part of the treatment. 

As may readily be inferred, this wonderful powder, like theweapon-salve, was equally efficacious, whether used at a distance fromthe patient, or near by. 

But it has ever been true, that the positive and reiterated assertionsof a charlatan will usually avail to delude not only the wonder-lovingpublic, but even persons of intellect and distinction. The secret of thesympathetic powder became known to Dr. Theodore Turquet de Mayerne (atone time the chief physician of James I), who is said to have derivedconsiderable profit from the sale of this once famous nostrum. [146:1]

The system of therapeutics known as Mesmerism, originated by FriedrichAnton Mesmer (1733-1815), a German physician, affords a notable exampleof the influence of the mind upon the body through the imagination. Inits essential principles, it does not materially differ from the ancientmethod of healing by laying-on of hands. As a young man Mesmer becameinterested in astrology, believing that the stars exert, according totheir relative position at certain times, a direct influence upon humanbeings. He at first identified this supposed force with electricity, andafterwards with magnetism. Later he claimed to be endowed with amysterious power available for the cure of various diseases. Removing toParis in 1778, Mesmer at once began to demonstrate his theories, maintaining that he was able to exercise a therapeutic effect upon hispatients, by virtue of a magnetic fluid proceeding from him, or simplyby the domination of his will over that of the patient. 

He asserted that the magnetic fluid is the medium of a mutual influencebetween the stars, the earth, and human beings. By insinuating itselfinto the substance of the nerves of the human body, it affects them atonce, being moreover capable of communication from one body to otherbodies, animate or inanimate. It perfects the action of medicines, andheals affections of the nerves. In animal magnetism nature presents auniversal method of benefiting mankind. Such, at least, was thedeclaration of Mesmer. [147:1]

With a view to influencing the imaginations of his patients, this shrewdpractitioner caused his consulting apartments in Paris to be dimlylighted and surrounded by mirrors. Strains of soft music were heard, subtle odors pervaded the air, and the patients were seated around acircular oaken trough or _baquet_, in which were disposed a row ofbottles containing so-called electrical fluid. A complicated system ofwires connected the mouths of the bottles with handles, which weregrasped by the patients. After the latter had waited for a while inexpectant silence, Mesmer would appear, wearing a coat of lilac silk, and carrying a magician's wand, which he manipulated in a graceful andmysterious manner. Then, discarding the wand, he passed his hands overthe bodies of the patients for a considerable time, "until themagnetized person was saturated with the healing fluid. "

So great was the interest aroused by Mesmer's methods and the manyseemingly marvellous cures resulting therefrom, that the Royal Societyof Paris appointed a commission, which included Benjamin Franklin, toinvestigate the subject. The members of this commission reported thatthose patients who were not aware of the fact that they were beingmagnetized experienced no effects from the treatment. Those who weretold that they were being magnetized experienced symptoms, although themagnetizer was not near them. Imagination, apart from magnetism, produced marked effects, while magnetism, without imagination, producednothing. The benefits resulting from Mesmer's treatment were due, according to the commission's report, to three factors, namely: (1)actual contact; (2) the excitement of the imagination; and (3) "themechanical imitation which impels us to repeat that which strikes oursenses. "

The ability to cure disease without the use of medicines or surgicalappliances has been claimed by alleged healers in all ages. When suchcures were effected, they were attributed to a special gift with whichthe healer was divinely endowed, and this gift was bestowed, in rareinstances, upon individuals who were distinguished by especial sanctity. Mesmer did not claim this quality, and yet he performed cures which wereas notable as those of any saint or inspired healer of earlier times. Hebelieved that through animal magnetism a direct physical effect wasexerted upon the human body. And this effect he held to be due to thevirtues of a subtle fluid. 

Frank Podmore, in "Mesmerism and Christian Science" (1909), expressesthe belief that Mesmer obtained many of his ideas from hiscontemporary, Gassner. For even if he did not actually meet the latter, Mesmer must have known him by reputation and doubtless was familiar withhis methods of healing. Gassner was a believer in the demoniac theory ofdisease, and sought to expel the evil spirit by chasing it from one partof the body to another, finally driving it out by word of command, fromthe fingers or toes. Similar procedures were characteristic of Mesmer'searlier methods, but were not retained by his successors. 

One of Mesmer's most prominent followers was Armand Marc Jacques deChastenet, Marquis de Puységur, born of noble ancestry at Paris, March1, 1751. He entered early upon a military career, and attained bysuccessive promotions the rank of colonel in the Royal Artillery in1778. Serving with distinction at the siege of Gibraltar during theSpanish campaign, he was appointed field-marshal in 1789, andlieutenant-general in 1814. Meanwhile he had become greatly interestedin the subject of animal magnetism, having been at one time a pupil ofMesmer, whom he had assisted at the latter's _séances_. Retiring to hischâteau at Buzancy, Department of Aisne, in northern France, he devotedhimself to the study of the phenomena of mesmerism, and to practicalexperimentation of its therapeutic value in the open air, beneath thedense foliage of the forests, after the style of the ancient Druids. Puységur introduced new methods of magnetizing, and demonstrated thatmany of the resultant phenomena could be made to appear by gentlemanipulation, and without the mysterious appliances and violentprocedures of Mesmer. Mindful of the latter's assertion that wood couldbe magnetized, he decided to experiment upon a large elm tree which grewupon the village green. As a result, streams of magnetic fluids werealleged to pass from its branches by means of cords twisted around thebodies of patients, who sat in a circle about the tree, with thumbsinterlocked, in order to afford a direct passage for the healinginfluence. 

In his work entitled "Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et àl'établissement du Magnétisme Animal" (London, 1786), Puységur affirmedhis belief in the ancient doctrine of the existence of a universalfluid, vivifying all nature, and always in motion. This doctrine hemaintained to be an ancient truth, the rejection whereof was due toignorance. He continued his researches and practice until his death atBuzancy, August 1, 1825. 

The magnetic fluid, according to some authorities, may be reflected likelight or propagated like sound, and increased, opposed, accumulated, andtransmitted to another object. Moreover this principle, which is akin toa sixth sense, artificially acquired, may be employed for the cure ofnervous affections, by provoking and directing salutary crises, thusbringing the healing art to perfection. 

 Mesmerism clearly appears to be no more than an antecedent of hypnotism; few, if any, of the distinctive features of the modern science appearing in an appreciated form in its practices. Mesmer had little experience and no appreciation of the hypnotic state, or of the phenomena of suggestion; he constantly elaborated his physical manipulations, denied the imagination any place in his effects, and regarded the crisis as the distinctive and essential factor in his cures; and when confronted with subjects in hypnotic state, pronounced the production of this state as foolish and regarded it as a subordinate phase of the magnetic crisis. [151:1]

Thomson Jay Hudson, in his volume, "The Law of Mental Medicine, " affirmsthat the therapeutic successes of the ancient method of laying-on ofhands, the King's touch, metallic tractors, and mesmerism are fullyexplained by the doctrine of suggestion, the mental energy of the healerbeing transmitted as a therapeutic impulse from his subjective mindthrough the medium of the nerves to the affected cells of the patient'sbody, connection being established by so-called cellular rapport, thatis, "by bringing into physical contact the nerve-terminals of the twopersonalities. "

The distinguished psychologist, James Braid, said that whoever supposesthat the power of imagination is merely a mental emotion, which may varyto any extent, without corresponding changes in the physical functions, labors under a mighty mistake. Suggestions by others of the ideas ofhealth, vigor, and hope, are influential with many people for restoringhealth and energy both of mind and body. Having then such an effectivepower to work with, the great desideratum has been to find the bestmeans for regulating and controlling it, so as to render it subservientto our will for relieving and curing diseases. The modes devised, bothby mesmerists and hypnotists, for these ends, are a real, solid, andimportant addition to practical therapeutics. [152:1]

The importance of suggestive healing methods can hardly beoverestimated, and has been emphasized by many writers. Notable amongrecent publications on the subject are Dr. T. J. Hudson's work, entitled"The Law of Psychic Phenomena, " and Dr. A. T. Schofield's "UnconsciousMind. " Dr. Pierre Janet, in one of his Lowell Institute lectures, inBoston, November 3, 1906, remarked that

 Before the time of Mesmer the sleep produced by magnetizers was really the cause of numberless cures. Hypnotism, which has replaced it little by little since 1840, and has been more rapidly developed since 1878, differs from its ancestor more in the interpretation of the phenomena than in the practices themselves. It has naturally had the same therapeutic applications, and its methods are probably legitimate. Hypnotic sleep has had many helpful influences. It is really a change in the equilibrium of the brain and mental faculties and produces great modifications in the memory and in sensibility. Life is indeed a long series of habits to which we are accustomed; hypnotism changes these habits which in a normal condition we do not try to modify, and on awakening, all memory of the change is gone, although its effects may remain. 

 Now oftentimes the nervous system becomes fixed in certain disagreeable or dangerous habits, and the upsetting of these, the uplifting of the mind from the rut, is of great service. In the sleep of hypnotism speech, action, methods of thought, all are changed, there is a cerebral rest, and beneficial results often follow. 

 From the period following Braid's contributions up to the foundation of modern hypnotism, . . . The history of the subject may be briefly told. The field is occupied largely by propagandists of one or another of the extravagant forms of animal magnetism . . . By traveling mesmerists, by sensationally advertised subjects, and by a small and unorganized number of scientific men, attempting to stem the tide of mysticism and error with which the others were deluging the public. The recognition of hypnotism as an altered physiological and psychological condition, after repeated demonstrations, at last gained the day, securing for the phenomena a place in the accepted body of scientific doctrines. [153:1]

Professor Bernheim says that the hypnotic condition and the phenomenaassociated therewith are purely subjective, and originate in the nervoussystem of the patient. 

 The fixation of a brilliant object, so that the muscle which holds up the upper eyelid becomes fatigued, and the concentration of the attention on a single idea, bring about the sleep. The subjects can even bring about this condition in themselves, by their own tension of mind, without being submitted to any influence from without. In this state the imagination becomes so lively that every idea spontaneously developed or suggested, by a person to whom the subject gives this peculiar attention and confidence, has the value of an actual representation to him. [154:1]

It has been well said that if Mesmer's methods served only todemonstrate the curative power of the imagination, they have been ofsome benefit to humanity. 

The consideration of hypnotic cures does not appertain to our theme. Farfrom these being primitive methods, they represent what is most modernand advanced in psycho-therapeutics. 

FOOTNOTES:

[146:1] Francis J. Shepherd, M. D. , _Medical Quacks and Quackery_. 

[147:1] F. A. Mesmer, _Mémoire sur la Découverte du Magnétisme Animal_;Paris, 1779. 

[151:1] _The Cosmopolitan_, vol. Xx, p. 363. 

[152:1] Braid, _Neurypnology_, p. 338. 

[153:1] _The Cosmopolitan_, February, 1896. 

[154:1] H. Bernheim, M. D. , _Suggestive Therapeutics_, p. 111. 

CHAPTER XIV

ANCIENT MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS

From early times it was a universal custom to place at the beginning ofa medical prescription certain religious verses or superstitiouscharacters, which formed the invocation, or prayer to a favoritedeity. [155:1] Angelic beings were frequently appealed to, and amongthese the Archangel Raphael was thought to be omnipotent for the cure ofdisease. John Aubrey, in his "Miscellanies, " relates that a certainphysician, Dr. Richard Nepier, a person of great piety, whose knees werehorny with much praying, was wont to ask professional advice of thisarchangel, and that his prescriptions began with the abbreviation "R. Ris. " for _Responsum Raphælis_, Raphael's answer. The name of Raphaelwas often seen on amulets and talismans. But our information regardingthis angel is derived chiefly from the Book of Tobit, where Raphael isrepresented as the guide and counsellor of the young Tobias. In one ofthe later _Midrashim_, Raphael appears as the angel commissioned to putdown the evil spirits that vexed the sons of Noah with plagues andsicknesses after the Flood, and he it was who taught men the use of"simples, " and furnished materials for the "Book of Noah, " the earliesttreatise on materia medica. [156:1]

A recent writer affirms that ℞ is the emblem of the sun-god _Ra_, andsignifies "In the name of _Ra_, " or "_Ra_, God of Life and Health, inspire me. "[156:2] This deity was regarded as the Supreme Being, notonly by the Egyptians, but by other heathen people of antiquity, becausethe sun was the greatest and most brilliant of the planets. 

In Egyptian hieroglyphics[156:3] _Ra_ was represented as a hawk-headedman, holding in one hand the symbol of life, and in the other the royalsceptre. 

The medical symbol ℞, still in use at the present day, owes itsorigin, however, neither to the angel Raphael nor to the god _Ra_. It isthe ancient sign of Jupiter. This sign, which also symbolized the metaltin, had many modifications, some of which were as follows: Z, ♃, Ψ. 

These were gradually replaced by the letter R, or its astrologicalmodification ℞, which was equivalent to _Recipe_, Jupiter, --Take, OJupiter! We are told that the astrological signs were thus brought intouse during Nero's reign, and that the practice of Medicine was then andafterwards regulated by the government. It is not improbable thatChristian physicians were obliged to follow the example of their heathenprofessional brethren in prefixing to their prescriptions invocations toJupiter. [157:1]

Johann Michael Moscherosch (1600-1669), a learned German writer, offereda unique explanation of the meaning of the medical symbol ℞, which hemaintained to be equivalent to _Rec_, an abbreviation for _per decem_. And he explained the significance of the latter as being that oneprescription out of ten might be expected to prove beneficial to thepatient. It is certain, wrote Dr. Otto A. Wall, in his volume, "ThePrescription, " that pharmacies for the dispensing of medicines onphysicians' prescriptions were already in existence at the ancientSpanish city of Cordova, and at other large municipalities under thecontrol of the Arabs, previous to the twelfth century. And as early as1233, pharmacy laws had already been passed in the Two Sicilies. By thattime, it appears probable that medical prescriptions were no longer meresuperstitious formulas, but that they contained directions forcompounding material remedies having more or less medicinal virtues. 

Modern medical prescriptions may be classed as lineal descendants of thehealing-spells of former ages. In the most ancient knownpharmacopœia, a papyrus discovered about the year 1858 in theNecropolis at Thebes, and believed to date from the sixteenth centuryB. C. , no invocations or symbols are found, nor were the lattergenerally employed as prefixes to medical formulas prior to the firstcentury A. D. ; when their use appears to have originated among theGreeks and Romans, and the custom has continued until the present day. At the time of the alchemists, in the sixteenth century, "the influenceof the Church on the minds of men, or perhaps the fear of theInquisition, led physicians to adopt an invocation to the Christian God;just as they abbreviated a prayer to crossing themselves with theirfingers over their foreheads and breasts, so they contracted theinvocation to the sign of the cross as a superscription. "[158:1]

Thus instead of the sign ℞ some physicians began their prescriptionswith the Greek letters Α. Ω. ; or the letters J. D. For_Juvante Deo_, C. D. For _Cum Deo_, or N. D. For _Nomine Dei_. 

Dr. Rodney H. True, lecturer on botany at Harvard College, in a paper onFolk Materia Medica, read at a meeting of the Boston branch of theAmerican Folk-Lore Society, February 19, 1901, gave a list oftherapeutic agents, mostly of animal origin, forming the stock in tradeof a European druggist some two hundred years ago. This list includesthe fats, gall, blood, marrow from bones, teeth, livers, and lungs ofvarious animals, birds, and reptiles; also bees, crabs, and toads, incinerated after drying; amber, shells, coral, claws, and horns; hairfrom deer and cats; ram's wool, partridge feathers, ants, lizards, leeches, earth-worms, pearl, musk, and honey; eyes of the wolf, pickerel, and crab; eggs of the hen and ostrich, cuttlefish bone, driedserpents, and the hoofs of animals. 

With the development of materia medica in Europe, the use of animaldrugs diminished; but during the last decade of the nineteenth century, extracts of animal organs were manufactured on a large scale, and founda ready market. Thus some of the articles mentioned are reckoned amongremedial agents to-day, but most of them doubtless owed their virtues tomental action. Wolf's eyes in former times and bread pills nowadays maybe cited as typical remedies, acting through the patient's imaginationand possessing no intrinsic curative properties, yet neverthelessvaluable articles of the pharmacopœia from the standpoint ofsuggestive therapeutics. In a list of Japanese quack medicines, of thepresent time, we find mention of "Spirit-cheering" pills. [159:1]

In "A Booke of Physicke and Chirurgery, with divers other thingsnecessary to be knowne, collected out of sundry olde written bookes, andbroughte into one order. Written in the year of our Lorde God 1610, "among many curious prescriptions we find the following: "A goodoyntment against the vanityes of the heade. Take the juice of worm woodeand salte, honye, waxe and incens, and boyle them together over thefire, and therewith anoynte the sick heade and temples. " The volumereferred to was the property of Mr. William Pickering, an apparitor ofthe Consistory Court at Durham, England. 

A commentator on the above prescription observed that few coxcombs, dandies, and heads filled with bitter conceits, would like to beanointed with this cure of self-sufficiency. The wax might make theplaster stick, but it might be feared that the honey and the incensewould neutralize the good effects to be expected from the wormwood andsalt. If, however, the phrase "vanityes of the head" be interpreted tomean a dearth of ideas, we may assume that the above prescription wasintended as a stimulus to the imagination, and as such it might wellhave a therapeutic value. 

Dr. William Salmon, a London practitioner, published in the year 1693 "AShort Manual of Physick, designed for the general use of Her Majestie'ssubjects, accommodated to mean capacities, in order to the Restaurationof their Healths. "

In this little volume we find a prescription for "an Elixer Universall, not particular for any distemper, " as follows:

 ℞ Rex Metallorum [gold] ℥ ss. Pouder of a Lyon's heart ℥ iv. Filings of a Unicorn's Horn ℥ ss. Ashes of the whole Chameleon ℥ iss. Bark of the Witch Hazle Two handfulls. Lumbrici [Earth-worms] A score. Dried Man's Brain ℥ v. Bruisewort } Egyptian Onions } aa lbss. 

 Mix the ingredients together and digest in my _Spiritus Universalis_, with a warm digestion, from the change of the moon to the full, and pass through a fine strainer. This Elixer is temperately hot and moist, Digestive, Lenitive, Dissolutive, Aperative, Strengthening and Glutinative; it opens obstructions, proves Hypnotick and Styptick, is Cardiack, and may become Alexpharmick. It is not specially great for any one Single Distemper, but of much use and benefit in most cases wherein there is difficulty and embarrassment, or that which might be done, doth not so clearly appear manifest and Open to the Eye. 

The above elixir is a fine specimen of the product of a shrewdcharlatan's fertile brain, and doubtless found a ready sale at anexorbitant price. The fact that one, at least, of its ingredients ismythical, probably enhanced its curative properties, in the minds of agullible public. The horn of the unicorn was popularly regarded as themost marvellous of remedies. In reality, it was the tusk of a cetaceousanimal inhabiting the northern ocean, and known as the sea-unicorn ornarwhal. In the popular mind it was of value as an effective antidoteagainst all kinds of poisons, the bites of serpents, various fevers, and the plague. 

In describing a scene in the Arctic regions, Josephine Diebitsch Pearywrote as follows in her volume, "The Snow Baby" (1901):

 Glossy, mottled seals swim in the water, and schools of narwhal, which used to be called unicorns, dart from place to place, faster than the fastest steam yacht; with their long, white ivory horns, longer than a man is tall, like spears, in and out of the water. 

One of the teeth of the narwhal is developed into a straight, spirallyfluted tusk, from six to ten feet long, like a horn projecting from theforehead. This horn is sometimes as long as the creature's body, andfurnishes a valuable ivory. The narwhal also yields a superior qualityof oil. [162:1]

Sir Thomas Browne in his "Pseudo-doxia Epidemica"[162:2] remarked thatmany specimens of alleged unicorn's horn, preserved in England, were infact portions of teeth of the Arctic walrus, known as the morse orsea-horse. In northern latitudes these teeth are used as materialwherewith to fashion knife-handles or the hilts of swords. The longhorns, preserved as precious rarities in many places, are narwhal-tusks. 

The belief in the medicinal virtues of unicorn's horn is comparativelymodern, as none of the ancients, except the Italian writer Ælian (aboutA. D. 200), ascribed to it any curative or antidotal properties. SirThomas Browne characterized this popular superstition of his time as an"insufferable delusion. "

H. B. Tristam, in his "Natural History of the Bible, " remarks that thereis no doubt of the identity of the unicorn of Scripture with thehistoric _urus_ or aurochs, known also as the _reêm_, a strong and largeanimal of the ox-tribe, having two horns. This animal formerly inhabitedEurope, including Great Britain, and survived until comparatively recenttimes, in Prussia and Lithuania. The belief in the existence of aone-horned quadruped is very ancient. Aristotle mentions as such theoryx or antelope of northern Africa. The aurochs was hunted and killedby prehistoric man, as is shown by the finding of skulls, pierced byflint weapons. [163:1]

In the Septuagint, the Hebrew word _reêm_ was translated _monoceros_ inthe Greek text. This is alleged by some authorities to be an incorrectrendering. The Vulgate has the Latin term _unicornis_, the one-horned. 

In Lewysohn's "Zoologie des Talmuds" is to be found the followingrabbinical legend: When the Ark was ready, and all the creatures werecommanded to enter, the _reêm_ was unable to pass through the door, owing to its large size. Noah and his sons were therefore obliged tofasten the animal by a rope to the Ark, and to tow it behind. And inorder to prevent its being strangled, they attached the rope to itshorn, instead of around its neck. . . . It was formerly thought that thelegendary unicorn was in reality the one-horned rhinoceros, but thisseems improbable. The fabulous creature mentioned by classic writers asa native of India was described as having the size and form of a horse, with one straight horn projecting from its forehead. In the museum atBristol, England, there is a stuffed antelope from Caffraria, whichclosely answers this description. Its two straight taper horns are sonearly united that in profile they appear like a single horn. 

The unicorn of Heraldry first appeared as a symbol on one of theAnglo-Saxon standards, and was afterwards placed upon the Scottishshield. When England and Scotland were united under James I, the silverunicorn became a supporter of the British shield, being placed oppositethe golden lion, in the royal arms of Great Britain. [164:1]

FOOTNOTES:

[155:1] Jonathan Pereira, _Selecta e Prescriptis_, p. 5. 

[156:1] Rönsch, _Buch der Jubiläen_, p. 385. 

[156:2] _Notes and Queries_, Tenth Series, June 4, 1904. 

[156:3] F. Lenormant, _Chaldean Magic_, p. 81. 

[157:1] Evidence of the old belief in planetary influence is found inour language in the words "jovial, " "mercurial, " "saturnine, " "martial, ""disastrous, " and "ill-starred. "

[158:1] Otto A. Wall, M. D. , _The Prescription_, pp. 12-23. In this workmuch space is devoted to the history and evolution of medical recipes. 

[159:1] _Boston Herald_, February 27, 1908. 

[162:1] _The Century Dictionary. _

[162:2] Book iii, p. 130. 

[163:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, art. "Unicorn"; Rev. J. G. Wood, _Bible Animals_. 

[164:1] F. S. W. , _Dame Heraldry_, p. 175. 

CHAPTER XV

REMEDIAL VIRTUES ASCRIBED TO RELICS

A relic has been defined as an object held in reverence or affection, because connected with some sacred or beloved person deceased. Andspecifically, in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, a saint's bodyor portions of it, or an object supposed to have been associated withthe life or body of Christ, of the Virgin Mary, or of some saint ormartyr, and regarded therefore as a personal memorial, worthy ofreligious veneration. [165:1]

The worship of relics and the belief in their healing properties appearto have originated in a very ancient custom which prevailed among theearly Christians, of assembling at the tombs of martyrs, for the purposeof holding memorial services. The bones of saints also became objects ofgreat veneration, and this doctrine was supported by the teachings ofSaint Ambrose, Saint Augustine, Saint Jerome, and other Fathers of theChurch, of the fourth and fifth centuries. The belief in the marvellousvirtues attributed to sacred relics was sustained by such miracles asthat recorded in 2 Kings, xiii, 21: "And it came to pass, as they wereburying a man, that, behold, they spied a band of men; and they cast theman into the sepulchre of Elisha; and when the man was let down, andtouched the bones of Elisha, he revived, and stood up on his feet. "

Some authorities, however, ascribe the origin of the cult of relics tothe words contained in Acts, v, 15: "Insomuch that they brought forththe sick into the streets, and laid them on beds and couches, that atthe least the shadow of Peter passing by might overshadow some of them. "

In the year 325, Saint Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, thefirst Christian Emperor of Rome, made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, whereshe was alleged to have discovered the wood of the true Cross. This, according to tradition, was found, with two other crosses and varioussacred relics, under a temple of Venus, which stood near the HolySepulchre. And the true Cross was identified by means of a miraculoustest; for when a sick woman was touched with two of the crosses, noeffect was apparent; but upon contact with the true Cross, she wasimmediately restored to health. [166:1] Such is the legend. 

Of the four nails found in the place where the Cross was buried, one wassaid to have been sent to Rome. Another the Empress Helena threw intothe Gulf of Venice, to allay a storm; while the other two were sent byher to Constantine, who welded one of them to his helmet, as an amulet, and affixed the other to his horse's headstall. 

Among the classic peoples, symbols of their gods were used by physiciansin writing prescriptions for material remedies, as invocations orcharms, and were credited with the same wonderful healing powers whichwere ascribed to holy relics, blessed medals and amulets, and in latertimes to many purely superstitious remedies. [167:1]

The worship of relics naturally afforded a strong impulse to visitsacred places, and especially Palestine. 

 Generally speaking, the prized relic, a piece of the true cross, whether possessed by a church, a crowned head or a private individual, is a minute speck of wood, scarcely visible to the naked eye, set sometimes on an ivory tablet, and always inclosed in a costly reliquary. M. Rohault de Fleury, who calculates that the total volume of the wood of the original cross must have been somewhere about 178, 000, 000 cubic millimetres, has made a list of all the relics of which he can find any record, and the sum of their measurements amounts to only 3, 941, 975 cubic millimetres, or about one forty-fifth of the amount of wood necessary to reconstruct the original cross. In the United States there is not an authenticated relic of the cross as large as half a lead-pencil, and some are so minute as to be visible only through the aid of a microscope. The Church of St. Francis Xavier in New York has a fragment which is exposed for veneration on Easter Sunday, as is the custom in European churches possessing a relic. Another fragment, at the Cathedral, is shown on Good Friday. This relic is in a crystal and gold casket, set with precious stones, which form the centre of a handsome altar cross. The French Church of St. Jean Baptiste, in East Seventy-sixth Street, also possesses a relic of the cross. [168:1]

The powder obtained by scraping the tombstones of saints, when placed inwater or wine, was in great repute as a remedy. The French historian, Gregory of Tours (544-595), was said to have habitually carried a box ofthis powder, when travelling, which he freely dispensed to patients whoapplied to him. 

Great was his faith in this substance, as is apparent from his ownwords: "Oh, indescribable mixture, incomparable elixir, antidote beyondall praise! Celestial purgative (if I may be permitted to use theexpression), which throws into the shade every medical prescription;which surpasses in fragrance every earthly aroma, and is more powerfulthan all essences; which purges the body like the juice of scammony, clears the lungs like hyssop, and the head like sneezewort; which notonly cures the ailing limbs, but also, and this is much more valuable, washes off the stains from the conscience!"[168:2]

Chrysostom (350-407) commented on the fact of the whole world'sstreaming to the site of Christ's crucifixion. Rome was also a favoriteresort of pilgrims, chiefly as the site of the graves of the greatapostles, while many flocked to the tomb of Saint Martin of Tours. Meanwhile, wrote Henry C. Sheldon in a "History of the ChristianChurch, " there were emphatic cautions against an overestimate of thevalue of pilgrimages. The eminent Greek Father, Gregory of Nyssa(332-398), said that change of place brings God no nearer. 

The cult of relics developed rapidly in the Middle Ages. Even the theftof these precious objects, we are told, was condoned, "in virtue of thebenevolent intent of the thief to benefit the region to which thetreasure was conveyed. "[169:1] The custom received encouragement frommany eminent scholars, who appear to have been deceived by certainmysterious physical phenomena, the nature of which was not understoodeven in comparatively recent times. [169:2]

Pope Gregory the First (550-604), we are told, was wont to bestow, as amark of his special favor, presents of keys, in which had been worked upsome filings of Saint Peter's chains, accompanied with a prayer thatwhat had bound the apostle for martyrdom, might release the recipientfrom his sins. 

The second Nicene Council (A. D. 787) decreed that no church should beconsecrated unless it enshrined some relics. [170:1]

At the celebrated Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino, in southern Italy, which was founded in the year 529, the care of the sick was enjoined asa pious obligation. There diseases were treated chiefly by means ofprayers and conjurations, and by the exposition and application ofsacred relics, which appealed to the patients' imagination, and thereby, through suggestion, assisted the healing forces of nature. [170:2]

Thomas Dudley Fosbroke, in "British Monachism, " states that among theearly monks of England, medical practice devolved on clerks, on accountof their ability to read Latin treatises on therapeutics. 

Until the middle of the fifteenth century, physicians were forbidden tomarry, owing to the prevalent opinion that the father of a family couldnot heal so well as a bachelor. The art of writing prescriptions wasmade to conform to the dogmas of the existing religion, "for whichreason relics were introduced into the Materia Medica. "

The medieval priests and monks, who were actively interested in thedevelopment of medical science, encouraged the therapeutic use of suchrelics. Miraculous agencies were the more eagerly sought after onaccount of the popular belief in devils and witches as morbiferouscreatures. 

The reliquary, or repository for relics, was regarded as the mostprecious ornament in the lady's chamber, the knight's armory, the king'shall of state, and in the apartments of the pope or bishop. [171:1]

Gradually the custom of relic-worship degenerated into idolatry. In theyear 1549 John Calvin published a tract on the subject, wherein hestated that the great majority of alleged relics were spurious, and thatit could be shown by comparison that each Apostle had more than fourbodies, and that every Saint had two or three at least. The arm of SaintAnthony, which had been worshipped at Geneva, when removed from itscase, proved to be part of a stag. Among the vast number of preciousrelics, presumably false, which were exhibited at Rome and elsewhere, were the manger in which Christ was laid at his birth, the pillar onwhich he leaned, when disputing in the temple, and the waterpots inwhich he turned water into wine at the marriage feast of Cana atGalilee. [171:2]

FOOTNOTES:

[165:1] _Century Dictionary. _

[166:1] E. Cobham Brewer, _A Dictionary of Miracles_, art. "Relics. "

[167:1] Otto A. Wall, M. D. , _The Prescription_. 

[168:1] _Boston Courier_, March 26, 1910. 

[168:2] Dr. Hugo Magnus, _Superstition in Medicine_. 

[169:1] H. C. Sheldon, _op. Cit. _

[169:2] William Smith and Samuel Cheetham, _A Dictionary of ChristianAntiquities_, art. "Relics. "

[170:1] _All the Year Round_, vol. 69, p. 246; 1891. 

[170:2] _Time_, vol. V; February, 1887. 

[171:1] Henry Hart Milman, D. D. , _History of Latin Christianity_, vol. Vi, p. 248. 

[171:2] Philip Schaff, _History of the Christian Church_. 

CHAPTER XVI

THE HEALING INFLUENCE OF MUSIC

 Dubito, an omnia, quae de incantamentis dicuntur carminibusque, non sint adscribenda effectibus musicis, quia excellebant eadem veteres medici. HERMANN BOERHAAVE. (1668-1738. )

 Preposterous ass! that never read so far To know the cause why music was ordained. Was it not to refresh the mind of man, After his studies, or his usual pain?-- _The Taming of the Shrew_, Act III, Scene 1. 

 I think sometimes, could I only have music on my own terms, could I live in a great city, and know where I could go whenever I wished and get the ablution and inundation of musical waves, that were a bath and medicine. R. W. EMERSON. 

 Musick, when rightly order'd, cannot be prefer'd too much. For it recreates and exalts the Mind at the same time. 

 It composes the Passions, affords a strong Pleasure, and excites Nobleness of Thought. . . . 

 What can be more strange than that the rubbing of a little hair and cat-gut together, should make such a mighty Alteration in a Man that sits at a distance? JEREMY COLLIER, _Essay on Music_: 1698. 

 "Music the fiercest grief can charm. " POPE, _St. Cecilia's Day_, I, 118. 

From time immemorial the influence of musical sounds has been recognizedas a valuable agent in the treatment of nervous affections, and for therelief of various mental conditions. According to one theory, thehealing quality of a musical tone is due to its regular periodicvibrations. It acts by substituting its own state of harmony for acondition of mental or physical discord. Noise, being inharmonious, hasno curative power. Music may be termed the health and noise the diseaseof sound. [173:1]

"The man that hath no music in himself, " says Shakespeare ("The Merchantof Venice, " Act v, Scene 1), "nor is not moved with concord of sweetsounds, is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. The motions of hisspirit are dull as night, and his affections dark as Erebus. Let no suchman be trusted. . . . "

The ancient Egyptians were not ignorant of musico-therapy. They calledmusic physic for the soul, and had faith in its specific remedialvirtues. Music was an accompaniment of their banquets, and in the timeof the fourth and fifth dynasties consisted usually of the harmony ofthree instruments, the harp, flute, and pipe. [173:2] The Persians aresaid to have cured divers ailments by the sound of the lute. Theybelieved that the soul was purified by music and prepared thereby forconverse with the spirits of light around the throne of Ormuzd, theprinciple of truth and goodness. And the most eminent Grecianphilosophers attributed to music important medicinal properties for bothbody and mind. 

John Harrington Edwards, in his volume, "God and Music, "[174:1] remarksthat the people of antiquity had much greater faith than the moderns inthe efficacy of music as a curative agent in disease of every kind;while the scientific mind of to-day demands a degree of evidence whichhistory cannot furnish, for asserted cures by this means in early times. 

Impressed with the sublime nature of music, the ancients ascribed to ita divine origin. According to one tradition, its discovery was due tothe sound produced by the wind whistling among the reeds, which grew onthe borders of the Nile. 

Polybius, the Greek historian of the second century B. C. , wrote thatmusic softened the manners of the ancient Arcadians, whose climate wasrigorous. Whereas the inhabitants of Cynætha (the modern town ofKalavrita) in the Peloponnesus, who neglected this art, were the mostbarbarous in Greece. Baron de Montesquieu, in "The Spirit of Laws, "remarked that as the popular exercises of wrestling and boxing had anatural tendency to render the ancient Grecians hardy and fierce, therewas a necessity for tempering those exercises with others, with a viewto rendering the people more susceptible of humane feelings. For thispurpose, said Montesquieu, music, which influences the mind by means ofthe corporeal organs, was extremely proper. It is a kind of mediumbetween manly exercises, which harden the body, and speculativesciences, which are apt to render us unsociable and sour. . . . Let ussuppose, for example, a society of men so passionately devoted tohunting as to make it their sole employment; they would doubtlesscontract thereby a kind of rusticity and fierceness. But if theyhappened to imbibe a taste for music, we should quickly perceive asensible difference in their customs and manners. In short, theexercises used by the Greeks could raise but one kind of passions, namely, fierceness, indignation, and cruelty. But music excites allthese, and is likewise able to inspire the soul with a sense of pity, lenity, tenderness, and love. 

In a rare work, styled "Reflexions on Antient and Modern Music, with theapplication to the Cure of Diseases, "[175:1] we find that the customprevailed, among certain nations of old, of initiating their youth intothe studies of harmony and music. Whereby, it was believed, their mindsbecame formed to the admiration and esteem of proportion, order, andbeauty, and the cause of virtue was greatly promoted. "Music, " moreover, "extends the fancy beyond its ordinary compass, and fills it with thegayest images. "

Christianus Pazig, in "Magic Incantations, " page 29, relates that thewife of Picus, King of Latium, was able by her voice to soothe andappease wild animals, and to arrest the flight of birds. 

And the French traveller Villamont asserted that crocodiles werebeguiled by the songs of Egyptian fishermen to leave the Nile, andallowed themselves to be led off and exposed for sale in the markets. 

Recent experiments have confirmed the traditional theory of the soothingeffect of music upon wild animals. A graphophone, with records of Melba, Sembrich, Caruso, and other operatic stars, made the rounds of amenagerie. Many of the larger animals appeared to thoroughly enjoylistening to the melodious strains, which seemed to fascinate them. Theone exception, proving the rule, was a huge, blue-faced mandrill, whobecame enraged at hearing a few bars from "Pagliacci, " and tried towreck the machine. Of all the animals, the lions were apparently themost susceptible to musical influence, and these royal beasts showed aninterest in the sweet tones of the graphophone, akin to that of a humanmelomaniac. [176:1]

There is abundant evidence of the fondness of spiders for soothingmusical tones. The insects usually approach by letting themselves downfrom the ceiling of the apartment, and remain suspended above theinstrument. [176:2] Professor C. Reclain, during a concert at Leipsic, witnessed the descent of a spider from a chandelier during a violinsolo. But as soon as the orchestra began to play, the insect retreated. Mr. C. V. Boys, who has made some interesting experiments with a view todetermining the susceptibility of spiders to the sound of a tuning-fork, reports, in "Body and Mind, " that by means of this instrument, a spidermay be made to eat what it would otherwise avoid. Male birds charm theirmates by warbling, and parrots seem to take delight in hearing the pianoplayed, or in listening to vocal music. 

Charles Darwin, in "The Descent of Man, " remarks that we can no moreexplain why musical tones, in a certain order and rhythm, affordpleasure to man and the lower animals, than we can account for thepleasantness of certain tastes and odors. We know that sounds, more orless melodious, are produced, during the season of courtship, by manyinsects, spiders, fishes, amphibians, and birds. The vocal organs offrogs and toads are used incessantly during the breeding season, and atthis time also male alligators are wont to roar or bellow, and even themale tortoise makes a noise. 

Music is the sworn enemy of ennui or boredom, and the demons ofmelancholy. It "hath charms, " wrote William Congreve (1670-1729), "tosoothe the savage breast. "[177:1] Orpheus with his lyre was able tocharm wild beasts, and even to control the forces of Nature; andbecause of its wonderful therapeutic effects, which were well known tothe Greeks, they associated Music with Medicine as an attribute ofApollo. [178:1] Chiron the centaur, by the aid of melody, healed thesick, and appeased the anger of Achilles. By the same means the lyricpoet Thales, who flourished in the seventh century B. C. , acting byadvice of an oracle, was able to subdue a pestilence in Sparta. [178:2]

Pythagoras also recognized the potency of music as a remedial force. Tuneful strains were believed by the physicians of old to be uncongenialto the spirits of sickness; but among medicine-men of many AmericanIndian tribes, harsh discordant sounds and doleful chants have long beena favorite means of driving away these same spirits. [178:3] AulusGellius, the Roman writer of the second century, in his "AtticNights, "[178:4] mentioned a traditionary belief that sciatica might berelieved by the soft notes of a flute-player, and quoted the Greekphilosopher Democritus (born about B. C. 480) as authority for thestatement that the same remedy had power to heal wounds inflicted byvenomous serpents. According to Theophrastus, a disciple of Plato andAristotle (B. C. 374-286), gout could be cured by playing a flute overthe affected limb;[179:1] and the Latin author Martianus Capella, whoflourished about A. D. 490, asserted that music had been successfullyemployed in the treatment of fevers, and in quieting the turbulence ofdrunken revellers. 

Among the ancient northern peoples, also, songs and runes were reckonedpowerful agents for working good or evil, and were available "to heal ormake sick, bind up wounds, stanch blood, alleviate pain, or lull tosleep. "[179:2] A verse of an old Icelandic poem, called the "Havamal, "whose authorship is accredited to Wodan, runs as follows: "I ampossessed of songs, such as neither the spouse of a king nor any son ofman can repeat. One of them is called, 'the Helper. ' It will help theeat thy need, in sickness, grief, and all adversities. I know a songwhich the sons of men ought to sing, if they would become skilfulphysicians. "[179:3]

The Anglo-Saxons appreciated the healthful influence of music. At a veryearly period in their history, a considerable number of persons adoptedmusic and singing as a profession. It was the gleemen's duty toentertain royal personages and the members of their courts. Afterwardsthese functions devolved upon the minstrels, a class of musicians whowandered from castle to camp, entertaining the nobility and gentry withtheir songs and accompaniments. The intermediate class of musicians, whom the later minstrels succeeded, appeared in France during the eighthcentury, and came, at the time of the Norman Conquest, to England, wherethey were assimilated with the Anglo-Saxon gleemen. [180:1] In the earlypoetry of Scandinavia there is frequent reference to the magicalinfluence of music. Wild animals are fascinated by the sound of a harp, and vegetation is quickened. The knight, though grave and silent, isattracted, and even though inclined to stay away, cannot restrain hishorse. [180:2]

The earliest biblical mention of music as a healing power occurs inSamuel, XVI, 23, where David (the son of Jesse, the Bethlehemite) curedthe melancholy of King Saul by playing upon the harp. "So Saul wasrefreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him. "

In medieval times, music was successfully employed in the treatment ofepidemic nervous disorders, a custom which probably originated from theancient song-remedies or incantations. [180:3] The same agent was alsoused as an antidote to the poison of a viper's fang, especially thetarantula's bite, which was believed to induce tarantism, or the dancingmania. Antonius Benivenius, a learned Italian physician of thefifteenth century, related that an arrow was drawn from a soldier's bodyby means of a song. 

A notable instance of the power of vocal music in charming awayobstinate melancholy is in the case of Philip V of Spain, where themelodious voice of the great Italian singer Farinelli proved effectiveafter all other remedies had failed. 

Such are a few instances of the influence of song and melody asseemingly magical agencies, and therefore not inappropriately may theybe classed under that branch of folk-lore which deals withhealing-spells and verbal medical charms. 

It has been well said that music is entitled to a place in our MateriaMedica. For while there may not be much music in medicine, there is agreat deal of medicine in music. For the latter exerts a powerfulinfluence upon the higher cerebral centres, and thence, through thesympathetic nervous system, upon other portions of the body. Indeed theentire working of the human mechanism, physical and psychical, may beaided by the beautiful art of music. With some people the digestion isfacilitated by hearing music. Voltaire said that this fact accounted forthe popularity of the opera. 

In such cases the music probably acts by banishing fatigue, whichinterferes with the proper assimilation of food. Hence one may derivebenefit from listening to the orchestra during meal-times atfashionable hotels. Milton believed in the benefit to be derived fromlistening to music before dinner, as a relief to the mind. And he alsorecommended it as a post-prandial exercise, "to assist and cherishNature in her first concoctions, and to send the mind back to study, ingood tune and satisfaction. " Milton practised what he preached, for itwas his custom, after the principal meal of the day, to play on theorgan and hear another sing. [182:1]

The Reverend Sydney Smith once said that his idea of heaven was eating_foie gras_ to the sound of trumpets. 

There is evidence that in ancient times the banquets, which immediatelyfollowed sacrifices, were attended with instrumental music. For we readin Isaiah, v, 12: "And the harp and the viol, the tabret and pipe, andwine, are in their feasts. " And in the households of wealthy Romancitizens, instruction was given in the art of carving, to the sound ofmusic, with appropriate gestures, under the direction of the officialcarver (_carptor_ or _scissor_). [182:2]

We find in the "Apocrypha"[182:3] the following passage: "If thou bemade the master of a feast . . . Hinder not musick. . . . A concert ofmusick in a banquet of wine is as a signet of carbuncle set in gold. Asa signet of an emerald set in a work of gold, so is the melody of musickwith pleasant wine. "

Chaucer, in his "Parson's Tale, " speaks of the _Curiositie ofMinstralcie_, at the banquets of the well-to-do in his day. 

The banquets of the Anglo-Saxons were enlivened by minstrels andgleemen, whose visits were welcome breaks in the monotony of thepeople's lives. They added to their musical performances mimicry andother means of promoting mirth, as well as dancing and tumbling, withsleights of hand, and a variety of deceptions to amuse thecompany. [183:1] In the intervals between the musical exercises, theguests talked, joked, propounded and answered riddles, and boasted oftheir own exploits, while disparaging those of others. Later, when the liquor took effect, they were wont to become noisy andquarrelsome. [183:2] "Then wine wets the man's breast-passions; suddenlyrises clamour in the company, an outcry they send forth various. "[183:3]

In the great houses of the nobility and gentry, minstrels' music was theusual seasoning of food. It is true, wrote Mons. J. J. Jusserand, in"English Wayfaring Life of the Fourteenth Century, " that "the voices ofthe singers were at times interrupted by the crunching of the bones, which the dogs were gnawing under the tables, or by the sharp cry ofsome ill-bred falcon; for many lords kept these favorite birds onperches behind them. "

We learn from the same authority that in the great dining-halls of thecastles of the wealthy, galleries were placed for the accommodation ofthe minstrels, above the door of entrance, and opposite to the dais uponwhich stood the master's table. 

FOOTNOTES:

[173:1] _Boston Transcript_, March 10, 1900. 

[173:2] George Rawlinson, _History of Ancient Egypt_, vol. Ii, p. 49. 

[174:1] J. G. Millingen, M. D. , _Curiosities of Medical Experience_. 

[175:1] London, 1749. 

[176:1] _Boston Sunday Herald_, May 2, 1909. 

[176:2] George J. Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_. 

[177:1] _The Mourning Bride_, Act I, Scene 1. 

[178:1] Joseph Ennemoser, _The History of Magic_, vol. I, p. 358. 

[178:2] _Music_, vol. Ix, p. 361; 1896. 

[178:3] Daniel G. Brinton, _The Myths of the New World_, p. 306. 

[178:4] Book iv, chap. 13. 

[179:1] Larousse, _Dictionnaire_, art. "Incantation. "

[179:2] Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, vol. Iii, p. 1226. 

[179:3] M. Mallet, _Northern Antiquities_, p. 351. 

[180:1] _Century Dictionary_, under "Minstrel. "

[180:2] Thomas Keightley, _The Fairy Mythology_, p. 98. 

[180:3] George F. Fort, _Medical Economy during the Middle Ages_, p. 365. 

[182:1] _Music_, vol. Ix; 1896. 

[182:2] William Smith, _A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, art. "Coena. "

[182:3] Ecclus. Xxxii, 1-6. 

[183:1] Joseph Strutt, _Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_. 

[183:2] Thomas Wright, _A History of Domestic Manners and Sentiments inEngland during the Middle Ages_. 

[183:3] _Exeter Manuscript_; British Museum. 

CHAPTER XVII

THE HEALING INFLUENCE OF MUSIC (CONTINUED)

Dr. Herbert Lilly, in a monograph on musical therapeutics, expresses theopinion that musical sounds received by the auditory nerve, producereflex action upon the sympathetic system, stimulating or depressing thevaso-motor nerves, and thus influencing the bodily nutrition. Hemaintains, without fear of contradiction, that certain mental conditionsare benefited by suitable musical harmonies. Muscle-fatigue is overcomeby stimulating melodies, as is strikingly exemplified in the effect ofinspiring martial strains upon wearied troops on the march. And itappears to be an established fact that the complex process of digestionis facilitated by cheerful music, of the kind termed "liver music" bythe French, which is provided by them at banquets. [185:1]

But in regard to this subject, there have been not a few scoffers anddissenters, even among people of distinction. Douglas Jerrold, theplaywright, was one of these, for he declared that he disliked diningamidst the strains of a military band, because he could taste the brassin his soup. Charles Lamb, in his chapter on "Ears, " remarked, thatwhile a carpenter's hammer, on a warm summer day, caused him to "fretinto more than midsummer madness, " these unconnected sounds were nothingwhen compared with the measured malice of music. For while the ear maybe passive to the strokes of a hammer, and even endure them with somedegree of equanimity, to music it cannot be passive. The noted authorrelates having sat through an Italian opera, till, from sheer pain, herushed out into the noisiest places of the crowded streets, to solacehimself with sounds which he was not obliged to follow, and thus get ridof the distracting torment of endless, fruitless, barren attention!According to his frank avowal, music was to him a source of pain, ratherthan of pleasure. 

The Reverend Richard Eastcott, in his "Sketches of the Origin, Progressand Effects of Music, " told of a "gentleman of very considerableunderstanding, " who was heard to declare that the rattling of a fire-panand tongs was as grateful to his feelings as the best concert he everheard. However, such rare exceptions, if not germane to our subject, maybe said to prove the general rule that music is of real value intherapeutics, and that most people are susceptible to its beneficentinfluences. 

Music has accomplished a great many things and has been put to manyuses, but it is seldom employed in making good boys out of bad. 

An almost accidental experiment at the Middlesex County truant schoolat North Chelmsford has shown it to be a truth, that wickedness takesflight at martial strains; for a full-fledged brass band, in which thedelinquent youths are the musicians, has fairly revolutionized thediscipline of the school, and many a lad who did not have half a chancehas been started "right" on the road to success. 

The question is often asked: How can music effect acharacter-metamorphosis in the boy who has every mental and moralindication of turning out badly?

Music is an educative factor of prime importance, and promotes theevolution of good hereditary traits. Whatever the psychologicexplanation of its effects may be, it appears to develop the qualitiesof kindness and manliness. [187:1]

Not every one, however, is influenced by the foregoing considerations. Arecent writer, in an essay on the "Plague of Music, " remarks that underthe name of music we are afflicted with every variety of noise; forexample, the sounds produced by hurdy-gurdies, bag-pipes and minstrels;the harpman, the lady who has seen better days, and who sings before ourhouse in the evening. "Not to mention the millions of pianos and themillions of fiddles that never cease being thumped and scratched all theworld over, night and day. The contemplation of such collective discordis truly appalling. "[188:1]

The famous English philosopher, Roger Bacon (1214-1292), known as "TheAdmirable Doctor, " wrote that a cheerful mind brings power and vigor, makes a man rejoice, stirs up Nature, and helps her in her actions andmotions; of which sort are joy, mirth, and whatever provokes laughter, as also instrumental music and songs, facetious conversation, andobservation of the celestial bodies. 

It has been proved, by physiological experiments upon men and the loweranimals, that musical sounds produce a marked effect upon thecirculation. The pulse-rate is usually quickened, and the force of theheart-beats increased in varying degrees, dependent upon the pitch, intensity and _timbre_ of the sounds, and the idiosyncrasy of theindividual. [188:2]

It may be safely affirmed, therefore, that music should have a placeamong psychic remedial agents. 

A recent writer has remarked that the "Marsellaise" was like wine to theFrench revolutionists, and lifted many a head, and straightened many aweary back on some of those terrible forced marches of Napoleon's. 

Music may be classed in the same category with certain drugs, as atherapeutic agent. And like drugs, each composition has its own specialeffect. Thus a brisk Strauss waltz might act as a stimulant, but itwould not answer as a narcotic. A nocturne would be sure tosoothe. [189:1]

The time may come when a German street-band will be recognized as apowerful tonic; a cornet solo will take the place of a blister; asymphony or a sonata may be recommended instead of morphine; the moxawill give way to Wagner, and opium to Brahms. A prolonged shake by asinger will drive out chills and fever, according to the theory ofHahnemann. Cots at symphony concerts may yet command the highestpremiums. [189:2]

Music is one of those intangible but effective aids of Medicine, whichexert their healthful influence through the nervous system. It is infact a mental tonic. A writer in the London "Lancet" remarks that "apleasing and lively melody can awake in a faded brain the strong emotionof hope, and energizing by its means the languid nerve control of thewhole circulation, strengthen the heart-beat and refresh the vascularityof every organ. Even aches are soothed for a time by a transference ofattention, and why then should not pain be lulled by music?"

Robert Burton, author of "The Anatomy of Melancholy, " in commenting onthe curative effects of music, remarked that it is a sovereign remedyagainst mental depression, capable even of driving away the Devilhimself. 

 "When griping grief the heart doth wound, And doleful dumps the mind oppress, Then music with her silver sound, With speedy help doth lend redress. " _Romeo and Juliet_, Act IV, Scene 5. 

The nurse's song, Burton wrote, makes a child quiet, and many times, thesound of a trumpet on a sudden, bells ringing, a carman's whistle, a boysinging some ballad on the street, alters, revives and recreates arestless patient who cannot sleep in the night. Many men are mademelancholy by hearing music, but the melancholy is of a pleasing kind. 

In a curious German treatise, "Der Musikalische Arzt, "[190:1] we findthe following quotation from an article entitled "Reflections on Ancientand Modern Music. "[190:2]

"If it be demanded how musick becomes a remedy, and inciteth the patientto dance, 'tis answer'd that sound having a great influence upon theactions of the air, the air mov'd causeth a like motion in the next air, and so on till the like be produced in the Spirits of the body, to whichthe air is impelled. "

According to the French physician, Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol(1772-1840), music acts upon the physique by determining nervousvibrations, and by exciting the circulation. It acts upon the _morale_by fixing the attention upon sweet impressions, and by calling upagreeable recollections. 

François Fournier de Pescay, a contemporary of the above-named, commented on the fact that many famous writers of antiquity regardedmusic as a panacea, whereas in the light of modern medical science, itcannot be considered as an effective remedy in such affections asrheumatism, for example. [191:1]

An _adagio_ may set a gouty father to sleep, and a _capriccio_ mayoperate successfully on the nerves of a valetudinary mother. A slightindisposition may be removed by a single air, while a more obstinatecase may require an overture or a _concerto_. The tastes of the patientshould be consulted. 

Country squires, when kept indoors by stress of bad weather, willexperience much relief in a hunting-song, while young gentlemen of thetown will perhaps prefer an old English derry-down. Hospital inmateswill usually be content with hurdy-gurdies, and the poorer classes maybe supplied with ballads at their own homes. Some patients will recoverwith all the rapidity of a jig, while others will mend in minuet-time. And surely the public welfare will be eminently promoted, when ourphysicians' prescriptions are printed from music-type, and when we havenothing more nauseous to swallow than the words of a modernopera. [192:1]

According to the Dutch physician Lemnius (1505-1568), music is a chiefantidote against melancholy; it revives the languishing soul, affectingnot only the ears, but the vital and animal spirits. It erects the mind, and makes it nimble. 

The Reverend Sydney Smith graphically described the effect of enliveningmusic upon an audience, who had been manifestly bored and were gapingwith ennui during the execution of an elaborate fugue, by a skilledorchestra. Suddenly there sprang up a lively little air, expressive ofsome natural feeling. And instantly every one beamed with satisfaction, and was ready to aver that music affords the most delightful andrational entertainment. 

And such is doubtless the opinion of the great majority of people ofculture and refinement, especially those of a jovial or mercurialtemperament. According to Martin Luther, the Devil is a saturnineperson, and music is hateful to him. 

Many and sundry are the means, says Robert Burton, which philosophersand physicians have prescribed to exhilarate a sorrowful heart, todivert those fixed and intent cares and meditations, which in thismalady so much offend; but in my judgment, none so present, none sopowerful, none so apposite as mirth, music and merry company. [193:1]

During recent years the influence of music in disease has been thesubject of renewed attention. In London Canon Harford, an enthusiasticbeliever in the efficacy of this method of treatment, organized bands ofmusicians, under the auspices of the Order of Saint Cecilia, who visitedcertain hospitals, where permission had been given, and there exercisedtheir art with results highly encouraging and beneficial. 

And in Boston Dr. John Dixwell has for many years been active inproviding music for hospital patients. His admirable enterprise has beensuccessful, and has received the endorsement of the medical fraternity. A wise discrimination is essential in the selection of music especiallyadapted to benefit any particular class of cases. 

The National Society of Musical Therapeutics was founded in the city ofNew York, by Miss Eva Augusta Vescelius, in the year 1903, with theobject of encouraging the study of music in relation to life and health;and also for the promotion of its use as a curative agent in hospitals, asylums, and prisons. The therapeutic use of music is believed to havepassed the experimental stage. It is now admitted, says Miss Vescelius, that music can be so employed as to exercise a distinct psychologicalinfluence upon the mind, nerve-centres and circulatory system; and mayserve as an efficient remedy for many ills to which the flesh is said tobe heir. The selection of music in hospitals and asylums needsthoughtful consideration, for there we meet with all kinds of discord. An emotional song, for example, which would give pleasure to one, mightsadden another, and a patient suffering from nostalgia would not bebenefited by a melody suggesting a home-picture. 

Will the trained nurse of the future have to include voice culture inher training before she is declared competent to minister to the wantsof the sick?

This question is raised by Dr. George M. Stratton, professor ofexperimental psychology in Johns Hopkins University. In an address on"The Nature and Training of the Emotions, " delivered before more than ahundred nurses of the hospitals of Baltimore, he made the broadstatement that music would be a vital factor in treating the sick in thefuture. 

Dr. Stratton did not insist that every nurse of the future must be aPatti, a Melba, or a Nordica; but he held that in the future a youngwoman who devotes her life to nursing the sick should be able to sing tothe patient under her care. [194:1]

The mental effect of music is generally recognized as beneficial, inthat it lifts the entire being into a higher state. That this effect iscommunicated to the body, is admitted, but the extent of physicalbenefit has not been sufficiently investigated either by musicians or byscientists. In the application of music for the treatment of disease, itshould be remembered that the seat of many disorders is primarily in themind, and that therefore the mental condition must be radically changedbefore a cure is possible. "In listening to music, the mind absorbsthose tones which have become silenced in itself, and in the body as anecessary consequence; just as the stomach assimilates thosefood-elements which are required to repair the waste of the system. Thusour music-food is selected and distributed where it is most needed, andthis natural selection of musical vibrations acts specifically uponthose parts of the body which are out of harmony. A concert programme isa _menu_ for the multitude. We hear all the music printed on it, butdigest very little of it. Some kinds of music thus heard, mustinevitably be wasted on the listener, or cause a musicaldyspepsia. "[195:1]

The English clergyman and writer, Hugh Reginald Haweis, extols music asa healthy outlet for emotion, and as especially adapted for youngladies. Joy flows naturally into ringing harmonies, says he, while musichas the subtle power to soften melancholy, by presenting it with itsfine emotional counterpart. 

A good play on the piano has not unfrequently taken the place of a goodcry upstairs, and a cloud of ill-temper has often been dispersed by atimely practice. One of Schubert's friends used to say that, althoughvery cross before sitting down to his piano, a long scramble-duetthrough a symphony or through one of his own delicious and erraticpianoforte duets, always restored him to good humor. [196:1]

For many years the subject of musico-therapy has been discussededitorially in the columns of the "London Lancet. " We give somestatements emanating from this authority. 

Music influences both brain and heart through the spinal cord, probablyon account of its vibratory or wave motion, which stimulates thenerve-centres. . . . 

It acts as a refreshing mental stimulant and restorative. Therefore itbraces depressed nervous tone and indirectly through the nervoussystem reaches the tissues. It is of most use in depressed mentalconditions. . . . The value of music as a therapeutic agent cannot yetbe precisely stated, but it is no quack's nostrum. It is an intangible, but effective aid of medicine. 

It seems strange that the healing influence of music has not been morethoroughly studied from a psychological standpoint, and utilized, whenone is mindful of the great store of evidence, gathered for centuries, of the marked power of this agent upon the lower animals, and of itsworth as a mental, and therefore as a physical tonic and stimulant, forhuman beings. A chief reason for this neglect has been ascribed to thematerialistic views which have prevailed in therapeutics. 

It was formerly believed quite generally, in Italy and elsewhere, thatmusic was the only efficient cure for the effects of the bite of thetarantula, a species of large spider, so called from the city ofTaranto. These effects consisted of a feigned or imaginary disease knownas tarantism, which was prevalent in Apulia and other portions ofsouthern Italy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Tarantismwas an epidemic nervous affection characterized by involuntary dancing, gesticulations, contortions and cries. In spite, however, of all thathas been written on this subject by physicians and historians, itappears to be a fact that the bite of the tarantula is not more venomousthan that of other large spiders. Indeed, Dr. H. Chomet, who diligentlyinvestigated the matter, never succeeded in finding a case of tarantism, nor was he able even to obtain a glimpse of one of these insects. 

It is certain, however, that tarantism was very prevalent in earliertimes. J. F. C. Hecker, M. D. , in his "Epidemics of the Middle Ages, "stated that the music of the flute, cithern or other instrument aloneafforded relief to patients affected with this disease. So common wasit, that the cities and villages of Apulia resounded with the beneficentstrains of fifes, clarinets and drums. And the superstition was generalthat by means of music and dancing, the poison of the tarantula wasdistributed over the whole body, and was then eliminated through thepores of the skin. 

The bite of the star-lizard, _Stellio vulgaris_, of Southern Europe, wasalso popularly believed to be poisonous. 

According to Perotti (1430-1480), persons who had been bitten by thisreptile fell into a state of melancholia and stupefaction. While in thiscondition they were very susceptible to the influence of music. At thevery first tone of a favorite melody, they sprang up, shouting for joy, and danced without intermission until they sank to the ground, exhausted. 

Frequent allusions to the remarkable therapeutic power of music, andespecially to its specific anti-toxic virtues, are to be found in theworks of many writers. Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586), in "Arcadia, " book1, said: "This word did not less pierce poor Pyrocles, than the righttune of music toucheth him that is sick of the tarantula. " And JonathanSwift (1667-1745), in "The Tale of a Tub, " has this passage: "He wastroubled with a disease, reversed to that called the stinging of thetarantula, and would run dog-mad at the noise of music, especially apair of bag-pipes. " Again: "This Malady has been removed, like theBiting of a Tarantula, with the sound of a musical instrument. "[199:1]

Many physicians and historians have written on this subject, and withsingular unanimity have endorsed music as a curative agent fortarantism. 

Notable among these were Alexander ab Alexandro, a prominent Neapolitancivilian, who flourished toward the close of the fifteenth century, andAthanasius Kircher, a famous German Jesuit, in a treatise entitled "ArsMagnetica de Tarantismo" (Rome, 1654). Dr. Richard Mead, in an essay onthe tarantula, published in 1702, wrote that this insect was wont tocreep about in the Italian corn-fields during the summer months, and atthat season its bite was especially venomous. Music was the sole remedyemployed, and none other was needed. Among other authorities may bementioned: Dr. Pierre Jean Burette (1665-1747), "Dialogue sur lamusique"; Dr. Giorgio Baglivi, "De Anatomia, Morsu et EffectibusTarantulae Dissertatio" (1695); and Dr. Théodore Craanen, a Dutchphysician, "Tractatus physico-medicus De Tarantula" (Naples, 1722). Worthy of note also is an elaborate dissertation, "System einerMedizinischen Musik" (Bonn, 1835), by Dr. Peter Joseph Schneider, wherein the author devotes several pages to this interesting theme. 

Dr. Mead, above mentioned, gave a curious description of the symptomsof tarantism. "While the patients are dancing, " said he, "they lose in amanner the use of all their senses, like so many drunkards, and indulgein many ridiculous and foolish antics. They talk and act rudely, andtake great pleasure in playing with vine-leaves, naked swords, redcloths, and the like. They have a particular aversion for anything of ablack color, so that if a bystander happens to appear in apparel of thathue, he must immediately withdraw; otherwise the patients relapse intotheir symptoms with as much violence as ever. "

FOOTNOTES:

[185:1] _New York Medical Record_, October 29, 1909. 

[187:1] _Boston Daily Advertiser_, November 7, 1907. 

[188:1] Mrs. John Lane, _The Champagne Standard_. 

[188:2] _Chambers's Journal_, vol. Lxxi, p. 145; 1894. 

[189:1] _Appleton's Booklovers' Magazine_, July, 1905. 

[189:2] _Boston Herald_, May 12, 1907. 

[190:1] Wien (Vienna), 1807. 

[190:2] _Philosophical Transactions_, 1668, p. 662. 

[191:1] _The Lancet_, vol. Ii; 1880. 

[192:1] _The Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. Lxxvii; November, 1807. 

[193:1] _Anatomy of Melancholy_, vol. Ii, p. 132. 

[194:1] _The Chicago Inter-Ocean. _

[195:1] _Boston Transcript_, March 10, 1900. 

[196:1] _Music and Morals. _

[199:1] _The Spectator_, August 18, 1714. 

CHAPTER XVIII

QUACKS AND QUACKERY

 Quackery and the love of being quacked, are in human nature as weeds are in our fields. DR. J. BROWN, _Spare Hours_. 

 They are Quack-salvers, Fellowes that live by senting oyles and drugs. BEN JONSON, _Volpone_, Act II, Scene 2. 

 These, like quacks in Medicine, excite the malady to profit by the cure, and retard the cure to augment the fees. WASHINGTON IRVING. 

 Here also they have, every night in summer, a world of Montebanks, _Ciarlatani_, and such stuff, who together with their remedies, strive to please the People with their little Comedies, Popet-plays and songs. R. LASSELS, _Voy. Ital. _: 1698. 

 _Le monde n'a jamais manqué de charlatans; cette science, de tout temps, fut en professeurs très fertile. _ LA FONTAINE. 

 He took himself to be no mean Doctour, who being guilty of no Greek, and being demanded why it was called an _hectic_ fever; 'because, ' saith he, 'of an _hecking_ cough, which ever attendeth that disease. ' THOMAS FULLER, _The Holy State_. 

 Man is a dupable animal. Quacks in Medicine, quacks in Religion, and quacks in Politics know this and act upon that knowledge. There is scarcely anyone who may not, like a trout, be taken by tickling. ROBERT SOUTHEY. 

 Quack doctors are indeed pompous, self-sufficient, affectedly solemn, venal and unfeeling with a vengeance. VICESIMUS KNOX, D. D. 

 If Satan has ever succeeded in compressing a greater amount of concentrated mendacity into one set of human bodies, above every other description, it is in the advertising quacks. _Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal. _

 The bold and unblushing assertion of the empiric, of a never-failing remedy, constantly reiterated, inspires confidence in the invalid, and not unfrequently tends by its operation on the mind, to assist in the eradication of disorder. THOS. J. PETTIGREW, F. R. S. 

The word _quack_, meaning a charlatan, is an abbreviation of_quack-salver_. To quack is to utter a harsh, croaking sound, like aduck; and hence secondarily, to talk noisily and to make vain and loudpretensions. [202:1] And a salver is one who undertakes to perform curesby the application of ointments or cerates. Hence the term quack-salverwas commonly used in the seventeenth century, signifying an ignorantperson, who was wont to extol the curative virtues of his salves. Now wesee, said Francis Bacon, in "The Advancement of Learning, "[202:2] theweakness and credulity of men. For they will often prefer a mountebankor witch before a learned physician. And therefore the poets wereclear-sighted in discerning this extreme folly, when they madeEsculapius and Circe brother and sister. For in all times, in theopinion of the multitude, witches, old women and impostors have had acompetition with physicians. 

According to one authority, the term _quack_ is derived from an ancientSaxon word, signifying small, slender and trifling, and hence wasapplied to shallow and frivolous itinerant peddlers, who foisted upon acredulous community such wares as penny-plasters, balsam of liquoricefor coughs, snuffs for headaches, and infallible eye-lotions. [203:1]

It has also been maintained that quack is a corruption of _quake_, andthat quack-doctors were so called because, in marshy districts, patientsaffected with intermittent fever, sometimes vulgarly known as the_quakes_, were wont to be treated by ignorant persons, who professed tocharm away the disease, and hence were styled _quake-doctors_. 

In William Harrison's "Description of the Island of Britain, " occurs thefollowing curious passage: "Now we have many chimneys, and yet ourtenderlings complain of reumes, catarres and poses; then had we none butreredores, and our heads did never ake. For, as the smoke in those dayswas supposed to be a sufficient hardening for the timber of the house, so it was reputed a far better medicine to keep the good man and hisfamily from the _quacke_ or pose, wherewith as then very few wereacquainted. " A writer in "Notes and Queries, "[203:2] remarked that theword _quacke_, in the foregoing extract, probably signified a diseaserather than a charlatan, and possibly the mysterious affection known as"the poofs, " from which good Queen Bess suffered one cold winter. This_quacke_ appears to have been a novelty and therefore fashionable, affected by the tenderlings of that era, "as the proper thing to have. "The quack-doctor, continues the writer above mentioned, must have been afashionable style of man, not meddling much with the poor, and familiarwith boudoirs, curing the new disease with new and wondrous remedies. 

May not the word _quacke_, asks Stylites, another enquirer, as aboveused, mean _quake_ or ague? For an ague-doctor must have had muchemployment, and if successful, great renown, in those days of fens, marshes and undrained ground. 

In an anniversary discourse delivered before the New York Academy ofMedicine, November 7, 1855, Dr. John Watson remarked that the numbersand pretensions of the illegitimate sons of Esculapius were as great inancient as in modern times. And they were quite as wont to receive thepatronage of the upper classes. The Emperor Nero thus favored the shrewdLydian practitioner, Thessalus, who maintained that all learning waswithout value. 

And if we may believe the statements of Pliny and Galen, the Romanquacks equalled, if they did not exceed, in ignorance and arrogance, the vast horde of handicraftsmen, bone-setters, herniotomists, lithotomists, abortionists, and poison-venders, who overran SouthernEurope throughout the Middle Ages. 

The inhabitants of ancient Chaldea, in common with many primitivepeoples of later times, cherished the belief that all diseases werecaused by demons. Medicine was merely a branch of Magic, and the chiefhealing agents were exorcisms, incantations, and enchanted beverages. There were, properly speaking, no physicians. Sometimes, wrote FrançoisLenormant, in "Chaldean Magic, " disease was regarded as an effect of thewickedness of different demons, and sometimes it appears to have beenconsidered as the work of a distinct malevolent being, who exercised hispower upon man. 

According to the old Shamanic belief, which was the primeval religion ofall mankind, every physical ailment is caused by a little devil whichenters the body and can be expelled therefrom only by means of magic. 

Abundant traces of this doctrine, says Charles Godfrey Leland in "GipsySorcery, " appear in our highest civilization and religion among peoplewho gravely attribute every evil to the Devil, instead of to theunavoidable antagonisms of nature. "If, " continues this writer, "a pendrops from our fingers, or a penny rolls from our grasp, the former, ofcourse, falls on our new white dress, while the latter, nine times outof ten, goes directly to the nearest grating, crack or rat-hole. "

In the religion of the ancient Copts, the Devil was believed to haveinherited from his ancestors all the power attributed by ignorance andsuperstition to certain superior beings. He it was who originated alldiseases, and by a singular contradiction, he likewise cured them, either directly or through the agency of the magicians and quacks whofollowed in his train. [206:1]

According to a widespread doctrine of antiquity, innumerable demons wereever active in endeavoring to inflict diseases upon the bodies of humanbeings. 

No medical practitioner, however skilful, could successfully cope withthese supernatural beings. Their evil designs could be checked only byexperts in occult science. It has been said that whoever humors thecredulity of man, is sure to prosper. The modern quack exemplifies this. "The Devil, the Christian successor of the ancient evil spirit, hasexerted a great influence on the medical views of all classes of people. He and his successors were considered 'the disturbers of the peace' inthe health of humanity. The Devil was able to influence each individualorgan in a manner most disagreeable to the owner of the same. "[206:2]Although the hideous portrayals of the Evil One, with horns, hoofs, pitchfork, and tail, appealed strongly to the imagination, they werewholly fanciful. If Satan were to appear in human form, as for examplein the guise of a charlatan (says William Ramsey in "The Depths ofSatan, " 1889), we might expect him to assume the appearance, dress anddemeanor of a gentleman. 

Indeed, although the idea of the embodiment of evil is naturallyrepellent, a study of the Devil's personality, as represented intheology, romance, and popular tradition, reveals much that isinteresting. In the rôle of a medical pretender, however, he deserves nomore sympathy than any other quack. 

In England, says William George Black, in "Folk-Medicine, " the Devil haslong represented much of the paganism still existing, and seems to havebeen regarded almost as the head of the medical profession. He hasenjoyed the reputation of being able to inflict and cure diseases, notonly those of his own production, but also natural diseases, since heknows their origin and causes better than physicians can. For, wrote thelearned Dutch practitioner and demonologist, Johann Wier (1515-1588), physicians being younger than the Devil, must necessarily have had lessexperience. 

James Grant, in the "Mysteries of All Nations" (page 1), remarks thatthe doctrine of devils is of great antiquity, probably dating from theCreation. 

The immediate descendants of Adam and Eve must have learned from them, or by tradition, the circumstances connected with the temptation, fall, and expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Therefore it seems highlyprobable that the serpent was regarded, at a very early period, assomething more than an _ordinary earthly reptile_. 

In the Dark Ages popular opinion credited the Devil with a vast amountof erudition; and he was, moreover, reputed to be well versed in medicalscience and magical arts. Whenever a man of genius had accomplished sometask which appeared to be above the powers of the human mind, it wascommonly believed that the Devil either had performed the work or had atleast rendered some assistance. [208:1]

Burton quotes from the German philosopher, Nicholas Taurellus (born1547), as follows: "Many doubt whether the Devil can cure such diseasesas he hath not made; and some flatly deny it. Howsoever, commonexperience confirms to our astonishment that magic can work such facts, and that the Devil without impediment can penetrate through all theparts of our bodies, and cure such maladies by means to us unknown. "

Again, says Burton, many famous cures are daily performed, affordingevidence that the Devil is an expert physician; and God oftentimespermits witches and magicians to produce these effects. Paracelsusencouraged his patients to cultivate a strong imagination, whereby theyshould experience beneficial results. . . . Therein lies the secret in anutshell. If a man has confidence in the treatment prescribed by acharlatan, he may be benefited thereby. The Devil is a charlatan. Therefore, if God permit, even diabolical remedies may be efficacious, if the patient's faith in them is strong enough. It is not so much thequality as the strength of the faith, says Dr. McComb in "Religion andMedicine, " that is of vital moment, so far as the removal of a givendisorder is concerned. 

The Christians of the early centuries accepted the pagan doctrine ofdemonology without modification. The belief in demoniac possession andthe belief in witches were later developments from this same doctrine. In the third century originated a new order of ecclesiastics, whosemembers were known as exorcists. The expulsion of evil spirits was theirspecial function. But in addition to the official exorcists, manysorcerers and magicians assumed to cure the possessed, as well as thosesuffering from other diseases. The idea of good and evil demons assumedin the Middle Ages a specifically Christian character, which resembledthe ancient Babylonian doctrine except that the good demons werereplaced by angels and saints, whereas the evil spirits were embodied inthe Devil. Both saints and devils were thenceforth destined to playtheir part in the domain of medicine. 

Martin Luther, as is well known, was a firm believer in the doctrinewhich held that the Devil was the originator of all diseases. Noailment, maintained the great reformer, comes from God, who is good, anddoes good to every one. It is the Devil who causes and performs allmischief, who interferes with all play and all arts, and who bringsabout pestilences and fevers. Luther believed that he himself wascompelled, when his physical condition was out of order, to have ascuffle with the Evil One, and thereby obtain the mastery overhim. [210:1]

Tatian, the Syrian writer, of the second century, declared that theprofligacy of demons had made use of the productions of nature for evilpurposes. The demons, he wrote, do not cure, but by their art make mentheir captives. 

In that age, everybody, of whatever class or station in life, believedin the existence of demons, who were thought to be omnipresent, infesting men and the lower animals, as well as trees and rivers. At thetime of the Reformation the same belief prevailed and was an importantfactor in influencing men's actions. [210:2]

A belief in the personality of the Evil One is amply warranted byScripture. What is not warranted, says a writer in "SocialEngland, "[210:3] by anything in Holy Writ, is the medieval conception ofSatan, ruling over a kingdom of darkness, in rivalry with God. 

Ignorance is guided by terror, rather than by love. To theundisciplined mind, whatever is supernatural or unexpected, makes astronger appeal than the familiar phenomena of daily life. We cannotunderstand the motives and acts of our forefathers, wrote Henry C. Lea, in a "History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, " unless we takeinto consideration the mental condition engendered by the consciousnessof a daily and hourly personal contact with Satan. 

Charlatans were not unknown in the fifth century B. C. For the greatHippocrates inveighed against those who relied on amulets and charms ascurative agents. In his view, the physician should possess a mind ofsuch serenity and dignity as to be superior to superstition, for thelatter is incompatible with a knowledge of the truth. [211:1]

The Romans of old, who drove nails into the walls of the Temple ofJupiter, in the hope of warding off the Plague, employed thereby a quackremedy. 

Indeed, for more than six hundred years, they had no physicians, butemployed theurgic methods of treatment by means of prayers, charms, andprescriptions from the ancient Sibylline Books, which were reputed todate from the reign of Tarquin the Proud, in the sixth century B. C. These volumes were kept in a stone chest, under ground, in the Temple ofJupiter Capitolinus at Rome. The ancient Romans possessed only the rudesurgery and domestic medicine of the barbarians, until the importationof scientific methods from Greece. Cato the Censor (B. C. 234-149)disliked physicians, partly because they were mostly Greeks, and partlybecause he himself, although venerated as a model of Roman virtue, wasan outrageous quack, who thought himself equal to a whole college ofphysicians. [212:1]

From a very early time, and for many centuries, medical pretenders andempirics were known as "magicians. " Practitioners of this class throveexceedingly during the reigns of several Roman emperors. They strove towork upon the imaginations of the people by sensational curativemethods. Inasmuch, wrote Dr. Hugo Magnus, as whatever is curious andunusual, has always possessed a special fascination for humanity, theincredible remedies of the magicians found everywhere hosts ofbelievers. And as the most nonsensical theories, if well tinged with themiraculous, find eager credence, there developed a rude form ofpsycho-therapy. For by the employment of extraordinary and evenloathsome substances, many of which had no value as material remedies, they sought to impress curative ideas upon the minds of their patients, and doubtless very often with success. Inventive genius must have beensorely taxed among the magicians, in their endeavors to originatesensational prescriptions. The voluminous works of Alexander ofTralles, Quintus Serenus Samonicus, Marcellus Empiricus, and of manyothers, show how close was the union between medicine and magic. Anenumeration of uncouth remedies formerly in vogue would fill hugepharmacopœias, and belongs to the domain of Folk-Medicine. Let one ortwo examples suffice here. 

For the removal of those hardened portions of the epidermis, usuallyoccurring upon the feet, and vulgarly known as corns, Pliny the Elder, in his "Natural History, " recommends the sufferer, after observing theflight of a meteor, to pour a little vinegar upon the hinge of a door. 

And Sextus Placitus Papyriensis, a nonsensical medical writer of thefourth century, advises, for the cure of glaucoma, that the affected eyebe rubbed with the corresponding organ of a wolf. 

Dr. Theodor Puschmann, in his "History of Medical Education, " quotes anold writer[213:1] who inveighed against those practitioners who werewont to fill the ears of their patients with stories of their ownprofessional skill, while depreciating the services of others of thefraternity. Such unscrupulous quacks sought also to win over thepatient's friends by little attentions, flatteries and innuendoes. Many, said this philosopher, recoil from a man of skill even, if he is abraggart. "When the doctor, " he continues, "attended by a man known tothe patient, and having a right of entry into the house, advances intothe dwelling of the sick man, he should make his appearance in goodclothes, with an inclination of the head; he should be thoughtful and ofgood bearing, and observe all possible respect. So soon as he is within, word, thought and attention should be given to nothing else but theexamination of the patient, and whatever else appertains to the case. "

In England, during the earliest times, the administration of medicineswas always attended with religious ceremonial, such as the repetition ofa psalm. These observances however were often tinctured with a good dealof heathenism, the traditional folk-lore of the country, in the form ofcharms, magic and starcraft. It is evident, wrote the author of "SocialEngland, "[214:1] from the cases preserved by monkish chronicles, thatthe element of hysteria was prominent in the maladies of the MiddleAges, and that these affections were therefore peculiarly susceptible topsychic treatment. The Angles and Saxons brought with them to England abelief in medicinal runes and healing spells, and the cures wrought bytheir medical men were attributed to the magic potency of the charmsemployed. Some interesting information on contemporary manners iscontained in a "Book of Counsels to Young Practitioners" (A. D. 1300). The use of polysyllabic and unintelligible words is thereinrecommended, probably as a goad to the patient's imagination. 

Medical charms, wrote a shrewd philosopher of old, are not to be usedbecause they can effect any change, _but because they bring the patientinto a better frame of mind_. [215:1]

An interesting account of the manners and methods of itinerantcharlatans of the period is found in "English Wayfaring Life in theMiddle Ages" (fourteenth century), by the noted writer and diplomat, M. Jean Jules Jusserand. These Bohemian mountebanks went about the world, selling health. They selected the village green or market-place asheadquarters, and spreading a carpet or piece of cloth on the ground, proceeded to harangue the populace. Big words, marvellous tales, praiseof their own distinguished ancestry, enumeration of the wonderful cureswrought by themselves, statements of their purely altruistic motives andbenevolent designs, and of their contempt for filthy lucre, these werecharacteristic features of their discourses, which preceded theexhibition and sale of infallible nostrums. 

The law, wrote M. Jusserand, distinguished very clearly between aneducated physician and a cheap-jack of the cross-ways. The court-doctor, for example, had the support of an established reputation. He hadstudied at one of the universities, and he offered the warranty of hishigh position. The wandering herbalist was less advantageously known. Inthe country, indeed, he was usually able to escape the rigor of thelaws, but in the cities and larger towns he could not ply his trade withimpunity. The joyous festivals of Old England attracted many of thesehawkers of pills and elixirs, for on such occasions they met the rusticlaborers, whose simplicity rendered them an easy prey. Thesepeasant-folk pressed around, open-mouthed, uncertain whether they oughtto laugh or to be afraid. But they finished usually by buying specimensof the eloquently vaunted cure-alls. 

In medieval times, we are told, it was difficult to distinguish quacksfrom skilled practitioners, because the latter were inclined to besuperstitious. In the year 1220 the University of Paris, with thesanction of the Church and municipality, issued a statute againstunlicensed practitioners, and in 1271 another, whereby Jews and Jewesseswere forbidden "to practice medicine or surgery on any CatholicChristian. " All so-called chirurgeons and apothecaries, as well asherbalists, of either sex, were enjoined from visiting patients, performing operations, or prescribing any medicines except certainconfections in common use, unless in the presence and under thedirection of a physician, the penalties being excommunication, imprisonment, and fine. [216:1]

Never before, says Roswell Park, M. D. , in "An Epitome of the History ofMedicine, " were there so many sorcerers, astrologers and alchemists, asexisted at the close of the Dark Ages. These were mostly restlessadventurers, of a class common at all periods of history, who chafedunder the yoke of authority. Such individuals, in enlisting in the armyof charlatans, were not usually actuated by philanthropic motives. Whatever benevolent sentiments they may have entertained, were in behalfof themselves. Many of them lived apart, as recluses, and were, inmodern parlance, cranks, who lacked mental poise. Yet they were usuallyshrewd, and more or less adepts in occult science. 

The power of auto-suggestion was evident in the cures of medievalailments wrought by the methods of faith-healing. Prayer andintercession were the chief means employed, but these were oftensupplemented by the use of concoctions of medicinal herbs from themonastery garden. 

The resources of therapeutics were, moreover, derived from a strangemixture of magic, astrology, and alchemy. A contemporary manual of"Hints to Physicians" advised the doctor, when called to visit apatient, to recommend himself to God, and to the Archangel Raphael. Then, after having refreshed himself with a drink, he was to praise thebeauty of the country and the liberality of the family. He was alsocautioned to avoid expressing a hasty opinion of the case, because thepatient's friends would attach the more value to the physician'sjudgment, if they were obliged to wait for it. [218:1]

Paracelsus devoted much attention to chemistry as a science distinctfrom alchemy. Indeed he may be regarded as the founder of medicalchemistry. [218:2] He extolled the merits of certain medicines nowrecognized as among the most valuable in the modern pharmacopœia. Chief among these was the tincture of opium, to which he gave itspresent name of laudanum, a contraction of _laudandum_, something to bepraised. 

The eccentric German alchemist and philosopher, Henry Cornelius Agrippa(1486-1535), described a prosperous charlatan of his day as "clad inbrave apparel, and having on his fingers showy rings, glittering withprecious stones; a fellow who had gotten fame on account of his travelsin far countries, and by reason of his obstinate manner of vaunting withstiff lies the merits of his nostrums. Such an one had continually inhis mouth many barbarous and uncouth words. "

Towards the close of the sixteenth century, France was invaded by ahorde of mountebanks in showy and fantastic garb, who went from one townto another, loudly and with brazen effrontery proclaiming in themarket-places their ability to cure every kind of ailment. And thepeople, then as now easily duped, lent willing ears to these wilypretenders, and bought freely of their marvellous pills andpellets. [219:1]

The prevalence of quackery in England is shown by a preamble to astatute of Henry VIII, as follows: "Forasmuch as the science and cunningof Physic and Surgery are daily, within this Realm, exercised by a greatnumber of ignorant persons, of whom the greater part have no insight inthe same, nor in any other kind of learning. Some also ken no letters onthe book; so far forth that common artificers, as smiths, weavers andwomen, boldly and accustomably take upon them great cures, in which theypartly use scorcery and witchcraft, and partly apply such remedies tothe disease as being very noxious and nothing meet; to the highdispleasure of God, great infamy to the Faculty, and the grievous damageand destruction of divers of the King's people, most especially of themthat cannot discern the cunning from the uncunning. "

Probably Dr. Gilbert Skeene, of Aberdeen, Scotland, had in mind suchpretenders, when he wrote, in a treatise on the Plague, published in1568, that "Medicineirs[219:2] are mair studious of their ain helthe norof the common weilthe. "

A statute of the thirty-fourth year of Henry VIII (1543) contains thestatement that although the majority of the members of the craft ofchirurgeons had small cunning, yet they would accept large sums ofmoney, and do little therefor; by reason whereof their patients sufferedfrom neglect. 

At about this period, many were the marvellous remedies which wereadvertised, and keen was the rivalry among empirics, in their efforts tooutdo their brethren in the selection of high-sounding names for theirvaunted panaceas. Among the latter were to be found such choice nostrumsas _rectifiers of the vitals_, which were warranted to supply the placesof all other medicines whatsoever. 

Other pleasing remedies rejoiced in the names of _vivifying drops_, _cephalic tinctures_, _gripe-waters_, and _angelical specifics_. 

"The Anatomyes of the True Physition and Counterfeit Mounte-banke"(imprinted at London, 1605) contains an enumeration of some of theclasses of people wherefrom recruits were drawn to swell the ranks ofcharlatans in England some three centuries ago. Such were:

 Runagate Jews, the cut-throats and robbers of Christians, slow-bellied monks, who have made escape from their cloisters, simoniacal and perjured shavelings, busy Sir John lack-Latins, thrasonical and unlettered chemists, shifting and outcast pettifoggers, light-headed and trivial druggers and apothecaries, sun-shunning night-birds and corner-creepers, dull-pated and base mechanics, stage-players, jugglers, peddlers, prittle-prattling barbers, filthy graziers, curious bath-keepers, common shifters and cogging cavaliers, bragging soldiers, lazy clowns, one-eyed or lamed fencers, toothless and tattling old wives, chattering char-women and nurse-keepers, long-tongued midwives, 'scape-Tyburns, dog-leeches, and such-like baggage. In the next rank, to second this goodly troupe, follow poisoners, enchanters, wizards, fortune-tellers, magicians, witches and hags. Now, if you take a good view of these sweet companions, you shall find them, not only dolts, idiots and buzzards; but likewise contemners and haters of all good learning. 

 For the greater part of them disdain book-learning, and never came where learning grew. . . . They are such as cannot abide to take any pains or travel in study. They reject incomparable Galen's learned Commentaries, as tedious and frivolous discourses, having found through Paracelsus's Vulcanian shop, a more short way to the Wood. . . . Others are so notoriously sottish, that being over head and ears in the myrie puddle of gross ignorance, yet they will by no means see or acknowledge it. 

 For to give an instance in the most absolute, exquisite and divine frame of man's body, if they can shew a rude description thereof, hanging in their chamber, and nickname two or three parts, (so as it would make a horse to break his halter to hear them) they think themselves jolly fellows, and are esteemed great anatomists in the eyes of the Vulgar. . . . 

 Now it is the honestest and safest course for good and learned physicians, to have no society with these barbarians, enemies to all antiquity, humanity and good learning, lest they hear the old saying, _like will to like_. As was said of the Devil dancing with the collier. [222:1]

We may glean some information about the methods of the practising quacksof the seventeenth century, from the following announcement, which is tobe found in Cotgrave's "Treasury of Wit and Language" (1665):

 "My name is Pulsefeel, a poor Doctor of Physick, That does wear three-pile velvet in his hat, Has paid a quarter's rent of his house beforehand, And (simple as he stands here) was made doctor beyond sea. I vow, as I am right worshipful, the taking Of my degree cost me twelve French crowns, and Thirty-five pounds of butter in Upper Germany. I can make your beauty and preserve it, Rectifie your bodie and maintaine it, Clarifie your blood, surfle your cheeks, perfume Your skin, tinct your hair, enliven your eye, Heighten your appetite; and as for Jellies, Dentifrizes, Dyets, Minerals, Fricasses, Pomatums, Fumes, Italia masks to sleep in, Either to moisten or dry the superficies, Faugh! Galen Was a goose and Paracelsus a Patch, to Doctor Pulsefeel. "

FOOTNOTES:

[202:1] There is a legend of a certain physician, who would never eatroast duck, because certain members of that impolite bird's tribe hadaddressed insulting remarks to him. 

[202:2] Book ii, x, 2. 

[203:1] _An Enquiry into Dr. Ward's Practice of Physick_; London, Printed for J. Humphrey at the Pamphlet Shop, next to the Artichoke, near Great Turn-Stile in Holburn, 1749. 

[203:2] Second Series, vol. Iii; 1857. 

[206:1] _The New World_, vol. Ii; 1893. 

[206:2] Dr. Hugo Magnus, _Superstition in Medicine_. 

[208:1] _Universal Cyclopædia and Atlas_, 1908. 

[210:1] Dr. Hugo Magnus, _Superstition in Medicine_. 

[210:2] _The International Monthly_, vol. V; 1902. 

[210:3] Vol. Ii. 

[211:1] _Montreal Medical Journal_, vol. Xxxi; 1902. 

[212:1] Edward Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_. 

[213:1] Charaka, _Samhita_, vol. Iii, p. 8. 

[214:1] Vol. Ii, p. 108. 

[215:1] _Social England_, vol. Ii, p. 104. 

[216:1] _Practitioner_, vol. Lxviii; 1902. 

[218:1] M. D. Synge, _A Short History of Social Life in England_. 

[218:2] Dr. Theodor Puschmann, _A History of Medical Education_. 

[219:1] Larousse, _Grand Dictionnaire Universel_, art. "Charlatan. "

[219:2] This word appears to have been used in the sense of_Medicaster_, a diminutive of the Latin _Medicus_, a physician. 

[222:1] The spelling of this extract has been modernized. 

CHAPTER XIX

QUACKS AND QUACKERY (CONTINUED)

An English physician, who practised during the early part of the reignof King James I, described the charlatan of that period as shameless, amortal hater of all good men, an adept in cozening, legerdemain, conycatching, [223:1] and all other shifts and sleights; a crackingboaster, proud, insolent, a secret back-biter, a contentious wrangler, acommon jester and liar, a runagate wanderer, a cogging[223:2] sychophantand covetous exactor, a wringer of his patients. In a word, a man, orrather monster, made of a mixture of all vices. [223:3]

Robert Burton, in "The Anatomy of Melancholy, " published in 1621, saidthat "if we seek a physician as we ought, we may be eased of ourinfirmities; such a one, I mean, as is sufficient and worthily socalled. For there be many mountebanks, quack-salvers and empiricks, inevery street almost, and in every village, that take upon them thisname, and make this noble and profitable art to be evil spoken of andcontemned by reason of these base and illiterate artificers. . . . Manyof them to get a fee, will give physick to every one that comes, withoutcause. "

That original genius, Daniel Defoe (1661-1731), in his "Description of aQuack Doctor, " wrote that sometimes he would employ the most vulgarphrases imaginable, and again he would soar out of sight and traversethe spacious realms of fustian and bombast. He was, indeed, very sparingof his Latin and Greek, as (God knows) his stock of those commoditieswas but slender. But then, for hard words and terms, which neither he, nor you, nor I, nor anybody else could understand, he poured them out insuch abundance that you'd have sworn he had been rehearsing some of theoccult philosophy of Agrippa, or reading extracts from the Cabala. 

"If a man doth but write a book, " observed an old author, "or at leasttranscribe a great part of it, word for word, out of another book, andgive it a new title, he is naturally regarded by the _ignobile vulgus_as a famous doctor, especially if he write M. D. After his name. But letnone of these poor shifts or sleights deceive you. You will quickly seethat the drift of such publication was only to sell off some _Packets ofQuack Remedies_, and hedge you into his clutches, where 'tis odds buthe will pinch, if he does not gripe you to death. "[225:1]

In the old Province of Languedoc, in Southern France, charlatans wereliable to be summarily dealt with. For when any mountebank appeared inthe city of Montpellier, the magistrates were empowered to set himastride of a meagre, miserable ass, with his face to the animal's tail. 

Thus placed, the wretched mountebank was made to traverse the streets ofthe town, his progress meanwhile being enlivened by the hooting andshouts of the children, and the ironical jeers of the populace. [225:2]

The facility wherewith ignorant persons may acquire a reputation forskill in Medicine, is exemplified by the following anecdote. AStaffordshire cobbler had somehow gotten possession of a parcel ofmedical receipts, and made such diligent use thereof, that he not onlywas speedily invested with the title of Doctor, but likewise becamefamous in the neighborhood on account of some alleged remarkable cures. Thereupon he laid aside his awl to assume the dignity of a charlatan. Ithappened that a young lady of fortune fell ill about that time, and hermother was induced to send for the newly fledged Esculapian. Thelatter, after examining the patient, remarked that he would go home andconsider the case, as he never prescribed rashly. Accordingly in lookingover his recipes, he found one which tickled his fancy, although thedirections, "to be taken in a proper vehicle, " mystified him. Nothingdaunted, he consulted a dictionary and found that a vehicle was either acoach, cart or wheel-barrow. Highly elated, he hastened to inform theyoung lady's mother that her coach must be gotten ready at once, andthat her daughter must get into it and take the remedy which he hadbrought. But the lady would not consent, alleging the risk of exposureto the outside air. "Well, " said the rascally quack, "you must thenorder a wheel-barrow to be sent to your daughter's room, for thismedicine must be taken in a proper vehicle, and in my opinion awheel-barrow will answer the purpose as well as a coach. "[226:1] Can anyone doubt that the wheel-barrow furnished a powerful therapeuticsuggestion in this case?

In the early part of the eighteenth century, it appears that charlatanswere very numerous in England. Indeed the "corps of medical savages" wasalmost as motley and manifold in form as in the Middle Ages. Thedabblers in medicine included grocers, book-sellers, printers, confectioners, merchants and traders, midwives, medical students, preachers, chemists, distillers, gipsies, shepherds, conjurors, oldwomen, sieve-makers and water-peddlers. Apothecaries were permitted tosell drugs to "alchemists, bath-servants and ignorant quacks, whiledabsters, calf-doctors, rag-pickers, magicians, witches, crystallomancers, sooth-sayers and other _mancipia_ [purchased slaves]of the Devil, were allowed to practice Medicine. "[227:1]

At this same period, we are told, the mass of the English people wereextraordinarily credulous. And this fact was true, not only of thedensely ignorant class, but also of the more intelligent and bettereducated middle class, who were ready to believe everything thatappeared in print. [227:2] Hence was afforded an ideal field for theexercise of the wily charlatan's activities. And the glowingadvertisements of quack remedies appealed strongly to the popular fancy. 

A London surgeon, Dr. P. Coltheart, writing in 1727, asserted thatEnglish practitioners of that time were the peers of any in Europe. Hecomplained, however, of the multitude of ignorant quacks, who wereallowed a free hand in the practice of their pretended art, to thedetriment of the community. 

The spectacle of such a gallant array of charlatans, recruited from theranks of illiterate tramps and vagrants, the very scum of society, yetthriving by reason of the popular credulity, certainly warranted thescathing arraignment of these interlopers by reputable physicians, whothus found a vent for their righteous indignation, although they werepowerless to impede thereby the strong tide of imposture. 

How often it happened, wrote William Connor Sydney, in "England and theEnglish in the Eighteenth Century, " that a bricklayer (who chanced to bethe seventh son of his father), or a sharp-witted cobbler, picked up anantiquated collection of medieval recipes, and perused it in his leisurehours! Then, dispensing with his trowel or awl, he devoted himself tothe sale of pellets, lotions and gargles, possessing marvellous virtues!

Here is a copy of an advertisement which appeared in an early number ofthe London "Spectator":

 Loss of Memory or Forgetfulness certainly cured by a grateful electuary, peculiarly adapted for that end. It strikes at the primary source, which few apprehend, of Forgetfulness, makes the head clear and easy, the spirits free, active and undisturbed; corroborates and revives all the noble faculties of the soul, such as thought, judgment, apprehensions, reason and memory, which last in particular it so strengthens as to render that faculty exceeding quick and good beyond imagination, thereby enabling those whose memory was almost totally lost, to remember the minutest circumstances of their affairs, etc; to a wonder. Price 2s. 6d a pot. Sold only at Mr. Payne's, at the _Angel and Crown_, in St. Paul's Church-Yard, with directions. 

William Smith, in his "History of the Province of New York from itsFirst Discovery to the Year 1722" (London, 1757), wrote as follows:

 The History of our Diseases belongs to a Profession with which I am very little acquainted. Few physicians amongst us are eminent for their skill. Quacks abound like Locusts in Egypt, and too many have recommended themselves to a full Practice and profitable subsistence. This is the less to be wondered at, as the Profession is under no Kind of Regulation. Loud as the call is, to our Shame be it remembered, we have no Law to protect the Lives of the King's Subjects from the Malpractice of Pretenders. Any man at his Pleasure sets up for Physician, Apothecary and Chirurgeon. No candidates are either examined or licensed, or even sworn to fair practice. In 1753 the City of New York alone boasted the Honour of having forty Gentlemen of that Faculty. 

A contributor to the Cincinnati "Lancet and Observer, " October, 1861, moralized on this subject in a somewhat pessimistic vein. 

To see an ignorant, boastful quack petted, caressed and patronized bypeople of culture and refinement, wrote he, such as members of thelearned professions, statesmen, philosophers, shrewd merchants andbankers, as well as by worthy mechanics and trusting farmers, is enoughto make one ponder whether after all it is worth while to devote money, time and talents in acquiring a thorough knowledge of professionalduties. . . . However natural such a method of reasoning, it will notinfluence the sober _mens conscia recti_ of the trained physician. 

In an address before the Medical and Surgical Society of Baltimore, January 17, 1859, Dr. Lewis H. Steiner defined quackery as that mode ofpractising medicine, which adopts one and the same remedy for everydisease, of whatever origin or nature. Quackery, wherever found, isbased upon a misapplication of some recognized principle or fact, andhence invariably presupposes the existence of a modicum of truth, as itsstarting-point. 

Precisely as the counterfeit coin has a certain value with the unwary, on account of its resemblance to that which is genuine, so all quackerymust proceed from a false application of a known truth, or an attemptedimitation of this truth in various forms. 

An analogy was drawn between a quack and the weaker animal in adog-fight by a writer in "The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, "April 1, 1846. For, said he, it is a trait of human nature to side withthe under-dog. And it is this trait which causes some people to bepleased at the quack's success, for they regard him, in a sportingsense, as a little dog, and demand for him fair play. The maudlinsympathies of such persons are aroused by the sight of an adventurerstriving against odds, with one sole end in view, namely, theaccumulation of shekels under false pretences. 

Probably at no period in the world's history has charlatanry been moreflourishing than during the first decade of the twentieth century, andthat too in the face of unexampled progress in medical Science. Thereason is not far to seek. The modern quack utilizes the power of theunconscious or subjective mind over the body. This is the effectiveagency, not only in so-called mental healing, but also insemi-scientific cures of various sorts, in faith-cures, as well as inthe cures ascribed to relics and charms. [231:1] The widespread heraldingof patent medicines is also founded upon the principle ofauto-suggestion. The descriptions of symptoms and diseases in theadvertisements of charlatans, suggest morbid ideas to the objective mindof the reader. These ideas, being then transferred to his subjectivemind, exert an unwholesome influence upon his bodily functions. [231:2]His next procedure is the trial of some vaunted nostrum. Thus the shrewdempiric thrives at the expense of his fellow men. He takes a meanadvantage of their credulity, though probably in most cases unaware ofthe vicious psychological processes, which render many his willingdupes. 

It has been aptly remarked that the public is ever more ready to believepleasing fictions, than disagreeable verities. _Populus vult decipi_, trite saying though it be, is as true to-day as at any time in thepast. If it were not so, quackery could not thrive. Gladly the people"honors pay to those who on their understandings most impose. " Aproposof the methods of charlatans, is the story of a certain Scotch farmer, whose success in selling his cattle at high prices aroused the curiosityof his neighbors. One day, when fuddled with drink, after much coaxing, he revealed the secret by saying: "On going to sell my beasties, I firstfinds a fool, and then I shoves 'em on to him. "[232:1]

Dr. William Osler, in his "Aequanimitas and Other Addresses" (1904), remarked that "Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers"; and in mattersmedical the ordinary citizen of to-day has not one whit more sense thanthe Romans of old, whom the witty Greek writer Lucian scourged for acredulity which made them fall easy victims to the quacks of the secondcentury. Man has an inborn craving for medicine. Heroic dosing forseveral generations has given his tissues a thirst for drugs; and nowthat the pharmacists have cloaked even the most nauseous remedies, thetemptation is to use physic on every occasion. 

Dudley F. Sicher, in the "Popular Science Monthly, " September, 1905, comments on the enormous development of quackery, which has been morethan commensurate with the growth of medical science and the advance ofwestern civilization, in recent years. According to this authority, thenumber of resident quacks in Berlin, Germany, has increased sixteen-foldsince 1874. And in New York City, there are approximately twentythousand, against six thousand regular practitioners. "Given on the onehand the limitations of scientific medicine, the dread of disease, andthe power of auto-suggestion, and on the other hand, depraved humanity, hard-driven in the struggle for existence, and you have the essentialparts, which, with a few minor pieces, make up the quackerymachine. . . . Psycho-therapeutics and knowledge of human nature make upthe quack's entire outfit. " The popular distrust of legitimate Medicinefacilitates a recourse to the alleged marvellous specifics and panaceas, so extensively advertised; lineal descendants of the magical remedies ofold. 

Then, too, the secrecy and mystery associated with the remedies ofquacks, appeal strongly to the popular fancy. 

Charles Dickens wrote in "Barnaby Rudge" that it was only necessary toinvest anything, however absurd, with an air of mystery, in order togive it a secret charm and power of attraction, which people are unableto resist. False prophets, he said, false priests, false doctors, falseprodigies of whatever kind, veiling their proceedings in mystery, havealways addressed themselves at an immense advantage, to the popularcredulity, and have been, perhaps, more indebted to that resource ingaining and keeping for a time the upper hand of Truth and Common Sense, than to any half-dozen items in the whole catalogue of imposture. Toawaken curiosity and to gratify it by slow degrees, yet leavingsomething always in suspense, is to establish the surest hold that canbe had, in wrong, on the unthinking portion of mankind. 

Unscrupulous charlatans have shrewdness enough to make free use of thepower of suggestion in their nefarious practice, though oftentimesdoubtless wholly ignorant of its mode of action. The great majority ofthem, while probably unaware of the existence of subconscious mentallife, have always had a vivid realization of the positive fact of thegullibility of human nature, a fact which affords them the keenestpleasure and enduring satisfaction. 

One can well imagine that the winning smile which often illumines thefeatures of a sleek and crafty pretender, is supplanted by audiblechuckling when he retires from company. Having long since gotten rid ofhis conscience, he can afford to be merry at the expense of his fellowcreatures. 

It has been aptly said that no amount of instruction in physiology ormateria medica at medical colleges will have any influence in thesuppression of quackery. But the recognition and utilization, by theprofession, of the wonderful forces of psycho-therapy _will_ have suchan influence, because light will thereby be shed upon the methods of thecharlatan, whose operations will then no longer be shrouded from thepublic view in mystery, wherein has lain for many centuries their mostpotent charm. 

The author of "Physic and Physicians" (London, 1839) remarks that adoctor should always have ready an answer to every question which a ladymay put to him, for the chances are that she will be satisfied with it. Moreover he should invariably diagnose an affection with celerity; andrather than betray ignorance of the seat of a disorder, it were better, says this writer, to assign it at once to the pancreas or pineal gland. A lady once asked her apothecary, an ignorant fellow, regarding thecomposition of castor oil, and seemed quite content with his reply, thatit was extracted from the beaver. Another patient asked her physicianhow long she was likely to be ill, and was told that it depended largelyon the duration of the disease. A certain doctor, probably a quack, acquired some notoriety by always prescribing the _left_ leg of a boiledfowl. Reiteration of the superior nutritive qualities of that member, and positive assertions of the comparative worthlessness of the rightleg, doubtless impressed the patients' minds in a salutary manner. 

A writer in "Putnam's Magazine, " August, 1909, commends the so-calledEmmanuel Movement as capable of benefiting many, in all stations oflife. He says further that the wicked and the charlatan may enter uponthe practice of psycho-therapy, but in a majority of cases, thesub-conscious mind, upon which the healer works, will reject the evilsuggestion of the practitioner who strives to use his powers for malignpurposes. That is the almost unanimous verdict of the psychologicalexperts. If the old proverb be true, "_In vino veritas_, " so in thehypnotic state the real bent of the normal mind and personality is moreready to follow the good and reject the bad suggestion, than in thenormal, conscious state. Instinctive morality comes to the aid of thegenuine psycho-therapist, and refuses its coöperation to thecounterfeit. 

In the United States, the door yawns wider for the admission ofcharlatans than in any other country. The demand for panaceas and forthe services of those who pretend to cure by unusual methods, is notlimited to persons who are wanting in intelligence, or to those who areweakened and discouraged by exhausting diseases. So long as the love ofthe marvellous exists, there will be a certain demand for quackery, andthe supply will not be wanting. [236:1]

Probably in no region of the world does there exist a more attractivefield for medical pretenders, than the thickly settled foreignsettlements of the city of New York. Here they may thrive and fatten, asthey ply their nefarious trade, doubtless slyly laughing the while, onaccount of the simplicity of their helpless victims. The poor hungrywretch who steals a loaf of bread is held legally accountable for thetheft, and if caught, he is punished therefor. The unscrupulous quack, by reason of his shrewdness, goes scot-free, though a vastly greatervillain. To quote from a recent editorial in the "New York Times": "Acourse in medicine and surgery is expensive, and takes a lot of time, while a varied assortment of pseudo-religious and pseudo-philosophicphrases can be learned in a few days by any man or woman with adisinclination for honest work. "

A recent English writer argued that it were folly to attempt thesuppression of quackery by statute; for, says he, the freebornAnglo-Saxon considers that he has the inalienable right of going to theDevil in his own way. And he resents anything like dictation in thesphere of medicine, as much as in religion. 

FOOTNOTES:

[223:1] Thieves' slang for cheating. 

[223:2] One who used loaded dice in gambling. 

[223:3] _Beware of Pick-Purses, or a Caveat for Sick Folkes to takeheede of unlearned Physitions and unskilfull Chyrurgians. _ By F. H. , Doctor in Physick. Imprinted at London, 1605. 

[225:1] _The Modern Quack or Medicinal Impostor. _ London. Printed forThomas Warner, at the Black Boy, in Pater Noster Row, 1724. 

[225:2] _Cautions and Advice to the Public respecting some Abuses inMedicine, through the Malpractices of Quacks or Pretenders_, by WilliamJackson. London. [No date. ]

[226:1] P. Coltheart, Surgeon, London, 1727. 

[227:1] Joh. Hermann Baas, _History of Medicine_, p. 771. 

[227:2] _Social England_, vol. V. P. 66. 

[231:1] A. T. Schofield, M. D. , _The Unconscious Mind_, pp. 334-5. 

[231:2] Dr. John Duncan Quackenbos, _Hypnotic Therapeutics_, p. 88. 

[232:1] John D. Jackson, M. D. , _The Black Arts in Medicine_. 

[236:1] Dr. Austin Flint, in the _North American Review_, October, 1889. 

ADDENDA

COPY OF CERTIFICATE

 These may Inform all whom it might Concern, that Mr. John Kaighin, of the Province of West New Jersey, hath lived with me (here under named) a considerable time, as a Disciple, to learn the Arts and Mysteries of Chymistry, Physick, and the Astral Sciences, whereby to make a more Perfect Discovery of the Hidden Causes of more Occult and Uncommon Diseases, not so easily to be discovered by the Vulgar Practice. In all which he has been very Dilligent and Studious, as well as in the Administration of the Medecines, and in the various Cases: wherein his Judgment may be safely depended upon in all things, so far as he follows my Instructions. And Hope he may in all things answer the Confidence that may be reposed in him. C. WITT. GERMANTOWN, Febr. 20, 1758. 

Following is a Prayer for a Dyspeptic, drawn up by an adherent ofChristian Science:

 Holy Reality, Blessed Reality, believing that Thou art everywhere present, we believe that Thou art in this patient's stomach, in every fibre, in every cell, in every atom; that Thou art the sole, only Reality of that stomach. Heavenly, Holy Reality, Thou art not sick, and therefore nothing in this universe was ever sick, is now sick, or can be sick. We know, Father and Mother of us all, that there is no such thing as a really diseased stomach; that the disease is the Carnal Mortal Mind given over to the World, the Flesh and the Devil; that the mortal mind is a twist, a distortion, a false attitude, the _Hamartia_ [ἁμαρτία, sin] of Thought. 

 Help us to stoutly affirm, with our hand in your hand, with our eyes fixed on Thee, that we never had Dyspepsia, that we will never have Dyspepsia, that there is no such thing, that there never was any such thing, that there never will be any such thing. Amen. [239:1]

FOOTNOTES:

[239:1] _The Faith and Works of Christian Science. _

APPENDIX

SOME NOTED IRREGULAR PRACTITIONERS

PARACELSUS

THEOPHRASTUS BOMBASTUS VON HOHENHEIM, commonly known as Paracelsus, wasborn in 1493 at Maria Einsiedeln, near Zurich, Switzerland. When he wasnine years old, his father, who was a reputable physician, removed hisresidence to Carinthia. Paracelsus received instruction in chemistryfrom the Abbot Trithemius, a Benedictine monk, and then investigatedmining methods, and learned the physical properties of minerals, ores, and metals. He also studied at universities in France, Germany, andItaly. Quite early in his career he developed a taste for a Bohemianmode of life and is reported to have gained a livelihood bypsalm-singing, astrological prescriptions, chiromancy, and even by thepractice of the Black Art. He was also keen in acquiring informationabout popular remedies and nostrums, from travelling mountebanks, barbers, old women, and pretenders of all kinds. In 1526 he wasappointed Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine at theUniversity in Basle. Here he taught doctrines of his own, denouncing theprevailing tenets of Medical Science, as derived from the ancients, andclaiming for himself a supremacy over all other teachers and writers. According to his view, Philosophy, Astrology, Alchemy and Virtue werethe four pillars of Medicine. It is a problem how to reconcile hisignorance, his weakness and superstition, his crude notions anderroneous observations, his ridiculous inferences and theories, with hisgrasp of method, his lofty views of the true scope of Medicine, hislucid statements, his incisive and epigrammatic criticisms of men andmotives. [244:1] After remaining at Basle for about a year, he resumedhis wanderings, frequenting taverns and spending whole nights incarousals, with the lowest company. Paracelsus believed that it wasreserved for him to indicate the right path to the medical practitionersof his day. In carrying out this idea, he exhibited such colossalconceit, and indulged in such virulent abuse of his medical brethren, that he became the object of their hatred and persecution. [244:2]

According to his doctrine, man is a little world or microcosm, and inhim are represented all the elements which are to be found in the greatworld or macrocosm. Some diseases, he averred, require earthy remedies, others aqueous or atmospheric, and still others, igneous. Paracelsus wasthoroughly imbued with the cabalistic theories prevalent in his time, and traced analogies between the stars and various portions of the humanbody. His fame as the greatest of charlatans appears to have been due inlarge measure to his influence over the popular imagination by the magicpower of high-sounding words, which were mostly beyond the comprehensionof his hearers. His teachings have been aptly described as a system ofdogmatic and fantastic pseudo-philosophy. The following quotation mayserve as an illustration. 

 All these recipes which are prepared for elemental diseases, consist of six things, two of which are from the planets, two from the elements, and two from narcotics. For although they can be composed of three things, one out of each being taken, yet these are too weak for healing purposes. Now there are two which derive from the planets, because they conciliate and correct medicine; two derive from the elements, in order that the grade of the disease may be overcome. Lastly, two are from the narcotics, because the four parts already mentioned are too weak of themselves to expel a disease before the crisis. Observe then, concerning composition, to forestall the critical day. Recipes prepared in this manner, are very helpful for diseases in all degrees of acuteness. 

Paracelsus was the first to promulgate the theory of the existence ofmagnetic properties in the human body, maintaining that the latter wasendowed with a double magnetism, of which one portion attracted toitself the planets, and was nourished by them; whence came wisdom, thought, and the senses. The other portion attracted to itself theelements; whence came flesh and blood. He also asserted that theattractive and hidden virtue of man resembles that of amber and of themagnet, and that this virtue may be employed by healthy persons for thecure of disease in others. Thus probably originated the idea whichdeveloped into Animal Magnetism, and from it Anton Mesmer is said tohave derived inspiration some two hundred years later. Paracelsus diedat Salzburg, Austria, in 1541. 

In the words of that eminent English divine, Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), Paracelsus boasted of more than he could do, did more cures seeminglythan really, more cures really than lawfully, of more parts thanlearning, of more fame than parts, a better physician than a man, and abetter chirurgeon than physician. 

Paracelsus was a very prince among quacks, for probably no man evertalked more loudly and ostentatiously or made vainer pretensions. He wasemphatically a knavish practitioner of medicine, a master of the art ofpuffery, and was phenomenally successful in achieving notoriety. Whatever his natural talent may have been, says Edward Meryon, M. D. , [246:1] he placed himself in the category with those of the samenature, who have ever been ready to purchase this world's riches at theruinous price of character and reputation. 

The system of Paracelsus was founded upon mysticism and fanaticism ofthe grossest kind. The chief aim of his doctrine was the blending ofmysticism and therapeutics, and the creation thereby of a false science, wherewith he sought to exert an influence over the ignorant classes. 

According to the cabalistic doctrine, the various events of life and allnatural phenomena are due to influences exerted by gods, devils, and thestars. Each member and principal organ of the human body was supposed tocorrespond with some planet or constellation. Similar foolish ideas werewidely prevalent, especially in Germany. Paracelsus was an ignoramus, who affected to despise all the sciences, because of his lack ofknowledge of them. While prating much about divine light as the sourceof all learning and culture, his boorish mien and rude manners affordedevidence that he did not profit much by its happy influence. [246:2]

The Paracelsians maintained that life is a perpetual germinativeprocess, controlled by the _archaeus_ or vital force, which was supposedto preside over all organic phenomena. The principal _archaeus_ wasbelieved to have its residence in the stomach, but subordinates guardedthe interests of the other important bodily organs. 

Nature was sufficient for the cure of the majority of ills. But whenthe internal physician, the man himself, was tired or incapable, someremedy had to be applied, which should antagonize the spiritual seed ofthe disease. [247:1] Such remedies, known as _arcana_, were alleged topossess marvellous efficiency, but their composition was kept secret. That is to say, they were quack medicines. 

Paracelsus maintained that a man who, by abstraction of all sensuousinfluences, and by child-like submission to the will of God, has madehimself a partaker of the heavenly intelligence, becomes therebypossessed of the philosopher's stone. He is never at a loss. Allcreatures on earth and powers in heaven are submissive to him; he cancure all diseases, and can himself live as long as he chooses, for heholds the elixir of life, which Adam and the early fathers employedbefore the Flood, and by which they attained to great longevity. 

The philosopher's stone, known also as the _great elixir_, or the _redtincture_, when shaken in very small quantity into melted silver, leador other metal, was said to transmute it into gold. In minute doses itwas supposed to prolong life and restore youth, and was then called_elixir vitæ_. [247:2] Says Ben Jonson in "The Alchemist" (1610), "Hethat has once the Flower of the Sun, the perfect Ruby which we call_Elixir_ . . . By its virtue can confer honour, love, respect, longlife; give safety, valour, yea and victory, to whom he will. In eightand twenty days he'll make an old man of fourscore a child. "

Paracelsus was foremost among a group of extraordinary characters, whoclaimed to be the representatives of science at the close of the MiddleAges. These men were of a bold, inquisitive temper, and with all theirfaults, they had a noble thirst for knowledge. "Better the wildestguess-work, than that perfect torpor which follows the parrot-likerepetition of the words of a predecessor!"[248:1] These irregularpractitioners, however impetuous and ill-balanced, were pioneers inopening up new fields of investigation, and in exploring new paths, which facilitated the progress of their successors in the search forscientific truths. 

AGRIPPA

HEINRICH CORNELIUS AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, a German alchemist, philosopher, and cabalist, of noble ancestry, was born at Cologne, onthe Rhine, September 14, 1486. Having received a liberal education andbeing by nature versatile, he became in his youth a secretary at theCourt of the German Emperor, Maximilian I. 

He served moreover in the army under that monarch, during severalItalian campaigns, and by reason of gallantry, won the spurs of aknight. Becoming averse to the profession of arms, he studied withavidity law, medicine, philosophy, and languages, and in 1509 becameProfessor of Hebrew at Dôle, in the department of Jura, France. Here hiscaustic humor and intemperate language involved him in quarrels with themonks, while his restless disposition impelled him to rove in search ofadventure. He visited successively London, Pavia, and Metz, where hebecame a magistrate and town orator. 

Having expressed opinions contrary to the prevalent beliefs in regard tosaints and witches, he was forced to depart abruptly. We next hear ofhim as a practising physician in Fribourg, Switzerland. Thereafter hebecame a vagabond and almost a beggar. Like his contemporary, Paracelsus, he advanced the most paradoxical theories during hisadventurous career, which latter was partly scientific and partlypolitical, but always turbulent. Finally he established himself atLyons, where he again practised medicine, and became physician to Louiseof Savoy, Regent of France, and the mother of Francis I. Here Agrippasoon fell into disgrace and was banished. In 1528 he joined the Courtof Margaret of Austria, ruler of the Netherlands, at Antwerp. On thepublication of his work, "On the Vanity of the Sciences, " he wasimprisoned for a year at Brussels. 

Upon his release, he returned to Lyons, where he was again detained incustody, on account of an old libel against his former patroness. 

His death occurred at Grenoble, France, February 18, 1535. 

Agrippa was possessed of great versatility and learning, but hiswritings are tinctured with bitterness and satire. He has been describedas restless, ambitious, enthusiastic, and credulous, a dupe himself anda deceiver of others. His career was a continuous series ofdisappointments and quarrels. 

Yet he was an earnest searcher after truth, who was fain to attempt theunlocking of Nature's secrets, but did not hold the right key. Profoundly superstitious, he taught, for example, that the herb, _Verbena officinalis_, vervain, would cure tertian or quartan feversaccording to the manner in which it was divided or cut. Agrippa has beentersely described as a "meteor of philosophy. "

CARDAN

JEROME CARDAN, an Italian physician, author, mathematician andphilosopher, was born at Pavia, September 24, 1501. He was theillegitimate son of Facio Cardan, a man of repute among the learned inhis neighborhood, from whom Jerome received instruction in his youth. Although idolized by his mother, he incurred his father's dislike, andthese circumstances, we are told, exerted a peculiar influence upon hischaracter. Despite many difficulties, however, he achieved both fame andnotoriety. After having received degrees in arts and medicine from theUniversity of Padua, he became Professor of Mathematics at Milan in1534, and later was admitted to the College of Physicians in that city. In 1547 he declined an invitation to become court physician atCopenhagen, on account of the harsh northern climate and the obligationto change his religion. In the year 1552 Jerome Cardan visited Scotlandat the request of John Hamilton, Archbishop of St. Andrews, whom hetreated for asthma with success. Thence he was summoned to England togive his professional advice in the case of Edward VI, after which hereturned to Milan with enhanced prestige. He afterwards practisedMedicine at Pavia and Bologna and finally settled at Rome, where hereceived a pension from the Pope. His death occurred there, September21, 1575. 

Cardan was possessed of great natural ability, and for a time wasregarded as the most eminent physician and astrologer among hiscontemporaries. But his mind was of a peculiar cast, and his temper mostinconstant. He had, says Peter Bayle, in his "Historical Dictionary, " adecided love of paradox, and of the marvellous, an infantine credulity, a superstition scarce conceivable, an insupportable vanity, and aboasting that knew no limits. His works, though full of puerilities andcontradictions, of absurd tales and charlatanry of every description, nevertheless offer proofs of a bold, inventive genius, which seeks fornew paths of science, and succeeds in finding them. According to his ownstatement, he found pleasure in roaming about the streets all nightlong. His love of gaming amounted to a mania. Baron von Leibnitz(1646-1716) wrote of Cardan, that notwithstanding his faults, he was agreat man, and without his defects, would have been incomparable. Hewrote extensively on philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, and also onchiromancy. For his own follies and misfortunes he apologized, attributing them all to the influence of the stars. He has beendescribed as a genuine philosopher and devotee of science, and hislasting reputation is chiefly due to his discoveries in algebra, inwhich art, wrote the historian, Henry Hallam, he made a great epoch. 

BALSAMO

One of the most notorious charlatans of the eighteenth century wasGiuseppe Balsamo, who was born at Palermo, Sicily, June 2, 1743. Thoughof humble origin, this arch-impostor assumed the title of CountAlessandro di Cagliostro, and styled himself Grand Cophta, Prophet andThaumaturge. He married Lorenza Feliciani, the daughter of agirdle-maker of Rome. Balsamo professed alchemy and free-masonry, practised medicine and sorcery, and raised money by various methods ofimposture. He rode about in his own coach, attended by a numerousretinue in rich liveries. His attire consisted of an iron-gray coat, ascarlet waistcoat trimmed with gold lace, and red breeches. His jauntyhat was adorned with a white feather, and handsome rings encircled hisfingers. He carried a sword after the fashion of the times, and hisshoe-buckles shone like flashing jewels. 

Balsamo was a man of great energy; gifted with persuasive eloquencewhich seemed to exercise a charm over his hearers. Having rare naturalabilities, he enriched his mind by diligent studies and observations ofhuman nature, during his tours abroad. But in spite of these advantageshe failed to rise above the sphere of an unscrupulous charlatan. 

In 1780 he settled in Strasburg, where he established a reputation bysome marvellous cures. Here was the culmination of his fame and fortune. Five years later he came to Paris, where he became implicated in thenotorious affair of the "Diamond Necklace, " and was imprisoned in theBastille for some months. His death occurred at the fortress of SaintLéon, Rome, in 1795. A sublimer rascal never breathed, wrote W. Russell, LL. D. , in "Eccentric Personages. " Balsamo had unlimited faithin the gullibility of mankind, and was amply endowed with the giftswhich enable their possessor to shear the simpletons of society. 

GREATRAKES

VALENTINE GREATRAKES was born at Affane, County of Waterford, Ireland, on Saint Valentine's Day, February 14, 1628. He was educated aProtestant at the free school of Lismore near his home, and at TrinityCollege, Dublin. 

At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1641, his mother fled with him toEngland and took refuge in Devonshire, where he devoted himself to thestudy of the classics and divinity. Afterwards Greatrakes served forseven years in Cromwell's army, holding a commission as lieutenant ofcavalry under Roger Boyle, Earl of Orrery. In 1656 he left the army andreturned to Affane, where he was appointed a magistrate and served assuch with credit. 

Soon after the Restoration, in obedience to a divine impulse, he beganpractice as a healer of various diseases by the method known aslaying-on of hands, stroking, or touching, which had been employed bythe sovereigns of England, from the time of Edward the Confessor. Greatrakes's success was immediate and phenomenal. People flocked to himso rapidly, we are told, from all quarters, that "his barns andout-houses were crammed with innumerable specimens of sufferinghumanity. " In 1665 he returned to England, where he performed manyseemingly marvellous cures; and came to be regarded as a greatermiracle-worker than King Charles II himself. But after an investigationand adverse report by members of the Royal Society, his practice fellinto disrepute, and he retired to his native land, where he sojourned inobscurity until his death, which is supposed to have occurred after theyear 1682. One David Lloyd, a biographer, issued a tract entitled"Wonders no Miracles, or Mr. Valentine Greatrakes' Gift of HealingExamined, " wherein he endeavored to show that the famous "Irishstroaker" was little better than an impostor. In reply to this, Greatrakes published a pamphlet, vindicating his methods, withtestimonials from persons of quality and distinction. 

Greatrakes has been described as a man of unimpeachable integrity, ahighly respectable member of society, and incapable of attempting todeceive by fraud. Notoriety was distasteful to him, and in this respecthe was above the plane of an ordinary charlatan. An enthusiast, hebelieved himself to be invested with divine healing powers. His successwas surely due to forcible therapeutic suggestions communicated by himto the minds of highly imaginative and credulous people, who reposedconfidence in his methods. It mattered not that they believed the curesof their nervous disorders to be wrought solely through the physicalagency of laying-on of hands, whereby some mysterious healing force, magnetic or otherwise, was communicated to them. 

In attempting an explanation of the cures wrought by Greatrakes, HenryStubbe, a contemporary writer, affirmed that "God had bestowed upon Mr. Greatarick a peculiar temperament, or composed his body of someparticular ferments, and the effluvia thereof, sometimes by a light, sometimes by a violent friction, restore the temperament of thedebilitated parts, reinvigorate the blood, and dissipate allheterogeneous ferments out of the bodies of the diseased, by the eyes, nose, hands and feet. " There is nothing recorded in regard toGreatrakes's methods (says Professor Joseph Jastrow, in "Fact and Fablein Psychology"), which definitely suggests the production of thehypnotic state; but direct suggestion, reinforced by manipulation, obviously had much to do with the cures. 

In 1666 the Chamberlain of the Worcester Corporation expended tenpounds, fourteen shillings in an entertainment for "Mr. Greatrix, anIrishman famous for helping and curing many lame and diseased people, only by stroking of their maladies with his hand and therefore sent forto this and many other places. "

From a letter written by Greatrakes to the Archbishop of Dublin, itappears that he believed himself to be inspired of God, for the purposeof curing disease. He received lavish hospitality in many homes, when atthe height of his popularity, and was regarded as a phenomenal adept inthe art of healing by touch. [257:1]

If there exists such a thing as the "gift of healing, " Greatrakesappears to have possessed it. Dr. A. T. Schofield believes that incertain rare cases individuals are endowed with the faculty of curing bytouch, to which the terms magnetic, psychic, occult, hypnotic, andmesmeric have been applied. This power is resident in the operator, andhas nothing to do with suggestion; whereas in so-called faith-healing, the power is resident in the patient, who, by the exercise of faith, puts it into action. 

Greatrakes has been described as having an agreeable personality, pleasant manners, a fine figure, gallant bearing, a handsome face, musical voice, and a good stock of animal spirits. Thus equipped, we maynot wonder that he was ever welcome in merry company. He had an impulseor strange persuasion of his own mind (says J. Cordy Jeaffreson, in "ABook about Doctors") that he had the gift of curing the King's Evil. Asecond impulse gave him the power of healing ague, and a third"inspiration of celestial aura imparted to him command, under certainconditions, over all human diseases. " Greatrakes adapted hismanipulations to the requirements of individual cases. Oftentimes gentlestroking sufficed, but when the evil spirits were especially malignant, he employed energetic massage. Occasionally the demon fled, "like awell-bred dog, " at the word of command, but more frequently the victorywas not won until the healer had rubbed himself into a red face, and acopious perspiration. 

It is narrated that when Greatrakes was practising in London, arheumatic and gouty patient came to him. "Ah, " said the healer, colloquially, "I have seen a good many spirits of this kind in Ireland. They are watery spirits, who bring on cold shivering and excite anoverflow of aqueous humor in our poor bodies. " Then, addressing thedemon, he continued: "Evil spirit, who has quitted thy dwelling in thewaters, to come and afflict this miserable body, I command thee to quitthy new abode, and to return to thine ancient habitation. "[258:1]

From among a large number of testimonials of cures performed byGreatrakes, a single example may suffice. 

 MR. SQUIBB'S LETTER TO MR. BOREMAN

 SIR, Whereas you are pleased to enquire after the Cure, by God's means done upon me, by the stroking of my head by Mr. Greatrakes; These are thoroughly to inform you that being violently troubled with an excessive pain of the head, that I had hardly slept six hours in six days and nights, and taken but very little of sustenance in that time; and being but touch'd by him, I immediately found ease, and (thanks be to God) do continue very well; and do further satisfie you, that the rigour of the pain had put me into a high Fever, which immediately ceas'd with my head-ache: and do likewise further inform you that a Servant being touch'd for the same pain, that had continu'd upon him for twelve years last past, he touch'd him in the forehead, and the pain went backward; and that but by his stroking upon the outside of his cloaths, the pain came down to and out of his foot: the party continues still well. These Cures were wrought about 3 weeks before Easter. 

 And thus much I assure you to be true from him that is Your Friend and Servant EDM. SQUIBB. 

 COVENT-GARDEN, _April 20, 1666_. At my Lady Verney's, the place of my residence. 

While Greatrakes acquired great celebrity on account of the numerouscures which he performed, he was unable to explain the nature of hishealing powers. In a letter to the Hon. Robert Boyle, he expressed thebelief that many of the pains which afflict men, are of the nature ofevil spirits. "Such pains, " wrote he, "cannot endure my hand, nay, notmy glove, but flye immediately, though six or eight coats and cloaks beput between the parties' body and my hand, as at York House, the LadyRanalough's and divers other places, since I came to London. "

VAN HELMONT

JOHANN BAPTIST VAN HELMONT, a celebrated Belgian physician, scholar andvisionary, of noble family, was born at Brussels in 1577. At an earlyage he began the study of medicine, and was appointed Professor ofSurgery at the University of Louvain. Becoming, however, infected withthe delusions of alchemy, and being possessed of an ardent imagination, he inclined naturally to the study of occult science, and was infatuatedwith the idea of discovering a universal remedy. He was, moreover, afollower of the eminent theologian, Johann Tauler (1290-1361), founderof mystic theology in Germany. Van Helmont has been described as anenthusiastic and fantastic, though upright friend of the truth. Headhered to the theosophic and alchemistic doctrines of a somewhatearlier epoch, and was an admirer of the dogmatic pseudo-philosophy ofParacelsus. 

The German writer, Johann Christian Ferdinand Hoefer (1811-1878), saidthat Van Helmont was much superior to Paracelsus, whom he took as hismodel. He had the permanent distinction of revealing scientifically theexistence of invisible, impalpable substances, namely gases. And he wasthe first to employ the word gas as the name of all elastic fluidsexcept common air. [260:1] Van Helmont graduated as Doctor of Medicine in1599, and after several years of study at different Europeanuniversities, he returned home and married Margaret van Ranst, a noblelady of Brabant. He then settled down on his estate at Vilvoorden, nearBrussels, where he remained until his death in 1644. 

Johann Hermann Baas, in his "History of Medicine, " characterizes him asa fertile genius in the department of chemistry, but denies that he wasa great and independent spirit, outrunning his age, or impressing uponit the stamp of his own individuality. Van Helmont, like many anotherirregular practitioner, achieved fame by some remarkable cures. It wassaid of him that his patients never languished long under his care, being always killed or cured within two or three days. He was frequentlycalled to attend those who had been given up by other physicians. And tothe latters' chagrin, such patients were often unexpectedly restored tohealth. [261:1]

A lover of the marvellous, and credulous to the point of superstition, Van Helmont became infatuated with erroneous doctrines. Hiscontemporaries, dazzled, it may be, by the brilliancy of his mentalpowers, regarded him as an erratic genius, but not as a charlatan. 

The term _spiritual_ vitalism has been applied to the philosophy of VanHelmont. He maintained that the primary cause of all organization was_Archaeus_ (Gr. ἀρχαῖος, primitive), a term said to have beeninvented by Basil Valentine, the German alchemist (born 1410). 

This has been defined as a spirit, or invisible man or animal, ofethereal substance, the counterpart of the visible body, within which itresides, and to which it imparts life, strength, and the power ofassimilating food. [261:2] _Archaeus_ was regarded as the creativespirit, which, working upon the raw material of water or fluidity, bymeans of a ferment promotes the various actions which result in thedevelopment and nutrition of the physical organism. As life and allvital action depended upon _archaeus_, any disturbance of this spiritwas regarded as the probable cause of fevers and other morbidconditions. 

FLUDD

ROBERT FLUDD, surnamed "the Searcher, " an English physician, writer andtheosophist, member of a knightly family, first saw the light atMilgate, Kent, in the year 1574. His father, Sir Thomas Fludd, wasTreasurer of War under Queen Elizabeth. Robert was a graduate of St. John's College, Oxford. 

After taking his degree in 1598, he followed the example of many anotherman of original mind, athirst for knowledge of the world, and led aroving life for six years, "in order to observe and collect what wascurious in nature, mysterious in arts, or profound in science. "

Returning to London in 1605, he entered the College of Physicians, andfour years later receiving a medical degree, he established himself athis house in Coleman Street, in the metropolis, where he remained untilhis death in 1637. 

Fludd was a voluminous writer, and one of the most famous _savants_ ofhis time. He was at once physician, chemist, mathematician, andphilosopher. But his chief reputation was due to his system oftheosophy. Profoundly imbued with mystical lore, he combined in anincomprehensible jumble the doctrines of the Cabalists and Paracelsians. William Enfield, in the "History of Philosophy, " remarks of thepeculiarity of this philosopher's turn of mind, that there was nothingwhich ancient or modern times could afford, under the notion of modernwisdom, which he did not gather into his magazine of science. Fludd wasreputed to be a man of piety and great learning, and was an adept in theso-called Rosicrucian philosophy. In his view, the whole world waspeopled with demons and spirits, and therefore the faithful physicianshould lay hold of the armor of God, for he has not to struggle againstflesh and blood. He published treatises on various subjects which arereplete with abstruse and visionary theories. The title of one of thesetreatises is as follows: "De Supernaturalis, Naturalis, Praeternaturalis, et Contranaturalis Microcosmi Historia, 1619. "

The phenomena of magnetism were ascribed by him to the irradiation ofangels. Robert Fludd enjoyed the acquaintance and friendship of manyscientists at home and abroad, and was without doubt one of the mostversatile and erudite of contemporary British scholars. 

He devoted much time to scientific experiments and natural philosophy, and constructed a variety of odd mechanisms, including an automaticdragon and a self-playing lyre. [264:1] Moreover, he was a believer inmystical faith-cures, and in the existence of a kind of dualism intherapeutics, whereby sickness and healing were produced by twoantagonistic forces. 

NOSTRADAMUS

MICHEL DE NOTREDAME, or NOSTRADAMUS, a celebrated French physician andastrologer, of Jewish ancestry, was born at Saint-Remi, a small town inProvence, December 14, 1503. Both of his grandfathers were practitionersof medicine, and his father, Jacques de Notredame, was a notary ofSaint-Remi. Michel studied medicine at Avignon and afterwards at theUniversity of Montpellier, where he took his degree. 

During the prevalence of an epidemic in the south of France, he acquireddistinction by his zealous ministrations to the stricken peasants, andmore especially by some remarkable cures attributed to a remedy of hisown invention. After the pestilence had subsided, Notredame devoted manyyears to travel, after which, in the year 1544, he settled at Salon, alittle town in the present Department of Bouches-du-Rhône. During asecond visitation of the plague, which raged in Provence, he accepted aninvitation from the authorities of Lyons and Aix to visit those places. Although his success in treating patients at this time served to enhancehis fame as a practitioner, his chief reputation was due to his capacityas an astrologer. He claimed moreover to have the faculty of reading thefuture, and became the subject of a bitter controversy. For while hegained many adherents abroad, in his own country he was regarded aslittle better than a charlatan. He became involved in controversies withhis professional _confrères_, who were jealous of his success anddoubtless also suspicious of his methods. 

It is worthy of note that the most notorious quacks, often men ofgenius and education, though mentally ill-balanced, and morally of lowstandards, have been great travellers and shrewd observers of the weakpoints in human nature. When such an one becomes ambitious to acquirewealth, he is likely to prove a dangerous person in the community. Notredame was regarded as a visionary by some of his contemporaries, while others believed him to have illicit correspondence with the Devil. Among those who were impressed by his pretensions as a soothsayer, wasCatherine de' Medici (regent for her son, Charles IX), who invited himto visit the French Court, where he was received as a distinguishedguest. 

Michel de Notredame published in 1555 his famous work entitled"Centuries, " a collection of prophecies, written in quatrains. His deathoccurred at Salon, July 2, 1566. 

We quote as follows from a rare volume, "The True Prophecies of MichelNostradamus, Physician to Henry II and Charles IX, Kings of France, translated by Theophilus de Garencieres, Doctor in Physick, London, 1672":

 He was popularly believed "to have naturally a genius for the knowing of future things, as he himself confesseth in 2 Epistles to King Henry II, and to Cæsar, his own son. And besides that genius, the knowledge of astrology did smooth him the way to discover many future events. He had a greater disposition than others to receive those supernatural lights, and as God is pleased to work sweetly in his creatures, and to give some forerunning dispositions to those graces he intendeth to bestow, it seemeth that to that purpose he did choose our author to reveal him so many wonderful secrets. We see every day that God in the distributing of his graces, carrieth Himself towards us according to our humours and natural inclinations. He employeth those that have a generous martial heart, for the defence of His Church, and the destruction of tyrants. 

 "He leadeth those of a melancholick humour into Colledges and Colisters, and cherisheth tenderly those that are of a meek and mild disposition. 

 "Even so, seeing that Nostradamus inclined to this kind of knowledge, He gave him in a great measure the grace of it. "

LILLY

WILLIAM LILLY, a famous English astrologer of yeoman ancestry, was bornat Diseworth, an obscure village in northwestern Leicestershire, May 1, 1602. In his autobiography he described his native place as a "town ofgreat rudeness, wherein it is not remembered that any of the farmersthereof, excepting my grandfather, did ever educate any of their sons tolearning. " His mother was Alice, daughter of Edward Barham, of FiskertonMills in Nottinghamshire. 

When eleven years of age, he was placed in the care of one John Brinsleyat Ashby-de-la-Zouch, not far from Diseworth. Here he receivedinstruction in the classics. In April, 1620, he went to London to seekhis fortune, and obtained employment as foot-boy and general factotum inthe family of one Gilbert Wright, of the parish of St. Clement Danes, aman of property, but without education. 

Not long after his master's death in 1627, Lilly married the widow, andbeing then in comfortable circumstances, devoted considerable time tothe pursuit of angling, and became fond of listening to Puritansermons. [268:1] Having abundant leisure, he was enabled to humor thenatural bent of his mind, and to begin the study of astrology, which hecontinued with zeal, devoting special attention to the magical circleand to the invocation of spirits. Keenly alive to the popular credulity, he claimed the possession of supernatural powers as a fortune-teller andsoothsayer, largely as a result of the study of the works of notedastrologers, including the "Ars Notoria" of Cornelius Agrippa. 

Becoming a prey to melancholy and hypochondria, he lived in retirementfor five years at Hersham in Surrey, and then returned to London in1641. At this time, wrote Lilly in his autobiography, "I took carefulnotice of every grand action between king and parliament, and did firstthen incline to believe that, as all sublunary affairs depend onsuperior causes, so there was a possibility of discovering them by theconfiguration of the heavens. "

In 1644 he published his first almanac, under the title, "MerlinusAngelicus Junior, the English Merlin Revived, or a MathematicalPrediction of the English Commonwealth. " This publication was issuedannually for nearly forty years, and found a ready sale, being shrewdlyadapted to the popular taste. Lilly was said to have acquiredconsiderable influence over the credulous monarch, Charles I, who waswont to consult him regarding political affairs. He was an adept in thewily arts of the charlatan, achieving notoriety by unscrupulous methods. Not a few of his exploits, wrote one of his biographers, indicate ratherthe quality of a clever police detective, than that of a profoundastrologer. 

After the Restoration, Lilly fell into disrepute, and again retired tohis estate at Hersham, where he began the study of Medicine, receiving alicense to practise in the year 1670, when sixty-eight years of age. Thenceforth he combined the professions of physic and astrology. Hisdeath occurred June 9, 1681. 

Among his publications are the following: "Mr. Lillie's Predictionconcerning the many lamentable Fires which have lately happened, with afull account of Fires at Home and Abroad. " 1676. "Strange news from theEast, or a sober account of the Comet or blazing star that has been seenseveral Mornings of late. " 1677. 

GASSNER

JOHANN JOSEPH GASSNER, who was regarded as a thaumaturge by hispartisans, and as a charlatan by his opponents, was born at Bratz, avillage of the Austrian Tyrol, August 20, 1727. He was educated atInnsbruck and Prague, became a priest, and settled at Coire, the capitalof the Swiss canton of Grisons. Here he remained for some fifteen years, ministering acceptably to his parishioners. It appears that he thenbecame impressed with the scriptural accounts of the healing ofdemoniacs, and devoted himself to the study of the works of famousmagicians. 

Gradually he acquired a reputation as a healer by means of the methodsof laying on of hands, conjuration and prayer. Many of the Tyrolesepeasantry flocked to him, as did their Irish brethren to Greatrakes. Gassner treated them all without recompense. He believed that theefficiency of his methods was dependent upon the degree of faith of hispatients. Some cases he affected to benefit by drugs, others by touch, and still others by exorcism. He was a pioneer in the employment ofsuggestion, while summoning to his aid the forces of religious faith, prayer and material remedies. 

The Bishop of Constance sent for Gassner, and after a carefulexamination of his methods and beliefs, became convinced of the purityof his character, and of his good faith. The bishop therefore permittedhim to continue his practice at Coire and its neighborhood. 

Gassner's reputation as a thaumaturge spread throughout Germany andadjacent countries, and he numbered among his patrons many persons ofinfluence. In 1774, upon invitation of the Bishop of Ratisbon, heremoved to Ellwangen, in Würtemberg, where he is said to have cured manyby the mere word of command, _Cesset_. He died at Bondorf, in theDiocese of Ratisbon, in the year 1779. 

The celebrated Dutch physician, Antoine de Haen, who was a contemporaryof Gassner, described the latter as a man of jovial temperament, and asworn foe to melancholy. He did not take advantage of the popularcredulity for his own pecuniary gain, and was therefore morally farabove the plane of an ordinary charlatan. 

FOOTNOTES:

[244:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, art. "Paracelsus. "

[244:2] Edward Theodore Withington, _Medical History_, p. 225. 

[246:1] _The History of Medicine. _

[246:2] P. V. Renouard, _History of Medicine_, p. 368. 

[247:1] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, art. "Medicine. "

[247:2] _Century Dictionary. _

[248:1] _Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine_, June, 1854. 

[257:1] _The Gentleman's Magazine_, part i; 1856. 

[258:1] John Timbs, _Doctors and Patients_, vol. Ii, p. 33. 

[260:1] Joseph Thomas, _Universal Dictionary of Biography_, art. "VanHelmont. "

[261:1] Rev. Hugh James Rose, _A New General Biographical Dictionary_. 

[261:2] _The Century Dictionary. _

[264:1] _The New International Encyclopædia. _

[268:1] Henry Lee, _Dictionary of National Biography_. 

INDEX

Abracadabra, 126. 

Amulets, 5, 6, 14, 60-62, 138. 

Ancient Irish physicians, 12, 13, 40. 

Ancient medical prescriptions, 155-164. 

Angel of gold, 83, 85. 

Animal magnetism, 143-154. 

Animals, effect of music upon, 176, 177, 180. 

Atharva-Veda, 133. 

Auto-suggestion, 217, 231. 

Blue-glass mania, 93-96. 

Chaldean medical amulets, 112. 

Charlatans, 201-238. 

Charms, 6, 9, 122-123, 125. 

Christian Science, 53-55. 

Correspondence between Christ and King Abgar, 35-37. 

Curative spells, 41, 42, 45. 

Demonology, the doctrine of, 209, 210. 

Demons of disease, 206. 

Devil, the, 205-211. 

Divination, 117. 

Dreams, the interpretation of, 98. 

Druids, the, 12, 13, 75, 129. 

Edible letters, 50. 

Edible prescriptions, 51. 

Egyptian medicine, 117-120. 

Ephesian letters, 128-129. 

Fairy-women, 13, 109. 

Grigris, 45. 

Healing by manual stroking, 76. 

Healing-spells, 111-134, 138. 

Hydro-therapy, 97, 101. 

Hypnotism, 153, 154. 

Imagination, the curative power of, 53-72, 145, 151. 

Incantations, 9, 39, 47, 109, 113, 114, 134, 205. 

Incubation, 101-104. 

Intermittent fever, remarkable cure for, 131, 132. 

King's Evil, 73-92. 

Kneipp cure, 53. 

Laying on of hands, 73-92. 

Magical healing formulas, 10, 11, 13, 26. 

Mantras, 37, 60. 

Medical amulets, 3, 9, 15, 17. 

Medicine, irregular practitioners of, 243-272. 

Medieval physicians, 14. 

Mesmerism, 146-151. 

Metallic tractors, 139. 

Metallo-therapy, 139-142. 

Music, as a cure for tarantism, 197-200; as a medicine, 189; at banquets, 180-184; at hospitals, 193; distasteful to some persons, 186; healing influence of, 172-200. 

New York City, quackery in, 237. 

Oracles, 98-99. 

Pentacle, the, 20, 21. 

Phylacteries, 24-29. 

Power of words, the, 30-52. 

Protective charms, 46-48. 

Psychological methods in Medicine, 56-59. 

Psycho-therapy in ancient times, 114-115. 

Quacks and Quackery, 201-238. 

Quack, derivation of the word, 202. 

Quack remedies, 220. 

Quake-doctors, 203. 

℞, medical symbol, 156, 157. 

Relics, healing qualities attributed to, 165-171. 

Royal touch, the, 73-92. 

Runic Inscriptions, 135-138, 214. 

Saphies, 45, 49. 

Snail as an article of diet, 39. 

Spell against gout, 130-131. 

Spirit-cheering pills, 159. 

Styptic charms, 105-110. 

Suggestion, 16, 63, 86, 140, 151, 231. 

Sympathetic powder, 145. 

Talismans, 19-23. 

Temples of Esculapius, 97-104. 

Toothache charms, 64-66. 

Touch-pieces, 79, 80, 86. 

Unicorn's horn, 161-164. 

_Vis medicatrix naturæ_, 66, 69-72, 105. 

Weapon-salve, 143-144. 

Words, the power of, 30-52, 111, 126. 

Transcriber's Notes:

The following corrections have been made to the text:

 page 44, Footnote 44-4: Proverbs, xvii, v. [original has p. ] 22. 

 page 154: representation to him. [original has extraneous quotation mark]

 page 186: best concert he ever heard. [original has extraneous quotation mark]

 page 275: Oracles, 98-99[original has 88, 89]. 

 page 276: Saphies, 45, 49[original has 48]. 

The following words appear with and without a hyphen. They have beenleft as in the original. 

 Psycho-therapy Psychotherapy sooth-sayers soothsayers star-craft starcraft sub-conscious subconscious

The following words have variant spellings. They have been left as inthe original. 

 Chirurgians Chyrurgians physick Physick Physicke practice practise practised Theodore Théodore

On page 219, the word "sorcery" is misspelled "scorcery". Since itoccurs in quoted material, it has been left as in the original. 

Ellipses match the original.