ONTARIOTEACHERS' MANUALS

HOUSEHOLD SCIENCEINRURAL SCHOOLS

[Illustration: Printer's mark. ]

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

TORONTOWILLIAM BRIGGS

Copyright. Canada. 1918. ByThe Minister of Education for Ontario

CONTENTS

 PAGE

Preface vii

Three Short Courses in Home-making 1 Introduction 1 A Library on Home Economics for the Rural School 2Twenty Lessons in the Care of the Home 4 Suggestions to the Teacher 4 Equipment 5 Reference Books 6 Lesson I: Arrangement and Care of the Kitchen 7 Lesson II: Care of Cupboards and Utensils 10 Lesson III: Care of Foods 12 Lesson IV: Disposal of Waste 14 Lesson V: Making Soap 17 Lesson VI: Setting and Clearing the Table 18 Lesson VII: Waiting on Table 21 Lessons VIII and IX: General Cleaning of a Room 23 Lesson X: Care of the Bed-room 25 Lesson XI: Care of Lamps 27 Lesson XII: Prevention of Pests 29 Lesson XIII: Removing Stains, Bleaching Fabrics, and Setting Colours 32 Lesson XIV: Washing Dish-Towels, Aprons, etc. 34 Lesson XV: Ironing 35 Lessons XVI and XVII: Care of the Baby 36 Lesson XVIII: Cost of Food, Clothing, and House 39 Lesson XIX: How to Keep Accounts 39 Lesson XX: Care of the Exterior of the House 41 Reference Books 44

Twenty Lessons in Cooking 45 Suggestions to the Teacher 45 Abbreviations and Measurements 48 Table of Level Measurements 48 Comparisons Between Weights and Measures 48 Reference Books 49 Lesson I: Discussion of Foods and Cooking 50 Recipes 52 Lesson II: Preparing and Serving Vegetables 53 Recipes 55 Lesson III: The Value of Carbohydrates in the Diet 58 Recipes 59 Lesson IV: Fruits and Vegetables 60 Recipes--Open-kettle Method; Cold-pack Method; Single Process Method; Intermittent Method 63 Lesson V: Fats--Vegetables--Continued 66 Recipes 68 Experiments in Using Starch for Thickening 69 Conclusions Based on the Foregoing Experiments 69 Lesson VI: Cereals 70 Recipes 71 Lesson VII: Classification of Foods--Reviewed 73 Black-board Summary 76 Lesson VIII: The Planning and Serving of Meals 76 Examples of Well-chosen Menus 77 Lesson IX: Milk 79 Recipes 81 Lesson X: Soups 82 Recipes 83 Lesson XI: Eggs 85 Recipes 86 Lesson XII: Simple Desserts--Custards 88 Recipes 89 Lesson XIII: Batters and Doughs 90 Recipes 91 Lesson XIV: Batters and Doughs--Continued 92 Recipes 93 Lesson XV: Meats 94 Recipes 95 Lesson XVI: Baked Pork and Beans--Baking-powder Biscuits 98 Recipes 98 Lesson XVII: Butter Cakes--Plain Yellow Cake--Cocoa Coffee--Tea 99 Recipes 101 Lesson XVIII: Yeast Bread 103 Recipes 104 Lesson XIX: Serving a Simple Dinner Without Meat--Baked Omelet--Macaroni and Cheese 106 Recipes 106 Lesson XX: Sugar 107 Recipes 108

Twenty Lessons in Sewing 110 Suggestions to the Teacher 110 Reference Books 112 Lesson I: Preparation for Sewing 113 Lesson II: Hemming Towels 115 Lesson III: Hemming Towels--Continued 116 Lesson IV: Bags 119 Lesson V: Bags--Continued 120 Lesson VI: Bags--Continued 122 Lesson VII: Bags--Continued 123 Lesson VIII: Bags--Continued 124 Lesson IX: Darning Stockings 127 Lesson X: Patching 128 Lesson XI: Cutting Out Aprons or Undergarments 130 Lesson XII: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 132 Lesson XIII: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 134 Lesson XIV: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 135 Lesson XV: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 136 Lesson XVI: Aprons or Undergarments--Continued 137 Lesson XVII: Methods of Fastening Garments 138 Lesson XVIII: Methods of Fastening Garments--Continued 140 Lesson XIX: A Padded Holder for Handling Hot Dishes Binding 142 Lesson XX: A Cap to Wear with the Cooking Apron 144

Household Science Equipment 146 Household Science Cabinet Materials Required, Stock Bill, Tools, Directions for Making 161 Equipment for Rural School Household Science Cabinet--No. I 173 Equipment for Rural School Household Science Cabinet--No. II 174 The Hectograph 177

The Rural School Lunch 178 The Box Lunch 179 Contents of the Lunch Box 181 Sandwich Making 182 Suggestions for Sandwich Fillings 182 Suggestions for Planning 183 Suggestions for Desserts 184 Packing the Lunch Box 184 Rules for Packing 184 Equipment for Packing 185

Serving a Hot Dish 186 The Method 186 Suggested Menus 189 Suggestions for Hot Dishes for Four Weeks 189

Recipes Suitable for the Rural School Lunch 191 Useful Bulletins 200

Household Science Without School Equipment 201 First Method 201 Second Method 204

The Fireless Cooker 208 Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. I 210 The Outside Container 210 The Insulating Material 212 The Inside Container 214 The Kettle 214 Extra Source of Heat 215 Covering Pad 215 Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. II 217 Method of Making 217 Directions for Fireless Cooker--No. III 217 Method of Making 218

Use of the Fireless Cooker in the Preparation of Lunches 218

Special Grants for Rural and Village Schools 221

PREFACE

This Manual is issued for the purpose of encouraging the introductionand furthering the progress of Household Science in the rural schools ofthis Province. There are 903 urban and 5, 697 rural schools, and 45. 87%of the school population is in attendance at the latter schools. Thevalue of Household Science as an educational and practical subject hasbeen recognized, to some extent, in the urban schools of the Provincebut, up to the present, little attempt has been made to give the subjecta place among the activities of the rural schools. 

There is a wide-spread impression that it is not possible in HouseholdScience to give any instruction that is of value without the provisionof separate rooms, elaborate equipment, and specially trained teachers. Where these conditions exist, of course, the best work can beaccomplished; but, even where they cannot be realized, much may be donetoward giving definite, useful instruction in the cardinal principles ofhome-making, which should be learned by every girl. There is certainlynot a single rural school where some practical work in sewing and somevaluable lessons in the care of the home may not be given. As forcookery, it is doubtful if there is a single school so small and sohelpless that it is unable to use the hot noon-day lunch as a method ofapproach to this branch of the subject. 

Students of the physical welfare of children are rapidly coming to theconclusion that a warm mid-day meal greatly increases the efficiency ofthe pupil and determines to a large extent the results of theafternoon's study. There are other benefits to be derived from a schoollunch well prepared under proper conditions. In many communities it hasbeen the means of bringing about a healthy and satisfactory co-operationbetween the school and the home, of developing a higher social life inthe neighbourhood, and of introducing into the school a HouseholdScience course, which has proved as great a benefit to the farmer's wifeas to his children. 

This Manual deals entirely with conditions that exist in our ruralschools and outlines only such plans and schemes as can be carried out, even in adverse circumstances, by alert trustees, sympatheticinspectors, and resourceful teachers. 

Permission has been obtained from the Bureau of Education, Washington, U. S. A. , to make use of a recently issued bulletin--"Three Courses inHome-making for Rural Schools", and of various bulletins issued by StateAgricultural Colleges. The freest use has been made of this material, and the permission to do so is hereby gratefully acknowledged. 

Only such theory as can be readily assimilated has been given; and theteacher is advised for further information and help to consult theManuals issued by the Department of Education on _Household Management_and _Sewing_. Those who wish to become thoroughly competent and to earnthe highest Departmental grants should attend the Summer Schoolsprovided by the Department of Education. Under certain conditions theexpenses of teachers attending these courses are paid by the Department. 

Nothing has been included or recommended that cannot be accomplished inthe average rural school; and trustees, teachers, and inspectors areurged to make a beginning by selecting the lessons that appeal to themas being most suitable to the districts in which their schools aresituated. 

By careful planning and a wise use of the time before and after schooland during recess, the regular organization of the school need not beinterfered with; and, in addition to the educational and socialadvantages to be derived from undertaking this work, much benefit willresult from the increased interest taken in the school by the parentsand the general public. 

It is not essential that the lessons in this Manual should be takenexactly in the order given. Any other arrangement called for by thepeculiar circumstances of the school is admissible. 

The Inspector of Manual Training and Household Science is ready at alltimes to visit rural schools for the purpose of conferring with thePublic School Inspectors, the trustees, and the teachers regarding theintroduction of Household Science as a regular subject of the schoolcurriculum. 

HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE IN RURALSCHOOLS

THREE SHORT COURSES IN HOME-MAKING

INTRODUCTION

The three brief courses in home-making outlined in this Manual have beenespecially prepared for use in elementary rural schools. They are in nosense complete outlines of the subjects with which they deal; rather, they indicate a few of the important phases of food study, sewing, andthe care of the home with which the pupil in the elementary schoolshould become familiar. The underlying thought for each problem shouldbe: "Will this help the pupils to live more useful lives, and will itlead to better conditions in their homes?"

The lessons are purposely made simple, and the plans are definitelyoutlined, so that even the inexperienced teacher may be able to achievea certain measure of success. The experienced teacher will find in themsuggestions that may be of value in the further development of thecourse. 

The teacher who desires to use this course will necessarily have toadapt it to her own community, and it is hoped that she may be able todo this with but little alteration. While conditions of living andchoice of foods differ in various parts of the Province, the generalprinciples of nutrition, the rules of sanitation, and the methods ofcooking and serving are much the same for all. 

Owing to the difficulty of securing time on the programme for frequentlessons in home-making, each of the courses has been limited to twentylessons. Some teachers may not be able to have a greater number oflessons during the school year, and they may find it well to carry thethree courses through three successive years. In other schools, wheremore frequent lessons can be given, it may be well to offer all threecourses during one year. The courses in cooking and the care of the homecan be advantageously combined, as many of the problems in both arerelated. The lessons in sewing may be given on another day of the week, or it may be well to give them early in the year, to be followed, later, by the cooking lessons. Thus an opportunity will be furnished for themaking of the cooking aprons and the hemming of the towels. 

It is most desirable that periods of at least forty minutes should beprovided for all the practical lessons. Longer periods will be necessaryfor some of them, such as the preparation and the serving of a meal. Ifno practical work is undertaken in the lesson, a forty-minute period issufficient. 

LIBRARY ON HOME ECONOMICS FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL

In addition to the text-books recommended as sources of specialreference for the rural teacher, the following books, bearing on homeeconomics or on methods of teaching, are suggested for the rural schoollibrary. These books have been chosen with the threefold purpose ofproviding references for the teachers, reading matter for the pupils, and a lending library for the parents. 

_Laundering. _ Balderston, L. Ray. Pub. By the Author. Philadelphia $1. 25

_Country Life and the Country School. _ Carney, M. Row, Peterson & Co. , Chicago 1. 25

_How the World is Fed. _ Carpenter, F. O. American Book Co. , New York . 60

_How the World is Clothed. _ Carpenter, F. O. American Book Co. , New York . 60

_How the World is Housed. _ Carpenter, F. O. American Book Co. , New York . 60

_How We Are Clothed. _ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, Toronto . 45

_How We Are Fed. _ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, Toronto . 45

_How We Are Sheltered. _ Chamberlain, J. F. Macmillan's, Toronto . 45

_Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. _ Conn, H. W. Ginn & Co. , Boston 1. 00

_The Boston Cooking-school Cook Book. _ Farmer, F. M. Little, Brown & Co. , Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto) 1. 80

_The Rural School Lunch. _ Farnsworth, N. W. Webb Pub. Co. , St. Paul, Minn. . 25

_Clothing and Shelter. _ Kinne, H. , and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto 1. 10

_Foods and Household Management. _ Kinne, H. , and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto 1. 10

_Means and Methods of Agricultural Education. _ Leake, A. H. Houghton, Mifflin Co. , New York. (Thos. Allen, Toronto) 2. 00

_Rural Hygiene. _ Ogden, H. N. Saunders, Philadelphia 1. 50

_Health and Cleanliness. _ O'Shea, M. V. , and Kellogg, J. H. Macmillan's, Toronto . 56

_Rural Education. _ Pickard, A. E. Webb Pub. Co. , St. Paul, Minn. 1. 00

_Manual of Personal Hygiene. _ Pyle, W. L. Saunders, Philadelphia 1. 50

_Feeding the Family. _ Rose, M. S. Macmillan's, Toronto 2. 10

_Food Products. _ Sherman, H. C. Macmillan's, Toronto 2. 00

TWENTY LESSONS IN THE CARE OF THE HOME

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The purpose of this course is to give the pupils instruction in varioushousehold tasks, in order that better living conditions may be securedin the homes. The beauty and sacredness of an ideal home life shouldreceive emphasis, so that the pupils may be impressed with theimportance of conscientious work in the performance of their dailyhousehold duties. They should have some insight into the sanitary, economic, and social problems that are involved in housekeeping, so thatthey may develop an increased appreciation of the importance of thehome-maker's work. 

The two most important things to be taught are "cleanliness and order". Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the value of fresh air andsunshine and the necessity for the free use of hot water and soap. Thevalue of property should also be emphasized. Economy in the purchase andhandling of house furnishings and equipment should be considered. Instruction should also be given in the care of foods and clothing andin the care and arrangement of furniture. Simple instruction in the careof babies should be given, since the older children are oftenresponsible, to some extent, for the care of the younger members oftheir families. 

In some of the lessons more subjects may be suggested than the teacherwill have time to take up in a single period. In that case it will bewell for her to choose the subject which seems most vital to theimmediate needs of the community. In many cases she may be able to givean increased number of lessons. Practice and drill in all of theprocesses involved in housewifery are essential to successful training. 

If a cupboard and a table have been arranged for the use of the cookingclasses, most of the suggested work can be carried out with the schoolequipment. Where there is no equipment in the school and schoolconditions do not approximate home conditions, it may be possible tosecure permission to give the lesson after school hours in the home ofone of the pupils who lives nearby. 

In each lesson the teacher, while giving the pupils helpful generalinformation on the subject under discussion, should strive to impress onthem the importance of doing some one simple thing well. 

The rural teacher who is eager to make her school-room an attractiveplace may devote some time in these lessons to such problems as thehanging and the care of simple curtains, the care of indoor plants, thearrangement of pictures, the planning of storage arrangements forsupplies and of cupboards for dishes, and the preparations for theserving of the school lunch. 

In order to teach these lessons effectively, it is desirable to have thefollowing simple equipment on hand. Additional special equipment may beborrowed from the homes. 

EQUIPMENT

 Broom, 1 Cloths for cleaning, 6 Dish-cloths, 2 Dish-towels, 12 Dust-brush, 1 Dust-pan, 1 Garbage can (covered), 1 Lamp, 1 Oil-can, 1

REFERENCE BOOKS

_Rural Hygiene. _ Brewer, I. W. Lippincott Co. , Philadelphia $1. 25_The Healthful Farmhouse. _ Dodd, H. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston . 60_Community Hygiene. _ Hutchinson, Woods. Houghton, Mifflin Co. , New York. (Thos. Allen, Toronto) . 65_Foods and Sanitation. _ Forster, G. H. , and Weigley, M. Row, Peterson &. Co. , Chicago 1. 00_The Home and the Family. _ Kinne, H. , and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto . 80_Housekeeping Notes. _ Kittredge, M. H. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston . 80_Practical Home-making. _ Kittredge, M. H. The Century Co. , New York . 70_A Second Course in Home-making. _ Kittredge, M. H. The Century Co. , New York . 80

LESSON I: ARRANGEMENT AND CARE OF THE KITCHEN

SUBJECT-MATTER

In arranging the kitchen, the three things of most importance are thestove, the sink, and the kitchen table. If there is no sink in thekitchen, there will be some other place arranged for washing the dishes, probably the kitchen table, and this must be taken into considerationwhen the furniture is placed. As most of the work is done at the stoveand the table, both these must be placed where they will have a goodlight, and they should be close to each other, so that but few steps arenecessary for the worker. 

In furnishing the kitchen, the housekeeper will find a high stool veryuseful, as it will enable her to wash dishes, prepare vegetables, and doother work while seated. 

All the furniture should be kept so clean and free from dust that thekitchen will have a neat and attractive appearance. A vase of flowers ora potted plant, and a washable table-cover to be used after the disheshave been put away, will help to make this room a pleasant place for thefamily. Special attention should be given to the ventilation. 

The kitchen should be thoroughly cleaned after each meal. If it hasbecome dusty or disarranged, it should be put in order before the nextmeal is to be prepared. While the cooking is under way, everythingshould be kept in an orderly condition. As soon as the meal iscompleted, the left-over food should be covered and put away; the scrapsand waste material should be gathered and disposed of; and the dishes, pots, and pans should be scraped, and washed in hot, soapy water, thenrinsed in clear, hot water, dried, and put away. The table should bescrubbed, the stove cleaned, the floor swept and scrubbed whenevernecessary, and everything put neatly in its place. 

_Care of the coal or wood range. _--All spots should be removed from therange by wiping it with old paper. If it is in bad condition, it shouldbe washed with soap and water. If it is oiled occasionally, blackingwill not be necessary; but if blacking is used, it should be appliedwith a cloth and rubbed to a polish with a brush, just as the fire isbeing started. The ashes and soot flues back of the oven and underneathit should be cleaned out once a week. 

_Directions for building a fire. _--To build and care for a fire in thecoal or wood range, close all the dampers, clean the grate, and removethe ashes from the pan. Put on the covers and brush the dust off thestove. Open the creative damper and the oven damper, leaving the checkdamper closed. Lay some paper, slightly crumpled into rolls, across thebase of the grate. Place small pieces of kindling wood across oneanother, with the large pieces on top. Lay pieces of hardwood or ashovelful of coal on top of the kindling, building so as to admit of thefree circulation of air. If the stove is to be polished, rub it withblacking. Light the paper from below. When the fire begins to burnbriskly, add coal or wood: then add more when that kindles. When thefire is well started and blue flame is no longer seen (about tenminutes), close the oven damper. Close the creative damper when the fireis sufficiently hot. Brush the stove and the floor beneath it as soon asthe fire is started. Polish the stove. If the fire becomes too hot, openthe check damper. Fill the tea-kettle with fresh water and set it on thefront of the range. 

_Care of the sink, wash-basin, and garbage pail. _--A neglected sink orgarbage pail may be a fruitful source of disease, in addition toattracting water-bugs and other pests. Scraps should never be left inthe sink. After washing the dishes it should be thoroughly cleaned, abrush and scouring material being used. The nickel part may be washedwith hot soap-suds, wiped dry, and polished. Water should never be leftin the wash-basin. Both the soap-dish and the wash-basin should bescoured daily. The garbage pail should be emptied and washed every day, and carefully scalded once or twice a week. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be well to have this lesson succeed or follow a cooking lesson, for then the pupils will have a keener interest in the problems of thekitchen. (See Twenty Lessons in Cooking, Lesson I. )

METHOD OF WORK

Cleanliness and order are the two points to be considered in thislesson. The doing well of each simple household task and the thoughtfularrangement and planning of all parts of the house should be emphasizedas being of great importance to the housekeeper's success. 

Begin the lesson with a discussion of the purpose of the kitchen; thendiscuss its arrangement from the standpoint of convenience for the workthat must be done there. Emphasize the importance of having thefurniture so arranged that the work may be done quickly and easily, andthat the kitchen may be given a comfortable and attractive appearance. Let the pupils arrange the furniture in the school-room. Discuss anddemonstrate the care of the stove by the use of the school stove. Assigneach pupil a time when she is to look after the stove on succeeding daysand grade her on her work. Let each pupil bring a report from home as towhat she is doing to help in the care of the home kitchen. Make aspecific assignment for home work. 

Questions Used to Develop the Lesson

What is the purpose of the kitchen?

What are the principal articles of furniture in the kitchen?

How should we arrange these things?

Can we make any general rules as to arrangements?

Why is it difficult to keep the kitchen clean?

At what times is the kitchen most apt to become disarranged?

Why is it important to keep the kitchen in good order?

In what order should the kitchen be at the time we begin the preparation of the meal?

How should the floor be cleaned? The utensils?

What should we do with any left-over food?

How should we take care of the stove after the meal?

LESSON II: CARE OF CUPBOARDS AND UTENSILS

SUBJECT-MATTER

It is of the utmost importance that cupboards and other places wherefood is stored should be kept free from dirt and scraps of food. Ants, cockroaches, mice, and other pests infest dirty places where food iskept, and render a house unfit for human habitation. It requiresconstant care and watchfulness on the part of the housewife to keep thecupboards clean. She must look over the shelves daily, wiping them offwhenever they need it, and giving them a thorough cleaning at least oncea week. 

The housekeeper should know how to care for the various utensils usedand understand the simplest and best methods of keeping them clean. Utensils should never be put in the cupboards until perfectly clean anddry. Particular attention should be paid to the care of milk vessels. Pans, pails, pitchers, or bottles in which milk has been kept, should berinsed in cold water, washed in strong, clean soap-suds, rinsed inclean, boiling water, and dried in the sun. If utensils have becomediscoloured or badly coated, they should be specially scoured. Ifsomething has been burned in a kettle, the kettle should be cleaned byfilling with cold water, adding washing-soda, and boiling briskly forhalf an hour; after that a slight scraping ought to remove the burnedportion. If the kettle is not yet clean, the process should be repeated. If a kettle has been used directly over a wood fire and becomesblackened with soot, it should be rubbed off with a newspaper and thenwith an old cloth. Kettles should be dried well before being put away. With proper care they seldom become rusty. If an iron kettle has rusted, it should be rubbed with kerosene and ashes, then washed in strong, hot, soda-water, rinsed in clear hot water, and dried on the stove. If akettle is very rusty, it should be covered thoroughly with some sort ofgrease, sprinkled with lime, and left overnight. In the morning itshould be washed out with hot soda-water and rinsed in clear, hot water. A new kettle is generally rusty, and should be greased thoroughly insideand out and allowed to stand for two days; then washed in hotsoda-water. 

Bath-brick should be used for scouring iron utensils and steel knivesand forks. If iron pots and frying-pans are scrubbed with a piece ofbath-brick each time they are used and then washed in hot soap-suds, they can be kept in good condition. Tinware and steel knives and forksmay be cleaned by scouring with ashes, but only fine ashes should beused on tinware. The brown stains on granite utensils should be scouredoff; and this ware should be carefully handled, in order to avoidchipping. Coffee-pots and tea-pots should be cleaned daily, the groundsremoved, and the interior of the pots washed out thoroughly. Thetea-kettle should be washed and dried overnight and left uncovered toair. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If school lunches are served or cooking lessons are given at the school, it will be well to use this lesson to get the cupboards in readiness. Ifit is impossible to do this at school, arrange to have such a lesson inone of the homes outside of school hours. Be sure that the housekeeperis in sympathy with the work and is willing to co-operate. 

METHOD OF WORK

Assign each pupil a task in the cleaning, the scouring of the dishes, and the arrangement of the cupboard. Set a definite amount to be doneand carry out the plans, leaving a clean and neatly arranged cupboard atthe end of the lesson. 

LESSON III: CARE OF FOODS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Several important points must be borne in mind if foods are to be keptin a good condition. Most foods change easily. Vegetables and fruitslose water, wilt, and become unfit to eat. Flour and corn-meal becomemouldy. Potatoes decay and sprout. Some foods, such as milk, turn sour. Eggs become tainted, and fat grows rancid. With proper care in handling, storing, and keeping, this spoiling can be prevented. 

The spoiling of foods is due to the presence of micro-organisms; and iffoods are fresh and sound and kept cool and clean in every way, theywill not spoil readily, because such conditions are unfavourable to thedevelopment of the micro-organisms. On the other hand, if foods areroughly handled and bruised, decomposition will take place readily, formicro-organisms develop in the bruised portions. Care must, therefore, be taken to select foods wisely, handle them carefully, wash them ifthey are not already clean, put them in clean receptacles, and keep themin a clean, cool place. All pots, pans, and dishes in which foods arekept or cooked should be thoroughly cleansed and rinsed well, so that nofragments stick to them which may decay and cause possible infection tothe next food that is put in. Every part of the kitchen and store-roomsshould be kept clean, dry, and well aired. Light is the best germicideand purifier known. 

Covered receptacles should be secured for all foods. Those that aremouse-proof and insect-proof are essential to a well-kept pantry. Allbottles and cans should be neatly labelled and so arranged that each onecan be conveniently reached. The outside of the bottle or case shouldalways be wiped off after it has been opened and food has been removedfrom it. The shelves on which the cases are kept should be wiped offevery day. If supplies of fruit or vegetables are kept on hand, theyshould be looked over frequently, and whatever shows even the slightestsuggestion of spoiling should be removed. Bread should be kept in acovered tin box, and the box should be washed out once or twice a weekand frequently scalded and aired. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If cooking lessons are to be given, it will be well to take this lessonon the care of foods in connection with the first cooking lesson, and tomake it a means of arranging for the materials that are to be kept onhand and of determining how everything is to be handled. 

METHOD OF WORK

Devote a large part of the lesson to a discussion of the necessity forcare in the handling, storing, and keeping of foods. If facilitiespermit, devote a few minutes to the putting away of foods that are to beused in the next cooking lesson or in the school lunch, discussing thereasons for such care. 

LESSON IV: DISPOSAL OF WASTE

SUBJECT-MATTER

If the daily disposal of waste is attended to, there will be noundesirable accumulation of garbage. Scraps of food that cannot beutilized for the table should be fed to the pigs or the chickens andshould not be allowed to stand and gather flies. A covered pail or panshould be used for holding the garbage, until final disposal is made ofit. Those portions that are badly spoiled and will be of no value infeeding the stock should be burned at once. Waste vegetable substances, if suitable, should be fed to the stock, and if not, should be buried ina thin layer on the ground at some distance from the house, so that theymay enrich the soil. 

Old papers that are badly soiled should be burned, but all others shouldbe kept for use in cleaning the stove, starting the fires, etc. Emptycans should be well washed and buried, so that they will not prove abreeding-place for flies. It is well to pierce them through the bottomimmediately after opening them, so that they will not hold water. Dish-water should be emptied at some distance from the house, unlessthere is a drain nearby. All receptacles that hold water should becarefully emptied, and all depressions in the soil should be filled, inorder to prevent mosquitoes from breeding. All waste water should beused on the garden. 

_Protection of the water supply. _--Only the water from deep wells shouldbe used for drinking purposes, because all surface water and water inshallow wells becomes dangerous through seepage from compost, pig-pens, privies, and other places where decayed organic matter may accumulate. In order that the water may be kept clean, the well must be suppliedwith a tight-fitting top which need not be opened and a metal pump tobring up the water. A well platform that allows the water spilled on itto run back into the well is unsafe, for any filth carried on theplatform in any way will be washed directly into it. Rats, mice, andother animals get into the well if the top is not tight, and these, inaddition to being unpleasant, are liable to introduce disease germs. 

_Simple disinfectants. _--Sunshine and fresh air are nature'sdisinfectants and should be freely admitted to every part of the house. Windows should be left open whenever possible. The windows in thesleeping rooms should always be opened at night. The interior of thehouse should be kept perfectly dry. Decay does not easily take place indry places. A damp cellar should be drained, and the grounds around thehouse should not be allowed to drain into the cellar. Coarse coal ashesshould be used to fill in around the house, on the walks, etc. , to helpin securing thorough drainage. Wood ashes may be used as a simpledisinfectant to cover decayed organic matter. Whitewash is a gooddisinfectant and should be frequently used both inside and outside thehouse and on all out-buildings. Kerosene and creosote also make gooddisinfectants. 

_Care of out-of-door closets. _--The privy should be so arranged that itmay be cleaned often and all excreta disposed of in a safe way. Thebuilding should be so well constructed that there will be no cracks forthe admission of flies. In a poorly constructed building, old paper canbe pasted over the cracks, to make the structure fly-proof. Dry earth, street dust, or lime should be frequently sprinkled over the excreta, and the seat should be closed, to prevent the entrance of flies ormosquitoes. The seat should be washed frequently, and both the seat andthe floor scrubbed at least once a week. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be well to teach this lesson at a time when improvements arenecessary in the care of the school-house. The discussions in regard toout-of-door closets will, of course, be taken when the girls are alonewith the teacher. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the disposal of waste, the care of garbage, etc. , in the homeand the school. Talk over the care of waste from the school lunch anddiscuss methods of keeping the school in a sanitary condition. Followthis by a general cleaning of the school-house. 

LESSON V: MAKING SOAP

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Home-Made Hard Soap_

 6 lb. Fat 1 can lye 1 pt. Cold water 1 tbsp. Borax

Melt the fat slowly. Mix the lye and water in a bowl or kettle (do notuse a tin pan), stirring with a stick until the potash dissolves. Addthe borax and allow the mixture to cool. Cool the fat and, when it islukewarm, add the lye, pouring it in a thin stream and stirringconstantly. Stir with a smooth stick until about as thick as honey, andcontinue stirring for ten minutes. Pour the mixture into a box and allowit to harden. Cut into pieces the desired size and leave in a cool, dryplace for ten days, to ripen before using. 

When making the soap, be careful not to spill potash or lye on thehands, as it makes a bad burn. If the hands are burned, rub them withgrease at once. Do not wet them. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Some time before this lesson is given ask the pupils to bring scraps offat from home. See that these are in good condition, and weigh them, todetermine the portion of the recipe that can be made. Ask one of thepupils to bring sufficient borax for the recipe. 

METHOD OF WORK

Let the pupils look the fat over and put it on to melt, watching itcarefully. While it is heating and cooling, discuss the process ofsoap-making, the cost of materials, the care necessary in the making ofsoap, and the importance of its use. Get ready the other materials, anda box for moulding the soap, and let the pupils work together. After thesoap has hardened and been cut, have it put away on a shelf to dry. 

LESSON VI: SETTING AND CLEARING THE TABLE

SUBJECT-MATTER

The following points must be remembered when a meal is to be served: Thedining-room must be clean, well aired, sufficiently lighted, and in goodorder. 

The table must be perfectly clean and covered with a clean white cover(table-cloth, doilies, paper napkins, or oil-cloth). 

A vase of flowers or leaves or a small potted plant, in the centre ofthe table, will help to make it attractive. 

The table should be prepared with everything necessary for serving themeal, but only those foods should be placed on it that will not bespoiled by standing. If there is danger of the food attracting flies, cover it carefully. 

Plates for everyone who is to partake of the meal should be arranged atequal distances from one another, and half an inch from the edge of thetable. 

The knife should be placed at the right of the plate with the cuttingedge toward the plate, and one inch from the edge of the table. 

The fork should be placed at the left of the plate with the tines turnedup, and one inch from the edge of the table. 

The spoon should be placed, bowl upward, at the right of the plate, tothe right of the knife. It should be placed one inch from the edge ofthe table. Spoons and forks for serving should be placed at the rightand left of the dish to be served, or in another convenient position. Noone should have to use the personal fork or spoon for serving. 

The napkins should be folded simply and placed at the left of the fork. 

The tumbler should be placed at the upper end of the knife. 

The cups and saucers should be placed at the right of the plate with thehandle of the cup toward the right. 

The bread-and-butter plate, if used, should be placed at the upper lefthand of the fork. 

The salt-cellars and pepper-shakers should be placed near the centre ofthe table or at the sides, where they can be conveniently reached. Individual salt-cellars, if used, should be placed immediately in frontof the individual plate. 

The chairs should be placed at the table after it is set. Care should betaken not to put them so close to it that it will be necessary to movethem after they are occupied. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If possible, arrange to give this lesson before Lesson VIII in theseries of "Twenty Lessons in Cooking" is given; then the emphasis inthat lesson may be put upon the food to be served, proper combinations, etc. , while this lesson gives the drill in the arrangement and handlingof the dishes. 

It is desirable to give the pupils a thorough drill in table setting andtable service, since much of the pleasure derived from eating dependsupon the attention paid to these processes. 

Be careful to see that everything necessary is on hand to set the tablesimply but daintily. For class practice a small table may be set forfour. This will necessitate a table-cover, four or more dinner plates, four bread-and-butter plates, four tumblers, four cups and saucers, fourknives, four forks, four teaspoons, four napkins, a salt-cellar, apepper-shaker, a platter, one serving spoon, and one serving fork. Ifthese things are not already in the school, probably they can be broughtfrom home by the pupils. If linen cloths are not used and cannot beafforded on the tables in the homes, the pupils should be taught to usea white oil-cloth. 

Have a diagram made on the black-board by one of the pupils of thearrangement of an individual place at the table. 

[Illustration: _Fig. 1. _--Arrangement of an individual place at table1. Knife 2. Spoon 3. Tumbler 4. Fork 5. Napkin6. Bread-and-butter plate 7. Dinner plate]

METHOD OF WORK

The process of table setting should be demonstrated with the materialsat hand, and the work should be adapted to home conditions. 

If there is no available table in the school-room, the desk tops may beused for individual places. 

Reasons for the arrangement of the table should be given--theconvenience of placing the knives and the spoons to the right, the forksto the left, the cup and saucer and the tumbler to the right, the use ofthe napkin, etc. 

LESSON VII: WAITING ON TABLE

SUBJECT MATTER

The one who is to wait on table must be careful to see that everythingis in readiness before the meal is announced, so that she can do herwork easily, without subjecting those at the table to unnecessary delay. She should have water, bread, and butter (if used), hot dishes ready forthe hot foods, and dessert dishes conveniently at hand. She must seethat her hands are perfectly clean and her hair and dress in order. Aclean, neat apron will always improve her appearance. The room should beclean and neatly arranged. 

If the meal is to be a family one and all are to sit at the tabletogether, plates will be passed from one to another as they are served:but it will still be well to have one person appointed to wait on thetable. She should be ready to supply more bread, water, etc. , when it isnecessary, and to change the plates for the dessert course. She shouldrise from the table quickly and quietly, in order not to disturb others, and should take her place again as soon as the necessary service hasbeen rendered. 

The following rules should be observed: Hold the tumblers near thebottom, being careful not to touch the upper edge. Fill onlythree-quarters full. 

Put the butter on the table just before the meal is announced, and servein neat, compact pieces. 

Cut the bread in even slices, pile them neatly on a serving plate, andplace it on the table, covering it with a clean napkin or towel, ifthere are flies about or there is danger of dust. If preferred, thebread may be cut at the table as required. Place the dessert dishes atone end of the table or, better still, on a side table, until it is timeto use them. When carrying the dishes to and from the table, be carefulnot to let the fingers come in contact with the food. Learn to place thehand under the dish. In particular service a napkin is used between thehand and the dish, or a tray, if the dish is a small one. The trayshould be covered with a napkin or doily. 

When a dish is being passed, hold it at the left of the person to beserved and at a convenient height and distance. Be sure that each dishis supplied with a spoon or a fork for serving, and turn the handle ofthe spoon or the fork toward the one to be served. 

If a plate is to be placed in front of a person, set it down from theright. Never reach in front of others at the table. 

When a course is finished, remove the dishes containing the food first;then the soiled plates, knives, and forks. Be careful to handle only afew dishes at a time and not to pile them. If another course is to beserved, remove the crumbs from the table, using for the purpose a napkinand plate, or a crumb tray and brush, and brushing the crumbs lightlyinto the plate. Fill the tumblers, and arrange the dishes and forks orspoons quickly for the next course. 

When the meal is over, the chairs should be moved back from the table, the dishes neatly piled and carried to the kitchen sink, the tablewiped, the crumbs brushed from the floor, and the room aired. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Let this lesson be a continuation of the previous one, placing emphasison the method of waiting on table. The same articles will be required aswere used in the last lesson. In addition to these the pupils must becareful to have clean aprons for this lesson. 

METHOD OF WORK

Have the table set, as a review of the work of the last lesson; thenhave four or six of the pupils seat themselves and go through the formsof serving one another to any simple meal upon which the class maydecide. Family meal service should be explained and demonstrated first;then service where there is one waitress. Have the pupils, in turn, actas waitresses and serve all the others, offering and placing the food, removing the soiled dishes, filling the tumblers, etc. 

LESSONS VIII AND IX: GENERAL CLEANING OF A ROOM

SUBJECT-MATTER

Rooms which are in constant use should be swept and dusted every day. Athorough cleaning of each room in the house will be necessary every weekor two, even though the room is swept and kept in order daily. First, all cupboards, drawers, and other receptacles in which articles collectshould be cleaned; then all large movable articles should be dusted andmoved out of the room; those that are not readily movable should bedusted and covered. The floor should be swept with the windows open; theceiling and walls should be brushed with a covered broom, and the dustallowed to settle. The floor should then be wiped with a damp cloth onthe broom. [A] The woodwork should be cleaned with a damp cloth and asoap that is not too strong. Soda or sapolio should not be used. Thefurniture should be carefully uncovered, and everything arranged inperfect order. 

 [A] If the floor is of unfinished-wood, it will require a thorough scrubbing. After sweeping the floor and allowing the dust to settle, a small portion at a time should be scrubbed with a floor-brush and soap. When scrubbing, the grain of the wood should be followed. The scrubbing-water should be changed frequently. For rinsing and drying the floor, a cloth should be wrung out of clear water. 

The things that are highest should be dusted first, and care should betaken to collect all the dust in the dust-cloth. After collecting thedust, the cloth should be shaken out-of-doors, washed thoroughly, andboiled. The dust-cloth should be dampened before using on all surfacesexcept the polished furniture and windows. 

Sweeping should be done with short strokes and the broom should be keptclose to the floor, so that the dust will not be scattered. The cornersof the room should be swept first, the dust gathered in the centre, andthen swept into the dust-pan. The dust should be burned, for it maycontain disease germs. Loose hairs and fluff should be removed from thebroom after using, and it should also be washed periodically. 

Small rugs should be cleaned out-of-doors. They should be swept, beaten, and re-swept, then rolled until ready to be put on the floor. If the rugis a large one and cannot be removed, it should be wiped over with adamp cloth, rolled, and the under side of the rug and the floor beneathit should be wiped. 

After the room has been cleaned, the windows should be arranged so thata supply of fresh, clean air can come constantly into it. This isessential to every room in the house, if perfect health is to bemaintained. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be well to have Lesson IX given in one of the homes some dayafter school hours, if possible. If that cannot be arranged, theschool-room may be utilized as the place for practice. 

METHOD OF WORK

Devote Lesson VIII to a discussion of the methods of cleaning and tovarious short tasks in connection with the school-room. In Lesson IXhave the pupils go through the entire process of cleaning a room. Assignsome portion of the task to each one of them, so that all may take partin the work. Supervise the work carefully, assign home practice, andhave each pupil clean a room at home once a week for a month. 

LESSON X: CARE OF THE BED-ROOM

SUBJECT-MATTER

As soon as one is dressed in the morning, the windows in the bed-roomshould be opened wide to air the room thoroughly, and the bed-clothesshould be removed and put on chairs before the window to air. The nightclothing should also be aired. The slops should be emptied, and thechamber should be washed with cold water, using a special cloth. Thebasin should be washed in warm, soapy water, which should then be pouredinto the chamber and used for washing it. The toilet articles should bewashed, then the basin rinsed and wiped dry. The slop jar should bewashed out thoroughly, and both the slop jar and the chamber should becleaned frequently with chloride of lime or some other disinfectant. Thepitcher should be filled with fresh water, and all the articles arrangedneatly on the wash-stand. If the towels are soiled, clean ones should besupplied. The mattress should be turned and the bed made carefully; thelower sheet being tucked under the mattress all around, and the othercovers tucked in at the bottom and sides of the bed. The bed should bekept free from wrinkles and smooth in appearance, and the pillows shouldbe well shaken and arranged at the head of the bed. The floor should beswept, the furniture dusted, and everything put in place. The windowsshould be left partly opened, so that the bed-room may be well aired. Fresh air is always necessary, but especially during sleep, when thebody is repairing itself, and it is important that the room should bewell aired during the day and the windows left open at night. 

When the room is to be thoroughly cleaned, the frame of the bed shouldbe dusted, the mattress turned, and the bed should be made. The windowshades should be dusted and rolled up. The curtains should be wellshaken and covered, if one has a dust sheet. All the small articles onthe bureau, table, and shelf should be placed on the bed, and the wholecovered with a sheet. The tables, chairs, and any other movablefurniture should be dusted and placed outside the room or covered. Therugs should be rolled and cleaned out-of-doors. The room should be sweptand dusted. As soon as the dust has settled, the covers should beremoved, and the furniture, rugs, and all the small articles should berestored to their places. The shades should be adjusted, and the roomleft in perfect order. The broom and everything else that has been usedin the work should be cleaned and put back into their places. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be possible for the teacher to give this lesson in her ownbed-room or in the bed-room of one of the neighbours. If this is notfeasible, the only way to make it effective is to have the pupils reporteach day on the work they do at home. 

METHOD OF WORK

Illustrate each process and give the reasons for everything that isdone. Emphasize the importance of the sanitary care of the bed-room, aregular time for doing the work, and the benefit of having each memberof the family care for her own personal belongings and her own portionof the bed-room. 

LESSON XI: CARE OF LAMPS

It is assumed that the teacher is acquainted with the possibilities ofelectricity and other methods of better lighting in country homes, andwill instruct her pupils in the economic use of modern lightingfacilities. 

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Directions for cleaning and filling lamps. _--A bright light comes fromclean burners that allow a good draught. This means constant care on thepart of the one who looks after the lamps. In the daily cleaning, firstdust the chimney shade and the body of the lamp. Wash the chimney. Ifsooty, clean with a newspaper before washing. Next, turn the wick highenough to show all the charred part; cut this off, making it perfectlyeven, then rub with a piece of soft paper. Wipe the burner and any otherpart of the lamp that may be oily. Dry with another cloth. Fill the bodyof the lamp with oil to within an inch of the top, leaving plenty ofroom for the gas that may be generated from the kerosene, as this gas, in a lamp that has been used many times without refilling, may be asource of danger. 

When lighting the lamp, turn the wick down, allowing the chimney tobecome heated gradually. If it is necessary to move the lighted lamp, turn the wick low. The flaring up of the flame smokes the chimney. Donot leave a lighted lamp in a room where there is no one to watch it. When putting out the light, blow across the chimney, never down into it, as this might send the flame down into the kerosene. 

About once a month give the lamp a thorough cleaning. Spread out anewspaper and take the lamp apart. Wash the chimney and the shade in hotwater, dry with a towel, and polish, using soft paper. Boil every partof the burner in water to which two tablespoonfuls of soda have beenadded. Insert new wicks if the old ones are dirty, and put the parts allsecurely together again. Keep an old pan and some cloths exclusively forthis purpose, and be very careful not to allow the dirty hands or a dropof kerosene to come near any food. 

Have a regular time in the day for cleaning the lamps, preferablyimmediately after all the morning work has been done after breakfast. Donot fill the lamps near the kitchen stove. Do not light a match whilethe oil-can is near, and never fill a lamp while it is lighted or whilenear another one which is lighted. If a fire is caused by kerosene, smother it with a heavy rug or a woollen garment, and do not attempt toput it out with water. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be well to give this lesson just before some eveningentertainment at the school-house. If there are no lamps at the schoolhave a few brought in from neighbouring homes. Secure an old pan andsome cloths to use in cleaning. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss with the pupils the cost and properties of kerosene and thedanger of having a light or too great heat near a can of kerosene. Explain the draught by means of which the kerosene can be made to burnon the wick and the danger if the burner becomes clogged up and thedraught is cut off. Have the lamps taken apart, the burners boiled, thechimneys cleaned, and the body of the lamps filled and wiped off. Thenhave the lamps lighted, to see that they burn properly. 

LESSON XII: PREVENTION OF PESTS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Household pests are annoying, dangerous to health, and destructive toproperty. They carry disease germs from one person to another and fromthe lower animals to human beings. Absolute cleanliness is essential, ifthe house is to be kept free from pests. As a rule, they flourish indark, damp, dirty places. With proper care the housekeeper can keep herhouse free from them and, if they are noticed, she should know how toexterminate them. 

A few simple methods of extermination are here given:

_Bedbugs. _--Kerosene should be poured into all the cracks, and a brush, dipped in kerosene, run briskly over all surfaces. Care must be taken tohave no fire in the room while this is being done. The windows should beopen, and the room should be kept free from dust. In four days thisshould be repeated, in order to kill any bugs that may have justhatched. 

_Cockroaches and water-bugs. _--A solution of one pound of alum to threepints of water should be poured into all the cracks. Insect-powder andborax are also effective. Absolute cleanliness and freedom from dampnessare necessary, if the house is to be kept free from cockroaches. 

_Ants. _--Oil of cloves or pennyroyal on pieces of cotton-battingscattered about in the places where ants appear will drive them away. Saturating the nests with coal-oil will destroy them. Food whichattracts ants should be removed from places which they are able toreach. 

_Rats and mice. _--These are best exterminated by the use of a trap orsome preparation such as "Rough on Rats". Traps should be set nightlyand should be scalded and aired after a mouse has been caught. Rat holesmay be stopped by sprinkling with chloride of lime and then filling withmortar or plaster of Paris. 

_Mosquitoes. _--These breed in swampy places, or in old barrels or kegsor tin cans which hold stagnant water. Therefore, if the swampy placesare drained and the grounds about the house are kept free from stagnantwater, the housekeeper will, as a rule, not be troubled with mosquitoes. Empty barrels or kegs should be inverted, and old tin cans should have ahole punched in the bottom, so that they will not hold water. All highweeds near the house should be cut down and destroyed, so that they willnot provide a damp place in which to harbour mosquitoes. If it isimpossible to get rid of all standing water, the breeding of mosquitoescan be checked by pouring kerosene oil on the water. One ounce of oil onfifteen square feet of water is sufficient, and this will have to berenewed at least once in ten days. The doors, windows, and ventilatorsof the house should be well screened, as a protection againstmosquitoes. 

_Flies. _--These are one of the greatest carriers of typhoid and othergerms, as well as filth of all sorts. They can be got rid of only bydestroying the breeding places and killing the flies as rapidly aspossible. Materials that attract them should not be exposed in and aboutthe house. The house should be well screened with wire mesh or mosquitonetting, in order to keep out the flies. A fly swatter should be kept athand. The stables should be cleaned daily. Manure piles should bescreened, and every effort should be made to kill the larvae by frequentspraying with kerosene, creoline (dilute creosote), or lime. 

_Fleas. _--These will be troublesome if cats or dogs are kept in thehouse. These pets should be given frequent baths, the rugs on which theylie should be brushed and shaken daily, and the floors should be washedwith soap and water and wiped with kerosene. 

_Moths. _--These are apt to develop in woollen clothes unless thegarments are thoroughly shaken and absolutely protected by wrapping innewspapers before being put away. Woollen garments that are used onlyoccasionally should be kept in a light, dry place, examined frequently, and hung in the sun occasionally. Moths or carpet beetles can beexterminated by the use of kerosene. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Give this lesson at a time when the pupils are asking about householdpests or when the school is suffering from them. It would be well tohave it in the spring, just before the school closes, so that the pupilsmay immediately put into practice what they learn. It may be desirableto devote their efforts to the destruction of one particular pest; forexample, a fly crusade may be inaugurated. 

METHOD OF WORK

If there are pests in the school-room, discuss their habits, what seemsto attract them, where they come from, etc. Have the pupils report anythat they may have at home. Explain why they are dangerous, tell howthey can be exterminated, and assign to each pupil the task ofexterminating one household pest. Have her report, each day, the successof her efforts. Continue this work for several weeks. 

LESSON XIII: REMOVING STAINS, BLEACHING FABRICS, AND SETTING COLOURS

SUBJECT-MATTER

As garments and household linens are apt to become stained and thus losetheir attractiveness, it is well to know the remedies for the mostcommon stains and the principle upon which their removal depends. Allstains should be removed as soon as possible. Boiling water will loosenand remove coffee, tea, and fresh fruit stains. The stained spot shouldbe held over a bowl, and the water should be poured upon it with someforce. Cold water will remove stains made by blood or meat juice. Soaking will help in the removal of blood stains. Rust stains may beremoved by wetting the stained spot with lemon juice, covering it withsalt, and placing the stained fabric in the sun. Stains from stoveblacking, paint, and grass may be removed by soaking in kerosene andwashing well with soap and water. Ink stains may be removed by soakingin water, removing as much of the stain as possible, and then soaking inmilk. Stains from cream and other forms of grease may be washed out incold water, followed by warm water and soap. 

White cotton and white linen materials may be bleached by exposure tothe sunshine while still damp. If they are left out overnight, thebleaching process is made effective by the moisture furnished by dew orfrost. A stream of steam from the tea-kettle may also help in thebleaching process. 

Some colours are set by the addition of a small amount of acid to thefirst water in which they are soaked, while others are set by the use ofsalt. It is necessary to try a small amount of the material beforedipping in the entire garment, in order to be sure of satisfactoryresults. Vinegar should be used for blues, one-half cup to one gallon ofwater. Salt is most effective for browns, blacks, and pinks. In mostcases, two cups of salt to one gallon of cold water will be sufficient. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The towels used for drying dishes or the linen used for some schoolentertainment may have become stained with coffee, fruit, or some othersubstance. Make this the basis of a lesson, and let the pupils bringfrom home other things which are stained. Each pupil should have anarticle on which to practise. This lesson should be preliminary to thelesson on laundry work. 

METHOD OF WORK

Examine the various articles from which stains are to be removed. Discuss the method of removal, and let each pupil work at her own stainuntil it is as nearly removed as possible. 

LESSON XIV: WASHING DISH-TOWELS, APRONS, ETC. 

SUBJECT-MATTER

Dish-towels should be thoroughly washed at least once a day. Wash onepiece at a time (the cleanest first) in warm, soapy water and rinse inclear water in another pan. Hang in the sun, if possible, so that theair will pass through. Boil at least once a week in soapy water, to keepthem fresh and white. Sunshine and fresh air are valuable for thepurposes of bleaching and purifying. 

Wash the aprons in hot, soapy water; boil, rinse, and blue slightly. Asmall amount of thin starch may be desirable. A thin starch may be madeas follows:

_Recipe for Thin Starch_

 2 tbsp. Starch 4 tbsp. Cold water 1/2 tsp. Lard, butter, or paraffin 1 qt. Boiling water

Add the cold water to the starch and lard, stir until smooth, then addthe boiling water slowly, stirring constantly. Boil for several minutesin order to cook the starch thoroughly; then add one pint of cold waterand a small amount of blueing. Dilute if necessary. 

Hang the articles in the sun to dry, shaking well before putting on theline, and folding the edge of each over at least six inches. Be sure tohave the line clean. When dry, fold carefully. A short time beforeironing, sprinkle well. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be desirable to give this lesson earlier in the course, ifcooking lessons are being given and dish-towels are in use, or if theaprons are badly soiled. Other articles may be washed, if time andfacilities permit. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss briefly the need for laundry work and the general principles. Let the pupils take turns at washing the towels or aprons; examine eacharticle after it is washed, and give careful directions for the boiling, blueing, and starching. While these processes are being completed, letsome of the pupils prepare the line. Let two of them be appointed tobring the towels in, before going home from school. 

LESSON XV: IRONING

SUBJECT-MATTER

To do good ironing it is necessary to have a firm, unwarped ironingboard. This should be covered with some thick woollen material and awhite cotton cover that is clean, smooth, and tightly drawn. The thickcover should be tacked on, while the top cover should be pinned, so thatit may be easily taken off to be washed. A heavy iron-holder should beprovided; and the irons should be clean and smooth. For this purposepaper should be kept at hand, as well as a piece of beeswax, sandpaper, or salt. A small cloth should be used to wipe the iron after using thebeeswax. A newspaper should be spread on the floor, to protect anypieces that may hang down while being ironed. The coarser towels shouldbe ironed first, as the longer the irons are used, the smoother theybecome. Starched pieces should not be ironed until the irons are veryhot. If the article is first laid smooth, it will be easier to iron itand keep it in shape, and every piece should be ironed until it isperfectly dry. As soon as the ironing is completed, the articles shouldbe hung up to air. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Arrange to have the ironing lesson just as soon after the laundry lessonas possible. It will probably be easy to borrow the necessary equipmentfrom homes near the school. Each pupil may be directed to bringsomething that will contribute toward the equipment, and one may beinstructed to have the fire ready and another to put the irons on toheat before the lesson hour. 

METHOD OF WORK

Call the pupils together early in the morning or at some time previousto the lesson period, and give them directions for sprinkling thearticles to be ironed. When the class hour comes, demonstrate the methodof ironing, folding, and hanging the articles, and let the pupils taketurns in doing the work. 

LESSONS XVI AND XVII: CARE OF THE BABY

SUBJECT-MATTER

Because young girls are fond of little children and must help theirmothers often with their baby brothers and sisters, they should know howto care for them. It is essential that they should understand thefollowing points: The little body needs protection. The head is soft, and the brain may be injured by hard bumps or pressure. The skin istender and is easily irritated by the bites of insects, friction, and soon. Kicking and wiggling are necessary to the development of themuscles, but the baby should not be played with all the time; and it iswell for it while awake to lie quiet for part of the time. It should notbe made to sit up until ready to do so. A desire to creep should beencouraged. Standing or walking should not be taught the baby until ittries to stand or walk itself, and then it must be helped verycarefully. 

The baby should have plenty of fresh air and should be allowed to spendmuch of its time out-of-doors. In cold weather it must be warmly coveredand sheltered from high winds. Its eyes should always be protected fromstrong sunlight. 

Regular hours should be observed for sleep, and the baby should be putto bed early in the evening. If the house is not well screened insummer, a mosquito bar should be put over the crib. The clothing shouldbe light and loose, so that the body can move freely. 

Perfect cleanliness is necessary to keep the baby's skin in goodcondition; and a daily bath should be given. A morning hour, midwaybetween the meals, is usually the best time for this. The baby should betaught to use the chamber before the bath and after the nap. Everythingshould be ready before it is undressed. The room should be very warm. The water should be only moderately warm, and should be carefully testedto make sure that it is not too hot. The towels and covers for the babyshould be at hand. The head and the feet should be washed first, and thebody soaped before putting the child into the bath. Little soap shouldbe used, for even the best soap is strong and is apt to irritate thedelicate skin. The bath should be given quickly, and the body wrapped atonce in a blanket or towel and kept covered as much as possible while itis being dried. 

The baby should be fed in small quantities at regular intervals andgiven plenty of cold water to drink. Not until it is eleven or twelvemonths of age should it be given solid or semi-solid food. Even then, milk should continue to form the basis of its diet, and of this aconsiderable quantity should be used--about a quart a day from thetwelfth month on. As the child grows older a more varied diet will benecessary. The most hygienic methods of food preparation should alwaysbe observed. 

Certain foods should never be given; for example, fried foods, pastries, condiments, pickles, preserves, canned meats, fish, pork, sausage, cheapcandies, coarse vegetables, unripe and overripe fruits, stimulants, foods treated with a preservative or colouring matter, and half-cookedstarches. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should talk with the pupils, in order to see what points inconnection with the care of the baby it is necessary for them to know, so that they may do their work at home intelligently. 

METHOD OF WORK

It will probably not be possible to have anything more than a classdiscussion of the points in question, but the pupils' home experiencesought to make this discussion vital. If there is a nurse in theneighbourhood who can be secured to give one lesson on the care of thebaby, the teacher should supplement her own lessons by an additionallesson given by the nurse. 

LESSON XVIII: COST OF FOOD, CLOTHING, AND HOUSE

SUBJECT-MATTER

It is of great importance that children should learn in an elementaryway the value of property. This will prepare them for the knowledge ofthe cost of living that is essential. They should learn that the cost offood can be decreased by having gardens, and by the proper choice, care, and handling of foods; that taking care of clothing will reduce anotheritem of expense; and that the owning of one's own house and lot issomething worth working for, in order to obviate the necessity of payingrent. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher will have to acquaint herself thoroughly with conditions inthe community, so that she can talk intelligently with the pupils, emphasize the right points, and give constructive help. 

METHOD OF WORK

Begin with a discussion of the cost of food; how much the pupils earn orspend during the week; and why it is worth while to cook and sew welland to look after property. Continue such discussions from time to time, in connection with other school work. 

LESSON XIX: HOW TO KEEP ACCOUNTS

SUBJECT-MATTER

It is well for every one to keep a written record of all money receivedand all money spent. Children should be taught to do this as soon asthey are old enough to have money in their possession. A simple littlenote-book in which all expenditures are entered on the right side andall receipts on the left side, with the balance drawn up each week ormonth, will prove an easy and satisfactory method of keeping accounts. If the little girl learns to do this with her pennies, she will bebetter able to take care of the more important household accounts whenshe is in charge of a home. However, there will be no real incentive forher to keep accounts unless she is endeavouring to save for some goodpurpose. If she learns to save for the future purchase of a book, adress, or some little treat, she will feel that her account-keeping isworth while. As a housekeeper, she will appreciate the importance ofsaving for some future benefit to the family. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

In order to make the lesson of vital interest, introduce it at a timewhen the pupils are saving for some specific purpose--material for adress to be made in the sewing class, refreshments for a party for theirmothers, a school library, or something else that will be a pleasure andhelp in the work of the school. 

METHOD OF WORK

After discussing the sources of income of the pupil and of her family, and the means of increasing and taking care of that income, discusssimple methods of keeping accounts, illustrate these on the black-board, show how to balance the accounts, and see that each pupil has a smallbook suitable for the purpose. It may be necessary to make or to rulethis book as a portion of the class exercise. 

LESSON XX: CARE OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE

SUBJECT-MATTER

Closely allied to the housekeeper's work within the home is the care ofthe exterior of the house and its surroundings. It is absolutelynecessary that the grounds be kept neat and clean. In addition to thisthey should be made attractive by the careful selection of a few treesand shrubs suitably placed. While the gardens at the rear of the housemay be planned solely for the pleasure and use of the family, inplanning the lawn at the sides and front the neighbours and passers-bymust be considered. The grounds should be a picture of which the houseis the centre, the trees and shrubs being grouped to frame the picture. 

In placing shrubs, the effect of the whole landscape should beconsidered. As a rule, shrubs should be placed in corners, to hideouthouses from view, or to screen other places which should be shielded. The centre of the lawn should be left free, and in no case should ashrub be placed in the middle of an open space in a lawn or yard. A fewflowers should be planted among the shrubs, to give colour at differentseasons. 

The exterior of the house must be considered, if the picture framed bythe shrubs and vines is to be a pleasing one. The house should bepainted in a soft brown or dark green to blend with the landscape ofoaks and pines. The paint will help to preserve the house, but itscolour must be carefully chosen to give a pleasing effect. 

The general plan of the grounds and local conditions in regard to soiland climate will determine to a large extent the kind of shrubs to beused. Many beautiful shrubs which have been introduced from foreigncountries do well in Ontario, but our native shrubs serve all decorativepurposes. For damp ground there is no better shrub than the red osierdogwood. This shrub will do well on almost any kind of soil. The swampbush honeysuckle grows quickly and is suitable for clay land; so are theblack elderberry and several species of viburnum. The hazel which may beobtained from the woods makes a good dense shrub, and the wild rose alsohas possibilities. The common barberry is an attractive shrub; but, asit assists in the formation of wheat rust, it should not be used inrural sections. The lilac may be used where a high shrub is desirable. The common arbor vitae or cedar of the swamps makes a good evergreenshrub. It serves well as a shield for both winter and summer and thriveswith moderate care. The weigela, forsythia, and spiraea are alsoexcellent shrubs. 

The ground at the back of the house should be used for vegetable gardenswith flower borders. For this purpose a deep, rich soil is necessary, and every square foot of space should be utilized. Every family shouldlearn to make use of an increased number of vegetables and fruits and tocook them in a variety of ways. No crops should be allowed to go towaste. A family of five people could be entirely provided withvegetables for the summer and autumn from a garden less than fifty byseventy-five feet. 

The attractiveness, as well as the usefulness, of the borders dependsupon the choice and arrangement of flowers. These should be chosen withdue consideration as to height of plants, colour of blooms, and seasonsof blooming. The tallest plants should be placed at the back of theborder; for a border six feet wide none of the plants need be over fivefeet in height. There can be a riot of colours, if the flowers arearranged in clumps of four to six throughout the entire length of theborder. In a well-planned flower border some flowers should be in bloomeach month. Hardy perennial flowers should predominate, with enoughannuals to fill up the spaces and hide the soil. The well-tried, old-fashioned flowers will give the best satisfaction. Every four yearsthe flower borders need to be spaded, well manured, and replanted. 

The following lists of flowers for borders may be suggestive:

_Perennials. _--Bleeding-heart, carnations, chrysanthemums, columbine, coreopsis, dahlias, gaillardias, golden glow, iris, larkspur, orientalpoppies, peonies, phlox, pinks, platycodon, snapdragon. 

_Biennials. _--Forget-me-not, foxglove, Canterbury bells, hollyhock, sweet-william, wallflower. 

_Annuals. _--African daisy, ageratum, aster, calendula, calliopsis, balsam, candytuft, cornflower, cosmos, marigold, mignonette, nasturtium, petunia, poppy, stock, sweet alyssum, sweet-pea, verbena, zinnia, annualphlox, red sunflower, cut-and-come-again sunflower. 

Each home gardener should study garden literature, in order to assist insolving the garden problems; for the day has passed when one needed onlyto scratch the soil with a shell, plant the seeds, and receive anabundant crop. Today successful gardening depends upon intelligentmanagement of the soil and crop and upon persistent labour. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should, if possible, visit the homes of all the pupils, inorder to make herself familiar with the condition in which their groundsare kept. She may be able to secure permission from one of thehousekeepers to use her grounds as the practice place for the lesson, orit may be more desirable to give this lesson at the school and toconduct a school garden as a model home garden. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the arrangement and care of the home or school grounds. Have theclass tidy the lawn and garden chosen for the lesson, supervising thework carefully. Assign the tidying up of the home lawns or work in thehome gardens for the coming week. Let this lesson serve as a means ofinteresting the pupils in home gardening, if that has not already beentaken up, or of emphasizing the relation of gardening to thehousekeeper's work, if they are already interested in the former. 

REFERENCE BOOKS

_Bush Fruits. _ Card. Macmillan's, Toronto $1. 75

_When Mother Lets Us Garden. _ Duncan. Moffat, Yard & Co. , New York . 75

_A Woman's Hardy Garden. _ Ely. Macmillan's, Toronto 1. 75

_The Beginner's Garden Book. _ French. Macmillan's, Toronto 1. 00

_Productive Vegetable Garden. _ Lloyd. Lippincott Co. , Philadelphia 1. 50

TWENTY LESSONS IN COOKING

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The teacher should learn how the pupils live in their own homes, whatfood produce is grown for home use, what foods they use, and how theyprepare and serve their foods. The instruction given in the lessonsshould be based on this knowledge, and the possibilities for theimprovement of accepted methods of cooking should be considered. Thosefoods should be used in the recipes which the pupils can afford to useat home. They should be encouraged to grow in their gardens a variety ofgarden produce, and to keep chickens, pigs, and cows. 

Elementary principles of nutrition and sanitation should be taught. Simple meals, with plain but well-cooked dishes, should be planned. Variations should be suggested, and the value of a mixed dietemphasized. Care should be taken not to waste time on points that areunrelated to the homes of the pupils, except as such points may benecessary to raise their ideals. 

All the work should be done carefully. The sanitary handling of food andcare in the storage of foods should be insisted upon. Careful attentionshould be given to the dish-washing, care of the dish-towels, etc. , emphasizing the points in sanitation involved. The pupils should bedrilled faithfully in all points connected with the handling of anythingthat comes in contact with the food. 

Proper methods of sweeping and cleaning should be employed, andthoroughness must be practised in every detail of the work. Constantdrill in these processes should be given. 

The order in which the lessons are to be given will be regulated, inpart, by the season of the year in which they occur, the locality, thefoods obtainable, and any special local needs. However, care must betaken that the lessons are given in proper sequence, so that the pupilsmay see the relation of one to another and may appreciate the value ofeach. It may be necessary to combine two lessons or to give only part ofa lesson. In some of the lessons more recipes are suggested than can beprepared in a brief period. In every case the choice of a recipe willhave to be made by the teacher. Wherever it is possible, simpleexperiments should be performed to show the composition of, and theeffect of heat on, food. 

No attempt has been made to give a complete set of recipes; but thoseincluded here are chosen as illustrating the subjects to be discussed inthe lessons. The teacher who desires to make use of a greater number ofrecipes will do well to supply herself with one of the text-bookslisted. Level measurements should be used in the preparation of all therecipes, and all the directions should be carefully followed. 

The first few lessons are more fully outlined than the others, furnishing suggestions for methods of procedure that may be adapted tolater lessons. The teacher should have a detailed plan for every lesson, outlining her method of work, the leading questions for the discussion, and the home assignments which she desires to make. 

Foods that are in common use are suggested for the lessons outlined. There will necessarily be exceptions to their use in differentlocalities. If any foods used in the homes are harmful because of themanner in which they are prepared, the teacher should do all in herpower to correct the situation, but she must, at the same time, becareful not to be too radical. If the lessons given are not followed byhome practice, the time devoted to them will be, to all intents andpurposes, wasted. Simple meal service should be introduced wherever itis possible, and as much instruction on the furnishing and the care ofthe kitchen should be included as time permits. 

By the time the course is completed, the pupil should be able to keepher kitchen in a sanitary condition and should have a sufficientknowledge of food values and of the processes of cooking to enable herto provide simple, wholesome meals for her family. 

For the teaching of food values, it will be helpful to secure the set ofsixteen food charts which may be obtained from the Superintendent ofDocuments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. , price onedollar. 

It will be shown later how the school luncheon may be managed with verylittle interference with the ordinary organization of the school. Wheredefinite instruction is given in Household Science, a place must beprovided for it on the school time-table, as is the case with the otherschool subjects. In sewing and household management lessons of fortyminutes each are sufficient, and these can be arranged for at the timesfound to be most convenient. If each pupil keeps her sewing in a box orbag, it may often be used as "busy work" when the pupil has finished herassigned work or while she is waiting for the teacher, who may beengaged with another class. Lessons in cookery should be, if possible, at least one hour in length, and should be given at a time when thisperiod can be exceeded, if the character of the lesson renders itdesirable; for example, in those cases where the cooking is notcompleted at the expiration of the time assigned. For this reason thelast hour on Friday afternoon has proved a very suitable time. In someschools the lesson is commenced at half-past three and runs on untilcompleted, and in this way only half an hour of the regular school timeis taken. The possibilities of a Saturday morning cooking class shouldnot be overlooked. 

ABBREVIATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS

 tbsp. = tablespoonful tsp. = teaspoonful c. = cupful qt. = quart pt. = pint oz. = ounce lb. = pound min. = minute hr. = hour

TABLE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

 3 tsp. = 1 tbsp. 16 tbsp. = 1 c. (dry measure) 12 tbsp. (liquid) = 1 c. 2 c. = 1 pt. 

COMPARISONS BETWEEN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

 2 c. Butter, packed solidly = 1 lb. 2 c. Sugar (granulated) = 1 lb. 2 c. Meat, finely chopped = 1 lb. 2-2/3 c. Brown sugar = 1 lb. 2-2/3 c. Oatmeal = 1 lb. 4-3/4 c. Rolled oats = 1 lb. 4 c. Flour = 1 lb. 2 tbsp. Butter = 1 oz. 4 tbsp. Flour = 1 oz. 9 or 10 eggs = 1 lb. 1 lemon (juice) = 3 tbsp. 

 _Note. _--The half-pint measuring cup and not the ordinary tea cup is the one to be used. 

REFERENCE BOOKS

_Household Management. _ Ontario Teachers' Manual. The Copp, Clark Co. , Ltd. , Toronto $0. 19

_Domestic Science. _ Austin, B. J. Lyons & Carnahan, Chicago. Vol. I . 60 Vol. II . 60

_Principles of Cooking. _ Conley, G. American Book Co. , New York . 52

_Home Economics. _ Flagg, G. P. Little, Brown & Co. , Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto). . 75

_Lessons in Elementary Cooking. _ Jones, M. C. Boston Cooking School Magazine Co. , Boston 1. 00

_Food and Health. _ Kinne, H. , and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto . 65

_The School Kitchen Text-book. _ Lincoln, M. J. Little, Brown & Co. , Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto) . 60

_Food and Cookery. _ Metcalf, M. L. Industrial Education Co. , Indianapolis 1. 00

_Household Science and Arts. _ Morris, J. American Book Co. , New York . 60

_The Science of Home-making. _ Pirie, E. E. Scott, Foresman & Co. , Chicago . 90

_Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery. _ Williams, M. E. , and Fisher, K. R. Macmillan's, Toronto 1. 00

LESSON I: DISCUSSION OF FOODS AND COOKING

_Management of the kitchen stove. Cooking by dry heat. Baked vegetableor fruit. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Foods. _--The body uses food to build and repair its tissues, to provideheat and energy, and to regulate the body processes. Foods differ fromone another in their composition and in their ability to assist the bodyin the performance of its varied functions. These differences have ledto the classification of foods into five groups, which are spoken of asthe five food-stuffs or food principles. 

_Cooking. _--While some foods can be used as they occur in nature, mostof them are made more acceptable by the application of heat. Heatsoftens the structure of vegetables and fruits, makes tender the tissuesof meat, prepares starch for digestion, develops the flavour in manyfoods, and destroys the parasites and germs that may be present. Thefive food-stuffs are differently affected by heat--some require slowcooking, others require intense heat. Hence, it is necessary to studycooking, in order that each food may be properly prepared. 

_The stove. _--A knowledge of the construction of the stove and themethods whereby heat is obtained is imperative if one is to be asuccessful cook. For all stoves three things are necessary--fuel, asupply of oxygen, and a certain degree of heat, known as the kindlingpoint, whereby the fire is started. The supply of oxygen is regulated bydampers and checks so arranged as to admit or cut off the draught ofair. 

The creative dampers are doors or slides that come below the fire box. When open, they admit the entrance of air, increase the draught, andfacilitate combustion. 

The oven damper is a flat plate which closes the opening into thechimney flue, to decrease the drawing of the draught. When the ovendamper is closed, the heat from the fire remains in the stove and passesaround the oven. 

Checks are doors or slides higher than the fire-box, which, when open, allow the cold air to pass over the fire, retarding combustion. 

A stove is also provided with means for disposing of the ashes, soot, and the gases formed. All parts of the stove are so arranged that theymay be kept clean. 

(See Twenty Lessons in the Care of the Home. Lesson I)

PRELIMINARY PLAN

There should be provided for this lesson (from the homes of the pupilsor the school garden), some fruit or vegetable in season that can becooked by dry heat. Each pupil may be able to bring an apple or apotato. The teacher should be sure to have an oven that can be wellheated for baking and to have the fire well started before the lessonbegins, so that the oven will be ready for use. 

Lessons in geography and nature study should be correlated with thecooking lesson, to give the pupils an opportunity to study the source offoods and the reasons for cooking them. 

One of the pupils should write the recipes on the black-board before thelesson hour. 

RECIPES

_Baked Apples_

Wash the apples, core them, and cut through the skin with a knife, sothat the apple can expand in baking without breaking the skin. Place theapples in a baking-dish and fill each cavity with sugar. Cover thebottom of the dish with water one quarter of an inch deep and bake untilthe apples are soft (20 to 45 minutes), basting them every 10 minutes. Place them in a serving dish and pour the juice over them. Serve hot orcold. 

_Baked Potatoes_

Select smooth potatoes of medium size, scrub carefully, and place in abaking-pan. Bake in a hot oven from 45 minutes to one hour. When soft, break the skin to let the steam escape and serve at once. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss very briefly the food that is to be cooked and the method ofcooking it. Have as many apples or potatoes baked as there are membersof the class or as the baking-dish will hold. 

Assign tasks to special members of the class. 

As quickly as possible put the vegetable or fruit in the oven to bake. 

While the baking is in process, take up a general discussion of foodsand cooking and a special discussion of the food which is being used andthe method of cooking that is being employed. 

Give as thorough a lesson on the stove and combustion as time permits. Examine the baked article and discuss the methods of serving it, thetime for serving, and so on. 

Use the finished product for the school lunch or have it served daintilyin the class. Encourage the pupils to bring a dish to school in order totake the results of their work home for the family meal, if a schoollunch is not served or if they do not need a lunch. Give carefuldirections for washing the dishes and supervise the housework carefully. (See pages 52, 53, _Household Management. _)

 _Note. _--It may be necessary to go on with some other recitation before the baking is completed, in which case one member of the class should be appointed to watch the oven. 

Questions Used to Develop the Lesson

What food have we on hand for use to-day?

Does this food need cooking? Why?

How shall we prepare it for cooking?

How shall we prepare the oven?

How shall we care for the fire?

How long will it be necessary to cook this food?

(Time the baking carefully and discuss more thoroughly at theclose of the lesson. )

How can we tell when it is cooked?

How shall we serve it?

For what meal shall we serve it?

Of what value is it to the body?

_Home assignment. _--The pupils should prepare the baked dish at home andat the next lesson report the result of their work. 

 _Note. _--The recipes given in this Manual are prepared for normal times; but in every case the Regulations of the Canada Food Board should be observed, and substitutes used wherever possible. 

LESSON II: PREPARING AND SERVING VEGETABLES

_Water and mineral matter in vegetables. How to prepare and serveuncooked vegetables--lettuce, cress, cabbage, etc. Cooking by moistheat. How to boil, season, and serve beet tops, turnip tops, cabbage, sprouts, kale, spinach, mustard, or other vegetable greens. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Water. _--All fluids and tissues of the body contain large quantities ofwater, therefore water is regarded as one of the most importantfood-stuffs required by the body. Practically all foods contain somewater. Fresh vegetables and fruits provide the body with a highpercentage of water. 

Water is a valuable medium for cooking. As it heats, small bubbles areformed, which continually increase in number and size, but graduallydisappear. Some time before the boiling-point is reached, an occasionallarge bubble will rise to the surface and disappear. The water has thenreached the simmering-point, 185°, a temperature frequently made use ofin cooking. When many bubbles form and break, causing a commotion on thesurface of the water, the boiling-point, 212°, has been reached. 

_Mineral matter. _--Mineral matter is a second food-stuff that is neededby the body, but the amount required is very small. If a variety of foodis used, there is generally sufficient mineral matter in the diet. Fruits and vegetables, especially fresh green vegetables, arecomparatively rich in mineral matter. Mineral matter builds up the bonesand certain tissues, such as the hair, teeth, and nails, and regulatesthe body processes by keeping the blood and digestive fluids in propercondition. 

_Green vegetables. _--Green vegetables hold an important place in thediet, because they contain valuable mineral matter. They also contain ahigh percentage of water and considerable cellulose. With few exceptionsthey should be eaten raw, because the mineral salts, being soluble, arelost in the water in which they are cooked and because the celluloseserves its purpose best in the crisp form. Cabbage is rendered much moredifficult of digestion by cooking. Spinach, beet tops, etc. , are morepalatable when cooked. The delicately flavoured vegetables should beboiled in a very small amount of water, so that they need not bedrained. Thus the mineral matter will be retained when the vegetablesare served. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

There should be provided for the lesson (from the homes of the pupils orthe school garden), some fresh vegetables in season; one that can becooked by boiling and one that can be served uncooked with a simpledressing. 

One of the pupils should write the recipes on the black-board before thelesson hour. 

RECIPES

_Preparation of Fresh Green Vegetables_[A]

Wash the vegetables thoroughly, leaving them in cold water to crisp, ifwilted. Keep cool until ready to serve, then arrange daintily, and dresswith salt, vinegar, and oil as desired, or prepare a dressing asfollows:

_Cooked Dressing_

 1/2 tbsp. Salt 1 tsp. Mustard 1-1/2 tbsp. Sugar A few grains pepper 1/2 tbsp. Flour 1 egg or yolks of 2 eggs 1-1/2 tbsp. Melted butter 3/4 c. Milk 1/4 c. Vinegar

Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg slightly beaten and the butter andthe milk. Cook over boiling water until the mixture thickens. Add thevinegar, stirring constantly. Strain and cool. 

 Note. [A]--It may be well to omit from this lesson the uncooked vegetable that is served in the form of a salad and to give it at some other time. It is not well to attempt to teach more than the pupils can master thoroughly. 

_Recipe for Boiling and Seasoning Fresh Green Vegetables_

Wash the vegetables carefully and put them on to cook in boiling water. Delicately flavoured vegetables (spinach, celery, fresh peas, etc. ) willrequire but little water, and that should be allowed to boil away at thelast. If spinach is stirred constantly, no water need be added. Starchyvegetables should be completely covered with water, and stronglyflavoured vegetables (as turnips, onions, cabbage, and cauliflower)should be cooked in water at simmering temperature. 

After the vegetables have cooked for a few minutes, salt should beadded, one teaspoonful to each quart of water. Cook the vegetable untilit can be easily pierced with a fork. Let the water boil away at thelast. If it is necessary to drain, do so as soon as the vegetable istender. Season with salt, pepper, and butter (1/4 teaspoon salt, 1/8teaspoon pepper, and 1/2 tablespoon butter to each cup of vegetable). 

 _Note. _--The water in which the vegetables are cooked should be saved for soups and sauces, as it contains most of the valuable mineral matter. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the heating of water and apply the facts to cooking. Have thepupils observe and describe the heating of water. 

If a new tin sauce-pan or other bright tin vessel is at hand in which toheat the water, the changes which take place as the temperatureincreases will be more readily apparent, and the pupils will enjoywatching the process. 

Discuss why one vegetable is to be cooked and another served uncooked. 

Emphasize the cleaning of the vegetable, its structure, composition, andthe effect of the boiling water upon it. 

After the vegetable has been put on to cook, discuss the method ofseasoning or dressing the vegetable which is to be served uncooked, andhave it prepared attractively to serve on the plates. Especial emphasisshould be placed on the use and importance of fresh, green vegetables. 

Continue the discussion of vegetables, letting the members of the classsuggest others that may be prepared as salads or cooked in the mannerbeing illustrated, and write the list on the black-board for the pupilsto copy in their note-books. 

When the cooked vegetable is tender, have it drained, seasoned, andserved, and serve the uncooked vegetable at the same time. 

When ready for serving, let the pupils arrange their plates and forkscarefully, then let them all sit down except the two who pass thevegetables. Be sure that they eat carefully and daintily. 

Emphasize the careful washing of the dishes, etc. , as on the previousday. 

_Questions Used to Develop the Lesson_

How shall we prepare our vegetables for serving?

Of what value is hot water in cooking food?

How must the vegetable be prepared for boiling?

Does this vegetable contain any water?

Will it be necessary to add any more?

Will it be necessary to cover the sauce-pan?

How hot must the water be kept? How can one tell when the water is sufficiently hot?

How can we determine when the food has cooked long enough?

How shall we serve this vegetable?

How does boiling compare with baking--

 In the time needed?

 In the matter of flavour?

 In the amount of fuel used?

 In the amount of work necessary?

_Home assignment. _--Practice in the boiling and the serving ofvegetables. 

LESSON III: THE VALUE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE DIET

_Potatoes as a source of carbohydrates. The choice, cost, care, composition, food value, and cooking of potatoes, baked squash, steamedsquash. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Carbohydrates. _--A third class of food-stuffs required by the body isknown as the carbohydrates, or sugars and starches. This class of foodsis used as fuel, for the production of heat and energy in the body. Excess of carbohydrates may be stored in the body as fatty tissue. 

_Potatoes. _--Potatoes are a cheap source of carbohydrates. They are alsovaluable for their mineral matter and for the large quantity of waterwhich they contain. Three fourths of the potato is water. The frameworkof the potato is cellulose, which is an indigestible carbohydratematerial. Potatoes have only a small amount of cellulose, however, andthey are comparatively easy of digestion. When dry and mealy, they aremost digestible. When used for a meal, potatoes should be supplementedby some muscle-building food, such as milk, cheese, eggs, fish, or meat. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

At some previous period the teacher should have discussed with thepupils the use of potatoes and learned from them the different ways inwhich they cook them in their homes. She should determine upon somerecipes for the lesson that will increase the variety of ways in whichpotatoes may be served and that will improve the methods used in thehomes. 

Each pupil should be asked to bring one or two potatoes for the lesson. The best methods of cooking and the means of securing variety should beemphasized. 

RECIPES

_Mashed Potatoes_

 6 potatoes 1/4 c. Hot milk or cream 1 tbsp. Butter 1 tsp. Salt

Wash and pare the potatoes, boil, drain, dry, and mash (with a potatomasher) in the sauce-pan in which they were cooked. Beat them until verylight and creamy; add hot milk, butter, and salt, and beat again, re-heat, and serve. Serves six to eight. 

_Browned Potatoes_

Wash, scrub, and pare potatoes of a uniform size. Parboil for 10minutes, then put in a dripping-pan with the meat or on a rack in abaking-pan. 

Baste with fat every 10 minutes, when the meat is basted. 

Allow about 40 minutes for the potatoes to cook. 

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE PRESENCE OF STARCH IN POTATOES

Scrub and pare a potato. Examine a thin cross-section. 

Grate the potato. Remove the coarse, shredded portion. Examine. 

Examine the liquid and note any sediment. 

Heat the liquid and stir until boiling. How has it changed?

Examine the portion of the grater. How has the colour changed? Why?

_Baked Squash_

Wipe the shell of the squash, cut it into pieces for serving, remove theseeds and stringy portion, place in a dripping-pan, and bake in a slowoven for three quarters of an hour (until tender). Serve at once. 

_Steamed Squash_

Prepare the squash as for baking, put in a steamer over boiling water, and cook for 30 minutes or until soft. Then scrape the squash from theshell, mash, and season with butter, salt, and pepper. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the composition and structure of the potato. Read over anddiscuss the recipes that are to be used. 

Make assignments of work. After the potatoes have been put on to cook, have the class examine a raw potato, following the directions given. [A]

 [A] Squash is another vegetable containing a high percentage of carbohydrate. The recipe for squash can be used at this time or in some other lesson. 

If one of the recipes requires the use of the oven, be careful to havethe potatoes for it prepared first and as quickly as possible. It may benecessary to proceed with another class, assigning one pupil to takecharge of the baking. Special attention should be given to the carefulserving of the potatoes. 

_Home assignment. _--Before the next lesson, each pupil should be able toreport that she has cooked potatoes at home, using the recipes learnedin class. 

LESSON IV: FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

_Food value and use of fruits. Reasons and rules for canning. How to canand use such vegetables as beets, beans, tomatoes, and carrots, and suchfruits as figs, grapes, apples, and peaches. The drying of fruits andvegetables. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Fruits impart palatability and flavour to other foods and exercise afavourable influence upon the digestive organs, though their foodvalue is low. They contain a high percentage of water and only a smallpercentage of nutrients. Most fruits are eaten raw and are exceedinglyvaluable to the body because of the fresh acids they contain. Cookingsoftens the cellulose of the fruit and, therefore, renders some fruitsmore easy of digestion. The cooking of fruit is of value chiefly for thepurpose of preservation. 

_The drying of fruits. _--Fruits are dried so that they may be preservedfor use. Bacteria and moulds, which cause the decay of fruits, needmoisture for development and growth. If the moisture is evaporated, thefruits will keep almost indefinitely. Fruits and vegetables can beeasily and inexpensively dried. When dried fruits are to be used for thetable, they must be washed thoroughly and soaked for several hours, orovernight, in water, so as to restore to them as much water as possible. They should be cooked, until soft, in the same water in which they aresoaked. 

_Canning and preserving. _--Other methods of preservation are desirable, in order that vegetables and fruits be made of value for a longer periodof time than through their ripening season. Canning is one of themethods most commonly employed in the home, being both easy andsatisfactory. Fruit which is to be canned is first sterilized by boilingor steaming, in order to destroy all germs and spores. This can beadequately accomplished by boiling for twenty minutes, but a shortertime is sometimes sufficient. In order to ensure complete success, allgerms must also be destroyed on the cans and on everything which comesin contact with the food. This will be effected by boiling or steamingfor twenty minutes. The jars, covers, dipper, and funnel should all beplaced in cold water, heated until the water comes to theboiling-point, boiled five minutes, and left in the water until justbefore sealing. As for the rubbers, it will be sufficient to dip theminto the boiling water. After the fruit has been put into the can, itmust be sealed so that it is perfectly air-tight. In order to do this, it is necessary to have good covers, with new, pliable rubbers, and tosee to it that they fit tightly. 

When the jar is to be filled, it should be placed on a board or woodentable, or on a cloth wrung out of hot water, and should be filled tooverflowing. 

Sugar is not essential to sterilization and is used only to improve theflavour. Both fruits and vegetables can be canned without sugar. However, fruits canned with a large amount of sugar do not spoilreadily, for germs develop slowly in a thick syrup. 

_Methods of canning. _--The simplest method of canning is the"Open-kettle Method" employed for small, watery fruits, such as berries, grapes, tomatoes, etc. The fruit is boiled in an open kettle (whichpermits of the evaporation of some of the water in the fruit) andtransferred at once to a sterilized jar, which is immediately sealed. 

Another and safer method, which secures more complete sterilizationwithout serious change of flavour in the fruit, is that known as the"Cold-pack Method". After being transferred to the cans, the vegetableor fruit is subjected to an additional period of heating of considerablelength, or to three periods of briefer length on three successive days. If the three periods of sterilization are used, the process is known asthe "Intermittent Method". 

The Single Process Method is described in the recipe for canned beets. The Intermittent Process proves more satisfactory for canned beans. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should ascertain what fruits and vegetables are mostabundant and select for canning those that the class can provide. 

Each pupil should be asked to bring some vegetable or fruit, somegranulated sugar, and a jar in which to can her fruit. If the schooldoes not possess enough kettles or sauce-pans in which to do thecooking, they may be borrowed from the homes. 

Only one fruit or one vegetable should be taken up at a time, for thepreparation necessarily varies slightly, and the different methods willprove confusing. It is not necessary to confine the choice of fruits andvegetables to those mentioned in the recipes included here. The teacherwill find it better to base her instruction on the products of theparticular time and place. The principles of canning should be taken upat some other period, if possible, in order that the cooking lesson maybe devoted entirely to the practical work. 

RECIPES

_Canned Tomatoes_

(Open-kettle Method)

Scald and peel the tomatoes. Boil gently for 20 minutes. Sterilize thejars, covers, and rubbers. Stand the jars on a cloth in a pan of hotwater or on a board or wooden table. Fill the jars with hot tomatoes, being careful to fill to overflowing and to expel all air bubbles fromthe jar. Adjust the rubbers and covers. Seal and allow to cool. Test, label, and set away in a cool, dry, dark place. 

(Cold-pack Method)

Scald in water hot enough to loosen the skins. Plunge quickly in coldwater and remove the skins. Pack whole or in pieces in the jars. Fillthe jars with tomatoes only. Add 1 level teaspoonful of salt to eachquart. Place the rubber and cover in position. Partially seal, but nottightly. Place the jars on a rack in a boiler. Pour sufficient warmwater into the boiler to come half-way up the jars. Place the filledjars on the rack so as not to touch one another, and pack the spacesbetween them with cotton, to prevent the jars striking when the waterboils. Sterilize for 22 minutes after the water begins to boil. Removethe jars from the boiler. Tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and testthe joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching and store in acool, dry, dark place. This method of cooking is also called "The HotWater Bath". 

_Canned Grapes_

(Open-kettle Method)

 6 qt. Grapes 1 qt. Sugar 1/2 c. Water

Pick over, wash, drain, and remove the stems from the grapes. Separatethe pulp from the skins. Cook the pulp 5 minutes and then rub through asieve that is fine enough to hold back the seeds. Put the water, skins, and pulp into the preserving kettle and heat slowly to theboiling-point. Skim the fruit and then add the sugar. Boil 15 minutes. Put into jars as directed. 

Sweet grapes may be canned with less sugar; very sour grapes willrequire more sugar. 

_Canned Peaches_

Choose firm, solid fruit. Scald long enough to loosen the skins. Peeland cut in halves. If clingstone peaches are used, they may be cannedwhole. Pack the fruit into sterilized jars, fill with boiling syrup (1c. Sugar to 1-1/2 c. Water). Then put on the covers loosely and place onwooden racks in the boiler. Sterilize in hot water bath for 20 minutes. Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test thejoints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store. 

_Canned Beets_

(Single Process)

Wash the beets and boil them until they are nearly tender and the skinscome off easily. Remove the skins and carefully pack the beets in a jar. Cover with boiling water, to which one tablespoonful of salt is addedfor each quart, and put the cover on the jar, but do not fasten it down. Place the jar on a rack or a folded cloth in a large kettle that can beclosely covered. Pour enough water into the kettle to reach within twoinches of the top of the jar, cover the kettle, bring the water to theboiling-point, and boil from one and one-half to two hours. As the wateraround the jar boils down, replenish with boiling water, never withcold. Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and testthe joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store. 

 _Note. _--In canning beets, if vinegar is added to the water in the proportion of one part vinegar to four parts water, the natural bright colour will be retained. 

_Canned String Beans and Peas_

(Intermittent Method)

Can on the same day that the vegetables are picked. Blanch in boilingwater from 2 to 5 minutes. Remove, and plunge into cold water. Pack insterilized jars. Add boiling water to fill the crevices. Add 1 levelteaspoonful of salt to each quart. Place rubbers and covers in position. 

Set the jars on the rack in the boiler and bring gradually to boilingheat. At the end of an hour's boiling, remove the jars from the boiler. Tighten the clamps or rims and set the jars aside to cool until thefollowing day. Do not let the vegetables cool off in the boiler, as thisresults in over-cooking. On the second day, loosen the clamps or unscrewthe rims, place the jars in warm water, heat again to boilingtemperature, and boil for an hour; then remove them again. On the thirdday, repeat the hour's boiling, as on the preceding day. 

Corn may be canned successfully in the same way. 

_Dried Corn_

Pick the corn early in the morning. Immediately husk, silk, and cut thecorn from the cob. Spread in a very thin layer on a board, cover withmosquito netting which is kept sufficiently elevated so that it will notcome in contact with the corn, place in the hot sun, and leave all day. Before the dew begins to fall, take it into the house and place in anoven that is slightly warm. Leave in the oven overnight and place out inthe sun again the next day. Repeat this process until absolutely dry. 

_String Beans_

String beans are hung up to dry and kept for winter use. 

METHOD OF WORK

If possible, let each pupil can a jar of vegetables or fruit for her ownhome. If the class is large, let the pupils work in groups of two orthree. 

Begin the lesson with a very brief discussion of how to prepare fruitfor canning. 

Let the pupils proceed with the practical work as quickly as possible. Demonstrate the method of filling and sealing the jars. 

Assign the care of the jars and the intermittent canning on succeedingdays to members of the class, and hold them responsible for thecompletion of the work. 

The drying of some vegetables can be undertaken at school, and carefullyfollowed from day to day. It will furnish the pupils with an interestingproblem. 

LESSON V: FATS--VEGETABLES--Continued

_Preparation of white sauce to serve with vegetables. How to boil, season, and serve such vegetables as lima or butter beans, string beans, onions, cabbage, corn, beets, turnips, or carrots. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Fats. _--Butter belongs to the class of food-stuffs known as fats. Itincreases the fuel value of those dishes to which it is added. 

Fats supply heat and energy to the body in a concentrated form. For thisreason they should be used in a limited quantity. Fats undergo severalchanges during the process of digestion, and the excessive use of theminterferes with the digestion of other foods and throws a large amountof work upon the digestive organs. Cooked fats are more difficult ofdigestion than uncooked fats, and other foods cooked with hot fat arerendered more difficult to digest. 

_Vegetables. _--Vegetables should be used when in season, as they arealways best and cheapest then. They are better kept in a cold, dry, anddark place. 

If the vegetables contain starch or tough cellulose, they will requirecooking; as raw starch is indigestible, and the harsh cellulose may betoo irritating to the digestive tract. 

In old or exceedingly large vegetables the cellulose may be very tough;hence a long period of cooking is necessary. They should be cooked onlyuntil they are tender. Longer cooking may destroy the flavour, renderthe vegetables difficult of digestion, and cause the colour to change. In very young vegetables the cellulose is delicate and, if youngvegetables do not contain much starch, they may be eaten raw. 

When cooked vegetables are served, they are usually seasoned and dressedwith butter (for one cup of vegetables use 1/2 teaspoonful of salt, 1/8teaspoonful of pepper, and 1/2 tablespoonful of fat), or a sauce isprepared to serve with them. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be well to have a preliminary lesson devoted to simpleexperiments with flour, liquid, and fat, in order to determine the bestmethod of combining the ingredients in the white sauce. However, if thelesson period is of sufficient length, a few of these experiments may beperformed in connection with it. 

There should be provided for the lesson some vegetable that is improvedby serving with white sauce, and sufficient milk, butter or other fat, flour, and salt for the sauce and the experiments. Discuss with thepupils the fat that is used in their homes, in order to know what isavailable. 

The recipes should be written on the black-board before the lesson hour. 

RECIPES

_Stewed Onions_

 1 qt. Onions White pepper 2 tbsp. Butter 1/4 tsp. Salt

Peel the onions under cold water. Cover with boiling water, add salt, and simmer until tender. Drain and serve with one cup of white sauce; oromit the sauce and serve seasoned with butter and pepper. Serves six. 

_Cabbage_

Cut the cabbage into quarters and soak one-half hour in cold salt waterto draw out any insects. Chop or shred, cover with boiling water, addsalt, and simmer until tender. Drain, and serve with butter, salt, andpepper, or with a sauce. 

_Carrots_

Scrape the carrots and cut them into large dice or slices. Add boilingwater and boil until tender (from 30 to 45 minutes). Drain, and seasonwith butter, salt, and pepper, or serve with white sauce. 

_String Beans_

String the beans, if necessary, and cut into pieces. Boil in saltedwater until tender. Season with butter, salt, and pepper, and serve hot. 

Salt pork may be boiled with the beans, to give them an added flavour. 

EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING

(Any powdered starch may be used)

1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small sauce-pan. While boiling, stir intoit 1/2 tsp. Of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe theresult. Break open a lump and examine it. 

2. Mix 1 tsp. Of cornstarch with 2 tsp. Of cold water and stir into 1/4cup of boiling water. Note the result. 

3. Mix 1 tsp. Of cornstarch with 2 tsp. Of sugar and stir into 1/4 cupof boiling water. Note the result. 

4. Mix 1 tsp. Of cornstarch with 2 tsp. Of melted fat in a smallsauce-pan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result. 

CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS

1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken aliquid:

 (1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid, (2) By adding a double quantity of sugar, (3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat. 

2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, todistribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked. 

_White Sauce_

 2 tbsp. Butter or other fat 2 tbsp. Flour 1 c. Milk 1/4 tsp. Salt 1/8 tsp. Pepper

(Sufficient for 1 pint vegetables)

Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir over the fire until frothy. Addthe milk and stir constantly until it thickens. Stir in the seasonings. 

 _Note. _--Vegetable water may be substituted for part of the milk. 

METHOD OF WORK

Review the facts on boiling vegetables learned in the previous lesson. Let the pupils put water on to boil and prepare a vegetable for cooking. If experiments are to be made, they can be performed while the vegetableis cooking. If the experiments have been made previously, they can bereviewed in discussion at this time. Prepare a white sauce bydemonstration, using the method which seems most practical. Have thevegetables drained, dried, and added to the white sauce. Whenwell-heated, serve. 

Questions Used to Develop the Lesson

What facts regarding the boiling of vegetables did we learn in the lastlesson?

Does the vegetable that we are to cook to-day differ in any marked wayfrom those we cooked before? Should we follow the same rule in cookingit?

Should we add the flour directly to the cold milk? To the hot milk?

How shall we combine the white sauce?

With what other vegetables can white sauce be used?

_Home assignment. _--Each pupil should prepare some vegetable and serveit with white sauce, before the next lesson. 

LESSON VI: CEREALS

_Kinds, composition, care, and general rules for cooking cereals. Oatmeal, cracked wheat, corn-meal porridge, rice. Fruits to serve withcereals--stewed prunes, stewed apples, or apple sauce. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

The term "cereals" is applied to the cultivated grasses--rice, wheat, corn, rye, oats, and buckwheat. They are widely grown throughout thetemperate zone and are prepared in various forms for use as food. Cereals contain a high percentage of starch and a low percentage ofwater, with varying proportions of mineral matter and fat. In additionto the four food-stuffs already studied, cereals contain a small amountof another food-stuff known as protein--a muscle-building material. Forthe most part, the cereals contain a large amount of cellulose, which isbroken up during the process of preparation for market and requires longcooking before being ready for use by the body. The digestibility of thecereals depends upon the amount of cellulose which they contain and thethoroughness of the cooking. Cereals are palatable, and they arevaluable, because in cooking they can be blended in various ways withother substances. They are beneficial also to the body, because theircellulose acts mechanically on the digestive organs by stimulating themto action. Cereals are made more attractive by serving with fresh orcooked fruit. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The cereals should be discussed in a nature study or geography lesson, and two or three kinds that are in common use should be brought fromhome by the pupils. If cereals are not generally used as breakfastfoods, the lesson may be a means of introducing them. Some pupils shouldbring a little milk and sugar, to serve with the cooked cereal. Applesor prunes should be brought, to cook and serve with the cereal. 

RECIPES

_Oatmeal_

 3 c. Boiling water 3/4 c. Oatmeal 3/4 tsp. Salt

Add the oatmeal slowly to boiling salted water. 

Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly, preferablyover water, at least one and one-half hours longer; the flavour isdeveloped by longer cooking. Serves six. 

_Cracked Wheat_

Follow the recipe for oatmeal, using 3/4 c. Of cracked wheat. 

_Corn-meal Porridge_

 4 c. Boiling water 3/4 c. Corn-meal 1 tsp. Salt

Add the corn-meal slowly to boiling salted water. 

Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly for threehours longer, preferably over water. Serves six to eight. 

_Boiled Rice_

 3 qt. Boiling water 1 c. Rice 2 tsp. Salt

Pick the rice over carefully and wash thoroughly. Add it to the boilingsalted water so gradually that it will not stop boiling. Partly coverand cook for 20 minutes, or until the grains are soft; turn into acolander, and pour cold water through it, drain, dry, and re-heat in ahot oven with door open. Serve hot as a vegetable or as a simple dessertwith cream and sugar. Serves six to eight. 

_Stewed Prunes_

 1/2 lb. Prunes 1 qt. Cold water

Wash the prunes in two or three waters; then soak them in cold water forseveral hours. Heat them in the water in which they are soaked andsimmer until tender (an hour or more). Serves six to eight. 

_Stewed Apples_

 10 small apples 1/2 c. Sugar 3/4 c. Water

Cook the sugar and water together until it boils. 

Wash, pare, and cut the apples into quarters; core, and slice thequarters lengthwise into 1/4-inch slices; put the apple slices intoboiling syrup and cook slowly until tender. Remove from the syrup atonce and let the syrup boil down to thicken. 

_Apple Sauce_

 10 small apples 1/2 c. Sugar 3/4 c. Water

Wipe, quarter, core, and pare sour apples; add the water and cook untilthe apples begin to soften; add the sugar and flavouring, cook until theapples are very soft, then press through a strainer and beat well. Serves eight to ten. 

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, discuss the recipes briefly and put thecereals on to cook at once. Prepare the fruit. While the long cooking ofthe cereal is in progress, discuss the composition, food value, andmethods of using cereals. Then go on with another lesson and call theclass together, for serving, later in the day. Serve the fruit and thecereals together. 

LESSON VII: CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS--Reviewed

SUBJECT-MATTER

Those foods which build up and repair the muscular tissues of the bodyare called protein foods, muscle builders, or flesh formers. Meat, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, cereals, legumes, and nuts are classed as proteinfoods. 

Those foods which serve solely as fuel for the body--providing heat andenergy--are classed under two groups: the carbohydrates (sugar andstarches), which the body is able to use in relatively large quantities;and the fats, which the body cannot use in such large quantities, butwhich yield a large amount of heat and energy. Protein also serves asfuel, though tissue building is regarded as its special function. Sugarsand starches are abundant in fruits and vegetables. Fats are found inmeats, fish, milk, and in some vegetable foods. Heat-giving food may bestored in the body as fatty tissue. 

Mineral compounds must be present in our food, to help in the regulationof the body processes and to enter into the composition of the structureand the fluids of the body. Mineral compounds are best supplied by freshgreen vegetables, fruits, and milk. 

Water is absolutely essential to the body, is present in largequantities in many foods, and is combined with many other foods duringthe processes of cooking. 

One or more of the food-stuffs sometimes predominate in a single food. For example, rice is almost entirely carbohydrate, and butter is almostpure fat. Occasionally, we find a food that contains all the five groupsof food principles. Milk is an example of such a food, containing allfive food principles in such proportions as to supply all thenourishment which a baby needs during the early months of its life. Asthe child grows older, foods rich in both carbohydrates must be added tothe diet. Wheat contains all that the body needs for nourishment exceptwater, which is easily added in cooking. 

 _Protein foods_ _Carbohydrate foods_

 Meats Sugar Fish Honey Poultry Syrup Eggs Vegetables: Cheese Potatoes Milk Parsnips Cereals: Peas Wheat Beets Oatmeal Carrots Rye Cereal preparations: Legumes: Meals Peas Flours, etc. Beans Fruits Lentils Prepared foods: Peanuts Bread Nuts Crackers Macaroni Jellies Dried fruits Candy Milk

 _Fat foods_ _Mineral foods_

 Cream Fruits Butter Vegetables: Lard Spinach Suet Tomatoes Fat meats Onions Fish Turnip tops Salad oil Cauliflower Nuts Cereals: Chocolate Grits and other coarse preparations Milk Eggs

_Choice of food. _--The diet must be carefully chosen, to give a neededvariety and to combine the foods properly so that one may have a rightproportion of all the food-stuffs. Each meal should contain some proteinfood, some fats or carbohydrates, some mineral matter, and water. Allfive forms of food-stuffs should have a place in the day's diet. Thegreater part of the water which the body needs should be taken betweenmeals. 

METHOD OF WORK

Review the foods discussed in the previous lessons and sum up theclassification of foods, being sure that the pupils can name commonexamples of each. Discuss simple combinations for the different meals, using dishes already prepared in the course and creating an interest inother recipes to be prepared in succeeding lessons. 

BLACK-BOARD SUMMARY

There are five food principles:

1. _Water_--builds and repairs the tissues, regulates the system--

found in all food-stuffs. 

2. _Mineral matter_--builds and repairs the tissues, regulates thesystem--

found in vegetables, fruits, cereal, and so on. 

3. _Carbohydrates_--give heat and energy to the body--

found in sugar and starches. 

4. _Fats_--give heat and energy to the body--

found in cream, nuts, pork, and so on. 

5. Protein--builds and repairs the tissues--

found in meat, eggs, cheese, seeds. 

Always choose a diet carefully:

1. To give variety. 

2. To combine the foods properly, so that they will contain adequateproportions of each food-stuff at every meal. 

LESSON VIII: THE PLANNING AND SERVING OF MEALS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Experience has shown that some foods are more acceptable at one time ofday than other foods, and that certain combinations are more pleasingthan others. The choice of foods will also depend upon the season of theyear. For example, breakfast is, as a rule, made up of simple foods thatare not highly seasoned nor subjected to elaborate methods of cooking. Afruit, a cereal, and bread, with, possibly, eggs or meat, are served atbreakfast. A hot beverage is added by most people to this meal. 

Fundamentally, dinner consists of a hot meat or other protein dish, withone or two vegetables. Soup, salad, and a sweet dessert are oftenserved. The soup is served before the meat course, and the salad anddessert follow it. The dessert may be a fruit, a cookie or other pastry, a pudding, or a frozen dish. 

Lunch or supper may be a very simple meal, consisting of a soup withcrackers, one protein dish (eggs, milk, or meat) with bread and stewedfruit, or a salad, with a simple dessert. 

EXAMPLES OF WELL-CHOSEN MENUS

_Breakfast_

No. I Apple sauce Sausage or bacon Oatmeal Toast

No. II Baked apples Eggs in the shell Cracked wheat Corn muffins

No. III Stewed figs or berries Poached eggs Corn-meal porridge Toast

 Note. --Eggs should be omitted from the breakfast menu if they are not cheap and easily obtainable. 

_Dinner_

No. I Pork chops Potatoes Fried apples Mashed turnips Bread Rice pudding

No. II Beef or mutton stew Biscuits Spinach or turnip tops Cornstarch pudding

No. III Baked beans Grape sauce Cabbage salad Bread or biscuits

_Supper_

No. I Stewed apricots or other fruit Whole wheat bread Buttermilk or sweet milk Peanut cookies

No. II Omelet Creamed potatoes Bread Fresh fruit

No. III Cream of carrot soup Biscuits Cottage cheese Syrup

The table should always be neatly set, with individual places arrangedfor each one who is to partake of the meal. Each place should be wideenough for a plate, with a knife and spoon at the right and a fork atthe left side. A tumbler should be placed at the point of the knife anda napkin at the left of the fork. Everything on the table should beperfectly clean, the napkin should be neatly folded, and all thearticles should be uniformly arranged, in order to give a neatappearance to the table. A flower or plant in the centre will add to itsattractiveness. Salt, pepper, sugar, vinegar, and anything of the kindthat may be needed with the meal should be arranged where it can beeasily reached. Fresh water should be poured into the tumblers justbefore the meal is served. The bread, butter, and so on, may be put onthe table several minutes before the meal is announced, but the hotdishes should be placed immediately before the family is seated. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If Lesson VI, entitled "Setting and Clearing the Table" as outlined inthe course on the Care of the Home has been given, this lesson may bedevoted to what to serve and how to serve it, or it may precede thelesson on "Waiting on Table". The manner of serving may be demonstratedin the next lesson, in connection with the course on the Care of theHome. 

Simple equipment for family service will be required, if the form ofserving is to be taken up. For class practice, a table for four may bearranged. This will necessitate a table-cover, four dinner plates, fourbread-and-butter plates, four tumblers, four cups and saucers, fourknives, four forks, four teaspoons, four napkins, a platter, one servingspoon, and one serving fork. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss meal service from the standpoint both of choice and combinationof foods and of the method of service. Let the class plan a meal, thengo through the form of serving that meal at table. In the absence of atable, the top of a desk may be used. Later in the course, the teachershould plan to combine this lesson with one on cooking and have the foodserved. In each cooking lesson, suggestions for serving the food shouldbe made, and each dish cooked should be carefully served. Interest inthis lesson may be increased by allowing the pupils to make originalmenus, and, if they are having some lessons in drawing, simple menucards may be planned and executed. 

LESSON IX: MILK

_Care, cost, and food value of milk. Value and use of sour milk--cottagecheese, curdled milk. Rice or cornstarch pudding (plain, caramel, orchocolate). _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Milk contains all the food-stuffs which the body requires, exceptstarch, and, therefore, is capable of sustaining life for comparativelylong periods. It is one of the most important protein foods; but itcontains so small a percentage of carbohydrate (milk sugar) that for theadult it must be supplemented with carbohydrate foods. For the baby, milk is a perfect food, and it is a valuable adjunct to the diet of allchildren. One quart of milk should be allowed for the diet of each childdaily, after the twelfth month; and the diet of the adult should besupplemented by the use of milk. The greatest care should be exercisedin protecting milk from dust and dirt, for it is easily contaminated andmay be the means of carrying disease germs to the body. The changeswhich milk undergoes when souring do not render it harmful. For manypeople buttermilk is more easy of digestion than sweet milk, because ofthe changes produced by souring, as well as the absence of fat. Sourmilk is of value in cooking, producing a tender bread which can readilybe made light by the addition of soda--one teaspoonful of soda to onepint of sour milk that has curdled. 

In the preparation of cheese, the whey is separated from the curds, thusextracting most of the water, sugar, and mineral matter, and leaving asubstance rich in protein and fat. Cheese is of value in cooking, for itincreases the food value of those foods to which it is added. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should make inquiries a few days in advance, to be sure thatone quart of sour milk can be secured, and, when it is brought, sheshould examine it to see that it is in proper condition to make cottagecheese. She should arrange to have about one quart of sweet milk andsuch other supplies as are necessary for the pudding, brought by thepupils. 

An opportunity may be afforded to discuss the use of left-over cereal bythe preparation of a rice pudding, if the teacher provides some coldcooked rice for the lesson. In the absence of cold rice, the cornstarchpudding may be prepared. 

RECIPES

_Cottage Cheese_

Heat sour milk slowly until the whey rises to the top, pour the wheyoff, put the curd in a bag, and let it drip for six hours withoutsqueezing. Put the curd into a bowl and break into fine pieces with awooden spoon; season with salt and mix into a paste with a little creamor butter. Mould into balls, if desired, and keep in a cold place. (Itis best when fresh. )

_Rice Pudding_

 1/2 c. Rice 2 c. Milk 2 eggs 1/3 c. Sugar 1/8 tsp. Salt 1/2 tsp. Vanilla

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the prepared rice and cook untilsoft. Beat the egg-yolks, sugar, and salt together until well mixed. Stir into the rice and cook for 3 minutes. Remove from the heat andserve cold. Serves eight. 

_Cornstarch Pudding_

 1/4 c. Sugar 5 tbsp. Cornstarch, or 1/2 c. Flour 1 tsp. Vanilla, or other flavouring 3 c. Milk 1 egg

Mix the sugar and cornstarch thoroughly. Add one cup of cold milk andstir until smooth. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler;add the cornstarch mixture slowly, stirring constantly until it beginsto thicken. Continue cooking for 20 minutes. Beat the egg well, add thehot pudding slowly, strain, and cool. Serve with milk or cream andsugar. (The egg may be omitted, if desired. ) Serves eight. 

For chocolate cornstarch pudding, use 1/4 cup of sugar additionaland two squares of chocolate. Melt the chocolate carefully, add the sugar, and add to the cornstarch mixture. 

For caramel cornstarch pudding, use 1 cup of brown sugarand 1/2 cup of boiling water. Heat the sugar until it becomes alight-brown liquid, add the boiling water, and stir until thesugar is all dissolved. Let it cool; then add to the cornstarchmixture. 

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, demonstrate the method of making cottagecheese. Show the separation of curd and whey, by adding vinegar or lemonjuice to sweet milk. While the cheese is draining, make assignments ofwork and have the rice or cornstarch pudding made. 

In this lesson and in those following emphasize the use of proteinfoods. 

Discuss also the food value of skimmed milk and sour milk and thepurposes for which these may be used in cooking. 

Use the cottage cheese and the pudding for the school lunch. 

LESSON X: SOUPS

_Cream soups. Cream of carrot, potato, or onion soup, green pea soup. Toast, croutons, or crisp crackers to serve with soup. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Cream soups. _--The strained pulp of cooked vegetables or legumes, withan equal portion of thin white sauce, is the basis for cream soups. Theliquid for the soup may be all milk, part vegetable water and part milk, or all vegetable water. 

A binding of flour is used to prevent a separation of the thicker andthe thinner parts of the soup. This is combined as for white sauce andis stirred into the hot liquid just before the soup is to be served. Thesoup should be made in a double boiler and kept in this utensil until itis served. 

Four tablespoons of flour to each quart of soup is a good proportion touse for thickening all vegetable soups that are not of a starchy nature;half that amount will be sufficient for soup prepared from a verystarchy vegetable. 

The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, and it should be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way ofusing the cooking water and any left-over vegetables. From these, attractive cream soups may be prepared, and a combination of flavoursoften gives good results. 

_Accompaniments. _--Crisp crackers, croutons, soup sticks, or breadsticks are served with cream soups, and are valuable because theynecessitate thorough mastication, thus inducing the flow of saliva andaiding in the digestion of the starchy ingredients of the soups. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

As a basis for the soup, the teacher should secure a vegetable that thepupils use in their own homes, and crackers or bread to serve with thesoup. 

If dried peas are used, they should be allowed to soak overnight and beput on to cook early in the morning. 

It will be well to have the cooking of the carrots begun before thelesson period. If the carrots are cut up in small pieces, they will cookmore quickly. 

RECIPES

_Cream of Carrot Soup_

 1 c. Cooked carrots 2 c. Vegetable water 2 c. Milk 4 tbsp. Flour 2 tbsp. Butter Salt and pepper to taste

Press the vegetables through a sieve or chop finely; put the vegetablewater on to heat. Mix the flour smoothly with an equal measure of milkand thin it with a little more of the milk. Stir into the steamingliquid, stirring constantly until it thickens. Stir in the butter, vegetable pulp, and remaining milk. Season to taste and serve hot. Serves six. 

_Cream of Potato Soup_

 1 pt. Milk or milk and water 2 tsp. Chopped onions 3 potatoes 1 tbsp. Butter 1 tbsp. Flour 1 tsp. Salt 1/8 tsp. Pepper 2 tsp. Chopped parsley

Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. Boil the potatoes and oniontogether until soft, then rub the liquid and pulp through a strainerinto the hot milk. Bind with the flour, add the seasonings, and servehot. Serves four. 

_Pea Soup_

 1 c. Split peas 2-1/2 qt. Water 2 tbsp. Chopped onion 3 tbsp. Butter 3 tbsp. Flour 1-1/2 tsp. Salt 1/8 tsp. Pepper 1 pt. Milk

Wash the peas and soak them overnight in cold water, drain and rinsethoroughly, add 2-1/2 quarts of cold water and the onion, cook slowlyuntil soft, rub the liquid and pulp through a strainer, and bind withthe flour. Add the milk and the seasonings and serve hot. Serves six toeight. 

_Toast_

Cut stale bread into slices one quarter of an inch thick; put on thetoaster or fork, move gently over the heat until dry, then brown byplacing near the heat, turning constantly. Bread may be dried in theoven before toasting. Hot milk may be poured over dry toast. 

_Croutons_

Cut stale bread into one-half-inch cubes and brown in the oven. 

_Crisp Crackers_

Put the crackers into the oven for a few minutes, or split and butterthick crackers, and brown in a hot oven; serve with soup. 

METHOD OF WORK

Devote a few minutes to a discussion of cream soups and a review of thecooking of vegetables and white sauce. 

Divide the work among the members of the class, assigning enough to eachpupil to keep her busy, arranging the work so that the soup and itsaccompaniments will be ready for serving at the same time. 

LESSON XI: EGGS

_Food value and general rules for cooking eggs. Cooked in shell, poached, scrambled, and omelet. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Eggs are a very valuable food, because of the large amount of proteinand fat they contain. Though lacking in carbohydrates, they furnishmaterial for building up the muscles and provide heat and energy to thebody. If cooked at a low temperature, eggs are very easily and verycompletely digested. Combined with other foods, they serve as athickening agent (for sauces and soups) and as a means of making batterslight (popovers and sponge cake). They add flavour and colour andincrease the nutritive value of other foods. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The lesson on eggs furnishes one of the best opportunities to teach themuscle-building foods. If eggs are scarce, it may be well to give thislesson at some other time. Each pupil should be asked to bring an egg;one or two should bring a little milk; and sufficient bread should beprovided to toast for the poached eggs. The teacher should not undertaketo give too many recipes in this lesson, but should try to make thepupils familiar with a sufficient variety of ways of using eggs to makeegg cookery interesting. The necessity of having a moderate temperaturefor the cooking of eggs should be emphasized. 

RECIPES

_Soft-cooked Eggs_

Put the eggs in boiling water sufficient to cover them, remove from thefire, cover, and allow them to stand from 5 to 8 minutes. 

_Hard-cooked Eggs_

Put the eggs in cold water, heat, and, when the water boils, reduce theheat, and let them stand for 20 minutes with water just below theboiling-point, then put them into cold water. 

_Poached Eggs_

Break each egg into a saucer carefully, slip the egg into boiling water, decrease the heat, and cook for 5 minutes, or until the white is firmand a film has formed over the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, trimoff the rough edges, and serve on slices of toast. Season. 

Poached eggs are attractive when covered with white sauce to whichchopped parsley has been added. 

_Baked Eggs_

Line a buttered baking-dish with buttered bread crumbs or with coldmashed potatoes. Break the eggs in the dish without separating and addone tablespoon of milk or cream for each egg. Season with salt andpepper and sprinkle with grated cheese, if desired. Bake in a moderateoven until the eggs are set. 

_Creamed Eggs_

 3 hard-boiled eggs 6 slices toast 1 c. Medium white sauce

Prepare a white sauce. Add hard-boiled eggs cut in halves, sliced, orchopped and, when hot, serve on toast. 

Or separate the whites and yolks, chop the whites fine, add to the whitesauce and, when hot, serve on toast and garnish with yolks run through asieve or ricer. Season with salt and pepper. Serves four to six. 

_Creamy Omelet_

 1 egg 1/4 tsp. Salt Pepper 1/2 tsp. Butter 1 tbsp. Milk

Beat the egg slightly, add the milk and seasonings, put the butter inthe hot omelet pan and, when melted, turn in the mixture. As it cooks, draw the edges toward the centre until the whole is of a creamyconsistency, brown quickly underneath, fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once. Serves one. 

_Scrambled Eggs_

Double the quantity of milk given for Creamy Omelet and stir all thetime while cooking. 

_Foamy Omelet_[A]

 1 egg 1/8 tsp. Salt 1 tbsp. Milk or water 1/2 tsp. Butter Cayenne or white pepper

Beat the yolk of the egg until creamy, add seasoning and milk. Beat thewhite until stiff, but not dry, cut and fold into the yolk carefully. Heat an omelet pan, rub the bottom and sides with the butter, and turnin the omelet, spreading it evenly on the pan. Cook gently over the heatuntil the omelet is set and evenly browned underneath. Put it into a hotoven for a few minutes, to dry slightly on top, fold, and serveimmediately. Serves one. 

METHOD OF WORK

Devote one half of the class period to a discussion of the structure ofthe egg and the effect of heat upon it. Use simple experiments or watchthe poached egg, to make a study of the changes produced in the egg bythe application of heat. If the pupils are sufficiently experienced, letthem work together in small groups, first scrambling an egg, then makingan omelet. Demonstrate the cooking of the omelet before the entireclass. Serve the egg dishes carefully while hot. 

 [A] The omelet recipes given are for individual portions. To make a large omelet, multiply the quantity of each ingredient by the number of eggs used. The best results will be obtained by making an omelet of not more than four eggs, as larger omelets are difficult to cook thoroughly and to handle well. A two-egg omelet will serve three people. A four-egg omelet will serve six people. 

LESSON XII: SIMPLE DESSERTS--CUSTARDS

SUBJECT-MATTER

A custard is a combination of eggs and milk, usually sweetened andflavoured, and either steamed, or baked as cup custard, or cooked in adouble boiler as soft custard. The whole egg may be used or the yolksalone. The yolks make a smoother, richer custard. 

The eggs must be thoroughly mixed, but not beaten light, the sugar andsalt added, and the milk scalded and stirred in slowly. The custard mustbe strained through a fine sieve and cooked at a moderate temperature. It is desirable to strain a custard, in order to remove the cords andpieces of the membrane which inclosed the yolk. The cup custard shouldbe strained before cooking, the soft custard may be strained afterwards. 

A soft custard is cooked over water and is stirred constantly untildone. When done, the froth disappears from the surface, the custard isthickened and coats the spoon and sides of the pan, and there is no signof curdling. If the custard is cooked too long, it becomes curdled. Ifit becomes curdled, put it into a pan of cold water and beat untilsmooth. 

A steamed or baked custard is done when it becomes set and when a silverknife will come out clean after cutting it. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

This lesson will furnish an opportunity for a review of milk and eggs. The pupils should arrange to bring the necessary materials from theirhomes. 

RECIPES

_Steamed Custards_

 1 qt. Milk (heated) 4 eggs or 8 egg yolks 1/2 c. Sugar 1/4 tsp. Salt 2 tbsp. Caramel or 1/2 tsp. Nutmeg

Beat the eggs sufficiently to mix them thoroughly; add the sugar, salt, and hot milk slowly. 

Strain into cups, flavour with caramel, or sprinkle nutmeg on top, andsteam until firm over gently boiling water--from 20 to 30 minutes. 

_Baked Custards_

Prepare as for Steamed Custards, set in a pan of hot water, and bake ina slow oven until firm--from 20 to 40 minutes. 

_Chocolate Custards_

Use the recipe for Steamed Custards, adding 1 ounce of chocolate(melted) to the hot milk. Steam or bake as desired. 

_Soft Custard_

 1 pt. Milk (heated) 4 egg yolks 1/16 tsp. Salt 1/2 tsp. Vanilla extract 4 tbsp. Sugar

Beat the egg yolks sufficiently to mix them thoroughly, add the sugar, salt, and hot milk slowly. Cook over water that is boiling gently. Stirconstantly until the custard thickens. Strain. Flavour when cool. 

For soft Chocolate Custard add 1/2 ounce chocolate (melted) to the hotmilk. Serves six. 

_Floating Island_

Use recipe for Soft Custard and, when cold, garnish with a meringue madeaccording to the following recipe:

_Meringue_

 4 egg whites 1/4 c. Powdered sugar

Beat the egg whites very light, add powdered sugar, and continuebeating. Drop in large spoonfuls on the cold custard. Serves eight toten. 

METHOD OF WORK

It may be possible to teach two or three recipes in this lesson. Thebaked custard may be put into the oven while the soft custard orfloating island is being made. Serve at the school lunch. 

LESSON XIII: BATTERS AND DOUGHS

_Griddle Cakes_

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Batters. _--Batters are mixtures of flour or meal and a liquid, withsalt or sugar to give flavour, butter to make tender, and steam, air, orgas to make light. 

One scant measure of liquid is used with one measure of flour for thin, or pour, batter. One measure of liquid is used with two measures offlour for a thick, or drop, batter. One measure of liquid is used withthree measures of flour for a soft, or bread, dough. One measure ofliquid is used with four measures of flour for a stiff, or pastry, dough. 

Before mixing a batter, the oven or griddle should be at the propertemperature, with the fire well regulated and in good condition. Theoven should be tested by putting in a piece of white paper or twotablespoonfuls of flour, which should brown in three minutes. The pansshould be prepared by greasing with lard, salt pork, or beef dripping. All the materials should be measured and ready before beginning tocombine the ingredients. When the batter has been mixed and beaten untilsmooth, it should be baked at once. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher will be better prepared to give the lesson on batters if shefirst makes herself familiar with the kinds of breads that are used inthe homes of the pupils and the methods followed in their preparation. The simple, general methods of preparing batters should be taught. Theteacher should not attempt the preparation of more than one or twobatters in this lesson. 

RECIPES

_Sour-milk Griddle Cakes_

 2-1/2 c. Flour 1/2 tsp. Salt 1-1/4 tsp. Soda 1 egg 2 c. Sour milk

Mix and sift the flour, salt, and soda; add the sour milk and egg wellbeaten. Drop, by spoonfuls, on a greased hot griddle; cook on one side. When puffed full of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn, and cook onthe other side. Serve with butter and maple syrup. 

_Sweet-milk Griddle Cakes_

 3 c. Flour 1-1/2 tbsp. Baking-powder 1 tsp. Salt 1/4 c. Sugar 2 c. Milk 1 egg 2 tbsp. Melted butter

Mix and sift the dry ingredients, beat the egg, add the milk, and pouron the first mixture. Beat thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the sameas Sour-milk Griddle Cakes. 

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss batters briefly. Have all measurements made, the fire regulated, the pans prepared, and so on. Demonstrate the mixing and cooking ofGriddle Cakes. Serve the cakes daintily after they are cooked. 

LESSON XIV: BATTERS AND DOUGHS--Continued

_Muffins--Baking-powder Biscuits_

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Methods of making batters light. _--Batters are made light by beatingair into them, by adding eggs into which air has been beaten, or byentangling gas in the batter. Gas is secured by using soda and sour milkin a batter (one teaspoon of soda to one pint of sour milk), or sodawith molasses (one teaspoon of soda to one cup of molasses), or sodawith cream of tartar (one teaspoon of soda with two slightly roundingteaspoons of cream of tartar). The soda should be mixed well with theother dry ingredients, then the sour milk or molasses added, the wholebeaten up quickly, and baked at once. 

Baking-powder is a preparation containing soda and cream of tartar, andmay be used in place of soda if sweet milk is used. Two levelteaspoonfuls of baking-powder should be used with one cup of flour. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

This lesson is a continuation of the lesson on batters. Care should betaken not to undertake more than can be done well in the time available. 

RECIPES

_Graham Muffins_

 1 c. Graham flour 1 c. Flour 1/4 c. Sugar 1 tsp. Salt 1 c. Milk 1 egg 1 tbsp. Melted butter 4 tsp. Baking-powder

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Gradually add the milk, the eggwell-beaten, and the melted butter. Bake in a hot oven in greased gempans for 25 minutes. 

_Plain Muffins_

 1/4 c. Butter 1/4 c. Sugar 1 egg 3/4 c. Milk 2 c. Flour 3 tsp. Baking-powder

Cream the butter, add the sugar and egg well beaten, sift thebaking-powder with the flour, and add to the first mixture, alternatingwith the milk. Bake in greased gem pans for 25 minutes. 

_Baking-powder Biscuits_

 2 c. Flour 4 tsp. Baking-powder 1 tsp. Salt 2 tbsp. Fat 3/4 to 1 c. Milk or water

Sift the dry ingredients together, chop the fat into the flour with aknife, slowly add sufficient milk to make a dough not too soft to behandled. Toss and roll the dough gently on a slightly-floured board andcut into small biscuits. Moisten the tops with a little milk. Handle thedough quickly, lightly, and as little as possible. Place on a butteredsheet. Bake in a hot oven till brown--from 12 to 15 minutes. Eitherwhite or whole wheat flour may be used for the biscuits. Serves six toeight. Oven test--the oven should be hot enough to colour a piece ofunglazed white paper to a golden brown in one minute. 

_Soda Biscuits_

 2 c. Flour 1/2 tsp. Soda (scant) 1/2 tsp. Salt 1 c. Sour milk (scant) 2 tbsp. Shortening (lard or other fat)

Proceed as for Baking-powder Biscuits. 

If the sour milk is not thick enough to curdle, it will not containsufficient acid to neutralize the soda, and the biscuits will be yellowand bitter. To avoid this, cream of tartar may be mixed with the soda (1teaspoonful). If there is no cream of tartar at hand, it will be wise touse the recipe for Baking-powder Biscuits. 

METHOD OF WORK

Have the oven and pans prepared and all the measurements made. Demonstrate the mixing of the muffins and, while these are baking, themixing of the biscuits. Have one pupil take charge of the baking of themuffins and another of the baking of the biscuits. When the breads aredone, have the class sit down and serve them to one another, or to allthe pupils at the school lunch hour. 

LESSON XV: MEATS

_Composition and food value. How to make tough cuts of meat palatable. Pork chops with fried apples. Beef or mutton stew with vegetables anddumplings. Rabbit stew. Bacon. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Meats are rich in protein and usually in fats, but are lacking in thecarbohydrates. They build up the muscular tissue, furnish heat andenergy, are more stimulating and strengthening than any other food, andsatisfy hunger for a greater length of time. For the most part, meatsare a very expensive food. One cannot perform more labour by the use ofa meat diet than on a diet of vegetable foods. Those who use largequantities of meat suffer from many disturbances of the system. Hence itshould form a very small part of the diet. The cuts of meat that comefrom those portions of the animal's body that are much exercised aretough, owing to the development of the connective tissues, but theycontain a high percentage of nutrition. For the same reason, the meatfrom older animals is apt to be tough. The flesh of chickens, turkeys, and other fowls is very nutritious and is easily digested if not toofat. 

The flavour of meats is developed by cooking. Dry heat develops the bestflavour, hence the tender cuts are cooked by the processes known asbroiling and roasting. Tough cuts of meat require long, slow cooking inmoist heat, hence they are prepared in the form of stews and pot roastsor are used in meat soups. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

After the teacher has found out what meats are used in the homes or whatthe school can afford to use, she should determine upon a method ofcooking that will make the meat palatable, digestible, and attractive. If it can be prepared as a stew, she should use a recipe in whichvegetables are also used and, if possible, have dumplings prepared toserve with the meat, as a review of the lesson on batters. 

RECIPES

_Beef or Mutton Stew_

 2 lb. Beef or mutton 1 qt. Water Salt, pepper, flour to dredge 1 onion, cut in slices 1/2 c. Turnip cut in dice 3/4 c. Carrot cut in dice 4 potatoes cut in 1/2-inch slices 1 tsp. Salt 1/4 tsp. Pepper 1/2 c. Flour 1/4 c. Cold water

Remove the fat and cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Reserve half of thebest pieces of meat, put the rest of the meat and the bone into coldwater, soak for one hour, then heat until it bubbles. Season half theraw meat and roll it in the flour, melt the fat in a frying-pan, removethe scraps, brown the sliced onion and then the floured meat in the hotfat, add both to the stew, and cook for 2 hours at a low temperature. Tothis add the vegetables and cook 1/2 hour; then add the flour andseasonings, which have been mixed with one-half cup of cold water, andcook for 1/2 hour longer, until the meat and vegetables are tender. Remove the bone from the stew and serve. Serves six to eight. 

_Rabbit_

If beef and mutton are not commonly used and are not readily obtainable, but rabbit can be secured, substitute rabbit for beef in the stew. Afterthe rabbit has been thoroughly cleaned, cut up in eight pieces (four legand four body pieces), season, and dredge with flour, brown in the fat, and proceed as with Beef Stew. 

_Dumplings_

 2 c. Flour 4 tsp. Baking-powder 1/2 tsp. Salt 2 tbsp. Fat (lard or butter) 3/4 c. Milk or water (about)

Sift the dry ingredients together, cut in the butter, and add the milkgradually, to make a soft dough. Roll out on a floured board, cut with abiscuit cutter, lay on top of meat in a stew pan (they should not sinkinto the liquid), cover the kettle closely, keep the stew boiling, andcook the dumplings for 10 minutes without removing the lid. (Do not putthe dumplings in to cook until the meat is tender. )

 _Note. _--If desired, the rolling may be eliminated and, after mixing, the dough may be dropped by spoonfuls into the stew. 

_To Cook Bacon_

Place thin slices of bacon from which the rind has been removed in a hotfrying-pan, and pour off the fat as fast as it melts. Cook until thebacon is crisp and brown, turning frequently. Another method of cookingis to lay the bacon on a rack in a baking-pan and bake in a hot ovenuntil crisp and brown. 

_Pork Chops_

Wipe the chops with a damp cloth, and place in a hot frying-pan. Turnfrequently at first and cook slowly until well browned on each side. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. 

_Fried Apples_

Wash and core the apples and slice to the centre. Roll in flour if veryjuicy. 

After the chops have been removed from the pan, lay the apples in andcook till tender. Serve around the chops. 

METHOD OF WORK

If the meat is to require two or three hours' cooking, arrange to havethe lesson divided and given at two periods through the day. Half anhour before opening the morning session or a portion of the morning ornoon recess may be sufficient time to put the meat on to cook and toprepare the vegetables. When the second class period is called, thevegetables should be added to the partially cooked meat and thedumplings should be made. It would be well to serve the completed dishat the lunch period. There should be as much discussion regarding thekinds of meat, their food value, and the methods of cooking as timepermits; but it may be necessary to complete this discussion at someother class period. 

Should it be possible for the teacher to give additional lessons onmeat, it might be well to devote one lesson to the preparation andcooking of poultry, directions for which may be secured from anyreliable cook-book. 

LESSON XVI: BAKED PORK AND BEANS--BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Peas, beans, and lentils which are dried for market contain a highpercentage of protein, carbohydrate, and mineral matter. They form anexcellent substitute for meat and are much cheaper in price. Thedigestion of leguminous foods proceeds slowly, involving a large amountof work: on this account they are not desirable for invalids, but theyare satisfactory for those who are well and active. The dried legumesmust be soaked overnight in water and then cooked for a long time, inorder to soften the cellulose and develop the flavour. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be necessary to plan this lesson several days in advance, if thebeans are to be baked. As they will be prepared and put on to bakebefore the lesson period, the Baking-powder Biscuits may be made duringthe lesson, to serve with them. 

RECIPE

_Boston Baked Beans_

 1 qt. Navy beans 1 tbsp. Salt 1/2 tbsp. Mustard 3 tbsp. Sugar 2 tbsp. Molasses 1 c. Boiling water 1/2 lb. Fat salt pork Boiling water to cover

Look over the beans and soak them in cold water overnight. 

In the morning drain, cover with fresh water, and simmer them until theskins will burst, but do not let the beans become broken. 

Scald one-half pound of fat salt pork. Scrape the pork. Put a slice inthe bottom of the bean pot. Cut the remaining pork across the top instrips just through the rind, and bury the pork in beans, leaving therind exposed. 

Add one cup of boiling water to seasonings and pour over the beans. Cover with boiling water. Bake slowly, adding more water as necessary. Bake from 6 to 8 hours, uncover at the last, so that the water willevaporate and the beans brown on top. Serves twelve. 

METHOD OF WORK

Have the beans washed and put to soak the night before the lesson is tobe given. Assign to one of the pupils the task of putting them on tosimmer early the next morning. Call the class together for a few momentswhen the beans are ready to bake. Assign one of the pupils to attend tothe fire and the oven. Let the beans bake all day. If the lesson is tobe given late in the afternoon, the beans may be ready to serve, or thecooking may be continued on the second day and the lesson completedthen. It would be well to serve the dish at the lunch period. Have thebiscuits prepared to serve with the baked beans. 

LESSON XVII: BUTTER CAKES--PLAIN YELLOW CAKE--COCOA--COFFEE--TEA

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Cakes. _--Cakes made with fat resemble other batters, except that thefat, sugar, and eggs are usually larger in amount and the texture of thebaked batter is finer and more tender. 

When preparing cake, first get the pans ready. Grease them or line themwith greased paper. Make sure that the oven is at the propertemperature. For a small cake, the oven should be hot enough to brown apiece of unglazed paper or a tablespoonful of flour in three minutes. Bake a small cake from twenty to thirty minutes. When done, the cakewill shrink from the sides of the pan; the crust will spring back whentouched with the finger; the loud ticking sound will cease; a fineknitting-needle will come out clean if the cake is pierced; and thecrust will be nicely browned. When the cake is removed from the oven, let it stand in the pan for about three minutes, then loosen, and turnout gently. Do not handle while hot. Keep in a clean, ventilated tin boxin a cool, dry place. 

_Cocoa. _--Chocolate and cocoa are prepared from the bean of a tropicaltree. This bean is rich in protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, and a stimulant called theobromine. In the preparation of chocolate theseeds are cleaned, milled, and crushed into a paste. In the preparationof cocoa much of the fat is removed, and the cocoa is packed for marketin the form of a fine powder. Cocoa is more easily digested thanchocolate, because it contains less fat. Though the amount of cocoa usedin a cup of this beverage is not large, when prepared with milk itserves as a nutritious food. It is slightly stimulating as well, becauseof the theobromine present and because it is served hot. 

_Coffee and Tea. _--Coffee and tea have no food value when prepared asbeverages. They contain stimulating properties that are harmful to thebody if taken in large quantities and, on this account, they should beused with discretion. They should never be given to children or to thosetroubled with indigestion. If carelessly prepared, both coffee and teamay be decidedly harmful to the body. Coffee should not be boiled formore than eight minutes. Tea should never be permitted to boil. Fresh, boiling water should be poured on the leaves and left for three minutes. It should then be strained off and kept hot until used. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be wise to give this lesson on some special occasion, as it iswell adapted to serve for the refreshments for a mother's club or alittle class party. 

RECIPES

_Plain Yellow Cake_

 1/2 c. Butter 1 c. Sugar 2 eggs 1/2 c. Milk 2 tsp. Baking-powder 1-1/2 c. Flour 1 tsp. Spice or 1-1/2 tsp. Flavouring

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix well. Add thewell-beaten yolks of eggs, then the flour and baking-powder alternatelywith the milk. Then add the flavouring and cut and fold in the whites ofthe eggs carefully. Turn into buttered pans and bake at once in amoderately hot oven. 

For chocolate cake, 2 ounces of melted chocolate may be added after theyolks of the eggs. Serves sixteen to twenty. 

_Gingerbread_

 1/4 c. Butter 1/2 c. Brown sugar 1 egg 1/2 c. Molasses 1/2 c. Milk (sour if possible) 1/2 tsp. Soda 1-3/4 c. Flour 1 tsp. Ginger 1/2 tsp. Cinnamon Salt

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then a well-beaten egg. Addthe molasses. Sift all the dry ingredients together and add alternatelywith the milk. Bake in a buttered tin or in gem pans in a moderate ovenfor 25 or 35 minutes. Serves eight to ten. 

_Cocoa_

 1/4 c. Cocoa 1/4 c. Sugar 1 c. Water 3 c. Milk

Mix the cocoa and sugar with the water and boil from 3 to 5 minutes. Stir into the hot milk and serve at once. If a scum forms, beat with aDover egg-beater. Serves eight to ten. 

_Tea_

 1 tsp. Green or 2 tsp. Black tea 2 c. Boiling water (freshly boiling)

Scald the tea-pot, put the tea in the tea-pot, and pour boiling waterover it; steep 3 minutes, strain, and serve. Serves four. 

_Coffee_

Take two tablespoonfuls of ground coffee for each cup of boiling waterthat is to be used. Put the coffee in the coffee-pot and add enough coldwater to moisten the coffee and make it stick together--about oneteaspoonful of water to each tablespoonful of coffee. Pour the boilingwater over the coffee and boil it for 3 minutes. Place it where it willkeep hot, but not boil, for 5 minutes or more, and then serve. If asmall amount of egg white and shell is mixed with the coffee grounds andcold water, it will aid in clarifying and settling the coffee. 

 _Note. _--The recipes for coffee and tea are given, so that the teacher can discuss their preparation with the pupils and compare their value with that of cocoa. If coffee and tea are both commonly used in the homes, it may be well to have the pupils prepare both in the class, to be sure that they understand how to make them properly. 

METHOD OF WORK

Begin the lesson period with a discussion of the methods of preparingcakes, and put the cake in the oven as soon as possible. While it isbaking, prepare the cocoa. If the cocoa is not to be served for sometime, it can be kept hot or re-heated over hot water. 

LESSON XVIII: YEAST BREAD

SUBJECT-MATTER

Yeast bread is made light by the presence of a gas produced by theaction of yeast in the sponge or dough. Yeast is a microscopic plantwhich grows in a moist, warm temperature and feeds on starchy materialssuch as are present in wheat. A portion of the starch is converted intosugar (thus developing new and pleasant flavours), and some is stillfurther changed, giving off the gas upon which the lightness of thebread depends. If the yeast is allowed to work for too long a time orthe temperature is very hot, a souring of the dough may result. Thissouring can be prevented by kneading the dough thoroughly, as soon as ithas risen well or doubled in bulk, or by putting it in a very hot ovento bake, when it has reached this stage. The yeast plant thrives in aheat of about the same temperature as our bodies. A little extra heatwill only make it more active, but boiling temperature will kill it. Cold makes yeast inactive, though it does not kill the plants. 

Yeast develops in a natural state on hops and other plants. It isprepared for market in the form of dry or moist cakes. The latter mustbe kept very cold. For home use, a liquid yeast is often prepared fromthe dry cakes. This has the advantage of being more active. 

When the yeast has been added to a batter, it is spoken of as a sponge. When the batter has had enough flour added, so that it may be handled, it is called a dough. If the bread is to be made in a few hours, theyeast is made up at once into a dough. If it is to stand overnight, asponge is often made first. More yeast is required for quick rising. Inordinary circumstances, one yeast cake is sufficient for one quart ofliquid. Thorough kneading and baking are both essential to the successof the bread. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Arrange to have the class meet the afternoon before, in order to beginthe process by making the sponge, and to come early in the morning tocare for the dough. Begin the study of flour, yeast, and bread in aprevious class period, correlating the work with geography, naturestudy, or some other subject. Either white or whole-wheat flour may beused for the breads. 

RECIPES

_Bread_

(Prepared with dry yeast)

 1 dry yeast cake 1 c. Warm water 1 c. Flour 1 qt. Water or milk (scalded) Flour enough to make a soft dough 2 tsp. Salt 2 tbsp. Sugar 2 tbsp. Lard or butter

At noon put a dry yeast cake to soak in a cup of warm water. When it issoft, add a cup of flour, cover, and put in a warm place to grow light. This will require several hours. 

In the evening, when ready to begin the dough, mix the salt, sugar, fat, and hot liquid in a large bowl; when lukewarm, add the cup of lightyeast and enough flour to knead (about three quarts). Mix thoroughly andknead it into a smooth dough, and continue this process until it is softand elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and set in amoderately warm place for the night. Be sure that the place is free fromdraughts. In the morning knead slightly; divide into loaves or shape inrolls; put into pans for baking; cover, and let it rise until double inbulk. Bake large loaves from 50 to 60 minutes. Rolls will bake in from25 to 35 minutes, for they require a hotter oven. It is of the utmostimportance that all yeast breads be thoroughly cooked. (Makes 4 loaves. )

(Time required for making bread with dry yeast, from 16 to 20 hours. )

_Bread_

(Prepared with compressed yeast)

 2 c. Milk or water (scalded) 2 tsp. Salt 2 tsp. Sugar 1 tbsp. Lard or butter 1/4 cake compressed yeast (1 cake if set in morning) 1/4 c. Water (lukewarm) Flour, white or whole wheat

Put the hot water or milk, salt, sugar, and fat in a bowl; whenlukewarm, and the yeast softened in the lukewarm water, then the flourgradually and, when stiff enough to handle, turn the dough out on afloured board and knead until soft and elastic (20 minutes). Return thedough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and let it rise in a warm place untildouble in bulk; then knead slightly, divide into loaves or shape intorolls, cover, and let rise in the pan in which they are to be bakeduntil double in bulk, and bake from 50 to 60 minutes. (Makes 2 loaves. )

(Time required for making bread, if one cake of compressed yeast isused, 6 hours. )

METHOD OF WORK

If the class is large, prepare two or three bowls of sponge, so that allcan have some practice in stirring and kneading. Do not make too large aquantity of bread to bake in the oven, unless arrangements can be madeto do some of the baking at the home of one of the pupils. Use the breadfor the school lunch or divide it among the class to take home. 

Plan a bread contest, so that each pupil will be interested in makingbread at home. 

LESSON XIX: SERVING A SIMPLE DINNER WITHOUT MEAT--BAKED OMELET--MACARONIAND CHEESE

PRELIMINARY PLAN AND METHOD OF WORK

At some previous time the teacher should discuss with the pupils theplans for the dinner. It may be well to let them invite the members ofthe school board or others interested in their work to partake of thedinner. They should decide on the menu, with the help and suggestions ofthe teacher, and should choose foods that they can bring from theirhomes. The main course should consist of such a vegetable dish as bakedbeans, an omelet, or macaroni with white sauce and grated cheese. Toaccompany this there should be potatoes and a fresh green vegetable, such as spinach or cabbage, and a hot bread. 

A simple dessert which the pupils know how to make should be chosen. Oneduty should be assigned to each pupil, and she should be entirelyresponsible for that portion of the dinner. The teacher should superviseall the work carefully. 

Instructions for making the menu cards may be given in a drawing lesson. 

RECIPES

_Baked Omelet_

 2 tbsp. Butter 2 tbsp. Flour 1/2 tsp. Salt 1 c. Milk, heated 4 eggs 2 tsp. Fat Pepper

Melt the butter, add the flour and seasonings, mix thoroughly, then addthe hot milk slowly. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks, and add thewhite sauce to them. Beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold themcarefully into the yolk mixture, so that the lightness is all retained. Turn into a greased baking-dish and bake in a moderate oven from 20 to30 minutes. Serve hot. Serves six. 

_Macaroni and Cheese_

 1 c. Macaroni, noodles, or rice 2 tbsp. Fat 3 tbsp. Flour 1/2 tsp. Salt Pepper 1-1/2 c. Milk 1 c. Grated cheese 2 c. Buttered bread crumbs (two tbsp. Butter or other fat)

Break the macaroni into 1-inch pieces and cook it in a large amount ofsalted boiling water from 30 to 45 minutes. Drain it well when tenderand pour cold water through it. 

Break up the bread crumbs and add two tablespoonfuls of melted butter tothem. Grate the cheese and make a white sauce of the fat, flour, seasonings, and milk. Mix the cheese with the sauce, add the macaroni, and pour it into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the bread crumbs andbake 15 or 20 minutes, to brown the crumbs. Serves eight. 

LESSON XX: SUGAR

_Food value and cooking. The use of peanuts in candy. Peanut cookies, orpeanut, molasses, or fudge candies, to be made for a specialentertainment. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Sugar is valuable to the body as a source of heat and energy. While itis easy of digestion, it is very irritating to the body if taken inlarge quantities and, on this account, it should be taken in smallquantities and preferably at meal time or with other food. Two or threepieces of candy taken at the end of the meal will not be hurtful, butwhen eaten habitually between meals, it is sure to produce harmfuleffects. 

Sugar is present in many fruits and in most vegetables. Milk contains alarge percentage of sugar. In preparing foods to which the addition ofsugar seems desirable, care should be taken not to add it in largequantities. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

As it is desirable to have a discussion regarding sugar and its value tothe body, the preparation of cookies or candy for some school functionor Christmas party may be undertaken in conjunction with this lesson, which should be given at a time when it will mean most to the pupils. The work should be so planned that they will learn something of theprinciples of sugar cookery, as well as the specific recipes they areusing. 

RECIPES

_Cookies_

 1 c. Fat 1 c. Sugar 2 eggs 1/4 c. Milk 3 c. Flour 3 tsp. Baking-powder 1 tbsp. Cinnamon 1/2 c. Sugar

Cream the butter and add the sugar and well-beaten eggs. Then add themilk alternately with the sifted dry flour (sifted with baking-powder). Mix to the consistency of a soft dough, adding more milk if necessary. Roll lightly, cut in shapes, and dip in the one-half cup of sugar andcinnamon that have been sifted together. Place on buttered sheets andbake in a hot oven for about 10 minutes. Slip from the pan and lay onthe cake cooler. To make a softer cookie, use only one-half cup ofbutter. (Three to four dozen. )

_Peanut Cookies_

 2 tbsp. Butter 1/4 c. Sugar 1 egg 1 tsp. Baking-powder 1/8 tsp. Salt 1/2 c. Flour 2 tsp. Milk 1/2 c. Finely chopped peanuts 1/2 tsp. Lemon juice 2 doz. Whole peanuts shelled

Cream the butter and add the sugar and the egg well beaten. Add the milkand sifted dry ingredients, alternately, to the first mixture, then thepeanuts and lemon juice. Drop from a teaspoon on a baking sheet an inchapart and place 1/2 peanut on top of each. Bake from 12 to 15 minutes ina moderate oven. (Two and a half to three dozen. )

_Peanut Brittle_

 1 c. Sugar 1 c. Peanuts in the shell

Stir the sugar over the heat, constantly, until it becomes a clearliquid. Take at once from the heat, add the prepared peanuts, and pouron a warm, buttered tin. Mark in squares and cool. Serves ten. 

_Molasses Candy_

 2 c. Molasses 2/3 c. Sugar 1 tbsp. Vinegar 1/4 tsp. Soda 2 tbsp. Butter

Put the molasses, sugar, and butter into a thick sauce-pan or kettle andstir until the sugar is dissolved. Boil until the mixture becomesbrittle when tried in cold water. Stir constantly at the last to preventburning. Add vinegar and soda just before removing from the fire. Pourinto a well-greased pan and let it stand until cool enough to handle. Then pull until light and porous and cut in small pieces with scissors, arranging on buttered plates. Serves sixteen to twenty. 

_Fudge_

 2 c. Sugar 1 c. Milk 1 tbsp. Butter 1/2 c. Nuts, broken up

Put the sugar and the milk in a sauce-pan and stir over the heat untilthe sugar is dissolved. Add the butter and boil to the "soft ball"stage. Take from the heat and beat until creamy. Add the nuts and pouron buttered pans. When cool, cut in squares. Serves sixteen to eighteen. 

METHOD OF WORK

Devote, if possible, a separate period to the discussion of the foodvalue and cooking of sugar; then assign two recipes for the practicalwork, allowing the pupils to work in groups. Assign only as much work ascan be carefully supervised. Do not undertake both the cookies and thecandy. 

TWENTY LESSONS IN SEWING

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The teacher should be familiar with the conditions in which the pupilslive, should know how much money they can afford to pay for materials, what materials are available, what previous experience in hand work theyhave had, whether they can afford to have sewing-machines in their ownhomes, and to what extent they make their own clothes or buy themready-made. 

The lessons should be planned to furnish hand training, to give pupilspractical instruction in the care of their own clothes, and to providean opportunity for preparing the apron for the cooking lessons. Thelesson course should tend to develop habits of thrift, industry, andneatness. The pupils should be encouraged to learn to sew, both toimprove their own home conditions and to give them suggestions as to apossible means of livelihood. If sewing-machines are available and arein use in the homes, it is well to have lessons given in machine sewingand to have the long seams run by machine. If the pupils cannot havesewing-machines in their own homes, the lessons given should be limitedto sewing by hand. In some schools, it may be necessary to simplify thelessons; in others, an increased number of articles may be prepared inthe time allotted. Should the apron and cap not be needed for thecooking class, an undergarment (corset cover) may well besubstituted. [A]

 [A] Should the teacher feel that an apron or corset-cover is too large a piece for her pupils to undertake, and should she desire to have more time spent on the first ten lessons. Lessons XI to XVIII may be omitted, two periods each devoted to both Lessons XIX and XX, and three lessons used for the making of a simple needle-book or other small piece. 

For each lesson the teacher should have in mind a definite plan ofprocedure. The lesson should be opened with a brief and concrete classdiscussion of the new work that is to be taken up or the special stagethat has been reached in work that is already under way. Thoughindividual instruction is necessary, it should not take the place ofthis general presentation of the subject-matter, which economizes timeand develops the real thought content of the work. Whenever possible, the teacher should endeavour to correlate this work with the othersubjects on the curriculum. 

New stitches may be demonstrated on large pieces of scrim, with longdarning-needles and coarse red or black yarn. The scrim should be pinnedto the black-board with thumb tacks, and the stitches made large enoughfor all to see without difficulty. A variety of completed articlesshould be kept on hand, in order to show additional application ofpoints brought out in the lesson. Each class may be given the privilegeof preparing one article to add to this collection, and a spirit ofclass pride and valuable team work may be thereby developed. 

During the lesson, posture, neatness, and order should be emphasized. Application can be secured by making the problems of interest. Care mustbe taken that none of the work demands unnecessary eye strain. Eachlesson should be closed in time to have one of the members of the classgive a brief summary of the steps that have been covered. 

Since the class period for sewing in the rural school will necessarilybe brief, the pupils should be encouraged to continue their work at someother period. However, no work outside of the class period should bepermitted until the pupil has mastered the stitch and can be trusted todo the work in the right way. The privilege of sewing may be made thereward for lessons quickly learned, home practice may be assigned, orthe class may meet out of school hours. All outside practice must becarefully supervised, the pupil bringing her work to the teacher forfrequent inspection. 

If it is possible to keep on hand a permanent equipment for sewing, thefollowing should be provided for a class of twelve:

 Approximate cost Scissors, 1 dozen $3. 00 Thimbles, 1 dozen . 50 Tape-measures, 1 dozen . 60 Emery, 1 dozen . 50 Boxes for work, 1 dozen 1. 00 ------ $5. 60

 _Note. _--Shoe or candy boxes may be used, but an effort should be made to have them uniform. 

The teacher who is to give lessons in sewing should secure a helpfulelementary text-book or some bulletin that deals with the teaching ofsewing. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

_School Sewing, Based on Home Problems. _ Burton, I. R. And M. G. Vocational Supply Co. , Indianapolis $1. 00

_Handbook of Elementary Sewing. _ Flagg, E. P. Little, Brown & Co. , Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto) . 50

_Constructive Sewing, Book I. _ (paper) Industrial Book & Equipment Co. , Indianapolis . 60

_School Needlework. _ Hapgood, O. C. Ginn & Co. , Boston . 50

_Clothing and Health. _ Kinne, H. , and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto . 65

_Handicraft for Girls. _ McGlauflin, I. Manual Arts Press, Peoria. Ill. 1. 00

_Home and School Sewing. _ Patton, F. Newson & Co. , New York . 60

_A Sewing Course. _ Woolman, M. S. Frederick A. Fernald, Washington 1. 50

_Sewing. _ Department of Education of Ontario . 20

LESSON I: PREPARATION FOR SEWING

_Preparation and use of working equipment: Needles, pins, thread, tape-measure, thimble, scissors, box for work. Talk on cleanliness andneatness (care of hands, etc. ). Discussion of hemming. Hems folded onsheets of paper. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

A hem is made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth towardthe worker, and then sewing it down. It is used to finish a narrow edge. In turning a narrow hem the first fold must not be so deep as thesecond, in order that the hem may lie smoothly. If the hem is a wideone, the first fold can be much narrower than the second. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should have interested the pupils in the sewing lessonsbefore the first meeting of the class, and each pupil should be asked tobring with her the box in which to keep her materials and such otherequipment as is required. If the school is to furnish the equipment, theteacher should be sure that there is an adequate supply on hand. 

It will probably be necessary to have the towels to be used in thecooking classes hemmed, and the pupils should be interested in doingthis work. If some of them wish to hem towels for use in their ownhomes, it may be desirable to allow them to do so. Flour or meal sackswill answer. It may be well to have each pupil hem a towel for home use, as well as for school use, in order to impress upon her the desirabilityof having hemmed dish-towels for daily use. The towels may be plannedduring this lesson, and the pupils may arrange to bring the materialfrom home, if they are to provide it; but it will be well for theteacher to have on hand material for one or two towels. Plain paper willanswer for the practice folding of the hem in the first lesson. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should devote a few minutes to a talk on cleanliness, emphasizing its importance, and the necessity for exercising care inhandling the sewing materials. This should be followed by a discussionregarding the care of the hands and the condition in which they shouldbe for the sewing lesson. Each pupil should inspect her own hands andshow them to the teacher. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 2. --Gauge]

When all the pupils have their hands in a proper condition for sewing, the teacher should look over their supplies with them, give themsuggestions as to how they are to keep these, and let them arrange theirboxes. 

Next, she should tell them what their first work is to be, show them thematerial for the towels, and discuss with them the best method offinishing the ends. (See Lesson II. )

Before turning the hem, the pupils should make a gauge from heavy paper, notched to indicate the depth of the hem. A few minutes should bedevoted to practice in measuring and turning a hem of the desired depthon a sheet of paper. This should give practice in the double turningnecessary--first, the narrow turn to dispose of the cut edge; second, the fold to finish the edge. 

When the lesson is finished, the boxes should be put away in systematicorder, and all scraps should be carefully picked up from the desks andthe floor. 

LESSON II: HEMMING TOWELS

_Turning and basting hems. Hemming towels of crash, sacking, or othermaterial, for use in washing and drying dishes at home or in school. _

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 3. --Even basting]

SUBJECT-MATTER

Basting is used to hold two pieces of material together until apermanent stitch can be put in. It is done by taking long stitches(one-fourth inch) from right to left and parallel to the edges that areto be basted together. In starting, the thread is fastened with a knot;when completed, it is fastened by taking two or three stitches one overthe other. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should have the necessary materials on hand or should seethat they are supplied by the pupils. The articles needed will includematerial for the towels, white thread for basting and hemming, andgauges for measuring. 

The teacher should also have a large square of unbleached cotton orcanvas, 18 by 18 inches, and a large darning-needle and coloured worstedthread, to use for demonstration purposes. The canvas should be fastenedto the black-board, where the class can see it easily. 

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class is called, the supplies are at hand, and the handsare in a proper condition, the teacher should demonstrate thebasting-stitch, with a large needle and thread, on the square of canvasthat has been fastened on the wall. Materials for work should be passed. Each pupil should straighten the ends of her towel by drawing a thread. Then she should turn and baste a hem three eighths of an inch in depth. 

At the close of the lesson, the pupils should fold their work carefullyand put it neatly in their boxes. 

LESSON III: HEMMING TOWELS--Continued

_The overhanding stitch and the hemming stitch. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

_Overhanding_ (also called overseaming or top sewing). --The edges to beoverhanded are held between the first finger and the thumb of the lefthand, with the edge parallel to the first finger. The needle is insertedjust below and perpendicular to the edge. The needle is pointed straighttoward the worker. The stitches proceed from right to left, each stitchbeing taken a little to the left of the preceding stitch. The stitchesshould all be straight on the right side, but they will slant a littleon the wrong side. They should not be deep. It may be desirable to usethis overhanding stitch at the ends of hems, to hold the edges of thematerial together. The overhanding stitch is also used for seams, forpatching, and for sewing on lace. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 4. --Overhanding]

The overhanding of narrow hems is not always necessary, but the ends maybe made stronger thereby, and the stitch is a valuable one for thepupils to know. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 5. --Hemming]

_Hemming. _--The hemming-stitch is placed on the inside of the hem. Theend of the basted hem is laid over the first and under the second fingerof the left hand, with the folded edge outside and the material towardthe worker. It is held in place with the thumb. The stitch is begun atthe end of the hem. The fastening of the thread is concealed by slippingit underneath the hem in the inside fold of the material. The needle ispointed over the left shoulder, a small stitch is taken by inserting theneedle through the material just below the hem, then through the foldededge. This is repeated, making the next stitch nearer the worker andmoving the goods away from the worker as necessary. Uniformity of slant, size, and spacing of the stitches is important. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Before this lesson is given, all the pupils should report to theteacher, having both ends of their towels basted, so that they will allbe ready to proceed at once with the new stitches. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should begin by demonstrating on the large square of canvaswith the large needle and heavy thread the stitches to be used. Afteroverhanding the end of the hem, the hemming-stitch should follow withthe same thread. The pupils will probably not be able to finish thehemming in this first lesson, so provision should be made for additionaltime. This can be required as an outside assignment, if the pupils havemastered the method during the class period. The teacher may also beable to give them some supervision while she is looking after otherclasses. 

LESSON IV: BAGS

_A school bag. Bag (made of material obtainable) to hold sewingmaterials. Measuring and straightening the material for the bag. Bastingthe seams. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

The basting-stitch will be used as a review of work in the secondlesson. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Some time before the lesson, the teacher should discuss with the pupilsthe kind of material they will be able to provide for their bags and, ifthe material has to be purchased, she should suggest something that issuitable, washable, and inexpensive. The bag should cost only a fewcents. The dimensions of the finished bag should be about 12 by 18inches. 

METHOD OF WORK

The pupils should get out the materials they have brought and determineupon the size and shape of their bags. It will not be necessary to makethem uniform. The teacher should help the pupils to use their materialto the best advantage. It should be straightened, pulled in place, andmeasured carefully. When the bags have been cut out, the sides should bebasted. 

LESSON V: BAGS--Continued

_Sewing up the seams with a running-stitch and a back-stitch. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Running is done by passing the needle in and out of the material atregular intervals. Small, even stitches and spaces should followconsecutively on both sides of the material. The stitches should be muchshorter than those used for basting, the length being determined largelyby the kind of cloth used. 

When running is combined with a back-stitch, two or morerunning-stitches and one back-stitch are taken alternately. Theback-stitch is a stitch taken backward on the upper side of the cloth, the needle being put back each time into the end of the last stitch andbrought out the same distance beyond the last stitch. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, having the sides of their bags basted ready for stitching. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should first demonstrate the running-stitch with theback-stitch, and the pupils should begin to sew the sides of the bag, using this stitch. They should commence sewing three quarters of an inchfrom the top of the bag, so that there will be a space left for slits inthe hem through which to run the cord. [A] The seams will doubtless haveto be finished outside of the class hour, and may be assigned forcompletion before the next lesson. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 6. --Running-stitch with a back-stitch]

 [A] The draw-string, or cord, is to be run through the hem from the inside of the bag, and it will be necessary to leave three quarters of an inch of space at the ends of the seams, to provide slits as outlets for the cord. 

LESSON VI: BAGS--Continued

_Overcasting the seams and turning the hem at the top of the bag. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of thecloth, to keep it from ravelling or fraying. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, having the sides of their bags neatly sewed with the running-stitch. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 7. --Overcasting]

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should demonstrate the method of overcasting and explain itsuse. She should have the pupils trim the edges of their seams neatly andovercast them carefully. After the seams have been overcast, she shoulddiscuss the depth of the hem that the pupils expect to use and themethod of turning and basting it. They should then measure, turn, pin, and baste the hems, using the gauge for determining the depth of thehem. If the bags are deep enough to admit of a heading at the top, adeep hem (about 2-1/2 inches) can be made, and a running-stitch put inone-half inch (or more) above the edge of the hem, to provide a casing, or space, for the cord. If it is necessary to take a narrow hem, the hemitself can be made to answer as space for the cord; in this case the hemshould be made about one-half inch deep. 

LESSON VII: BAGS--Continued

_Hemming the top of the bag and putting in a running-stitch to provide aspace for the cord. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Review of the hemming-stitch and the running-stitch. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The pupils, having the hems basted, should report to the teacher. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should review briefly the method of making thehemming-stitch and the running-stitch, asking the pupils to describethese stitches and to demonstrate them on the large square of canvasbefore the class. The basted hems should then be sewed with thehemming-stitch. 

After the hem is finished, the pupils should run a basting thread aroundthe bag, to mark the location of the running-stitch, which is to be halfan inch above the hem. They should measure for this carefully. If thereis not time to do all the hemming in the class period, thehemming-stitch and the running-stitch (which is to provide space for thedraw-string) should be assigned for outside work, and each pupil shouldbring in her finished hem at a designated time before the next classperiod. 

LESSON VIII: BAGS--Continued

_Preparing a cord or other draw-string for the bag. Putting a doubledraw-string in the bag, so that it can easily be drawn up. Use of thebodkin. _

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 8. --Bag nearly completed]

SUBJECT-MATTER

To make a cord, it is necessary to take more than four times as muchcotton as the final length of the cord will require, for some of thelength will be taken up in the twisting of the cord. It will be easierfor two to work together in making a cord. The cord should be doubled, the two lengths twisted together firmly, and the ends brought togetheragain and held in one hand, while the middle is taken in the other hand, and the lengths are allowed to twist firmly together. The ends should betied, and the cord run into the bag with a bodkin or tape-needle. If onecord is run in from one side and another is run in from the other side, each cord running all the way around, the bag can be drawn up easily. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 9. --Bodkin]

In place of the cord, narrow tape may be used. Take two pieces of tape, each piece being twice as long as the width of the bag plus two inches. Run one tape in from one side and a second from the other side, eachtape running all the way around. Join the tape ends in the followingmanner:

1. Turn a narrow fold on one end of the tape to the _wrong_ side, and onthe other end of the tape to the _right_ side. 

2. Slip one fold under the other and hem down the folded edges. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If the pupils are not able to supply cords for their own bags, theteacher should have a sufficient supply of cord on hand. She should besure the bags are in readiness for the cord before the class period. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 10. --- Completed bag]

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should begin the lesson by describing the method of makingthe cord, estimating the amount necessary, and demonstrating the processwith the assistance of one of the pupils. The pupils should be numbered, so that they may work in groups of two. After they have completed thecord and run it into the bag, methods of finishing the ends neatlyshould be suggested to them. 

LESSON IX: DARNING STOCKINGS

_Use of a darning-ball or gourd as a substitute for a ball. Talk on thecare of the feet and the care of the stockings. _

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 11. --Darning]

SUBJECT-MATTER

This lesson will involve running and weaving. Darning is used to fill ina hole with thread, so as to supply the part that has been destroyed orto strengthen a place which shows signs of weakness. A darning-ball, agourd, or a firm piece of cardboard should be placed under the hole. Thedarn should extend one quarter of an inch beyond the edge of thematerial, beginning with fine stitches in the material, making rowsrunning close together in one direction, then crossing these threadswith rows that run at a right angle to them. Care should be takenalternately to pick up and drop the edge of the material around thehole, so that no raw edges will be visible, and to weave evenly in andout of the material and the cross threads. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Each pupil should provide a pair of stockings with a few small holes anda gourd or ball of some sort that she can use as a darning ball. 

METHOD OF WORK

When the class meets, the teacher should discuss briefly the care of thefeet and of the stockings, and demonstrate the method of darning, on alarge piece of coarse material, with heavy yarn and a needle. If thepupils finish one darn during the lesson period, more darning should beassigned for practice out of class. 

LESSON X: PATCHING[A]

_Hemmed patches on cotton garments. Talk on the care of the clothes. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

This lesson will involve measuring, trimming, basting, and hemming. Apatch is a piece of cloth sewed on to a garment to restore the wornpart. The material used for the patch should be as nearly like theoriginal fabric in colour and quality as possible. In placing the patch, the condition of the material about the hole must be taken intoconsideration, as well as the size of the hole. The worn parts aroundthe hole should be removed, and the hole cut square or oblong. The patchshould be, on all four sides, an inch larger than the trimmed hole. Thecorners of the hole should be cut back diagonally, so that the edges maybe turned under. The patch should be matched and pinned to the wrongside of the garment, leaving the edges to project evenly on all foursides. The edges of the material around the hole should be turned in andbasted to the patch. The edges of the patch should be turned in so thatthey extend, when finished, one-half inch from the edge of the hole. Thepatch and the cloth should be basted together and hemmed. 

 [A] Used when special problem comes up. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 12. --Patching]

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The lesson on patching should be given at any time in the course when itcan be applied to an immediate need. If a pupil tears her dress whileplaying at school, or if she wears a torn apron, the teacher canannounce a patching lesson for the next sewing class, and request eachpupil to bring a torn garment and the material for the patch from home. It may be desirable to use two or three periods for this lesson. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should demonstrate the process of patching on a large pieceof cotton. The pupils should practise placing a patch on a piece ofpaper with a hole in it. Each step should be assigned insuccession--examination of the article to determine its condition, calculation of the size and preparation of the patch, placing the patch, trimming the article around the hole, basting the patch and materialtogether, and hemming the patch. 

LESSON XI: CUTTING OUT APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS

SUBJECT-MATTER

When cutting out an apron, the length of the skirt should first bemeasured, and to this measure 6 inches should be added for the hem andthe seams. One length of the material corresponding to this lengthshould be cut. This should be folded lengthwise through the middle. Three quarters of an inch should be measured on this fold, and thematerial cut from the end of the selvage to this point, in order toslope the front of the apron. When the waist measure is taken, 3 inchesshould be added to it (1 for the lap and 1 at each end, for finishing). This makes a strong piece at each end for the button and button-hole. Twopieces of this length and 2-1/2 inches wide should be cut lengthwise ofthe material for the belt. A measure should be made from the middle ofthe back of the waist line, over the shoulder, to a point 5 inches tothe right to the centre front and on the waist line. Two pieces of thelength of this measure and 4-1/2 inches wide should be cut lengthwise ofthe material for the shoulder straps. A piece 9 by 12 inches should becut for the bib, the longer distance lengthwise of the material. Thesemeasurements allow one quarter of an inch for seams. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Before the lesson the teacher should see if arrangements can be made tosecure the use of one or two sewing-machines, so that the pupils may sewall the long seams by machine. 

At a previous lesson she should discuss the kinds of material suitablefor the aprons. The pupils should consider whether their aprons shall bewhite or coloured, and whether they shall be of muslin, cambric, orgingham. Each pupil will need from 1-1/2 to 2 yards of material, according to her size. The taller ones will need 2 yards. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 13. --Cutting out skirt of apron]

There should be on hand a sufficient number of tape-measures, pins, andscissors, so that the pupils may proceed with the cutting of theiraprons without unnecessary delay. 

The apron to be made is to have a skirt, with a bib and shoulder straps, in order to be a protection to the dress, the skirt, and the waist. [A]

 [A] If the pupils are very inexperienced and find the sewing difficult, it may be advisable to omit the bib and straps and to make the simple full-skirted apron. If a machine is not at hand to use for the long seams, the limited time may make the simpler apron necessary. This will give more time for the various steps. Lessons XIV and XV may then be omitted, Lesson XVI made more simple, and less outside work may be required. 

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, the pupils should take the measurements fortheir aprons. One measurement should be assigned at a time, and thereason for each measurement should be given. The pupils should haveexplicit directions as to the measurements, as they are apt to becomeconfused if the directions are not clear. They should work carefully, sothat the material does not become crumpled or soiled and, at theconclusion of the lesson, they should fold it carefully and put it awayneatly. All threads and scraps of material should be carefully pickedoff the floor and the desks, and the room left in order. 

LESSON XII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued

_Basting the hem for hemming on the machine or by hand. Uneven basting. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

An uneven basting forms the better guide for stitching. In unevenbasting, the spaces are made about three times as long as the stitches. The stitch should be about one eighth of an inch and the space threeeighths of an inch. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

In addition to the apron material which has been cut out in the previouslesson, each pupil should provide her own spool of thread (number sixtywhite thread will probably answer for all the work), a piece ofcardboard 5 inches wide for a gauge, and pins to use in fastening thehem. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 14. --Uneven basting]

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, the pupils should prepare a 5-inch gauge, toguide them in turning the hems of the skirts of their aprons. Theyshould make a half-inch notch in the measure for the first turn in thematerial. A half-inch edge should be turned up from the bottom of theskirt, then a 5-inch hem should be turned, pinned, and basted carefullywith uneven basting. The gauge should be used for both measurements. 

LESSON XIII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued

_Gathering the skirt and stitching to the belt. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

In gathering, a stitch much like running is employed. Small stitches aretaken up on the needle, with spaces twice as great between them. The topof the skirt should be divided into halves, and each half gathered witha long thread, fine stitches one quarter of an inch from the edge beingused. The middle of the belt and the middle of the top of the skirt ofthe apron should be determined upon. The belt should be pinned to thewrong side of the apron at these points, and the fulness drawn up to fit(approximately one half of the waist measure). The skirt and the beltshould be pinned, basted, and sewn together. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 15. --Gathering]

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If the hems have been completed in the skirts, the pupils are ready togather the skirts and attach them to the belt. It will be well to have asupply of pins on hand, to use in fastening the skirt and belt together. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should first demonstrate the method of gathering and assignthat portion of the lesson. When the skirts have all been gathered, sheshould show the pupils how to measure, pin, and baste the skirt to thebelt. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 16. --Sewing on the belt of the apron]

LESSON XIV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued

_Making the bib. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

A 2-inch hem should be turned across one short end of the bib. Thisshould be basted and hemmed. The bottom of the bib should be gathered, the method employed for the top of the skirt being used, and sufficientthread being left to adjust the gathers easily. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If the pupils have completed the skirts and attached them to the belts, they are ready to make the bibs. They should be provided with a 2-inchmarker, for use in making the hems in the top of the bibs. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the making of the bibs, reviewing their knowledge of basting, hemming, and gathering. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 17. --Bib and straps of apron]

LESSON XV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued

_Making the straps. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

One end of one of the straps should be placed at the bottom of the bib. The edge of the strap should be pinned, basted, and sewed to the rightside of the bib with a running-stitch. The other long edge of the strapshould then be turned in one quarter of an inch and the side turned inone inch. The strap should then be folded through the middle for itsentire length and the free side basted to the wrong side of the bib andhemmed. The remaining edges of the strap should be overhanded together. The other strap should be sewn to the other side of the bib in the sameway. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The bibs should have been completed before the pupils report for thislesson. 

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the pupils report for the lesson, the teacher should explainthe method of attaching the straps to the bib and tell them how tofinish the former. As they proceed with their work, she should supervisethem carefully and assign the unfinished portion to be done out ofclass. 

LESSON XVI: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS--Continued

_Putting the bib and the skirt on the belt. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

The middle of the bottom of the bib should be determined, and pinned tothe middle of the upper edge of the belt, to which the skirt has alreadybeen attached. The belt should be fastened to the wrong side of the bib. The gathering string of the bib should be drawn up, leaving 2 inches offulness on each side of the middle. The bib should be pinned, basted, and sewn to the belt. The remaining long edges of the belt should beturned in one quarter of an inch, and the ends one inch. The edges ofthe other belt piece should be turned in in the same way, and should bepinned over the belt to which the skirt and the bib have been attached(with all the edges turned in), and basted carefully, to keep the edgeseven. The skirt and the bib should be hemmed to this upper belt, and allthe remaining edges should be overhanded. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The bib and the straps of the apron should be completed before thepupils report for this lesson. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the various stepsnecessary in fastening the bib to the belt and in completing the belt. If the hemming and overhanding is not completed during the class hour, they may be assigned as home work. 

LESSON XVII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS

_Sewing buttons on the aprons, corset-cover, or other garment. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

This lesson should teach neatness in dress, through a consideration ofthe best methods of fastening garments. The position of the button ismeasured by drawing the right end of the band one inch over the leftend. The place for the button should be marked with a pin on the leftend of the band. A double thread is fastened on the right side of theband, drawn through one hole of the button, and back through the other, and then taken through the band close to the first stitch. A pin shouldbe inserted on top of the button under the first stitch, left thereuntil the button is firmly fastened in place, and then removed. Beforethe thread is fastened, it should be wrapped two or three times aroundthe threads holding the button, between the button and the cloth, thenfastened neatly on the wrong side with a few small stitches one on topof another. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 18. --Sewing on buttons]

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Each pupil should come to the class with her apron as nearly completedas possible, and with three buttons to sew on it, for fastening the beltand straps. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should discuss the best methods of fastening garments andshould demonstrate the method of sewing on buttons. The pupils shouldsew one button on the left end of the apron band in the middle of thewidth about 1 inch from the end, and another button 4 inches from eachend of the band, to hold the shoulder straps. 

LESSON XVIII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS--Continued

_Button-holes on practice piece and on apron. _

SUBJECT-MATTER

Directions for making the button-hole. --Measure carefully the positionfor the button-hole, lengthwise of the band, so that the end will comeone quarter of an inch from the edge of the garment. Mark the length ofthe button-hole on the material by putting in two lines ofrunning-stitches at the ends. To cut the button-hole, insert the pointof the scissors at the point marked by the running-stitches nearest theedge of the garment, and cut carefully along the thread of the materialto the row of stitches marking the length at the other end. 

[Illustration: (_a_) Starting the button-hole (_b_) The button-hole stitch (_c_) The finished button-hole _Fig. _ 19. --Working button-holes]

To make the button-hole, use a thread of sufficient length to do boththe overcasting and the button-holing. Beginning at the lower rightcorner, overcast the raw edges with stitches one sixteenth of an inchdeep. Do not overcast around the ends of the hole. As soon as theovercasting is done, proceed with the button-holing without breaking thethread. Hold the button-hole horizontally over the first finger of theleft hand and work from right to left. Insert the point of the needlethrough the button-hole (at the back end), bringing the point through, toward you, four or five threads below the edge of the button-hole. Bring the doubled thread from the eye of the needle from right to leftunder and around the point of the needle, draw the needle through, andpull the thread firmly, so that the purl is on the edge. At the end ofthe button-hole, near the end of the band, make a fan, by placing fromfive to seven stitches. The other end of the button-hole should befinished with a bar made by taking three stitches across the end of thebutton-hole, then button-hole over the bar, taking in the clothunderneath and pulling the purl toward the slit. The thread should befastened carefully on the under side of the button-hole. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

For this lesson it is desirable to have small pieces of cotton on hand, to use as practice pieces for the button-holes. 

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should demonstrate the making of a button-hole, illustratingeach step of the process on a large piece of canvas. The pupils shouldsew two small strips of cotton together and cut a button-hole onequarter of an inch from the edge, and lengthwise of the material, towork for practice. When the button-hole has been sufficiently perfectedon the practice piece, the pupils should make three in the apron--one inthe right end of the band and one in the end of each shoulder strap. 

LESSON XIX: A PADDED HOLDER FOR HANDLINGHOT DISHES--BINDING

SUBJECT-MATTER

A holder 6 inches square will be satisfactory for handling hot dishes. It can be made of quilted padding bound with tape, or of two thicknessesof outing flannel covered with percale or denim and bound with tape orbraid. If made of the outing flannel and covered, it should be quilted, by stitching from the middle of one side to the middle of the oppositeside in both directions, in order to hold the outing flannel and theoutside covering together. The tape that is to be used for the bindingshould be folded through the middle lengthwise; then, a beginning beingmade at one corner of the padding, the edge should be basted, half onone side and half on the other. Right-angled corners should be formed. When basted all around, the tape should be sewn on each side with ahemming-stitch. 

If the holder is to be suspended from the apron band, a tape of from 27inches to 36 inches in length should be attached to one corner. The rawedge at one end of the tape should be turned in. The end should be soplaced that it overlaps the corner of the holder about half an inch andit should be basted to the holder. The tape should then be securedfirmly to the holder, hemmed down on one edge, across the bottom, and upthe other edge. The other end of the tape should be finished with a2-inch loop. The raw edge should be folded over, the tape turned 2inches down for the loop, and basted in place. This should be hemmedacross the end. One quarter of an inch up from the end, the doublethickness of tape should be back-stitched together, and the edges of thetape should be overhanded from there to the hemmed end. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Each pupil should provide sufficient denim, percale, huckaback, or otherwashable material to cover the two sides of a holder 7 inches square, and enough outing or canton flannel for a double lining. About 1-1/2yards of straight tape one-half inch wide will be needed for the bindingand for suspending the holder from the apron. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 20. --The holder]

METHOD OF WORK

The pupils should first carefully measure and turn the material for thecovering of the holder and then prepare the lining, basting it alltogether. They should then put in the running-stitch and finish with thebinding. If it is not possible to complete the holder in one period, asecond lesson period should be provided, or arrangements may be made tohave supervised work done outside of the lesson hours. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 21. --Cap]

LESSON XX: A CAP TO WEAR WITH THE COOKING APRON

SUBJECT-MATTER

The simplest cap to make will be the circular one. A pattern should bemade by drawing with a pencil and string on a piece of wrapping-paper acircle 21 inches in diameter. The material for the cap should be cutcarefully around the circle and finished with a narrow hem. A tape tohold the draw-string should be placed 1-1/4 inches inside the edge ofthe hem. A small piece of cardboard cut about one-half inch wide shouldbe used for measuring the position of the tape. Bias strips threequarters of an inch wide should be prepared for the tape, or acommercial tape three eighths of an inch wide may be purchased. Theouter edge of the tape should be basted first and the edges joined; thenthe inner edges should be basted, the edge being kept smooth. Both edgesshould be neatly sewn with the hemming-stitch by hand or on the machine. An elastic should be inserted in the band, carefully fitted to the head, and the ends fastened neatly. 

PRELIMINARY PLAN

This lesson will give a good opportunity to make a cap that will answerfor a dust cap or serve as a part of the cooking uniform. If such a capdoes not seem desirable and the former lesson has not been completed, the cap may be omitted and the work on the holder continued. 

METHOD OF WORK

The pupils should first make the pattern for the cap and then cut outtheir material. The hem should be basted and stitched with thehemming-stitch. The bias strip should be basted on and sewn with arunning-stitch. It will probably not be possible for the pupils tocomplete the cap in one class period; but, if the material has been cutout and the work started, they may be able to complete it at some othertime. The stitches are not new, and the work will serve as an excellenttest of the skill they have acquired in the course. 

HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE EQUIPMENT

The introduction of Household Science into rural schools has beenhindered by the prevalent impression that the subject requires equipmentsimilar to that in the Household Science centres of towns and cities, where provision is made for the instruction of twenty-four pupils at onetime and for from ten to fifteen different classes each week. Owing tothe expense and the lack of accommodation, it is not possible to installsuch equipment in rural schools. For this and other reasons it has beenconcluded that the subject is beyond the possibilities of the ruralschool. That this is not the case is shown by the fact that many ruralschools in the United States, and some in Saskatchewan, as well as anumber in our own Province, are teaching the subject successfully, withequipment specially designed to meet existing conditions. 

The accommodations and equipment required may be classified as follows:

 1. Working tables 2. Cupboards and cabinets for storing the utensils 3. Stoves 4. Cooking and serving utensils

1. The provision for working tables is conditioned by the spaceavailable, and every effort must be made to economize this space. Theequipment may be placed in the basement or in a small ante-room. In oneschool in the Province very successful work is being done in a largecorridor. When a new school-house is being erected, provision should bemade by building a small work-room off the class-room. The possibilitiesof a small, portable building, in close proximity to the school, shouldnot be overlooked. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 22. --Working drawing of folding table]

Where the school is provided with a large table, this may be made ofservice. When used as a working table it should be covered with a sheetof white oil-cloth. When used as a dining-table a white table-cloth maybe substituted for the oil-cloth. If the school does not possess atable, two or three boards may be placed on trestles, if the space atthe front or the back of the room permits, and these may be stored awaywhen not required. A table with folding legs, such as is shown inFigures 22 and 23, may also be used. The top of the cabinet containingthe utensils or an ordinary kitchen table closed in as a cupboardunderneath, may be made to serve. Long boards, about eighteen incheswide, placed across the tops of six or eight desks, provide goodaccommodation. These should be blocked up level and should be providedwith cleats at each end, in order to prevent movement. When not in usethey may stand flat against the wall and occupy very little space. Separate boards, resting on a desk at each end, may also be placedacross the aisles. Each of these will provide working space for onepupil. Tables which drop down flat when not in use may be fixed to thewalls of the school-room. As schools vary in many respects, it is notpossible to outline a plan which will suit all; but that plan should bechosen which will best meet the requirements of the particular school. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 23: Folding Table]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 24--Household Science Cabinet for Rural Schools]

2. The cupboards and cabinets to contain the utensils may take variousforms. A kitchen cabinet costing from twenty-five to thirty-five dollarsmay be obtained from a furniture store, or one may be made by a localcarpenter. A large packing-case painted brown outside and white inside(for cleanliness) is satisfactorily used in some schools. If coveredwith oil-cloth, the top of this may be used as an additional table. Afew shelves placed across a corner of the room and covered with a dooror curtain may be used, or it may be possible to devote one shelf of theschool cupboard to the storing of the utensils. It is desirable to havea combination cupboard and table, which will contain most of theequipment, including the stove. Figure 24 is a working drawing of such acabinet, which may be made by a local carpenter or by the older boys ofthe school. 

The directions for making this cabinet are as follows:

Obtain two boxes and cut or re-make them so that each is 30 inches highwhen standing on end, 12-1/4 inches across the front inside, and 18inches from front to back. These will form the two end Sections, A andB. Inside the sides of these boxes nail 1 inch × 7/8 inch strips, toform the slides for the drawer. The slides come within 7/8 of an inch ofthe front edge. Rails may be nailed across the front. Guide piecesshould be nailed to the slides, in order to keep the drawers straight. Divide Section A for one drawer and cupboard. The drawers may be madeout of raisin boxes cut down to the required size. To the front of eachdrawer, nail a piece of beaver board or pine a little larger than thedrawer front. Use any handles that may be conveniently obtained. Cut twopieces 4' 9-1/2" × 1-1/2" × 7/8". Space the Sections as shown, and nailthese pieces firmly to the fronts of the larger boxes, _A_ and _B_, topand bottom. Four end pieces 18" × 1-1/2" will be required. Fill inSection _C_, in this case, 2' 7-1/2", with the pieces from the box lidsor with ordinary flooring. Make a door for the cupboard from similarmaterial. The top is best made from good, clear, white pine. Screwbattens across, and screw the whole firmly to the box top from theinside. If more table space is required, make a similar bench top, whichcan rest on top of the cabinet when not in use. When required, it may beplaced over the desks. Steel or glass shoes or wooden skids or battensshould be fixed under the cabinet, so that it can be pulled away fromthe stove and replaced easily. The dimensions given are for atwo-flame-burner oil-stove which is 30 inches high, 31 inches across thefront, and 16 inches from front to back. The middle Section, _C_, andthe total height of the cabinet may be enlarged or reduced to fit othersizes of stoves. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 25. --Cabinet, showing stove in position for use]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 26. --Cabinet, with stove behind centre partitionwhen not in use]

The material required for, and the approximate cost of, such a cabinet, labour not included, are as follows:

 2 boxes @ 25 $0. 50 5 raisin boxes @ 5 . 25 5 handles at 45c per doz. . 20 1 cupboard latch . 15 or 1 turn button . 02 About 9 sq. Ft. Flooring . 25 About 8 sq. Ft. Pine for top . 50 Pieces for battens, etc. . 25 Steel shoes . 10

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 27. --Space taken by equipment in class-room]

Figure 27 shows another type of equipment and the space it occupies inthe class-room when not in use. The cupboard and the back of the cabinetcontain the equipment necessary for teaching twelve pupils at one timeand also for serving one hot dish at the noon lunch to twenty-fourpupils. One drawer contains linen, etc. , and the other, knives, forks, and spoons. The dimensions of the cupboard and the cabinet are shown inFigures 28 and 29, and the construction of each is such that it can bemade easily by any carpenter. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 28. --Working drawings of cupboard]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 29. --Working drawing of cabinet]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 30. --Cupboard with drawers and doors open, showingequipment]

Figure 30 shows the cupboard and drawers open and the method of storingthe equipment. The shelves may be covered with white oil-cloth or brownpaper, in order to obviate the necessity for frequent scrubbing. Thecupboard may be fixed to the wall with mirror plates or small ironbrackets, or it may be screwed through the back. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 31. --Back of cabinet with equipment in place]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 32. --Back of cabinet with stove removed]

Figure 31 shows the back of the cabinet, with the three-flame-burnerstove-oven, the one-flame-burner stove, and other utensils in place. Thefolding table, previously described, rests on the top of the cabinet. Figure 32 shows the back of the cabinet with the stove and oven removed. The method of storing utensils and the construction of the cabinet areclearly shown. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 33. --Three-flame-burner oil-stove, with kettlesand one-flame-burner oil-stove on shelf]

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 34. --Household Science equipment with drop-leaftable]

Figure 33 shows the three-flame-burner oil-stove with the shelfunderneath containing three kettles and the one-flame-burner oil-stove. 

Another type of equipment is shown in Figure 34. Each end of the top ofthis cabinet drops down when the cupboard doors are closed, space beingthus economized. The top of the table may be covered with oil-cloth orzinc carefully tacked down on the edges. 

The directions for making this cabinet are as follows:

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Lumber:

 7 pieces 3/4" × 4" × 14' yellow pine ceiling 6 pieces 1" × 4" × 12' yellow pine flooring 1 piece 1" × 12" × 12' } 1 piece 1" × 8" × 12' } No. 1 common white pine 1 piece 1/2" × 6" × 14' } 4 white pine laths

Hardware:

 7 pairs 1-1/2" × 3" butt hinges 3 cupboard catches 1 piece zinc (27" × 39") 2 pieces zinc (21" × 27") 1 drawer pull 1 lb. 8d finishing nails 1 lb. 6d finishing nails 1/4 lb. Box 1" brads 1/4 lb. Box 1-1/4" brads 1 box tacks 2 ft. Stopper chain

STOCK BILL

+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|Lumber |Cut into |Finished Dimensions |Use || | the | | || |following| | || | pieces: | | |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+| 1" × 8" × 12' | 2 |13-16" × 2" × 32-1/2" |Top side rails || | 2 |13-16" × 2" × 18-1/2" |Top end rail || | 4 |13-16" × 2" × 29-3/4" |Frame posts || | 1 |13-16" × 2" × 30-7/8" |Bottom side || | | |rail || | 2 |13-16" × 2" × 18-1/2" |Bottom end || | | |rails || | 1 |13-16" × 5" × 14-3/8" |Drop door |+------------- -----+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|2 pieces, 1" × 4" × | | |Flooring ||12' flooring | 7 |3/4" × 3-1/4" × 32-1/2"|(bottom) |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|5 pieces, 1" × 4" × | | |Ceiling (ends ||14' yellow pine | | |and side) ||ceiling | 24 |1/4" × 3-1/4" × 31-1/4"| |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|1" × 12" × 12' | 3 |13-16" × 10-1/4" × | || | | 32-1/2" |Shelf || | 1 |13-16" × 8" × 32-1/2" |Shelf || | 3 |13-16" × 1-3/4" × | || | | 31-1/4 |Casing || | 2 |13-16" × 1-3/4" × | || | | 14-3/8" |Casing || | 1 |13-16" × 5" × 14-3/8" |Drawer front |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|2 pieces, 1" × 4" × | | |Top ||12' flooring | 8 |3/4" × 3-1/4" × 36" | |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|2 pieces, 1" × 4" × | | |Doors ||14' yellow pine | | | ||ceiling | 10 |3/4" × 3-1/4" × 22-7/8"| |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|2 pieces, 1" × 4" × | | |Swing tops ||12' flooring | 12 |3/4" × 3-1/4" × 24" | |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|1/2" × 6" × 12' | 2 |7-16" × 5" × 19-5/8" |Drawer slides || | 1 |7-16" × 5" × 13-1/2" |Drawer back || | 4 |7-16" × 4-3/4" × | || | | 13-1/2" |Drawer bottom |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+|1/2" × 6" × 12' | 1 |7-16" × 4-1/2" × | || | | 13-1/2" |Partitions || | 3 |7-16" × 4-1/2" × 10" |Partitions |+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+---------------+

TOOLS

 Rule Lead-pencil Saw Hammer Steel square Plane 1/2" Chisel and Screw-driver

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING

I Cutting and Squaring Stock--

Cut the stock only as needed, in the following order, and square upaccording to the directions previously given. 

 1. Frame; rip the 1" × 8" × 12' piece for the frame material 2. Bottom 3. Ends and sides 4. Shelves 5. Top 6. Casing 7. Doors 8. Swing tops 9. Miscellaneous pieces

II Assembling--

Frame:

1. Check up the dimensions of the pieces squared up for the frame. 

2. Lay out and cut the lap joints in the top side rails and frame posts, as shown in the drawing. 

3. Nail the frame together. 

4. Test the corners of the frame with a steel try-square and brace it bynailing, temporarily, several strips diagonally across the corners. 

Bottom:

1. Cut seven pieces of flooring 32-1/2" long for the bottom and planeoff the groove of one piece. 

2. Turn the frame upside down and nail this piece with the smooth edgeprojecting 7/8" over the front side of the frame. Nail the rest of theflooring so that each piece matches tightly. 

Ends:

1. For the back, cut eleven pieces of ceiling 31-1/4" long. 

2. Plane off the groove edge of one piece of ceiling and nail it on theback of the frame even with the end. 3. Nail the rest of the ceiling onthe back. Be sure that each joint matches tightly. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 35. --Frame of cabinet nailed together]

Shelves:

1. Make four strips (3/4" × 3/4" × 16-1/2") and nail two of them inside, across each end, 15" and 24" from the bottom. These strips hold theshelves. 

2. From a 1" × 12" piece cut two pieces 32-1/2" long; fit andnail them in for the upper shelf. 

3. Make the bottom shelf of two pieces, one 10-1/4" wide and the other8" wide. When these boards are nailed in place, the shelf is narrowenough to allow the doors, with pockets on, to close. 

4. Make two strips; one 13-16" × 1" × 16-1/2" and the other 13-16" ×1-3/4" × 20-1/2", and nail them to the top shelf for drawer guides. 

Top:

1. Cut eight pieces of flooring 36" long for the top. 

2. Plane off the groove of one piece and nail it on the top of theframe, so that the smooth edge and the ends project 1" over the frontside and ends of the cabinet. 

3. Nail the rest of the flooring on for the top, being sure that eachjoint matches tightly. The last piece must also project 1" over the backside. 

Casing:

1. Nail the casing, which is 1-3/4" wide, on the front of the cabinet. 

Doors:

1. Make each door 3/4" × 14-3/8" × 22-7/8" from five pieces of ceiling22-7/8" long, held together by cleats at the top and bottom. 

2. Fit each door carefully, then hang them with butt hinges. Fasten acupboard catch on each door. 

Drop Door:

1. Make the drop door 13-16" × 14-3/8" and hinge it with a pair of butthinges. Put on the stopper chain and catch. Swing Tops:

The swing tops are each made from six pieces of flooring 24" longcleated together. 

[Illustration: _Fig_. 36. --Working details]

1. Plane off the groove edge of one piece and match them all together. 

2. Make the cleats 3/4" × 2" × 15" and nail the top to them. (See thedrawing for the position of the cleats. )

3. Rip off the tongue edge and plane it so that the top is exactly 18"wide. 

4. Turn the cabinet upside down on the floor and fit the swing tops. Hang them with a pair of butt hinges opposite the ends of the cleats. 

5. Make a T-brace with a nailed cross lap joint from two pieces, onebeing 13-16" × 2" × 14", the other 13-16" × 2" × 16-1/2". The long edgeof the T and the leg must be bevelled 13-16" on one side. Fit and hang aT-brace with a pair of butt hinges on each side of the swing tops. 

6. Make two brace cleats and fasten them to the ends of the cabinet, sothat the swing tops are held level and even with the top of the cabinet. 

Putting Zinc on the Top:

1. Unscrew the swing tops from the cabinet to put the zinc on. 

2. Place the piece of zinc, 27" × 39", on top, extending 1-1/2" over theedges all around. 

3. Hold the zinc firmly in place and make a square bend along the frontedge with a hammer or mallet, bending the edge of the zinc up under thetop. 

4. Punch a straight row of holes 1" apart through the zinc and tack iton. 

5. Bend the back edge, punch and tack in the same manner as the frontedge, but be sure the zinc fits snugly on the top. 

6. Bend the ends of the zinc the same as before, but be very careful tofold the corners neatly. 

7. Put the zinc on the swing tops in the same manner. 

8. Fasten the swing tops again to the top of the cabinet. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 37. --Working details]

Drawer:

The drawer front, 13-16" × 5" × 14-3/8", with lap 3/8" × 1/2" cut out onthe ends. 

1. Nail the sides, 1/2" × 5" × 19-5/8", to the lap of the front and tothe ends of the back. 

2. Nail the bottom in between the sides 1/8" from the lower edge. Thisallows the drawer to slide on the edges of the sides. 

3. Put the partitions in the drawer as called for by this plan. 

The racks for covers and pie tins shown in the drawings are made fromtwo pieces, 13-16" × 2" × 4", one piece 13-16" × 2" × 10-1/2" for thebottom, and two pieces of lath 12" long for the sides. These racks maybe placed on the doors as shown, or may be changed to suit theequipment. 

III Finishing--

1. Set all the nails and putty the holes. 

2. Sandpaper the cabinet carefully. 

3. Paint or stain and wax the outside of the cabinet, to harmonize withthe surroundings where it is to be used. 

4. Paint the inside with two coats of white enamel. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 38. --Cabinet completed]

Before putting on the enamel, apply a coat of ordinary white-lead paintand allow it to dry thoroughly. If desired, the outside of the cabinetmay be finished in white enamel, though this is somewhat more expensivethan the paint or stain recommended above. 

All the Household Science Cabinets shown have a two-fold purpose. In thefirst place, they furnish storage space for the utensils and workingspace for the pupils. In the second place, they offer a most interestingmanual training project for a boys' club. The members can make any oneof them, thus correlating their practical woodwork and the domesticscience of the girls and, in this way, exhibiting the co-operativespirit of the home and the school. 

3. In some cases it may be possible to use the school stove for cookingpurposes. Some schools use natural gas for heating and, where this isthe case, provision for cooking may readily be made. Other schoolssituated on a hydro-electric line, may, as has been done in one case, use electricity as a source of heat. At present, however, the majorityof schools may find it best to use one of the many oil-stoves now on themarket. One-, two-, or three-flame-burner stoves may be obtained forgeneral use. The two-, or three-flame-burner stoves are recommended, asthey are less likely to be overturned. The one-flame-burner stove, however, is often useful as an additional provision. A good grade of oilshould be used, and the stove should be kept scrupulously clean, constant attention being paid to the condition of the wick. Any oilspilt on the stove when it is being filled should be carefully wiped offbefore lighting. If attention is paid to these details, the stove willburn without any perceptible odour. 

4. The number of the utensils and the amount of equipment depend uponthe community and the number of pupils to be considered. By carefulplanning few utensils are needed. They should be as good as the peopleof the neighbourhood can afford and, in general, should be of the samecharacter as those used in the homes of the district. All thetable-cloths, towels, dish-cloths, etc. , required should be hemmed bythe pupils. Articles for storing supplies may be bought or donated. Glass canisters with close lids are best, but as substitutes, fruitjars, jelly glasses, or tin cans will serve the purpose. It is an easymatter to secure an empty lard-bucket or a syrup-can for flour or meal, empty coffee-cans for sugar or starch, etc. , and baking-powder orcocoa-tins for spices. Each should be plainly labelled. 

Several typical lists of equipment in Household Science are given here. These may be modified to suit particular circumstances. Considerableexpense may be saved if the pupils bring their own individualequipment--soup-bowl, cup and saucer, plate, spoon, knife, fork, andpaper napkins. This plan is not advised unless it is absolutelynecessary, but, if followed, an effort should be made to have thearticles as uniform as possible. 

The following equipment is that contained in the cabinet illustrated onpage 152 and is sufficient for giving organized instruction to sixpupils. If a noon lunch is provided, additional individual equipmentwill be required. 

EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCECABINET--NO. 1

 1 Perfection blue-flame stove (two-flame) $15. 00 1 Two-burner oven 4. 50 1 Coal-oil can . 50 1 Dish-pan 1. 15 1 Tea-kettle 1. 50 1 Large sauce-pan and cover . 75 2 Medium sauce-pans and covers, 30c each . 60 2 Small sauce-pans and covers, 25c each . 50 2 Frying-pans, 20c ea. . 40 2 Pudding bake-dishes, 50c ea. 1. 00 2 Muffin pans (12 rings, each 30c) . 60 1 Soap-dish . 25 4 Small mixing bowls, 16c ea. . 64 2 Pitchers, 55c ea. 1. 10 3 Casseroles, 20c, 25c, 30c . 75 6 Measuring cups, 90c ea. . 60 6 Custard cups, 90c doz. . 45 6 White plates, $1. 45 doz. . 73 6 Supply jars, 90c doz. . 45 2 Vegetable brushes, 5c ea. . 10 1 Grater . 20 2 Egg-beaters, 10c ea. . 20 12 Forks 2. 25 12 Teaspoons 1. 20 6 Tablespoons, $2. 85 doz. 1. 43 6 Vegetable knives, 25c ea. 1. 50 6 Case knives, $3. 00 doz. 1. 50 2 Strainers, 20c ea. . 40 1 Spatula . 40 1 Bread knife . 50 1 Can-opener . 10 1 French knife . 45 2 Water pails, $1. 15 ea. 2. 30 6 Dish-towels, 25c ea. 1. 50 3 Dish-cloths, 10c ea. . 30 3 Rinsing cloths, 10c ea. . 30 1 yd. Oil-cloth . 45 5 yards cheesecloth . 35

EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE CABINET--NO. II

The equipment included in the Cabinet and Cupboard shown in Figure 27, page 154, is as follows:

For Six Pupils

 1 Cupboard $15. 00 1 Cabinet table 10. 00 1 Three-burner oil-stove 21. 00 1 Portable oven 2. 20 1 Storage tin 1. 35 2 Dish-pans 1. 30 2 Draining pans . 90 2 Scrub basins . 80 2 Soap-dishes . 40 1 Pail . 55 2 Pails 1. 80 2 Dippers . 70 2 Tea-kettles 2. 00 3 Kneading boards . 90 3 Rolling-pins . 45 1 Oil-can 1. 10 1 Stove mitt . 20 1 Dust-pan . 10 1 Whisk . 15 2 Scrub-brushes . 30 3 Vegetable brushes . 15 3 Stew pans 1. 05 2 Sauce-pans . 50 3 Frying-pans . 75 3 Strainers . 39 3 Pie plates . 15 3 Measuring cups (tin) . 30 1 Measuring cup (glass) . 15 1 Double boiler . 85 3 Baking-dishes . 38 2 Cake tins . 30 3 Toasters . 30 1 Tea-pot . 25 1 Coffee-pot . 35 1 Pitcher (2 quarts) . 18 1 " (1 pint) . 10 5 Bowls . 60 6 Custard cups . 60 1 Butter crock . 30 1 Covered pail (1 pint) . 15 2 Trays . 20 1 Grater . 10 1 Potato masher . 10 1 Can-opener . 10 1 French knife . 35 1 Bread " . 35 3 Egg-beaters . 15 1 Dover egg-beater . 10 3 Wooden spoons . 15 6 Paring knives . 90

For Eight Pupils

 1 Cupboard $15. 00 1 Cabinet table 10. 00 1 Collapsible table 5. 00 1 Three-burner oil-stove 21. 00 1 One-burner oil-stove 6. 50 1 Portable oven 2. 20 1 Storage tin 1. 35 2 Dish-pans 1. 30 2 Draining pans . 90 4 Scrub basins 1. 60 2 Soap-dishes . 40 1 Pail . 55 2 Pails 1. 80 2 Dippers . 70 3 Tea-kettles 3. 00 4 Kneading boards 1. 20 4 Rolling-pins . 60 1 Oil-can 1. 10 1 Stove mitt . 20 1 Dust-pan . 10 1 Whisk . 15 4 Scrub brushes . 60 4 Vegetable brushes . 20 4 Stew-pans 1. 40 2 Sauce-pans . 50 4 Frying-pans 1. 00 4 Strainers . 52 4 Pie plates . 20 4 Measuring cups (tin) . 40 1 Measuring cup (glass) . 15 1 Double boiler . 85 4 Baking-dishes . 50 2 Cake tins . 30 4 Toasters . 40 1 Tea-pot . 25 1 Coffee-pot . 35 2 Pitchers (2 quarts) . 35 1 Pitcher (1 quart) . 10 6 Bowls . 72 6 Custard cups . 60 1 Butter crock . 30 1 Covered pail (1 pint) . 15 2 Trays . 20 1 Grater . 10 1 Potato masher . 10 1 Can-opener . 10 1 French knife . 35 1 Bread " . 35 4 Egg-beaters . 20 1 Dover egg-beater . 10 4 Wooden spoons . 20 6 Paring knives . 90

For Twelve Pupils

 1 Cupboard $15. 00 1 Cabinet table 10. 00 1 Collapsible table 5. 00 2 Three-burner oil-stoves 42. 00 1 Portable oven 2. 20 1 storage tin 1. 35 3 Dish-pans 1. 95 3 Draining-pans 1. 35 6 Scrub basins 2. 40 3 Soap-dishes . 60 1 Pail . 55 2 Pails 1. 80 2 Dippers . 70 3 Tea-kettles 3. 00 6 Kneading boards 1. 80 6 Rolling-pins . 90 1 Oil-can 1. 10 2 Stove mitts . 40 1 Dust-pan . 10 1 Whisk . 15 6 Scrub brushes . 90 6 Vegetable brushes . 30 6 Stew pans 2. 10 3 Sauce-pans . 75 6 Frying-pans 1. 50 6 Strainers . 78 6 Pie plates . 30 6 Measuring cups (tin) . 60 1 Measuring cup (glass) . 15 1 Double boiler . 85 6 Baking-dishes . 75 3 Cake tins . 45 6 Toasters . 60 1 Tea-pot . 25 1 Coffee-pot . 35 2 Pitchers (2 qt. ) . 35 2 " (1 qt. ) . 20 8 Bowls . 96 6 Custard cups . 60 1 Butter crock . 30 1 Covered pail (1 pt. ) . 15 2 Trays . 20 1 Grater . 10 1 Potato masher . 10 1 Can-opener . 10 1 French knife . 35 1 Bread " . 35 6 Egg-beaters . 30 3 Dover egg-beaters . 30 6 Wooden spoons . 30 12 Paring knives 1. 80

In the equipment for twelve pupils, three one-burner oil-stoves at $6. 50each might be used in place of the second large stove. In this caseextra provision must be made for storing the stoves when not in use, asthe cabinet shown does not provide space for more than one large stove. Care should be taken in using the one-burner stove to avoid upsetting itwhile it is in use. The equipment given above is generous, andreductions may be made if necessary. In any case it is not advisablethat the whole equipment should be purchased at once; only sufficient tomake a beginning should be secured, and further utensils may be added asthe necessity for their use arises. 

If a hot dish is served at the noon lunch, as is most desirable, thefollowing will be needed in addition, in order to serve twenty-fourpupils:

 24 Knives $2. 40 24 Forks 1. 20 24 Teaspoons . 40 12 Tablespoons . 60 6 Salt and pepper shakers 1. 50 24 Glasses 1. 50 24 Plates 2. 20 4 Plates (large) . 50 24 Cups and saucers 4. 20 24 Fruit and vegetable dishes 1. 50

HECTOGRAPH

The hectograph is a device for making copies of written work. Teacherswhose schools have limited black-board space will find it of greatservice. Recipes and other rules for work may be copied and distributedto the pupils, and thus kept in a permanent form. Many other uses inconnection with the general work of the school will suggest themselves. 

The following are the directions for making:

Soak 1-1/2 ounces of white glue in three ounces of water until it iswell softened. Cook in a double boiler until the whole mass is smooth. Remove from the fire and add six ounces of glycerine. Mix well, re-heat, skim, and pour into a shallow pan or on a slate. Prick the bubbles assoon as they show. Allow the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, andit is then ready for use. 

Write the material to be copied, in hectograph ink, on a sheet of thesame size as that on which the copy is to be made. Write clearly andspace carefully. Wipe the hectograph with a damp cloth. Lay a sheet ofunglazed paper on the hectograph, rub it carefully, and take off atonce. This removes any drops of water, but leaves the surface moist. Laythe written side of the sheet on the hectograph and rub it carefullyover its whole surface with a soft cloth, so that every particle of thewriting comes in contact with the surface of the hectograph. Leave itthere for four or five minutes. Lift one corner and peel off carefully. Lay a plain sheet on the hectograph and rub as before. Take off asbefore. If the copy is not clear, leave the next sheet on a littlelonger. When sufficient copies have been made, wash the hectograph witha wet cloth before putting it away. Keep in a cool, dry place. 

THE RURAL SCHOOL LUNCH

The best method of approach to Household Science in the rural school isthrough the medium of the hot noon-day lunch or the preparation of oneor two hot dishes to supplement the lunch brought from home. Owing tothe fact that many pupils live far from the school, it is impossible forthem to go home for the mid-day meal, and they are thus dependent uponlunches which they bring with them. Very frequently the pupils areallowed to eat their lunches where and how they please, and the methodchosen is conducive neither to comfort nor to health. In fine weatherthey do not wish to lose any time from their games, and so they eattheir food while playing, or they bolt it, in order that they may get totheir play more quickly. In severe weather they crowd round the steps orthe stove and do not hesitate to scatter crumbs and crusts. In one caseeven a teacher has been seen holding a sandwich in one hand and writingon the black-board with the other. 

In many cases the lunch does not attract the pupil. It is often carried, without proper wrapping, in a tin pail, and it then absorbs the taste ofthe tin; again, it is often wrapped in a newspaper and is flavoured withprinter's ink; occasionally, it is wrapped in cloth not too clean. Conditions such as these are not fair to the pupils. They come a longway to school, often over poor roads; and it is necessary, for boththeir physical and their mental development, that they should receiveadequate nourishment served as attractively as possible. Many of thedefects found among school children can be traced, to a greater or lessextent, to lack of nutrition. The United States military draft showsthat the number of those physically defective is from seven to twentyper cent. Higher in rural districts than in towns and cities, and thisdifference is not peculiar to that country. May we not reasonablysuppose that many of these defects are caused by mal-nutrition, and thatthis mal-nutrition is in part due to the poor noon-day lunch? As thesedefects hinder mental as well as physical development, the question ofproper nutrition through the medium of the school lunch becomes aneducational one. 

THE BOX LUNCH

With proper care in the selection of food, the packing of the lunch box, and rational methods of consumption, there is no reason why the boxlunch should not be nourishing, attractive, and possess an educationalvalue. 

It may be laid down as an axiom that every school lunch should besupervised by the teacher and hap-hazard methods of eating the lunchshould be prohibited. Those schools that are fortunate enough to possessa large table can approximate somewhat to the best home conditions, andhave the table set in the proper manner, as shown in Lesson VI, page 18. The pupils should sit round the table, at the head of which is theteacher, and the lunch may be made to partake of the nature of a familyparty. If rightly managed, the meal, even under the unusual difficultiespresented in the rural school, may offer the most favourableopportunities to inculcate habits of cleanliness and neatness and tocultivate good manners. The pupils will learn something about the properselection of food and the importance of thorough mastication. Cleanhands and faces and tidy hair should be insisted upon, and individualdrinking cups should be encouraged. As a manual training exercise, eachpupil may be taught to make his own drinking cup from heavy waxed paper. Grace may be said by the older pupils in turn. 

The table should be made to look as attractive as possible. The pupils, in turn, might undertake to have the table-cloth washed at home or, inplace of a linen cloth, a covering of white oil-cloth may be used. Insome cases the school garden will be able to supply flowers or a growingplant for a centrepiece. Three or four of the larger pupils, either boysor girls, may set the table in ten minutes, while the others are washingtheir hands and faces and tidying their hair. Some such plan as thiswill add palatability and cheer to the monotony of the everyday cold andoften unattractive lunch and will create a spirit of true and healthysociability among the pupils. 

In schools that do not possess tables large enough to be used assuggested above, each pupil should be required to set one place at hisown desk, as shown in the illustration on page 20. A paper napkin may beused for a table-cloth, if a small piece of white oil-cloth is notprocurable. Each pupil retains his place until all have finished; heshould then dispose of the crumbs and leave his desk tidy. From twentyminutes to half an hour is generally found sufficient for the meal. There should be cheerful conversation and restrained laughter throughoutthe meal, and acts of courtesy and generosity should be encouraged. Atseasons when there are no flies, and on days when the weather isfavourable, it is a pleasant change to serve lunch out-of-doors. 

The lunch is provided by the home, but the teacher may give some usefullessons in Household Science by talks on the contents of the lunch boxand the proper methods of packing the same, so that the food will keepin good condition until the time for its consumption arrives. It is theduty of the school authorities to provide a suitable storage place forthe lunch boxes. These boxes should be kept free from dust or flies andin a place where the food will not freeze in winter. Open shelves, sooften seen, are not suitable and a properly ventilated cupboard in theschool-room should be provided. 

CONTENTS OF THE LUNCH BOX

The whole question of the box lunch presents a serious problem, when weconsider the large number of children who must depend upon it for theirnoon-day meal. This meal should be so constituted as to make it a realmeal and not a makeshift. The same principles which govern thepreparation of the meal should govern the preparation of the lunch box. It is said that the school lunch should consist of "something starchyand something meaty, something fat and something fibrous, somethingsweet and something savoury". 

With so many varieties of breads, meats, cheese, jams, etc. , innumerablekinds of sandwiches may be made. For example, there are brown, graham, rye, raisin, nut, and date breads, and equally many kinds of meat. Suchvariety makes it quite unnecessary to have an egg sandwich orhard-boiled eggs in the lunch box each day. While eggs are very valuablein the diet, a lunch with hard-boiled eggs five times each week becomesmonotonous, and the appetite of the consumer flags. With skill andthought one can make little scraps of meat or other "left-overs" intoattractive sandwiches. Ends of meat, ground and mixed with saladdressing or cream, make delicious sandwich fillings. 

SANDWICH MAKING

The bread should be cut evenly. 

The thickness of the slice should vary with the appetite of the consumer. 

The crust should not be removed. 

The butter should be creamed for spreading. 

Both slices should be buttered, in order to prevent the absorption of the filling. 

The filling should be carefully placed between the slices. 

The sandwiches should be wrapped in waxed paper, to prevent drying. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR SANDWICH FILLING

1. Egg and ham:

 Three eggs hard boiled and chopped fine or ground An equal amount of chopped or boiled ham Salad dressing Mix and spread. 

2. Raisin filling:

 One cup of raisins ground or chopped One half-cup of water One half-cup of sugar One tablespoonful of flour into the same quantity of vinegar Juice and grated rind of one lemon Cook in a double boiler until thick. 

3. Fig filling:

 Remove the stems and chop the figs fine. Add a small quantity of water. Cook in a double boiler until a paste is formed. Add a few drops of lemon juice. Chopped peanuts may be added. 

4. Egg:

 Chop a hard-cooked egg. Mix with salad dressing or melted butter, to a spreading consistency. 

5. Equal parts of finely-cut nuts and grated cheese, with salad dressing

6. Equal parts of grated cheese and chopped olives

7. Sardines with lemon juice or a little dressing

8. Chopped dates with a little cream. Nuts may be added. 

9. Thinly sliced tomatoes (seasonal)

10. Sliced cucumbers

11. Marmalade. Chopped nuts may be added. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANNING

In selecting the food the following suggestions may prove helpful:

_Protein_--Sandwiches of fish, meat, egg, cheese, nuts, dish of cottage cheese

 For the older pupils, baked beans

_Carbohydrates_--Bread, cake, cookies, jam, honey, dates, figs, raisins, prunes, candy

_Fats_--Butter, cream, peanut-butter

_Mineral matter_--Celery, lettuce, radish, tomatoes; fresh fruits

 _Note. _--When possible, a bottle of clean sweet milk should form part of every lunch. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR DESSERTS

Cup custards of various flavours

Cookies with nuts and fruits

Cakes--not too rich

Pies well made and with good filling

Candy--plain home-made

Preserves

Canned fruits

Fresh fruits

As often as possible, a surprise should be included, generally in theform of a dessert of which the pupil is fond. A surprise adds to thepupil's pleasure in eating and, indirectly, aids digestion. 

PACKING THE LUNCH BOX

Much of the attractiveness of a lunch depends upon the manner ofpacking. We must consider the fact that the foods must be packedtogether closely and must remain so packed for several hours. This makescareful packing a necessity. 

RULES FOR PACKING

1. Be sure that the box is absolutely clean. 2. Line it with fresh paper every time it is used. 3. Wrap each article of food in wax paper. 4. Place in the box neatly, the food that is to be used last in the bottom of the box, unless it is easily crushed. 5. Lay a neatly folded napkin on the top. 

EQUIPMENT FOR PACKING

 Lunch box Waxed paper Paper napkin Cup or container with screw top Drinking cup Knife, fork, and spoon Thermos bottle or jar for milk or other liquid

The box itself should be of odourless material, permanent, and light inweight, admitting of safe means of ventilation. Paper bags should neverbe used for food containers, as it is impossible to pack the lunch inthem firmly and well and there is danger of their being torn or ofinsects or flies creeping into them. Boxes of fibre, tin, basket weave, or other material, may be used. The box will require scrubbing, andshould be frequently dried and aired well. Many types of lunch boxeshave compartments provided for the various kinds of food. 

Waxed paper and paper napkins, or the somewhat heavier paper towels ofmuch the same size, are very useful for packing lunches, and may beobtained at a low price, particularly if bought in large quantities. Anextra napkin, either of paper or cloth, should be put in the basket, tobe spread over the school desk when the lunch is eaten. Napkins can bemade out of cotton crepe at a cost of a very few cents each. The crepemay be bought by the yard and should be cut into squares and fringed. Such napkins have the advantage of not needing to be ironed. 

Paper cups, jelly tumblers with covers which can now be bought inseveral sizes, and bottles with screw tops, such as those in which candyand other foods are sold, may all be used for packing jellies, jams, honey, etc. The thermos bottle may be used for carrying milk, or, ifthis is too expensive, a glass jar with a tight cover may besubstituted. If the thermos bottle is used, hot drinks may also becarried. 

SERVING A HOT DISH

The serving of a hot lunch or of one hot dish need be neither anelaborate nor an expensive matter. Many rural schools in the UnitedStates, some of them working under conditions worse than any of ours, are serving at least one hot dish to supplement the lunch brought fromhome. The advantages of this plan are:

1. It enables the pupils to do better work in the afternoon. 

2. It adds interest to the school work and makes the pupils more ready to go to school in bad weather. 

3. It gives some practical training and paves the way toward definite instruction in Household Science. 

4. It gives a better balance to meals, and as compared with a cold lunch it aids digestion. 

5. It teaches neatness. 

6. It gives opportunity to teach table manners. 

7. It strengthens the relationship between the home and the school. 

THE METHOD

The teacher should have a meeting of the school trustees and of themothers of the pupils and outline the method of procedure. It is only inthis way that the co-operation of all can be secured, and without thisco-operation there can be no success. This meeting should be addressedby the Public School Inspector; and after the consent of the parents andthe trustees has been secured, the scheme may be put into operation. Some thought will have to be given to the organization, in order thatthe plan may work smoothly. If properly organized, there need be littleor no interruption to the ordinary routine of the school. 

The pupils, both boys and girls, should be arranged in groups, eachgroup taking the work in turn. Even the smallest pupils should beallowed to take part, as there are many duties which they can performsuccessfully. If each group is composed of five or six pupils, the workmay be arranged as follows: two will prepare the dish, two will get thetable or the desks ready (or each pupil may prepare his own desk), andthe others will wash the dishes. 

The furnishing of supplies is a problem which each teacher will have tosolve for herself, according to the conditions which exist in thecommunity. Supplies which can be stored are best purchased by the schooltrustees; while the mothers of the pupils should furnish the perishablearticles, such as milk and butter. As often as possible, the pupils maybe asked to bring various articles, such as a potato, an apple, acarrot, an egg, etc. These may be combined and prepared in quantities. The school garden should be relied upon to supply many vegetables inseason, thus adding interest and life to both the garden work and thelunch. In some districts the neighbourhood is canvassed forsubscriptions in order to provide funds to purchase supplies for theterm lunches. Some schools give a concert or entertainment in order toraise funds for this purpose, and in others all the supplies have beenpurchased by the school trustees. 

The pupils who are to prepare the hot dish may make the necessarypreparations before school or at recess, and they must so time thecooking that the dish will be ready when required. They should beallowed to leave their desks during school hours to give it attention ifnecessary. In schools where this method is adopted, it has been foundthat the privilege has never been abused, nor have the other pupils beenless attentive on account of it. However, most of the recipes suggestedlater require little or no attention while cooking. 

At twelve o'clock the assigned pupils get the dish ready for serving andset the table. The others wash their hands, tidy their hair, and gettheir lunch boxes. All pass to their places. The pupils who haveprepared the dish may serve it, using trays to carry each pupil'ssupply, or the pupils may pass in line before the serving table and totheir places, time being thus saved. When the meal is finished, thepupils rise and bring their dishes to the serving table and stack themwith the other dishes. Two remain behind to clear up and wash thedishes, while the others go to play. If the desks are used, each pupilis responsible for leaving his own desk clean. 

The pupils may be required to keep an account of the cost of the foodand to calculate the cost per head per day or per week. A schedule ofthe market prices of food should be posted in a conspicuous place, andthe pupils may take turns in keeping these prices up to date. A separateblack-board may be used for this purpose. 

The dish chosen should be as simple as possible--a vegetable or creamsoup, cocoa, baked potatoes, baked apples, white sauce with potatoes orother vegetables, apple sauce, rice pudding, etc. It may be well, insome cases, to have plans made on Friday for the following week. As arule, each day a little before or after four o'clock, the recipe for thefollowing day should be discussed, the quantities worked out to suit thenumber of pupils, and the supplies arranged for. The element of surpriseshould be made use of occasionally, the pupils not being allowed to knowthe dish until they take their places. 

SUGGESTED MENUS

The following are some suggested menus in which the food brought fromhome is supplemented by one hot dish. (The name of the hot dish isprinted in italics. )

1. _Potato soup_, meat sandwiches, orange, sponge cake

2. _Cream of tomato soup_, bread and butter sandwiches, stuffed egg, pear, oatmeal cookies

3. _Apple cooked with bacon_, bread and butter sandwiches, gingerbread, milk

4. _Cocoa_, date sandwiches, celery, graham crackers, apple

5. _Stewed apples_, egg sandwiches, plain cake, prunes stuffed with cottage cheese

6. _Custard_, brown bread sandwiches, apple, raisins, sauce, molasses cookies

7. _Baked beans_, bread and butter sandwiches, fruit, sauce, molasses cookies

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOT DISHES FOR FOUR WEEKS

 _First week_ _Second week_

 Monday Potato soup Rice and milk Tuesday Cocoa Tomato soup Wednesday Coddled eggs Egg broth Thursday Creamed potatoes Chocolate custard Friday Soft custard Rice and tomato

 _Third week_ _Fourth week_

 Monday Macaroni and cheese Rice soup Tuesday Creamed eggs Cocoa Wednesday Cheese soup Boiled rice and milk Thursday Apple sauce Soft-cooked eggs Friday Cheese Wheat pudding

 _First week_ _Second week_

 Monday Rice soup Macaroni and cheese Tuesday Cocoa Apple sauce Wednesday Baked apples Shirred eggs Thursday Custard Cheese soup Friday Baked eggs Apple custard

 _Third week_ _Fourth week_

 Monday Potato soup Rice and tomato Tuesday Tapioca cream Apple custard Wednesday Cocoa Tomato soup Thursday Creamed potatoes Cracker pudding Friday Soft custard Cocoa

RECIPES SUITABLE FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL LUNCH

All the recipes given have been used with success in preparing ruralschool lunches. The number that the recipe will serve is generallystated and, where this number does not coincide with the number ofpupils in any particular school, the quantities required may be obtainedby division or multiplication. The recipes given in the lessons oncooking may also be used in preparing the school lunch, as each recipestates the number it will serve. 

_White Sauce_

 1 c. Milk 2 tbsp. Flour 1/2 tbsp. Butter 1/4 tsp. Salt 1/8 tsp. White pepper

Reserve one quarter of the milk and scald the remainder in a doubleboiler. Mix the flour to a smooth paste with an equal quantity of thecold milk and thin it with the remainder. Stir this gradually into thehot milk and keep stirring until it thickens. Add the butter, salt, andpepper, and cover closely until required, stirring occasionally. Thisrecipe makes a sauce of medium consistency. To make a thick white sauce, use 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of flour to one cup of milk. 

_Cocoa_

 6 tbsp. (18 tsp. ) cocoa 6 tbsp. (18 tsp. ) sugar 6 c. Milk 6 c. Boiling water 1/2 tsp. Salt

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, thenstir in the boiling water and boil for 3 minutes. Add this mixture tothe scalded milk. If a scum forms, beat with a Dover egg-beater for oneminute. The preparation should begin at half-past eleven, to have thecocoa ready at twelve o'clock. (Will serve eighteen. )

_Potato Soup_

 1 qt. Peeled potatoes cut in thin slices 3 qt. Milk 2 tsp. Salt 4 tsp. Butter 4 tbsp. Flour 1/8 tsp. Black pepper 1 small onion 1/2 tsp. Celery seed or a stock of celery

Before the opening of school, the potatoes should be pared and put intocold water; and the butter, flour, salt, and pepper should be thoroughlymixed. At eleven o'clock, the potatoes, onion, and celery should be puton to boil gently and the milk put into a double boiler to heat. Whenthe vegetables are tender, they should be strained with the cookingliquid into the hot milk and the mixture bound with the flour. The soupshould be closely covered until required. (Will serve ten. )

_Cream of Pea Soup_

 1 can peas or 1 qt. Fresh peas 1 pt. Milk 2 tbsp. Butter 2 tbsp. Flour 1 tsp. Salt 1/4 tsp. Pepper

Heat the peas in their own water, or cook them in boiling salted wateruntil tender. Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. When the peas aretender, rub them, with the cooking liquid, through a strainer into thescalded milk. Add the butter and flour rubbed to a smooth paste and stiruntil thickened. Season and cover until required. (Will serve six pupilsgenerously. )

_Cream of Tomato Soup_

 1 pt. Or 1 can tomatoes 2 tbsp. Butter 3 tbsp. Flour 1 tsp. Sugar 1 qt. Milk Sprig of parsley 1/4 tsp. White pepper 1/2 tsp. Soda 1 tsp. Salt

Cook the tomatoes slowly with the seasonings for ten minutes and rubthrough a strainer. Scald the milk, thicken with the flour and butterrubbed to a paste, re-heat the tomatoes, and add the soda, mix with themilk, and serve at once. (Will serve six pupils generously. )

_Cream of Corn Soup_

 2 pt. Cans corn 1 pt. Cold water 2 slices onion 2 qt. Of thin white sauce Seasonings

The process is that used in making Cream of Pea Soup. When making thethin white sauce, place the onion in the milk and leave it until themilk is scalded. Then remove the onion to the other mixture and make thesauce. This gives sufficient onion flavour. (Will serve eighteen. )

_Lima-bean Soup_

 1 c. Lima beans 2 qt. Water 2 whole cloves 1 bay leaf 1 tsp. Salt 3 tbsp. Butter 2 tbsp. Flour 3 tbsp. Minced onion 1 tbsp. " carrot 1 tbsp. " celery 1/4 tsp. Pepper

Soak the beans overnight in soft water or in hard water which has beenboiled and cooled. If cold, hard water is used, add 1/4 tsp. Baking-sodato 1 qt. Of water. In the morning, drain and put on to cook in 2 qt. Ofwater. Simmer until tender. It takes 2 hours. Cook the minced vegetablesin the butter for 20 minutes, being careful not to brown them. Drain outthe vegetables and put them into the soup. Put the flour and butter intoa pan and stir until smooth. Add this mixture to the soup. Add thecloves, bay leaf, and seasonings, and simmer for 1 hour. Rub through asieve. One cup of milk may be added. Bring to the simmering point andserve. (Will serve eighteen. )

 _Note. _--If desired, the vegetables may be used without browning and the cloves and bay leaf omitted. 

_Milk and Cheese Soup_

 4 c. Milk 2 tbsp. Flour 1-1/3 c. Grated cheese Salt and pepper to taste

Thicken the milk with flour, cooking thoroughly. This is best done in adouble boiler, stirring occasionally. When ready to serve, add cheeseand seasoning. (Will serve six. )

_Cream of Rice Soup_

 4 tbsp. Rice 4 c. Milk 3 tbsp. Butter 1/2 small onion 4 stalks celery 1/2 bay leaf Salt and pepper to taste

Scald the milk, add the well-washed rice, and cook for 30 minutes in aclosely covered double boiler. Melt the butter and cook the sliced onionand celery in it until tender, but not brown. Add these, with the bayleaf, to the contents of the double boiler, cover, and let it stand onthe back of the stove for 15 minutes. Strain, season with salt andpepper, re-heat, and serve. Note that the bay leaf is added and allowedto stand, to increase the flavour, and may be omitted if desired. (Willserve six. )

_Rice Pudding_

 3 c. Rice 6 c. Water 6 c. Milk 2 c. Sugar 4 eggs 2 tsp. Salt 3 c. Fruit (chopped raisins) if desired

Wash the rice in a strainer placed over a bowl of cold water, by rubbingthe rice between the fingers. Lift the strainer from the bowl and changethe water. Repeat until the water is clear. Put the water in the upperpart of a double boiler directly over the fire, and when it boilsrapidly, gradually add the rice to it. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes, thenadd the milk, to which has been added the sugar, salt, and eggs slightlybeaten. Cover, place in the lower part of the double boiler, and cookuntil kernels are tender--from 45 minutes to 1 hour. If raisins areused, add them before putting the rice in the double boiler. Serve withmilk and sugar as desired. (Will serve eighteen. )

_Rice Pudding_

 2 c. Rice 1 c. Raisins 1 tsp. Salt 4 qt. Milk 1 c. Sugar 1 tsp. Cinnamon

Prepare the rice and raisins and put them, with the other ingredients, in a buttered pan. Bake all forenoon, stirring occasionally during thefirst hour. Serve with milk or cream. (Will serve ten. )

_Cream of Wheat_

 1-1/2 c. Cream of wheat 10 c. Boiling water 1-1/2 tsp. Salt 1-1/2 c. Dates (chopped)

Put the boiling water and salt in the upper part of the double boilerdirectly over the heat. When boiling, add the cereal slowly. Stirconstantly until the mixture thickens. Add the dates and cook for 5minutes. Place in the lower part of the double boiler and cook at least1 hour. Serve with milk and sugar. (Will serve eighteen. )

_Scrambled Eggs_

 9 eggs 1 c. Milk 2 tbsp. Butter 1 tsp. Salt Pepper

Beat the eggs until the yolks and whites are well mixed. Add theseasonings and milk. Heat the frying-pan, melt the butter in it, andturn in the egg mixture. Cook slowly, scraping the mixture from thebottom of the pan as it cooks. As soon as a jelly-like consistency isformed, remove at once to a hot dish or serve on toast. (Will servenine. )

_Creamed Eggs_

 6 hard-cooked eggs 4 tbsp. Butter 2 c. Milk 4 tbsp. Flour Salt and pepper

Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir in the milk gradually. Cookwell and season with salt and pepper. Cut hard-cooked eggs in smallpieces and add them to the white sauce. It may be served on toast. (Willserve six. )

_Egg Broth_

 6 eggs 6 tbsp. Sugar 1 c. Hot milk Few grains salt Vanilla or nutmeg

Beat the eggs and add the sugar and salt. Stir in the hot milkgradually, so that the eggs will cook smoothly. Flavour as desired. (Will serve six. )

_Soft-cooked Eggs_

Wash the eggs and put in a sauce-pan, cover with boiling water, removeto the back of the stove or where the water will keep hot, but not boil. Let them stand, covered, from 7 to 10 minutes, according to theconsistency desired. 

_Baked Shirred Eggs_

Butter small earthen cups. Break an egg in each and sprinkle with a fewgrains of salt and pepper and bits of butter. Bake in a moderate ovenuntil the white is set. For Shirred Eggs proceed as above, but to cook, place in a pan of hot water on the back of the stove, until the white isset. 

_Creamed Potatoes_

 White sauce (medium consistency) 3 tbsp. Flour 3 tbsp. Butter 1-1/2 c. Milk Salt and pepper

Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and seasonings. Cut coldpotatoes (about eight) into cubes or slices and heat in the sauce. Servehot. (Will serve nine. )

_Mashed Potatoes_

Boil the potatoes, drain, and mash in the kettle in which they wereboiled. When free from lumps, add to each cup of mashed potatoes:

 1 tsp. Butter 1 or more tbsp. Hot milk 1/4 tsp. Salt

Beat all together until light and creamy. Re-heat, and pile lightly, without smoothing, in a hot dish. 

_Baked Potatoes_

Use potatoes of medium size. 

Scrub thoroughly in water with a brush. Place in a pan in a hot oven. Bake from 45 to 60 minutes. When done, roll in a clean napkin and twistuntil the skin is broken. Serve immediately. (If no oven is available, place a wire rack on the top of the stove. Put the potatoes on this rackand cover them with a large pan. When half cooked, turn. )

_Macaroni and Cheese_

 3 c. Macaroni (2 pieces) 3 tsp. Salt 3 qt. Boiling water 6 c. White sauce (medium)

Cook the macaroni in boiling salted water until tender. Drain, pour coldwater over it, and drain it once more. Put the macaroni into a bakingdish, sprinkling a layer of grated cheese upon each layer of macaroni. Pour in the sauce and sprinkle the top with cheese. Cook until the saucebubbles up through the cheese and the top is brown. To give variety, finely-minced ham, boiled codfish, or any cold meat may be used insteadof the cheese. (Will serve ten. )

_Cornstarch Pudding_

 1 qt. Milk 3/4 c. Cornstarch 1/2 tsp. Salt 3/4 c. Sugar Vanilla

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar, cornstarch, and salttogether. Gradually add to the hot milk and stir constantly until itthickens. Cover, cook for 30 minutes, add vanilla, and pour into cold, wet moulds. When set, turn out, and serve with milk and sugar. (Willserve nine. )

_Apple Sauce_

 9 tart apples 3/4 c. Water 6 whole cloves (if desired) 3/4 c. Sugar Piece of lemon rind (if desired)

Wipe, pare, quarter, and core the apples. Put the water, apples, lemonrind, and cloves into a sauce-pan. Cook covered until the apples aretender, but not broken. Remove the lemon peel and cloves. Add the sugara few minutes before taking from the fire. The apples may be mashed orput through a strainer. (Will serve nine. )

 _Note. _--The lemon and the cloves may be used when the apples have lost their flavour. 

_Stewed Prunes or Other Dried Fruit--Apricots, Apples, Pears_

 3/4 lb. Fruit (about) 1-1/2 pt. Of water 1/3 c. Sugar 1 or 2 slices lemon or a few cloves and a piece of cinnamon stick

Wash the fruit thoroughly and soak overnight. Cook in the water in whichit was soaked. Cover, and simmer until tender. When nearly cooked, addsugar and lemon juice. The cloves and cinnamon should cook with thefruit. All flavourings may be omitted, if desired. (Will serve nine. )

_Soft Custard_

 2 c. Milk 6 tbsp. Sugar 2 eggs 1/2 tsp. Vanilla A few grains of salt

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the sugar and salt to the eggsand beat until well mixed. Stir the hot milk slowly into the egg mixtureand return to the double boiler. Cook, stirring constantly, until thespoon, when lifted from the mixture, is coated. Remove immediately fromthe heat, add vanilla, and pour into a cold bowl. To avoid too rapidcooking, lift the upper from the lower portion of the boileroccasionally. (Will serve six. )

_Tapioca Custard Pudding_

 3 c. Scalded milk 2 eggs slightly beaten 2 tbsp. Butter 4 tbsp. Pearl, or minute, tapioca 6 tbsp. Sugar A few grains of salt

Minute tapioca requires no soaking. Soak the pearl tapioca one hour inenough cold water to cover it. Drain, add to the milk, and cook in adouble boiler for 30 minutes. Add to remaining ingredients, pour intobuttered baking-dish, and bake for about 25 minutes in a slow oven. (Will serve eight. )

_Rice and Tomato_

 2 c. Cooked rice 2 tbsp. Butter 2 tbsp. Flour 2 c. Unstrained or 1 c. Strained tomato 1 slice of onion minced Salt and pepper

Cook the onion with the tomato until soft. Melt the butter, and add theflour, salt, and pepper. Strain the tomato, stir the liquid into thebutter and flour mixture, and cook until thick and smooth. Add the rice, heat, and serve. (Will serve six. )

_Cracker Pudding_

 6 soda crackers 3 c. Milk 3 eggs 6 tbsp. Sugar 1/2 tsp. Salt

Roll the crackers and soak them in milk. Beat the yolks and sugar welltogether and add to the first mixture, with some salt. Make a meringuewith white of eggs, pile lightly on top, and put in the oven till it isa golden brown. Serve hot. (Will serve six. )

 _Note. _--Dried bread crumbs may be used in place of the crackers. 

_Candied Fruit Peel_

The candied peel of oranges, lemons, grapefruit, and other fruits makesa good sweet which is economical, because it utilizes materials whichmight otherwise be thrown away. Its preparation makes an interestingschool exercise. The skins can be kept in good condition for a long timein salt water, which makes it possible to wait until a large supply ison hand before candying them. They should be washed in clear water, after removing from the salt water, boiled until tender, cut into smallpieces, and then boiled in a thick sugar syrup until they aretransparent. They should then be lifted from the syrup and allowed tocool in such a way that the superfluous syrup will run off. Finally, they should be rolled in pulverized or granulated sugar. 

A large number of recipes have been given, in order that a selection maybe made according to season, community conditions, and market prices, and so that sufficient variety may be secured from day to day. 

Attention given to this matter will be well repaid by the improvedhealth of the pupils, the greater interest taken in the school by theparents, and the better afternoon work accomplished. It has been wellsaid: "The school lunch is not a departure from the principle of theobligation assumed by educational authorities toward the child, but anintensive application of the measures adopted for the physical nurtureof the child, to the end of securing in adult years the highestefficiency of the citizen". 

USEFUL BULLETINS

_The Rural School Luncheon_: Department of Education, Saskatchewan

_The Box Luncheon_: New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University

_Hints to Housewives_: Issued by Mayor Mitchell's Food Supply Committee, New York City

_Home Economics in Village and Rural Schools_: Kansas State Agricultural College

_Home-made Fireless Cookers and Their Use_: Farmers' Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture

_Hot Lunches for Rural Schools_: Parts I and II, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts

_Rural School Lunches_: University of Idaho, Agricultural Extension Department

_The Rural School Lunch_: University of Illinois College of Agriculture

_The School Luncheon_: Oregon Agricultural College

HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE WITHOUT SCHOOL EQUIPMENT

There is no school so unhappily situated or so poorly equipped that itis unable to teach effectively the lessons previously outlined in the"Care of the Home" and "Sewing". Now that a grant in aid is provided bythe Department of Education any rural school may procure one of the setsof equipment for cooking suggested or some modification thereof. As astepping-stone to the provision of that equipment and as a means ofeducating the people of the district in regard to the advantages ofteaching this branch of Household Science, it may be advisable or evennecessary, in some cases, to attempt practical work, even where noequipment is installed by the school authorities. 

It should be remembered that the present position of Manual Training andHousehold Science in urban schools is entirely owing to privateinitiative and demonstration, by which the people were shown how and whythese subjects should be included in the curriculum of the schools. Itis reasonable to suppose that the same results will follow if somewhatthe same methods are tried in the case of the rural schools, which formsuch a large part of our educational system. Two methods of givinginstruction of this character have, in the United States, been followedby successful results. 

FIRST METHOD

In the first of these, the teacher spends the last thirty or fortyminutes, generally on Friday afternoons, in the description anddiscussion of some practical cooking problem which may be performed inthe homes of the pupils. Before this plan is adopted, it should bediscussed with the pupils who are to take the work. They should berequired to promise that they will practise at home; and the consent andco-operation of the parents should be secured, as the success of thishome work depends, in the first place, on the willingness of the pupilto accept responsibility, and, in the second place, on the honest andhearty co-operation of the parents. 

A meeting of the mothers should be called, in order that the plan may belaid before them and their suggestions received. At this meetingafternoon tea might be served. The teacher should plan the lessons, butoccasionally, particularly at festive seasons, the pupils themselvesshould be allowed to decide what shall be made. When it is possible, thefood prepared at home should be brought by the pupil to the school, inorder that it may be compared with that made by other pupils and bejudged by the teacher. In other cases, the mother might be asked to fillup a previously prepared form, certifying to the amount and character ofthe work done at home by the pupil each week. 

The instructions placed on the black-board should be clear and conciseand give adequate information concerning materials, quantities, andmethods. They should be arranged in such a way as to appeal to the eyeand thus assist the memory. Connected composition should not beattempted, but the matter should be arranged in a series of numberedsteps, somewhat as follows:

_Recipe: Boiled Carrots_

 Carrots Boiling water Salt and pepper Butter

1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots. 

2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them. 

3. Place the pieces in a sauce-pan. 

4. Set over the fire and cover with boiling water. 

5. Cook until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced with a fork. 

6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish. 

After being thoroughly explained, these directions are placed in anote-book, for the guidance of the pupil in her home practice. In somecases, the directions are placed on properly punched cards, so that atthe end of the year every pupil will have a collection of useful recipesand plans, each one of which she understands and has worked out. In manylessons of this type demonstrations may be given by the teacher and, ifthe food cannot be cooked on the school stove, it may be taken home tobe cooked by one of the pupils. 

Lessons given according to this method, by which the theory is given inschool and the practice acquired at home, need not be restricted tocookery. Any of the lessons prescribed in the curriculum for Form III, Junior, may be treated in the same way. Lessons on the daily care of abed-room, weekly sweeping, care and cleaning of metals, washing dishes, washing clothes, ironing a blouse and, in fact, on all subjectspertaining to the general care and management of the home, may be givenin this way. 

Each lesson should conclude with a carefully prepared black-boardsummary, which should be neatly copied into the note-books, to beperiodically examined by the teacher. The black-board work of manyteachers leaves much to be desired, and time spent in improving thiswill be well repaid. Examples of summaries of the kind referred to areto be found in the Ontario Teachers' Manual on _Household Management_. These instructions may be type-written or hectographed by the teacherand given to the pupils, thus saving the time spent in note-taking. 

SECOND METHOD

The second of the plans referred to is a modification of what is knownas the "Crete" plan of Household Science, so called from the name of theplace in Nebraska, U. S. A. , where it was first put into operation. Bythis plan, definite instruction is given in the home kitchens of certainwomen in the district, under the supervision of the educationalauthorities. It was adopted, at first, in connection with the highschools of the small towns in that State but, with certainmodifications, it is suitable to our rural school conditions. 

In every community there are women who are known to be skilful incertain lines of cookery, and the plan makes use of such women forgiving the required instruction. They become actually a part of thestaff of the school, giving instruction in Household Science, and usingthe resources of their households as an integral part of the schoolequipment. 

In order to put this plan into operation, a meeting of women interestedin the school should be called and if, after the plan has been laidbefore them and fully discussed, enough women are willing to open theirhomes and act as instructors, then it is safe to proceed. The subjectsshould be divided, and a scheme somewhat as follows may be arranged:

 Mrs. A. Bread and biscuits Mrs. B. Pies and cakes Mrs. C. Canning and preserving Mrs. D. Gems and corn bread Mrs. E. Desserts and salads Mrs. F. Cookies and doughnuts Mrs. G. Vegetables. 

Six has been found a convenient number for a class, though ten isbetter, if the homes can accommodate that number. Half-past three is agood time for the classes to meet, as they then may be concluded by fiveo'clock, thus leaving the housewife free to prepare her evening meal. The day of the week should be chosen to suit the convenience of theinstructor. The classes may meet once a week. 

Arriving at the home of the instructor at half-past three, the pupilsare seated in the most convenient room, and the lesson is given. Duringthis talk the pupils are given not only the recipe, but details as tomaterials, the preparation thereof, the degree of heat required, thecommon causes of failure and, in fact, everything that in the mind of apractical cook would be helpful to the class. Notes are taken, andafterwards properly written out and examined by the teacher of theschool. 

The instructors prepare the food for cooking, and sometimes, as in thecase of rolls and so on, they cook the food in the presence of thepupils. When white bread is to be baked, the pupils are asked to call, afew minutes after school, at the home of the instructor, to watch thefirst step--setting the sponge--and again the next morning before schoolto see the next step--mixing the bread--and again, about half-pasteleven or twelve, to see the bread ready for the oven and, finally, onthe way back to school, to see the result--a fine loaf of well-cookedbread. The pupils try the recipe carefully in their own homes, notvarying its terms until they are able to make the dish successfully. When they can do this, they are free to experiment with modifications, and there should be no objection to receiving help from any source; infact, it is a good thing for the daughter to get her mother to criticizeher and offer suggestions in the many little details familiar to everyhousekeeper, but which cannot always be given by an instructor in onelesson. 

By this method the pupils learn in their own homes and handle realcooking utensils on a real stove heated by the usual fire of that home. If it is a good thing--and no one doubts it--to learn Household Sciencein a school where everything that invention and skill can provide forthe pupils is readily at hand, is it not worth while to enter the fieldof actual life and, with cruder implements, win a fair degree ofsuccess?

At the end of five or six months, after the pupils have had anopportunity to become skilful in making some of the dishes which havebeen taught, it may be well to have an exhibition of their work. Eachpupil may, on Saturday afternoon, bring one or more of the dishes shehas learned to prepare to the school-house, where they may be arrangedon tables for the inspection of the judges. The dishes exhibited shouldbe certified to as being the work of the pupil with no help orsuggestion from anybody. Of course, work of this kind cannot beundertaken by the "suit case" teacher. The teacher who packs her bag onFriday at noon, carries it to school with her, and rushes to catch atrain or car at four o'clock, not returning to the district until Mondaymorning, has no time for this kind of service. 

Occasionally the entire class may meet with their instructors in theschool-room. An oil-stove and the necessary equipment may be obtained, and a demonstration may be given by one of the instructors. By thismeans much valuable instruction will be given that is not included inthe regular course. At this time also many things may be discussed thatpertain to the growth of the movement and the general well-being of thepupils. 

The plan is flexible and may be modified easily to suit differentlocalities. It calls for no outlay on the part of the school trustees;nor are the instructors necessarily put to any expense, as the articlesprepared in giving the lessons may be used in their own homes. 

By the adoption of one of the plans outlined, or such modifications ofthem as the peculiar requirements of the district may demand, everyrural school may do something, not only toward giving a real knowledgeof some phases of Household Science, but also toward developing thecommunity spirit and arousing an interest in the school, which willbenefit all concerned. 

THE FIRELESS COOKER

At the present time there is urgent need for thrift and economy in allthat pertains to the management of the household--particularly in foodand fuel. In the average home much fuel could be saved by the proper useof what is known as the fireless cooker. The scientific principleapplied has long been known and is, briefly, as follows: If a hot bodyis protected by a suitable covering, the heat in it will be retained fora long time, instead of being lost by radiation or conduction. This iswhy a cosy is placed over a tea-pot. 

In using a fireless cooker, the food is first heated on the stove untilthe cooking has begun, and then it is placed in the fireless cooker--atight receptacle in which the food is completely surrounded by someinsulating substance to prevent the rapid escape of the heat, which inthis way is retained in the food in sufficient quantity to complete thecooking. Sometimes, when a higher cooking temperature is desired, anadditional source of heat, in the form of a hot soapstone or brick or aniron plate such as a stove lid, is put into the cooker with the food. 

The same principle is also employed in cookery in other ways. Forexample, in camp life beans are often baked by burying the potsovernight in hot stones and ashes, the whole being covered with earth;and in the "clam bakes" on the Atlantic Coast, the damp seaweed spreadover the embers on the clams prevents the escape of the heat duringcooking. The peasants in some parts of Europe are said to begin thecooking of their dinners and then to put them into hay boxes or betweenfeather beds, so that the cooking may be completed while the family isabsent in the fields. 

The chief advantages in the use of the firelesscooker are these:

1. It saves fuel, especially where gas, oil, or electric stoves areused. Where coal or wood is the fuel, the fire in the range is oftenkept up most of the day, and the saving of fuel is not so great. Insummer, or when the kitchen fire is not needed for heating purposes, thedinner can be started in the stove early in the morning, and then placedin the fireless cooker, the fire in the range being allowed to go out. During the hot weather, the use of a kerosene or other liquid-fuel stoveand a fireless cooker is a great convenience, since it not onlyaccomplishes a saving in fuel, but helps to keep the kitchen cooler. Thesaving in fuel resulting from the use of a fireless cooker is greatestin the preparation of foods such as stews, which require long and slowcooking. 

2. It saves time. Foods cooked in this way do not require watching, andmay be left, without danger from fires or of over-cooking, while otherduties are being performed or the family is away from home. 

3. It conserves the flavour of the food and makes it easier to utilizethe cheaper cuts of meat which, although not having so fine a texture orflavour, are fully as nutritious, pound for pound, as the more expensivecuts. Long cooking at a relatively low temperature, such as is given tofoods in the fireless cooker, improves the flavour and texture of thesetougher cuts of meat. Most people do not cook cereals long enough. Bythis method, the cereal may be prepared at night, cooked on the stovefor about fifteen minutes, and then put in the fireless cooker. In themorning it will be cooked and ready to be served. 

The fireless cooker may be used to advantage in preparing the following:soups; pot roasts; beef stew; Irish stew; lamb stew; corned beef andcabbage; boiled ham; baked beans; chicken fricassee; vegetables, such asturnips, carrots, parsnips, beets; dried vegetables, such as peas andbeans; and dried fruits, such as peaches, apples, apricots, and prunes;cereals; and puddings. 

The fireless cookers described in the following pages are notexperiments. They have all been tested and found to be most practical. 

DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. I

While there are many good fireless cookers on the market which cost fromfive to twenty-two dollars, according to size and make, it is possibleto construct a home-made cooker which will give very satisfactoryresults and will be considerably cheaper than one which is purchased inthe shops. 

Materials required: A box or some other outside container; some goodinsulating or packing material; an inside container for the kettle, or alining for the nest in which the kettle is placed; a kettle for holdingthe food; and a cushion, or pad, of insulating material, to cover thetop of the kettle. 

THE OUTSIDE CONTAINER

For the outside container a tightly built wooden box, such as that shownin Figure 39, is satisfactory. The walls should be thick and of somenon-conducting material. An old trunk, a small barrel, or a large butteror lard firkin or tin will serve the purpose. Another possibility is agalvanized iron bucket with a closely fitting cover (this has theadvantage of being fire-proof). A shoe box 15 by 15 by 28 inches isconvenient in size, since it may be divided into two compartments. Itshould have a hinged cover and, at the front, a hook and staple, orsome other device to hold down the cover tightly; an ordinary clampwindow fastener answers this purpose very well. The size of thecontainer, which depends upon the size of the kettle used, should belarge enough to allow for at least four inches of packing material allround the nest in which the kettle is placed. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 39. --Completed fireless cooker]

THE INSULATING MATERIAL

For packing or insulating material a variety of substances may be used. Asbestos and mineral wool are the best, and have the additionaladvantage that they cannot burn. Ground cork (used in packing Malagagrapes), hay, excelsior, Spanish moss, wool, and crumpled paper may alsobe used satisfactorily. Of these materials crumpled paper is probablythe best, as it is clean and odourless and, if properly packed, willhold the heat better than the others. It is wise to line the box withone thickness of heavy paper or with several thicknesses of newspaper, to make it as air-tight as possible. Asbestos sheeting may be usedinstead. To pack the container with paper, crush single sheets ofnewspaper between the hands and pack a layer at least four inches deepover the bottom of the outside container, pounding it in with a heavystick of wood. 

Place the inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for theinside of the nest in the centre of this layer, and pack more crushedpaper about it as solidly as possible. The method of packing with paperis shown in Figure 40. If other material is used it should be packed ina similar way. 

Where an extra source of heat is to be used, it is much safer to usesome non-inflammable material such as asbestos or mineral wool. A cheapsubstitute and one which is easily obtained are the small cinders siftedfrom coal ashes, preferably those from soft coal. However, the cindersfrom hard coal burned in the kitchen range will do. If a fire-proofpacking material is not used, a heavy pad of asbestos should be placedat the bottom of the metal lining, and a sheet or two of this papershould be placed between the lining of the nest and the packingmaterial. Whatever is used should come to the top of the insidecontainer, and the box should be filled to within about four inches ofthe top. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 40. --Fireless cooker, showing method of packingwith paper]

THE INSIDE CONTAINER

The inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for the nestin which it is to be placed should be cylindrical in shape, should bedeep enough to hold the cooking kettle and stone, if one is used, andshould fit as snugly as possible to the cooking kettle, but at the sametime should allow the latter to be moved in and out freely. For thispurpose a galvanized iron or other metal bucket may be used, or, betterstill, a tinsmith may make a lining of galvanized iron or zinc which canbe provided with a rim to cover the packing material, as shown in Figure41. In case no hot stone or plate is to be used, the lining may be madeof strong cardboard. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 41. --Metal lining with rim]

THE KETTLE

The kettle to be used for cooking should be durable and free from seamsor crevices which are hard to clean. It should have perpendicular sides, and the cover should be as flat as possible and be provided with a deeplid fitting well down into the kettle, in order to retain the steam. Akettle holding about six quarts is a convenient size for general use. Tinned iron kettles should not be used in a fireless cooker, for, although cheap, they are very apt to rust from the confined moisture. Enamelware kettles are satisfactory. 

EXTRA SOURCE OF HEAT

Fireless cookers are adapted to a much wider range of cooking if theyare provided with an extra source of heat in the form of a soapstone, brick, or an iron plate which is heated and placed underneath thecooking kettle. This introduces a possible danger from fire, in case thehot stove plate should come into direct contact with inflammable packingmaterial such as excelsior or paper. To avoid this danger, a metallining must be provided for the nest in which the cooking vessels andstone are to be placed. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 42. --Tightly fitting lid]

COVERING PAD

A cushion, or pad, must be provided, to fill completely the spacebetween the top of the packing material and the cover of the box afterthe kettle is in place. This should be made of some heavy goods, such asdenim, and stuffed with cotton, crumpled paper, or excelsior. Hay may beused, but it will be found more or less odorous. Figure 43 shows thevertical cross-section of a home-made fireless cooker. 

[Illustration: _Fig. _ 43. --Vertical cross-section of fireless cooker. A. Outside container; B. Packing or insulating material; C. Metal lining ofnest; D. Cooking kettle; E. Soapstone plate, or other source of heat; F. Pad of excelsior for covering top; G. Hinged cover of outsidecontainer. ]

DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. II

(Single Cooker)

Materials required: Galvanized iron can, No. 3, with a cover; somesawdust; a covered agate pail (to be used as a cooking pail); and twoyards of denim; any old linen, cotton, or woollen material may be usedinstead of denim. 

METHOD OF MAKING

Place loose sawdust in the bottom of the can to a depth of about threeinches. Measure the depth of the cooking pail. Turn a fold two inchesgreater than this depth the entire length of the denim or other materialand make a long bag. Lay the bag flat on the table and fill it with aneven layer of sawdust, so that when completed it will still be half aninch wider than the depth of the pail. Roll the bag around the cookingpail, so that a smooth, firm nest is formed when the bag is placedupright in the can on the top of the sawdust. From the remaining denimor other material make a round, flat bag (the material will have to bepieced for this). Fill this bag with sawdust and use it on top of thecooking pail. The bags must be made and fitted into the can in such away that there will be no open spaces whatever between the sides of thecooking pail and the can, or between the top of the cooking pail and thecover of the can, through which the heat might escape. 

DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER--NO. III

(Double Cooker)

Materials required: One long box and two square boxes; the long box mustbe large enough to hold the other two and still leave two inches ofspace all around them; five and one-quarter yards of sheet asbestos oneyard wide; two covered agate pails to be used as cooking pails; andabout one yard of denim or other material. 

METHOD OF MAKING

Line the bottoms and sides of all three boxes with sheet asbestos. Inthe bottom of the long box lay newspapers flat to a depth of about halfan inch. Put two inches of sawdust on top of this layer of newspapers. Place the two square boxes inside the long one, leaving at least twoinches of space between them. Fill all the spaces between the boxes withsawdust. Tack strips of denim or other material so that they will coverall the spaces that are filled with sawdust. 

The outside box must have a hinged lid, which must be fastened down witha clasp. Line the lid with the sheet asbestos to within half an inch ofthe edge. Put a layer of sawdust one inch deep on top of the asbestos. Tack a piece of denim or other material over the sawdust, still leavingthe edge free and clear so that the cover may fit tightly; or the lidmay be lined with asbestos and a denim pillow filled with sawdust madeto fit tightly into the top of the box. 

USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER IN THE PREPARATION OF LUNCHES

The fireless cooker should prove very useful in the lunch equipment ofrural schools, as its use should mean economy of fuel, utensils, time, and effort. It might be made by the pupils and would afford an excellentmanual training exercise. 

Many of the dishes in the recipes given may be cooked in this way, butmore time must be allowed for cooking, as there is a fall of temperaturein placing the food in the cooker. When the vessel is being transferredfrom the stove to the cooker, the latter should be in a convenientposition, and the transfer should be made, and the cushion placed inposition, very quickly, so that the food will continue boiling. If thequantity of food is small, it should be placed in a smaller tightlycovered pail, set on an inverted pan in the larger pail, and surroundedwith boiling water. When there is an air space above the food in thecooking dish, there is greater loss of heat, as air gives off heat morereadily than water. 

The following are examples of the foods that may be cooked in a FirelessCooker:

Apple sauce--Bring to boiling temperature and place in the cooker, leave two hours. 

Apple compote--Cut the apples in halves or quarters so that they need not be turned. Leave them in the cooker about three hours. 

Dried fruits--Soak overnight, bring to the boiling-point, and leave in the cooker at least three hours. 

Cream of wheat--Boil until thick, place in the cooker, leave overnight and, if necessary, re-heat in double boiler before using. 

Rolled oats--Boil five minutes, then place in the cooker. Leave at least three hours and longer if possible. 

Macaroni--Boil, then place in the cooker for two hours. 

Rice--Boil, then place in the cooker for one hour. 

All vegetables may be cooked in the cooker. They must be given timeaccording to their age. A safe rule for all green vegetables is to allowtwo and a half times as long as if boiled on the stove. 

In the home, where the cooking is much greater in amount than it can bein the school, the saving in fuel, by the judicious use of the properlymade fireless cooker, is correspondingly much larger. For example: insoups, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 hours use of fuel is made unnecessary; potroast 2-1/2 hours; beef stew 2-1/2 hours; lamb stew 1-1/2 hours; cornbeef and cabbage 2-1/2 hours; baked beans 5-1/2 to 7-1/2 hours; chickenfricassee 2 hours; dried peas, beans, and lentils 3 hours; dried fruits3 hours; rice pudding 1-1/2 hours. 

SPECIAL GRANTS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS

(From the Revised Regulations of the Department of Education, 1918)

(1) The Board of a rural or a village school which is unable to complywith the provisions of the General Regulations, but which maintainsclasses in Manual Training as applied to the work of the Farm or inHousehold Science suitable to the requirements of the rural districts, which employs a teacher qualified as below, and which providesaccommodations and equipment and a course of study approved by theMinister before the classes are established, will be paid by theMinister the sums provided in the scheme below, out of the grantsappropriated therefor: said grants to be expended on the accommodations, equipment, and supplies for Manual Training and Household Science. In noyear, however, will the Departmental grants exceed the total expenditureof the Board for these classes. 

(2) On the report of the Inspector of Manual Training and HouseholdScience that the organization and the teaching of the classes in ManualTraining or Household Science maintained as provided above aresatisfactory, an annual grant will be paid by the Minister out of theGrant appropriated according to the following scheme:

(_a_) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate but is notspecially certificated in Manual Training or Household Science--

Initial Grant to board, $40; to teacher, $15. Subsequent Grant: toboard, $20; to teacher, $15. 

(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and hassatisfactorily completed the work of one Summer Course in ManualTraining or Household Science, provided by the Department, andundertakes to complete Part II the following year, or receivespermission from the Minister to postpone said part--

Initial Grant: to board, $40: to teacher, $20. Subsequent Grant: toboard, $20: to teacher, $20. 

(_b_) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and inaddition the Elementary certificate in Manual Training or HouseholdScience--

Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $40. Subsequent Grant: toboard, $30; to teacher, $40. 

(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and in additionthe Ordinary certificate in Manual Training or Household Science--

Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $50. Subsequent Grant: toboard, $30; to teacher, $50. 

(_c_) When a school taking up Household Science provides at least onehot dish for the pupils staying to lunch from November 1st to March31st, the above grants to the teacher of Household Science will beincreased $10.