ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS

HISTORY

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

TORONTOTHE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED

COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO

CONTENTS

 PAGE

PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 1

CHAPTER ITHE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY 13

CHAPTER IIGENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 21

CHAPTER IIICORRELATION OF SUBJECTS 40

CHAPTER IVSPECIAL TOPICS 49 Current Events 49 Local Material 51 Civics 52 The Teacher of History 57

CHAPTER VILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 60 Forms I and II 60 Form II 62 Form III 66 Forms III and IV 75 Form IV 78 For Teachers' Reference 119

DEVICES 127

BIBLIOGRAPHY 130

APPENDIX 136

MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF HISTORY

PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY

DETAILS

The course in literature and composition includes the telling by theteacher of suitable stories from the Bible, stories of primitivepeoples, of child life in other lands, of famous persons and peoples;and the oral reproduction of these stories by the pupils. In this wayhistory, literature, and composition are combined. 

 For Method in telling stories, consult _How to Tell Stories to Children_, by Sara Cone Bryant, Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston, $1. 00. 

FORM I

BIBLE STORIES:

Moses in the Bulrushes, his Childhood, the Burning Bush, the Crossing ofthe Red Sea, the Tables of Stone; Joseph's Boyhood Dreams, Joseph soldinto Egypt, the Famine, the Visits of his Brethren; David and Goliath;Samson. 

STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:

The Eskimo Girl, the Andean Girl, the Arabian Girl, the Little SyrianGirl, the Swiss Girl, the Chinese Girl, the African Girl, the GermanGirl, the Canadian Girl; the Little Red Child, the Little White Child, the Little Black Child, the Little Yellow Child, the Little Brown Child. 

 Consult _The Seven Little Sisters_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co. , Boston, 50c. ; _The Little Cousin Series_, by Mary Hazelton Wade, The Page Co. , Boston, 60c. Each; _Five Little Strangers_, Julia Augusta Schwarz, American Book Co. , New York; _Each and All_, Jane Andrews (sequel to _The Seven Little Sisters_), 50 cents. 

SPECIAL DAYS:

Christmas: The Birth of Christ, the First Christmas Tree (see Appendix);Arbor Day; Constructive work suggested by St. Valentine's Day andThanksgiving Day; Stories of these Days. 

 NOTE: Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to teach obedience to authority and respect for the property and rights of others. 

FORM II

BIBLE STORIES:

Abraham and Lot, Joshua, David and Jonathan, David and Saul, Ruth andNaomi, Daniel, Miriam and Moses, Abraham and Isaac, Boyhood of Christ, the Shipwreck of St. Paul. 

STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:

The Aryan Boy, the Persian Boy, the Greek Boy, the Roman Boy, the SaxonBoy, the Page Boy, the English Boy, the Puritan Boy, the Canadian Boy ofTo-day, Child Life in Canada (_a_) in the early days, (_b_) to-day onthe farm and in the city or town; occupations, games, and plays, etc. 

 Consult _Ten Little Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till Now_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co. , 50c. 

STORIES OF FAMOUS PEOPLE:

Boadicea, Alfred, Harold, First Prince of Wales, Sir Francis Drake, SirWalter Raleigh, Columbus, Cabot, Cartier, Champlain, Madeleine deVerchères, Pontiac, Brock, Laura Secord, Florence Nightingale. 

 Consult _The Story of the British People_, Thomas Nelson & Sons, Toronto, 35c. (For Florence Nightingale, see Appendix. )

PIONEER LIFE:

In Ancient Britain: See _Second Reader_, p. 109; _Ontario Public SchoolHistory of England_, p. 10. 

In Roman Britain: See _The Story of The British People_, pp. 18-24. 

Old English Life: See _Third Reader_, p. 325; _Ontario High SchoolHistory of England_, pp. 33-40. 

At the Close of the French Period in Canada: See _Fourth Reader_, p. 65. 

In Upper Canada in the "Thirties": See _Fourth Reader_, p. 122. 

Our Forefathers: Where they lived before coming here, how they got here, hardships in travel, condition of the country at that time, how theycleared the land, their homes, their difficulties, danger from wildanimals, the natives of the country, modes of travel, implements andtools, etc. 

 Consult _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada_, Briggs, $2. 00; _Ontario High School History of Canada_. 

INVENTORS:

Watt, Stephenson, Fulton, Bell, Edison, Marconi. 

CIVICS:

Elementary lessons in local government:

(_a_) In cities, towns, and incorporated villages--the postmaster, (seeIllustrative Lesson, p. 65), the postman and policeman; city or townhall, post-office, mail boxes, school-houses. 

(_b_) For rural districts--postmaster, trustees, roads and bridges, rural mail delivery. 

SPECIAL DAYS:

Empire Day, Victoria Day, Dominion Day; local occasions such as FairDay, Election Day; review of those Days taken in Form I. 

FORMS III AND IV

PRELIMINARY NOTE

Below are the topics and sub-topics of the Course in History for FormsIII and IV. 

In dealing with the subject in both Forms, the teacher should keepconstantly in mind the chief aims suited to this stage of the pupil'sdevelopment. (See pp. 16, 17. ) The most vital of these is "to create andfoster a liking for historical study. " The teacher should make use ofsimple map drawing to illustrate the subject. This is especiallynecessary in dealing with the history of Canada. There should be muchillustration by means of maps and pictures. See Educational Pamphlet No. 4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_. 

The chapter numbers in the Course for Form III are those of the chaptersin _The Story of the British People_ prescribed for the Form. Thesechapters should be carefully read and, in Form IV, the authorizedtext-books should be followed for the main account. _Having regard tothe time available for the Course, only the most important detailsshould be taken up. _

FORM III

JUNIOR GRADE

CANADIAN HISTORY

 Columbus--The Discovery of America (Chap. XX) John Cabot and the New World (Chap. XXI) Jacques Cartier (Chap. XXIII) Raleigh and Gilbert (Chap. XXVI) The Beginnings of Acadia (Chap. XXVII) Champlain, the Father of New France (Chap. XXVIII) The Pilgrim Fathers (Chap. XXIX) The Jesuits in Canada (Chap. XXXI) The Settlement of French Canada (Chap. XXXI) La Salle (Chap. XXXIV) Henry Hudson--New York and Hudson Bay (Chap. XXXV) Frontenac (Chaps. XXXIV, XXXVII) The Conquest of Canada--Wolfe and Montcalm, Pontiac (Chap. XLI) The Coming of the Loyalists (Chap. XLII) How Canada Fought for the Empire (Chap. XLIV) William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XLVI) The Great North-West--Selkirk, Mackenzie, Strathcona, Riel (Chap. XLVII) Canada and the Empire--Royal Visitors (Chap. L)

FORM III

SENIOR GRADE

BRITISH HISTORY

 The First Britons (Chap. I) The Coming of the Romans (Chap. II) A Day in Roman Britain (Chap. III) The Coming of the English (Chap. IV) The Coming of Christianity (Chap. V) The Vikings (Chap. VI) Alfred the Great (Chap. VII) Rivals for a Throne (Chap. VIII) The Coming of the Normans (Chap. IX) A Norman Castle (Chap. X) A Glance at Scotland (Chap. XI) Henry the Second and Ireland (Chap. XII) Richard the Lion Heart (Chap. XIII) King John and the Great Charter (Chap. XIV) The First Prince of Wales (Chap. XV) Wallace and Bruce (Chaps. XVI, XVII) The Black Prince (Chap. XVIII) The Father of the British Navy (Chap. XXII) The New Worship (Chap. XXIV) Francis Drake, Sea-dog (Chap. XXV) King Charles the First (Chap. XXX) The Rule of Cromwell (Chap. XXXII) The King Enjoys his Own again (Chap. XXXIII) The Revolution and After (Chap. XXXVI) The Greatest Soldier of his Time (Chap. XXXVIII) Bonnie Prince Charlie (Chap. XXXIX) Robert Clive, the Daring in War (Chap. XL) The Terror of Europe (Chap. XLIII) Waterloo (Chap. XLV) Victoria the Good (Chaps. XLVI, XLVIII, XLIX)

CIVICS

Review of the work in Form II; election of town or township council;taxes--the money people pay to keep up schools and roads, etc. ; howlocal taxes are levied for the support of the school; election ofmembers of County Council, of members of Provincial Legislature; dutiesof citizenship. 

FORM IV

JUNIOR GRADE

CANADIAN HISTORY

Before the British Conquest--an introductory account:

The French settlements: Extent, life of the seignior, habitant, andcoureur de bois; system of trade; government at Quebec--governor, bishop, intendant; territorial claims (Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XI)

The English settlements--Hudson's Bay Company, English colonies in NewYork, New England, Acadia, and Newfoundland; population, life, trade, government, territorial claims (Chaps. VIII, X, XI)

British Conquest of New France--fall of Quebec (Chap. XI)

Conspiracy of Pontiac (Chap. XII)

Quebec Act (Chap. XII)

Canada and the American Revolution; U. E. Loyalists (Chaps. XIII, XV)

Constitutional Act--Representative Government (Chap. XIV)

Social Conditions, 1763-1812 (Chap. XV)

Hudson's Bay Company (Chaps. VIII, XVI, XXI)

North-West Company (Chap. XVI)

Exploration in North-West--Hearne, Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson (Chap. XVI)

War of 1812-14 (Chap. XVII)

Family Compact (Chap. XVII)

Clergy Reserves (Chap. XVII)

William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XVII)

Lord Durham, Act of Union, 1840--Responsible Government (Chap. XVIII)

Social Progress, 1812-1841 (Chap. XIX)

Settlement of the North-West--Selkirk (Chaps. XVI, XX)

Confederation of the Provinces, 1867 (Chap. XXII)

Intercolonial Railway (Chap. XXIV)

Expansion of the Dominion by addition of new provinces (Chap. XXII)

Social Progress, 1841-1867 (Chap. XXIII)

Canadian Pacific Railway (Chap. XXIV)

Riel Rebellion (Chap. XXIV)

Disputes between Canada and the United States since 1814 settled bytreaty or arbitration. The Hundred Years of Peace

Canada, at the opening of the twentieth century; transportation, industry, means of defence, education (Chap. XXV)

Ontario since Confederation: John Sandfield Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat, Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Sir George W. Ross, Sir James P. Whitney (Chap. XXVI)

An account of how Canada is governed, simple and concrete and as far aspossible related to the experience of the pupils; Municipal Government, Provincial Government, Federal Government (Chap. XXVII)

FORM IV

SENIOR GRADE

BRITISH HISTORY

A

_A Course of about Two Months_

The Early Inhabitants--The Britons

The Coming of the Romans

The Coming of the Saxons

The Coming of Christianity

Alfred the Great

The Coming of the Normans--The Feudal System

Richard I and the Crusaders

John and Magna Charta

The Scottish War of Independence

The Hundred Years' War--Crecy, Agincourt, Joan of Arc. 

The Wars of the Roses (no lists of battles or details of fighting)

Caxton and Printing

Separation between the English Church and Rome

B

_A Course of about Eight Months_

Brief account of the British Isles, territorial, political, andreligious, as an introduction to the reign of Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots; the Spanish Armada; Drake, Hawkins, Gilbert, Raleigh, Shakespeare. 

The Stuarts: "Divine Right of Kings" supported by majority of gentry andlandowners (cavaliers), opposed by the commercial and trading classesand yeomen (roundheads). The Kings strove for absolute power, theParliament for constitutional government. 

James I: Union of the English and Scottish Crowns. 

Charles I: Struggle between King and Parliament; Petition of Right, ShipMoney, rebellion, execution of Charles. 

Commonwealth: nominally a republic, really a dictatorship underCromwell. He gave Britain a strong government at home, and made herrespected abroad, and laid the foundations of Britain's foreign tradeand colonial empire. 

Charles II: The Restoration: Reaction in state, church, and society;King striving for absolute power; Nonconformists persecuted; societyprofligate in its revolt against the strictness of Puritanism; HabeasCorpus Act; Test Act; Plague and Great Fire. 

James II: Revolution of 1688, the death-knell of "divine right";Parliament supreme; Declaration of Rights. 

William and Mary: Party government--Whigs and Tories; King to act byadvice of his ministers; each parliament limited to three years; Bill ofRights; Act of Settlement. 

Anne: Marlborough; Union between England and Scotland, 1707; theJacobites, 1715 and 1745. 

George II: Walpole, the great peace minister--home and colonial tradefostered and material wealth of the nation greatly increased; Pitt, thegreat war minister; territorial expansion in Canada and India--Wolfe, Clive; the Methodist Movement, Wesley. 

George III: The American Revolution, 1776-83: loss of the AmericanColonies; Pitt; Washington; acquisition of Australia by Great Britain, 1788; legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, 1801; Napoleonicwars; Nelson, Wellington, Aboukir, Trafalgar, and Waterloo; industrialrevolution--the change from an agricultural to an industrial country. 

William IV: Reform Act of 1832, a great forward movement in democraticgovernment; abolition of slavery, 1833; railways and steamships. 

Victoria: First British settlement in New Zealand, 1839; Repeal of theCorn Laws, 1846--free trade, the commercial policy of England;Elementary Education Act, 1870, education compulsory; parliamentaryfranchise extended--vote by ballot; Crimean war; Indian Mutiny; Egyptand the Suez Canal; Boer War--Orange Free State and South AfricanRepublic annexed; social progress. 

Edward VII: Irish Land Act of 1903; pensions for aged labourers; KingEdward, "the Peace-maker. "

CIVICS

Taxation--direct and indirect; how the revenue of the Dominion, provinces, and municipalities, respectively, is collected. 

Federal Government--Governor-general, Senate, House of Commons, Premier, Cabinet. 

Imperial Government--King, House of Lords, House of Commons, Premier, Cabinet. 

HISTORY

CHAPTER I

THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY

AIMS

History may be made, in several ways, an important factor in formingintelligent, patriotic citizens:

(_a_) It must be remembered that society, with all its institutions, isa growth, not a sudden creation. It follows that, if we wish tounderstand the present and to use that knowledge as a guide to futureaction, we must know the story of how our present institutions andconditions have come to be what they are; we must know the ideals of ourforefathers, the means they took to realize them, and to what extentthey succeeded. It is only in this way that we become capable of passingjudgment, as citizens, on what is proposed by political and socialreformers, and thus justify and guarantee our existence as a democracy. 

(_b_) Patriotism, which depends largely on the associations formed inchildhood, is intensified by learning how our forefathers fought andlaboured and suffered to obtain all that we now value most in our homesand social life. The courage with which the early settlers of UpperCanada faced their tremendous labours and hardships should make usappreciate our inheritance in the Ontario of to-day, and determine, asthey did, to leave our country better than we found it. 

 To-morrow yet would reap to-day, As we bear blossom of the dead. 

(_c_) "History teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions. " Thestudy of history, especially in the sphere of biography, has a moralvalue, and much may be done, even in the primary classes, to inspirechildren to admire the heroic and the self-sacrificing, and to despisethe treacherous and the self-seeking. The constant struggle to rightwhat is wrong in the world may be emphasized in the senior classes toshow that nothing is ever settled until it is settled right. 

(_d_) History affords specially good exercise for the judgment we use ineveryday life in weighing evidence and balancing probabilities. Such aquestion as "Did Champlain do right in taking the side of the Huronsagainst the Iroquois, or even in taking sides at all?" may be suggestedto the older pupils for consideration. 

(_e_) History, when taught by a broad-minded, well-informed teacher, maydo much to correct the prejudices--social, political, religious--ofindividuals and communities. 

(_f_) The imagination is exercised in the effort to recall orreconstruct the scenes of the past and in discovering relations of causeand effect. 

(_g_) The memory is aided and stimulated by the increase in the numberof the centres of interest round which facts, both new and old, may begrouped. 

(_h_) A knowledge of the facts and inferences of history is invaluablefor general reading and culture. 

To sum up: It is important that the good citizen should know hisphysical environment; it is just as important for him "to know hissocial and political environment, to have some appreciation of thenature of the state and society, some sense of the duties andresponsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with politicaland governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spiritwhich is bred by the study of past times and conditions. "

SCOPE

The ideal course in history would include (1) a general view of thehistory of the world, giving the pupil knowledge enough to provide theproper setting for the history of his own country; (2) a more detailedknowledge of the whole history of his own country; (3) and a specialknowledge of certain outstanding periods or tendencies in that history. In our schools, we should give most attention to the study of Canadianand British history as a whole, to enough of the history of Franceand other countries to make clear certain parts of our own history, and to certain important periods, such as the settlement of UpperCanada by the United Empire Loyalists, etc. (See Detailed Course ofStudy, p. 5. ) We may also study our history along special lines ofdevelopment--political, military, social, educational, religious, industrial, and commercial--but these phases are subjects of studyrather for secondary schools and colleges. 

STAGES OF STUDY

There are three stages in the study of history which, though theyoverlap each other, yet indicate different methods of treatment forpupils at different ages. They are the Story stage, the Informationstage, and the Reflective stage. These stages are not exclusive, nor dothey coincide with the first three Forms in the schools. 

THE STORY STAGE

This stage is suitable for children in the primary grades and is chieflypreparatory to the real study of history in the higher grades. The needfor this stage lies in the fact that the child's "ideas are of thepictorial rather than of the abstract order"; yet his spontaneousinterest in these things must be made to serve "as a stepping-stone tothe acquired interests of civilized life. " The definite objects at thisstage are:

(_a_) To create and foster a liking for historical study. It isimpossible, in the public school life of a child, which is usually endedat the age of twelve to fourteen years, to accomplish all that has beenindicated above concerning the aims of history teaching. The most thatcan be done is to lay the foundation and give the pupil a desire tocontinue his reading after his school days are over. Serious blame restson the teacher whose methods of teaching history, instead of attractingthe child to the subject, give him a distaste for it. If history is madereal and living to children, it is usually not difficult to have themlike it. (For suggestions, see p. 34. )

(_b_) To acquaint the pupils with some of the important historicalpersons. We wish to take advantage of the fact that "the primitive formof attention which is captured at once by objects that strike the sensesis giving place in some degree to appreciative attention, which isyielded to things that connect themselves with what we already know, andwhich implies ability to adopt the reflective attitude towards aproposed problem. "[A] Now children are more interested in people than ininstitutions or events; and, if we can give them a knowledge of some ofthe striking incidents in the lives of important characters in history, we may expect them to be more interested in the study of history at alater period, because they will frequently meet with these familiarnames. The emphasis at this stage is therefore on biography. 

[Footnote A: Raymont: _Principles of Education_]

(_c_) To help the development of the "historical sense. " The "historicalsense" includes the notion of time, the notion of a social unit and, according to some, the notion of cause and effect. The notion of timeimplies the power "to represent the past as if it were present"--thatis, the power to enter into the thoughts and feelings of people of thepast as if we were living amongst them. This notion of time comes atdifferent ages; to some early, to others very late. It came to ProfessorShaler at the age of about eight or nine years, as the direct result ofvivid story-telling:

 Of all the folk who were about me, the survivors of the Indian wars were the most interesting. There were several of these old clapper-clawed fellows still living, with their more or less apocryphal tales of adventures they had heard of or shared. There was current a tradition--I have seen it in print--that there had been a fight between the Indians and whites where the government barracks stood, and that two wounded whites had been left upon the ground, where they were not found by the savages. One of these had both arms broken, the other was similarly disabled as to his legs. It was told that they managed to subsist by combining their limited resources. The man with sound legs drove game up within range of the other cripple's gun, and as the turkeys or rabbits fell, he kicked them within reach of his hands, and in like manner provided him with sticks for their fire. This legend, much elaborated in the telling, gave me, I believe at about my eighth year, my first sense of a historic past, and it led to much in the way of fanciful invention of like tales. (N. F. Shaler: _Autobiography_, Chap. I. )

The best means at the teacher's command to assist its coming is to tellgood stories from history with all the skill he has; the stories neednot be told in chronological order. The notion of time implies also inthe older pupils the power to place events in chronological order. 

The notion of a social unit is also of slow growth and must spring fromthe child's conception of the social units he belongs to--the home, theschool, the community. 

The notion of cause and effect does not belong so wholly to the study ofhistory as the notions of time and of the social unit; it is surprising, however, how soon it makes its appearance in the child's conceptions ofhistory, in his desire to know the "why" of things. (See Barnes'_Studies in Historical Method_. )

THE INFORMATION STAGE

There are several questions that children soon come to ask: "When?" and"Where?" "What?" and "Who?" This stage may be said to begin in earnestwith the Second Form, and it continues through the whole course. One ofthe essential elements in history study is to have a knowledge of theimportant facts of history, without which there can be no inferences ofvalue for present use. The all-important point in this teaching of factsis to keep the lessons interesting and not allow them to become merelifeless memorizing of isolated happenings; for a fact is of value onlywhen related to other facts. (See pp. 36, 38. )

THE REFLECTIVE STAGE

This stage naturally follows the Information stage, as one must acquirefacts before reflecting on them in order to draw inferences. Butreflection of a simple kind may begin as soon as any facts are giventhat will show the relations of cause and effect. The question for thepupil here is "Why?" just as in the preceding stage the questions were"When?" and "Where?" "What?" and "Who?" Information and reflection maytherefore be combined--with due regard to the pupil's capacity. 

PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES

We may speak of two difficulties. The first concerns the enormous amountof historical material that exists. It is increased still more by theintermingling of legend with history and by the partial narratives ofprejudiced writers. The legendary part may be taken up in the Storystage; and the evils of one-sided accounts are often balanced by thegreater vigour and interest of the narrative, as in Macaulay's writings. The difficulty connected with the great amount of material can be solvedby the selection (already largely made by the text-books) of the moreimportant parts, that is, those facts of history that have the greatestinfluence on after times--"the points of vital growth and largeconnection" without which subsequent history cannot be properlyunderstood. 

The second difficulty has to do with deciding where to begin theteaching of history. There are two principles of teaching that will helpto solve this difficulty: (1) The child learns by relating everythingnew to his present fund of experiences; (2) A child's notions grow morecomplex as his knowledge increases. To apply these, we must know thechild's experiences and his present notions. We cannot assume that thepresent conditions of social life are known to the child through hisexperiences. Our social life is also too complex to be understood by himyet; he can understand an _individual_ hero better than he can thecomplex idea of a _nation_. How many children would be able to begin astudy of history by having, as one writer suggests, "a short series oflessons . .. To make some simple and fundamental historical ideasintelligible--a state, a nation, a dynasty, a monarch, a parliament, legislation, the administration of justice, taxes, civil and foreignwar!" These are ideas far beyond the comprehension of the beginner. Wemust be guided, not by "what happens to be near the child in time andplace, but by what lies near his interests. " As Professor Bourne says:"it may be that mediæval man, because his characteristics belong to asimple type, is closer to the experience of a child than many a laterhero. " With older children it is more likely to be true that the life ofhistory lies "in its personal connections with what is here and now andstill alive with us"; with historic places and relics, etc. , which maketheir appeal first through the senses; with institutions, such as trialby jury; with anniversaries and celebrations of great events which maybe used to arouse interest in the history which they suggest and recall. 

However, as McMurry points out, we are in a peculiarly favourableposition in Canada, because we have in our own history, in thecomparatively short time of 400 years, the development of a free andprosperous country from a state of wildness and savagery. The earlystages of our history present those elements of life that appealstrongly to children--namely, Indians with all their ways of living andfighting, and the early settlers with their simpler problems anddifficulties. The development of this simpler life to the more complexlife of the present can be more readily understood by children as theyfollow up the changes that have taken place. (See McMurry, _SpecialMethod in History_, pp. 26-30. ) Of course, at every step appeal must bemade to the experiences of children, as the teacher knows them. InCivics, however, the beginning must be made with conditions that existto-day--schools, taxes, the policeman, the postmaster, etc. Thebeginning of the real teaching of history may then be made at thebeginning of Canadian History, as this will enable the child to gogradually from the simple, or individual, to the complex, and will alsoallow the teacher to make use of whatever historical remains may bewithin reach. 

CHAPTER II

GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

There are many methods used in the teaching of history. A briefdescription of the principal ones is given for reference merely, sincetheir best features are incorporated in a combination of methods, whichis strongly recommended to teachers, and is described fully insucceeding pages. 

1. _Methods based on the arrangement and selection of the matter_:Chronological, Topical

THE CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD

The matter is chosen according to the "time" order, beginning at thefirst of the history, and the events are taught in the order ofoccurrence without any marked emphasis on their importance, or withoutconsidering whether a knowledge of the event is useful or interesting tothe class at this stage. Such an arrangement of matter is more suitablewhen the formal study of history is begun. 

THE TOPICAL METHOD

In studying a certain period of history the events are arranged undertopics or heads; for example, the period of discovery in CanadianHistory may be arranged thus--Discoveries, Explorations, EarlySettlements, Indian Wars--and the study of each of these pursued tocompletion, contemporary events belonging to other topics beingneglected for a time. 

Events having the same underlying purpose, though occurring in differentperiods, may be arranged under one topic for review; for example, allthe voyages of discovery to America may be grouped under the topic, "TheRoad to Cathay. " (See p. 92. ) In this way a comprehensive knowledge isgained. This method gives a full treatment of each topic and may be usedto best advantage in connection with reviews in junior classes andoccasionally as a text-book or library exercise in senior classes. 

2. _Methods based on the treatment of historical facts_: Comparative, Regressive, Concentric

THE COMPARATIVE METHOD

By this method a comparison is made between two events, two biographies, two reigns, etc. , a very useful device when applied in connection withother methods. 

THE REGRESSIVE METHOD

In this method the pupil is expected to begin with the present and workbackward; that is, to begin with institutions as they are to-day and towork back through the various steps in their progress to their presentstate. This method may be followed most profitably in advanced classes. In junior classes it is sufficient to refer to things as they existto-day in order to arouse curiosity regarding the facts of history thatare to be taught; for example, by the use of local material; by a visitto some place of historical interest to prepare for the story of whathas occurred there in the past. (See p. 112. )

THE CONCENTRIC METHOD

This method, which is much used, deals in ever widening circles with thesame topic or event; for example, a simple story of Champlain's lifeand voyages to Canada is told to Form II; the same story is consideredagain in Form III, but this time the different voyages are noted, theresults of each investigated, and the whole summarized and memorized;again, in Form IV, but this time by the topical and comparative methods, where comparison is made of the purposes and achievements of theexplorer with those of other explorers--Jacques Cartier, La Salle, etc. In this third discussion a full knowledge of Champlain's work is given. 

The excellence of this work lies in its review and repetition. The oldor former knowledge is recalled and used in each succeeding discussionof the topic. The pupils grow gradually into fuller knowledge. 

3. _Methods based on class procedure_: Oral, Text-book

THE ORAL METHOD

This usually takes the form of an oral presentation of the story ordescription of the event by the teacher, while the pupils listen andafterwards reproduce what they have heard. The narration of the story isaccompanied by pictures, sketches, maps, etc. , illustrative of persons, places, and facts mentioned. It may also take the "development" form, inwhich a combination of narrative and questioning is employed. (See pp. 66, 92. )

The Lecture method of Colleges and Universities is an advanced oralmethod. In this the teacher narrates and describes events, propoundsquestions, and discusses and answers them himself, while the pupilslisten and during the lecture, or afterwards, make notes of what hasbeen heard. 

THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD

By this method the teacher assigns a lesson in the book and, after thepupils have an opportunity to study it, he asks questions concerning thefacts learned. The exclusive use of this method results ordinarily indull, lifeless teaching, and with junior pupils will prevent theirenjoying, or receiving much benefit from, the study of history. Thereare two reasons for the too general use of it--first, it is an easymethod for the teacher, and secondly, it is easy for the pupils tomemorize facts for the sole purpose of passing examinations. While thiscriticism is true when an exclusive use is made of the text-book, thesame cannot be said when the text-book is used as an auxiliary to theteacher. Following the oral presentation of the story, reference may bemade to the book for another version or for a fuller account and, inForm IV, topics may be assigned and the pupils directed to consult thetext-book for the necessary information. (See pp. 26, 28. )

The text-book should be one that does not show an abrupt change from thestory told by the teacher. It should not be merely a short outline ofthe important facts in history, written separately and then piecedtogether in chronological order, but should be written in a readableform by one who is able to distinguish the important and necessary fromthe unimportant and burdensome. It should have short summaries at theends of chapters or stories of events, so that a grasp of what has beenread may be easily obtained. It should also have many pictures, illustrations, and maps, to take the place of the teacher's explanationsin the earlier stage. (On the use of the text-book, see p. 29. )

A COMBINATION OF THESE METHODS

General Description. --As each of the above methods has its strong andits weak points, we should attempt to combine the strong points into onemethod, varied to keep pace with the mental development of the pupil, and thus secure the best results. The general outline of such acombination may be given as follows: The "oral story" is to be used inthe junior classes, with "development" problems presented where helpful;in Form III the pupils should be introduced to the text-book (TheHistory Reader for Form III), besides being taught by the oral method;in Form IV, the oral method is still to be the chief means used by theteacher, who will now, however, pay more attention to the arrangement ofthe matter (for example, in topical outlines), to accustom the pupils tograsp more thoroughly the relations of cause and effect in history. Thetopics of history will also be taken up more exhaustively than in thejunior classes, and the pupils must have more practice in acquiringknowledge from the text-books. 

DETAILS OF METHOD

FORMS I, II

In Forms I and II, the pupils are accustomed to the oral reproduction ofstories told by the teacher. In these should be included a good manyhistorical stories, such as those suggested in the Course of Study inHistory for these Forms; they will serve the usual purposes of oralreproduction work for composition and literature, and will be, besides, a good foundation for the study of history in the higher forms. (Forobjects of the Story stage, see p. 16. )

The oral presentation of a story or description of an event requires acertain degree of skill on the part of a teacher--skill instory-telling, in grasping the important parts of the story ordescription, in knowing what details to omit as well as what to narrate, in explaining the story in a way that will make it real to the pupils, in preparing pictures and sketches to illustrate the different parts, and in questioning so that the minds of the pupils will be active aswell as receptive. The care and time necessary to secure this skill willbe well repaid by the interest aroused in history, by the appreciationof the thoughts thus presented, and by the lasting impressions conveyed. Simple, clear language should be employed, not necessarily small words, but words whose meaning is made clear by the context or illustration. (For material for these Forms, see Bibliography, C, p. 132. )

When the whole story is told, revision may be made by having the pupilsreproduce it after suitable questioning, either immediately or at somefuture time. Exercises in reproduction may also be given, for eitherseat work or class work, in constructive or art work; for example, afterthe story of the North American Indians, the pupils may be asked toconstruct a wigwam, a canoe, a bow and arrow, or to make pictures ofIndians, of their houses, of their dress, etc. 

Further exercise in composition may also be given by having the pupilswrite the story. To each pupil may be assigned a special part; forexample, the story of Moses may be divided thus: (1) As a babe; (2) Hisadoption by the Princess; (3) His life at the palace; (4) His flight toMidian; (5) The Burning Bush, etc. The whole story is then reproduced byhaving these parts read aloud in a reading lesson. 

FORM III

The value of the oral work done in Forms I and II will be realized bythe teacher when the real study of history is begun in Forms III andIV. The pupils have a liking for the stories of history and have aknowledge of some of the leading actors and of the chief events inhistory that calls for more complete satisfaction. 

There are several methods of using the History Reader which is the basisof the work in Form III. Perhaps the best method is to continue to makeoral teaching the chief feature, and to add to that the use by thepupils, in various ways, of the History Reader. 

For example, the teacher will tell the story of Jacques Cartier, following in the main the narrative as given in the History Reader. Itis well, however, not to follow it too closely in order that, when thepupils come to read the story in the book for themselves, they will findit an interesting combination of the familiar and the new. For thatreason, it will be necessary for the teacher to have prepared the storyfrom a somewhat different narrative in some other book at her command. In the telling of the story, problems may be asked, if thought advisable(see p. 33); a few headings may be placed on the black-board forsubsequent reproduction, oral or written, by the pupils; alldifficulties of pronunciation, especially of proper names, should beattended to, orally and on the black-board; the places mentioned shouldbe found on the map; pictures and sketches should be used; and in fact, every possible means taken to make the narrative more real to the class. (See p. 34. )

When the oral teaching is finished, the pupils may have the books toread at their desks, and they often ask permission to take them home. They may sometimes be required to read aloud from the History Reader forsupplementary practice in oral reading. Reproduction by the pupils, either immediately or in a subsequent lesson, should follow. Teachers, however, are advised not to insist on too much written reproduction, asthat might very easily arouse a dislike for both history and writtencomposition. Procedure as outlined above has had most gratifying resultsin the way of creating a liking for, and an intelligent interest in, thestudy of history. 

Other methods have also had good results. The teacher may, instead oftelling the story, read aloud from the Reader to pave the way for thereading of the story by the pupils themselves. Difficulties, either inlanguage or in meaning, may be taken up as in a literature lesson. Thepupils will at first find the reading somewhat difficult, but theinterest generated by the teacher's reading or oral narrative will carrythem through that stage till they acquire a love for reading history, and have enlarged their vocabulary till reading is no longer aburdensome task. 

A taste of the more serious study of history may be given by asking thepupils a few not very difficult questions that they can answer only bycombining facts contained in several stories. For example, in thechapters selected for Form III, Junior Grade, the answer can be found toa question about the explorers of Canada, the order of their visits, anda comparison of their work; to another question about the expansion ofCanada from the little part of Quebec first visited to the whole ofBritish North America. 

It is unnecessary, perhaps, to add that the emphasis in Form III historyshould be still very largely on biography, so as to influence theforming of moral ideals by concrete examples. 

FORM IV

Although the pupils have now had some experience in the use of theHistory Reader, yet that is no reason why oral teaching should bediscarded in Form IV history, any more than in arithmetic or geography. It is scarcely a high estimate to have of history, to think that pupilsof this age can grasp even the simpler lines of development in historywithout guidance from the teacher. Hence it is necessary for theattainment of good results, that many of the lessons should be taughtorally before the pupils are asked to study their books. The aim of theteaching should be not merely the acquisition of facts, but the weldingof them together in a sequence of cause and effect, and the pupils atthis stage can scarcely be expected to do that for themselves. 

In preparing for a lesson in Form IV history, the teacher should analysethe incidents of the period to be studied, should see how certain causeshave led to certain results, and should be sure enough of the facts tohave little recourse to the text-book while teaching. It does not looklike fair play to expect a class to answer questions that the teachercannot answer without consulting the text. On the other hand, it isrefreshing to see the interest aroused in a class by a teacher whothinks enough of the subject to be able to teach it without constantreference to the text-book. Therefore, let the oral method be here againthe chief dependence of the teacher. In such a lesson, for example, asthat on the Intercolonial Railway (see p. 82) no book is needed--onlythe map and the black-board. 

TRAINING IN USE OF TEXT-BOOK

However, as the pupils must learn, for their own profit in after years, how to read history without a guiding hand, they need training in theuse of the text-book. The chief line on which such training may proceedis to have the pupils search out the answers to definite questions. Anyone who has searched for material on a certain topic will appreciatethe good results that have come in the way of added knowledge andincreased interest. The topics at first should be quite simple, gradually increasing in breadth. A few suggestions for such work aregiven below; they may be called examination questions to be answeredwith the help of the text-book:

 1. Name, and tell something about, four of the explorers of Canada before 1759. 

 2. Name several other explorers of the New World. 

 3. Which explorer did the most for Canada, Champlain or La Salle?

 4. In what wars did the French fight against the Iroquois? With what result?

 5. What explorers of North America were trying to find a way to China and India? (This investigation by the class may precede the lesson on the "Road to Cathay. " See p. 92. )

 6. On what did English kings base their claim to be the overlords of Scotland? Trace the dispute down to the Union of the Crowns in 1603. 

 7. Find out how the slave trade was treated by the English. 

 8. Make a list of the early newspapers in Canada. Did they have much influence on public opinion?

 9. Compare the struggles for the control of taxation in Canada and in the Thirteen Colonies of America. Explain why these were settled differently in the two cases. 

With questions such as these for investigation, no pupil will be likelyto secure the full facts; each may state in the next lesson what he hasfound, and the work of each will be supplemented by that of the others. With succeeding investigations it may be expected that the pupils willbe more eager to get at all the facts in the text-book. At any rate theyare learning how to gather material from books--a very valuabletraining, no matter how simple the topic is. 

When, in the ordinary course of work, lessons from the text-book areassigned, the teacher should indicate the important points, shouldsuggest certain matters for discussion, and should note certainquestions to be answered, indicating precisely where the information maybe obtained. In the recitation period following, the topic should befully discussed, the pupils giving the information they have securedfrom the text-book, and the teacher supplementing this from hisknowledge gained through wider reading. During the discussion an outlineshould be made on the board, largely by the suggestions of the pupils, and kept in their note-books for reference and review. (See p. 100, Lesson on the Feudal System. )

DRILL AND REVIEW

As has been already stated (p. 15), the Story stage is useful chieflyfor the purpose of arousing interest and developing the historicalsense; no drill or review is necessary other than the oral, and, in FormII, sometimes the written, reproduction of the stories. The oralreproduction can be obtained in Form I by using the stories as topics inlanguage lessons. 

In the Information stage, where we are concerned more with the acquiringof facts, and in the Reflective stage, where we wish to relate facts toeach other according to cause and effect, drills and reviews arenecessary. During the lesson, a summary is placed on the black-board bythe teacher or pupil, as indicated above. It is used as a guide in oralreproduction and may also be copied in special note-books and used forreference when preparing for review lessons. The teacher may look overthese note-books occasionally. 

There is great difference of opinion on the value of note-taking bypupils, but it may be said of such notes as those mentioned above thatthey have the advantage of being largely the pupil's own work, especially when the pupils are asked to suggest the headings; they are arecord of what has been decided in the class to be important points;they are arranged in the order in which the subject has been treated inthe lesson, and are in every way superior to the small note-books inhistory that are sometimes used as aids or helps. For the properteaching of history, the latter are hindrances rather than helps, because they rob the pupil of the profit gained by doing the work forhimself. Notes obtained from books or dictated by the teacher areharmful to the right spirit of study, and create a distaste for thesubject. 

Special review lessons should be taken when a series of lessons on onetopic, or on a series of connected topics, has been finished. At theclose of each lesson, the facts learned are fixed more firmly in themind by the usual drill; but there must be further organization of theseveral lessons by a proper review, so that history will not be a numberof unconnected events, but will be seen as an orderly development. Thismay be accomplished: (1) by questioning the class from a point of viewdifferent from that taken in the first lessons, (2) by oral or writtenexpansion of a topical outline, (3) by illustrations with maps ordrawings, (4) by tracing the sequence of events backwards, (5) bysubmitting some new situation that will recall the old knowledge in adifferent way. It must be remembered that it is not a mere repetitionthat we seek, but a _re-view_ of the facts, a new view that will provethe power of the pupils to use the knowledge they have gained. Thus thelesson on the St. Lawrence River (p. 112) is a good review of the factsof history suggested by the places mentioned; the lesson on the Road toCathay (p. 92) may be considered a review of the chief explorers ofNorth America. Such a review aims at seeing new relations, at connectingnew knowledge and old, at "giving freshness and vividness to knowledgethat may be somewhat faded, at throwing a number of discrete facts intoa bird's-eye view. "

THE USE OF PROBLEMS IN TEACHING HISTORY

The development, or problem, method is intended to get the pupils to dosome independent thinking, instead of merely absorbing knowledge fromthe teacher. The plan is simply to set clearly before the pupils theconditions existing at a certain moment in the story so that they maysee for themselves the difficulties that the people in the story had toovercome. The question for the class is: "What would you do in thecircumstances?"

Let us take an example from the life of Ulysses. Ulysses had heard ofthe Sirens, who sang so beautifully that any one in a passing ship whoheard them was impelled to throw himself overboard, with a franticdesire to swim to their island. Naturally the swimmers were all drownedin the attempt. Ulysses desired to hear for himself the wonderfulsinging, and to experience, perhaps, its terrible effect; but hecertainly did not want to run any risk of drowning. Now, how did heaccomplish his desire, without paying the penalty?

Again, in the story of Madeleine de Verchères, the narrative may proceedto the point where Madeleine has succeeded in securing the gates. Shefinds herself in a weak fort with few to help her, and outside anumerous band of Indians, who are kept at bay for a whole week, withouteven attempting their usual night attacks. How did she do it?

In the case of the U. E. Loyalists, the teacher may narrate the story tothe point where the Loyalists, after the treaty was signed, saw thatthey must remove to Canada. The class must know where the Loyalistcentres in the New England States were. Now, what routes would they belikely to take in going to Canada? With the map before them, the classcan usually tell the next part of the story themselves. 

Even if the pupil is not able to give the correct answer to the problemsubmitted, he is nevertheless having an opportunity to exercise hisjudgment, he can see wherein his judgment differs from that of thepersons concerned, his interest in their actions is increased, and thewhole story will be more deeply impressed on his memory. 

HOW TO MAKE HISTORY REAL

The chief difficulty in teaching history is to give a meaning to thelanguage of history. Much of the language is merely empty words. TheMagna Charta and the Clergy Reserves mean just about as much to pupilsas _x_ does in algebra, and even when they give a definition ordescription of these terms, it usually amounts to saying that _x_ equals_y_; the definition is just as vague as the original terms. The problemis to give the language more meaning, to ensure that the words givemental pictures and ideas; in short, to turn the abstract into concretefacts. 

Children can make their own only such knowledge as their experiencehelps them to interpret. Their interests are in the present, and thepast appeals to them just so far as they can see in it their ownactivities, thoughts, and feelings. The great aim of the teacher, then, should be to help pupils to translate the facts of history into terms oftheir own experiences; unless that is done, they are really not learninganything. Some of the ways in which this may be attempted are outlinedbelow. 

1. In the junior classes where the children are intensely interested instories, the stress should be put on giving them _interesting personaldetails_ about the famous people in history, details that they canunderstand with their limited experiences of life, and that will appealto their emotions. These stories should be told to the pupils with suchvividness and animation that they will struggle with Columbus against amutinous crew, will help the early explorers to blaze their way throughthe dense forests, will toil with the pioneers in making homes forthemselves in Canada, and will suffer with the missionaries in theirhardships and perils. 

For these pupils the oral method is the only one to use, for there isnothing that appeals to children more quickly and with more reality thanwhat they _hear_ from the teacher. The oral method should find a largeplace in the teaching of history in all the Forms. It may be added thatthe teachers who use this method will find history become a more realand interesting study to themselves. 

2. What the pupils hear should be reinforced by giving them something to_see_. Whatever pictures are obtainable (see pp. 45, 127) should be usedfreely at all stages, for the visual images of children are a powerfulaid to their understanding; it is for this reason that books forchildren are now so fully illustrated, and the same principle should beapplied to the teaching of history. 

As soon as the children are ready for it, reference should be made tomaps to illustrate historical facts. (See p. 127. ) They should see onthe map the course that Columbus took across the unknown sea;Champlain's explorations become real when they are traced on the map andthe children have a concrete picture to carry away with them. In factthe subjects of geography, art, and constructive work, treated under thehead of correlated subjects, are used in history with the aim of makingit real through the eye. (See pp. 40, 44, 45. )

3. A greater difficulty presents itself when we have to deal, in thehigher Forms, with topics like the Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves, and it is a difficulty that will test to the full the resourcefulnessof the teacher. How can the preceding conditions and the terms of theMagna Charta be brought home to a class? How can children be brought toappreciate the difficulties connected with the question of ClergyReserves? A few words about the latter may suggest a means. 

Two aspects of the Clergy Reserves question stand out prominently, thereligious and the economic. The religious aspect will be the mostdifficult for Ontario children, for they have no immediate knowledge ofwhat a State Church is--the point on which the religious dispute turned;nor do they know enough about the government of the religious bodies towhich they belong to make the matter clear to them. A full understandingmust come later. The best point of approach seems to be to give theclass some idea of the number of settlers belonging to the churches ofEngland and of Scotland, which claimed the right to the lands reserved, and compare with this the number of all other Protestant bodies thatclaimed to share in them; for this difference in numbers was one of thechief causes of bitterness. An arithmetical appeal is concrete. Therewas also the economic aspect. The Clergy Reserves were one seventh ofthe land in each township. Another seventh was withheld from freesettlement as Crown Lands. Now in some townships there were about 50, 000acres. Let the class find out how many acres were thus kept fromsettlement. Tell them that this land was not all in one block, butdistributed through the township. They can now be asked to consider howthis would interfere with close settlement and therefore with theestablishment of schools, churches, post-offices, mills, and stores. Adiagram of a township would be of great help. These two points will helpthem to see why an early and fair settlement of the vexed question wasdesired. Wherever possible, present problems for them to solve by theirown experiences. 

4. The reading to the class of accounts of events written by peopleliving at the time will give an atmosphere of reality and human interestto the events. For example, a story of early pioneer days told by apioneer gives a personal element (see _Pioneer Days_, Kennedy); a letterby Mary Queen of Scots, to Elizabeth (see p. 143), will make both ofthese queens real living people, not mere names in history. (See_Studies in the Teaching of History_, Keatinge, p. 97, also selectionsfrom _The Sources of English History_, Colby, p. 163. ) Not much of thismay be possible, but more use might easily be made of such materials, especially with the early history of Ontario. 

5. The use of local history and of current events will be treatedelsewhere. (See pp. 49, 51. )

6. When possible, let the pupils form their idea of an historical personfrom his actions and words just as we form our estimate of each other, instead of having them memorize mere summaries of his character beforethey know his actions. 

7. Genealogical and chronological tables, written on the black-board anddiscussed with the class, will be of service in understanding certainperiods, such as the Wars of the Roses, and in helping to form thetime-sense of pupils. (See Chronological Chart, p. 128. )

8. Chief dependence must be placed, however, on increasing the pupil'sknowledge of present-day conditions in agriculture, commerce, transportation, manufactures, in fact, in all social, economic, andpolitical conditions, in order to enable him by comparison to realizeearlier methods and ways of living. The pupil who understands best howwe do things to-day can understand best the state of affairs when peoplehad to depend on primitive methods, and can realize how they wouldstrive to make things better. 

ON MEMORIZING HISTORY

History is usually called a "memory" subject, and is accordingly oftentaught as a mere memorizing of facts, names, and dates. The followingstatement of the chief principles of memorizing will, it is hoped, putmere verbal repetition in its proper place. Interest is the chiefcondition for teaching history in the public schools, in order that thepupils may acquire a liking for the subject that will tempt them topursue their reading in after years; without that interest, the smallamount of historical fact they can accumulate in their school-days willbe of little real value to them when they become full-fledged citizens. In fact, through this emphasis on interest instead of verbal repetition, the pupils are likely to obtain a better knowledge of history and, atthe same time, will have a chance to develop, in no slight degree, theirpowers of judgment. 

1. Memory depends on attention; we must observe attentively what we wishto remember. In history, attention may be secured by making the lessonsinteresting through the skill of the teacher in presenting the mattervividly to the pupils; also by using means to make history real insteadof having it a mere mass of meaningless words. (See p. 34. )

2. Facts that we wish to remember should be grouped, or studied inrelation to other facts with which they are vitally connected. The factsof history should be presented to the class in their relation of causeand effect, or associated with some larger centre of interest; in otherwords, pupils must understand, in some degree, what they are asked toremember. (See pp. 92, 97. )

3. If we increase the number of connections for facts, we are morelikely to remember them. It is largely for this reason that historyshould be taught with correlated subjects, such as geography, literature, science (inventions), etc. For example, the story of theSpanish Armada is remembered better if we have read _Westward Ho!_ andthe story of the Renaissance is made clearer and is therefore rememberedbetter, if we connect with it the inventions of printing, gunpowder, andthe mariner's compass. (See p. 121. )

4. Repetition is necessary to memory. Facts or groups of facts must berepeated to be remembered. This is the purpose of the drills which arenecessary to good teaching, but are only a part of it. Reviews are notto be considered merely as repetitions, but should be treated more asaids to better understanding. (See p. 31. )

CHAPTER III

CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

These subjects are very intimately related, and each should be used inteaching the other. Geography, which is often called one of the "eyes ofhistory, " may be used in the teaching of this subject in two ways. Inthe first place, an account of an historical event lacks, to a certaindegree, reality in the minds of the pupils if they do not know somethingof the place where it occurred. Accordingly, in studying or teachinghistory, reference should be constantly made to the map to give a localsetting to the story. The voyage of Columbus, the operations of Wolfe, the coming of the Loyalists, are made more real if they are traced outon the map, and are therefore better understood and remembered by thepupils. For this purpose, it is better, in most cases, to use an outlinemap, which may be sketched on the black-board by the teacher or thepupils, because on the ordinary wall maps there are so many names and somuch detail that the attention may be distracted. Many of the details onthe map are, moreover, more modern than the events that are to beillustrated, so that wrong impressions may be given. 

In the second place, it must be kept constantly in mind that many eventsin history have been influenced by the physical features of a country. For example: the lack of a natural boundary between France and Germanyhas led to many disputes between these countries; the fact of GreatBritain being an island accounts for many things in her history (see p. 108); the physical features of Quebec and Gibraltar explain theimportance of these places; and the waterways of Canada account for theprogress of early settlement. The climate and soil of a country affectits history; treaties are often based on physical conditions, and traderoutes determined by them; a nation's commerce and wealth depend largelyon the character of its natural resources. 

Some easy problems may be given to the senior classes to be answered byreference to physical conditions:

 Why are London, New York, Chicago, Montreal, and Halifax, such important centres? Why are certain places fitted for certain manufactures? Will Winnipeg become a more important city than Montreal? Will Vancouver outstrip San Francisco? What is a possible future for the Western Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan? What might have been the state of North America to-day, if the Rocky Mountains had run along the East coast, instead of along the West?

On the other hand, history contributes a human interest to geography;the places of greatest interest are often those associated with greatevents in history--Athens, Mount Sinai, Waterloo, Queenston Heights. 

HISTORY AND LITERATURE

Literature gives life and human interest to both history and geography. By means of literature we are able to get a better notion of the idealsand motives of a people than the mere recital of the facts of theirhistory can give. In this connection we naturally think of Homer's_Iliad_ and its influence on the Greeks. It was their storehouse ofhistory, morals, religion, æsthetics, and rules for the practicalguidance of life, as well as their literary masterpiece. 

It is often easy to interest pupils in a period of history by reading orquoting to them some ballad, poem, or prose narrative that colours thehistorical facts with the element of human feeling. Macaulay's_Horatius_ gives a deeper impression of Roman patriotism than almostanything in pure history can; the various aspects of the Crusades arevividly shown by W. Stearns Davis in _God Wills It_, a story of thefirst Crusade. In fact, if stirring events can be linked in the child'smind with stirring verse, if the struggles and progress of nations canbe presented in a vigorous narrative that echoes the thoughts, feelings, and interests of the time, we make an appeal to the interest of thepupil that is almost irresistible. The objection is sometimes urgedagainst the reading of standard historical tales and novels, that theseare somewhat exaggerated in sentiment and inaccurate in facts. Even ifthis be so, it may be said that they give in outline a fair picture ofthe period described, that the interest in history aroused by such talesbegets a liking for history itself, and that such exaggerations andinaccuracies are soon corrected when the pupil begins to read history. 

The course of history has been modified by songs, ballads, and stories. The influence on the national spirit and ideals of songs such as _RuleBritannia_ and _The Marseillaise_, of stories such as _Uncle Tom'sCabin_, of novels such as those of Dickens and of Charles Reade isincalculable. 

A few poems and prose compositions are given here as suggestions; afuller list may be found in Allen's _Reader's Guide to English History_, Ginn & Co. , 30c. 

 Poems: _Boadicea_, Cowper; _Recessional_, Kipling; _Edinburgh After Flodden_, Aytoun; _Hands All Round_, Tennyson; _Columbus_, Joaquin Miller; _Waterloo_, Byron; _The Armada_, Macaulay; _The Revenge_, Tennyson; _The Charge of the Light Brigade_, Tennyson. 

 Prose: "United Empire Loyalists, " Roberts' _History of Canada_, Chap. XV; "Departure and Death of Nelson, " Southey; _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Parkman; "The Crusader and the Saracen, " in Scott's _The Talisman_; "The Heroine of Castle Dangerous, " in _Stories of New France_, Machar and Marquis; "Adam Daulac, " in _Martyrs of New France_, Herrington. 

HISTORY AND SCIENCE

The connection between history and science is very close, because it wasonly after the invention of writing that history, the record of humanprogress, became possible. Further, the remarkable way in which thechief stages in the development of civilization coincide with certaininventions and discoveries makes the study of history very incompletewithout a knowledge of the inventions and discoveries, inasmuch as theseopened a road for human development. (See p. 119. )

To make this evident, it is enough merely to mention a few comparativelyrecent inventions, such as the mariner's compass, the printing-press, gunpowder, the steam-engine, the power-loom, the cotton-gin, and thetelegraph. 

To the introduction of the mariner's compass in the fourteenth century, by which sailors were made independent of landmarks and the stars, andcould therefore go more boldly into the open sea, we owe theexplorations of the fifteenth century that culminated in the discoveryof America, and the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. Theintroduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century gave the lower andmiddle classes a weapon that made them equal in power with the noblesand brought about the downfall of the feudal system and the rise ofmodern democracies. The printing-press gave to the world the learningof the past and revolutionized social conditions. The invention of highexplosives has made possible many of the great engineering works ofto-day. The inventions that have made transportation and communicationso easy and rapid have already done a great deal to bring nations to abetter understanding of each other and thus to promote the peace of theworld. Discoveries in medicine alone have had an incalculable influenceon the health and prosperity of society. In fact, the study of historyand an understanding of modern social and industrial conditions areimpossible without a knowledge of scientific inventions and discoveries. (See pp. 87, 92. )

Children naturally take an interest in what individuals have done, andit is easy to interest them in the work of men such as Watt, Stephenson, Whitney, Fulton, Morse, Edison, Marconi, and their fellows. Thebiographies of famous inventors should therefore be given, both as arecord of what they did and as an inspiration to like achievements. 

HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK

Constructive work may be used to advantage in history and civics. Itgives concrete expression to some facts of history through theconstruction by the pupils of objects mentioned therein. In studyingIndian life, the class may make in paper, wood, etc. , wigwams, bows andarrows, stockades, etc. ; in connection with pioneer life, they may makesome of the buildings and implements used by the pioneers, --log houses, spinning-wheels, hominy blocks, Red River carts, etc. ; in studyingcampaigns, they may make models in plasticine or clay, or on the sandtable, of forts, battle-fields, etc. , for example--the Plains ofAbraham, Queenston Heights, Chateauguay, Plymouth Harbour; the UnionJack may be cut out and coloured. (See p. 68. ) In this way theactivities of the child may be made of practical use. 

On the industrial and social side of history, which is being more andmore emphasized, it is of great value to the child to become acquainted, even though on a small scale and through the simplest implements andmachines, with the construction of machinery and modes of manufacture. For a lesson on the Industrial Revolution in England, for example, itwill give pupils a better understanding of the changes, if they knowsomething, through their own activities, of the way of making cloth. 

For suggestions on constructive work, see the Manual on Manual Training:

 P. 22: Suggestions for the various seasons and days. P. 26: On the use of the sand table. P. 55: On collecting and preserving pictures. P. 58: On relief maps and geographical formations. 

HISTORY AND ART

Art assists history in two ways. First, pictures may be used toillustrate events in history and make them real. It is often difficultfor children to form a definite mental image of historical scenes merelyfrom the words of the teacher or of the text-book, because theirexperiences are limited and the power to combine these properly islacking. This is recognized now in the many text-books which are freelyillustrated. Pictures of persons famous in history are also of value, inthat they make these persons more real to the pupils. Materials forclass use may be collected by the teacher and pupils, --engravings, prints, cuts from newspapers and magazines of famous people, buildings, cities, monuments, events; for example, the Landing of Columbus, theComing of the Loyalists, the Fathers of Confederation, the Landing ofthe Pilgrim Fathers, an Old-Time Trading Post, the Death of Brock. Agood idea is to have a class scrap-book, to be filled with suitablecontributions from the class. The teacher will find a private scrap-bookexceedingly useful. Many fine pictures are given in _The Highroads ofHistory_, and _The Story of the British People_ for Form III. It may beadded that these pictures should be supplemented freely by descriptionsand narratives given by the teacher. (See _Visual Aids in the Teachingof History_. )

Second, the pupils may be asked to illustrate, by drawings and sketchmaps, historic places, routes of armies and of explorers, the journeysof settlers, etc. 

HISTORY AND COMPOSITION

History, no less than other subjects of study, needs to be expressed bythe pupils, if it is to make them more efficient. Some of the usualmodes of expression are given above in connection with constructive workand art. The chief mode of expression, however, for history is throughcomposition, both oral and written. 

In the Junior Forms the stories should be reproduced orally (see Detailsof Method for Forms I and II, p. 25), either by pure narration or bydramatization; the pupils relate in their own language what they havelearned, or are allowed to dramatize the story. In the dramatization, the pupils should be given a good deal of freedom in constructing theconversation, once they get to know what is wanted, the only restrictionbeing that no pupil shall be allowed to take part who does not know thestory thoroughly. Incidents such as Harold taking the oath to helpWilliam of Normandy gain the crown of England, Joseph being sold intoEgypt, the Greeks using the wooden horse to capture Troy, are veryeasily dramatized. 

In the Senior Forms the black-board outline may be used as the basis ofwritten or oral reproduction. The subject of composition will itself beless objectionable by reason of these exercises, as the pupils are askedto reproduce the history as material valuable and interesting in itself, not merely as a means of showing their skill in expression. Moreover, inthe study of history, the pupil hears or reads the compositions ofothers, and unconsciously gains, by these examples, much in vocabularyand in power of expression. In fact, much of the culture value ofhistory depends on the training it affords in composition, and, byintimately connecting these two subjects, a double advantage isgained--the ability to comprehend historical material, and practice ineffective expression. 

HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OR THE USE OF DATES

Geography is one of "the eyes of history"; chronology, or the arrangingof events according to their dates, is the other. This suggests thatdates are to be used merely as a help in "seeing" events in history intheir proper order, so that their relations to other events may bebetter understood. When these relations are seen, the dates lose much oftheir value. 

For example, let us consider the following dates: 1763, 1774, 1775, 1783, 1791. The short interval between 1763, when Great Britain finallyassumed control of Canada by treaty, and 1774, when the Quebec Act waspassed, helps to make clear the reason for the French citizens receivingso many concessions. They outnumbered the English so much that theseconcessions were deemed necessary to hold their allegiance to the Crownin face of the efforts made by the discontented New England colonies toget their support in the coming revolution against Great Britain. Thesuccess of the Act was shown in 1775, when the invasion by therevolutionists failed. The war of the Revolution was ended by treaty in1783, and Canada received as settlers, principally in Upper Canada, theUnited Empire Loyalists, whose ideas of government were so differentfrom those of the Lower Canadians that the separation of Upper and LowerCanada by the Constitutional Act of 1791 became necessary. These dates, so close together, emphasize the rapidity with which events moved inthat period, as well as the sequence of cause and effect. We think alsoof the dates of Cartier's voyages, 1534, 1535, and 1541, merely to raisethe question as to why so much time elapsed between the second and thirdvoyages. When these points are properly seen, the events are kept inplace by their relation of cause and effect, and the dates lose theirvalue. Moreover, the relations thus discovered will do most towardfixing these dates in the memory. It should be understood, therefore, that dates are only a means to an end, not an end in themselves. 

It is important also to know the dates of certain events when we arestudying the history of several countries, in order that we may considertogether those events that are contemporary. 

There are, of course, some dates that should be remembered because ofthe importance of the events connected with them, for example: 1066, 1215, 1492, 1603, 1688, 1759, 1776, 1789, 1841, 1867. 

In the Junior Forms, because the pupils are still lacking in the"historical sense, " little emphasis need be put on the giving of dates. A few of the most important may be given in Form II, but it is veryquestionable if they have any significance to the pupils at this earlystage. 

CHAPTER IV

SPECIAL TOPICS

CURRENT EVENTS

The study of history should not end with what is contained intext-books, for the making of history never ceases. The study of currentevents will be found to be a very valuable element in history teaching. Teachers and pupils who are interested in the events of to-day are muchmore likely to be interested in the events of the past. A knowledge ofcurrent events will arouse curiosity in what led up to them, willsuggest a motive for studying the past, and will often supply concreteexamples for both history and civics. In fact, the teaching of civicsmay be based almost entirely on current events. (See Civics, p. 52 etseq. ) The influence of a knowledge of current events on the study ofhistory is very plainly seen to-day in the earnest and widespread effortto discover the causes of the war that is devastating Europe at thepresent time. History becomes real when pupils understand that what ishappening now has its roots in the past and, at the same time, ishistory in the making. For example, the present war will certainlyintensify our interest in the great movement to prevent war by means ofworld-wide arbitration of disputes between nations, or by any othermeans. The value of this phase of history teaching depends very largelyon the interest taken in it by the teacher and on the work that thepupils can be induced to do for themselves. The teacher talks to thepupils about some important current event in an interesting way. Thenthe pupils are encouraged to add to what he has said by relating whatthey have heard, or have read in the newspapers. After a few lessonsthe chief difficulty is to make a suitable selection of topics to bediscussed in class. Those of national importance, if within the scope ofthe Form work, will have prominence, and the pupils will be given hintsas to articles about these topics in papers, magazines, and books. It isobvious that topics likely to arouse religious, political, or otherparty feeling, should be avoided. For actual school-room practice thefollowing scheme has been used successfully in Form III:

CURRENT EVENTS (10 MINUTES DAILY)

The teacher has suggested the kinds of events that are worthy ofdiscussion, and the pupils come to class prepared to tell what they haveread in the papers about some of these. The teacher aids them to givefit expression to their information, and the pupil who has been chosenas editor writes a summary of the lesson on the black-board, and later, on a sheet of paper. 

Ordinarily, the editors should be chosen from those who write and spellwell. 

Where the subject-matter lends itself to such treatment, these summariesmay be placed in two columns--one, the _Girls' News Column_; the other, the _Boys' News Column_. The summaries on the sheets of paper may bearranged in order for a week or a month and be known as _The SchoolReview_. Such a lesson includes history, and oral and writtencomposition. 

The following items of news were those discussed in a Form III room atthe end of the week, when some time is taken to talk over the events ofthe week:

 FEB. 5TH, 1915

 Rescue of the crew of the Japanese cruiser Asama. Rescue work in the earthquake in Italy. Wireless message frustrates a German plot to blow up a French steamer. Fire in a New York factory--rescue of the inmates. Inhuman treatment of Belgian women and children. British officer praises the enemy. The Austrians are defeated by the Montenegrins. Canadians wounded in France. Importance of discipline and accurate shooting for Canadian troops. Germany proclaims a war zone around Britain. Two New York boy heroes of a fire. Tsar honours a girl wounded while carrying ammunition to the troops. Opening of the war session of the Canadian Parliament. 

These items are sifted from a great many suggested by the pupils. In thesifting process, a very useful discussion is had as to what constitutesreal "news, " and what is mere "gossip"; that is, what is of value asnews to the world at large, and what is of purely local, personalinterest. 

In civics, current topics may be made very useful. Items of municipal, provincial, or federal affairs furnish a concrete basis for the study ofour system of government, and may also suggest moral examples. 

LOCAL MATERIAL

One of the chief uses of local history in the class-room is to make thestudy of general history more vivid and interesting (1) by making morereal those facts of history associated with the locality in which welive, and (2) by providing suitable illustrations, from the pupil's ownexperience, of facts in general history. When a pupil has seen the placewhere an event of history has happened, he has an interest in that eventthat he could scarcely gain in any other way, and the history of thatperiod may then be taught with more interest and profit to him. A pupilfinds also in local history certain facts that he must understand inorder to interpret the story of happenings, distant in time and place. 

Some parts of Ontario are much richer in material than others, but inall historic spots may be found. On the St. Lawrence River, in theNiagara peninsula, in the Talbot settlement district, in York county, along the Ottawa River, in the Huron tract, there is no lack of usefulmaterial. But it is not necessary to confine such local history to theoutstanding events of war or the larger happenings of civil progress. Inevery locality there are remains of the earlier Indian inhabitants, inthe form of mounds, sites of villages, relics of war and the chase(arrow-heads, stone implements, beads, etc. ); relics of the earlysettlers, in the form of roads and old log houses; relics of pioneerlife consisting of furniture, household and outdoor implements, etc. , that will serve as a basis for comparison with present-day conditions, and make real to the children the lives of the earlier inhabitants andsettlers of Ontario. 

CIVICS

The teaching of civics has a threefold aim:

1. To instruct in the mechanism of government. (Descriptive)

2. To instruct in the history of national institutions so as to show theline of development, and also to impress the fact that existinginstitutions are capable of development, are not fixed. (Historical)

3. "To show the cost of each institution in the efforts and sacrificesof past generations and to quicken and make permanent the children'sinterest in public life and their sense of responsibility to theirfellows. " (Patriotic and Ethical)

Two points stand out clearly--to teach the machinery of government andto instil ideals of public conduct. Of these the second is by far themore important and the more difficult to teach directly. The best way toattempt it is by means of biography and personal references. There aregreat men and women in history whose lives are worthy examples to theyoung: Sir John Eliot, Pym, Hampden, who stood for freedom of speech anddebate; Gladstone, who helped to right historic wrongs in the East;Lincoln, who stood for union and the freedom of the individual; manyeminent Canadians, such as Sir John Macdonald, George Brown, AlexanderMackenzie, Egerton Ryerson, Sir Oliver Mowat, and Sir James Whitney;women such as Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, Laura Secord andSarah Maxwell. Besides these eminent examples, there are in everylocality men and women who give unselfishly of their energy and time forthe good of the community. 

There should also be impressed on the minds of the young a sense oftheir responsibility for an honest and faithful use of the ballot, aright won for them by the long and earnest effort of their forefathers;and the necessity for purity of government in our democratic form ofadministration. In school life, a good deal can be done to create asense of fair play, respect for the rights of others, and of thenecessity for submission to lawful authority by encouraging the pupilsto conduct all their school organizations, whether in play or in work, honourably and by right methods. 

Some of the lessons that may be taught to children during their schoollife are as follows:

1. Respect for the rights of others. Pupils may be brought to see thatmisconduct on their part affects others, not themselves only. 

2. Respect for the property of others. This may be secured best byteaching them to take good care of their own property first, for unlessa child cares rightly for his own, he is not likely to take much thoughtfor the things of others. 

3. Respect for public property. This is something that needs attentionbadly. It is a very common thing to find people destroying trees, flowers, etc. , in public places, throwing refuse on the street, andotherwise disfiguring their surroundings. A beginning of better habitsmay be made by getting the pupils to aid in beautifying and decoratingthe school building by means of pictures, either prints or their ownwork, by flowers in pots, by keeping the floor and walls clean and freefrom marks and litter; also in making the grounds around the school moreattractive by means of flowers and shrubs. Arbor Day may be made ofgreat use in this respect, if the spirit of that Day can be carriedthrough the whole year. A pride in the attractiveness of the school willhave its influence on the pupils in the wider life of the community. 

A knowledge of the machinery of government may be based on the pupils'knowledge of the organization of the school. The appointment, power, andduties of the teacher are the starting-point. The next step will be toinvestigate the composition of the board of school trustees. This may bedone at the time of an election for school trustees. The followingquestions may serve as an outline of study for all the political bodiesby which we are governed:

 1. Who compose the board of trustees? (In the smaller local bodies, the names of the members may be mentioned, as giving a personal interest in the matter. )

 2. How and by whom are they elected?

 3. For what period are they elected?

 4. How is the board organized for the conduct of business?

 5. What powers do they possess?

 6. What duties have they to fulfil?

 7. How do they raise the money needed for their work?

 8. How is the board rendered continuous? (By electing a successor to a member who resigns; by the trustees remaining in office till their successors are elected. )

Other governing bodies may be taken up similarly, for example: MunicipalCouncils (township, county, village, town, or city council), ProvincialLegislature, Dominion or Federal Parliament, Imperial Parliament. Asuitable time to bring up the topic of how elections are conducted wouldbe when an election for any of the above bodies is in progress. Information on this topic may be found in _Canadian Civics_, by Jenkins;a fuller account is given in Bourinot's _How Canada is Governed_. 

Lessons concerning special bodies of municipal and civil servants may betaken; for example, the assessor, tax-collector, policeman, postalemployees, firemen, etc. In connection with all of these, the questionof taxation is constantly arising. It is suggested that something shouldbe done to put the pupils in the right attitude toward this subject. Many people have an idea that when they pay taxes they are being robbed, because they do not stop to think of what they are getting in return fortheir money. The chief reason for this seems to be that the taxes areusually paid once or twice a year, while the services rendered arecontinuous. A good way to proceed is to have the class calculate thevalue of the services given in return for the taxes. For example, suppose it is found that the yearly cost for each pupil in a certainsection is $25. 00. Divide this by the number of days (200) a pupilattends school during the year, and the cost each day for each pupil isshown be only 12-1/2 cents, not a very large sum for a community to payfor a child's education. 

Other calculations may be made to show the saving to farmers by spendingmoney in the construction of good roads to make teaming more profitable. For example: In a strip of country served by a road ten miles long, there is room for eighty farms of one hundred acres each, all theproduce of which would be hauled on that road. Let us suppose that thisproduce would amount to 3, 000 loads, such as could be hauled on anordinary country road. The average haul being five miles, two trips aday could be made. At $5. 00 a day, the cost of haulage would be $7, 500. 

Suppose this road to be converted into a good stone road at a cost of$3, 000 a mile, a total cost of $30, 000. On this road, with the largerand heavier wagons that could now be used, the farmers could easilydouble the size of the load. This would mean that, instead of 3, 000loads being necessary, 1, 500 would be sufficient. At the same rate asbefore, the cost of haulage would be $3, 750, an annual saving of $3, 750;so that the whole cost of the road would be saved in eight years, to saynothing of the greater ease and comfort of travel to both man and beast. Better roads would also give the farmer access to market for a greaterpart of the year and thus enable him to take advantage of higher pricesat certain seasons. It is believed that these figures are quite withinthe bounds of probability. 

In large towns and cities the cost of public utilities may becalculated; for example, the expense of a fire-station in buildings, equipment, horses, men, etc. , to show how the money raised by taxes isspent for the good of the whole community, and helps to keep down therates for fire insurance. The kinds of taxation may also bediscussed--direct and indirect; also the sources from which directtaxes are derived--customs, excise, etc. ; methods of levying andcollecting taxes; how taxes are spent for the various educational andcharitable institutions--schools, libraries, hospitals, asylums, homesfor the poor and neglected, etc. ; for the protection of life andproperty; for the administration of justice, etc. The distribution oftaxes among public institutions may be studied from the public accountsprinted for the use of ratepayers. 

The lessons learned about the fairness of taxation may be used toillustrate certain periods of history when people struggled againstunjust and arbitrary taxation; for example, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, theCivil War in England in the seventeenth century, the American and FrenchRevolutions, Acts of Parliament in Canada from the Quebec Act to the Actof Confederation. 

A Dominion or Provincial election offers a good opportunity for a lessonon how to vote and how we came to have the right to vote; on theconstitution of Parliament; on the sanctity of the ballot, etc. 

A trial by jury in which the people of the district are interested maybe used to introduce the history and purpose of the jury. 

THE TEACHER OF HISTORY

The teacher of history must know his subject. This does not mean thatevery school teacher must have an expert knowledge of the whole subject, but he should know the history that is to be taught thoroughly enough tobe able to teach the lesson orally without referring constantly to thetext-book or to notes. This, at least, is the ideal to strive for. Toaccomplish this, the teacher is earnestly recommended to read at leastone book in addition to the authorized text-book, which does not usuallycontain much more than the important facts of history. To clothe theskeleton of facts with flesh and blood so as to make history what itreally is, a record of human beings who not only did things but had alsothoughts and feelings like our own, it is necessary to be able to supplythe personal details that make the figures of history real, living, menand women. (See the Story of Florence Nightingale, p. 62. ) The teacherwho does this will himself come to have a more lively interest inhistory. 

The teacher must also know children. For the understanding of history, pupils are dependent on their previous knowledge of life and itsinterests. They must be led by timely suggestions or questions to seethe connection between their own knowledge of life and the experiencesof the actors in history. Without this connection, the facts of historyremain meaningless. 

To present history to the pupils in an interesting way, the oral methodis the best. It is not necessary for the teacher to have a special giftfor narration; any one who is really interested in the story to be toldis able to tell it well enough to hold the attention of the class. Innarration, mere fluency is not the chief requisite; it is more importantthat the pupils should feel the teacher's interest in the topic. Thenarration must also be confined to the facts and details that count; theteacher needs to know what to omit as well as what to narrate. If thematter has been well thought out and clearly arranged in topics with dueregard to the relation of cause and effect, the telling of the storywill be an easier matter, and the pupils will be trained also in a clearand logical way of treating history. The oral method should be supportedby the free use of devices for making the story real. (See p. 34. ) Whileit is quite true that certain important topics are to be thoroughlymastered as centres of connection for the less important facts, yet itmust be insisted on that a more important aim of the teacher is toarouse and stimulate an interest in history so that the pupil's study ofit may continue after the close of his school-days. No mastery of factsthrough memorization alone will counterbalance the lack of interest in, and liking for, the subject. 

CHAPTER V

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS

The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive ratherthan directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may beapplied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature andof children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of thepurpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in themain, the choice of method. This statement is especially true ofhistory, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation isvery great to make the teaching of this subject consist in merememorizing of events and dates. 

FORMS I AND II

TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"

The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and theBurning Bush, " and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories. 

As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, ormake sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) theBurning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out todo God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real theverbal story. 

A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should beanswered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes, his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of theEgyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian. 

The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story ofMoses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, hishome with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God, his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God'swill. 

In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, toascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction ofeach part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attentionand a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproductionshould, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story. 

In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board. These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or writtenreproduction that follows. 

If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library, pupils of Form II may be asked to read them. 

When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind oflesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the storyprepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading. 

FORMS I AND II

THE FIRST THANKSGIVING

Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in PlymouthHarbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church";"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel. " (Perry Picture Co. Pictures)

A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of Americadrawn on the black-board. 

Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--thereturning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the generalgood-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this customoriginate?

Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of thePilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the differentparts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and thelanding-place in America marked. 

This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _TheLanding of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The FirstThanksgiving_. (See Appendix. )

A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I, accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring, and in modelling, as they can do. 

FORM II

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia inthe Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terriblehardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in thehospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The peoplein England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everythingthe army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from theletters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, howgreat were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked atthis state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, manythousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale andthirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglectedsoldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so wellcared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have diedif these noble women had not gone out to nurse them. 

Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out ofall the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhoodshe was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble. The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. Whenquite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father'sestates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that theywould be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animalsaround her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurtthem; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick upthe nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trotup to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose intoher pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had forit. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and theowner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it. But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well withFlorence's nursing. 

When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting thesick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or insight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited thehospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to oneof the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in thebest way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improvethe hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her healthbegan to fail. 

It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to goto the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers. When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sickand wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had verylittle chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave thepatients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cookedfood to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds whenthey were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families athome. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, andcarrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was allright, she was called "the lady with the lamp. " As she went about, speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how muchthe poor soldiers thought of her. 

When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to herthat the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250, 000, butshe gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained fortheir work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what shethought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did. 

She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat peoplewho are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air, pure water, cleanliness, and light. " She died August 10, 1910, but thegood she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always beremembered. 

METHOD

It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just asit is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told topupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how thestory may be simplified for their understanding. After the story istold, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class followsin the usual way. 

FORM II

THE POSTMASTER

AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS

This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to makethe pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, andimportance of the postmaster. 

The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-officeand describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, andthe teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with theletter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulatingthese points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3)Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed onthe train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date onwhich it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelopeshould be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressionsstamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From aconsideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils maybe led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, andprompt person. 

The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc. , beforepost-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doinghis work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help himin the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc. 

A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment ofsalary may follow. 

In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--theregistration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes, the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and themaking of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed. 

In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teachershould obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank, a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils inthe proper method of filling out these forms. 

FORM III

THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC

The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling thematter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the Britishand the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done bysketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on itwith coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements tobe mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For thematter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_. 

The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec, mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome thedifficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence. 

When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, adescription of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and anenlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this. (See text-book, page 100. ) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may beemphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model thedisposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems maybe given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: Howwould you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land hissoldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as theMontmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but theprobability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns tothe high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. Theteacher will then tell what was done and with what results. 

This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problemquestions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French atMontmorenci. 

This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which theteacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on theillness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown inattempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forceswere drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome. 

This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orallybefore the class is dismissed. 

As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils aredirected to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or inthe History Reader, pp. 284-292. 

 NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships, bridges, etc. , may be placed in position and a realistic explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and the whole story would require several lesson spaces. 

 References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_. 

FORM III

THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS

1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show whythey had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them bythe revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were drivenfrom their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatalto the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyaltyin face of all their troubles. 

2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where theBritish flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map beforethem, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were theprobable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they livedin the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will seefrom a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routesthey followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have tobe emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Bostonto Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec andEastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc. , to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170. )

3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any accountof life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information. It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply thestory to one of the children. 

4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the politicalideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes inaffairs in Upper Canada. 

FORM III

THE FLAG

In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerfulaid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is theemblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should havea prominent place in the education of the young. Children should betaught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of ourforefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) thesignificance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice;and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part. 

The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be precededby a series of lessons on the individual "jacks. " These lessons shouldexplain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories ofSt. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saintof Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and thereasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the severalcountries. (See Appendix. )

These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St. George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after thelesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lessonon the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow. 

The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of theflag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then thechildren will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacksmay be given afterwards in the history lessons. 

As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct theflags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use inthe final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:

 For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. X 5 in. , red cross 1/2 in. For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. X 5 in. , white cross 1/2 in. For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. X 5 in. , red cross 1/3 in. 

When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in thereign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attemptthe problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose theflags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount thatof Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, thewhite ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrowborder of white along each arm being retained to represent the groundcolour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of thered cross. 

The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, shouldbe given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction theteacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referringalso to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting theIrish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they arenot likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacherto place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to leadthem to observe:

 1. That it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also be square);

 2. That the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St. Patrick's;

 3. That the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the width of the jack;

 4. That along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of white;

 5. That this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal the broad white of the St. Andrew's;

 6. That the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross and partly white ground;

 7. That the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the parts near the staff. 

When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flagswhich they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away allof the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross, retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew'sCross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white groundof the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), andpaste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly madejack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth. 

Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, thefollowing method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paperand red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of thejack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:

First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five incheswide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place thecross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to themeasurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the borderone third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividinglines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place thesaltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St. Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St. Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St. Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick isplaced touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, andabove in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercisedin making the drawing of the Union Jack. 

 The following are the official regulations for the proportions of the Union Jack:

 1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide. 

 2. The proportions are:

 Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag. White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George. Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George. White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George. Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George. 

 3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other quarters. 

Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On thepolitical union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St. Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, andto this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick, a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jackare red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity;and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardlywithout disgracing our flag. 

On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that havehelped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer tothe colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empirerests. 

For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:

FLAG DAYS

Opening and closing of each term

 Jan. 1. --Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be celebrated on the first school day of the new year. )

 Feb. 10. --Union of the Canadas, 1841. 

 March 11. --First Responsible Ministry, 1848. 

 March 14. --Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791. 

 March 24. --Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882). 

 Empire Day. --The school day immediately preceding May 24. 

 May 24. --Victoria Day. 

 June 3. --The King's Birthday, 1865. 

 July 1. --Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867. 

 July 17. --First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792. 

 September 13. --Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759. 

 October 13. --Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock, 1812. 

 October 21. --Trafalgar Day, 1805. 

 December 24. --Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas. )

Other days commemorating events connected with various localities mayalso be chosen. 

 For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition), to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix. 

THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG

 What is the blue on our flag, boys? The waves of the boundless sea, Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride, And the feet of the winds are free; From the sun and smiles of the coral isles To the ice of the South and North, With dauntless tread through tempests dread The guardian ships go forth. 

 What is the white on our flag, boys? The honour of our land, Which burns in our sight like a beacon light And stands while the hills shall stand; Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name, And we fight, wherever we be, For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives Of the brave hearts over the sea. 

 What is the red on our flag, boys? The blood of our heroes slain, On the burning sands in the wild waste lands And the froth of the purple main; And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod And the crest of the waves outrolled, That He send us men to fight again As our fathers fought of old. 

 We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys, Whatever be said or done, Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast, And the foe be ten to one-- Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword And a bullet in heart or brain. What matters one gone, if the flag float on And Britain be Lord of the main!

--Frederick George Scott

THE UNION JACK

 It's only a small piece of bunting, It's only an old coloured rag; Yet thousands have died for its honour, And shed their best blood for the flag. 

 It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew, Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led; It carries the cross of St. Patrick, For which Ireland's bravest have bled. 

 Joined with these is our old English ensign, St. George's red cross on white field; Round which, from Richard to Roberts, Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield. 

 It flutters triumphant o'er ocean, As free as the wind and the waves; And bondsmen from shackles unloosened, 'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves. 

 It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand, O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong; And Britons, where'er their flag's flying, Claim the rights which to Britons belong. 

 We hoist it to show our devotion To our King, our country, and laws; It's the outward and visible emblem, Of progress and liberty's cause. 

 You may say it's an old bit of bunting, You may call it an old coloured rag; But freedom has made it majestic, And time has ennobled our flag. 

FORMS III AND IV

SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY

The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of thesubjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in thesesubjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attentionfocused on the purpose of the day. 

The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase thepupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create inthem fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling ofresponsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now andin the future. 

EXERCISES SUGGESTED

1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the PublicSchool Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1, 49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp. 55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or twomight be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given(pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containingsuitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department ofEducation on several occasions. 

2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire;for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the sizeof the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as thePersian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercialand naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is oflosing it, etc. ; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of theCanadian ensign. 

3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red"cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_)"The sun never sets on the British flag. " Make this clear by havingpupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing Britishterritory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships, too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population andarea of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany, France, etc. 

4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are tothe square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out thepopulation Canada would have if she were as densely populated asEngland, as the United States, as Germany, etc. ; how fast did thepopulation of the United States increase in the first century after theRevolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if itincreases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the lastfifty, etc. ; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch upto Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible positionand power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen thesense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let thepupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculationsas they can find in their text-books. )

5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or writtencomposition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercisesmentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them. 

6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above. 

TYPE LESSONS

FORM IV

INTRODUCTORY

As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the idealmethod of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not onlythe narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils ofproblems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class mayhelp to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would belike doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in themajority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. Thevalue of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal pointsthat should be described or developed and, more important still, that itassists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to seemore clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis willalso suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no betterevidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than theability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis shouldthen be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and theuse of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher moreexpert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in theclass. 

EGERTON RYERSON

One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupilsideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life. The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of someuseful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to thebettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupilsshould be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these factsshould be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible byappropriate personal details and concrete description. The followingsketch may serve as an example:

Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:

 I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville, near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some 2, 500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the army, besides his pension. 

Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a veryreligious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egertonlearned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling howshe treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "thoughthoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowinglygrieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words. "

The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it. Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre ofground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, andmowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, andthen from the wagon to the haymow or stack. " This was the work that gavehim strength and health to do the great things that were before him. Hisyears in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of themthat when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the placeof one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instructionfrom teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went toHamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Herehe studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brainfever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life wasdespaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursingrestored him to health. 

Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. Whentwenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at theCredit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them betterways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Betweendaylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in successionand, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, andplough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon Icalled out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn thebrushwood in and around the village. "

In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ ofthe Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College. 

In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education forUpper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to aproper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve thequalifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schoolsand to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could beengaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methodsthat he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. AProvincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better bookswere provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for allschools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitablein a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to buildschools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition ofmany who did not set the same value on education that he himself did hadalso to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailingpatience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devotedhis matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing apublic sentiment in favour of education, and of building on surefoundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is thejust pride of our Province and his own best monument. 

In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and wassucceeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promisehe made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country asystem of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement notsecond to those in any country in the world. "

He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in hislife the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at hisfuneral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities, ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he hadfounded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he neverfailed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadianwho had lived so faithfully and well for his country. 

 NOTE. --If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim Fathers, and the U. E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction to them. 

For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:

 With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new interest in its political life was awakened, new movements inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third, educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson played a very prominent part and, because these affected the politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first. 

 NOTE. --For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J. G. Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J. H. Putnam. 

THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY

The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in theBritish North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the classknows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day, and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of theDay. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board forreference. ) In the B. N. A. Act, it was provided that "the CanadianGovernment should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence withHalifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union. "

 _Teacher. _--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected by the road?

 _Pupil. _--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River. 

 _T. _--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?

 _P. _--Because it is near the sea. 

 _T. _--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either. 

 _P. _--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers. 

 _T. _--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?

 _P. _--It freezes up. 

 _T. _--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter, and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?

 _P. _--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal. 

 _T. _--We can tell better a little later which one was actually chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?

 _P. _--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province. 

 _T. _--Really there were about 250, 000 more here than in Quebec. How would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we send our goods to Europe now in winter?

 (Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter. )

 _T. _--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?

 _P. _--By using the canals. 

 _T. _--How can we ship by rail?

 _P. _--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway. 

 _T. _--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and others. In fact, we had spent about $1, 500, 000 on canals before Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk. ) Can you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as the western terminus of the new railway?

 _P. _--Yes, Quebec would be the one. 

 _T. _--Why?

 _P. _--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for sending their goods as far as Quebec city. 

 _T. _--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?

 (Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything till the next summer. " "We would have to use ice-boats. " Objections were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible. Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through the United States. )

 _T. _--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of wanting to build a railway of their own?

 _P. _--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it. 

 _T. _--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely. This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the Fenian raids of 1866. ) The people at that time were afraid that there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway was needed from Quebec to Halifax?

 _P. _--Because there was danger of war, and because the United States might interfere with Canadian trade. 

 _T. _--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it done, what route would you be likely to follow?

 _P. _--I think I should take the shortest way. 

 _T. _--Where would the road go then?

 (Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax. )

 Tell where it would run. 

 _P. _--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. 

 _T. _--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the reasons for building it at all. 

 _P. _--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is in the United States. 

 _T. _--What is the next way they might think of?

 _P. _--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada. 

 _T. _--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map. )

 _P. _--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine, into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 

 _T. _--Would they take that way?

 _P. _--No, because it is too near the border of the United States. 

 _T. _--Why do you say "too near"?

 _P. _--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear up the rails. 

 _T. _--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?

 _P. _--They would stay as far from the border as possible. 

 _T. _--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out. )

 _P. _--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance. 

 _T. _--How far?

 _P. _--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to Halifax. 

 _T. _--Would that be the cheapest line to build?

 _P. _--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others. 

 _T. _--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as far from the border as they could?

 _P. _--The military reason. 

 _T. _--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most interested in the military considerations?

 _P. _--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection. 

 _T. _--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where would the money come from?

 _P. _--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it. 

 _T. _--Why?

 _P. _--Because there were not very many people here then. 

 _T. _--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was to be built. 

The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief placeson the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacherwould add some information about the length of the line (1, 450 miles), and the total cost ($80, 000, 000). He might also refer to the fact thatthe fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized, that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closertogether, and that other railways have since been built on the tworejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the GrandTrunk Pacific. 

The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following theblack-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds. 

BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE

 1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of the road

 2. Reasons for building the road

 (_a_) Military (_b_) Commercial

 3. Selection of the route

 (_a_) Routes that were possible (_b_) Reasons for the final choice

 4. Facts about the road

 (_a_) Principal places on the road (_b_) Branches of the road (_c_) Length and cost

 5. Value of the road to the new Dominion

The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route andthe chief commercial centres served by the railway. 

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800. 

 NOTE. --This lesson should be preceded by an information lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof. 

The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventionschanged completely the processes of manufacturing, made England thegreatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source ofwealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon. The half century of this revolution is one of the most important inEnglish history, on account of the results in methods of transportation, in agriculture, in social conditions, etc. , and it is almost impossibleto have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history withoutunderstanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated atsuch length. 

This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. Thedates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they areintroduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasizefurther the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what inventionwould be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, anddevelopment--is supposed to be used. 

1. _Domestic System of Manufacture. _--Before 1760 the manufacture ofcotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner wouldprocure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where, with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn andreturn it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-poweron a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make onlyone thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of theuse of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarnwas greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could usethe product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding someway of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy. 

2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny. _--The first important invention of theperiod was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was anordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he wasreturning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came homebefore his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste torise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still inmotion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle, usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gavehim the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine withwhich one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight). From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning usedto-day. 

3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame. _ Sir Richard Arkwrightinvented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process ofspinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in thethread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away withhand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning. 

4. _The Mule. _ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of afiner and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible toweave any grade of cloth. 

5. _The Power-loom. _ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of theweavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabledthe weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinnerscould make. 

6. _The Steam-engine. _ These machines were run by hand or water-power. In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, wasused in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able touse all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead ofwater-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour wasplentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities. 

7. _The Cotton-gin. _ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before itcould be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatlyhindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton camefrom the United States, and the planters there grew no more than couldbe cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented thecotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed veryquickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds ofcotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in anhour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discoverhow difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton. ) More cottonwas then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and Englandwas able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may beadded here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands forits cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-ginwas therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the SouthernStates that led to the Civil War. 

8. _Coal-mining and Smelting. _ These machines were made of iron, andcoal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There wasplenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steampump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When thiswas done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greateramount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore inEngland, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, whichis made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed untilRoebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible aplentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines. 

9. _The Safety Lamp. _ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because ofthe fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by theminers often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their livesthereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented theseexplosions. 

10. _Transportation. _ Now that there was so much manufacturing carriedon, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods towhere they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in manyparts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, asthe roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone toform the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement inroad-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day. )

Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions inrivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800many more were dug, and transportation became much easier. 

11. _Agriculture. _ The number of people engaged in the factories wasincreasing and these could not grow their own food. This made itnecessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, makingit possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greaterquantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent theexhaustion of the soil. 

12. _Social Conditions. _ Out of the factory system grew the division ofclasses into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the greatproblem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence. 

We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed froman agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, andbecame the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply moneyto defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that itwas not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles. "

 NOTE. --The teacher may refer to some of the modern social problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance, decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A History of the British Nation_, by A. D. Innes, T. C. & E. C. Jack, Edinburgh. )

THE ROAD TO CATHAY

The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain Europeannations to find a western route to the rich countries of theEast--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to thediscovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as areview lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupilpractice in collecting information from various sources so as to showthe development of history along a certain line. 

The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacherthinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given arenot intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historicalsequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed tomemory by the class at their present stage. The map should be usedfrequently. 

THE LESSON

One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nationsthe wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venicebecame one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe. 

In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathayafter an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth insilks, spices, pearls, etc. , of those eastern countries intensified thedesire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up, carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean, the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Easterntrade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal, France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by thehope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could notlong be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by theintroduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a saferguide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and theuse of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediævalcastle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by theinvention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion ofknowledge. 

The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China. 

 Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown. 

Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts tosolve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India byVasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the stillearlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much morecomplete solution. 

Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student ofgeography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe andnot a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay bysailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--aroute that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by theTurks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carryingit out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did notwant a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal. The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south ofAfrica. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he madehis most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gaveear. " Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castilehe was enabled to put his dream to the test. 

 A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's Poem, "Columbus, " _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145. 

When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thoughthe had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India;and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for severalgenerations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. WhenEuropeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began againto seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merelyas an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still theirchief ambition. 

In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set outto find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, hisson, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to SouthCarolina, with the same object. 

In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspéand saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered thegateway to the East. 

With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the RichelieuRiver and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, tothe story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to alarge lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea. 

Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round thecontinent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by aNorth-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, hesailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked. A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have beenonly about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploringLake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map. ) On his fourthvoyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, andhe must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to theWest, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when theice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son, and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard ofagain. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235. )

The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the PacificOcean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, andMississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf ofMexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement onMontreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), inallusion to his desire to find the way to that country. 

Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part ofwhat is now Canada. Vérendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon byway of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to thejunction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands;also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, exploredthe Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains. 

Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-WestCompany--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid greathardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work ofexploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific. 

It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of theRockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways andsteamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe toCathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years ithas been our lot to accomplish. 

Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken upafterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effecton trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; theopening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; thereasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc. 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA

The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outlineof an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher willuse, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than thePublic School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after thelesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhatdifferent in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings shouldshow the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller printindicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupilsafter the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada aresuggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on theblack-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by eitherteacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative anddevelopment methods. 

For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _AHistory of the British Nation_, by A. D. Innes, T. C. & E. C. Jack, Edinburgh. 

I. CAUSES

1. _Political. _--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chiefobstacles were England, France, The Netherlands. 

 (The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain. )

(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke offnegotiations of marriage with Philip. 

(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots tothe English throne. 

2. _Commercial_. --Interference of the English in the New World, to whichSpain claimed sole right. 

 (This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc. )

3. _Religious. _--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism inEurope, and wished to impose his religion on England. 

 (This was the period of compulsion in religious matters. )

II. EVENTS

1. Preparations in Spain and England. 

 (Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the eve of battle should be made. )

2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries. 

 (The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless, and most skilful in handling their ships. )

3. The affair at Cadiz. 

 (Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for preparation, and encouraged hopes of success. )

4. The battle in the Channel. 

 (Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588; fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance for a vivid description by the teacher. )

5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada. 

 (Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc. , and recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward Ho!_)

III. RESULTS

1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)]

2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power. 

3. Greater religious tolerance in England. 

4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this. 

5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rulethe New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their idealsof political, social, and religious liberty. 

(See _P. S. History of England_, secs. 135-142. )

LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)

_Aim. _ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land washeld, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and inEngland; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William theConqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems. 

STEP I

1. _Introduction. _ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupilthat his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm;from a third, that his father works one "on shares. " From this may bederived the meaning of "freehold, " "leasehold, " and "on shares, " asapplied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallelmay be made by substituting "house" for "farm. " As holding property "onshares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as aflorist's business, a rink, etc. 

2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the_Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then drawa plan of a Saxon village from the passages read. 

STEP II

(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)

1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of theSaxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33. ) Thefollowing extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ maybe of assistance:

 The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred) consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter, and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some seasons. 

 The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system, " with a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year, fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its various strips as a full team of oxen could plough. 

Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P. S. Hist. OfEng. _, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P. S. Hist. Of Eng. _, p. 37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment ofnecessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by thefreeman. 

2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certainreasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers;the people looked to these courts for justice. 

3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders soughtprotection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from smalllandowners to "eorls. "

STEP III

_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_. ) Baronstoo powerful for the king for various reasons:

1. Their property was large and compact. 

2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc. 

3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior. 

By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William wouldprobably do to strengthen his own position. 

STEP IV

_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William. )

1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as atribe, but William personally, who conquered England. 

2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately orbecause the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it wasconquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties. )

3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king. 

4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of whichwere the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him. 

5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led themilitary levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes. 

6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble inlater times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them. 

7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath. 

The important points of each step should be written on the black-boardas they are described or developed. 

(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of anotherlesson. )

SEIGNIORIAL TENURE

The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method ofland tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them totrace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and thedevelopment of the country; and to increase their interest in thepresent system of tenure. 

METHOD

In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal Systemwould show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under himby the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then bythe large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it. Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When thisdescription is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teachersupplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then thepupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make forhis land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure inCanada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented asanother problem; for example, how would the actual workers bediscouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? Inconnection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holdingland that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, andcan imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are thenready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at whatcost. 

The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development, or problem, methods. 

THE LESSON

1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land inOntario. (See lesson on the Feudal System. ) Develop the leadingprinciples of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario thismethod of holding land? We are going to learn something about the systemof holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See_Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High SchoolHistory of Canada_, Chap. VIII. )

2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure, which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent waspaid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service. Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles. An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manorsannually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These_seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains. This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land inFrance, called the Feudal System. 

 At this point the teacher might give a short description of the Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in comparison with the lords. 

3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadianaristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land amongsettlers. This system of holding land came to be known as SeigniorialTenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, becamehis vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who heldtheir land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured_habitants_ to cultivate the soil. 

4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within acertain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent totwo cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitairesold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfthof the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay theKing one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not veryattractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled inthis country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were grantedpatents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank fromcultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned theirattention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers andthe most gallant defenders of New France. 

5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and Englishsettlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Theirnumber was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who cameover after the American Revolution. The English disliked the Frenchmethod of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land ina seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to onetwelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on thevalue of the land, but also on the value of all buildings andimprovements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often morevaluable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlersan intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System hadbeen abolished in England. )

6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act whichgave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in theirown name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to availthemselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantageof their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished, the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of theirancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, wasintroduced. 

7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:

 (_a_) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada. 

 (_b_) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to improve their lands. 

 (_c_) It gave the habitant no chance to rise. 

 (_d_) It tended to divide the population into three classes. 

 (_e_) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit could be developed. 

8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the AmericanRevolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure. 

CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES

TOPICAL ANALYSIS

_Causes:_

1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces;foreshadowed in Durham's Report. 

2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation bypopulation; deadlock in Parliament. 

3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britainand the Colonies and the United States over the _Trent_ affair, the_Alabama_ trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the BritishColonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War. 

_Steps toward Confederation:_

1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in1864. 

2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favoursConfederation. 

3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, anddelegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), NovaScotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Unionfrom the Imperial Government. 

4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving noticein 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and bythe Fenian Raid, 1866. 

5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passedby the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st, 1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a FederalUnion. 

_Outline of Terms:_

See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 215. Provision madefor admission of new provinces. 

_Expansion of Confederation:_

Admission of other provinces--Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871;Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukonterritory also represented in the Dominion Parliament. 

NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THEHISTORY OF A COUNTRY

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

GENERAL

The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographicalfacts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affectedby these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes andrivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolatinginfluence. 

Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its naturalproducts--minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc. , and the facilities whichits structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast, with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, andtherefore a trading people. 

The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which thenation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate bestsuited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and loversof freedom. 

ENGLAND

_Position:_ The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner ofEurope, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit. Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, herposition gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness. The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war anda means of intercourse in peace. 

_Structure:_ Two regions--one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawnfrom the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued tothe south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east ofthis line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigrationfrom the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers thatflowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and thesouthwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, becauseof its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district. 

_Climate:_ Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moistsouthwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the wintersmild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of avigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall. 

_Products:_ On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural, and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and theslopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is analmost indispensable condition for industries, though otherconsiderations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essentialmaterials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits oflimestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on ornear the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fieldsthe centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insularposition and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries canbe brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out asmanufactured goods. 

Consult: _A Historical Geography of the British Empire_. Hereford B. George, Methuen & Co. , London. _The Relations of Geography and History_. Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 

ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON

The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how thehistory of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position. 

 _T. _--Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does so. ) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the size of the Island?

 _P. _--It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets. 

 _T. _--Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the people?

 _P. _--They would almost have to be sailors. 

 _T. _--In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime race. ) What is one occupation the people would follow?

 _P. _--They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each new point, as it comes up. )

 _T. _--What else would they do?

 _P. _--They would probably engage in trade or commerce. 

 _T. _--With which countries? Study the map for a moment. 

 _P. _--With those on the west of Europe, and with America. 

 _T. _--Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the map to show this?

 _P. _--There are a great many lines on the map that show the water routes from Britain to almost every country in the world. 

 _T. _--Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?

 _P. _--No country could attack her except by water. 

 _T. _--How would she defend herself?

 _P. _--She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a brief outline of the growth of the navy. )

 _T. _--Where would she get her ships?

 _P. _--She builds them herself. 

 _T. _--Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?

 _P. _--No, she has always had the material in her own country for that. 

 _T. _--What are they built of?

 _P. _--The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best timber, --oak. 

 _T. _--What are they built of to-day?

 _P. _--Most of them are of iron. 

 _T. _--Where does she get that?

 _P. _--From her own mines. 

 _T. _--Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our country has the same latitude?

 _P. _--Labrador. 

 _T. _--What is the climate of Labrador?

 _P. _--Very cold. 

 _T. _--Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?

 _P. _--The water around it would make it not so cold. 

 _T. _--Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now, how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?

 _P. _--They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can. 

(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with theclass. )

ST. LAWRENCE RIVER

INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY

_Aim. _--To show general connection between history and geography. 

_Material Required. _--A black-board sketch of that part of Canadaadjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picturepost-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks ofthe river. 

_Introduction. _--The teacher asks a few questions to make clear thepurpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns andcities--Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg, Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, andGaspé. 

_Presentation. _--The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boatfrom Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departurefrom Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there, he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was namedin honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, wasin honour of Queen Charlotte. ) Leaving Kingston the teacher willdescribe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and, with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, andits use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as astorehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (_Ontario PublicSchool History_, pp. 51, 114. )

As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, thebeautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville--its namecommemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescottis seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of thePatriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See _OntarioPublic School History_, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's _CanadianHistory for Boys and Girls_, p. 227. )

Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. ColonelMacdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on theice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans, captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armedvessels which lay in the harbour. (See _Ontario Public School History_, p. 155. )

From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of theriver at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past theflourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears amonument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle ofCrysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See _Ontario PublicSchool History_, p. 159. )

After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seatof the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widensinto a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which itpasses through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of LaSalle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See_Ontario School Geography_, p. 116, and _Ontario Public School Historyof Canada_, p. 60. ) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populouscity in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of earlysettlement in Canada. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 121. )

Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffsup which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps aroundthe Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monumentserected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination, pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of FrenchRule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre ofthe Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspé where Cartier landed and laid claimto the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till itsbanks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic. 

In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question methodis used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a writtenexercise. 

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603

The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right thekings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysisalso aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics maybe had only by following out those topics through history, neglectingall facts but those bearing on the topic studied. 

1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map, _Ontario Public School History of England_, p. 27) as a fief from Edmundof England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, beforethis a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are thebasis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords ofScotland. 

2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling. The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element inScotland was strengthened by this. 

3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This keptalive the English claims. 

4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland inthe reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced andfirmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundationbegun. Friendly relations strengthened. 

5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by theConvention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England. 

6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10, 000 marks, and for thefirst time acknowledged her independence. 

7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222. 

8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left thecrown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour ofEdward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War ofIndependence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn, 1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadlyhatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, thegreat enemy of England, and consolidated the different races inScotland. 

9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England andFrance and attacked England whenever she and France were at war. 

10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged. 

11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well intothe Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreignpolicy. 

12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, Frenchinfluence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the politicalhatred of England. 

13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and herimprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland didnot want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war. 

14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne ofEngland, ended almost entirely the differences between the twocountries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later(1707). 

ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND

The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation. (See Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 478. ) UnderCharles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxesshould be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to securecontrol of the executive, the other important element in ResponsibleGovernment. 

Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kingsand, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim ofParliament. Disputes were constant:

1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage. 

2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for onlyone year. 

3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of theSpanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament. 

4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forcedloans, " but far too little, for a new war with France was begun. Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition ofRight, which embodied all the points in dispute between them. 

5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he hadsigned; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the churchceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliamentsolemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned. Some members were arrested--Sir John Eliot died in the Tower--otherswere kept in prison for eleven years. 

6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period toraise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church inthe whole country. 

His methods of raising money were:

(_a_) By granting monopolies (£200, 000). 

(_b_) By Star Chamber fines--large fines for slight offences. 

(_c_) By illegal duties. 

(_d_) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden). 

His methods of establishing the English Church were:

(_a_) Religious oppression--chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, thePuritans. 

(_b_) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led torebellion. 

This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raisemoney. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances wereredressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops tokeep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again insix months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament. "

7. (_a_) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford. 

(_b_) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles. 

(_c_) This led to Charles' final blunder--the attempt to arrest the fivemembers. 

8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured andbeheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control. 

SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS

FORM IV

 I. _The Era of Reform in Britain_:

 1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people, and gave them higher ideals

 2. Social Reforms: (_a_) Canning, the friend of the oppressed (_b_) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery (_c_) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform (_d_) Revision of the criminal code

 3. Political Reforms: (_a_) The Reform Bill (_b_) The Chartist Agitation (_c_) The repeal of the Corn Laws

 II. _The Puritan Movement_:

 1. Its beginning under Elizabeth

 2. Its growth under James I

 3. The struggle and victory under Charles I

 4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth

 5. Its dissolution under Charles II

 6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the misrule of James II. 

FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE

THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE

The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on"Civilization" in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (latest edition), is toprovide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of whichhe may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certaininventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day thatthey are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must beleft entirely to the discretion of the teacher. 

NOTES

The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told inhistory, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H. Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankindfrom the earliest times to the present. There are three stages ofsavagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close ofeach stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. Theproblem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discoverywould enable the people to do that they could not do before. 

1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on rawnuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could havewarmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of _fire_. 

2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh;they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with theinvention of the _bow and arrow_. 

3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; hecould kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; withstronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into moredistant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of_pottery_. 

4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire. Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiledmeat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the _domestication ofanimals_. 

5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidlydomesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of thechase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel andtransportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact andcommerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Largercommunities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property becameindividual, instead of being communal. 

6. This stage began with the invention of _iron-smelting_. Immenseprogress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building, road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools. By these tools man was now able to express his æsthetic nature as neverbefore. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly. 

7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism tothe lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventionsthat man has ever made--_writing_. This made possible the recording ofman's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of eachgeneration for all succeeding generations, and making history possible. 

8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group ofinventions, --_gunpowder_, _the mariner's compass_, and _paper_ and the_printing press_. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, andthe human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world. 

9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, andplaced mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the_steam-engine_. The revolution which this brought about is so recent asto need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p. 87. ) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the raceon a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of theWorld the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, givingman the conquest of the last element still unmastered?

THE NEW LEARNING

1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of themost important movements in English history, by having them study themeaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning. 

2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditionsprevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, becausea knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding ofmany of the causes of the New Learning. 

The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called theRenaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. TheRenaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning ofmodern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a newinterest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight waspassing, and the man of affairs, with his broader sympathies, hiskeener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, wascoming into prominence. 

How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became thegreat problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turnedtheir attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it wasbelieved that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation ofthe meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the oldliterature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revivalof Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two greatliteratures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge wasinvestigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this greatintellectual awakening. 

3. The following were the chief causes of the movement:

(_a_) The Crusades

(_b_) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453

(_c_) The introduction of the mariner's compass

(_d_) The invention of gunpowder

(_e_) The invention of the printing press

(_f_) The overthrow of the feudal system

(_g_) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities

(_h_) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demandsand needs of the times

4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must beshown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will benecessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the peopleof northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highlycultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on thepeople of Europe by their mingling with the nations of the luxuriousEast--the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholarsof Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with theconditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alonegave an impetus to the New Learning. 

The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. Theintroduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their moregeneral use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growingindependence of thought, and a desire for greater political andreligious freedom. 

The other causes may be similarly treated. 

5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars ofwhom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too, were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movementaffected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken ineducation, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods ofinstruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of newschools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. Thewhole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual andmore moral life. 

6. Its effects:

(_a_) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for socialreform;

(_b_) It made possible the Reformation;

(_c_) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to theextension of the usefulness of the universities;

(_d_) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise, and encouraged commercial activity;

(_e_) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and music. 

(_f_) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered thespirit of scientific research;

(_g_) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which becameresponsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in thecondition of the people, and in the development of Europe since thattime. 

 NOTE: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus, Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to anticipate its chief results. 

 It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy several lesson periods. 

THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867. 

In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there areseveral distinct stages:

I. 1760 to 1763--Military Rule:

 1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three districts

 2. Little disturbance of French customs; the _habitants_ content

 3. Influx of "old" subjects--their character. (See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 109; _History of Canada_, Lucas and Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7. )

II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act):

 1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray

 2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects

 3. Conditions of government:

 (_a_) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all appointed by Crown

 (_b_) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended on will of Governor

 (_c_) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed

 (_d_) All money matters in hands of Council. 

 4. At this time the French greatly outnumbered the British, and the fear of the Revolution of the American Colonies led to the French being favoured in the Quebec Act, 1774. 

III. 1774 to 1791--Quebec Act to Constitutional Act:

 1. Both "old" and "new" subjects dissatisfied--the French with British Court procedure, the British with French feudal customs. 

 2. Provisions of the Quebec Act:

 (_a_) Change of boundaries (See text-book. )

 (_b_) Governor and Legislative Council appointed; no assembly called. 

 (_c_) French Civil Law; British Criminal Law

 (_d_) No oath required, as before, hostile to the Roman Catholic Church--beginning of religious liberty

 (_e_) Legislative Council had no control of taxation

IV. 1791 to 1841--Constitutional Act to Act of Union Provisions ofConstitutional Act:

 1. Upper and Lower Canada divided, because French and British could not agree on many points. 

 2. Each Province had a Governor, a Legislative Council, a Legislative Assembly, and an Executive Council. The Legislative Council was composed of the highest officials, appointed practically for life, and responsible to no one. Many of these were also members of the Executive Council. The Legislative Assembly was elected and was yet without control of the whole revenue, as the Home Government still collected "all duties regulating colonial navigation and commerce. "

 3. The Clergy Reserves were established; later to become a bone of contention. 

V. 1841 to 1867--Act of Union to British North America Act. 

The demands of the people for responsible government, that is, forcontrol of the Executive and of taxation, became so insistent that theAct of Union was passed, following Lord Durham's report on the Rebellionof 1837. 

 Provisions of the Act of Union:

 1. Legislative Council appointed (20 members)

 2. Legislative Assembly elected (42 from each Province, later 65 from each)

 3. Executive Council selected from both Houses

 4. A permanent Civil List of £75, 000 was granted

 5. The Legislative Assembly controlled the rest of the revenue. Money bills were to originate with the Government. This was really Responsible Government, as it was developed under Elgin. 

VI. 1867 to the present:

The British North America Act was the statement of a complete victory ofthe people for Responsible Government. The Executive Council (Cabinet)is wholly responsible to Parliament, in which the members of theExecutive must have seats; the raising and the spending of revenue iswholly in the hands of the people's representatives. For a clear summaryof the concessions won by Canadians, see Bourinot, _How Canada isGoverned_, page 34; see also _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pp. 267 et seq. 

DEVICES

MAPS

1. Wall maps for general study, especially of modern history. 

2. Outline or sketch maps drawn on the black-board by the teacher or thepupils for use in the study of earlier history, or explorations, etc. For these purposes the details of a wall map are not only not needed, but are rather a hindrance. 

3. Relief maps of plasticine, clay, or salt and flour, to be made by thepupils to illustrate the influence of geographical facts in history, andto make events in history more real to the pupils. 

PICTURES

1. Many good historical pictures of persons, buildings, monuments, andevents may be collected by the pupils and the teacher from magazines andnewspapers, and pasted in a scrap-book. (See Educational Pamphlet, No. 4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_. )

2. The Perry Picture Co. , Malden, Mass. , publishes pictures in differentsizes, costing from one cent upward. Many of these are useful inteaching history. Similar pictures may be obtained from the CosmosPicture Co. , New York. 

3. Good picture post-cards can be easily obtained. 

4. Lantern slides and stereopticon views may be used. (For lists ofdealers and publishers of 3 and 4, see also _Visual Aids in the Teachingof History_. )

MUSEUMS

These often contain relics of earlier times in the form of implements, utensils, weapons, dress. A visit to one will interest pupils. 

SOURCE BOOKS

Some source books for illustrating earlier conditions in Ontario are:

1. _The Talbot Régime. _ By Charles Oakes Ermatinger, St. Thomas. 

2. _Pioneer Days. _ By David Kennedy, Port Elgin. Sold by author, 50c. 

3. _United Empire Loyalists. _ By Egerton Ryerson. William Briggs. 

4. _Canadian Constitutional Development. _ Selected speeches anddispatches, 1766-1867. By Egerton and Grant Murray. $3. 00. 

5. _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada. _ William Briggs, Toronto, $2. 00. 

GENEALOGICAL TABLES

Those needed to illustrate special periods may be found in the largerhistories. Pupils should be instructed how to interpret them. 

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART

This may be made by the class, on the black-board or on a slated clothas the work advances. On the left hand of a vertical line are set downthe dates, allowing the same space for each ten years, the close of eachdecade being shown in larger figures. On the right side are set down theevents in their proper place. For example, in studying the career ofChamplain, the Chart will be begun as follows:

CHAMPLAIN

=1600=

1603 First visit, when 36 years old, with Pontgravé. 

1604 With De Monts and Poutrincourt he undertakes to colonize Acadia;forms a settlement at Port Royal. 

1608 Founds Quebec. 

1609 Explores Richelieu River and Lake Champlain; forms an alliance withthe Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois. 

1610 Marriage. 

1611 Establishes a trading station at what is now Montreal. 

1613 Ascends the Ottawa River, expecting to find the way to China;deceived, returns to France. 

1615 Brings out the Recollet Fathers to Christianize the Indians;explores the country of the Hurons. 

=1620=

A useful chart which shows the growth of Canada is to be found inTaylor's _Cardinal Facts of Canadian History_, reproduced in Duncan's_The Canadian People_. An Illustrated Chart of Canadian History ispublished by the United Editors Company, of Toronto. 

NOTE-BOOKS AND CLASS EXERCISES

In the Fourth Form, pupils should copy into a notebook the black-boardwork--topical outlines, time chart, etc. , as a basis for review and forclass exercises in composition. Such a topical summary, the joint workof teacher and class, is the best means of review for examinationpurposes, when one is held. 

Pupils may occasionally be asked to make from the text-book, withoutpreceding class work, a topical analysis either of a subject which istreated consecutively in the book, such as the War of 1812-14, or of asubject that requires the pupil to collect his material from variousparts of the book, or even from several books. In the latter case theteacher should direct the pupil to the proper sources. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. FOR TEACHERS

I. _Histories_:

(_a_) English:

 1. A Short History of the English People. Green. $1. 50. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 2. Ontario High School History of England. 65c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 3. A History of the British Nation. A. D. Innes. $1. 25. E. C. & T. C. Jack, Edinburgh. 

(_b_) Canadian:

 1. A History of Canada. Roberts. $1. 00. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 2. Story of Canada (Story of the Nations Series). Bourinot. $1. 50. G. P. Putnam's, New York. 

 3. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 10 vols. Canada: Part I, $1. 60; Part II, $1. 10. Lucas and Egerton, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 

 One of the best histories of Canada; on a geographical basis. 

 4. Ontario High School History of Canada. Grant. 19c. The T. Eaton Company, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 5. A Short History of the Canadian People. Bryce. $2. 00. William Briggs, Toronto. 

(_c_) Civics:

 1. Canadian Civics. Jenkins. 35c. Copp, Clark Co. , Ltd. , Toronto. 

 2. How Canada is Governed. Bourinot. $1. 00. Copp, Clark Co. , Ltd. , Toronto. 

(_d_) General History:

 1. General Sketch of European History. Freeman. $1. 00. The Macmillan Co. Of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 2. History of Our Own Times. McCarthy. $1. 25. Crowell and Company, New York. 

 3. The Nineteenth Century--A History. MacKenzie. $1. 00. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto. 

For help in preparing lessons every teacher should possess one book ofeach of the above classes, in addition to the Ontario Public SchoolHistories. 

II. _On Methods_:

1. Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and SecondarySchools. Bourne. $1. 50. Longmans Green and Company, London, England. 

 The best book on general method. 

2. Methods in History. Mace. $1. 00. Ginn and Company, New York. 

3. Special Method in History. McMurry. 75c. The Macmillan Company ofCanada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

B. MATERIAL FOR CLASS WORK

ESPECIALLY IN CORRELATED SUBJECTS

1. Reader's Guide to English History. Allen. 25c. Ginn and Company, NewYork. 

 (Contains a list of historical authorities for the various periods; and lists of historical poems and fiction to illustrate these periods. )

2. School Atlas of English History. S. R. Gardiner. $1. 50. Longmans, Green and Company, London, England. 

3. Atlas of Canada. Published by Department of the Interior, Ottawa. 

 (The Department of the Interior also publishes maps giving the latest information concerning railways, distribution of minerals, etc. , which can be had by asking for them. )

4. Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography. Everyman's Library. 25c. Dent & Co. , Ltd. , Toronto. 

5. Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe. Everyman's Library. 25c. Dent & Co. , Ltd. , Toronto. 

6. Literary and Historical Atlas of America. Everyman's Library. 25c. Dent & Co. , Ltd. , Toronto. 

C. HISTORICAL READERS AND SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS

Group I. 

1. Highroads of History. 13 Vols. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto. 

 Well illustrated; a great favourite with children. 

2. Gateways to History. 7 Vols. 9s. 1d. Edward Arnold, London, England. 

3. Longmans' Ship Historical Readers. 7 Vols. 9s. Longmans, Green andCompany, London, England. 

4. The Little Cousin Series. 25 Vols. 60c. Each. The Page Co. , Boston, Mass. 

 Get list of titles and select. 

5. Peeps at many Lands and Cities. 50 Vols. 50c. Each. The MacmillanCompany of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

 Get list of titles and select. 

Group II. 

1. Stories from Canadian History. Marquis. 50c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd. , Toronto. 

2. Brief Biographies. Supplementing Canadian History. J. O. Miller. 35c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd. , Toronto. 

3. Stories of the Maple Land. C. A. Young. 25c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd. , Toronto. 

4. Heroines of Canadian History. W. S. Herrington. Cloth 30c. , paper 18c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto. 

5. Ryerson Memorial Volume. J. G. Hodgins. 

 A graphic sketch of the old log school-house and its belongings, and the life of a pioneer teacher. 

6. Stories of New France. Machar and Marquis. $1. 50. Briggs, Toronto. 

7. Martyrs of New France. Herrington. 60c. Briggs, Toronto. 

Group III. 

1. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. Baldwin. 35c. The American Book Company, New York. 

2. Thirty More Famous Stories. Baldwin. 50c. The American Book Company, New York. 

3. Book of Legends. Scudder. Riverside Literature Series 15c. Copp ClarkCompany, Ltd. , Toronto. 

4. Legends Every Child Should Know. Ed. H. W. Mabie. 90c. Doubleday, Pageand Co. , New York. 

Group IV. --Miscellaneous:

1. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Ed. H. W. Mabie. 60c. Doubleday, NewYork. 

2. Famous Men of Greece. 50c. The American Book Company, New York. 

3. Famous Men of Rome. The American Book Company, New York. 

4. Famous Men of the Middle Ages. 50c. The American Book Company, NewYork. 

5. Famous Men of Modern Times. 50c. The American Book Co. , New York. 

6. Stories of Great Inventors. Macombe. 40c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto. 

7. Calendar Stories. M. P. Boyle. 30c. McClelland, Goodchild, & Stewart, Toronto. 

8. Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road From Long Ago to Now. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. Ed. 60c. Ginn and Company, New York. 

9. Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. Ed. 50c. Ginn andCompany, New York. 

10. The Romance of Canadian History. Selections from Parkman; edited byPelham Edgar. 75c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd. , Toronto. 

11. English Life 300 Years Ago. Trevelyan. 1s. Methuen and Company, London. 

12. Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Reformers, Great Orators, Great Teachers, English Authors, Good men and Great. Hubbard. 10c each. The Roycrofters, East Aurora, N. Y. 

In Group I the first, and any of the others may be read. The first arevery interesting and great favourites with children. 

In Groups II and III one of each may be taken as they, to some extent, cover the same ground. 

All of those in Group IV are useful, and may be added as opportunitypermits. 

APPENDIX

THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE

Did you ever hear the story of the first Christmas tree? This is the wayit was told to me: Martin Luther was a good man who lived in Germanylong ago. One Christmas Eve he was walking to his home. The night wascold and frosty with many stars in the sky. He thought he had never seenstars look so bright. When he got home he tried to tell his wife andchildren how pretty the stars were, but they didn't seem to understand. So Luther went out into his garden and cut a little evergreen tree. Thishe set up in the room and fastened tiny candles all over it, and when hehad lighted them they shone like stars. 

One of Luther's neighbours came in that night, and when she saw the treeshe thought how one would please her children. Soon she had one in herhouse, too. And the idea spread from one house to another until therewere Christmas trees all over Germany. 

Queen Victoria of England was married to a German prince, and the Germancustom of a Christmas tree for the children was followed in the royalpalace. Of course after the Queen had a tree other people must have one, too. So the Christmas tree came to England. 

The little French boys and girls have not had them so long. Not verymany years ago there was a war between France and Germany. At Christmastime the German soldiers were in Paris. They felt sorry to be so farfrom their own little boys and girls on Christmas eve. But they knew howto have something to remind them of home. Every soldier who could got alittle evergreen tree and put candles on it. The French saw them, andwere so pleased that now, every year, they too have Christmas trees. 

So many people from England, and from Germany, and from France have cometo our country to live, of course, we too have learned about Christmastrees. And that is why you and so many other little girls and boys havesuch pretty trees on Christmas eve. 

THE ORIGIN OF THE EASTER BUNNY

Childish voices are asking why the rabbit is seen with the eggsand the chickens that fill the shop windows and show-cases at Easter. The legend that established the hare as a symbol of the Eastertide isnot generally known. It is of German origin and runs as follows:

Many years ago, during a cruel war, the Duchess of Lindenburg with hertwo children and an old servant fled for safety to a little obscurevillage in the mountains. She found the people very poor, and one thingthat surprised her much was that they used no eggs. She learned thatthey had never seen or heard of hens, and so when the old servant wentto get tidings of his master and of the war he brought back with himsome of these birds. 

The simple village folk were greatly interested in the strange fowl, andwhen they saw the tiny yellow chickens breaking their way out of theeggs they were full of delight. But the Duchess was saddened by thethought that Easter was drawing near and that she had no gifts for thelittle mountain children. Then an idea came to her. The spring wasbeginning to colour the earth with leaves and flowers, and she madebright dyes out of herbs and roots and coloured the eggs. Then thechildren were invited to visit the Duchess, and she told them storiesof the glad Easter day, and afterwards bade each make a nest of mossamong the bushes. When they had all enjoyed the little feast provided intheir honour, they went back to the woods to look at their nests. Lo! ineach were five coloured eggs. 

"What a good hen it must have been to lay such beautiful eggs, " said onechild. 

"It could not have been a hen, " said another. "The eggs that the henslay are white. It must have been the rabbit that jumped out of the treewhen I made my nest. "

And all the children agreed that it was the rabbit, and to this day themystic Bunny is supposed to bring eggs and gifts at Easter to the littlechildren of the "fatherland" who have been loving and kind during theyear. 

THE STORY OF ST. VALENTINE

Once upon a time, there lived in a monastery across the sea ahumble monk called Valentine. Every brother save himself seemed to havesome special gift. 

Now there was Brother Angelo, who was an artist, and painted suchwonderful Madonnas that it seemed as if the holy mother must step downfrom the frame and bless her children. 

Brother Vittorio had a wonderful voice, and on saints' days themonastery chapel would be crowded with visitors, who came from far andnear just to listen to that wonderful voice as it soared up among thedim old arches. 

Brother Anselmo was a doctor, and knew the virtues of all roots, herbs, and drugs, and was kept very busy going about among the sick, followedby their tearful, grateful blessing. 

Brother Johannes was skilled in illuminating, and Valentine oftenwatched the page grow under his clever hand. How beautiful would then bethe gospel story in brightly-coloured letters, with dainty flowers, bright-winged butterflies, and downy, nestling birds about the borders!

Brother Paul was a great teacher in the monastery school, and evenlearned scholars came to consult him. Friar John ruled the affairs ofthe little monastery world with wisdom and prudence. Indeed, out of thewhole number only Valentine seemed without special talent. 

The poor man felt it keenly. He longed to do some great thing. "Why didnot the good God give me a voice like Vittorio or a skilled hand likeAngelo?" he would often inquire of himself bitterly. One day as he satsadly musing on these things, a voice within him said clearly andearnestly: "Do the little things, Valentine; there the blessing lies. ""What are the little things?" asked Valentine, much perplexed. But noanswer came to this question. Like every one else, Valentine had to findhis work himself. 

He had a little plot where he loved to work, and the other monks saidthat Valentine's pinks, lilies, and violets were larger and brighterthan any raised in the whole monastery garden. 

He used to gather bunches of his flowers and drop them into the chubbyhands of children as they trotted to school under the gray monasterywalls. Many a happy village bride wore his roses on her way to thealtar. Scarcely a coffin was taken to the cemetery but Valentine'slilies or violets filled the silent hands. 

He got to know the birthday of every child in the village, and was fondof hanging on the cottage door some little gift his loving hands hadmade. He could mend a child's broken windmill and carve quaint facesfrom walnut shells. He made beautiful crosses of silvery gray lichens, and pressed mosses and rosy weeds from the seashore. The same tenderhands were ready to pick up a fallen baby, or carry the water bucket forsome weary mother. 

Everybody learned to love the good Brother Valentine. The children clungto his long, gray skirts, and the babies crept out on the streets toreceive his pat on their shining hair. Even the cats and dogs rubbedagainst him, and the little birds fluttered near him unafraid. 

St. Valentine grew old, loving and beloved, never dreaming that he hadfound his great thing. When the simple monk died the whole countrysidemourned, and hundreds came to look for the last time on the quiet facein the rude coffin. 

A great duke walked bare-headed after that coffin, and one of the mostnoted brothers of the church spoke the last words of blessing to theweeping people. 

After his death, it was remembered how sweet had been his little gifts, and the villagers said: "Let us, too, give gifts to our friends on thegood Valentine's birthday. " So ever since has the pretty custom beencarried out, and on St. Valentine's day we send our friends littletokens of remembrance to say we love them. 

THE FIRST THANKSGIVING

It is nearly three hundred years since the first ThanksgivingDay. Though we have even more to be grateful for, I think that there arenot many of us who feel quite so thankful as the little handful ofpeople who set apart the first Thanksgiving Day. 

There were not very many of them, just one little village in a bigforest land, and by the edge of a great ocean. Here, on the map, iswhere they lived. It is on the north-eastern shores of the United Statesand is called Plymouth. The people I am telling you about gave it thatname when they came to it, nearly two years before they had their firstThanksgiving Day. It was the name of the last town they had seen inEngland. Here, on the map, is the English Plymouth, and you see what along trip they had in their little vessel, called the _Mayflower_, totheir new home. 

You still wonder why they travelled so far to make new homes forthemselves. It was because they wanted to worship God in their own waythat they left England. They were not afraid of the long voyage and allits hardships; for they felt sure they were doing as God wished them todo. They arrived safely, too, and built their little village by thesea--the new Plymouth. One of the first buildings they put up was alittle log church. 

The first year was very hard for everybody. The winter was colder thanany they had ever known in England, and their houses were small andpoorly built. They could not get any letters or news from their friendsin England for many months. Food was not scarce, for there was alwaysplenty of game and fish. But it was such a change from their old way ofliving that many people became ill, and in the spring there were manygraves. But the worst thing about the new land was the Indians. TheseEnglish people were afraid of them--and with good reason, too, for theywere very fierce and sometimes very cruel. They tried not to let theIndians know how few they were, and even planted grain about the gravesin the churchyard so that the Indians could not count how many haddied. 

But one of the Indian Chiefs was friendly to the English and kept theother tribes from making war on them, and the second summer they had agreat harvest and everything was more comfortable. It was in thatautumn, just after the grain was gathered, that the minister spoke tothem one Sunday about having a Thanksgiving day. "It seemeth right, " hesaid, "God hath granted us peace and plenty. He has blessed us with adwelling-place of peace. He has held back the savage red man frombringing harm to us. Therefore let us appoint a day of Thanksgiving. "

After that all the people, even the boys and girls, were busy gettingready. The men took their guns and fishing-rods and went into theforest, and brought home fowl, fish, and deer, and perhaps bear meat aswell. The boys and girls gathered wild plums, and grapes, and corn, andbrought in pumpkins from the gardens; and the women made pies, puddings, cakes, and bread, and baked the meat and corn. They had great piles ofcakes, and rows and rows of pies, and loaves of bread and platters ofmeat, for they all expected company. You could not guess, I am sure, whowas coming! They had sent word to the Indians near to come and spendThanksgiving Day with them. 

Do you suppose they came? Indeed they did. They came before breakfastand stayed until long after supper, and had a good time, and tastedeverything the white women had cooked, and nodded their heads and said, "How" a great many times, to say it was good. Some of the little girlsand boys were half afraid of them, but they need not have been; for thatday the Indians felt very kindly toward the English. 

 Ask pupils to mention things for which they are thankful. 

LETTER FROM MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, TO QUEEN ELIZABETH

Believe, Madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this lastsummer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in acondition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And thisnotwithstanding, exact from me such assurances, and just and reasonableconditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make mekeep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to breakthem. You have had from observation enough experience of my barepromises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on thissubject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you, and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as bykindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languishbetween four walls; those of my rank and disposition not permittingthemselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness. 

 * * * * *

In conclusion, I have to request two things especially; the one that asI am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation somehonourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that Ihave to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to myreligion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a lastduty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miserable personalive; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, justas all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion. And as for myself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anythingagainst their religion even when I had all power and authority overthem? And you cannot justly bring it to pass that I should be in thisextremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to youfrom denying me this? I hope that God will forgive me if, oppressed byyou in this wise, I do not cease from paying Him that duty which in myheart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to otherprinces of Christendom of employing towards their subjects andrelatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereignqueen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of myenemies so long as I live. 

INDEX

 Aims of Study, 13

 Amount of Material, 18

 Appendix, 136 First Christmas Tree, The, 136 First Thanksgiving, The, 140 Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143 Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137 Story of St. Valentine, 138

 Bibliography, 130

 Black-board Work in Teaching History, 27, 31, 40, 47, 50

 Capture of Quebec, The, 66

 Characteristics of a Good Text-book, 24

 Chronological Chart, 128

 Chronological Method, 21

 Civics, 20, 51, 52

 Civilization and Inventions, 119

 Clergy Reserves, The, 36

 Colours of the Flag, The, 73

 Combination of Methods, 25

 Comparative Method, 22

 Concentric Method, 22

 Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107

 Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124

 Correlation of Subjects, 39, 40, 50

 Course of Study, 1

 Current Events, 49

 Dates, 47

 Devices for Teaching, 127

 Dramatization of History, 46

 Drill and Review, 31

 Empire Day, 75

 Feudal System, 100

 First Christmas Tree, The, 136

 First Thanksgiving, The, 140

 Flag, The, 68

 Flag Days, 72

 Florence Nightingale, 62

 Genealogical Tables, 37, 128

 Historical Sense, The, 17

 History and Art, 45 " " Chronology, 47 " " Composition, 26, 46 " " Constructive Work, 44, 67 " " Geography, 40, 108 " " Literature, 41 " " Oral Reading, 26 " " Science, 43, 119

 How to Make History Real, 34

 Illustrative Lessons, 60 Type Lesson in the Story Stage, 60 First Thanksgiving, The, 61 Florence Nightingale, 62 Postmaster, 65 Capture of Quebec, The, 66 Coming of the United Empire Loyalists, The, 67 Flag, The, 68 Suggestions for Empire Day, 75 Egerton Ryerson, 78 The Intercolonial Railway, 82 The Industrial Revolution, 87 The Road to Cathay, 92 The Armada, 97 The Feudal System, 100 Seigniorial Tenure, 103 Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107 Influence of Geographical Conditions on History, 108 The St. Lawrence River, 112 Relations Between England and Scotland, 114 Analysis of Secs. 160-170 in Ontario P. S. History of England, 116 Outlines for Reviews, 118 The Development of Civilization, 119 The New Learning, 121 The Fight for Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124

 Importance of Facts in History, 19

 Industrial Revolution, The, 87

 Influence of Geography on History, 108, 110

 Information Stage, The, 18

 Interest, 16, 19, 34, 38, 44, 58, 78

 Intercolonial Railway, The, 82

 Inventions and History, 43, 87, 119

 Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143

 Local Material, 51

 Maps, 35, 40, 68, 127

 Memorizing History, 38

 Methods for Forms I and II, 25

 " " Form III, 26

 " " Form IV, 28, 78

 Moral Value of History, 14, 28, 53

 Museums, 128

 New Learning, The, 121

 Newspapers, 49

 Note-books, 31, 129

 Oral Method, The, 23, 25, 27, 28, 34, 58, 60, 62, 64

 Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137

 Patriotism, 13

 Pictures, 35, 45, 127

 Postmaster, 65

 Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, 76, 78, 83, 119

 Reflective Stage, 18

 Regressive Method, 22

 Relations of England and Scotland, 114

 Reviews, 23, 31, 39, 92, 112, 118

 Road to Cathay, 92

 Ryerson, Egerton, 78

 Scope of Study, 15

 Seigniorial Tenure, 103

 Source Books, 37, 128, 143

 Spanish Armada, 97

 St. Lawrence River, 112

 St. Valentine, 138

 Stages of Study, 15

 Story Stage, 15

 Story Telling, 1, 15, 17

 Taxation, 11, 55, 56, 57

 Teacher of History, 57

 Text-book Method, 24

 Topical Analysis, 21, 78, 87, 97, 107, 114, 116, 124

 Topical Method, 21

 Training in the Use of the Text-book, 29

 United Empire Loyalists, 67

 Union Jack, 68, 74

 Use of Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, 76, 78, 83, 119

 Where to Begin the Study of History, 19