PEN DRAWING

AN ILLUSTRATED TREATISE

BY CHARLES D. MAGINNIS

F. A. I. A. , LL. D. 

FELLOW AM. ACAD. ARTS AND SCIENCES

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ILLUSTRATION, COWLES ART SCHOOL

INSTRUCTOR IN PEN DRAWING, BOSTON ARCHITECTURAL CLUB

SEVENTH EDITION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

To Mr. David A. Gregg and to Mr. Bertram G. Goodhue, who have generouslymade special drawings for this little book, and to the Publisherswho have courteously allowed me to make use of illustrations ownedby them, my thanks and my cordial acknowledgements are due. 

 C. D. M. 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1. JOSEPH PENNELL. From _The Century Magazine_ (The Century Co: New York) 2. MAXIME LALANNE. From "La Hollande à Vol d'Oiseau, " by H. Havard (A. Quantin: Paris) 3. MAXIME LALANNE. From "La Hollande à Vol d'Oiseau, " by H. Havard (A. Quantin: Paris) 4. RESTORATION HOUSE, ROCHESTER, ENGLAND. Drawing from a Photograph 5. JOSEPH PENNELL. From "Highways and Byways in North Wales" (Macmillan & Co: London) 6. BERTRAM G. GOODHUE. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 7. HERBERT RAILTON. From "Coaching Days and Coaching Ways, " by W. Outram Tristram (Macmillan & Co: London) 8. BERTRAM G. GOODHUE. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 9. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 10. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 11. MARTIN RICO. From _La Ilustracion Española y Americana_ 12. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 13. DANIEL VIERGE. From "Pablo de Ségovie, " by Francisco de Quevedo (Léon Bonhoure: Paris) 14. MARTIN RICO. From _La Ilustracion Española y Americana_ 15. ALFRED BRENNAN. From _St. Nicholas_ (The Century Co: New York) 16. LESLIE WILLSON. From _Pick-Me-Up_ (London) 17. DRAWING FROM PHOTOGRAPH. From _Harper's Magazine_ (Harper & Brothers: New York) 18. JOSEPH PENNELL. From "The Sâone: A Summer Voyage, " by Philip Gilbert Hamerton (Seeley & Co: London) 19. JOSEPH PENNELL. From "The Sâone: A Summer Voyage, " by Philip Gilbert Hamerton (Seeley & Co: London) 20. JOSEPH PENNELL. From _Harper's Magazine_ (Harper & Brothers: New York) 21. E. DANTAN. From _L'Art_ (Paris) 22. J. F. RAFFAËLLI. From _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (Paris) 23. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 24. D. A. GREGG. From "Architectural Rendering in Pen and Ink, " by D. A. Gregg (Ticknor & Co: Boston) 25. DANIEL VIERGE. From "Pablo de Ségovie, " by Francisco de Quevedo (Léon Bonhoure: Paris) 26. DANIEL VIERGE. From "Pablo de Ségovie, " by Francisco de Quevedo (Léon Bonhoure: Paris) 27. HARRY FENN. From _The Century Magazine_ (The Century Co: New York) 28. REGINALD BIRCH. From _The Century Magazine_ (The Century Co: New York) 29. JOSEPH PENNELL. From _The Century Magazine_ (The Century Co: New York) 30. BERTRAM G. GOODHUE. From _The Architectural Review_ (Bates & Guild Co: Boston) 31. JOSEPH PENNELL. From "Charing Cross to St. Paul's, " by Justin McCarthy (Seeley & Co: London) 32. LEONARD RAVEN HILL. From _Pick-Me-Up_ (London) 33. DANIEL VIERGE. From "Pablo de Ségovie, " by Francisco de Quevedo (Léon Bonhoure: Paris) 34. P. G. JEANNIOT. From _La Vie Moderne_ (Paris) 35. PORCH OF AN ENGLISH CHURCH. From a Photograph 36. D. A. GREGG. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 37. NORMANDY MOAT-HOUSE. From a Photograph 38. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 39. STREET IN HOLLAND. From a Photograph 40. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 41. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 42. GEORGE F. NEWTON. From "Catalogue of the Philadelphia & Boston Face Brick Co. " (Boston) 43. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 44. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 45. FRANK E. WALLIS. From _The Engineering Record_ 46. HARRY ALLAN JACOBS. From _The Architectural Review_ (Bates & Guild Co: Boston) 47. D. A. GREGG. From "Architectural Rendering in Pen and Ink, " by D. A. Gregg (Ticknor & Co: Boston) 48. D. A. GREGG. From _The Brickbuilder_ (Rogers & Manson: Boston) 49. HERBERT RAILTON. From "Coaching Days and Coaching Ways, " by W. Outram Tristram (Macmillan & Co: London) 50. D. A. GREGG. From _The American Architect_ (The American Architect and Building News Co: Boston) 51. WALTER M. CAMPBELL. From _The American Architect_ (The American Architect and Building News Co: Boston) 52. HERBERT RAILTON. From "Coaching Days and Coaching Ways, " by W. Outram Tristram (Macmillan & Co: London) 53. A. F. JACCACI. From _The Century Magazine_ (The Century Co: New York) 54. CLAUDE FAYETTE BRAGDON. From _The Brickbuilder_ (Rogers & Manson: Boston) 55. HARVEY ELLIS. From _The Inland Architect_ (The Inland Publishing Co: Chicago) 56. C. E. MALLOWS. From _The British Architect_ (London) 57. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 58. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 59. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 60. C. D. M. Drawn for "Pen Drawing" 61. A. B. FROST. From _Scribner's Magazine_ (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York) 62. ALFRED G. JONES. From a Book Plate 63. WALTER APPLETON CLARK. From _Scribner's Magazine_ (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York). 64. A. CAMPBELL CROSS. From _Quartier Latin_ (Paris) 65. MUCHA. From a Poster Design 66. HOWARD PYLE. From "Otto of the Silver Hand, " by Howard Pyle (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York) 67. WILL H. BRADLEY. From a Poster Design for _The Chap-Book_ (Herbert S. Stone & Co: Chicago) 68. P. J. BILLINGHURST. From a Book Plate 69. "BEGGARSTAFF BROTHERS. " From a Poster Design 70. EDWARD PENFIELD. From a Design for the "Poster Calendar" (R. H. Russell & Son: New York) 71. LOUIS J. RHEAD. From a Poster Design for "Lundborg's Perfumes" 72. J. W. SIMPSON. From a Book Plate

CONTENTS

 CHAPTER I. --Style in Pen Drawing CHAPTER II. --Materials CHAPTER III. --Technique CHAPTER IV. --Values CHAPTER V. --Practical Problems CHAPTER VI. --Architectural Drawing CHAPTER VII. --Decorative Drawing

CHAPTER I

STYLE IN PEN DRAWING

Art, with its finite means, cannot hope to record the infinitevariety and complexity of Nature, and so contents itself with apartial statement, addressing this to the imagination for the fulland perfect meaning. This inadequation, and the artificial adjustmentswhich it involves, are tolerated by right of what is known as artisticconvention; and as each art has its own particular limitations, soeach has its own particular conventions. Sculpture reproduces theforms of Nature, but discards the color without any shock to ourideas of verity; Painting gives us the color, but not the thirddimension, and we are satisfied; and Architecture is _purely_conventional, since it does not even aim at the imitation of naturalform. 

[Sidenote: _The Conventions of Line Drawing_]

Of the kindred arts which group themselves under the head of Painting, none is based on such broad conventions as that with which we areimmediately concerned--the art of Pen Drawing. In this medium, Nature's variety of color, when not positively ignored, is suggestedby means of sharp black lines, of varying thickness, placed more orless closely together upon white paper; while natural form dependsprimarily for its representation upon arbitrary boundary lines. There is, of course, no authority in Nature for a positive outline:we see objects only by the difference in color of the other objectsbehind and around them. The technical capacity of the pen and inkmedium, however, does not provide a value corresponding to everynatural one, so that a broad interpretation has to be adopted whicheliminates the less positive values; and, that form may not likewisebe sacrificed, the outline becomes necessary, that light objects maystand relieved against light. This outline is the most characteristic, as it is the most indispensable, of the conventions of line drawing. To seek to abolish it only involves a resort to expedients no lessartificial, and the results of all such attempts, dependent asthey necessarily are upon elaboration of color, and a generalindirectness of method, lack some of the best characteristics ofpen drawing. More frequently, however, an elaborate color-schemeis merely a straining at the technical limitations of the pen inan effort to render the greatest possible number of values. 

It may be worth while to inquire whether excellence in pen drawingconsists in thus dispensing with its recognized conventions, orin otherwise taxing the technical resources of the instrument. This involves the question of Style, --of what characteristic penmethods are, --a question which we will briefly consider. 

[Side note: _What Constituted "Style"_]

It is a recognized principle that every medium of art expressionshould be treated with due regard to its nature and properties. The sculptor varies his technique according as he works in wood, granite, or marble; the painter handles his water-color in quiteanother manner than that he would employ on an oil-painting ofthe same subject; and the architect, with the subtle sense of thecraftsman, carries this principle to such a fine issue as to impartan individual expression even to particular woods. He knows thatwhat may be an admirable design when executed in brass may be avery bad one in wrought-iron and is sure to be an absurdity inwood. An artistic motive for a silver flagon, too, is likely toprove ugly for pottery or cut-glass, and so on. There is a genius, born of its particular properties, in every medium, which demandsindividual expression. Observe, therefore, that Art is not satisfiedwith mere unrelated beauty of form or color. It requires that theresult confess some sensible relation to the means by which it hasbeen obtained; and in proportion as it does this, it may claimto possess that individual and distinctive charm which we call"Style. " It may be said, therefore, that the technical limitationsof particular mediums impose what might properly be called naturalconventions; and while misguided ambition may set these conventionsaside to hammer out effects from an unwilling medium, the triumphis only mechanical; Art does not lie that way. 

[Side note: _The Province of the Pen_]

Ought the pen, then, to be persuaded into the province of the brush?Since the natures of the two means differ, it does not stultifythe water-color that it cannot run the deep gamut of oil. Even ifthe church-organ be the grandest and most comprehensive of musicalinstruments we may still be permitted to cherish our piano. Eachhas its own sphere, its own reason for being. So of the pen, --thepiccolo flute of the artistic orchestra. Let it pipe its high trebleas merrily as it may, but do not coerce it into mimicking the bassoon. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1 JOSEPH PENNELL]

Pen drawing is most apt to lose its individuality when it beginsto assume the characteristics of wash-drawing, such as an elaboratemassing of grays, small light areas, and a general indirectnessof method. A painter once told me that he was almost afraid tohandle the pen, --"It is so fearfully direct, " he said. He understoodthe instrument, certainly, for if there is one characteristic morethan another which should distinguish pen methods it is Directness. The nature of the pen seems to mark as its peculiar function thatof picking out the really vital features of a subject. Pen drawinghas been aptly termed the "shorthand of Art;" the genius of thepen-point is essentially epitome. 

If we turn to the brush, we find its capacity such that a highlight may be brought down to a minute fraction of an inch with afew swift strokes of it; whereas the tedious labor, not to speakof the actual technical difficulties, encountered in attempting suchan effect of color with pen and ink, indicates that we are forcingthe medium. Moreover, it is technically impossible to reproducewith the pen the low values which may be obtained with the brush;and it is unwise to attempt it. The way, for example, in whichMr. Joseph Pennell handles his pen as compared with that in whichhe handles his brush is most instructive as illustrating what Ihave been maintaining. His pen drawings are pitched in a highkey, --brilliant blacks and large light areas, with often just enoughhalf-tone to soften the effect. His wash-drawings, on the contrary, are so utterly different in manner as to have nothing in commonwith the others, distinguished as they are by masses of low toneand small light areas. Compare Figs. 1 and 5. Observe that thereis no straining at the technical capacity of the pen or of thebrush; no attempt to obtain an effect in one medium which seems tobe more naturally adapted to the other. Individuality is impartedto each by a frank concession to its peculiar genius. 

[Illustration: FIG. 2 MAXIME LALANNE]

[Side note: _Examples of Good Style_]

I have said that the chief characteristic of pen methods is Directness. I think I may now say that the chief element of style is Economyof Means. The drawing by M. Maxime Lalanne shown in Fig. 2 is anexcellent example of this economy carried to its extreme. Not astroke could be spared, so direct and simple is it, and yet itis so complete and homogenous that nothing could be added to makeit more so. The architecture is left without color, and yet we aremade to feel that it is not white--this subtle suggestion of lowcolor being obtained by a careful avoidance of any strong blacknotes in the rendering, which would have intensified the whitesand lighted up the picture. Fig. 3, by the same artist, is evenmore notable by reason of the masterly breadth which characterizesthe treatment of a most complicated subject. A comparison of thesewith a drawing of the Restoration House, at Rochester, England, Fig. 4, is instructive. In the latter the method is almost painfullyelaborate; nothing of the effect is obtained by suggestion. Thetechnique is varied and interesting, but the whole drawing lacks thatindividual something which we call Style. In the Lalanne drawings wesee foliage convincingly represented by means of the mere outlinesand a few subtle strokes of the pen. There is no attempt at theliteral rendering of natural objects in detail, all is accomplishedby suggestion: and while I do not wish to be understood as insistingupon such a severely simple style, much less upon the purist theorythat the function of the pen is concerned with form alone, I wouldimpress upon the student that Lalanne's is incomparably the finermanner of the two. 

[Illustration: FIG. 3 MAXIME LALANNE]

[Illustration: FIG. 4 FROM A PHOTOGRAPH]

[Illustration: FIG. 5 JOSEPH PENNELL]

[Side note: _A Word of Advice_]

Between these two extremes of method there is a wide latitude forindividual choice. Contrast with the foregoing the accompanyingpen drawing by Mr. Pennell, Fig. 5, which gives a fair idea of themanner of this admirable stylist. Compared with the sketches byLalanne it has more richness of color, but there is the same finerestraint, the same nice regard for the instrument. The studentwill find it most profitable to study the work of this masterlypenman. By way of warning, however, let me remind him here, that instudying the work of any accomplished draughtsman he is selectinga style for the study of principles, not that he may learn to mimicsomebody, however excellent the somebody may be; that he must, therefore, do a little thinking himself; that he has an individualityof his own which he does not confess if his work looks like someone's else; and, finally, that he has no more right to consciouslyappropriate the peculiarities of another's style than he has toappropriate his more tangible property, and no more reason to doso than he has to walk or talk like him. 

CHAPTER II

MATERIALS

Every illustrator has his special predilections in the matter ofmaterials, just as he has in the matter of methods. The purposeof this chapter is, therefore, rather to assist the choice of thestudent by limiting it than to choose for him. It would be advisablefor him to become acquainted with the various materials that I mayhave occasion to mention (all of them are more or less employedby the prominent penmen), and a partiality for particular ones willsoon develop itself. He is reminded, however, that it is easilypossible to exaggerate the intrinsic values of pens and papers;in fact the beginner invariably expects too much from them. Ofcourse, he should not use any but the best, --even Vierge couldnot make a good drawing with a bad pen, --but the artistic virtuesof a particular instrument are not likely to disclose themselvesin the rude scratchings of the beginner. He has to master it, to"break it in, " ere he can discover of what excellent service itis capable. 

[Side note: _Pens_]

The student will find that most of the steel pens made for artistshave but a short period of usefulness. When new they are even moreunresponsive than when they are old. At first they are disposed togive a hard, wiry line, then they grow sympathetic, and, finally, lose their temper, when they must be immediately thrown away. Asa general rule, the more delicate points are better suited to thesmooth surfaces, where they are not likely to get tripped up and"shaken" by the roughness in the paper. 

To begin with the smaller points, the "Gillott Crow-quill" is anexcellent instrument. The normal thickness of its line is extremelysmall, but so beautifully is the nib made that it will respondvigorously to a big sweeping stroke. I say a "sweeping stroke, "as its capacity is not to be taxed for uniformly big lines. Anequally delicate point, which surpasses the crow-quill in range, is "Gillott's Mapping-pen. " It is astonishing how large a linemay be made with this instrument. It responds most nimbly to thedemands made upon it, and in some respects reminds one of a brush. It has a short life, but it may be a merry one. Mr. Pennell makesmention of a pen, "Perry's Auto-Stylo, " which seems to possessan even more wonderful capacity, but of this I cannot speak fromexperience. A coarser, but still a small point, is the "Gillott192"--a good pen with a fairly large range; and, for any othersthan the smooth papers, a pen smaller than this will probably befound undesirable for general use. A shade bigger than this isthe "Gillott 303, " a very good average size. Neither of these twopossesses the sensitiveness of those previously mentioned, butfor work demanding more or less uniformity of line they will befound more satisfactory. The smaller points are liable to lead oneinto the quagmire of finicalness. When we get beyond the next insize, the "Gillott 404, " there is nothing about the coarse steelpoints to especially commend them for artistic use. They are usuallystupid, unreliable affairs, whose really valuable existence isabout fifteen working minutes. For decorative drawing the ordinarycommercial "stub" will be found a very satisfactory instrument. Of course one may use several sizes of pens in the same drawing, and it is often necessary to do so. 

Before leaving the steel pens, the "double-line pen" may be mentioned, though it has only a limited sphere. It is a two-pointed arrangement, practically two pens in one, by means of which parallel lines maybe made with one stroke. Rather interesting effects can be obtainedwith it, but on the whole it is most valuable as a curiosity. Thoughsomewhat out of fashion for general use, the quill of our fathers isfavored by many illustrators. It is splendidly adapted for broad, vigorous rendering of foreground effects, and is almost dangerouslyeasy to handle. Reed pens, which have somewhat similar virtues, are now little employed, and cannot be bought. They have to becut from the natural reed, and used while fresh. For many usesin decorative drawing one of the most satisfactory instruments isthe glass pen, which gives an absolutely uniform line. The pointbeing really the end of a thin tube, the stroke may be made in anydirection, a most unique characteristic in a pen. It has, however, the disadvantages of being friable and expensive; and, as it needsto be kept clean, the patent water-proof ink should not be used withit unless absolutely necessary. A flat piece of cork or rubber shouldbe placed inside the ink-bottle when this pen is used, otherwise itis liable to be smashed by striking the bottom of the bottle. Thefaculty possessed by the Japanese brush of retaining its pointrenders it also available for use as a pen, and it is often soemployed. 

[Side note: _Inks_]

In drawing for reproduction, the best ink is that which is blackestand least shiny. Until a few years ago it was the custom of penmento grind their India ink themselves; but, besides the difficulty ofalways ensuring the proper consistency, it was a cumbersome method, and is now little resorted to, especially as numerous excellentprepared inks are ready to hand. The better known of these preparedinks are, "Higgins' American" (general and waterproof), Bourgeois'"Encre de Chine Liquide, " "Carter's, " "Winsor & Newton's, " and"Rowney's. " Higgins' and Carter's have the extrinsic advantagesof being put up in bottles which do not tip over on the slightestprovocation, and of being furnished with stoppers which can behandled without smearing the fingers. Otherwise, they cannot besaid to possess superiority over the others, certainly not overthe "Encre de Chine Liquide. " Should the student have occasionto draw over salt-prints he will find it wise to use waterproofink, as the bleaching acid which is used to fade the photographicimage may otherwise cause the ink to run. 

[Side note: _Papers_]

Bristol-board is probably the most popular of all surfaces forpen drawing. It is certainly that most approved by the processengraver, whose point of view in such a matter, though a purelymechanical one, is worthy of consideration. It has a perfectlysmooth surface, somewhat difficult to erase from with rubber, andwhich had better be scratched with a knife when any considerableerasure is necessary. As the cheap boards are merely a paddingveneered on either side with a thin coating of smooth paper, littlescraping is required to develop a fuzzy surface upon which it isimpossible to work. Only the best board, such as Reynolds', therefore, should be used. Bristol-board can be procured in sheets of variousthicknesses as well as in blocks. 

Whatman's "hot-pressed" paper affords another excellent surfaceand possesses some advantages over the Bristol-board. It comesin sheets of various sizes, which may be either tacked down ona board or else "stretched. " Tacking will be satisfactory enoughif the drawing is small and is to be completed in a few hours;otherwise the paper is sure to "hump up, " especially if the weatherbe damp. The process of stretching is as follows: Fold up the edgesof the sheet all around, forming a margin about an inch wide. Aftermoistening the paper thoroughly with a damp sponge, cover the underside of this turned-up margin with photographic paste or strongmucilage. During this operation the sheet will have softened and"humped up, " and will admit of stretching. Now turn down the adhesivemargin and press it firmly with the fingers, stretching the papergently at the same time. As this essential part of the process mustbe performed quickly, an assistant is requisite when the sheetis large. Care should be taken that the paper is not strained toomuch, as it is then likely to burst when it again contracts. 

Although generally employed for watercolor drawing, Whatman's"cold-pressed" paper has some advantages as a pen surface. Slightlyroughish in texture, it gives an interesting broken line, whichis at times desirable. 

A peculiar paper which has considerable vogue, especially in Franceand England, is what is known as "clay-board. " Its surface is composedof China clay, grained in various ways, the top of the grain beingmarked with fine black lines which give a gray tone to the paper, darker or lighter according to the character of the pattern. Thistone provides the middle-tint for the drawing. By lightly scrapingwith a sharp penknife or scratcher, before or after the pen workis done, a more delicate gray tone may be obtained, while vigorousscraping will produce an absolute white. With the pen work added, it will be seen that a good many values are possible; and, if thedrawing be not reduced more than one-third, it will print excellently. The grain, running as it does in straight lines, offers a good dealof obstruction to the pen, however, so that a really good line isimpossible. 

Thin letter-paper is sometimes recommended for pen and ink work, chiefly on account of its transparency, which obviates the necessityof re-drawing after a preliminary sketch has been worked up inpencil. Over the pencil study a sheet of the letter-paper is placedon which the final drawing may be made with much deliberation. Bondpaper, however, possesses the similar advantage of transparencybesides affording a better texture for the pen. 

CHAPTER III

TECHNIQUE

[Side note: _The Individual Line_]

The first requirement of a good pen technique is a good IndividualLine, a line of feeling and quality. It is usually a surprise tothe beginner to be made aware that the individual line is a thingof consequence, --a surprise due, without doubt, to the apparentlycareless methods of some successful illustrators. It is to be bornein mind, however, that some illustrators are successful in spiteof their technique rather than because of it; and also that theapparently free and easy manner of some admirable technicians isin reality very much studied, very deliberate, and not at all tobe confounded with the unsophisticated scribbling of the beginner. The student is apt to find it just about as easy to draw like Mr. Pennell as to write like Mr. Kipling. The best way to acquire sucha superb freedom is to be very, very careful and painstaking. Toappreciate how beautiful the individual line may be one has butto observe the rich, decorative stroke of Howard Pyle, Fig. 66, or that of Mucha, Fig. 65, the tender outline of Boutet de Monvel, the telling, masterly sweep of Gibson, or the short, crisp line ofVierge or Rico. Compared with any of these the line of the beginnerwill be either feeble and tentative, or harsh, wiry, and coarse. 

[Illustration: FIG. 6 B. G. GOODHUE]

[Illustration: FIG. 7 HERBERT RAILTON]

[Side note: _Variety of Line_]

The second requisite is Variety of Line, --not merely variety ofsize and direction, but, since each line ought to exhibit a feelingfor the particular texture which it is contributing to express, variety of character. Mr. Gibson's manner of placing very delicategray lines against a series of heavy black strokes exemplifiessome of the possibilities of such variety. Observe, in Fig. 6, what significance is imparted to the heavy lines on the roof ofthe little foreground building by the foil of delicate gray linesin the sky and surrounding roofs. This conjunction was employedearly by Mr. Herbert Railton, who has made a beautiful use of itin his quaint architectural subjects. Mr. Railton's technique isremarkable also for the varied direction of line and its expressionof texture. Note this characteristic in his drawing of buttresses, Fig. 7. 

[Illustration: FIG. 8 B. G. GOODHUE]

[Illustration: FIG. 9 C. D. M. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 10 C. D. M. ]

[Side note: _Economy of Method_]

The third element of good technique is Economy and Directness ofMethod. A tone should not be built up of a lot of meaningless strokes. Each line ought, sensibly and directly, to contribute to the ultimateresult. The old mechanical process of constructing tones bycross-hatching is now almost obsolete. It is still employed bymodern pen draughtsmen, but it is only one of many resources, andis used with nice discrimination. At times a cross-hatch is verydesirable and very effective, --as, for example, in affording asubdued background for figures having small, high lights. A verypretty use of it is seen in the tower of Mr. Goodhue's drawing, Fig. 8. Observe here how the intimate treatment of the roofs isenhanced and relieved by the foil of closely-knit hatch on thetower-wall, and how effective is the little area of it at the baseof the spire. The cross-hatch also affords a satisfactory methodof obtaining deep, quiet shadows. See the archway "B" in Fig. 9. On the whole, however, the student is advised to accustom himselfto a very sparing use of this expedient. Compare the two effects inFig. 9, Some examples of good and bad cross-hatching are illustratedin Fig. 10. Those marked "I" and "J" may be set down as bad, beingtoo coarse. The only satisfactory cross-hatch at a large scale wouldseem to be that shown in "N, " where lines cross at a sharp angle;and this variety is effectively employed by figure illustrators. Perhaps no better argument against the necessity for thus buildingup tones could be adduced than the little drawing by Martin Rico, shown in Fig. 11. Notice what a beautiful texture he gives to theshadow where it falls on the street, how it differs from that onthe walls, how deep and closely knit it all is, and yet that thereis absolutely no cross-hatching. Remark, also, how the texturesof the walls and roof and sky are obtained. The student would dowell to copy such a drawing as this, or a portion of it, at least, on a larger scale, as much can be learned from it. 

[Illustration: FIG. 11 MARTIN RICO]

[Size note: _Methods of Tone-Making_]

I have shown various methods of making a tone in Fig. 12. It will beobserved that Rico's shadow, in Fig. 11, is made up of a combinationof "B" and "C, " except that he uses "B" horizontally, and makesthe line heavy and dragging. The clear, crisp shadows of Viergeare also worthy of study for the simplicity of method. This isbeautifully illustrated in the detail, Fig. 13. It would be impossibleto suggest atmosphere more vibrating with sunlight; a result dueto the transparency of the shadows, the lines of which are sharpand clean, with never a suggestion of cross-hatch. Notice how thelines of the architectural shadows are stopped abruptly at times, giving an emphasis which adds to the brilliancy of the effect. Thedrawing of the buildings on the canal, by Martin Rico, Fig. 14, ought also to be carefully studied in this connection. Observe howthe shadow-lines in this drawing, as in that previously mentioned, are made to suggest the direction of the sunlight, which is high inthe heavens. An example of all that is refined and excellent inpen technique is the drawing by Mr. Alfred Brennan, Fig. 15. Thestudent would do well to study this carefully for its marvellousbeauty of line. There is little hatching, and yet the tones are deepand rich. The wall tone will be found to be made up similarly to "A"and "H" in Fig. 12. The tone "B" in the same Figure is made up oflines which are thin at the ends and big in the middle, fitting intoeach other irregularly, and imparting a texture somewhat differentfrom that obtained by the abrupt ending of the strokes of "A. " Thismethod is also employed by Brennan, and is a very effective one. A good example of the use of this character of line (unknitted, however) is the drawing by Mr. Leslie Willson, Fig. 16. The irregularline "C" has good possibilities for texture, and the wavy characterof "D" is most effective in the rendering of shadows, giving acertain vibration to the atmosphere. "E" and "F" suggest a freermethod of rendering a tone; while "G" shows a scribbling line thatis sometimes employed to advantage. The very interesting texture ofthe coat, Fig. 17, is made with a horizontal line having a similarreturn stroke, as may be noticed where the rendering ends. There aretimes when an irresponsible sort of line is positively desirable, --sayfor rough foreground suggestion or for freeing the picture at theedges. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12 C. D. M. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 13 DANIEL VIERGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 14 MARTIN RICO]

[Illustration: FIG. 15 ALFRED BRENNAN]

[Illustration: FIG. 16 LESLIE WILLSON]

[Size note: _Outline_]

I have invariably found that what presents the chief difficultyto the student of pen and ink is the management of the Outline. When it is realized that, by mere outline, one may express thetexture of a coat or a tree or a wall without any rendering whatever, it will be seen that nothing in pen drawing is really of so muchimportance. Notice, for example, the wonderful drawing of the dogin Fig. 34. Again, if a connected line had been used to definethe corners of Railton's buttresses in Fig. 7 all the texture, would have been destroyed. Instead of this he has used a brokenoutline, sometimes omitting it altogether for a considerable space. On the ledges, too, the lines are broken. In Rico's drawing, Fig. 11, all the outlines may be observed to have a break here and there. This broken line is particularly effective in out-door subjects, as it helps to suggest sunlit atmosphere as well as texture. 

[Illustration: FIG. 17 DRAWING FROM A PHOTOGRAPH]

Architectural outlines, however, are not particularly subtle; itis when we come to render anything with vague boundaries, such asfoliage or clouds for example, that the chief difficulties areencountered. Foliage is an important element of landscape drawingand deserves more than passing consideration. To make a successfulrendering of a tree in pen and ink the tree must be first well drawnin pencil. It is absolutely impossible to obtain such a charmingeffect of foliage as that shown in Mr. Pennell's sketch, Fig. 18, without the most painstaking preparation in pencil. The successof this result is not attributable merely to the difference intextures, nor to the direction or character of the line; it isfirst of all a matter of good drawing. The outline should be freeand subtle so as to suggest the edges of leafage, and the holesnear the edges should be accented, otherwise they will be lostand the tree will look solid and characterless. Observe, in thesame drawing, how Mr. Pennell suggests the structure of the leafageby the irregular outlines which he gives to the different series oflines, and which he emphasizes by bringing the lines to an abruptstop. Observe also how the stronger texture of the tree in Fig. 19is obtained by making the lines with greater abruptness. Compareboth of these Figures with the foreground trees by the same artistin Fig. 20. The last is a brilliant example of foliage drawingin pen and ink. 

[Illustration: FIG. 18 JOSEPH PENNELL]

[Illustration: FIG. 19 JOSEPH PENNELL]

[Illustration: FIG. 20 JOSEPH PENNELL]

[Illustration: FIG. 21 E. DANTAN]

[Side note: _Textures_]

The matter of Textures is very important, and the student shouldlearn to differentiate them as much as possible. This is done, as I have already said, by differences in the size and characterof the line, and in the closeness or openness of the rendering. Observe the variety of textures in the drawing of the sculptorby Dantan, Fig. 21. The coat is rendered by such a cross-hatchas "N" in Fig. 10, made horizontally and with heavy lines. In thetrousers the lines do not cross but fit in together. This is anexcellent example for study, as is also the portrait by Raffaëlli, Fig. 22. The textures in the latter drawing are wonderfully wellconveved, --the hard, bony face, the stubby beard, and the woolencap with its tassel in silhouette. For the expression of texturewith the least effort the drawings of Vierge are incomparable. The architectural drawing by Mr. Gregg in Fig. 50 is well worthcareful study in this connection, as are all of Herbert Railton'sadmirable drawings of old English houses. (I recommend the studyof Mr. Railton's work with a good deal of reservation, however. While it is admirable in respect of textures and fascinating in itscolor, the values are likely to be most unreal, and the mannerismsare so pronounced and so tiresome that I regard it as much inferiorto that of Mr. Pennell, whose architecture always _appears_, atleast, to have been honestly drawn on the spot. )

[Illustration: FIG. 22 J. F. RAFFAËLLI]

The hats in Fig. 10 are merely suggestions to the student in thestudy of elementary combinations of line in expressing textures. 

[Side note: _Drawing for Reproduction_]

As the mechanical processes of Reproduction have much to do withdetermining pen methods they become important factors for consideration. While their waywardness and inflexibility are the cause of no littledistress to the illustrator, the limitations of processes cannotbe said, on the whole, to make for inferior standards in drawing, as will be seen by the following rules which they impose, and forwhich a strict regard will be found most advisable. 

First: Make each line clear and distinct. Do not patch up a weakline or leave one which has been broken or blurred by rubbing, forhowever harmless or even interesting it may seem in your originalit will almost certainly be neither in the reproduction. When youmake mistakes, erase the offensive part completely, or, if youare working on Bristol-board and the area of unsatisfactorinessbe considerable, paste a fresh piece of paper over it and redraw. 

Second: Keep your work open. Aim for economy of line. If a shadowcan be rendered with twenty strokes do not crowd in forty, as youwill endanger its transparency. Remember that in reproduction thelines tend to thicken and so to crowd out the light between them. This is so distressingly true of newspaper reproduction that indrawings for this purpose the lines have to be generally very thin, sharp, and well apart. The above rule should be particularly regardedin all cases where the drawing is to be subject to much reduction. The degree of reduction of which pen drawings are susceptible isnot, as is commonly supposed, subject to rule. It all depends onthe scale of the technique. 

Third: Have the values few and positive. It is necessary to keepthe gray tones pretty distinct to prevent the relation of valuesbeing injured, for while the gray tones darken in proportion to thedegree of reduction, the blacks cannot, of course, grow blacker. A gray tone which may be light and delicate in the original, will, especially if it be closely knit, darken and thicken in the printing. These rules are most strictly to be observed when drawing for thecheaper classes of publications. For book and magazine work, however, where the plates are touched up by the engraver, and the values in ameasure restored, the third rule is not so arbitrary. Nevertheless, the beginner who has ambitions in this direction will do well notto put difficulties in his own way by submitting work not directlyprintable. 

[Side note: _Some Fanciful Expedients_]

There are a number of more or less fanciful expedients employed inmodern pen work which may be noted here, and which are illustratedin Fig. 10. The student is advised, however, to resort to them aslittle as possible, not only because he is liable to make injudicioususe of them, but because it is wiser for him to cultivate the lessmeretricious possibilities of the instrument. 

"Spatter work" is a means of obtaining a delicate printable tone, consisting of innumerable little dots of ink spattered on the paper. The process is as follows: Carefully cover with a sheet of paperall the drawing except the portion which is to be spattered, thentake a tooth-brush, moisten the ends of the bristles consistentlywith ink, hold the brush, back downwards, in the left hand, andwith a wooden match or tooth-pick rub the bristles _toward you_so that the ink will spray over the paper. Particular, care mustbe taken that the brush is not so loaded with ink that it willspatter in blots. It is well, therefore, to try it first on a roughsheet of paper, to remove any superfluous ink. If the spattering iswell done, it gives a very delicate tone of interesting texture, but if not cleverly employed, and especially if there be a largearea of it, it is very likely to look out of character with theline portions of the drawing. 

A method sometimes employed to give a soft black effect is to moistenthe lobe of the thumb lightly with ink and press it upon the paper. Theseries of lines of the skin make an impression that can be reproducedby the ordinary line processes. As in the case of spatter work, superfluous ink must be looked after before making the impressionso as to avoid leaving hard edges. Thumb markings lend themselves tothe rendering of dark smoke, and the like, where the edges requireto be soft and vague, and the free direction of the lines imparta feeling of movement. 

Interesting effects of texture are sometimes introduced into pendrawings by obtaining the impression of a canvas grain. To producethis, it is necessary that the drawing be made on fairly thin paper. The _modus operandi_ is as follows: Place the drawing over a pieceof mounted canvas of the desired coarseness of grain, and, holdingit firmly, rub a lithographic crayon vigorously over the surfaceof the paper. The grain of the canvas will be found to be clearlyreproduced, and, as the crayon is absolutely black, the effect iscapable of reproduction by the ordinary photographic processes. 

CHAPTER IV

VALUES

[Side note: _The Color Scheme_]

After the subject has been mapped out in pencil, and before beginningthe pen work, we have to consider and determine the proper dispositionof the Color. By "color" is meant, in this connection, the gamut ofvalues from black to white, as indicated in Fig. 23. The successor failure of the drawing will largely depend upon the dispositionof these elements, the quality of the technique being a matterof secondary concern. Beauty of line and texture will not redeema drawing in which the values are badly disposed, for upon themwe depend for the effect of unity, or the pictorial quality. Ifthe values are scattered or patchy the drawing will not focus toany central point of interest, and there will be no unity in theresult. 

[Illustration: FIG. 23 C. D. M. ]

There are certain general laws by which color may be pleasinglydisposed, but it must be borne in mind that it ought to be disposednaturally as well. By a "natural" scheme of color, I mean one whichis consistent with a natural effect of light and shade. Now thegradation from black to white, for example, is a pleasing scheme, as may be observed in Fig. 24, yet the effect is unnatural, sincethe sky is black. In a purely decorative illustration like this, however, such logic need not be considered. 

[Illustration: FIG. 24 D. A. GREGG]

[Side note: _Principality in the Color-Scheme_]

Since, as I said before, color is the factor which makes for theunity of the result, the first principle to be regarded in itsarrangement is that of Principality, --there must be some dominantnote in the rendering. There should not, for instance, be two principaldark spots of equal value in the same drawing, nor two equallyprominent areas of white. The Vierge drawing, Fig. 25, and thatby Mr. Pennell, Fig. 5, are no exceptions to this rule; the blackfigure of the old man counting as one note in the former, as dothe dark arches of the bridge in the latter. The work of both theseartists is eminently worthy of study for the knowing manner inwhich they dispose their values. 

[Illustration: FIG. 25 DANIEL VIERGE]

[Side note: _Variety_]

The next thing to be sought is Variety. Too obvious or positive ascheme, while possibly not unsuitable for a conventional decorativedrawing, may not be well adapted to a perspective subject. Thelarge color areas should be echoed by smaller ones throughout thepicture. Take, for example, the Vierge drawing shown in Fig. 26. Observe how the mass of shadow is relieved by the two light holesseen through the inn door. Without this repetition of the white thedrawing would lose much of its character. In Rico's drawing, Fig. 11, a tiny white spot in the shadow cast over the street would, Iventure to think, be helpful, beautifully clear as it is; and theblack area at the end of the wall seems a defect as it competesin value with the dark figure. 

[Illustration: FIG. 26 DANIEL VIERGE]

[Side note: _Breadth of Effect_]

Lastly, Breadth of Effect has to be considered. It is requisitethat, however numerous the tones are (and they should not be toonumerous), the general effect should be simple and homogeneous. Thecolor must count together broadly, and not be cut up into patches. 

[Illustration: FIG. 27 HARRY FENN]

It is important to remember that the gamut from black to white isa short one for the pen. One need only try to faithfully renderthe high lights of an ordinary table glass set against a graybackground, to be assured of its limitations in this respect. Torepresent even approximately the subtle values would require somuch ink that nothing short of a positively black background wouldsuffice to give a semblance of the delicate transparent effect ofthe glass as a whole. The gray background would, therefore, belost, and if a really black object were also part of the pictureit could not be represented at all. Observe, in Fig. 27, how justsuch a problem has been worked out by Mr. Harry Fenn. 

It will be manifest that the student must learn to think of thingsin their broad relation. To be specific, --in the example justconsidered, in order to introduce a black object the scheme ofcolor would have needed broadening so that the gray backgroundcould be given its proper value, thus demanding that the elaboratevalues of the glass be ignored, and just enough suggested to givethe general effect. This reasoning would equally apply were thelight object, instead of a glass, something of intricate design, presenting positive shadows. Just so much of such a design shouldbe rendered as not to darken the object below its proper relativevalue as a whole. In this faculty of suggesting things withoutliterally rendering them consists the subtlety of pen drawing. 

It may be said, therefore, that large light areas resulting from thenecessary elimination of values are characteristic of pen drawing. The degree of such elimination depends, of course, upon the characterof the subject, this being entirely a matter of relation. The moreblack there is in a drawing the greater the number of values that canbe represented. Generally speaking, three or four are all that can bemanaged, and the beginner had better get along with three, --black, half-tone, and white. 

[Illustration: FIG. 28 REGINALD BIRCH]

[Side note: _Various Color-Schemes_]

While it is true that every subject is likely to contain some motiveor suggestion for its appropriate color-scheme, it still holds that, many times, and especially in those cases where the introductionof foreground features at considerable scale is necessary for theinterest of the picture, an artificial arrangement has to be devised. It is well, therefore, to be acquainted with the possibilities ofcertain color combinations. The most brilliant effect in blackand white drawing is that obtained by placing the prominent blackagainst a white area surrounded by gray. The white shows whiterbecause of the gray around it, so that the contrast of the blackagainst it is extremely vigorous and telling. This may be said tobe the illustrator's _tour de force_. We have it illustrated byMr. Reginald Birch's drawing, Fig. 28. Observe how the contrastof black and white is framed in by the gray made up of the sky, the left side of the building, the horse, and the knight. In thedrawing by Mr. Pennell, Fig. 29, we have the same scheme of color. Notice how the trees are darkest just where they are required totell most strongly against the white in the centre of the picture. An admirable illustration of the effectiveness of this color-schemeis shown in the "Becket" poster by the "Beggarstaff Brothers, "Fig. 69. Another scheme is to have the principal black in the grayarea, as in the Vierge drawing, Fig. 26 and in Rico's sketch, Fig. 11. 

[Illustration: FIG. 29 JOSEPH PENNELL]

[Illustration: FIG. 30 B. G. GOODHUE]

[Illustration: FIG. 31 JOSEPH PENNELL]

Still another and a more restful scheme is the actual gradationof color. This gradation, from black to white, wherein the whiteoccupies the centre of the picture, is to be noted in Fig. 20. Observe how the dark side of the foreground tree tells against thelight side of the one beyond, which, in its turn, is yet so stronglyshaded as to count brilliantly against the white building. Stillagain, in Mr. Goodhue's drawing, Fig. 30, note how the transitionfrom the black tree on the left to the white building is pleasinglysoftened by the gray shadow. Notice, too, how the brilliancy ofthe drawing is heightened by the gradual emphasis on the shadowsand the openings as they approach the centre of the picture. Yetanother example of this color-scheme is the drawing by Mr. Gregg, Fig. 50. The gradation here is from the top of the picture downwards. The sketch of the coster women by Mr. Pennell, Fig. 31, shows thisgradation reversed. 

The drawing of the hansom cab, Fig. 32, by Mr. Raven Hill, illustratesa very strong color-scheme, --gray and white separated by black, the gray moderating the black on the upper side, leaving it totell strongly against the white below. Notice how luminous is thissame relation of color where it occurs in the Venetian subject byRico, Fig. 14. The shadow on the water qualifies the blacknessof the gondola below, permitting a brilliant contrast with thewhite walls of the building above. 

It is interesting to observe how Vierge and Pennell, but chiefly theformer, very often depend for their grays merely upon the delicatetone resulting from the rendering of form and of direct shadow, without any local color. This may be seen in the Vierge drawing, Fig. 33. Observe in this, as a consequence, how brilliantly thetiny black counts in the little figure in the centre. Notice, too, in the drawing of the soldiers by Jeanniot, Fig. 34, that thereis very little black; and yet see how brilliant is the effect, owing largely to the figures being permitted to stand out againsta white ground in which nothing is indicated but the sky-line ofthe large building in the distance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 32 L. RAVEN HILL]

[Illustration: FIG. 33 DANIEL VIERGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 34 P. G. JEANNIOT]

CHAPTER V

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

I have thought it advisable in this chapter to select, and to workout in some detail, a few actual problems in illustration, so asto familiarize the student with the practical application of someof the principles previously laid down. 

[Illustration: FIG. 35 FROM A PHOTOGRAPH]

[Illustration: FIG. 36 D. A. GREGG]

[Side note: _First Problem_]

In the first example the photograph, Fig. 35, shows the porch ofan old English country church. Let us see how this subject hasbeen interpreted in pen and ink by Mr. D. A. Gregg, Fig. 36. Inrespect to the lines, the original composition presents nothingessentially unpleasant. Where the strong accent of a picture occursin the centre, however, it is generally desirable to avoid muchemphasis at the edges. For this reason the pen drawing has been"vignetted, "--that is to say, permitted to fade away irregularlyat the edges. Regarding the values, it will be seen that there isno absolute white in the photograph. A literal rendering of suchlow color would, as we saw in the preceding chapter, be out ofthe question; and so the essential values which directly contributeto the expression of the subject and which are independent of localcolor or accidental effect have to be sought out. We observe, then, that the principal note of the photograph is made by the dark partof the roof under the porch relieved against the light wall beyond. This is the direct result of light and shade, and is thereforelogically adopted as the principal note of Mr. Gregg's sketch also. The wall at this point is made perfectly white to heighten thecontrast. To still further increase the light area, the upper partof the porch has been left almost white, the markings suggestingthe construction of the weather-beaten timber serving to give ita faint gray tone sufficient to relieve it from the white wall. The low color of the grass, were it rendered literally, would makethe drawing too heavy and uninteresting, and this is therefore onlysuggested in the sketch. The roof of the main building, being equallyobjectionable on account of its mass of low tone, is similarlytreated. Mr. Gregg's excellent handling of the old woodwork of theporch is well worthy of study. 

[Side note: _Second Problem_]

Let us take another example. The photograph in Fig. 37 shows amoat-house in Normandy; and, except that the low tones of the foliageare exaggerated by the camera, the conditions are practically thosewhich we would have to consider were we making a sketch on the spot. First of all, then, does the subject, from the point of view atwhich the photograph is taken, compose well?* It cannot be said thatit does. The vertical lines made by the two towers are unpleasantlyemphasized by the trees behind them. The tree on the left weremuch better reduced in height and placed somewhat to the right, so that the top should fill out the awkward angles of the roofformed by the junction of the tower and the main building. Thetrees on the right might be lowered also, but otherwise permittedto retain their present relation. The growth of ivy on the towertakes an ugly outline, and might be made more interestingly irregularin form. 

[Footnote *: The student is advised to consult "Composition, " byArthur W. Dow. [New York, 1898]]

[Illustration: FIG. 37 FROM A PHOTOGRAPH]

The next consideration is the disposition of the values. In thephotograph the whites are confined to the roadway of the bridgeand the bottom of the tower. This is evidently due, however, tolocal color rather than to the direction of the light, which strikesthe nearer tower from the right, the rest of the walls being inshadow. While the black areas of the picture are large enough tocarry a mass of gray without sacrificing the sunny look, such ascheme would be likely to produce a labored effect. Two alternativeschemes readily suggest themselves: First, to make the archway theprincipal dark, the walls light, with a light half-tone for theroof, and a darker effect for the trees on the right. Or, second, to make these trees themselves the principal dark, as suggested bythe photograph, allowing them to count against the gray of theroof and the ivy of the tower. This latter scheme is that whichhas been adopted in the sketch, Fig. 38. 

[Illustration: FIG. 38 C. D. M. ]

It will be noticed that the trees are not nearly so dark as inthe photograph. If they were, they would be overpowering in solarge an area of white. It was thought better, also, to change thedirection of the light, so that the dark ivy, instead of actingcontradictorily to the effect, might lend character to the shadedside. The lower portion of the nearer tower was toned in, partlyto qualify the vertical line of the tower, which would have beenunpleasant if the shading were uniform, and partly to carry thegray around to the entrance. It was thought advisable, also, tocut from the foreground, raising the upper limit of the picturecorrespondingly. (It is far from my intention, however, to conveythe impression that any liberties may be taken with a subject inorder to persuade it into a particular scheme of composition; andin this very instance an artistic photographer could probably havediscovered a position for his camera which would have obviated thenecessity for any change whatever;--a nearer view of the building, for one thing, would have considerably lowered the trees. )

[Illustration: FIG. 39 FROM A PHOTOGRAPH]

[Side note: _Third Problem_]

We will consider still another subject. The photograph, Fig. 39, shows a street in Holland. In this case, the first thing we haveto determine is where the interest of the subject centres. In sucha perspective the salient point of the picture often lies in aforeground building; or, if the street be merely a setting for therepresentation of some incident, in a group of foreground figures. In either case the emphasis should be placed in the foreground, the distant vanishing lines of the street being rendered more orless vaguely. In the present subject, however, the converging skyand street lines are broken by the quaint clock-tower. This and thebuildings underneath it appeal to us at once as the most importantelements of the picture. The nearer buildings present nothingintrinsically interesting, and therefore serve no better purposethan to lead the eye to the centre of interest. Whatever actualvalues these intermediate buildings have that will hinder theirusefulness in this regard can, therefore, be changed or actuallyignored without affecting the integrity of the sketch or causingany pangs of conscience. 

The building on the extreme left shows very strong contrasts ofcolor in the black shadow of the eaves and of the shop-front below. These contrasts, coming as they do at the edge of the picture, are bad. They would act like a showy frame on a delicate drawing, keeping the eye from the real subject. It may be objected, however, that it is natural that the contrasts should be stronger in theforeground. Yes; but in looking straight at the clock-tower one doesnot see any such dark shadow at the top of the very uninterestingbuilding in the left foreground. The camera saw it, because thecamera with its hundred eyes sees everything, and does not interestitself about any one thing in particular. Besides, if the keeperof the shop had the bad taste to paint it dark we are not boundto make a record of the fact; nor need we assume that it was doneout of regard to the pictorial possibilities of the street. Wedecide, therefore, to render, as faithfully as we may, the valuesof the clock-tower and its immediate surroundings, and to disregardthe discordant elements; and we have no hesitation in selectingfor principal emphasis in our drawing, Fig. 40, the shadow underthe projecting building. This dark accent will count brilliantlyagainst the foreground and the walls of the buildings, which wewill treat broadly as if white, ignoring the slight differencesin value shown in the photograph. We retain, however, the literalvalues of the clock-tower and the buildings underneath it, andexpress as nearly as we can their interesting variations of texture. The buildings on the right are too black in the photograph, andthese, as well as the shadow thrown across the street, we willconsiderably lighten. After some experiment, we find that the buildingon the extreme left is a nuisance, and we omit it. Even then, theone with the balcony next to it requires to be toned down in itsstrong values, and so the shadows here are made much lighter, thewalls being kept white. It will be found that anything like a strongemphasis of the projecting eaves of the building would detractfrom the effect of the tower, so that the shadow under the eavesis, therefore, made grayer than in the photograph, while that ofthe balcony below is made stronger than the shadow of the eaves, but is lightened at the edge of the drawing to throw the emphasistoward the centre. 

[Illustration: FIG. 40 C. D. M. ]

To add interest to the picture, and more especially to give lifeto the shadows, several figures are introduced. It will be noticedthat the cart is inserted at the focal point of the drawing tobetter assist the perspective. 

CHAPTER VI

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

It is but a few years since architects' perspectives were "builtup" (it would be a mistake to say "drawn") by means of a T-squareand the ruling pen; and if architectural drawing has not quitekept pace with that for general illustration since, a backwardglance over the professional magazines encourages a feeling ofcomparative complacency. That so high a standard or so artistica character is not observable in architectural as in generalillustration is, I think, not difficult to explain. Very few of theclever architectural draughtsmen are illustrators by profession. Few, even of those who are generally known as illustrators, areanything more--I should perhaps say anything _less_--than versatilearchitects; and yet Mr. Pennell, who would appear to assume, inhis book on drawing, that the point of view of the architect isnormally pictorial, seems at a loss to explain why Mr. Robert Blum, for instance, can illustrate an architectural subject more artisticallythan any of the draughtsmen in the profession. Without acceptinghis premises, it is remarkably creditable to architecture thatit counts among its members in this country such men as Mr. B. G. Goodhue and Mr. Wilson Eyre, Jr. , and in England such thoroughartists as Mr. Prentice and Mr. Ernest George--men known even todistinction for their skill along lines of purely architecturalpractice, yet any one of whom would, I venture to say, causeconsiderable displacement did he invade the ranks of magazineillustrators. Moreover (and the suggestion is not unkindly offered), were the architects and the illustrators to change places architecturewould suffer most by the process. 

[Side note: _The Architects' Case_]

That the average architect should be incapable of artisticallyillustrating his own design, ought, I think, to be less an occasionfor surprise than that few painters, whose point of view is essentiallypictorial, can make even a tolerable interpretation in line of theirown paintings. Be it remembered that the pictures made by the architectare seldom the records of actualities. The buildings themselvesare merely contemplated, and the illustrations are worked up fromgeometrical elevations in the office, very, very far from Nature. Moreover, the subjects are not infrequently such as lend themselveswith an ill grace to picturesque illustration. The structure to bedepicted may, for instance, be a heavy cubical mass with a balduninteresting sky-line; or it may be a tall office building, impossibleto reconcile with natural accessories either in pictorial scale orin composition. These natural accessories, too, the draughtsmanmust, with an occasional recourse to his photograph album, evolveout of his inner consciousness. When it is further considered thatsuch structures, even when actualities, are uncompromisingly stiffand immaculate in their newness, presenting absolutely none ofthose interesting accidents so dear to the artist, and perhaps withnothing whatever about them of picturesque suggestion, we have aproblem presented which is somewhat analogous to that presented bythe sculpturesque possibilities of "fashionable trousering. " That, with such uninspiring conditions, architectural illustration does notdevelop so interesting a character nor attain to so high a standardas distinguishes general illustration is not to be wondered at. Itis rather an occasion for surprise that it exhibits so little ofthe artificiality of the fashion-plate after all, and that the betterpart of it, at least, is not more unworthy than figure illustrationwould be were it denied the invaluable aid of the living model. So much by way of apology. 

[Side note: _The Architects' Point of View_]

The architectural perspective, however, is not to be regarded purelyfrom the pictorial point of view. It is an illustration first, apicture afterwards, and almost invariably deals with an individualbuilding, which is the essential subject. This building cannot, therefore, be made a mere foil for interesting "picturesqueries, "nor subordinated to any scenic effect of landscape or chiaroscuro. Natural accessories or interesting bits of street life may be addedto give it an appropriate setting; but the result must clearlyread "Building, with landscape, " not "Landscape, with building. "

Much suggestion for the sympathetic handling of particular subjectsmay be found in the character of the architecture itself. Theillustrator ought to enter into the spirit of the designer, ought tofeel just what natural accessories lend themselves most harmoniouslyto this or that particular type. If the architecture be quaintand picturesque it must not have prosaic surroundings. If, on theother hand, it be formal or monumental, the character and scale ofthe accessories should be accordingly serious and dignified. Therendering ought also to vary with the subject, --a free picturesquemanner for the one, a more studied and responsible handling forthe other. Technique is the language of art, and a stiff pompousphraseology will accord ill with a story of quaint humor or pathos, while the homely diction that might answer very well would be sure tostruggle at a disadvantage with the stately meanings and diplomaticsubtleties of a state document. 

[Side note: _Rendering of Detail_]

It would be well for the student, before venturing upon whole subjects, to learn to render details, such as windows, cornices, etc. Windowsare a most important feature of the architectural drawing, and thebeginner must study them carefully, experimenting for the methodwhich will best represent their glassy surfaces. No material givessuch play of light and shade as glass does. One window is neverabsolutely like another; so that while a certain uniformity intheir value may be required for breadth of effect in the drawing ofa building, there is plenty of opportunity for incidental varietyin their treatment. 

A few practical hints on the rendering of windows may prove serviceable. Always emphasize the sash. Where there is no recess, as in woodenbuildings, strengthen the inner line of sash, as in Fig. 41. Inmasonry buildings the frame and sash can be given their propervalues, the area of wood being treated broadly, without regardto the individual members. The wood may, however, be left whiteif required, as would be the case in Colonial designs. In eithercase the dark shadow which the sash casts on the glass should besuggested, if the scale of the drawing be such as to permit of it. Do not try to show too much. One is apt to make a fussy effect, if, for instance, one insists on always shading the soffit of themasonry opening, especially if the scale of the drawing be small. Besides, a white soffit is not a false but merely a forced value, as in strong sunlight the reflected light is considerable. If theframe be left white, however, the soffit ought to be shaded, otherwiseit will be difficult to keep the values distinct. In respect ofwooden buildings there is no need to always complete the mouldingsof the architrave. Notice in Fig. 41 that, in the window withoutthe muntins, the mouldings have been carried round the top to givecolor, but that in the other they are merely suggested at the cornersso as to avoid confusion. Care should be taken to avoid mechanicalrendering of the muntins. For the glass itself, a uniformly flattone is to be avoided. The tones should soften vaguely. It will befound, too, that it is not advisable to have a strong dark effectat the top of the window and another at the bottom; one shouldpredominate. 

[Illustration: FIG. 41 C. D. M. ]

The student after careful study of Fig. 41 should make from itenlarged drawings, and afterwards, laying the book aside, proceedto render them in his own way. When he has done so, let him comparehis work with the originals. This process ought to be repeatedseveral times, the aim being always for _similarity_, not for_literalness_ of effect. If he can get equally good results withanother method he need not be disconcerted at the lack of any furtherresemblance. 

The cornice with its shadow is another salient feature. In shortshadows, such as those cast by cornices, it is well, if a sunnyeffect be desired, to accent the bottom edge of the shadow. The shadowlines ought to be generally parallel, but with enough variation toobviate a mechanical effect. They need not be vertical lines, --infact it is better that they should take the same slant as the light. If they are not absolutely perpendicular, however, it is well to makethem distinctly oblique, otherwise the effect will be unpleasant. A clever sketch of a cornice by Mr. George F. Newton is shown inFig. 42. Notice how well the texture of the brick is expressedby the looseness of the pen work. Some of the detail, too, isdexterously handled, notably the bead and button moulding. 

The strength of the cornice shadow should be determined by the toneof the roof above it. To obtain for this shadow the very distinctvalue which it ought to have, however, does not require that theroof be kept always much lighter than it. In the gable roof inFig. 57, the tone of the roof is shaded lighter as it approachesthe eaves, so that the shadow may count more emphatically. Thisorder may be reversed, as in the case of a building with dark roofand light walls, in which case the shadow may be grayer than thelower portion of the roof, as in "B" in Fig. 44. 

[Illustration: FIG. 42 GEORGE F. NEWTON]

But the beginner should not yet hurry on to whole subjects. A churchporch, as in Fig. 35, or a dormer with its shadow cast on a roof, as in Fig. 43, will be just as beneficial a study for him as anentire building, and will afford quite as good an opportunity fortesting his knowledge of the principles of pen drawing, with theadded advantage that either of the subjects mentioned can be mappedout in a few minutes, and that a failure or two, therefore, willnot prove so discouraging as if a more intricate subject had tobe re-drawn. I have known promising beginners to give up pen andink drawing in despair because they found themselves unequal tosubjects which would have presented not a few difficulties to theexperienced illustrator. When the beginner grows faint-hearted, let him seek consolation and encouragement in the thought that werepen drawing something to be mastered in a week or a month therewould be small merit in the accomplishment. 

[Illustration: FIG. 43 C. D. M. ]

[Side note: _A General System_]

It is a common fault of students to dive into the picture unthinkingly, beginning anywhere, without the vaguest plan of a general effect, whereas it is of the utmost importance that every stroke of thepen be made with intelligent regard to the ultimate result. Thefollowing general method will be found valuable. 

Pencil the outline of the entire subject before beginning the penwork. It will not do to start on the rendering as soon as the buildingalone is pencilled out, leaving the accessories to be put in asone goes along. The adjacent buildings, the foliage, and even thefigures must be drawn--carefully drawn--before the pen is taken up. The whole subject from the very beginning should be under control, and to that end it becomes necessary to have all the elements ofit pre-arranged. 

[Side note: _Arrangement of the Values_]

Next scheme out the values. This is the time to do the thinking. Donot start out rashly as soon as everything is outlined in pencil, confident in the belief that all windows, for instance, are dark, and that you may as well make them so at once and be done withthem. This will be only to court disaster. Besides, all windowsare not dark; they may be very light indeed. The color value ofnothing is absolute. A shadow may seem almost black till a figurepasses into it, when it may become quite gray by comparison. So awindow with the sun shining full upon it, or even one in shade, onwhich a reflected light is cast, may be brilliantly light until thenext instant a cloud shadow is reflected in it, making it denselyblack. Arrange the values, therefore, with reference to one generaleffect, deciding first of all on the direction of the light. Shouldthis be such as to throw large areas of shadow, these masses ofgray will be important elements in the color-scheme. An excellentway to study values is to make a tracing-paper copy of the linedrawing and to experiment on this for the color with charcoal, making several sketches if necessary. After having determined ona satisfactory scheme, put fixatif on the rough sketch and keepit in sight. Otherwise, one is liable, especially if the subjectis an intricate one, to be led astray by little opportunities forinteresting effects here and there, only to discover, when toolate, that these effects do not hang together and that the drawinghas lost its breadth. The rough sketch is to the draughts man whatmanuscript notes are to the lecturer. 

[Side note: _Treatment of Detail_]

Do not be over-conscious of detail. It is a common weakness of thearchitectural draughts man to be too sophisticated in his pictorialillustration. He knows so much about the building that no matter howmany thousand yards away from it he may stand he will see thingsthat would not reveal themselves to another with the assistanceof a field-glass. He is conscious of the fact that there are justso many brick courses to the foot, that the clapboards are laidjust so many inches to the weather, that there are just so manymouldings in the belt course, --that everything in general is very, very mathematical. This is not because his point of view is toobig, but because it is too small. He who sees so much never by anychance sees the _whole building_. Let him try to think broadly ofthings. Even should he succeed in forgetting some of these factitiousdetails, the result will still be stiff enough, so hard is it tore-adjust one's attitude after manipulating the T-square. I stronglyrecommend, as an invaluable aid toward such a re-adjustment, thehabit of sketching from Nature, --from the figure during the winterevenings, and out of doors in summer. 

[Illustration: FIG. 44 C. D. M. ]

The beginner is apt to find his effects at first rather hard andmechanical at the best, because he has not yet attained that freedomof handling which ignores unimportant details, suggests ratherthan states, gives interesting variations of line and tone, anddifferentiates textures. A good part of the unpleasantness of effectwill undoubtedly be found to be due to a mistaken regard for accuracyof statement, individual mouldings being lined in as deliberatelyas in the geometrical office drawings, and not an egg nor a dartslighted. Take, for example, the case of an old Colonial buildingwith its white cornice, or any building with white trimmings. Seethe effect of such a one in an "elevation" where all the detail isdrawn, as in "A, " Fig. 44. Observe that the amount of ink necessaryto express this detail has made the cornice darker than the restof the drawing, and yet this is quite the reverse of the valuewhich it would have in the actual building, see "B. " To obtainthe true value the different mouldings which make up the corniceshould be merely suggested. Where it is not a question of localcolor, however, this matter of elimination is largely subject tothe exigencies of reproduction; the more precisely and intimatelyone attempts to render detail, the smaller the scale of the techniquerequires to be, and the greater the difficulty. Consequently, the morethe reduction which the drawing is likely to undergo in printing, the more one will be obliged to disregard the finer details. Thesefiner details need not, however, be absolutely ignored. Notice, forinstance, the clever suggestion of the sculpture in the admirabledrawing by Mr. F. E. Wallis, Fig. 45. The conventional drawingof the façade, Fig. 46, is a fine illustration of the decorativeeffect of color obtainable by emphasizing the organic lines ofthe design. 

[Illustration: FIG. 45 FRANK E. WALLIS]

[Side note: _Foliage and Figures_]

The elements in a perspective drawing which present most difficultiesto the architectural draughtsman are foliage and figures. Theseare, however, most important accessories, and must be cleverlyhandled. It is difficult to say which is the harder to draw, a treeor a human figure; and if the student has not sketched much fromNature either will prove a stumbling-block. Presuming, therefore, that he has already filled a few sketch-books, he had better resortto these, or to his photograph album, when he needs figures forhis perspective. Designing figures and trees out of one's innerconsciousness is slow work and not very profitable; and if thefigure draughtsman may employ models, the architect may be permittedto use photographs. 

[Illustration: FIG. 46 HARRY ALLAN JACOBS]

Unhappily for the beginner, no two illustrators consent to renderfoliage, or anything else for that matter, in quite the same way, and so I cannot present any authoritative formula for doing so. This subject has been treated, however, in a previous chapter, andnothing need be added here except to call attention to an employmentof foliage peculiar to architectural drawings. This is the broadsuggestive rendering of dark leafage at the sides of a building, to give it relief. The example shown in Fig. 47 is from one ofMr. Gregg's drawings. 

[Illustration: FIG. 47 D. A. GREGG]

The rendering of the human figure need not be dealt with underthis head, as figures in an architectural subject are of necessityrelatively small, and therefore have to be rendered very broadly. Careful drawing is none the less essential, however, if their presenceis to be justified; and badly drawn figures furnish a temptingtarget for the critic of architectural pictures. Certainly, itis only too evident that the people usually seen in such picturesare utterly incapable of taking the slightest interest whatever inarchitecture, or in anything else; and not infrequently they seemto be even more immovable objects than the buildings themselves, so fixed and inflexible are they. Such figures as these only detractfrom the interest of the drawing, instead of adding to it, and thedraughtsman who has no special aptitude is wise in either omittingthem altogether, or in using very few, and is perhaps still wiserif he entrusts the drawing of these to one of his associates moreaccomplished in this special direction. 

The first thing to decide in the matter of figures is their arrangementand grouping, and when this has been determined they should besketched in lightly in pencil. In this connection a few words byway of suggestion may be found useful. Be careful to avoid anythinglike an equal spacing of the figures. Group the people interestingly. I have seen as many as thirty individuals in a drawing, no two ofwhom seemed to be acquainted, --a very unhappy condition of affairseven from a purely pictorial point of view. Do not over-emphasize thebase of a building by stringing all the figures along the sidewalks. The lines of the curbs would thus confine and frame them inunpleasantly. Break the continuity of the street lines with figuresor carriages in the roadway, as in Fig. 55. After the figures havebeen satisfactorily arranged, they ought to be carefully drawn asto outline. In doing so, take pains to vary the postures, givingthem action, and avoiding the stiff wooden, fashion-plate type ofperson so common to architectural drawings. When the time comesto render these accessories with the pen (and this ought, by theway, to be the last thing done) do not lose the freedom and breadthof the drawing by dwelling too long on them. Rise superior to suchdetails as the patterns of neckties. 

We will now consider the application to architectural subjectsof the remarks on technique and color contained in the previouschapters. 

[Side note: _Architectural Textures_]

To learn to render the different textures of the materials used inarchitecture, the student would do well to examine and study themethods of prominent illustrators, and then proceed to forget them, developing meanwhile a method of his own. It will be instructive forhim, however, as showing the opportunity for play of individuality, to notice how very different, for instance, is Mr. Gregg's mannerof rendering brick work to that of Mr. Railton. Compare Figs. 48and 49. One is splendidly broad, --almost decorative, --the otherintimate and picturesque. The work of both these men is eminentlyworthy of study. For the sophisticated simplicity and directness ofhis method and the almost severe conscientiousness of his drawing, no less than for his masterly knowledge of black and white, no saferguide could be commended to the young architectural pen-man for thestudy of principles than Mr. Gregg. Architectural illustration inAmerica owes much to his influence and, indeed, he may be said tohave furnished it with a grammar. Take his drawing of the Englishcottages, Fig. 50. It is a masterly piece of pen work. There isnot a feeble or tentative stroke in the whole of it. The coloris brilliant and the textures are expressed with wonderful skill. The student ought to carefully observe the rendering of the variousroofs. Notice how the character of the thatch on the second cottagediffers from that on the first, and how radically the method ofrendering of either varies from that used on the shingle roof atthe end of the picture. Compare also the two gable chimneys witheach other as well as with the old ruin seen over the tree-tops. Here is a drawing by an architectural draughtsman of an architectural_actuality_ and not of an artificial abstraction. This is a fairerground on which to meet the illustrators of the picturesque. 

[Illustration: FIG. 48 D. A. GREGG]

[Illustration: FIG. 49 HERBERT RAILTON]

[Illustration: FIG. 50 D. A. GREGG]

[Illustration: FIG. 51 WALTER M. CAMPBELL]

[Illustration: FIG. 52 HERBERT RAILTON]

[Illustration: FIG. 53 A. F. JACCACI]

[Illustration: FIG. 54 C. F. BRAGDON]

[Illustration: FIG. 55 HARVEY ELLIS]

[Side note: _Examples_]

Mr. Campbell's drawing, Fig. 51, is a very good example of therendering of stone textures. The old masonry is capitally expressedby the short irregular line. The student is advised to select someportion of this, as well as of the preceding example to copy, using, no matter how small the drawings he may make, a pen not smallerthan number 303. I know of no architectural illustrator who hitsstonework off quite so cleverly as Mr. Goodhue. Notice, in hisdrawing of the masonry, in Fig. 8, how the stones are picked outand rendered individually in places and how this intimate treatmentis confined to the top of the tower where it tells against thetextures of the various roofs and how it is then merged in a broadgray tone which is carried to the street. Mr. Railton's sketches arefull of clever suggestion for the architectural illustrator in theway of texture. Figs. 7 and 52 show his free rendering of masonry. The latter is an especially very good subject for study. Observehow well the texture tells in the high portion of the abutment byreason of the thick, broken lines. For a distant effect of stonetexture, the drawing by Mr. Jaccaci, Fig. 53, is a fine example. In this the rendering is confined merely to the organic lines ofthe architecture, and yet the texture is capitally expressed bythe quality of the stroke, which is loose and much broken. Thegeneral result is extremely crisp and pleasing. For broad renderingof brick textures, perhaps there is no one who shows such a masterlymethod as Mr. Gregg. As may be seen in his sketch of the blacksmithshop, Fig. 48, he employs an irregular dragging line with a greatdeal of feeling. The brick panel by Mr. Bragdon, Fig. 54, is a neatpiece of work. There is excellent texture, too, in the picturesquedrawing by Mr. Harvey Ellis, Fig. 55:--observe the rendering ofthe rough brick surface at the left side of the building. A moreintimate treatment is that illustrated in the detail by Mr. C. E. Mallows, the English draughts man, Fig. 56. In this drawing, however, the edges of the building are unpleasantly hard, and aresomewhat out of character with the quaint rendering of the surfaces. Mr. Goodhue uses a similar treatment, and, I think, rather moresuccessfully. On the whole, the broader method, where the textureis carried out more uniformly, is more to be commended, at leastfor the study of the beginner. Some examples of shingle and slatetextures are illustrated by Fig. 57. It is advisable to employ alarger pen for the shingle, so as to ensure the requisite coarsenessof effect. 

[Illustration: FIG. 56 C. E. MALLOWS]

[Illustration: FIG. 57 C. D. M. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 58 C. D. M. ]

[Side note: _An Architectural Problem_]

To favorably illustrate an architectural subject it will be foundgenerally expedient to give prominence to one particular elevationin the perspective, the other being permitted to vanish sharply. Fig. 58 may be said to be a fairly typical problem for the architecturalpenman. The old building on the right, it must be understood, isnot a mere accessory, but is an essential part of the picture. Thematter of surroundings is the first we have to decide upon, andthese ought always to be disposed with reference to the particularform of composition which the subject may suggest. Were we dealingwith the foreground building alone there would be no difficultyin adjusting the oval or the diamond form of composition to it. *As it is, the difficulty lies in the long crested roof-line whichtakes the same oblique angle as the line of the street, and theinfluence of this line must be, as far as possible, counteracted. Now the heavy over-hang of the principal roof will naturally casta shadow which will be an important line in the composition, so wearrange our accessories at the right of the picture in referenceto this. Observe that the line of the eaves, if continued, wouldintersect the top of the gable chimney. The dwelling and the treethen form a focus for the converging lines of sidewalk and roof, thus qualifying the vertical effect of the building on the right. As the obliquity of the composition is still objectionable, wedecide to introduce a foreground figure which will break up theline of the long sidewalk, and place it so that it will increasethe influence of some contrary line, see Fig. 59. We find that byputting it a little to the right of the entrance and on a linewith that of the left sidewalk, the picture is pleasingly balanced. 

[Footnote *: See footnote on page 62. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 59 C. D. M. ]

We are now ready to consider the disposition of the values. As Ihave said before, these are determined by the scheme of light andshade. For this reason any given subject may be variously treated. We do not necessarily seek the scheme which will make the mostpictorial effect, however, but the one which will serve to setoff the building to the best advantage. It is apparent that themost intelligible idea of the form of the structure will be givenby shading one side; and, as the front is the more important andthe more interesting elevation, on which we need sunlight to giveexpression to the composition, it is natural to shade the other, thus affording a foil for the bright effects on the front. Thisbright effect will be further enhanced if we assume that the localcolor of the roof is darker than that of the walls, so that wecan give it a gray tone, which will also make the main buildingstand away from the other. If, however, we were to likewise assumethat the roof of the other building were darker than its walls, weshould be obliged to emphasize the objectionable roof line, andas, in any case, we want a dark effect lower down on the walls togive relief to our main building, we will assume that the local colorof the older walls is darker than that of the new. The shadow of themain cornice we will make quite strong, emphasis being placed onthe nearer corner, which is made almost black. This color is repeatedin the windows, which, coming as they do in a group, are some ofthem more filled in than others, to avoid an effect of monotony. The strong note of the drawing is then given by the foregroundfigure. 

[Illustration: FIG. 60 C. D. M. ]

Another scheme for the treatment of this same subject is illustratedby Fig. 60. Here, by the introduction of the tree at the right ofthe picture, a triangular composition is adopted. Observe that thesidewalk and roof lines at the left side of the building radiateto the bottom and top of the tree respectively. The shadow of thetree helps to form the bottom line of the triangle. In this casethe foreground figure is omitted, as it would have made thetriangularity too obvious. In the color-scheme the tree is made theprincipal dark, and this dark is repeated in the cornice shadow, windows and figures as before. The gray tone of the old buildingqualifies the blackness of the tree, which would otherwise have madetoo strong a contrast at the edge of the picture, and so detractedfrom the interest of the main building. 

CHAPTER VII

DECORATIVE DRAWING

In all modern decorative illustration, and, indeed, in all departmentsof decorative design, the influences of two very different and distinctpoints of view are noticeable; the one demanding a realistic, theother a purely conventional art. The logic of the first is, thatall good pictorial art is essentially decorative; that of the second, that the decorative subject must be designed in organic relation tothe space which it is to occupy, and be so treated that the designwill primarily fulfil a purely ornamental function. That is to say, whatever of dramatic or literary interest the decorative designmay possess must be, as it were, woven into it, so that the generaleffect shall please as instantly, as directly, and as independentlyof the meaning, as the pattern of an Oriental rug. The former, itwill be seen, is an imitative, the latter an inventive art. Inthe one, the elements of the subject are rendered with all possiblenaturalism; while, in the other, effects of atmosphere and theaccidental play of light and shade are sacrificed to a conventionalrendering, by which the design is kept flat upon the paper or wall. One represents the point of view of the painter and the pictorialillustrator; the other that of the designer and the architect. Thesecond, or conventional idea, has now come to be widely acceptedas a true basic principle in decorative art. 

[Side note: _The New Decorative School_]

The idea is not by any means novel; it has always been the fundamentalprinciple of Japanese art; but its genesis was not in Japan. Theimmediate inspiration of the new Decorative school, as far as itis concerned with the decoration of books, at least, was found inthe art of Dürer, Holbein, and the German engravers of the sixteenthcentury, --interest in which period has been lately so stimulatedby the Arts and Crafts movement in England. This movement, whichmay fairly be regarded as one of the most powerful influences inlatter-day art, was begun with the aim of restoring those healthyconditions which obtained before the artist and the craftsman cameto be two distinct and very much extranged workers. The activitiesof the movement were at first more directly concerned with theart of good book-making, which fructified in the famous KelmscottPress (an institution which, while necessarily undemocratic, hasexerted a tremendous influence on modern printing), and to-daythere is scarcely any sphere of industrial art which has not beeninfluenced by the Arts and Crafts impetus. 

[Side note: _Criticisms of the School_]

This modern decorative renaissance has a root in sound art principles, which promises for it a vigorous vitality; and perhaps the onlyserious criticism which has been directed against it is, that itencourages archaic crudities of technique which ignore the highdevelopment of the reproductive processes of the present day; and, moreover, that its sympathies tend towards mediæval life and feeling. While such a criticism might reasonably be suggested by the work ofsome of its individual adherents, it does not touch in the leastthe essential principles of the school. Art cannot be said to scoutmodernity because it refuses to adjust itself to the every capriceof Science. The architect rather despises the mechanically perfectbrick (very much to the surprise of the manufacturer); and thoughthe camera can record more than the pencil or the brush, yet theartist is not trying to see more than he ever did before. Thereare, too, many decorative illustrators who, while very distinctlyconfessing their indebtedness to old examples; are yet perfectlyeclectic and individual, both in the choice and development ofmotive. Take, for example, the very modern subject of the cyclistby Mr. A. B. Frost, Fig. 61. There are no archaisms in it whatever. The drawing is as naturalistic and just as careful as if it weredesigned for a picture. The shadows, too, are cast, giving an effectof strong outdoor light; but the treatment, broad and beautifullysimple so as to be reconcilable with the lettering which accompaniedit, is well within conventional lines. That the character of thetechnical treatment is such as to place no tax on the mechanicalinventiveness of the processman is not inexcusable archæology. 

[Illustration: FIG. 61 A. B. FROST]

A valuable attribute of this conventional art is, that it puts nobounds to the fancy of the designer. It is a figurative languagein which he may get away from commonplace statement. What has alwaysseemed to me a very logical employment of convention appears in the_Punch_ cartoons of Sir John Tenniel and Mr. Lindley Sambourne. Even in those cartoons which are devoid of physical caricature (andthey are generally free from this), we see at a glance that it isthe political and not the personal relations of the personæ thatare represented; whereas in the naturalistic cartoons of _Puck_, for example, one cannot resist the feeling that personalities arebeing roughly handled. 

[Side note: _Relation_]

A chief principle in all decorative design and treatment is that ofRelation. If the space to be ornamented be a book-page the designand treatment must be such as to harmonize with the printing. Thetype must be considered as an element in the design, and, as theeffect of a page of type is broad and uniformly flat, the ornamentmust be made to count as broad and flat likewise. The same principleholds equally in mural decoration. There the design ought to besubordinate to the general effect of the architecture. The wallis not to be considered merely as a convenient place on which toplaster a picture, its structural purpose must be regarded, andthis cannot be expressed if the design or treatment be purelypictorial--if vague perspective distances and strong foregroundaccents be used without symmetry or order, except that order whichgoverns itself alone. In other words, the decoration must be organic. 

[Illustration: FIG. 62 ALFRED G. JONES]

[Side note: _Classes of Decorative Design_]

Decorative illustrations may be broadly classified under threeheads as follows: First, those wherein the composition and thetreatment are both conventional, as, for example, in the ex-librisby Mr. A. G. Jones, Fig. 62. Second, where the composition isnaturalistic, and the treatment only is conventional, as in Mr. Frost's design. Third, where the composition is decorative butnot conventional, and the treatment is semi-natural, as in thedrawing by Mr. Walter Appleton Clark, Fig. 63. (The latter subjectis of such a character as to lend itself without convention to adecorative effect; and, although the figure is modeled as in apictorial illustration, the organic lines are so emphasized throughoutas to preserve the decorative character, and the whole keeps itsplace on the page. ) Under this third head would be included thosesubjects of a pictorial nature whose composition and values aresuch as to make them reconcilable to a decorative use by meansof borders or very defined edges, as in the illustration by Mr. A. Campbell Cross, Fig. 64. 

[Illustration: FIG. 63 W. APPLETON CLARK]

[Illustration: FIG. 64 A. CAMPBELL CROSS]

[Side note: _The Decorative Outline_]

Another essential characteristic of decorative drawing is the emphasizedOutline. This may be heavy or delicate, according to the nature ofthe subject or individual taste. The designs by Mr. W. Nicholsonand Mr. Selwyn Image, for instance, are drawn with a fatness ofoutline not to be obtained with anything but a brush; while theoutlines of M. Boutet de Monvel, marked as they are, are evidentlythe work of a more than usually fine pen. In each case, however, everything is in keeping with the scale of the outline adopted, so that this always retains its proper emphasis. The decorativeoutline should never be broken, but should be kept firm, positive, and uniform. It may be heavy, and yet be rich and feeling, as maybe seen in the Mucha design, Fig. 65. Generally speaking, the lineought not to be made with a nervous stroke, but rather with a slow, deliberate drag. The natural wavering of the hand need occasion noanxiety, and, indeed, it is often more helpful to the line thanotherwise. 

[Illustration: FIG. 65 MUCHA]

Perhaps there is no more difficult thing to do well than to modelthe figure while still preserving the decorative outline. Severalexamples of the skilful accomplishment of this problem are illustratedhere. Observe, for instance, how in the quaint Dürer-like designby Mr. Howard Pyle, Fig. 66, the edges of the drapery-folds areemphasized in the shadow by keeping them white, and see how wonderfullyeffective the result is. The same device is also to be noticed inthe book-plate design by Mr. A. G. Jones, Fig. 62, as well as inthe more conventional treatment of the black figure in the Bradleyposter, Fig. 67. 

[Illustration: FIG. 66 HOWARD PYLE]

[Illustration: FIG. 67 WILL H. BRADLEY

[Side note: _Color_]

In the rendering of decorative subjects, the Color should be, asmuch as possible, designed. Whereas a poster, which is made witha view to its entire effect being grasped at once, may be renderedin flat masses of color, the head- or tail-piece for a decorativebook-page should be worked out in more detail, and the design shouldbe finer and more varied in color. The more the color is attainedby means of pattern, instead of by mere irresponsible lines, themore decorative is the result. Observe the color-making by patternin the book-plate by Mr. P. J. Billinghurst, Fig. 68. A great varietyof textures may be obtained by means of varied patterns withoutaffecting the breadth of the color-scheme. This may be noticedin the design last mentioned, in which the textures are extremelywell rendered, as well as in the poster design by Mr. Bradley forthe _Chap-Book_, just referred to. 

[Illustration: FIG. 68 P. J. BILLINGHURST]

[Illustration: FIG. 69 "BEGGARSTAFF BROTHERS"]

The color-scheme ought to be simple and broad. No set rules canbe laid down to govern its disposition, which must always havereference to the whole design. The importance of employing such abroad and simple scheme in decorative drawing needs no better argumentthan the effective poster design by the "Beggarstaff Brothers, "Fig. 69, and that by Mr. Penfield, Fig. 70. Of course the moreconventional the design the less regard need be paid to anythinglike a logical disposition of color. A figure may be set againsta black landscape with white trees without fear of criticism fromreasonable people, provided it looks effective there. 

[Illustration: FIG. 70 EDWARD PENFIELD]

[Side note: _Modern Decorative Draughtsmen_]

A word or two, in conclusion, concerning some of the modern decorativedraughtsmen. Of those who work in the sixteenth century manner, Mr. Howard Pyle is unquestionably the superior technician. Hisline, masterly in its sureness, is rich and charged with feeling. Mr. H. Ospovat, one of the younger group of English decorators, has also a charming technique, rather freer than that of Mr. Pyle, and yet reminding one of it. Mr. Louis Rhead is another of the sameschool, whose designs are deserving of study. The example of hiswork shown in Fig. 71--excellent both in color and in drawing--isone of his earlier designs. Mr. J. W. Simpson, in the book-plate, Fig. 72, shows the broadest possible decorative method; a methodwhich, while too broad for anything but a poster or a book-label, is just what the student should aim at being able to attain. 

[Illustration: FIG. 71 LOUIS J. RHEAD]

[Illustration: FIG. 72 J. W. SIMPSON]

Some of those decorators whose work shows a Japanese influence havea most exquisite method. Of these, that remarkable draughtsman, M. Boutet de Monvel, easily takes the first place. Those who have hadthe good fortune to see his original drawings will not easily forgetthe delicate beauty of outline nor the wonderfully tender coloringwhich distinguishes them. Mr. Maxfield Parrish is another masterlydecorator who is noted for his free use of Japanese precedent aswell as for the resourcefulness of his technique. The drawingsof Mr. Henry McCarter, too, executed as they are in pure line, areespecially valuable to the student of the pen. In respect both ofthe design and treatment of decorative subjects, the work of thelate Aubrey Beardsley is more individual than that of any othermodern draughtsman. That of our own clever and eccentric Bradley, while very clearly confessing its obligations, has yet a distinctivecharacter of its own. The work of the two latter draughts men, however, is not to be recommended to the unsophisticated beginnerfor imitation, for it is likely to be more harmful than otherwise. Nevertheless, by steering clear of the grotesque conventions withwhich they treat the human figure, by carefully avoiding the intenseblacks in which a great deal of their work abounds, and by generallymaintaining a healthy condition of mind, much is to be learnedfrom a study of their peculiar methods.