ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS

SCIENCE OF EDUCATION

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

TORONTO THE RYERSON PRESS

COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO

Second Printing, 1919. Third Printing, 1923. 

CONTENTS

PART I

THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

CHAPTER I PAGE

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION 1 Conditions of Growth and Development 2 Worth in Human Life 4 Factors in Social Efficiency 6

CHAPTER II

FORMS OF REACTION 9 Instinctive Reaction 9 Habitual Reaction 10 Conscious Reaction 11 Factors in process 12 Experience 13 Relative value of experiences 15 Influence of Conscious Reaction 17

CHAPTER III

PROCESS OF EDUCATION 19 Conscious Adjustment 19 Education as Adjustment 19 Education as Control of Adjustment 22 Requirements of the Instructor 24

CHAPTER IV

THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 25 Purposes of Curriculum 25 Dangers in Use of Curriculum 28

CHAPTER V

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 34 The School 34 Other Educative Agents 35 The church 35 The home 36 The vocation 36 Other institutions 36

CHAPTER VI

THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL 38 Civic Views 38 Individualistic Views 40 The Eclectic View 43

CHAPTER VII

DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY 46 Control of Experience 46 The Instructor's Problems 48 General method 49 Special methods 49 School management 50 History of education 50

PART II

METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL METHOD 52 Subdivisions of Method 52 Method and Mind 53

CHAPTER IX

THE LESSON PROBLEM 55 Nature of Problem 55 Need of Problem 57 Pupil's Motive 59 Awakening Interest 61 Knowledge of Problem 67 How to Set Problem 69 Examples of Motivation 71

CHAPTER X

LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY 75 The Selecting Process 77 Law of Preparation 82 Value of preparation 83 Precautions 84 Necessity of preparation 85 Examples of preparation 86

CHAPTER XI

LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY 89 Nature of Synthesis 90 Interaction of Processes 91 Knowledge unified 94

CHAPTER XII

APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE 95 Types of Action 96 Nature of Expression 97 Types of Expression 99 Value of Expression 100 Dangers of Omitting 102 Expression and Impression 103

CHAPTER XIII

FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION 106 The Lecture Method 106 The Text-book Method 109 Uses of text-book 111 Abuse of text-book 113 The Developing Method 113 The Objective Method 116 The Illustrative Method 118 Precautions 119 Modes of Presentation Compared 121

CHAPTER XIV

CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE 122

 Acquisition of Particular Knowledge 122 Through senses 122 Through imagination 122 By deduction 123 Acquisition of General Knowledge 124 By conception 124 By induction 125 Applied knowledge general 126 Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar 127

CHAPTER XV

MODES OF LEARNING 129 Development of Particular Knowledge 129 Learning through senses 129 Learning through imagination 131 Learning by deduction 133 Examples for study 137 Development of General Knowledge 139 The conceptual lesson 139 The inductive lesson 140 The formal steps 141 Conception as learning process 143 Induction as learning process 144 Further examples 145 The inductive-deductive lesson 148

CHAPTER XVI

THE LESSON UNIT 150 Whole to Parts 151 Parts to Whole 154 Precautions 155

CHAPTER XVII

LESSON TYPES 156 The Study Lesson 157 The Recitation Lesson 160 Conducting recitation lesson 161 The Drill Lesson 162 The Review Lesson 165 The topical review 166 The comparative review 169

CHAPTER XVIII

QUESTIONING 171 Qualifications of Good Questioner 171 Purposes of Questioning 173 Socratic Questioning 174 The Question 177 The Answer 179 Limitations 181

PART III

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER XIX

CONSCIOUSNESS 183 Value of Educational Psychology 186 Limitations 186 Methods of Psychology 187 Phases of Consciousness 189

CHAPTER XX

MIND AND BODY 192 The Nervous System 192 The Cortex 198 Reflex Acts 199 Characteristics of Nervous Matter 202

CHAPTER XXI

INSTINCT 207 Human Instincts 209 Curiosity 214 Imitation 217 Play 221 Play in education 223

CHAPTER XXII

HABIT 226 Formation of Habits 230 Value of Habits 231 Improvement of Habits 234

CHAPTER XXIII

ATTENTION 237 Attention Selective 240 Involuntary Attention 243 Non-voluntary Attention 245 Voluntary Attention 246 Attention in Education 251

CHAPTER XXIV

THE FEELING OF INTEREST 257 Classes of Feelings 258 Interest in Education 261 Development of interests 264

CHAPTER XXV

SENSE PERCEPTION 267 Genesis of Perception 270 Factors in Sensation 273 Classification of Sensations 274 Education of the Senses 276

CHAPTER XXVI

MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION 282 Distinguished 283 Factors of Memory 284 Conditions of Memory 285 Types of Recall 288 Localization of Time 290 Classification of Memories 290 Memory in Education 291 Apperception 293 Conditions of Apperception 294 Factors in Apperception 296

CHAPTER XXVII

IMAGINATION 298 Types of Imagination 299 Passive 299 Active 300 Uses of Imagination 301

CHAPTER XXVIII

THINKING 304 Conception 305 Factors in concept 309 Aims of conceptual lessons 310 The definition 313 Judgment 315 Errors in judgment 317 Reasoning 320 Deduction 320 Induction 323 Development of Reasoning Power 328

CHAPTER XXIX

FEELING 330 Conditions of Feeling Tone 331 Sensuous Feelings 334 Emotion 334 Conditions of emotion 335 Other Types of Feeling 340 Mood 340 Disposition 340 Temperament 340 Sentiments 341

CHAPTER XXX

THE WILL 342 Types of Movement 342 Development of Control 343 Volition 345 Factors in volitional act 346 Abnormal Types of Will 348

CHAPTER XXXI

CHILD STUDY 352 Methods of Child Study 355 Periods of Development 358 Infancy 358 Childhood 359 Adolescence 361 Individual Differences 363

APPENDIX

 SUGGESTED READINGS 369

THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION

PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

CHAPTER I

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION

=Value of Scientific Knowledge. =--In the practice of any intelligentoccupation or art, in so far as the practice attains to perfection, there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles andmethods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms. In thesuccessful practice, for example, of the art of composition, there aremanifested the principles of rhetoric; in that of housebuilding, theprinciples of architecture; and in that of government, the principles ofcivil polity. In practising any such art, moreover, the worker findsthat a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guidehim in the correct practice of the art, --a knowledge of the science ofrhetoric assisting in the art of composition; of the science ofarchitecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of the science of civilpolity, in the art of government. 

=The Science of Education. =--If the practice of teaching is anintelligent art, there must, in like manner, be found in its processescertain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic formas a science of education, and applied by the educator in the art ofteaching. Assuming the existence of a science of education, it isfurther evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquaintedwith its leading principles, and likewise learn to apply theseprinciples in his practice of the art of teaching. To this end, however, it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits ofthe subject-matter of the science. We shall, therefore, first considerthe general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide thefacts to be included in this science. 

CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

=A. Physical Growth. =--Although differing in their particular conceptionof the nature of education, all educators agree in setting the child asthe central figure in the educative process. As an individual, thechild, like other living organisms, develops through a process of innerchanges which are largely conditioned by outside influences. In the caseof animals and plants, physical growth, or development, is found toconsist of changes caused in the main through the individual respondingto external stimulation. Taking one of the simplest forms of animallife, for example, the amoeba, we find that when stimulated by anyforeign matter not constituting its food, say a particle of sand, suchan organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements. Onthe other hand, if it comes in contact with suitable food, the amoebanot only flows toward it, but by assimilating it, at once begins toincrease in size, or grow, until it finally divides, or reproduces, itself as shown in the following figures. Hence the amoeba as anorganism is not only able to react appropriately toward differentstimuli, but is also able to change itself, or develop, by itsappropriate reactions upon such stimulations. 

In plant life, also, the same principle holds. As long as a grain ofcorn, wheat, etc. , is kept in a dry place, the life principle stored upwithin the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth. When, on theother hand, it is appropriately stimulated by water, heat, and light, the seed awakens to life, or germinates. In other words, the seedreacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and light, andmanifests the activity known as growth, or development. Thus allphysical growth, whether of the plant or the animal, is conditioned onthe energizing of the inherent life principle, in response toappropriate stimulation of the environment. 

[Illustration: A. Simple amoeba. B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food. C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate. ]

=B. Development in Human Life. =--In addition to its physical nature, human life has within it a spiritual law, or principle, which enablesthe individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that meansdevelop into an intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, wavesof light from an external object stimulate the nervous system throughthe eye, man is able, through his intelligent nature, to react mentallyupon these stimulations and, by interpreting them, build up within hisexperience conscious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner, when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object, themind is able to react upon the impressions and, by interpreting them, obtain images of touch, temperature, and weight. In the sphere ofaction, also, the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elderpounding with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc. , reacts imitativelyupon such stimulations, and thus acquires skill in action. So also whenstimulated by means of his human surroundings, as, for example, throughthe kindly acts of his mother, father, etc. , he reacts morally towardthese stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy, love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of development different inmore complex intellectual problems. If a child is given nine blocks onwhich are printed the nine digits, and is asked to arrange them in theform of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columnswill add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner growth throughstimulation and response. In such a case, since the answer is unknown tothe child, the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind. Furthermore, it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge ofthe value of the various digits when combined in threes, as 1, 6, 8; 5, 7, 3; 9, 2, 4; 1, 5, 9; etc. , that the necessary growth of knowledgerelative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind. 

WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE

But the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds toappropriate stimulations implies, also, that as man developsintellectually, he will find meaning in human life as realized inhimself and others. Thus he becomes able to recognize worth in humanlife and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth, ordevelopment. 

=The Worthy Life not a Natural Growth. =--Granting that it is thuspossible to recognize that "life is not a blank, " but that it shoulddevelop into something of worth, it by no means follows that the youngchild will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able tounderstand and control the conditions which make for its development. Although, indeed, there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency, yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitudeimpulsive and selfish. Left to himself, therefore, he is likely todevelop largely as a creature of appetite, controlled by blind passionsand the chance impressions of the moment. Until such time, therefore, ashe obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life, his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature, andhis actions are irrational and wasteful. Under such conditions the youngchild, if left to himself to develop in accordance with his nativetendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him fromwithout, must fall short of attaining to a life of worth. For thisreason education is designed to control the growth, or development, ofthe child, by directing his stimulations and responses in such a waythat his life may develop into one of worth. 

=Character of the Worthy Life. =--If, however, it is possible to add tothe worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying hisnatural reactions, the first problem confronting the scientific educatoris to decide what constitutes a life of worth. This question belongsprimarily to ethics, or the science of right living, to which theeducator must turn for his solution. Here it will be learned that thehigher life is one made up of moral relations. In other words, theperfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up ofsocial rights and duties, wherein one is able to realize his own goodin conformity with the good of others, and seek his own happiness byincluding within it the happiness of others. But to live a life ofsocial worth, man must gain such control over his lower physical wantsand desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others. He must, in other words, in adapting himself to his social environment, develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to actin co-operation with others. He must refuse, for instance, to satisfyhis own want by causing want to others, or to promote his own desires bygiving pain to others. Secondly, he must obtain such control over hisphysical surroundings, including his own body, that he is able to makethese serve in promoting the common good. In the worthy life, therefore, man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able toco-operate with them, and has so adjusted himself to his physicalsurroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective, andthus live a socially efficient life. 

FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY

=A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Efficiency. =--The following simpleexamples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into thesocially efficient life. The young child, for instance, who lives on theshore of one of our great lakes, may learn through his knowledge ofcolour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line. This knowledge, he finds, however, does not enter in any degree into hissocial life within the home. When on the same basis, however, he learnsto distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, hefinds this knowledge of service in the community, or home, life, sinceit enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother may desire for usein the home. One mark of social efficiency, therefore, is to possessknowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society. 

=B. Skill, a Factor in Social Efficiency. =--In the sphere of action, also, the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over thesurface of the lake. Here, again, however, the acquired skill wouldserve no purpose in the community life, except perhaps occasionally toenable him to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on the other hand, heacquires skill in various home occupations, as opening and closing thegates, attending to the furnace, harnessing and driving the horse, orplaying a musical instrument, he finds that this skill enables him insome measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member. Asecond factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of suchskill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our socialenvironment. 

=C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency. =--But granting thepossession of adequate knowledge and skill, a man may yet fall far shortof the socially efficient life. The machinist, for instance, may knowfully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for theintended steamboat. He may further possess the skill necessary to itsactual construction. But through indifference or a desire for selfishgain, this man may build for the vessel an engine which later, throughits poor construction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A thirdnecessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the possessionof a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill withfull regard to the feelings and rights of others. Thus a certain amountof socially useful knowledge, a certain measure of socially effectiveskill, and a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, allenter as factors into the socially efficient life. 

FORMAL EDUCATION

Assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutesa life of worth, and to recognize and in some measure control thestimulations and reactions of the child, it is evident that he should beable to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a moreworthy, that is, into a more socially efficient, life. Such an attemptto control the reactions of the child as he adjusts himself to thephysical and social world about him, in order to render him a moresocially efficient member of the society to which he belongs, isdescribed as formal education. 

CHAPTER II

FORMS OF REACTION

INSTINCTIVE REACTION

Since the educator aims to direct the development of the child bycontrolling his reactions upon his physical and social surroundings, wehave next to consider the forms under which these reactions occur. Evenat birth the human organism is endowed with certain tendencies, whichenable it to react effectively upon the presentation of appropriatestimuli. Our instinctive movements, such as sucking, hiding, grasping, etc. , being inherited tendencies to react under given conditions in amore or less effective manner for our own good, constitute one type ofreactive movement. At birth, therefore, the child is endowed withpowers, or tendencies, which enable him to adapt himself more or lesseffectively to his surroundings. Because, however, the child's earlyneeds are largely physical, many of his instincts, such as those offeeding, fighting, etc. , lead only to self-preservative acts, and are, therefore, individual rather than social in character. Even theseindividual tendencies, however, enable the child to adjust himself tohis surroundings, and thus assist that physical growth without which, aswill be learned later, there could be no adequate intellectual and moraldevelopment. But besides these, the child inherits many social andadaptive tendencies--love of approbation, sympathy, imitation, curiosity, etc. , which enable him of himself to participate in somemeasure in the social life about him. 

=Instinct and Education. =--Our instincts being inherited tendencies, itfollows that they must cause us to react in a somewhat fixed manner uponparticular external stimulation. For this reason, it might be assumedthat these tendencies would build up our character independently ofoutside interference or direction. If such were the case, instinctivereactions would not only lie beyond the province of formal education, but might even seriously interfere with its operation, since ourinstinctive acts differ widely in value from the standpoint of theefficient life. It is found, however, that human instincts may not onlybe modified but even suppressed through education. For example, as weshall learn in the following paragraphs, instinctive action in man maybe gradually supplanted by more effective habitual modes of reaction. Although, therefore, the child's instinctive tendencies undoubtedly playa large part in the early informal development of his character outsidethe school, it is equally true that they can be brought under thedirection of the educator in the work of formal education. For thatreason a more thorough study of instinctive forms of reaction, and oftheir relation to formal education, will be made in Chapter XXI. 

HABITUAL REACTION

A second form of reaction is known as habit. On account of the plasticcharacter of the matter constituting the nervous tissue in the humanorganism, any act, whether instinctive, voluntary, or accidental, ifonce performed, has a tendency to repeat itself under likecircumstances, or to become habitual. The child, for example, whenplaced amid social surroundings, by merely yielding to his generaltendencies of imitation, sympathy, etc. , will form many valuable modesof habitual reaction connected with eating, dressing, talking, controlling the body, the use of household implements, etc. For thisreason the early instinctive and impulsive acts of the child graduallydevelop into definite modes of action, more suited to meet theparticular conditions of his surroundings. 

=Habit and Education. =--Furthermore, the formation of these habitualmodes of reaction being largely conditioned by outside influences, it ispossible to control the process of their formation. For this reason, theeducator is able to modify the child's natural reactions, and develop intheir stead more valuable habits. No small part of the work of formaleducation, therefore, must consist in adding to the social efficiency ofthe child by endowing him with habits making for neatness, regularity, accuracy, obedience, etc. A detailed study of habit in its relation toeducation will be made in Chapter XXII. 

CONSCIOUS REACTION

=An Example. =--The third and highest form of human reaction is known asideal, or conscious, reaction. In this form of reaction the mind, through its present ideas, reacts upon some situation or difficulty insuch a way as to adjust itself satisfactorily to the problem with whichit is faced. As an example of such a conscious reaction, or adjustment, may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed standing over astationary iron grating through which he had dropped a small coin. A fewmoments later the lad was seen of his own accord to take up a rod lyingnear, smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a near bywagon, insert the rod through the grating, and thus recover his lostcoin. An analysis of the mental movements involved previously to theactual recovery of the coin will illustrate in general the nature of aconscious reaction, or adjustment. 

=Factors Involved in Process. =--In such an experience the consciousnessof the lad is at the outset occupied with a definite problem, or feltneed, demanding adjustment--the recovering of the lost coin, which needacts as a stimulus to the consciousness and gives direction and value tothe resulting mental activity. Acting under the demands of this problem, or need, the mind displays an intelligent initiative in the selecting ofideas--stick, adhesion, tar, etc. , felt to be of value for securing therequired new adjustment. The mind finally combines these selected ideasinto an organized system, or a new experience, which is acceptedmentally as an adequate solution of the problem. The following factorsare found, therefore, to enter into such an ideal, or conscious, reaction:

1. _The Problem. _--The conscious reaction is the result of a definiteproblem, or difficulty, presented in consciousness and grasped by themind as such--How to recover the coin. 

2. _A Selecting Process. _--To meet the solution of this problem use ismade of ideas which already form a part of the lad's present experience, or knowledge, and which are felt by him to have a bearing on thepresented problem. 

3. _A Relating Process. _--These elements of former experience areorganized by the child into a mental plan which he believes adequate tosolve the problem before him. 

4. _Application. _--This resulting mental plan serves to guide a furtherphysical reaction, which constitutes the actual removal of thedifficulty--the recovery of the coin. 

=Significance of Conscious Reactions. =--In a conscious reaction upon anysituation, or problem, therefore, the mind first uses its present ideas, or experience, in weighing the difficulties of the situation, and it isonly after it satisfies itself in theory that a solution has beenreached that the physical response, or application of the plan, is made. Hence the individual not only directs his actions by his higherintelligent nature, but is also able to react effectively upon variedand unusual situations. This, evidently, is not so largely the case withinstinctive or habitual reactions. For efficient action, therefore, there must often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to theexpression of the physical action. For this reason the value ofconsciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meeting thedemands laid upon us by our surroundings, or environment. This willbecome more evident, however, by a brief examination into the nature ofexperience itself. 

EXPERIENCE

=Its Value. =--In the above example of conscious adjustment it was foundthat a new experience arises naturally from an effort to meet some need, or problem, with which the mind is at the time confronted. Our ideas, therefore, naturally organize themselves into new experiences, orknowledge, to enable us to gain some desired end. It was in order toeffect the recovery of the lost coin, for example, that conscious effortwas put forth by the lad to create a mental plan which should solve theproblem. Primarily, therefore, man is a doer and his ideas, orknowledge, is meant to be practical, or to be applied in directingaction. It is this fact, indeed, which gives meaning and purpose to theconscious states of man. Hour by hour new problems arise demandingadjustment; the mind grasps the import of the situation, selects waysand means, organizes these into an intelligent plan, and directs theirexecution, thus enabling us:

 Not without aim to go round In an eddy of purposeless dust. 

=Its Theoretic or Intellectual Value. =--But owing to the value whichthus attaches to any experience, a new experience may be viewed asdesirable apart from its immediate application to conduct. Although, forinstance, there is no immediate physical need that one should learn howto resuscitate a drowning person, he is nevertheless prepared to make ofit a problem, because he feels that such knowledge regarding hisenvironment may enter into the solution of future difficulties. Thus thevalue of new experience, or knowledge, is often remote and intellectual, rather than immediate and physical, and looks to the acquisition offurther experience quite as much as to the directing of present physicalmovement. Beyond the value they may possess in relation to the removalof present physical difficulty, therefore, experiences may be said topossess a secondary value in that they may at any time enter into theconstruction of new experiences. 

=Its Growth: A. Learning by Direct Experience. =--The ability to recalland use former experience in the upbuilding of an intelligent newexperience is further valuable, in that it enables a person to securemuch experience in an indirect rather than in a direct way, and thusavoid the direct experience when such would be undesirable. Under directexperience we include the lessons which may come to us at first handfrom our surroundings, as when the child by placing his hand upon athistle learns that it has sharp prickles, or by tasting quinine learnsthat it is bitter. In this manner direct experience is a teacher, continually adjusting man to his environment; and it is evident thatwithout an ability to retain our experiences and turn them to use inorganizing a new experience without expressing it in action, allconscious adjustments would have to be secured through such a directmethod. 

=B. Learning Indirectly. =--Since man is able to retain his experiencesand organize them into new experiences, he may, if desirable, enter intoa new experience in an indirect, or theoretic, way, and thus avoid theharsher lessons of direct experience. The child, for example, who knowsthe discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this, without actual expression, in interpreting the danger lurking in the thorn. In like manner thechild who has fallen from his chair realizes thereby, without giving itexpression, the danger of falling from a window or balcony. It is inthis indirect, or theoretic, way that children in their early yearsacquire, by injunction and reproof, much valuable knowledge whichenables them to avoid the dangers and to shun the evils presented tothem by their surroundings. By the same means, also, man is able toextend his knowledge to include the experiences of other men and even ofother ages. 

=Relative Value of Experiences. =--While the value of experience consistsin its power to adjust man to present or future problems, and thusrender his action more efficient, it is to be noted that differentexperiences may vary in their value. Many of these, from the point oftheir value in meeting future problems or making adjustments, mustappear trivial and even useless. Others, though adapted to meet ourneeds, may do this in a crude and ineffective manner. As anillustration of such difference in value, compare the effectiveness andaccuracy of the notation possessed by primitive men as illustrated inthe following strokes:

 1, 11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111, etc. , with that of our present system of notation as suggested in:

 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, etc. 

In like manner to experience that ice is cold is trivial in comparisonwith experiencing its preservative effects as seen in cold storage orits medicinal effects in certain diseases; to know that soda is whitewould be trivial in comparison with a knowledge of its properties inbaking. 

=Man Should Participate in Valuable Experiences. =--Of the three forms ofhuman reaction, instinctive, habitual, and conscious, or ideal, it isevident that, owing to its rational character, ideal reaction is notonly the most effective, but also the only one that will enable man toadjust himself to unusual situations. For this reason, and because ofthe difference in value of experiences themselves, it is further evidentthat man should participate in those experiences which are mosteffective in facilitating desired adjustments or in directing rightconduct. It is found, moreover, that this participation can be effectedby bringing the child's experiencing during his early years directlyunder control. It is held by some, indeed, that the whole aim ofeducation is to reconstruct and enrich the experiences of the child andthereby add to his social efficiency. Although this conception ofeducation leaves out of view the effects of instinctive and habitualreaction, it nevertheless covers, as we shall see later, no small partof the purpose of formal education. 

INFLUENCE OF CONSCIOUS REACTION

=A. On Instinctive Action. =--Before concluding our survey of the variousforms of reaction, it may be noted that both instinctive and habitualaction are subject to the influence of conscious reaction. As a child'searly instinctive acts develop into fixed habits, his growing knowledgeaids in making these habits intelligent and effective. Consciousnessevidently aids, for example, in developing the instinctive movements ofthe legs into the rhythmic habitual movements of walking, and those ofthe hands into the later habits of holding the spoon, knife, cup, etc. Greater still would be the influence of consciousness in developing thecrude instinct of self-preservation into the habitual reactions of thespearman or boxer. In general, therefore, instinctive tendencies in manare subject to intelligent training, and may thereby be moulded intoeffective habits of reaction. 

=B. On Habitual Action. =--Further new habits may be established and oldones improved under the direction of conscious reaction. When a childfirst learns to represent the number four by the symbol, the problem isnecessarily met at first through a conscious adjustment. In other words, the child must mentally associate into a single new experience thenumber idea and certain ideas of form and of muscular movement. Although, however, the child is conscious of all of these factors whenhe first attempts to give expression to this experience, it is clearthat very soon the expressive act of writing the number is carried onwithout any conscious direction of the process. In other words, thechild soon acquires the habit of performing the act spontaneously, orwithout direction from the mind. Inversely, any habitual mode ofaction, in whatever way established, may, if we possess the necessaryexperience, be represented in idea and be accepted or correctedaccordingly. A person, for instance, who has acquired the necessaryknowledge of the laws of hygiene, may represent ideally both his own andthe proper manner of standing, sitting, reclining, etc. , and seek tomodify his present habits accordingly. The whole question of therelation of conscious to habitual reaction will, however, be consideredin Chapter XXII. 

CHAPTER III

THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION

CONSCIOUS ADJUSTMENT

From the example of conscious adjustment previously considered, it wouldappear that the full process of such an adjustment presents thefollowing characteristics:

1. _The Problem. _--The individual conceives the existence within hisenvironment of a difficulty which demands adjustment, or which serves asa problem calling for solution. 

2. _A Selecting Process. _--With this problem as a motive, there takesplace within the experience of the individual a selecting of ideas feltto be of value for solving the problem which calls for adjustment. 

3. _A Relating Process. _--These relevant ideas are associated inconsciousness and form a new experience believed to overcome thedifficulty involved in the problem. This new experience is accepted, therefore, mentally, as a satisfactory plan for meeting the situation, or, in other words, it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand. 

4. _Expression. _--This new experience is expressed in such form as isrequisite to answer fully the need felt in the original problem. 

EDUCATION AS ADJUSTMENT

=Example from Writing. =--An examination of any ordinary educativeprocess taken from school-room experience will show that it involves insome degree the factors mentioned above. 

As a very simple example, may be taken the case of a young childlearning to form capital letters with short sticks. Assuming that he hasalready copied letters involving straight lines, such as A, H, etc. , thechild, on meeting such a letter as C or D, finds himself face to facewith a new problem. At first he may perhaps attempt to form the curvesby bending the short thin sticks. Hereupon, either through his ownfailure or through some suggestion of his teacher, he comes to see ashort, straight line as part of a large curve. Thereupon he forms theidea of a curve composed of a number of short, straight lines, and onthis principle is able to express himself in such forms as are shownhere. 

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

In this simple process of adjustment there are clearly involved the fourstages referred to above, as follows:

1. _The Problem. _--The forming of a curved letter by means of straightsticks. 

2. _A Selecting Process. _--Selecting of the ideas straight and curvedand the fixing of attention upon them. 

3. _A Relating Process. _--An organization of the selected ideas into anew experience in which the curve is viewed as made up of a number ofshort, straight lines. 

4. _Expression. _--Working out the physical expression of the newexperience in the actual forming of capitals involving curved lines. 

=Example from Arithmetic. =--An analysis of the process by which a childlearns that there are four twos in eight, shows also the followingfactors:

1. _The Problem. _--To find out how many twos are contained in thevaguely known eight. 

2. _A Selecting Process. _--To meet this problem the pupil is led fromhis present knowledge of the number two, to proceed to divide eightobjects into groups of two; and, from his previous knowledge of thenumber four, to measure the number of these groups of two. 

3. _A Relating Process. _--Next the three ideas two, four, and eight aretranslated into a new experience, constituting a mental solution of thepresent problem. 

4. _Expression. _--This new experience expresses itself in various waysin the child's dealings with the number problems connected with hisenvironment. 

=Example from Geometry. =--Taking as another example the process by whicha student may learn that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal tothe two interior and opposite angles, there appear also the same stages, thus:

1. _The Problem. _--The conception of a difficulty or problem in thegeometrical environment which calls for solution, or adjustment--therelation of the angle _a_ to the angles _b_ and _c_ in Figure 1. 

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

2. _A Selecting Process. _--With this problem as a motive there follows, as suggested by Figure 2, the selecting of a series of ideas from theprevious experiences of the pupil which seem relative to, or areconsidered valuable for solving the problem in hand. 

3. _A Relating Process. _--These relative ideas pass into the formationof a new experience, as illustrated in Figure 3, constituting thesolution of the problem. 

4. _Expression. _--A further applying of this experience may be made inadjusting the pupil to other problems connected with his geometricenvironment; as, for example, to discover the sum of the interior anglesof a triangle. 

EDUCATION AS CONTROL OF ADJUSTMENT

The examples of adjustment taken from school-room practice, are found, however, to differ in one important respect from the previous exampletaken from practical life. This difference consists in the fact that inthe recovery of the coin the modification of experience took placewholly without control or direction other than that furnished by theproblem itself. Here the problem--the recovery of the coin--presentsitself to the child and is seized upon as a motive by his attentionsolely on account of its own value; secondly, this problem of itselfdirects a flow of relative images which finally bring about thenecessary adjustment. In the examples taken from the school, on theother hand, the processes of adjustment are, to a greater or lessextent, directed and regulated through the presence of some type ofeducative agent. For instance, when a student goes through the processof learning the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior andopposite angles, the control of the process appears in the fact that theproblem is directly presented to the student as an essential step in asequence of geometric problems, or adjustments. The same direction orcontrol of the process is seen again in the fact that the student is notleft wholly to himself, as in the first example, to devise a solution, but is aided and directed thereto, first, in that the ideas bearing uponthe problem have previously been made known to the student throughinstruction, and secondly, in that the selecting and adjusting of theseformer ideas to the solution of the new problem is also directed throughthe agency of either a text-book or a teacher. A conscious adjustment, therefore, which is brought about without direction from another, implies only a process of learning on the part of the child, while acontrolled adjustment implies both a process of learning on the part ofthe child and a process of teaching on the part of an instructor. Forscientific treatment, therefore, it is possible to limit formaleducation, so far as it deals with conscious adjustment, to thosemodifications of experience which are directed or controlled through aneducative agent, or, in other words, are brought about by means ofinstruction. 

REQUIREMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTOR

Formal education being an attempt to direct the development of the childby controlling his stimulations and responses through the agency of aninstructor, we may now understand in general the necessaryqualifications and offices of the teacher in directing the educativeprocess. 

1. The teacher must understand what constitutes the worthy life; thatis, he must have a definite aim in directing the development of thechild. 

2. He must know what stimulations, or problems, are to be presented tothe child in order to have him grow, or develop, into this life ofworth. 

3. He must know how the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of thechild reacts upon these appropriate stimulations. 

4. He must have skill in presenting the stimuli, or problems, to thechild and in bringing its mind to react appropriately thereon. 

5. He must, in the case of conscious reactions, see that the child notonly acquires the new experience, but that he is also able to apply iteffectively. In other words, he must see that the child acquires notonly knowledge, but also skill in the use of knowledge. 

CHAPTER IV

THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

=Valuable Experience: Race Knowledge. =--Since education aims largely toincrease the effectiveness of the moral conduct of the child by addingto the value of his experience, the science of education must decide thebasis on which the educator is to select experiences that possess such avalue in directing conduct. Now a study of the progress of a nation'scivilization will show that this advancement is brought about throughthe gradual interpretation of the resources at the nation's command, andthe turning of these resources to the attainment of human ends. Thusthere is gradually built up a community, or race, experience, in whichthe materials of the physical, economic, political, moral, and religiouslife are organized and brought under control. By this means isconstituted a body of race experience, the value of which has beentested in its direct application to the needs of the social life of thecommunity. It is from the more typical forms of this social, or race, experience that education draws the experience, or problems, for theeducative process. In other words, through education the experiences ofthe child are so reconstructed that he is put in possession of the moretypical and more valuable forms of race experience, and thus renderedmore efficient in his conduct, or action. 

PURPOSES OF CURRICULUM

=Represents Race Experiences. =--So far as education aims to have thechild enter into typical valuable race experiences, this can beaccomplished only by placing these experiences before him as problemsin such form that he may realize them through a regular process oflearning. The purpose of the school curriculum is, therefore, to providesuch problems as may, under the direction of the instructor, control theconscious reactions of the child, and enable him to participate in thesemore valuable race experiences. In this sense arithmetic becomes a meansfor providing the child with a series of problems which may give him theexperiences which the race has found valuable in securing commercialaccuracy and precision. In like manner, constructive work provides aseries of problems in which the child experiences how the race hasturned the materials of nature to human service. History providesproblems whose solution gives the experience which enables the pupil tomeet the political and social conditions of his own time. Physics showshow the forces of nature have become instruments for the service of man. Geography shows how the world is used as a background for social life;and grammar, what principles control the use of the race language as amedium for the communication of thought. 

=Classifies Race Experience. =--Without such control of the presentationof these racial experiences as is made possible through the school andthe school curriculum, the child would be likely to meet them only asthey came to him in the actual processes of social life. These processesare, however, so complex in modern society, that, in any attempt tosecure experience directly, the child is likely to be overwhelmed bytheir complex and unorganized character. The message boy in thedye-works, for example, may have presented to him innumerable problemsin number, language, physics, chemistry, etc. , but owing to theconfused, disorganized, and mingled character of the presentation, theseare not likely to be seized upon by him as direct problems calling foradjustment. In the school curriculum, on the other hand, the differentphases of this seemingly unorganized mass of experiences are abstractedand presented to the child in an organized manner, the different phasesbeing classified as facts of number, reading, spelling, writing, geography, physics, chemistry, etc. Thus the school curriculumclassifies for the child the various phases of this race experience andprovides him with a comprehensive representation of his environment. 

=Systematizes Race Experience. =--The school curriculum further presentseach type of experience, or each subject, in such a systematic orderthat the various experiences may develop out of one another in a naturalway. If the child were compelled to meet his number facts altogether inactual life, the impressions would be received without system or order, now a discount experience, next a problem in fractions, at another timeone in interest or mensuration. In the school curriculum, on the otherhand, the child is in each subject first presented with the simple, near, and familiar, these in turn forming basic experiences for learningthe complex, the remote, and the unknown. Thus he is able in geography, for example, on the basis of his simple and known local experiences, toproceed to a realization of the whole world as the background for humanlife. 

=Clarifies Race Experience. =--Finally, when a child is given problems bymeans of the school curriculum, the experiences come to him in a pureform. That is, the trivial, accidental, and distracting elements whichare necessarily bound up with these experiences when they are met in theordinary walks of life are eliminated, and the single type is presented. For instance, the child may every day meet accidentally examples ofreflection and refraction of light. But these not being separated fromthe mass of accompanying impressions, his mind may never seize asdistinct problems the important relations in these experiences, and maythus fail to acquire the essential principles involved. In the schoolcurriculum, on the other hand, under the head of physics, he has theessential aspects presented to him in such an unmixed, or pure, formthat he finds relatively little difficulty in grasping theirsignificance. Thus the school curriculum renders possible an effectivecontrol of the experiencing of the child by presenting in acomprehensive form a classified, systematized, and pure representationof the more valuable features of the race experience. In other words, itprovides suitable problems which may lead the child to participate morefully in the life about him. Through the subjects of the schoolcurriculum, therefore, the child may acquire much useful knowledge whichwould not otherwise be met, and much which, if met in ordinary life, could not be apprehended to an equal degree. 

DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM

While recognizing the educational value of the school curriculum, itshould be noticed that certain dangers attach to its use as a means ofproviding problems for developing the experiences of the child. It isfrequently argued against the school that the experiences gained thereintoo often prove of little value to the child in the affairs of practicallife. The world of knowledge within the school, it is claimed, is sodifferent from the world of action outside the school, that the pupilcan find no connection between them. If, however, as claimed above, thevalue of experience consists in its use as a means of efficient controlof conduct, it is evident that the experiences acquired through theschool should find direct application in the affairs of life, or inother words, the school should influence the conduct, or behaviour, ofthe child both within and without the school. 

=A. Child may not see Connection with Life. =--Now the school curriculum, as has been seen, in representing the actual social life, so classifiesand simplifies this life that only one type of experience--number, language, chemistry, geography, etc. , is presented to the child at onetime. It is evident, however, that when the child faces the problems ofactual life, they will not appear in the simple form in which he meetsthem as represented in the school curriculum. Thus, when he leaves theschool and enters society, he frequently sees no connection between thecomplex social life outside the school and the simplified andsystematized representation of that life, as previously met in theschool studies. For example, when the boy, after leaving school, is setto fill an order in a wholesale drug store, he will in the oneexperience be compelled to use various phases of his chemical, arithmetical, writing, and bookkeeping knowledge, and that perhaps inthe midst of a mass of other accidental impressions. In like manner, thegirl in her home cooking might meet in a single experience a situationrequiring mathematical, chemical, and physical knowledge for itssuccessful adjustment, as in the substitution of soda and cream oftartar for baking-powder. This complex character of the problems ofactual life may prove so bewildering that the person is unable to seeany connection between the outside problem and his school experiences. Thus school knowledge frequently fails to function to an adequate degreein the practical affairs of life. 

=How to Avoid This Danger. =--To meet this difficulty, school work mustbe related as closely as possible to the practical experiences of thechild. This would cause the teacher, for example, to draw his problemsin arithmetic, his subjects in composition, or his materials for naturestudy from the actual life about the child, while his lessons in hygienewould bear directly on the care of the school-room and the home, and thehealth of the pupils. Moreover, that the work of the school mayrepresent more fully the conditions of actual life, pupils shouldacquire facility in correlating different types of experience upon thesame problem. In this way the child may use in conjunction his knowledgeof arithmetic, language, geography, drawing, nature study, etc. , inschool gardening; and his arithmetic, language, drawing, art, etc. , inconjunction with constructive occupations. 

=Value of Typical Forms of Expression. =--A chief cause in the past forthe lack of connection between school knowledge and practical life wasthe comparative absence from the curriculum of any types of humanactivity. In other words, though the ideas controlling human activitywere experienced by the child within the school, the materials and toolsinvolved in the physical expression of such ideas were almost entirelyabsent. The result was that the physical habits connected with thepractical use of knowledge were wanting. Thus, in addition to the lackof any proper co-ordinating of different types of knowledge in suitableforms of activity, the knowledge itself became theoretic and abstract. This danger will, however, be discussed more fully at a later stage. 

=B. Curriculum May Become Fossilized. =--A second danger in the use ofthe school curriculum consists in the fact that, as a representation ofsocial life, it may not keep pace with the social changes taking placeoutside the school. This may result in the school giving its pupilsforms of knowledge which at the time have little functional value, orlittle relation to present life about the child. An example of this wasseen some years ago in the habit of having pupils spend considerabletime and energy in working intricate problems in connection with Britishcurrency. This currency having no practical place in life outside theschool, the child could see no connection between that part of hisschool work and any actual need. Another marked example of this tendencywill be met in the History of Education in connection with theeducational practice of the last two centuries in continuing theemphasis placed on the study of the ancient languages, although thefunctional relation of these languages to everyday life was on thedecline, and scientific knowledge was beginning to play a much moreimportant part therein. While the school curriculum may justly representthe life of past periods of civilization so far as these reflect on, andaid in the interpreting of, the present, it is evident that in so far asthe child experiences the past without any reference to present needs, the connection which should exist between the school and life outsidethe school must tend to be destroyed. 

=C. May be Non-progressive. =--As a corollary to the above, is the factthat the school, when not watchful of the changes going on without theschool, may fail to represent in its curriculum new and important phasesof the community life. At the present time, for example, it is adebatable question whether the school curriculum is, in the matter ofour industrial life, keeping pace with the changes taking place in thecommunity. It is in this connection that one of the chief dangers of theschool text-book is to be found. The text is too often looked upon as afinal authority upon the particular subject-matter, rather than beingtreated as a mode of representing what is held valuable and true inrelation to present-day interests and activities. The position ofauthority which the text-book thus secures, may serve as a check againsteven necessary changes in the attitude of the school toward anyparticular subject. 

=D. May Present Experience in too Technical Form. =--Lastly, the schoolcurriculum, even when representing present life, may introduce it in atoo highly technical form. So far at least as elementary education isconcerned, each type of knowledge, or each subject, should find a placeon the curriculum from a consideration of its influence upon the conductand, therefore, upon the present life of the child. There is always adanger, however, that the teacher, who may be a specialist in thesubject, will wish to stress its more intellectual and abstract phases, and thus force upon the child forms of knowledge which he is not able torefer to his life needs in any practical way. This tendency isillustrated in the desire of some teachers to substitute with youngchildren a technical study of botany and zoology, in place of moreconcrete work in nature study. Now when the child approaches thesephases of his surroundings in the form of nature study, he is able tosee their influence upon his own community life. When, on the otherhand, these are introduced to him in too technical a form, he is notable, in his present stage of learning, to discover this connection, andthe so-called knowledge remains in his experience, if it remains at all, as uninteresting, non-significant, and non-digested information. In theelementary school at least, therefore, knowledge should not be presentedto the child in such a technical and abstract way that it will seem tohave no contact with daily life. 

CHAPTER V

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

THE SCHOOL

As man, in the progress of civilization, became more fully conscious ofthe worth of human life and of the possibilities of its developmentthrough educational effort, the providing of special instruction for theyoung naturally began to be recognized as a duty. As this duty becamemore and more apparent, it gave rise, on the principle of the divisionof labour, to corporate, or institutional, effort in this direction. Bythis means there has been finally developed the modern school as a fullyorganized corporate institution devoted to educational work, andsupported as an integral part of our civil or public obligations. 

=Origin of the School. =--To trace the origin of the school, it will benecessary to look briefly at certain marked stages of the development ofcivilization. The earliest and simplest forms of primitive life suggesta time when the family constituted the only type of social organization. In such a mode of life, the principle of the division of labour would beabsent, the father or patriarch being the family carpenter, butcher, doctor, judge, priest, and teacher. In the two latter capacities, hewould give whatever theoretic or practical instruction was received bythe child. As soon, however, as a tribal form of life is met, we findthe tribe or race collecting a body of experience which can be retainedonly by entrusting it to a selected body. This experience, or knowledge, is at first mainly of a religious character, and is possessed andhanded on by a body of men forming a priesthood. Such priestly bodies, or colleges, may be considered the earliest special organizationsdevoted to the office of teaching. As civilization gradually advanced, amass of valuable practical knowledge relative to man's environment wassecured and added to the more theoretic forms. As this practicalknowledge became more complex, there was felt a greater need that thechild should be made acquainted with it in some systematic manner duringhis early years. Thus developed the conception of the school as aninstrument by which such educative work might be carried on moreeffectively. On account of the constant increase of practical knowledgeand its added importance in directing the political and economic life ofthe people, the civil authorities began in time to assume control ofsecular education. Thus the government of the school as an institutiongradually passed to the state, the teacher taking the place of thepriest as the controlling agent in the education of the young. 

OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS

=The Church. =--But notwithstanding the organization of the presentschool as a civic institution, it is to be noticed that the church stillcontinues to act as an educative agent. In many communities, in fact, the church is still found to retain a large control of education even ofa secular type. Even in communities where the church no longer exercisescontrol over the school, she still does much, though in a more indirectway, to mould the thought and character of the community life; and isstill the chief educational agent concerned in the direct attempt toenrich the religious experiences of the race. 

=The Home. =--While much of the knowledge obtained by the child withinhis own home necessarily comes through self, or informal, education, yetin most homes the parent still performs in many ways the function of ateacher, both by giving special instruction to the child and bydirecting the formation of his habits. In certain forms of experienceindeed, it is claimed by the school that the instruction should be givenby the parent rather than by the teacher. In questions of morals andmanners, the natural tie which unites child and parent will undoubtedlyenable much of the necessary instruction to be given more effectively inthe home. It is often claimed, in fact, that parents now leave too muchto the school and the teacher in relation to the education of the child. 

=The Vocation. =--Another agent which may directly control theexperiences of the young is found in the various vocations to which theydevote themselves. This phase of education was very important in thedays of apprenticeship. One essential condition in the form of agreementwas that the master should instruct the apprentice in the art, or craft, to which he was apprenticed. Owing to the introduction of machinery andthe consequent more complex division of labour, this type of formaleducation has been largely eliminated. It may be noted in passing thatit is through these changed conditions that night classes for mechanics, which are now being provided by our technical schools, have become animportant factor in our educational system. 

=Other Educational Institutions. =--Finally, many clubs, institutes, andsocieties attempt, in a more accidental way, to convey definiteinstruction, and therefore serve in a sense as educational institutions. Prominent among such institutions is the modern Public Library, whichaffords opportunity for independent study in practically everydepartment of knowledge. Our Farmers' Institutes also attempt to conveydefinite instruction in connection with such subjects as dairying, horticulture, agriculture, etc. Many Women's Clubs seek to provideinstruction for young women, both of a practical and also of a moral andreligious character. Various societies of a scientific character havealso done much to spread a knowledge of nature and her laws and arelikewise to be classed as educational institutions. Such movements asthese, while taking place without the limits of the school, may notunreasonably claim a certain recognition as educational factors in thecommunity and should receive the sympathetic co-operation of theteacher. 

CHAPTER VI

THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL

CIVIC VIEWS

Since the school of to-day is organized and supported by the state as aspecial corporate body designed to carry on the work of education, itbecomes of public interest to know the particular purpose served throughthe maintenance of such a state institution. We have already seen thatthe school seeks to interpret the civilized life of the community, toabstract out of it certain elements, and to arrange them in systematicor scientific order as a curriculum of study, and finally to give thechild control of this experience, or knowledge. We have attempted toshow further that by this means education so increases the effectivenessof the conscious reactions of the child and so modifies his instinctsand his habits as to add to his social efficiency. As, however, manydivergent and incomplete views are held by educators and others as tothe real purpose of public instruction, it will be well at this stage toconsider briefly some of the most important types of these theories. 

=Aristocratic View. =--It may be noted that the experience, or knowledge, represented in the curriculum cannot exist outside of the knowing mind. In other words, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, etc. , are notsomething existing apart from mind, but only as states of consciousness. Text-books, for instance, do not contain knowledge but merely symbols ofknowledge, which would have no significance and give no light without amind to interpret them. Some, therefore, hold that the school, inseeking to translate this social experience into the consciousness ofthe young, should have as its aim merely to conserve for the future theintellectual and moral achievements of the present and the past. Thisthey say demands of the school only that it produce an intellectualpriesthood, or a body of scholars, who may conserve wisdom for the lightand guidance of the whole community. Thus arises the aristocratic viewof the purpose of education, which sees no justification in the stateattempting to provide educational opportunities for all of its members, but holds rather that education is necessary only for the leaders ofsociety. 

=Democratic View. =--Against the above view, it is claimed by othersthat, while public education should undoubtedly be conducted for thebenefit of the state as a whole; yet, since a chain cannot be strongerthan its weakest link, the efficiency of the state must be measured bythat of its individual units. The state, therefore, must aim, by meansof education, to add to its own efficiency by adding to that of each andall of its members. This demands, however, that every individual shouldbe able to meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely toencounter in his community life. Although carried on, therefore, for thegood of the state, yet education should be democratic, or universal, andshould fit every individual to become a useful member of society. 

=These Views Purely Civic. =--It is to be noted that though the latterview provides for the education of all as a duty of the state, yet bothof the above views are purely civic in their significance, and hold thateducation exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for theindividual. If, therefore, the state could be benefited by having theeducation of any class of citizens either limited or extended in anarbitrary way, nothing in the above conception of the purpose of stateeducation would forbid such a course. 

INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS

Opposed to the civic view of education, many hold, on the other hand, that education exists for the child and not for the state, andtherefore, aims primarily to promote the welfare of the individual. Bythese educators it is argued that, since each child is created with aseparate and distinct personality, it follows that he possesses a divineright to have that personality developed independently of the claims ofthe community to which he belongs. According to this view, therefore, the aim of education should be in each case solely to effect some goodfor the individual child. These educators, however, are again found todiffer concerning what constitutes this individual good. 

=The Culture Aim. =--According to the practice of many educators, education is justified on the ground that it furnishes the individual adegree of personal culture. According to this view, the worth ofeducation is found in the fact that it puts the learner in possession ofa certain amount of conventional knowledge which is held to give apolish to the individual; this polish providing a distinguishing mark bywhich the learned class is separated from the ignorant. It isundoubtedly true that the so-called culture of the educated man shouldadd to the grace and refinement of social life. In this sense, cultureis not foreign to the conception of individual and social efficiency. Anarrow cultural view, however, overlooks the fact that man's experienceis significant only when it enables him to meet the needs and problemsof the present, and that, as a member of a social community, he mustapply himself to the actual problems to be met within his environment. To acquire knowledge, therefore, either as a mere possession or as amark of personal superiority, is to give to experience an unnaturalvalue. 

=The Utilitarian Aim. =--Others express quite an opposite view to theabove, declaring that the aim of education is to enable the individualto get on in the world. By this is meant that education should enable usto be more successful in our business, and thus live more comfortablelives. Now, so far as this practical success of the individual can beachieved in harmony with the interests of society as a whole, we maygrant that education should make for individual betterment. Indeed itmay justly be claimed that an advancement in the comfort of theindividual under such conditions really implies an increase in thecomfort of society as a whole; for the man who is not able to providefor his own welfare must prove, if not a menace, at least a burden tosociety. If, however, it is implied that the educated man is to beplaced in a position to advance his own interests irrespective of, or indirect opposition to, the rights and comforts of others, then theutilitarian view of the end of education must appear one-sided. Toemphasize the good of the individual irrespective of the rights ofothers, and to educate all of its members with such an end in view, society would tend to destroy the unity of its own corporate life. 

=The Psychological Aim. =--According to others, although education aimsto benefit the child, this benefit does not come from the acquisition ofany particular type of knowledge, but is due rather to a developmentwhich takes place within the individual himself as a result ofexperiencing. In other words, the child as an intelligent being is bornwith certain attributes which, though at first only potential, may bedeveloped into actual capacities or powers. Thus it is held that thereal aim of education is to develop to the full such capacities as arefound already within the child. Moreover, it is because the child hassuch possibilities of development within him, and because he starts atthe very outset of his existence with a divine yearning to develop theseinner powers, that he reaches out to experience his surroundings. Forthis reason, they argue that every individual should have his ownparticular capacities and powers fully and harmoniously developed. Thusthe true aim of education is said to be to unfold the potential life ofeach individual and allow it to realize itself; the purpose of theschool being primarily not to make of the child a useful member ofsociety, but rather to study the nature of the child and developwhatever potentialities are found within him as an individual. Becausethis theory places such large emphasis on the natural tendencies andcapacities of the child, it is spoken of as the psychological aim ofeducation. 

=Limitations of the Aim. =--This view evidently differs from others inthat it finds the justification for education, not primarily in theneeds or rights of a larger society of which the child is a member, butrather in those of the single individual. Here, however, a difficultypresents itself. If the developing of the child's capacities andtendencies constitute the real purpose of public education, may noteducation at times conflict with the good of the state itself? Now it isevident that if a child has a tendency to lie, or steal, or inflict painon others, the development of such tendencies must result in harm to thecommunity at large. On the other hand, it is clear that in the case ofother proclivities which the child may possess, such as industry, truthfulness, self-sacrifice, etc. , the development of these cannot beseparated from the idea of the good of others. To apply a purelyindividual aim to education, therefore, seems impossible; since we canhave no standard to distinguish between good and bad tendencies, unlessthese are measured from a social standpoint or from a consideration ofthe good of others, and not from the mere tendencies and capacities ofthe individual. Moreover, to attempt the harmonious development of allthe child's tendencies and powers is not justifiable, even in the caseof those tendencies which might not conflict with the good of others. Asalready noted, division of labour has now gone so far that theindividual may profitably be relieved from many forms of socialactivity. This implies as a corollary, however, that the individual willplace greater stress upon other forms of activity. 

THE SOCIAL, OR ECLECTIC, VIEW

Moreover, because, as already noted, the child is by his very nature asocial being, it follows that the good of the individual can never inreality be opposed to the good of society, and that whenever the childhas in his nature any tendencies which conflict with the good of others, these do not represent his true, or social, nature. For education tosuppress these, therefore, is not only fitting the child for society butalso advancing the development of the child so far as his higher, ortrue, nature is concerned. Thus the true view of the purpose of theschool and of education will be a social, or eclectic, one, representingthe element of truth contained in both the civic and the individualisticviews. In the first place, such a view may be described as a civic one, since it is only by considering the good of others, that is of thestate, that we can find a standard for judging the value of the child'stendencies. Moreover, it is only by using the forms of experience, orknowledge, that the community has evolved, that conditions can beprovided under which the child's tendencies may realize themselves. Secondly, the true view is equally an individualistic view, for while itclaims that the child is by his nature a social being, it also demands afull development of the social or moral tendencies of the individual, asbeing best for himself as well as for society. 

=This View Dynamic. =--In such an eclectic view of the aim of education, it is to be noted further that society may turn education to its ownadvancement. By providing that an individual may develop to hisuttermost such good tendencies as he may possess, education not onlyallows the individual to make the most of his own higher nature, butalso enables him to contribute something to the advancement, orelevation, of society itself. Such a conception of the aim of education, therefore, does not view the present social life as some static thing towhich the child must be adapted in any formal sense, but as dynamic, oras having the power to develop itself in and through a fullerdevelopment of the higher and better tendencies within its individualmembers. 

=A Caution. =--While emphasizing the social, or moral, character of theaim of education, it is to be borne in mind by the educator that thisimplies more than a passive possession by the individual of a certainmoral sentiment. Man is truly moral only when his moral character isfunctioning in goodness, or in _right action_. This is equivalent todeclaring that the moral man must be individually efficient in action, and must likewise control his action from a regard for the rights ofothers. There is always a danger, however, of assuming that thedevelopment of moral character consists in giving the child somepassive mark, or quality, without any necessity of having it continuallyfunctioning in conduct. But this reduces morality to a mere sentiment. In such a case, the moral aim would differ little from the cultural aimmentioned above. 

CHAPTER VII

DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY

CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE

=Significance of Control. =--From our previous inquiry into the nature ofeducation, we may notice that at least two important problems presentthemselves for investigation in connection with the educative process. Our study of the subject-matter of education, or the school curriculum, has shown that its function as an educational instrumentality is tofurnish for the child experiences of greater value, this enhanced valueconsisting in the greater social significance of the race experiences, or knowledge, embodied within the curriculum, when compared with themore individual experiences of the average child. It has been notedfurther, however, that the office of education is not merely to have thechild translate this race experience into his own mind, but rather tohave him add to his social efficiency by gaining an adequate power ofcontrol over these experiences. It is not, for instance, merely to knowthe number combinations, but to be able to meet his practical needs, that the child must master the multiplication tables. Control ofexperience, however, as we have seen from our analysis of the learningprocess, implies an ability to hold an aim, or problem, in view, and afurther ability to select and arrange the means of gaining the desiredend. In relation to the multiplication table, therefore, control ofexperience implies that a person is able to apprehend the present numbersituation as one that needs solution, and also that he can bring, orapply, his knowledge of the table to its solution. 

=Nature of Growth of Control. =--The young child is evidently not able atfirst to exercise this power of control over his experiences. When avery young child is aroused, say by the sound proceeding from a bell, the impression may give rise to certain random movements, but none ofthese indicate on his part any definite experience or purpose. When, however, under the same stimulation, in place of these random movements, the child reacts mentally in a definite way, it signifies on his partthe recognition of an external object. This recognition shows that thechild now has, in place of the first vague image, a more or lessdefinite idea of the external thing. Before it was vague noise; now itis a bell. But a yet more valuable control is gained by the child whenhe gives this idea a wider meaning by organizing it as an element intomore complex experiences, as when he relates it with the idea of a fire, of dinner, or of a call to school. Before it was merely a bell; now itis an alarm of fire. So far, however, as the child is lacking in thecontrol of his experiences, he remains largely a mere creature ofimpulse and instinct, and is occupied with present impressions only. This implies also an inability to set up problems and solve them througha regular process of adjustment, and a consequent lack of power toarrange experiences as guides to action. In the educative process, however, as previously exemplified, we find that the child is not aslave to the passing transient impressions of the present, but is ableto secure a control over his experience which enables him to set upintelligent aims, devise plans for their attainment, and apply theseplans in gaining the end desired. Growth of control takes place, therefore, to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to keepan end in view and to select and organize means for its realization. 

=Elements of Control. =--In the growth of control manifested in thelearning process, the child, as we have noticed, becomes able to judgethe value, or worth, of experience. In other words, he becomes able todistinguish between the important and the trivial, and to see therelative values of various experiences when applied to practical ends. Further, he gains right feeling or an emotional warmth toward that whichhis intelligence affirms to be worthy, or grows to appreciate the right. Thirdly, he secures a power in execution that enables him to attain tothat which his judgment and feeling have set up as a desirable end. Infine, the educative process implies for the child a growth of control bywhich he becomes able (1) to select worthy ends; (2) to devise plans fortheir attainment; and (3) to put these plans into successful execution. 

THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS

The end in any learning process being to set the pupils a problem whichmay stimulate them to gain such an efficient control of usefulexperience, or knowledge, we may note two important problems confrontingthe teacher as an instructor:

1. _Problem of Matter. _--The teacher must be so conversant with thesubject-matter of the curriculum and with its value in relation toactual life, that he may select therefrom the problems and materialswhich will enable the child to come into possession of the desirableexperiences. This constitutes the question of the subject-matter ofeducation. 

2. _Problem of Method. _--The teacher must further be conversant with theprocess by which the child gets command of experience or with the way inwhich the mind of the child, in reacting upon any subject-matter, selects and organizes his knowledge into new experience and puts thesame into execution. In other words, the teacher must fully understandhow to direct the child successfully through the four stages of thelearning process. 

(_a_) _General Method. _--In a scientific study of education it isusually assumed that the student-teacher has mastered academically thevarious subjects of the curriculum. In the professional school, therefore, the subject-matter of education is studied largely from thestandpoint of method. In his study of method the student of educationseeks first to master the details of the process of education outlinedin the opening Chapters under the headings of problem, selectingprocess, relating process, and application. By this means the teachercomes to understand in greater detail how the mind of the child reactsupon the presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control overhis experiences, or, in other words, how the process of learningactually takes place within the consciousness of the child. Thissub-division is treated under the head of _General Method_. 

(_b_) _Special Methods. _--In addition to General Method, thestudent-teacher must study each subject of the curriculum from thestandpoint of its use in setting problems, or lessons, which shallenable the child to gain control of a richer experience. Thissub-division is known as _Special Methods_, since it considers theparticular problems involved in adapting the matter of each subject tothe general purpose of the educative process. 

3. _Problem of Management. _--From what has been seen in reference to theschool as an institution organized for directing the education of thechild, it is apparent that in addition to the immediate and directcontrol of the process of learning as involved in the method ofinstruction, there is the more indirect control of the process throughthe systematic organization and management of the school as a corporateinstitution. These more indirect problems connected with the control ofeducation within the school will include, not only such topics as theorganization and management of the pupils, but also the legal ways andmeans for providing these various educational instrumentalities. Theseindirect elements of control constitute a third phase of the problem ofeducation, and their study is known as _School Organization andManagement_. 

4. _An Historic Problem. _--It has been noted that the corporateinstitution known as the school arose as the result of the principle ofthe division of labour, and thus took to itself duties previouslyperformed under other less effective conditions. Thus the schoolpresents on its organic side a history with which the teacher should bemore or less familiar. On its historical side, therefore, educationpresents a fourth phase for study. This division of the subject is knownas the _History of Education_. 

SUMMARY

The facts of education, as scientifically considered by thestudent-teacher, thus arrange themselves under four main heads:

1. General Method

2. Special Methods

3. School Organization and Management

4. History of Education

The third and fourth divisions of education are always studied asseparate subjects under the above heads. In dealing with SpecialMethods, also, it is customary in the study of education to treat eachsubject of the curriculum under its own head in both a professional andan academic way. There is left, therefore, for scientific consideration, the subject of General Method, to a study of which we shall nowproceed. 

PART II. --METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL METHOD

=Meaning of Method. =--In the last Chapter it was seen that, in relationto the child, education involves a gaining of control over experiences. It has been seen further, that the child gains control of new experiencewhenever he goes through a process of learning involving the four stepsof problem, selecting activity, relating activity, and expression. Finally it has been decided that the teacher in his capacity as aninstructor, by presenting children with suitable problems, may in asense direct their selecting and relating activities and thus exercise acertain control over their learning processes. To the teacher, therefore, method will mean an ability to control the learning processin such a way that the children shall, in their turn, gain an adequatecontrol over the new experience forming the subject-matter of anylearning process. Thus a detailed study by student-teachers of thevarious steps of the learning process, with a view to gaining knowledgeand skill relative to directing pupils in their learning, constitutesfor such teachers a study of General Method. 

=Subdivisions of Method. =--For the student-teacher, the study of generalmethod will involve a detailed investigation of how the child is to gaincontrol of social experiences as outlined above, and how the teacher maybring about the same through instruction. 

Tn such an investigation, he must examine in detail the various steps ofthe educative process to discover:

1. How the knowledge, or social experience, contained in the schoolcurriculum should be presented to the child. This will involve anadequate study of the first step of the learning process--the problem. 

2. How the mind, or consciousness, of the child reacts during thelearning process upon the presented materials in gaining control of thisknowledge. This will embrace a study of the second and third steps ofthe process--the selecting and relating activities. 

3. How the child is to acquire facility in using a new experience, or inapplying it to direct his conduct. This involves a particular study ofthe fourth step of the process--the law of expression. 

4. How the teacher may use any outside agencies, as maps, globes, specimens, experiments, etc. , to assist in directing the learningprocess. This involves a study of various classes of educationalinstrumentalities. 

5. How the principles of general method are to be adapted to thedifferent modes by which the learner may gain new experience, orknowledge. This will involve a study of the different kinds of lessons, or a knowledge of lesson types. 

METHOD IMPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF MIND

Before we proceed to such a detailed study of the educative process as aprocess of teaching, it should be noted that the existence of a generalmethod is possible only provided that the growth of conscious controltakes place in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly manner. All children, for instance, must be supposed to respond in the samegeneral way in the learning process when they are confronted with thesame problem. Without this they could not secure from the same lessonthe same experiences and the same relative measure of control overthese experiences. But if our conscious acts are so uniform that theteacher may expect from all of his pupils like responses and like statesof experience under similar stimulations, then a knowledge on the partof the teacher of the orderly modes in which the mind works will beessential to an adequate control of the process of learning. Now a fulland systematic account of mind and its activities is set forth in theScience of Psychology. As the Science of Consciousness, or Experience, psychology explains the processes by which all experience is built up, or organized, in consciousness. Thus psychology constitutes a basicscience for educational method. It is essential, therefore, that theteacher should have some knowledge of the leading principles of thisscience. For this reason, frequent reference will be made, in the studyof general method, to underlying principles of psychology. The moredetailed examination of these principles and of their application toeducational method will, however, be postponed to a later part of thetext. Each of the four important steps of the learning process will nowbe treated in order, beginning in the next Chapter with the problem. 

CHAPTER IX

THE LESSON PROBLEM

=Problem, a Motive. =--The foregoing description and examples of theeducative process have shown that new knowledge necessarily resultswhenever the mind faces a difficulty, or need, and adjusts itselfthereto. In other words, knowledge is found to possess a practical valueand to arise as man faces the difficulties, or problems, with which heis confronted. The basis of conscious activity in any direction is, therefore, a feeling of _need_. If one analyses any of his consciousacts, he will find that the motive is the satisfaction of some desirewhich he more or less consciously feels. The workman exerts himself athis labour because he feels the need of satisfying his artistic sense orof supplying the necessities of those who are dependent upon him; theteacher prepares the lessons he has to present and puts forth effort toteach them successfully, because he feels the need of educating thepupils committed to his care; the physician observes symptoms closelyand consults authorities carefully, because he feels the need of curinghis patients; the lawyer masters every detail of the case he ispleading, because he feels the need of protecting the interests of hisclient. What is true of adults is equally true of children in school. The pupil puts forth effort in school work because he feels that thiswork is meeting some of his needs. 

=Nature of Problem. =--It is not to be assumed, however, that the onlyproblem which will prompt the individual to put forth conscious effortmust be a purely physical need, such as hunger, thirst, or a distinctdesire for the attainment of a definite object, as to avoid danger or tosecure financial gain or personal pleasure. Nor is it to be understoodthat the learner always clearly formulates the problem in his own mind. Indeed, as will be seen more fully later, one very important motive formastering a presented problem is the instinct of curiosity. As anexample of such may be noted a case which came under the observation ofthe writer, where the curiosity of a small child was aroused through thesight of a mud-turtle crawling along a walk. After a few moments ofintense investigation, he cried to those standing by, "Come and see thebug in the basket. " Here, evidently, the child's curiosity gave thestrange appearance sufficient value to cause him to make it an object ofstudy. Impelled by this feeling, he must have selected ideas from hisformer experience (bug--crawling thing; basket--incasing thing), whichseemed of value in interpreting the unknown presentation. Finally byfocusing these upon this strange object, he formed an idea, or mentalpicture, which gave him a reasonable control over the new vaguepresentation. Such a motive as curiosity may not imply to the samedegree as some others a personal need, nor does it mean that the childconsciously says to himself that this new material or activity issatisfying a specific need, but in some vague way he knows that itappeals to him because of its attractiveness in itself or because of itsrelation to some other attractive object. In brief, it interests him, and thus creates a tendency on the part of an individual to give it hisattention. In such situations, therefore, the learner evidently feels toa greater or less degree a necessity, or a practical need, for solvingthe problem before him. 

NEED OF PROBLEM

=Knowledge Gained Accidentally. =--It is evident, however, that at timesknowledge might be gained in the absence of any set problem upon whichthe learner reacts. For example, a certain person while walking along aroad intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy standing near ahigh fence. On passing further along the street, he glanced through anopening and observed a vineyard within the inclosure. On returning alongthe street a few minutes later, he saw the same boy standing at a nearby corner eating grapes. Hereupon these three ideas at once co-ordinatedthemselves into a new form of knowledge, signifying stealing-of-fruit. In such a case, the experience has evidently been gained without thepresence of a problem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideasentering into the new knowledge. In like manner, a child whose onlymotive is to fill paper with various coloured crayon may accidentallydiscover, while engaged on this problem, that red and yellow willcombine to make orange, or that yellow and blue will combine to makegreen. Here also the child gains valuable experience quitespontaneously, that is, without its constituting a motive, or problem, calling for adjustment. 

=Learning without Motive. =--In the light of the above, a questionsuggests itself in relation to the lesson problem, or motive. Grantingthat a regular school recitation must contain some valuable problem forwhich the learning process is to furnish a solution, and granting thatthe teacher must be fully conscious both of the problem and of its modeof solution, the question might yet be asked whether a problem is to berealized by the child as a felt need at the beginning of the lesson. Forexample, if the teacher wishes his pupils to learn how to compose thesecondary colour purple, might he have them blend in a purely arbitraryway, red and blue, and finally ask them to note the result? Or again, ifhe wishes the pupils to learn the construction of a paper-box orfire-place, would he not be justified in directing them to make certainfolds, to do certain cutting, and to join together the various sectionsin a certain way, and then asking them to note the result? If such acourse is permissible, it would seem that, so far at least as thelearner is concerned, he may gain control of valuable experience, orknowledge, without the presence of a problem, or motive, to give thelearning process value and direction. 

=Problem Aids Control. =--It is true that in cases like the above, thechild may gain the required knowledge. The cause for this is, no doubt, that the physical activity demanded of the pupil constitutes indirectlya motive for attending sufficiently to gain the knowledge. But in manycases no such conditions might exist. It is important, therefore, tohave the pupil as far as possible realize at the outset a definitemotive for each lesson. The advantage consists in the fact that themotive gives a value to the ideas which enter into the new knowledge, even before they are fully incorporated into a new experience. Forexample, if in a lesson in geometrical drawing, the teacher, instead ofhaving the child set out with the problem of drawing a pair of parallellines, merely orders him to follow certain directions, and then requestshim to measure the shortest distance between the lines at differentpoints, the child is not likely to grasp the connections of the varioussteps involved in the construction of the whole problem. This means, however, that the learner has not secured an equal control over the newexperience. 

=Pupils Feel Its Lack. =--A further objection to conducting a lesson insuch a way that the child may find no motive for the process until theclose of the lesson, is the fact that he is himself aware of its lack. In school the child soon discovers that in a lesson he selects and givesattention to various ideas solely in order to gain control over someproblem which he may more or less definitely conceive in advance. Forthis reason, if the teacher attempts, as in the above examples, to fixthe child's attention on certain facts without any conception ofpurpose, the pupil nevertheless usually asks himself the question: "Whatdoes the teacher intend me to do with these facts?" Indeed, without atleast that motive to hold such disconnected ideas in his mind, it isdoubtful whether the pupil would attend to them sufficiently to organizethem into a new item of knowledge. When, therefore, the teacher proposesat the outset an attractive problem to solve, he has gone a long waytoward stimulating the intellectual activity of the pupil. The settingof problems, the supplying of motives, the giving of aims, the awakeningof needs--this constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher. 

PUPIL'S MOTIVE

=Pupil's Problem versus Teacher's. =--But it is important that theproblem before the pupil at the beginning of the lesson should really bethe pupil's and not the teacher's merely. The teacher should be carefulnot to impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way, but shouldtry to connect the lesson with an interest that is already active. Theteacher's motive in teaching the lesson and the pupil's motive inattending to it are usually quite different. The teacher's problemshould, of course, be identical with the real problem of the lesson. Thus in a literature lesson on "Hide and Seek" (_Ontario Third Reader_), the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to appreciate the musicof the lines, the beauty of the images, and the pathos of the ideas; andin general, to increase the pupil's capacities of constructiveimagination and artistic appreciation. The pupil's motive might be tofind out how the poet had described a familiar game. In a nature studylesson on "The Rabbit, " the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupilto make certain observations and draw certain inferences and thus addsomething to his facility in observation and inference. The pupil'smotive in the same lesson would be to discover something new about avery interesting animal. In general, the teacher's motive will be (1) togive the pupil a certain kind of useful knowledge; (2) to develop andstrengthen certain organs; or (3) to add something to his mechanicalskill by the forming of habitual reactions. In general, the pupil'smotive will be to learn some fact, to satisfy some instinct, or performsome activity that is interesting either in itself or because of itsrelation to some desired end. That is, the pupil's motive is thesatisfaction of an interest or the promotion of a purpose. 

=Pupil's Motive May Be Indirect. =--It is evident from the foregoing thatthe pupil's motive for applying himself to any lesson may differ fromthe real lesson problem, or motive. For instance, in mastering thereading of a certain selection, the pupil's chief motive in applyinghimself to this particular task may be to please and win the approbationof the teacher. The true lesson problem, however, is to enable thelearner to give expression to the thoughts and feelings of the author. When the aim, or motive, is thus somewhat disconnected from the lessonproblem itself, it becomes an _indirect_ motive. While such indirectmotives are undoubtedly valuable and must often be used with youngchildren, it is evident that when the pupil's motive is more or lessdirectly associated with the real problem of the lesson, it will form abetter centre for the selecting and organizing of the ideas enteringinto the new experience. 

=Relation to Pupil's Feeling. =--A chief essential in connection with thepupil's motive, or attitude, toward the lesson problem, is that thechild should _feel_ a value in the problem. That is, his apprehension ofthe problem should carry with it a desire to secure a complete masteryof the problem from a sense of its intrinsic value. The difference infeeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of a problem would benoticed by comparing the attitude of a class in the study of a militarybiography or a pioneer adventure taken from Canadian or United Statessources respectively. In the case of the former, the feeling ofpatriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it a value forthe pupils entirely absent from the other topic. The extent to which thepupil feels such a value in the lesson topic will in most cases alsomeasure the degree of control he obtains over the new experience. 

AWAKENING INTEREST IN PROBLEMS

As will be seen in Chapter XXIX, where our feeling states will beconsidered more fully, feeling is essentially a personal attitude ofmind, and there can be little guarantee that a group of pupils will feelan equal value in the same problem. At times, in fact, even where thepupil understands fairly well the significance of a presented lessonproblem, he may feel little personal interest in it. One of the mostimportant questions of method is, therefore, how to awaken in a classthe necessary interest in the lesson problem with which they are beingpresented. 

1. =Through Physical Activity. =--It is a characteristic of the youngchild to enjoy physical activity for the sake of the activity itself. This is true even of his earliest acts, such as stretching, smiling, etc. Although these are merely impulsive movements without consciouspurpose, the child soon forms ideas of different acts, and readilyassociates these with other ideas. Thus he takes a delight in the merefunctioning of muscles, hands, voice, etc. , in expressive movements. Ashe develops, however, on account of the close association, during hisearly years, between thought and movement, the child is much interestedin any knowledge which may be presented to him in direct associationwith motor activity. This fact is especially noticeable in that theefforts of a child to learn a strange object consist largely inendeavouring to discover what he can do with it. He throws, rolls, strikes, strives _to_ open it, and in various other ways makes it ameans of physical expression. Whenever, especially, he can discover theuse of an object, as to cut with knife or scissors, to pound with ahammer, to dip with a ladle, or to sweep with a broom, this socialsignificance of the object gives him full satisfaction, and littleattention is paid to other qualities. For these reasons the teacher willfind it advantageous, whenever possible, to associate a lesson problemdirectly with some form of physical action. In primary number work, forexample, instead of presenting the child with mere numbers and symbols, the teacher may provide him with objects, in handling which he mayassociate the number facts with certain acts of grouping objects. It isin this way that a child should approach such problems as:

 How many fours are there in twelve? How many feet in a yard? How many quarts in a peck? etc. 

The teaching of fractions by means of scissors and cardboard; theteaching of board measure by having boards actually measured; theteaching of primary geography by means of the sand-table; the teachingof nature study by excursions to fields and woods; these are all easybecause we are working in harmony with the child's natural tendency tobe physically active. The more closely the lesson problem adjusts itselfto these tendencies, the greater will be the pupil's activity and hencethe more rapid his progress. 

2. Through Constructive Instinct. --The child's delight in motorexpression is closely associated with his instinctive tendency toconstruct. When, therefore, new knowledge can be presented to the childin and through constructive exercises, he is more likely to feel itsvalue. Thus it is possible, by means of such occupations as paperfolding or stick-laying, to provide interesting problems for teachingnumber and geometric forms. In folding the check-board, for example, thechild will master necessary problems relating to the numbers, 2, 4, 8, and 16. In learning colour, it is more interesting for the child tostudy different colours through painting leaves, flowers, and fruits, than to learn them through mere sense impressions, or even throughcomparing coloured objects, as in the Montessori chromatic exercises. Astudy of the various kindergarten games and occupations would give anabundance of examples illustrative of the possibility of presentingknowledge in direct association with various types of constructivework. 

=A. Activity must be Directly Connected with Problem. =--It may be noted, however, that certain dangers associate themselves with these methods. One danger consists in the fact that, if care is not taken, the physicalactivity may not really involve the knowledge to be conveyed, but may beonly very indirectly associated with it. Such a danger might occur inthe use of the Montessori colour tablets for teaching tints and shades. In handling those, kindergarten children show a strong inclination tobuild flat forms with the tablets. Now unless these building exercisesinvolve the distinguishing of the various tints and shades, theconstructive activity will be likely to divert the attention of thepupil away from the colour problem which the tablets are supposed to setfor the pupils. 

=B. Not too much Emphasis on Manual Skill. =--Again, in expressiveexercises intended merely to impart new knowledge, it may happen thatthe teacher will lay too much stress on perfect form of expression. Inthese exercises, however, the purpose should be rather to enable thechild to realize the ideas in his expressive actions. When, for example, a child, in learning such geographical forms as island, gulf, mountain, etc. , uses sand, clay, or plasticine as a medium of expression, too muchstriving after accuracy of form in minor details may tend to draw thepupil's attention from the broader elements of knowledge to be mastered. In other words, it is the gaining of certain ideas, or knowledge, andnot technical perfection, that is being aimed at in such expressivemovements. 

=3. Instinct of Curiosity as Motive. =--The value of the instinct ofcuriosity in setting a problem for the young child has been alreadyreferred to. From what was there seen, it is evident that to the extentto which the teacher awakens wonder and curiosity in his presentationof a lesson problem, the child will be ready to enter upon the furthersteps of the learning process. For example, by inserting two forks and alarge needle into a cork, as illustrated in the accompanying Figure, andthen apparently balancing the whole on a small hard surface, we mayawaken a deep interest in the problem of gravity. In the same manner, bycalling the pupils' attention to the drops on the outside of a glasspitcher filled with water, we may have their curiosity aroused for thestudy of condensation. So also the presentation of a picture may arousecuriosity in places or people. 

[Illustration]

=4. Ownership as Motive. =--The natural pleasure which children take incollection and ownership may often be associated with presented problemsin a way to cause them to take a deeper interest in the knowledge to beacquired. For example, in presenting a lesson on the countries ofEurope, the collection of coins or stamps representative of thedifferent countries will add greatly to the interest, compared with amere outline study of the political divisions from a map. A moredetailed examination of the instincts and tendencies of the child andtheir relation to the educative process will, however, be found inChapter XXI. 

=5. Acquired Interest as Motive. =--Finally, in the case of individualpupils, a knowledge of their particular, or special, interests is oftena means of awakening in them a feeling of value for various types ofschool work. As an example, there might be cited the experience of ateacher who had in his school a pupil whom it seemed impossible tointerest in reading. Thereupon the teacher made it his object to learnwhat were this pupil's chief interests outside the school. Using theseas a basis for the selecting of simple reading matter for the boy, hewas soon able to create in him an interest in reading for its own sake. The result was that in a short time this pupil was rendered reasonablyefficient in what had previously seemed to him an uninteresting andimpossible task. 

=6. Use of Knowledge as Motive. =--In the preceding cases, interest inthe problem is made to rest primarily upon some native instinct, ortendency. It is to be noted, however, that as the child advances in theacquisition of knowledge, or experience, there develops in him also adesire for mental activity. In other words, the normal child takes adelight in the use of any knowledge over which he possesses adequatecontrol. It is to be noted further, that the child masters the newproblem by bringing to bear upon it suitable ideas selected out of hispreviously acquired experiences. It is evident, therefore, that, when alesson problem is presented to the child in such a way that he sees aconnection between it and his present knowledge and feels, further, thatthe problem may be mastered by a use of knowledge over which he hascomplete mastery, he will take a deeper interest in the learningprocess. When, on the other hand, he has imperfect control over the oldknowledge from which the interpreting ideas are selected, his interestin the problem itself will be greatly reduced. Owing to this fact, theteacher may adapt his lesson problems, or motives, to the stage ofdevelopment of the pupils. In the case of young children, since theyhave little knowledge, but possess a number of instinctive tendencies, the lesson problem should be such as may be associated with theirinstinctive tendencies. Since, however, the expressing of thesetendencies necessarily brings to the child ideas, or increases hisknowledge, the pupil will in time desire to use his growing knowledgefor its own sake. Here the child becomes able to grasp a problemconsciously, or in idea, and, so far as it appeals to his pastexperience, will desire to work for its solution. Thus any problem whichis recognized as having a vital connection with his own experienceconstitutes for the child a strong motive. For older pupils, therefore, the lesson problem which constitutes the strongest motive is the onethat is consciously recognized and felt to have some direct connectionwith their present knowledge. 

KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM

=Relation to Pupil's Knowledge. =--Since the conscious apprehension ofthe problem by the pupil in its relation to his present knowledgeconstitutes the best motive for the learning process, a question ariseshow this problem is to be grasped by the pupil. First, it is evidentthat the problem is not a state of knowledge, or a complete experience. If such were the case, there would be nothing for him to learn. It isthis partial ignorance that causes a problem to exist for the learner asa felt need, or motive. On the other hand it is not a state of completeignorance, otherwise the learner could not call up any related ideasfor its solution. When, for example, the child, after learning thevarious physical features, the climate, and people of Ontario, ispresented with the problem of learning the chief industries, he is ableby his former knowledge to realize the existence of these industriessufficiently to feel the need of a fuller realization. In the same waythe student who has traced the events of Canadian History up to the year1791, is able to know the Constitutional Act as a problem for study, that is, he is able to experience the existence of such a problem and tothat extent is able to know it. His mental state is equally a state ofignorance, in that he has not realized in his own consciousness all thefacts relative to the Act. In the orderly study of any school subject, therefore, the mastery of the previous lesson or lessons will in turnsuggest problems for further lessons. It is this further development ofnew problems out of present knowledge that demands an orderly sequenceof topics in the different school subjects, a fact that should be fullyrealized by the teacher. 

=Recognition of Problem: A. Prevents Digressions. =--An adequaterecognition of the lesson problem by the pupil in the light of his ownexperience is useful in preventing the introduction of irrelevantmaterial into the lesson. Young children are particularly prone (and, under certain circumstances, older students also) to drag into thelessons interesting side issues that have been suggested by some phaseof the work. As a rule, it is advisable to follow closely the straightand narrow road that leads to the goal of the lesson and not to permitdigressions into attractive by-paths. If a pupil attempts to introduceirrelevant matter, he should be asked what the problem of the lesson isand whether what he is speaking of will be of any value in attainingthat end. The necessity of this will, however, be seen more fully in ourconsideration of the next division of the learning process. 

=B. Organizes the Lesson Facts. =--The adequate recognition of the lessonproblem is valuable in helping the pupil to organize his knowledge. Ifyou take a friend for a walk along the streets of a strange cityengaging him in interesting conversation by the way, and if, when youhave reached a distant point, you tell him that he must find his wayback alone, he will probably be unable to do so without assistance. Butif you tell him at the outset what you are going to do, he will notecarefully the streets traversed, the corners turned, the directionstaken, and will likely find his way back easily. This is because he hada clearly defined problem before him. The conditions are much the samein a lesson. When the pupil starts out with no definite problem and isled along blindly to some unknown goal, he will be unable to retrace hisroute; that is, he will be unable to reproduce the matter over which hehas been taken. But with a clearly defined problem he will be able tonote the order of the steps of the lesson, their relation to one anotherand to the problem, and when the lesson is over he will be able to goover the same course again. The facts of the lesson will have becomeorganized in his mind. 

HOW TO SET LESSON PROBLEM

=Precautions. =--If the teacher expects his pupils to become interestedin a problem by immediately recognizing a connection between it andtheir previous knowledge, he must avoid placing the problem before themin a form in which they cannot readily apprehend this connection. Theteacher who announced at the beginning of the grammar lesson, "To-day weare going to learn about Mood in verbs" started the problem in a formthat was meaningless to the class. The simplest method in such a lessonwould be to draw attention to examples in sentences of verbs showingthis change and then say to the class, "Let us discover why these verbsare changed. " Similarly, to propose as the problem of the history lesson"the development of parliamentary government during the Stuart period"would be to use terms too difficult for the class to interpret. It wouldbe better to say: "We are going to find out how the Stuart kings wereforced by Parliament to give up control of certain things. " Instead ofsaying, "We shall study in this lesson the municipal government ofOntario, " it would be much better to proceed in some such way as thefollowing: "A few days ago your father paid his taxes for the year. Nowwe are going to learn by whom, and for what purposes, these taxes arespent. " Similarly, "Let us find out all we can about the cat, " would beinferior to, "Of what use to the cat are his sharp claws, padded feet, and rough tongue?"

On the other hand, it is evident that, in attempting to present theproblem in a form in which the pupils may recognize its connection withtheir previous experiences, care must be taken not to tell outright thewhole point of the lesson. In a lesson on the adverb, for instance, itwould not do to say: "You have learned how adjectives modify, or changethe meaning of, nouns. To-day we shall study words that modify verbs. " Amore satisfactory way of proceeding in such a lesson would be to have onthe black-board two sets of sentences exactly alike except that thesecond would contain adverbs and the first would not. Then ask: "Whatwords are in the second group of sentences that are not in the first?Let us examine the use of these words. " In the same way, to state theproblem of an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of "how to addfractions by changing them to equivalent fractions having the samedenominator" is open to the objection of telling too much. In this casea better method would be to present a definite problem requiring the useof addition of fractions. The pupil will see that he has not thenecessary arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then bein the proper mental attitude for the lesson. 

EXAMPLES OF MOTIVATION

A few additional examples, drawn from different school subjects, arehere added to illustrate further what is meant by setting a problem as aneed, or motive. 

=A. History. =--The members of a Form IV class were about to take up thestudy of the influence of John Wilkes upon parliamentary affairs duringthe reign of George III. As most of the pupils had visited the CanadianParliament Buildings and had watched from the galleries the proceedingsof the House of Commons, the teacher took this as the point of departurefor the lesson. First, he obtained from the class the facts that themembers of the Commons are elected by the different constituencies ofthe Dominion and that nobody has any power to interfere with thepeople's right to elect whomsoever they wish to represent them. The sameconditions exist to-day in England, but this has not always been thecase there. There was a time when the people's choice of arepresentative was sometimes set aside. The teacher then inquiredregarding the men who sit in the gallery just above the Speaker's chair. These are the parliamentary reporters for the important dailynewspapers throughout the Dominion. They send telegraphic despatchesregarding the debates in the House to their respective newspapers. Thesedespatches are published the following day, and the people of thecountry are thus enabled to know what is going on in Parliament. Nobodyhas any right to prevent these newspapers from publishing what they wishregarding the proceedings, provided, of course, the reports are notuntruthful. These conditions prevail also in England now, but have notalways done so. 

The work of the lesson was to see how these two conditions, freedom ofelections and liberty of the press, have been brought about. The pupilswere thus placed in a receptive attitude to hear the story of JohnWilkes. 

=B. Arithmetic. =--A Form IV class had been studying decimals and knewhow to read and write, add and subtract them. The teacher suggested asituation requiring the use of multiplication, and the pupils foundthemselves without the necessary means to meet the situation. Forinstance, "Mary's mother sent her to buy 2. 25 lb. Tea which cost $. 375per lb. What would she have to pay for it?" Or, "Mr. Brown has a fieldcontaining 8. 72 acres. Last year it yielded 21. 375 bushels of wheat tothe acre. Wheat was worth 97. 5 cents per bushel. What was the crop fromthe field worth?" The pupils saw that, in order to solve thesequestions, they must know how to multiply decimals. Multiplication ofdecimals became the problem of the lesson, the goal to be attained. 

=C. Grammar. =--The teacher wished to show the meaning of _case_ as aninflection of nouns and pronouns. He had written on the black-board suchsentences as:

 I dropped my book when John pushed me. When the man passed, he had his dog with him. 

He asked the pupils what words in these sentences refer to the sameperson, and obtained the answer that _I_, _my_, and _me_ all refer toone person, and _he_, _his_, and _him_ to another. Then, he proposed theproblem, "Let us find out why we have three different forms of a wordall meaning the same person. " The problem was adapted to animate thecuriosity of the pupils and call into activity their capacity forperceiving relationships. 

=D. Literature. =--The teacher was about to present the poem, "Hide andSeek, " to a Form III class. He said, "You have all played 'hide andseek. ' How do you play it? You will find on page 50 of your _OntarioThird Reader_ a beautiful poem describing a game of 'hide and seek' thatis rather a sad one. Let us see how the poet has described this game. "The pupils were at once interested in what the poet had to say aboutwhat was to them a very familiar diversion, and, while the lesson was inprogress, their capacity for sympathy and for artistic appreciation wasappealed to. 

=E. Geography. =--A Form III class was to study some of the moreimportant commercial centres of Canada. Speaking of Montreal, theteacher proposed the problem, "Do you think we can find out why a cityof half a million people has grown up at this particular point?" Thepupils' instinct of curiosity was here appealed to and their capacityfor perceiving relationships was challenged. 

=F. Composition. =--The teacher wished to take up the writing of lettersof application with a class of Form IV pupils. He wrote on theblack-board an advertisement copied from a recent newspaper, forexample, "Wanted--A boy about fifteen to assist in office; must be agood writer and accurate in figures; apply by letter to Martin & Kelly, 8 Central Chambers, City. " Then he said, "Some day in the near futuremany of you will be called upon to answer such an advertisement as this. Now what should a letter of application in reply to this contain?" Theclass at once proceeded, with the teacher's assistance, to work out asatisfactory letter. Here, a purpose for the future was the principalneed promoted. 

=G. Nature Study. =--The pupils of a Form II class had been makingobservations regarding a pet rabbit that one of their number had broughtto school. After reporting these observations, the pupils were asked, "What good do you think these long ears, large eyes, strong hind legs, split upper lip, etc. , are to the rabbit?" Here the problem set wasrelated to the children's instinctive interest in a living animal, appealed to the instinct of curiosity, and challenged their capacity todraw inferences. 

CHAPTER X

LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY

OR

PROCESS OF ANALYSIS

=Knowledge Obtained Through Use of Ideas. =--As already noted, thepresented problem of a lesson is neither a state of complete knowledgenor a state of complete ignorance. On the other hand, its function is toprovide a starting-point and guide for the calling up of a number ofsuitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a singleexperience, constituting the new knowledge. Take, for example, a personwithout a knowledge of fractions, who approaches for the first time theproblem of sharing as found in such a question as:

Divide $15 between John and William, giving John $3 as often as Williamgets $2. 

In gaining control of this situation, the pupil must select the ideas $3and $2, the knowledge that $3 and $2 = $5, and the further knowledgethat $15 contains $5 three times. These various ideas will constitutedata for organizing the new experience of $9 for John and $6 forWilliam. In the same manner, when the student in grammar is firstpresented with the problem of interpreting the grammatical value of theword _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy _driving_ the horse is verynoisy, " he is compelled to apply to its interpretation the ideas noun, adjectival relation, and adjective, and also the ideas object, objectiverelation, and verb. In this way the child secures the mental elementswhich he may organize into the new experience, or knowledge(participle), and thus gain control of the presented word. 

=Interpreting Ideas Already Known. =--It is to be noticed at the outsetthat all ideas selected to aid in the solution of the lesson problemhave their origin in certain past experiences which have a bearing onthe subject in hand. When presented with a strange object (guava), aperson fixes his attention upon it, and thereupon is able, through hisformer sensation experiences, to interpret it as an unknown thing. Hethen begins to select, out of his experiences of former objects, ideasthat bear upon the thing before him. By focusing thereon certain ideaswith which he is perfectly familiar, as rind, flesh, seed, etc. , heinterprets the strange thing as a kind of fruit. In the same way, whenthe student is first presented in school with an example of theinfinitive, he brings to bear upon the vague presentation various ideasalready contained within his experience through his previous study ofthe noun and the verb. To the extent also to which he possesses and isable to recall these necessary old ideas, will he be able to adjusthimself to the new and unfamiliar presented example (infinitive). It isevident, therefore, that a new presentation can have a meaning for usonly as it is related to something in our past experience. 

=Further Examples. =--The mind invariably tries to interpret newpresentations in terms of old ideas. A newspaper account of a railwaywreck will be intelligible to us only through the revival andreconstruction of those past experiences that are similar to theelements described in the account. The grief, disappointment, orexcitement of another will be appreciated only as we have experiencedsimilar feelings in the past. New ideas are interpreted by means ofrelated old ideas; new feelings and acts are dependent upon and madepossible by related old feelings and acts. Moreover, the meaningassigned to common objects varies with different persons and even withthe same person under different circumstances. A forest would beregarded by the savage as a place to hide from the attacks of hisenemies; by the hunter as a place to secure game; by the woodcutter asaffording firewood; by the lumberman as yielding logs for lumber; by thenaturalist as offering opportunity for observing insects and animals; bythe artist as a place presenting beautiful combinations of colours. Thisability of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in meetingand interpreting new experiences is known in psychology as_apperception_. A more detailed study of apperception as a mentalprocess will be made in Chapter XXVI. 

THE SELECTING PROCESS

=Learner's Mind Active. =--A further principle of method to be deducedfrom the foregoing is, that the process of bringing ideas out of formerexperiences to bear upon a presented problem must take place within themind of the learner himself. The new knowledge being an experienceorganized from elements selected out of former experiences, it followsthat the learner will possess the new knowledge only in so far as he hashimself gone through the process of selecting the necessary interpretingideas out of his own former knowledge and finally organizing them intonew knowledge. This need for the pupil to direct mental effort, orattention, upon the problem in order to bring upon it, out of his formerknowledge, the ideas relative to the solution of the question beforehim, is one of the most important laws of method. From the standpoint ofthe teacher, this law demands that he so direct the process of learningthat the pupil will clearly call up in consciousness the selectedinterpreting ideas as portions of his old knowledge, and further feel aconnection between these and the new problem before him. 

=Learner's Experience Analysed. =--The second stage of the learningprocess is found to involve also a breaking up of former experience. This appears in the fact that the various ideas which are necessary tointerpret the new problem are to be selected out of larger complexes ofpast experience. For example, in a lesson whose problem is to accountfor the lack of rainfall in the Sahara desert, the pupil may have acomplex of experiences regarding the position of the desert. Out of thismass of experience he must, however, select the one feature--itsposition in relation to the equator. In the same way, he may have awhole body of experience regarding the winds of Africa. This body must, however, be analysed, and the attention fixed upon the North-easttrade-wind. Again, he may know many things about these winds, but herehe selects out the single item of their coming from a land source. Again, from the complex of old knowledge which he possesses regardingthe land area from which the wind blows, he must analyse out itstemperature, and compare it with that of the areas toward which the windis blowing. Thus it will be seen that, step by step, the special itemsof old knowledge to be used in the apperceptive process are selected outof larger masses of experience. For this reason this phase of thelearning process is frequently designated as a process of analysis. 

=Problem as Object of Analysis. =--Although the second step of thelearning process has been described as a selecting of elements from pastexperience, it might be supposed that the various elements which themind has been said to select from its former experiences to interpretthe new problem, come in a sense from the presentation itself. Thus itis often said, in describing the present step in the learning process, that the presentation embodies a certain aggregate of experience, whichthe learner can master by analysing it into its component parts andrecombining the analysed parts into a better known whole. 

=Analysis Depends upon Selection. =--It is not in the above sense, however, that the term analysis is to be applied in the learningprocess. It is not true, for instance, when a person is presented with astrange object, say an _ornithorhynchus_, and realizes it in only avague way, that any mere analysis of the object will discover for himthe various characteristics which are to synthesize into a knowledge ofthe animal. This would imply that in analysis the mind merely breaks upa vaguely known whole in order to make of it a definitely known whole. But the learner could not discover the characteristics of such an objectunless the mind attended to it with certain elements of its formerexperiences. Unless, for instance, the person already knew certaincharacteristics of both birds and animals, he could not interpret theornithorhynchus as a bird-beaked animal. In the case of the child andthe mud-turtle, also, there could have been no analysis of the problemin the way referred to, had the child not had the ideas, bug and basket, as elements of former experience. These characteristics, therefore, which enter into a definite knowledge of the object, do not come out ofthe object by a mere mechanical process of analysis, but are rather readinto the object by the apperceptive process. That is, the learner doesnot get his new experience directly out of the presented materials, butbuilds up his new experience out of elements of his former knowledge. Inother words, the learner sees in the new object, or problem, only suchcharacteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable him to see. Thus while the learner may be said from one standpoint to analyse thenew problem, this is possible only because he is able to break up, oranalyse, his former experience and read certain of its elements into thenew presentation. To say that the mind analyses the unknown object, ortopic, in any other sense, would be to confound mental interpretationwith physical analysis. 

=A Further Example. =--The following example will further show that thelearner can analyse a presented problem only to the extent that he isable to put characteristics into it by this process of analysing orselecting from his past experience. Consider how a young child gains hisknowledge of a triangle. At first his control of certain sensationsenables him to read into it two ideas, three-sidedness andthree-angledness, and only these factors, therefore, organize themselvesinto his experience triangle. Nor would any amount of mere attentionenable him at this stage to discover another important quality in thething triangle. Later, however, through the growth of his geometricexperience, he may be able to read another quality into a triangle, namely two-right-angledness. This new quality will then, and only then, be organized with his former knowledge into a more complete knowledge ofa triangle. Here again it is seen that analysis as a learning process isreally reading into a new presentation something which the mind alreadypossesses as an element of former experience, and not gaining somethingat first hand out of the presented problem. 

=Problem Directs Selection. =--It will be well to note here also that theselecting of the interpreting ideas is usually controlled by the problemwith which the mind is engaged. This is indicated from the various waysin which the same object may be interpreted as the mind is confrontedwith different problems. The round stone, for instance, when one wishesto crack the filbert, is viewed as a hammer; when he wishes to place hispaper on the ground, it becomes a weight; when he is threatened by thestrange dog, it becomes a weapon of defence. In like manner the sign _x_suggests an unknown quantity in relation to the algebraic problem; inrelation to phonics it is a double sound; in relation to numeration, thenumber ten. It is evident that in all these cases, what determines themeaning given to the presented object is the _need_, or _problem_, thatis at the moment predominant. In the same way, any lesson problem, in sofar as it is felt to be of value, forms a starting-point for calling upother ideas, and therefore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideaswhich is likely to furnish the solution. Moreover, the mind has thepower to measure the suitability of various ideas and select or rejectthem as they are felt to stand related to the problem in hand. Forexample, when a pupil is engaged in a study of the grammatical value ofthe word _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy driving the horse is verynoisy, " it is quite possible that he may think of the horse at his ownhome, or the shouting of his father's hired man, or even perhaps theform of the word _driving_, if he has just been viewing it in a writinglesson. The mind is able, however, to reject these irrelevant ideas, andselect only those that seem to adjust themselves to the problem in hand. The cause of this lies in the fact that the problem is at the outset atleast partly understood by the learner, which fact enables him todetermine whether the ideas coming forward in consciousness are relatedin any way to this partially known topic. Thus in the example cited, the learner knows the problem sufficiently to realize that it is aquestion of grammatical function, and is able, therefore, to feel thevalue, or suitability, of any knowledge which may be applied to it, evenbefore he is fully aware of its ultimate relation thereto. 

LAW OF PREPARATION

=Control of Old Knowledge Necessary. =--But notwithstanding the directiongiven the apperceptive process through the aim, or problem, it isevident that if the pupil is to select from his former experiences theparticular elements which bear upon the problem in hand, he must have aready and intelligent control over such former knowledge. It is tooevident, however, that pupils frequently do not possess sufficientcontrol over the old knowledge which will bear upon a presented problem. In endeavouring, for example, to grasp the relation of the exteriorangle to the two interior and opposite angles, the pupil may failbecause he has not a clear knowledge of the equality of angles inconnection with parallel lines. For this reason teachers will often findit necessary (before bringing old knowledge to bear upon a new problem)to review the old knowledge, or experience, to be used during theapperceptive process. Thus a lesson on the participle may begin with areview of the pupils' knowledge of verbs and adjectives, a lesson on themaking of the colours orange and green for painting a pumpkin with itsgreen stem may begin with a recognition of the standard colours, red, yellow, and blue, and the writing of a capital letter with a review ofcertain movements. 

=Preparation Recalls Interpreting Ideas. =--It must be noted that thisreview of former knowledge always implies, either that the pupil islikely to have forgotten at least partially this former knowledge, orthat without such review he is not likely to recall and apply it readilywhen the new problem is placed before him. For this reason the teacheris usually warned that his lesson should always begin with a review ofsuch of the pupil's old knowledge as is to be used in mastering the newexperiences. 

VALUE OF PREPARATION

=A. Aids the Understanding. =--The main advantage of this preparatorywork is that it brings into clear consciousness that group of ideas andfeelings best suited to give meaning to the new presentation. Withoutit, the pupil may not understand, or only partially understand, orentirely misunderstand the lesson. (1) He may not understand the newmatter at all because he does not bring any related facts from his pastexperience to bear upon it. Multiplication of decimals would in allprobability be a merely mechanical process if the significance ofdecimals and the operation of multiplying fractions were not brought tobear upon it, the pupil not understanding it at all as a rationalprocess. (2) He may only partially understand the new matter because hedoes not see clearly the relation between his old ideas and the newfacts, or because he does not bring to the new facts a sufficientequipment of old ideas to make them meaningful. The adverbial objectivewould be imperfectly understood if it were not shown that its functionsare exactly parallel with those of the adverb. The pupil would have onlya partial understanding of it. (3) He may entirely misunderstand the newfacts because he uses wrong old experiences to give them meaning. Suchwas evidently the difficulty in the case of the young pupil who, after alesson on the equator, described it as a menagerie lion running aroundthe earth. Many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due to hisfailure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new facts. He hasmisunderstood because his mind was not prepared by making the properapperceiving ideas explicit. 

=B. Saves Time. =--There is the further advantage of economy of time, when an adequate preparation of the mind has been made. When theappropriate ideas are definitely in the forefront of consciousness, theyseize upon kindred impressions as soon as these are presented and givethem meaning. On the other hand, when sufficient preparation has notbeen made, time must be taken during the presentation of the new problemto go back in search of those experiences necessary to make itmeaningful. Frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time will beinevitable. Time will be saved by having the apperceiving ideas readyand active. 

=C. Provides for Review. =--One of the most important values of thepreparatory step is the opportunity given for the review of old ideas. These have to be revived, worked over, and reconstructed, and inconsequence they become the permanent possessions of the mind. Thepupil's knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when helearns the adverb phrase and adverb clause, and is still furtherilluminated when he comes to study the adverbial objective. Further, theapperceiving ideas become more interesting to the pupil, when he findsthat he can use them in the conquest of new fields. He has aconsciousness of power, which in itself is a source of satisfaction andpleasure. 

PRECAUTIONS REGARDING PREPARATION

=Must not be too Long. =--Two precautions seem advisable in thepreparatory step. The first is that too long a time should not be spentover it. There is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and dragforward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to bepresented. Under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely tobe introduced, and often a train of associations out of harmony with themeaning and spirit of the lesson is started. This is especiallydangerous in lessons in literature and history. Only those experiencesshould be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of theideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the newlesson. 

=Must Recall Vital Ideas. =--The most active, vivid, and powerful ideasin the pupil's mind are those which are closely connected with his life. This suggests the second precaution, namely, the use wherever possibleof the ideas associated with his surroundings, his games, hisoccupations. When this is done, not only will the new knowledge have amuch greater interest attached to it but it will also be much morevividly apprehended. This will be referred to further in connection withthe use of illustrations in teaching. 

NECESSITY OF PREPARATION

Teachers, however, are not always agreed as to the amount of time oremphasis to be given to this preparatory step. If the teacher can assurehimself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something withwhich the children are undoubtedly familiar, he may, many argue, safelyomit such preparatory work. Indeed it is evident that after leavingschool the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand theideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presentingthemselves in practical life. On the other hand, however, it is to beremembered that the young child is, at the best, feeling his way in theprocess of adjusting himself to new experiences. For this reason, thefirst work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether thepupils are in a proper attitude for the new knowledge, and, so far as isnecessary, prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge asis related to the new experiences to be presented. Although, therefore, the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learningprocess, since it constitutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledgeacquired through previous learning processes, it may be accepted as astep in the teacher's method of controlling the learning process. 

EXAMPLES OF PREPARATION

The following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step ofpreparation may be considered by the student-teacher:

In a lesson in phonic reading in a primary class, the preparation shouldconsist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupilalready knows that are to be used in the new lesson. In a nature studylesson on "The Rabbit, " in a Form II class, the preparation shouldinclude a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regardingthe wild rabbit. They may have observed its timidity, its manner ofrunning, what it feeds upon, where it makes its home, its colour duringthe winter and during the summer, the kind of tracks it makes in thesnow, etc. All these facts will be useful in interpreting the newobservations and in assisting the pupils to make new inferences. In alesson in a Form III class on "Ottawa as a Commercial Centre, " thepreparation consists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding theposition of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa, Gatineau, Rideau, Lièvre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of the Rideau and Chaudière;the forests to the north and west, with their immense supplies of pine, spruce, and hemlock; and the fact that it is the Dominion capital. Allthese facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance ofOttawa. In a literature lesson in a Form III class on _The Charge of theLight Brigade_, the preparation would involve a recall of some deed ofpersonal heroism with which the pupils are familiar, such as that ofJohn Maynard, Grace Darling, or any similar one nearer home. Recall howsuch a deed is admired and praised, and the memory of the doer ischerished and revered. Then the teacher should tell the story ofBalaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of, in order thatthe pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem. Ina grammar lesson on "The Adverbial Objective" the preparation shouldconsist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb, an adjective, and sometimes another adverb. Upon this knowledge alonecan a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built. In anarithmetic lesson on "Multiplication of Decimals, " in a Form IV class, the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals, ofthe interconversion of decimals and fractions (for example, . 05 = 5hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths = . 0027, etc. ); and of the multiplicationof fractions. Unless the pupil can do these operations, it is obviouslyimpossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anythingmore than a merely mechanical process. 

PREPARATION MERELY AIDS SELECTION

Before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method, itwill be well again to call attention to the fact that this is not oneof the four recognized stages of the learning process, but rather asubsidiary feature of the second, or apperceptive stage. In other words, actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a newexperience, not through a review of former experience, but by an activerelating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretationof the new problem. 

CHAPTER XI

LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY

OR

PROCESS OF SYNTHESIS

=Learning a Unifying Process. =--It has been seen that the learner, ingaining control of new knowledge, must organize into the new experienceelements selected from former experiences. For instance, when a persongains a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he not only brings forward inconsciousness from his former knowledge the ideas--rind, flesh, seed, etc. , --to interpret the strange object, but also associates these into asingle experience, a new fruit. So long also as the person referred toin an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factorsthree experiences--seeing a boy at the fence, seeing the vineyard, andfinally, seeing the boy eating grapes--these would not, as three suchdistinct experiences, constitute a knowledge of grape-stealing. On theother hand, as soon as these are combined, or associated by a relatingact of thought, the different factors are organized into a new ideasymbolized by the expression, _grape-stealing_. 

=Examples From School-room Procedure. =--A similar relating process isinvolved when the learner faces a definite school problem. When, forinstance, the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign ÷, he must not onlybring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideasof a line, of two dots, and of a certain mathematical process, but mustalso associate these into a new idea, division-sign. So also a personmay know that air takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer, that thenorth-east trade-winds blow over the Sahara from land areas, and thatthe Sahara is situated just north of the equator. But the mind mustunify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of thecondition of the rainfall in that quarter. 

NATURE OF SYNTHESIS

=Deals with Former Experiences. =--This mental organizing, or unifying, of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the newexperience, is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis. The termsynthesis, however, must be used with the same care as was noted inregard to the term analysis. Synthesis does not mean that totally _new_elements are being unified, but merely that whatever selected elementsof old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem, arebuilt, or organized, into a new system; and constitute, for the timebeing, one's knowledge and control of that problem. This is wellexemplified by noting the growth of a person's knowledge of any objector topic. Thus, so long as the child is able to apperceive only thethree sides and three angles of a triangle, his idea of triangleincludes a synthesis of these. When later, through the building up ofhis geometric knowledge, he is able to apperceive that the interiorangles equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expandsthrough the synthesis of this with the former knowledge. 

=All Knowledge a Synthesis. =--The fact that all knowledge is anorganization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at theprocess from the other direction. The adult who has complete knowledgeof an orange has it as a single experience. This experience is found, however, to represent a co-ordination of other experiences, as touch, taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each of these separate characteristics isan association of simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of theorange, for instance, is itself a complex made up of certain muscular, touch, and temperature sensations. From this it is evident that theknowledge of an orange, although a unity of experience in adult life, isreally a complex, or synthesis, made up of a large number of differentelements. 

What is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea. Whether it be the understanding of a plant, an animal, a city, apicture, a poem, an historical event, an arithmetical problem, or ascientific experiment, the process is always the same. The apperceptiveprocess of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements offormer experience, or the process of analysis-synthesis, is universal inlearning. Expressed in another form, what is at first indistinct andindefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting, forthe interpretation of the new presentation, suitable old ideas andsetting up relationships among them. Analysis, or selection, isincomplete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis; synthesis, or organization, is impossible without analysis, or selection. It is onaccount of the mind's ability to unify a number of mental factors into asingle experience, that the process of unification, or synthesis, issaid to imply economy within our experiences. This fact will become evenmore evident, however, when later we study such mental processes assense perception and conception. 

INTERACTION OF PROCESSES

It is to be noted, however, that the selecting and the relating of thedifferent interpreting ideas during the learning process are notnecessarily separate and distinct parts of the lesson. In other words, the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole massof disconnected elements, and then later build them up into a neworganic experience. There is, rather, in almost every case, a continualinterplay between the selecting and relating activity, or betweenanalysis and synthesis, throughout the whole learning process. As soon, for instance, as a certain feature, or characteristic, is noted, thisnaturally relates itself to the central problem. When later, anothercharacteristic is noted, this may relate itself at once both with thetopic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more completeknowledge of the object. Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growthof knowledge similar to that illustrated in the case of the scholar'sknowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay of analysisand synthesis, or of selecting and relating different groups of ideasrelative to the topic. This would he illustrated by noting a pupil'sstudy of the cat. The child may first note that the cat catches and eatsrats and mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will at oncerelate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the foodof the animal. Later he may note that the cat has sharp claws, paddedfeet, long pointed canines, and a rough tongue; these facts being alsorelated as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. Inaddition to this, however, the latter facts will further relatethemselves to the former as cases of adaptation, when the child notesthat the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning itfrom the bones, and that its claws and padded feet are suited tosurprising and seizing its living prey. 

=Example from Study of Conjunctive Pronoun. =--This continuous selectingand relating throughout a process of learning is also well illustratedin the pupil's process of learning the _conjunctive pronoun_. Bybringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as "The men _who_brought it returned at once"; the pupil may be asked first to apperceivethe subordinate clause, _who brought it_. This will not likely beconnected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of _who_. From this, however, he passes to a consideration of the value of theclause and its relation. Hereupon, these various ideas at onceco-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that _who_ is conjunctive. Next, he may be called upon to analyse the subordinate clause. This, atfirst, also may seem to the child a disconnected experience. From this, however, he passes to the idea of _who_ as subject, and thence to thefact that it signifies man. Thereupon these ideas unify themselves withthe word _who_ under the idea _pronoun_. Thereupon a still highersynthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complexsystem, or idea--_conjunctive pronoun_. 

[Illustration]

This progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis is illustrated bythe accompanying figure, in which the word _who_ represents thepresented unknown problem; _a_, _b_, and _c_, the selecting and relatingprocess which results in the knowledge, _conjunction_; _a'_, _b'_, and_c'_, the building up of the _pronoun_ notion; and the circle, the finalorganization of these two smaller systems into a single notion, _conjunctive pronoun_. 

The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a poem, the study ofa plant or animal, will furnish excellent examples of these subordinatestages of analysis and synthesis within a lesson. It is to be notedfurther that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons tofall into certain well marked sub-divisions. Each of these minorco-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the larger problem, thewhole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinctparts. Moreover, the child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largelydepend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separateco-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem. 

ALL KNOWLEDGE UNIFIED

Nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the singlelesson. As each lesson is organized, it will, if fully apprehended, bemore or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject. In this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of asingle subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, variousgroups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within thesubject, in accordance with important relations which the pupil may readinto their data. Thus, in grammar, one sequence of lessons is organizedinto a complete knowledge of sentences; another group, into a completeknowledge of inflection; a smaller group within the latter, into acomplete knowledge of tense or mood. It is thus that the mind is able toconstruct its mass of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences, and the various smaller divisions into topics. 

CHAPTER XII

APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

OR

LAW OF EXPRESSION

=Practical Significance of Knowledge. =--In our consideration of thefourth phase of the learning process, or the law of expression, it isnecessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regardingthe correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection it waslearned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty, orproblem, and that it finds significance and value in so far as itenables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties withwhich he may be confronted. In other words, man is primarily a doer, andknowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual alongcertain recognized lines. This being the case, while instruction aims tocontrol the process by which the child is to acquire valuable socialexperience, or knowledge, it is equally important that it should promoteskill by correlating that knowledge with expression, or should strive toinfluence action while forming character. To apperceive, for instance, the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a verylimited value if the student is not able to give expression to these inhis own conversation. It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far aspossible, expression should enter as a factor in the learning process. 

=Examples of Expression. =--Man's expressive acts are found, however, todiffer greatly in their form. When one is hurt, he distorts his faceand cries aloud; when he hears a good speech he claps his hands andshouts approval; when he reads an amusing story he laughs; when helearns of the death of a friend he sheds tears; when he is affronted hisface grows red, his muscles tense, and he strikes a blow or breaks intoa torrent of words; when he has seen a striking incident he tells someone about it or writes an account to a distant friend. When his feelingsare stirred by a patriotic address, he springs to his feet and sings, "God Save the King. " The desire that his team should carry the foot-ballto the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in thatdirection. When he conceives how he may launch a successful venture, thebusiness man at once proceeds to carry it into effect. These are allexamples of _expression_. Every impression, idea, or thought, tendssooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression. 

TYPES OF ACTION

=A. Uncontrolled Actions. =--Passing to an examination of such physical, or motor, activities, we find that man's expressive acts fall into threesomewhat distinct classes. A young child is found to engage in manymovements which seem destitute of any conscious direction. Some of thesemovements, such as breathing, sneezing, winking, etc. , are found to beuseful to the child, and imply what might be termed inherited control ofconduct, though they do not give expression to any consciously organizedknowledge, or experience. At other times, his bodily movements seem tobe mere random, or impulsive, actions. These latter actions at timesarise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour, as, forinstance, stretching, kicking, etc. , as seen in a baby. At other timesthese uncontrolled acts have their origin in the various impressionswhich the child is receiving from his surroundings, or environment, aswhen the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with hishand. Although, moreover, these instinctive movements may come in timeunder conscious control, such actions do not in themselves implyconscious control or give expression to organized knowledge. 

=B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control. =--To a second class ofactions belong the orderly movements which are both produced anddirected by consciousness. When, in distinction to the movementsreferred to above, a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box, or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion, a conscious aim, or intention, produces the act, and conscious effort sustains it untilthe aim is reached. The distinction between mere impulsive andinstinctive actions on the one hand, and guided effort on the other, will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX. 

=C. Habitual Actions. =--Thirdly, as has been noted in Chapter II, bothconsciously directed and uncontrolled action may, by repetition, becomeso fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness, orbecomes habitual. 

Our expressive actions may be classified, therefore, into threeimportant groups as follows:

1. Instinctive, reflex, and impulsive action2. Consciously controlled, or directed action3. Habitual action. 

NATURE OF EXPRESSION

=Implies Intelligent Control. =--It is evident that as a stage in thelearning process, expression must deal primarily with the second classof actions, since its real purpose is to correlate the new consciousknowledge with action. Expression in education, therefore, mustrepresent largely consciously produced and consciously directed action. 

=Conscious Expression may Modify A. Instinctive Acts. =--While this istrue, however, expression, as a stage in the educative process, willalso have a relation to the other types of action. As previously noted, the expression stage of the learning process may be used as a means tobring instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious control. This isindeed an important part of a child's education. For instance, it isonly by forming ideas of muscular movements and striving to express themthat the child can bring his muscular movements under control. It isevident, therefore, that the expressive stage of the lesson can be madeto play an important part in bringing many instinctive and impulsiveacts under conscious direction. By expressing himself in the games ofthe kindergarten, the child's social instinct will come under consciouscontrol. By directing his muscular movements in art and constructivework, he gains the control which will in part enable him to check theimpulse to strike the angry blow. These points will, however, beconsidered more fully in a study of the inherited tendencies in ChapterXXI. 

=B. Habits. =--Further, many of our consciously directed acts are of sogreat value that they should be made more permanent through habituation. Expression must, therefore, in many lessons be emphasized, not merely totest and render clear present conscious knowledge, but also to lead tohabitual control of action, or to create skill. This would be especiallytrue in having a child practise the formation of figures and letters. Although at the outset we must have him form the letter to see that hereally knows the outline, the ultimate aim is to enable him to formthese practically without conscious direction. In language work, also, the child must acquire many idiomatic expressions as habitual modes ofspeech. 

TYPES OF EXPRESSION

Since the tendency to express our impressions in a motor way is a law ofour being, it follows that the school, which is constantly seeking togive the pupil intelligent impressions, or valuable knowledge, shouldalso provide opportunity for adequate expression of the same. The formsmost frequently adopted in schools are speech and writing. Pupils arerequired to answer questions orally or in writing in almost every schoolsubject, and in doing so they are given an opportunity for expression ofa very valuable kind. In fact, it would often be much more economical totry to give pupils fewer impressions and to give them more opportunitiesfor expression in language. But written or spoken language is not theonly means of expression that the school can utilize. Pupils canfrequently be required to express themselves by means of manualactivity. In art, they represent objects and scenes by means of brushand colour, or pencil, or crayon; in manual training, they constructobjects in cardboard and wood; in domestic science, they cook and sew. The primary object of these so-called "new" subjects of the schoolprogramme is not to make the pupils artists, carpenters, orhouse-keepers, but partly to acquaint them with typical forms of humanactivity and partly to give them means of expression having an educativevalue. In arithmetic, the pupils express numerical facts bymanipulating blocks and splints, and measure quantities, distances, surfaces, and solids. In geography, they draw maps of countries, modelthem in sand or clay, and make collections to illustrate manufactures atvarious stages of the process. In literature, they dramatize stories andillustrate scenes and situations by a sketch with pencil or brush. Innature study, they illustrate by drawings and make mounted collectionsof plants and insects. 

VALUE OF EXPRESSION

=A. Influences Conduct. =--In nature study, history, and literature, themost valuable kind of expression is that which comes through somemodification of future conduct. That pupil has studied the birds andanimals to little purpose who needlessly destroys their lives or causesthem pain. He has studied the reign of King John to little purpose if heis not more considerate of the rights of others on the playground. Hehas gained little from the life of Robert Bruce, Columbus, or La Salle, if he does not manfully attack difficulties again and again until he hasovercome them. He has not read _The Heroine of Verchères_, or _TheLittle Hero of Haarlem_ aright, if he does not act promptly in asituation demanding courage. He has learned little from the story ofDamon and Pythias if he is not true to his friends under tryingcircumstances, and he has not imbibed the spirit of _The ChristmasCarol_ if he is not sympathetic and kindly toward those less fortunatethan himself. From the standpoint of the moral life, therefore, rightknowledge is valuable only as it expresses itself in right action. 

=B. Aids Impression. =--Apart from the fact that it satisfies a demand ofour being, expression is most important in that it tests the clearnessof the applied knowledge. We often think that our impression is clear, only to discover its vagueness when we attempt to express it in someform. People often say that they understand a fact thoroughly, but theycannot exactly express it. Such a statement is usually incorrect. If theimpression were clear, the expression under ordinary circumstances wouldalso be clear. In this connection a danger should be pointed out. Pupilssometimes express themselves in language with apparent clearness, whenin reality they are merely repeating words that they have memorized andthat are quite meaningless to them. The alert teacher can, however, byjudicious questioning, avoid being deceived in this regard. 

=C. Adds to Clearness of Knowledge. =--Not only does expression test theclearness of the apperceived new knowledge, but at the same time itgives the knowledge greater clearness. We learn to know by doing. Apupil realizes a story more fully when he has reproduced it for somebodyelse. He images a scene described in a poem more clearly when he hasdrawn it. He has a clearer idea of the volume of a cord when he hasactually measured out a cord of wood. He has a more accurate conceptionof the difficulties attending the discoveries of La Salle when he hasdrawn a map and traced the routes of his various expeditions. There ismuch truth in the statement that one never fully knows some things untilhe has taught them to somebody else. The teacher in grammar andgeography will often have occasion to realize this. Greater clearness ofimpression means, of course, greater permanence. We remember best thosefacts of which our impression was most vivid. 

DANGERS OF OMITTING EXPRESSION

=A. Knowledge not Practical. =--It is apparent, then, that if the pupilis not given opportunity for expression, his ideas are vague andevanescent. Further than this, his capacities for _knowing_ will bedeveloped but his capacities for _doing_ ignored. His _intellectual_powers will be exercised and his _volitional_ powers neglected. Thepupil is thus likely to develop into a mere _theorist_; and as thetendencies of childhood are accentuated in later life, he becomes an_impractical_ man. There are many men in the world who apparently know agreat deal, but who, through inability to make practical application oftheir knowledge, are unsuccessful in life. It is, however, seriously tobe doubted whether knowledge is ever _real_ until it has been worked outin practice and conduct. To avoid the danger of becoming impractical, apupil should have every opportunity for expression. 

=B. Feelings Weakened. =--A second serious danger of neglectingexpression lies in the field of the emotions. To have generous emotionscontinually aroused and never to act upon them, to have one's sympathiesfrequently stirred and never to perform a kindly act, to experiencefeelings of love and never to express them in acts of service, is tocultivate a weakness of character. A classic instance of this is that ofthe lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary sorrows of the heroine inthe play while her coachman was freezing to death outside the theatre. If worthy emotions are ever to be of the slightest moral value to us, they must be expressed in action. The pupil frequently has his emotionsstirred in the lessons in literature, history, and nature study, andthere are situations constantly arising in the school room, on theplayground, on the street, and in the home, that afford opportunity forexpression. To give a single instance, there is a story in the _OntarioThird Reader_ by Elizabeth Phelps Ward, called "Mary Elizabeth. " Nopupil could read that story without being stirred with a deep pity andyet profound admiration for the pathetic figure of poor little MaryElizabeth. The natural expression for such emotions would be a morekindly and sympathetic attitude towards some unfortunate child in theschool. 

RELATION OF EXPRESSION TO IMPRESSION

=Knowledge Tends Toward Expression. =--On account of the evidentconnection between knowledge and action, the law of expression hasformulated itself into a well-known pedagogical law of method--noimpression without expression. Like many other educational maxims, however, this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense. The law ofexpression in education claims only that valuable experiences, orvaluable forms of new knowledge, should not be built up in the child'smind without adequate accompanying expression. In the first case, asalready seen, many impressions come to us which are never seized uponsufficiently by our consciousness to become intelligent rules forconduct, or action. It is true, of course that, so far as suchimpressions stimulate us, they tend toward expression, and to thatextent the maxim is true. For instance, when a child is impressed, say, by a sudden strange sound, he has a tendency to express himself bystraining his attention, and when the man imagines an enemy is beforehim, he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting attitude. 

=Expression at Times Inhibited. =--It is to be noted that the childshould early learn to form intelligent plans of action and postpone oreven condemn them as forms of expression. In other words, a childshould early learn to select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderlysystem independently of their actual expression in physical action. Without this power to suppress, or inhibit, expression, the child wouldbe unable adequately to weigh and compare alternative courses of actionand suppress such as seem undesirable. Such indeed is the weakness ofthe man who possesses an impulsive nature. Although, therefore, it istrue that all knowledge is intended to serve in meeting actual needs, orto function in the control of expression, it is equally true that notevery organized experience should find expression in action. Part atleast of man's efficiency must consist in his ability to organize a newexperience in an indirect way and condemn it as a rule of action. While, therefore, we emphasize the importance, under ordinary conditions, ofhaving the child's knowledge function as directly as possible in someform of actual expression, it is equally important to recognize that inactual life many organized plans should not find expression in outerphysical action. This being the case, the divorce between organizedexperience, or knowledge, and practical expression, which at times takesplace in school work, is not necessarily unsound, since it tends to makethe child proficient in separating the mental organizing of experiencefrom its immediate expression, and must, therefore, tend to make himmore capable of weighing plans before putting them into execution. Thiswill in turn habituate the child to taking the necessary time forreflection between "the acting of a thing and the first purpose. " Thisquestion will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX, which treats ofthe development of voluntary control. 

It should be noted in conclusion that the law of expression as a fourthstage of the learning process differs in purpose from the use ofphysical action as a means of creating interest in the problem, asreferred to on page 62. When, for instance, we set a pupil who has noknowledge of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yardstick, expressive action is merely a means of putting the problem beforethe child in an interesting form on account of his liking for physicalaction. When, on the other hand, the child later uses the foot or yardas a unit to measure the perimeter of the school-room, he is applyinghis knowledge of long measure, which has been acquired previously tothis expressive act. 

CHAPTER XIII

FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION

The chief office of the teacher, in controlling the pupils' process oflearning, being to direct their self-activity in making a selection ofideas from their former knowledge which shall stand in vital connectionwith the problem, and lead finally to its solution, the question arisesin what form the teacher is to conduct the process in order to obtainthis desired result. Three different modes of directing the selectingactivity of the student are recognized and more or less practised byteachers. These are usually designated the lecture method, the text-bookmethod, and the developing method. 

THE LECTURE METHOD

=Example of Lecture Method. =--In the lecture method so-called, theteacher tells the students in direct words the facts involved in the newproblem, and expects these words to enable the pupils to call up fromtheir old knowledge the ideas which will give the teacher's wordsmeaning, and thus lead to a solution of the problem. For example, inteaching the meaning of alluvial fans in geography, a teacher might seekto awaken the interpreting ideas by merely stating in words thecharacteristic of a fan. This would involve telling the pupils that analluvial fan is a formation on the floor of a main river valley, resulting from the depositing of detritus carried down the steep side ofthe valley by a tributary stream and deposited in the form of a fan, when the force of the water is weakened as it enters the more levelfloor of the valley. To interpret this verbal description, however, thepupil must first interpret the words of the teacher as sounds, and thenconvert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledge to bear uponthe word symbols. If we could take it for granted that the pupil willreadily grasp the ideas here signified by such words as, formation, mainriver valley, depositing, detritus, steep side, etc. , and at once feelthe relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknownobject--alluvial fan--this method would undoubtedly give the pupil theknowledge required. 

=The Method Difficult. =--To expect of young children a ready ability inthus interpreting words would, however, be an evident mistake. Totranslate such sound symbols into ideas, and immediately adjust them tothe problem, demands a power of language interpretation and ofreflection not usually found in school children. The purely lecturemethod, therefore, has very small place with young children, whatevermay be its value with advanced students. Pupils in the primary gradeshave not sufficient power of attention to listen to a long lecture onany subject, and no teacher should think of conducting a lesson by thatmethod alone. The purpose of the lecture is merely to give information, and that is seldom the sole purpose of a lesson in elementary classes. There the more important purposes are to train pupils to acquireknowledge by thinking for themselves, and to express themselves, both ofwhich are well-nigh impossible if the purely lecture method is followed. 

=Does not Insure Selection. =--The weakness of such a method is wellillustrated in the case of the young teacher who, in giving her class aconception of the equator, followed the above method, and carefullyexplained to the pupils that the equator is an imaginary line runningaround the earth equally distant from the two poles. When the teachercame later to review the work with the class, one bright lad describedthe equator as a menagerie lion running around the earth. Here evidentlythe child, true to the law of apperception, had interpreted, or rathermisinterpreted, the words of the teacher, by means of the only ideas inhis possession which seemed to fit the uttered sounds. It is evident, therefore, that too often in this method the pupils will either thusmisinterpret the meaning of the teacher's words, or else fail tointerpret them at all, because they are not able to call up any definiteimages from what the teacher may be telling them. 

=When to be Used. =--It may be noted, however, that there is some placefor the method in teaching. For example, when young children arepresented with a suitable story, they will usually have no difficulty infitting ideas to words, and thus building up the story. It requires, infact, the continuity found in the telling method to keep the children'sattention on the story, the tone of voice and gesture of the recitergoing a long way in helping the child to call up the ideas which enablehim to construct the story plot. Moreover, some telling must be done bythe teacher in every lesson. Everything cannot be discovered by thepupils themselves. Even if it were possible, it would often beundesirable. Some facts are relatively unimportant, and it is muchbetter to tell these outright than to spend a long time in trying tolead pupils to discover them. The lecture method, or telling method, should be used, then, to supply pupils with information they could notfind out for themselves, or which they could find out only by spendingan amount of time disproportionate to the importance of the facts. Theteacher must use good judgment in discriminating between those factswhich the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out for themselvesand those facts which had better be told. Many teachers tell too muchand do not throw the pupils sufficiently on their own resources. On theother hand, many teachers tell too little and waste valuable time intrying to "draw" from the pupils what they do not know, with the resultthat the pupils fall back upon the pernicious practice of guessing. Theteacher needs to be on his guard against "the toil of dropping bucketsinto empty wells, and growing old in drawing nothing up. "

It may be added further that, in practical life, man is constantlyrequired to interpret through spoken language. For this reason, therefore, all children should become proficient in securing knowledgethrough spoken language, that is, by means of the lecture, or telling, method. 

THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD

=Nature of Text-book Method. =--In the text-book method, in place oflistening to the words of the teacher, the pupil is expected to read ina text-book, in connection with each lesson problem, a series of factswhich will aid him in calling up, or selecting, the ideas essential tothe mastery of the new knowledge. This method is similar, therefore, ina general way, to the lecture method; since it implies ability in thepupil to interpret language, and thus recall the ideas bearing upon thetopic being presented. Although the text-book method lacks theinterpretation which may come through gesture and tone of voice, itnevertheless gives the pupil abundance of time for reflecting upon themeaning of the language without the danger of losing the succeedingcontext, as would be almost sure to happen in the lecture method. Moreover, the language and mode of presentation of the writer of thetext-book is likely to be more effective in awakening the necessary oldknowledge, than would be the less perfect descriptions of the ordinaryteacher. On the whole, therefore, the text-book seems more likely tomeet the conditions of the laws of apperception and self-activity, thanwould the lecture method. 

=Method Difficult for Young Children. =--The words of the text-book, however, like the words of the teacher, are often open tomisinterpretation, especially in the case of young pupils. This may beillustrated by the case of the student, who upon reading in her historyof the mettle of the defenders of Lacolle Mill, interpreted it as thepossession on their part of superior arms. An amusing illustration ofthe same tendency to misinterpret printed language, in spite of the timeand opportunity for studying the text, is seen in the case of thestudent who, after reading the song entitled "The Old Oaken Bucket, " wascalled upon to illustrate in a drawing his interpretation of the scene. His picture displayed three buckets arranged in a row. On being calledupon for an explanation, he stated that the first represented "The oldoaken bucket"; the second, "The iron-bound bucket"; and the third, "Themoss-covered bucket. " Another student, when called upon to express inart his conception of the well-known lines:

 All at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze;

represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in front of aplatform, upon which a number of female figures were actively engaged inthe terpsichorean art. 

=Pupil's Mind Often Passive. =--As in the lecture method, also, the pupilmay often go over the language of the text in a passive way withoutattempting actively to call up old knowledge and relate it to theproblem before him. It is evident, therefore, that without further aidfrom a teacher, the text-book could not be depended upon to guide thepupil in selecting the necessary interpreting ideas. As with the lecturemethod, however, it is to be recognized that, both in the school and inafter life, the student must secure much information by reading, andthat he should at some time gain the power of gathering information frombooks. The use of the text-book in school should assist in theacquisition of this power. The teacher must, therefore, distinguishbetween the proper _use_ of the text-book and the _abuse_ of it. Thereare several ways in which the text-book may be effectively used. 

USES OF TEXT-BOOK

1. After a lesson has been taught, the pupils may be required by way ofreview to read the matter covered by the lesson as stated by thetext-book. This plan is particularly useful in history and geographylessons. The text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression made bythe lesson. 

2. Before assigning the portion to be read in the text-book, the teachermay prepare the way by presenting or reviewing any matter upon which theinterpretation of the text depends. This preparatory work should be justsufficient to put the pupils in a position to read intelligently theportion assigned, and to give them a zest for the reading. Sometimes inthis assignment, it is well to indicate definitely what facts aresufficiently important to be learned, and where these are discussed inthe text-book. 

3. The mastery of the text by the pupils may sometimes be aided by aseries of questions for which answers are to be found by a carefulreading. Such questions give the pupils a definite purpose. Theyconstitute a set of problems which are to be solved. They are likely tobe interesting, because problems within the range of the pupils'capacity are a challenge to their intelligence. Further, these questionswill emphasize the things that are essential, and the pupils will beenabled to grasp the main points of the lesson assigned. Occasionally, to avoid monotony, the pupils should be required, as a variation of thisplan, to make such a series of questions themselves. In these cases, thepupil with the best list might be permitted, as a reward for his effort, to "put" his questions to the class. 

4. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should frequently berequired to make a topical outline of a section or chapter of thetext-book. This demands considerable analytic power, and the pupil whocan do it successfully has mastered the art of reading. The ability isacquired slowly, and the teacher must use discretion in what he exactsfrom the pupil in this regard. If the plan were followed persistently, there would be less time wasted in cursory reading, the results of whichare fleeting. What is read in this careful way will become the realpossession of the mind and, even if less material is read, more will bepermanently retained. 

The facts thus learned from the text-book should be discussed by theteacher and pupils in a subsequent recitation period. This may be doneby the question and answer method, the teacher asking questions to whichthe pupils give brief answers; or by the topical recitation method, thepupils reporting in connected form the facts under topics suggested bythe teacher. The teacher has thus an opportunity of emphasizing theimportant facts, of correcting misconceptions, and of amplifying andillustrating the facts given in the text-book. Further, the pupils aregiven an opportunity of expressing themselves, and have thus an exercisein language which is a valuable means of clarifying their impressions. 

ABUSE OF TEXT-BOOK

As instances of the abuse of the text-book, the following might becited:

1. The memorization by the pupils of the words of the text-book withoutany understanding of the meaning. 

2. The assignment of a certain number of pages or sections to be learnedby the pupils without any preliminary preparation for the study. 

3. The employment of the text-book by the teacher during the recitationas a means of guiding him in the questions he is to ask--a confessionthat he does not know what he requires the pupils to know. 

=Limitation of Text-book. =--The chief limitation of the text-book methodof teaching is that the pupil makes few discoveries on his own account, and is, therefore, not trained to think for himself. The problems beinglargely solved for him by the writer, the knowledge is not valued ashighly as it would be if it came as an original discovery. We alwaysplace a higher estimation on that knowledge which we discover forourselves than on that which somebody else gives us. 

THE DEVELOPING METHOD

=Characteristics of the Method. =--The third, or developing, method ofdirecting the selecting activity of the learner, is so called becausein this method the teacher as an instructor aims to keep the child'smind actively engaged throughout each step of the learning process. Hesees, in other words, that step by step the pupil brings forwardwhatever old knowledge is necessary to the problem, and that he relatesit in a definite way to this problem. Instead of telling the pupilsdirectly, for instance, the teacher may question them upon certain knownfacts in such a way that they are able themselves to discover the newtruth. In teaching alluvial fans, for example, the teacher would beginquestioning the pupil regarding his knowledge of river valleys, tributary streams, the relation of the force of the tributary water tothe steepness of the side of the river valley, the presence of detritus, etc. , and thus lead the pupil to form his own conclusion as to thecollecting of detritus at the entrance to the level valley and theprobable shape of the deposit. So also in teaching the conjunctivepronoun from such an example as:

 He gave it to a boy _who_ stood near him;

the teacher brings forward, one by one, the elements of old knowledgenecessary to a full understanding of the new word, and tests at eachstep whether the pupil is himself apprehending the new presentation interms of his former grammatical knowledge. Beginning with the clause"who stood near him, " the teacher may, by question and answer, assurehimself that the pupil, through his former knowledge of subordinateclauses, apprehends that the clause is joined adjectively to _boy_, bythe word _who_. Next, he assures himself that the pupil, through hisformer knowledge of the conjunction, apprehends clearly the consequent_conjunctive_ force of the word _who_. Finally, by means of the pupil'sformer knowledge of the subjective and pronoun functions, the teacherassures himself that the pupil appreciates clearly the _pronoun_function of the word _who_. Thus, step by step, throughout the learningprocess, the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the mind ofthe learner the exact old knowledge which will unify into a clearlyunderstood and adequately controlled new experience, as signified by theterm _conjunctive pronoun_. 

=Question and Answer. =--On account of the large use of questioning as ameans of directing and testing the pupils' selecting of old knowledge, or interpreting ideas, the developing method is often identified withthe question and answer method. But the real mark of the developingmethod of teaching is the effort of an instructor to assure himselfthat, step by step, throughout the learning process, the pupil himselfis actively apprehending the significance of the new problem by a use ofhis own previous experience. It is true, however, that the method ofinterrogation is the most universal, and perhaps the most effective, mode by which a teacher is able to assure himself that the learner'smind is really active throughout each step of the learning process. Moreover, as will be seen later, the other subsidiary methods of thedeveloping method usually involve an accompanying use of question andanswer for their successful operation. It is for this reason that thequestion is sometimes termed the teacher's best instrument ofinstruction. For the same reason, also, the young teacher should earlyaim to secure facility in the art of questioning. An outline of theleading principles of questioning will, therefore, be given in ChapterXVIII. 

=Other Forms of Development. =--Notwithstanding the large part played byquestion and answer in the developing method, it must be observed thatthere are other important means which the teacher at times may use inthe learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas in themind of the learner. In so far, moreover, as any such methods on thepart of the teacher quicken the apperceptive process in the child, orcause him to apply his former knowledge in a more active and definiteway to the problem in hand, they must be classified as phases of thedeveloping method. Two of these subsidiary methods will now beconsidered. 

THE OBJECTIVE METHOD

=Characteristics of the Objective Method. =--One important sub-section ofthe developing method is known as the objective method. In this methodthe teacher seeks, as far as possible, (1) to present the lesson problemthrough the use of concrete materials, and (2) to have the childinterpret the problem by examining this concrete material. A child'sinterest and knowledge being largely centred in objects and theirqualities and uses, many truths can best be presented to childrenthrough the medium of objective teaching. For example, in arithmetic, weights and measures should be taught by actually handling weights andmeasures and building up the various tables by experiment. Tables oflengths, areas, and volumes may be taught by measurements of lines, surfaces, and solids. Geographical facts are taught by actual contactwith the neighbouring hills, streams, and ponds; and by visits tomarkets and manufacturing plants. In nature study, plants and animalsare studied in their natural habitat or by bringing them into theclass-room. 

=Advantages of the Objective Method. =--The advantages of this method insuch cases are readily manifest. Although, for instance, the pupil whoknows in a general way an inch space and the numbers 144, 9, 30-1/4, 40, and 4, might be supposed to be able to organize out of his formerexperiences a perfect knowledge of surface measure, yet it will be foundthat compared with that of the pupil who has worked out the measureconcretely in the school garden, the control of the former student overthis knowledge will be very weak indeed. In like manner, when a studentgains from a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an animal, notonly does he find it much more difficult to apply his old knowledge ininterpreting the word description than he would in interpreting aconcrete example, but his knowledge of the plant or animal is likely tobe imperfect. Objective teaching is important, therefore, for tworeasons:

1. It makes an appeal to the mind through the senses, the avenue throughwhich the most vivid images come. Frequently several senses are broughtto bear and the impressions thereby multiplied. 

2. On account of his interest in objects, the young child's store of oldexperiences is mainly of objects and of their sensuous qualities anduses. To teach the abstract and unfamiliar through these, therefore, isan application of the law of apperception, since the object makes iteasier for the child's former knowledge to be related to the presentedproblem. 

=Limitations of Objective Method. =--It must be recognized, however, thatobjective teaching is only a means to a higher end. The concrete isvaluable very often only as a means of grasping the abstract. Theprogress of humanity has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to theideal and abstract. Not the objects themselves, but what the objectssymbolize is the important thing. It would be a pedagogical mistake, then, to make instruction begin, continue, and end in the concrete. Itis evident, moreover, that no progress could be made throughobject-teaching, unless the question and answer method is used inconjunction. 

THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD

=Characteristics of the Illustrative Method. =--In many cases it isimpossible or impracticable to bring the concrete object into theschool-room, or to take the pupils to see it outside. In such cases, somewhat the same result may be obtained by means of some form ofgraphic illustration of the object, as a picture, sketch, diagram, map, model, lantern slide, etc. The graphic representation of an object maypresent to the eye most of the characteristics that the actual objectwould. For this reason pictures are being more and more used inteaching, though it is a question whether teachers make as good use ofthe pictures of the text-book, in geography for instance, as might bemade. 

=Illustrative Method Involves Imagination. =--In the illustrative method, however, the pupil, instead of being able to apply directly formerknowledge obtained through the senses, in interpreting the actualobject, must make use of his imagination to bridge over the gulf betweenthe actual object and the representation. When, for example, the childis called upon to form his conception of the earth with its twohemispheres through its representation on a globe, the knowledge willbecome adequate only as the child's imagination is able to picture inhis mind the actual object out of his own experience of land, water, form, and space, in harmony with the mere suggestions offered by themodel. It is evident, for the above reason, that the illustrative methodoften demands more from the pupil than does the more concrete objectivemethod. For instance, the child who is able to see an actual mountain, lake, canal, etc. , is far more likely to obtain an accurate idea ofthese, than the student who learns them by means of illustrations. Thecause for this lies mainly in the failure of the child to form a perfectimage of the real object through the exercise of his imagination. Infact it sometimes happens that he makes very little use of hisimagination, his mental picture of the real object differing little fromthe model placed before him. The writer was informed of a case in whicha teacher endeavoured to give some young pupils a knowledge of the earthby means of a large school globe. When later the children werequestioned thereon, it was discovered that their earth corresponded inalmost every particular with the large globe in the school. Thesuccessful use of the illustrative method, therefore, demands from theteacher a careful test by the question and answer method, to see thatthe learner has properly bridged over, through his imagination, the gulfseparating the actual object from its illustration. For this reason anacquaintance with the mental process of imagination is of great value tothe teacher. The leading facts connected with this process will be setforth in Chapter XXVII. 

PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS

In the use of objective and illustrative materials the followingprecautions are advisable:

1. Their use in the lesson should not be continued too long. It shouldbe remembered that their office is illustrative, and the aim of theteacher should be to have the pupils think in the abstract as soon aspossible. To make pupils constantly dependent on the concrete is to maketheir thinking weak. 

2. The pupils must be mentally active while the concrete object orillustrative material is being used, and not merely gaze in a passiveway upon the objects. It requires mental activity to grasp the abstractfacts that the objects or illustrations typify. A tellurion will notteach the changes of the seasons; bundles of splints, notation; norblack-board examples, the law of agreement; unless these are broughtunder the child's mental apprehension. The sole purpose of suchmaterials is, therefore, to start a flow of imagery or ideas which bearupon the presented problem. 

3. The objects should not be so intrinsically interesting that theydistract the attention from what they are intended to illustrate. Itwould be injudicious to use candies or other inherently attractiveobjects to illustrate number facts in primary arithmetic. The objects, not the number facts, would be of supreme interest. The teacher who useda heap of sand and some gunpowder to teach what a volcano is, found hispupils anxious for "fireworks" in subsequent geography classes. Thescience teacher may make his experiments so interesting that hisstudents neglect to grasp what the experiments illustrate. The preacherwho uses a large number of anecdotes to illustrate the points of hissermon, would be probably disappointed to know that the only part of hisdiscourse remembered by the majority of his hearers was these veryanecdotes. In his enthusiasm for objective teaching, the teacher mayeasily make the objects so attractive that the pupils fail altogether tograsp what they signify. 

4. In the case of pictures, maps, and sketches, it is well to presentthose that are not too detailed. A map drawn on the black-board by theteacher is usually better for purposes of illustration than a printedwall map. The latter shows so many details that it is often difficultfor the pupil to single out those required in the lesson. Theblack-board map, on the other hand, will emphasize just those detailsthat are necessary. For the same reason the sketch is often better thanthe printed picture or photograph. Any one who can sketch rapidly andaccurately has at his disposal a valuable means of communicatingknowledge, and every teacher should strive to cultivate this power. 

MODES OF PRESENTATION COMPARED

The relative clearness of different modes of presenting knowledge may beseen from the following:

If a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava yesterday, possibly no information would be conveyed to them other than that someunknown object has been referred to. Merely to name any object ofthought, therefore, does not guarantee any real understanding in themind of the pupil. If the teacher describes the object as a fruit, fragrant, yellow, fleshy, and pear-shaped, the mental picture of thepupil is likely to be much more definite. If, on the other hand, apicture of the fruit is shown, it is likely that the pupil will morefully realize at least some of the features of the fruit. If the pupilis given the object and allowed to bring all his senses to bear upon it, his knowledge will become both more full and more definite. If he wereallowed to express himself through drawing and modelling, his knowledgewould become still more thorough, while if he grew, marketed, andmanufactured the fruit into jelly, his knowledge of the fruit might beconsidered complete. 

CHAPTER XIV

CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Before passing to a consideration of the various types or classes intowhich school lessons may be divided, it is necessary to note a certaindistinction in the way the mind thinks of objects, or two classes intowhich our experiences are said to divide themselves. When the mindexperiences, or is conscious of, this particular chair on the platform, that tree outside the window, the size of this piece of stone, or thecolour and shape of this bonnet, it is said to be occupied with aparticular experience, or to be gaining particular knowledge. 

ACQUISITION OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE

=A. Through the Senses. =--These particular experiences may arise throughthe actual presentation of a thing to the senses. I _see_ this chair;_taste_ this sugar; _smell_ this rose; _hear_ this bell; etc. As will beseen later, the senses provide the primary conditions for revealing tothe mind the presence of particular things, that is, for building upparticular ideas, or, as they are frequently called, particular notions. Neither does a particular experience, or notion, necessarily represent aparticular concrete object. It may be an idea of some particular stateof anger or joy being experienced by an individual of the beautyembodied in this particular painting, etc. 

=B. Through the Imagination. =--Secondly, by an act of constructiveimagination, one may image a picture of a particular object as presenthere and now. Although never having had the actual particularexperience, a person can, with the eye of the imagination, picture asnow present before him any particular object or event, real orimaginary, such as King Arthur's round table; the death scene of SirIsaac Brock or Captain Scott; the sinking of the _Titanic_; the Heroineof Verchères; or the many-headed Hydra. 

=C. By Inference, or Deduction. =--Again, knowledge about a particularindividual, or particular knowledge, may be gained in what seems a yetmore indirect way. For instance, instead of standing beside Socrates andseeing him drink the hemlock and die, and thus, by actual senseobservation, learn that Socrates is mortal; we may, by a previous seriesof experiences, have gained the knowledge that all men are mortal. Forthat reason, even while he yet lives, we may know the particular factthat Socrates, being a man, is also mortal. In this process the personis supposed to start with the known general truth, "All men are mortal";next, to call to mind the fact that Socrates is a man; and finally, by acomparison of these statements or thoughts, reason out, or deduce, theinference that therefore Socrates is mortal. This process is, therefore, usually illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form, thus:

 All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal. 

When particular knowledge about an individual thing or event is thusinferred by comparing two known statements, it is said to be secured bya process of _deduction_, or by inference. 

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

In all of the above examples, whether experienced through the senses, built up by an act of imagination, or gained by inference, theknowledge is of a single thing, fact, organism, or unity, possessing areal or imaginary existence. In addition to possessing its ownindividual unity, however, a thing will stand in a more or less closerelation with many other things. Various individuals, therefore, enterinto larger relations constituting groups, or classes, of objects. Inaddition, therefore, to recognizing the object as a particularexperience, the mind is able, by examining certain individuals, toselect and relate the common characteristics of such classes, or groups, and build up a general, or class, idea, which is representative of anymember of the class. Thus arise such general ideas as book, man, island, county, etc. These are known as universal, or class, notions. Moreover, such rules, or definitions, as, "A noun is the name of anything"; "Afraction is a number which expresses one or more equal parts of awhole, " are general truths, because they express in the form of astatement the general qualities which have been read into the ideas, noun and fraction. When the mind, from a study of particulars, thuseither forms a class notion as noun, triangle, hepatica, etc. , or drawsa general conclusion as, "Air has weight, " "Any two sides of a triangleare together greater than the third side, " it is said to gain generalknowledge. 

ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

=A. Conception. =--In describing the method of attaining generalknowledge, it is customary to divide such knowledge into two slightlydifferent types, or classes, and also to distinguish between theprocesses by which each type is attained. When the mind, through havingexperienced particular dogs, cows, chairs, books, etc. , is able to formsuch a general, or class, idea as, dog, cow, chair, or book, it is saidto gain a class notion, or concept; and the method by which these ideasare gained is called _conception_. 

=B. Induction. =--When the mind, on the basis of particular experiences, arrives at some general law, or truth, as, "Any two sides of a triangleare together greater than the third side"; "Air has weight"; "Man ismortal"; "Honesty is the best policy"; etc. , it is said to form auniversal judgment, and the process by which the judgment is formed iscalled a process of _induction_. 

=Examples of General and Particular Knowledge. =--When a pupil learns theSt. Lawrence River system as such, he gains a particular experience, ornotion; when he learns of river basins, he obtains a general notion. Inlike manner, for the child to realize that here are eight blockscontaining two groups of four blocks, is a particular experience; butthat 4 + 4 = 8, is a general, or universal, truth. To notice this waterrising in a tube as heat is being applied, is a particular experience;to know that liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth. _The airabove this radiator is rising_ is a particular truth, but _heated airrises_ is a general truth. _The English people plunged into excesses inCharles II's reign after the removal of the stern Puritan rule_ isparticular, but a _period of license follows a period of repression_ isgeneral. 

=Distinction is in Ideas, not Things. =--It is to be noted further thatthe same object may be treated at one time as a particular individual, at another time as a member of a class, and at still another time as apart of a larger individual. Thus the large peninsula on the east ofNorth America may be thought of now, as the individual, Nova Scotia; atanother time, as a member of the class, province; and at still anothertime, as a part of the larger particular individual, Canada. 

=Only Two Types of Knowledge. =--It is evident from the foregoing that nomatter what subject is being taught, so far as any person may aim _todevelop a new experience_ in the mind of the pupil, that experience willbe one or other of the two classes mentioned above. If the aim of ourlesson is to have the pupils know the facts of the War of 1812-14, tostudy the rainfall of British Columbia, to master the spelling of aparticular word, or to image the pictures contained in the story _MaryElizabeth_, then it aims primarily to have pupils come into possessionof a particular fact, or a number of particular facts. On the otherhand, if the lesson aims to teach the pupils the nature of aninfinitive, the rule for extracting square root, the law of gravity, theclasses of nouns, etc. , then the aim of the lesson is to convey somegeneral idea or truth. 

APPLIED KNOWLEDGE GENERAL

Before proceeding to a special consideration of such type lessons, itwill be well to note that the mind always applies general knowledge inthe learning process. That is, the application of old knowledge to thenew presentation is possible only because this knowledge has taken on ageneral character, or has become a general way of thinking. The tendencyfor every new experience, whether particular or general, to pass into ageneral attitude, or to become a standard for interpreting otherpresentations, is always present, at least after the very earlyimpressions of infancy. When, for instance, a child observes a strangeobject, dog, and perceives its four feet, this idea does not remainwholly confined to the particular object, but tends to take on a generalcharacter. This consists in the fact that the characteristic perceivedis vaguely thought of as a quality distinct from the dog. This quality, _four-footedness_, therefore, is at least in some measure recognized asa quality that may occur in other objects. In other words, it takes on ageneral character, and will likely be applied in interpreting the nextfour-footed object which comes under the child's attention. So also whenan adult first meets a strange fruit, guava, he observes perhaps that itis _pear-shaped, yellow-skinned, soft-pulped_, of _sweet taste_, and_aromatic flavour_. All such quality ideas as pear-shaped, yellow, soft, etc. , as here applied, are general ideas of quality taken on fromearlier experiences. Even in interpreting the qualities of particularobjects, therefore, as this rose, this machine, or this animal, we applyto its interpretation general ideas, or general forms of thought, takenon from earlier experiences. 

The same fact is even more evident when the mind attempts to build upthe idea of a particular object by an act of imagination. One mayconceive as present, a sphere, red in colour, with smooth surface, andtwo feet in diameter. Now this particular object is defined through thequalities spherical, red, smooth, etc. But these notions of quality areall general, although here applied to building up the image of aparticular thing. 

PROCESSES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE SIMILAR

If what has already been noted concerning the law of universal method iscorrect, and if all learning is a process of building up a newexperience in accordance with the law of apperception, then all of theabove modes of gaining either particular or general knowledge mustultimately conform to the laws of general method. Keeping in view thefact that applied knowledge is always general in character, it will notbe difficult to demonstrate that these various processes do not differin their essential characteristics; but that any process of acquiringeither particular or general knowledge conforms to the method ofselection and relation, or of analysis-synthesis, as already describedin our study of the learning process. To demonstrate this, however, itwill be necessary to examine and illustrate the different modes oflearning in the light of the principles of general method already laiddown in the text. 

CHAPTER XV

MODES OF LEARNING

DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE

A. LEARNING THROUGH THE SENSES

In many lessons in nature study, elementary science, etc. , pupils areled to acquire new knowledge by having placed before them someparticular object which they may examine through the senses. Theknowledge thus gained through the direct observation of some individualthing, since it is primarily knowledge about a particular individual, isto be classified as particular knowledge. As an example of the processby which a pupil may gain particular knowledge through the senses, anature lesson may be taken in which he would, by actual observation, become acquainted with one of the constellations, say the Great Dipper. Here the learner first receives through his senses certain impressionsof colour and form. Next he proceeds to read into these impressionsdefinite meanings, as stars, four, corners, bowl, three, curve, handle, etc. In such a process of acquiring knowledge about a particular thing, it is to be noted that the acquisition depends upon two importantconditions:

1. The senses receive impressions from a particular thing. 

2. The mind reacts upon these impressions with certain phases of its oldknowledge, here represented by such words as four, corner, bowl, etc. 

=Analysis of Process. =--When the mind thus gains knowledge of aparticular object through sense perception, the process is found toconform exactly to the general method already laid down; for there isinvolved:

1. _The Motive. _--To read meaning into the strange thing which is placedbefore the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses. 

_2. Selection, or Analysis. _--Bringing selected elements of formerknowledge to interpret the unknown impressions, the elements of hisformer knowledge being represented in the above example by such wordsas, four, bowl, curve, handle, etc. 

3. _Unification, or Synthesis. _--A continuous relating of theseinterpreting factors into the unity of a newly interpreted object, theDipper. 

SENSE PERCEPTION IN EDUCATION

=A. Gives Knowledge of Things. =--In many lessons in biology, botany, etc. , although the chief aim of the lesson is to acquire a correct classnotion, yet the learning process is in large part the gaining ofparticular knowledge through the senses. In a nature lesson, forinstance, the pupil may be presented with an insect which he has neverpreviously met. When the pupil interprets the object as six-legged, withhard shell-like wing covers, under wings membranous, etc. , he is able togain knowledge about this particular thing:

1. Because the thing manifests itself to him through the senses of sightand touch. 

2. Because he is able to bring to bear upon these sense impressions hisold knowledge, represented by such words as six, wing, shell, hard, membranous, etc. So far, therefore, as the process ends with knowledgeof the particular object presented, the learning process conformsexactly to that laid down above, for there is involved:

1. _The Motive. _--To read meaning into the new thing which is placedbefore the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses. 

2. _Selection, or Analysis. _--Bringing selected elements of formerknowledge to interpret the unknown problem, the elements of his formerknowledge being represented above by such words as six, leg, wing, hard, shell, membranous, etc. 

3. _Unification, or Synthesis. _--A continuous relating of theseinterpreting factors into the unity of a better known object, theinsect. 

=B. Is a Basis for Generalization. =--It is to be noted, however, that inany such lesson, although the pupil gains through his senses a knowledgeof a particular individual only, yet he may at once accept thisindividual as a sign, or type, of a class of objects, and can readilyapply the new knowledge in interpreting other similar things. Although, for example, the pupil has experienced but one such object, he does notnecessarily think of it as a mere individual--this thing--but as arepresentative of a possible class of objects, a beetle. In other wordsthe new particular notion tends to pass directly into a general, orclass, notion. 

B. LEARNING THROUGH IMAGINATION

As an example of a lesson in which the pupil secures knowledge throughthe use of his imagination, may be taken first the case of one calledupon to image some single object of which he may have had no actualexperience, as a desert, London Tower, the sphinx, etc. Taking the lastnamed as an example, the learner must select certain characteristics as, woman, head, lion, body, etc. , all of which are qualities which havebeen learned in other past experiences. Moreover, the mind mustorganize these several qualities into the representation of a singleobject, the sphinx. Here, evidently, the pupil follows fully the normalprocess of learning. 

1. The term--the sphinx--suggests a problem, or felt need, namely, toread meaning into the vaguely realized term. 

2. Under the direction of the instructor or the text-book, the pupilselects, or analyses out of past experience, such ideas as, woman, head, body, lion, which are felt to have a value in interpreting the presentproblem. 

3. A synthetic, or relating, activity of mind unifies the selected ideasinto an ideally constructed object which is accepted by the learner as aparticular object, although never directly known through the senses. 

Nor is the method different in more complex imagination processes. Inliterary interpretation, for instance, when the reader meets suchexpressions as:

 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way And leaves the world to darkness and to me;

the words of the author suggest a problem to the mind of the reader. This problem then calls up in the mind of the student a set of imagesout of earlier experience, as bell, evening, herd, ploughman, lea, etc. , which the mind unifies into the representation of the particular scenedepicted in the lines. It is in this way that much of our knowledge ofvarious objects and scenes in nature, of historical events andcharacters, and of spiritual beings is obtained. 

=Imagination Gives Basis for Generalization. =--It should be noted by thestudent-teacher that in many lessons we aim to give the child a notionof a class of objects, though he may in actual experience never havemet any representatives of the class. In geography, for instance, thechild learns of deserts, volcanoes, etc. , without having experiencedthese objects through the senses. It has been seen, however, that ourgeneral knowledge always develops from particular experience. For thisreason the pupil who has never seen a volcano, in order to gain ageneral notion of a volcano, must first, by an act of constructiveimagination, image a definite picture of a particular volcano. Theimportance of using in such a lesson a picture or a representation on asand-board, lies in the fact that this furnishes the necessary stimulusto the child's imagination, which will cause him to image a particularindividual as a basis for the required general, or class, notion. Toooften, however, the child is expected in such lessons to form the classnotion directly, that is, without the intervention of a particularexperience. This question will be considered more fully in ChapterXXVII, which treats of the process of imagination. 

C. LEARNING BY INFERENCE, OR DEDUCTION

Instead of placing himself in British Columbia, and noting by actualexperience that there is a large rainfall there, a person may discoverthe same by what is called a process of inference. For example, one mayhave learned from an examination of other particular instances that airtakes up moisture in passing over water; that warm air absorbs largequantities of moisture; that air becomes cool as it rises; and thatwarm, moist air deposits its moisture as rain when it is cooled. Knowingthis and knowing a number of particular facts about British Columbia, namely that warm winds pass over it from the Pacific and must rise owingto the presence of mountains, we may infer of British Columbia that ithas an abundant rainfall. When we thus discover a truth in relation toany particular thing by inference, we are said to go through a processof deduction. A more particular study of this process will be made inChapter XXVIII, but certain facts may here be noted in reference to theprocess as a mode of acquiring knowledge. An examination will show thatthe deductive process follows the ordinary process of learning, or ofselecting certain elements of old knowledge, and organizing them into anew particular experience in order to meet a certain problem. 

=Deduction as Formal Reasoning. =--It is usually stated by psychologistsand logicians that in this process the person starts with the generaltruth and ends with the particular inference, or conclusion, forexample:

 Winds coming from the ocean are saturated with moisture. 

 The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific. 

 Therefore these winds are saturated with moisture. 

 All winds become colder as they rise. 

 The winds of British Columbia rise as they go inland. 

 Therefore, the winds (atmosphere) in British Columbia become colder as they go inland. 

 The atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder. 

 The atmosphere in British Columbia becomes colder as it goes inland. 

 Therefore, the atmosphere gives out moisture in British Columbia. 

=Steps in Process. =--The various elements involved in a deductiveprocess are often analysed into four parts in the following order:

1. _Principles. _ The general laws which are to be applied in thesolution of the problem. These, in the above deductions, constitute thefirst sentence in each, as, The air becomes colder as it rises. 

 Air gives out its moisture as it becomes colder, etc. 

2. _Data. _ This includes the particular facts already known relative tothe problem. In this lesson, the data are set forth in the secondsentences, as follows:

 The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific; the wind rises as it goes inland, etc. 

3. _Inferences. _ These are the conclusions arrived at as a result ofnoting relations between data and principles. In the above lesson, theinferences are:

 The atmosphere, or trade-winds, coming from the Pacific rise, become colder, and give out much moisture. 

4. _Verification. _ In some cases at least the learner may use othermeans to verify his conclusions. In the above lesson, for example, hemay look it up in the geography or ask some one who has had actualexperience. 

=Deduction Involves a Problem. =--It is to be noted, however, that in adeductive learning process, the young child does not really begin withthe general principle. On the contrary, as noted in the study of thelearning process, the child always begins with a particular unsolvedproblem. In the case just cited, for instance, the child starts with theproblem, "What is the condition of the rainfall in British Columbia?" Itis owing to the presence of this problem, moreover, that the mind callsup the principles and data. These, of course, are already possessed asold knowledge, and are called up because the mind feels a connectionbetween them and the problem with which it is confronted. The principlesand data are thus both involved in the selecting process, or step ofanalysis. What the learner really does, therefore, in a deductivelesson is to interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting ideasthe principles and data. The third division, inference, is in realitythe third step of our learning process, since the inference is a newexperience organized out of the selected principles and data. Moreover, the verification is often found to take the form of ordinary expression. As a process of learning, therefore, deduction does not exactly followthe formal outline of the psychologists and logicians of (1) principles, (2) data, (3) inference, and (_4_) verification; but rather that of thelearning process, namely, (1) problem, (2) selecting activity, includingprinciples and data, (3) relating activity=inference, (4)expression=verification. 

=Example of Deduction as Learning Process. =--A simple and interestinglesson, showing how the pupil actually goes through the deductiveprocess, is found in paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre, saythe letter X. 

1. _Problem. _ The pupil starts with the problem of discovering a way ofcutting this letter by balancing about a centre. 

2. _Selection. _ Principles and Data. The pupil calls up as data what heknows of this letter, and as principles, the laws of balance he haslearned from such letters as, A, B, etc. 

3. _Organization or Inference. _ The pupil infers from the principleinvolved in cutting the letter A, that the letter X (Fig. A) may bebalanced about a vertical diameter, as in Fig. B. 

Repeating the process, he infers further from the principle involved incutting the letter B, that this result may again be balanced about ahorizontal diameter, as in Fig. C. 

[Illustration]

4. _Expression or Verification. _ By cutting Figure D and unfoldingFigures E and F, he is able to verify his conclusion by noting the shapeof the form as it unfolds, thus:

[Illustration]

FURTHER EXAMPLES FOR STUDY

The following are given as further examples of deductive processes. 

The materials are here arranged in the formal or logical way. Thestudent-teacher should rearrange them as they would occur in the child'slearning process. 

I. DIVISION OF DECIMALS

1. _Principles_:

(_a_) Multiplying the dividend and divisor by the same number does notalter the quotient. 

(_b_) To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, 1000, etc. , move the decimalpoint 1, 2, 3, etc. , places respectively to the right. 

2. _Data_:

Present knowledge of facts contained in such an example as . 0027 dividedby . 05. 

3. _Inferences_:

(_a_) The divisor (. 05) may be converted into a whole number bymultiplying it by 100. 

(_b_) If the divisor is multiplied by 100, the dividend must also bemultiplied by 100 if the quotient is to be unchanged. 

(_c_) The problem thus becomes . 27 divided by 5, for which the answer is. 054. 

4. _Verification_:

Check the work to see that no mistakes have been made in thecalculation. Multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if the resultis equal to the dividend. 

II. TRADE-WINDS

1. _Principles_:

(_a_) Heated air expands, becomes lighter, and is pushed upward bycooler and heavier currents of air. 

(_b_) Air currents travelling towards a region of more rapid motion havea tendency to "lag behind, " and so appear to travel in a directionopposite to that of the earth's rotation. 

2. _Data_:

(_a_) The most heated portion of the earth is the tropical region. 

(_b_) The rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at the equator andleast at the poles. 

(_c_) The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. 

3. _Inferences_:

(_a_) The heated air in equatorial regions will be constantly rising. 

(_b_) It will be pushed upward by colder and heavier currents of airfrom the north and south. 

(_c_) If the earth did not rotate, there would be constant winds towardsthe south, north of the equator; and towards the north, south of theequator. 

(_d_) These currents of air are travelling from a region of less motionto a region of greater motion, and have a tendency to lag behind theearth's motion as they approach the equator. 

(_e_) Hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary to theearth's rotation, namely, towards the west. 

(_f_) These two movements, towards the equator and towards the west, combine to give the currents of air a direction towards the south-westnorth of the equator, and towards the north-west south of the equator. 

4. _Verification_:

Read the geography text to see if our inferences are correct. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

=The Conceptual Lesson. =--As an example of a lesson involving a processof conception, or classification, may be taken one in which the pupilmight gain the class notion _noun_. The pupil would first be presentedwith particular examples through sentences containing such words asJohn, Mary, Toronto, desk, boy, etc. Thereupon the pupil is led toexamine these in order, noting certain characteristics in each. Examining the word _John_, for instance, he notes that it is a word;that it is used to name and also, perhaps, that it names a person, andis written with a capital letter. Of the word _Toronto_, he may notemuch the same except that it names a place; of the word _desk_, he maynote especially that it is used to name a thing and is written without acapital letter. By comparing any and all the qualities thus noted, heis supposed, finally, by noting what characteristics are common to all, to form a notion of a class of words used to name. 

=The Inductive Lesson. =--To exemplify an inductive lesson, there may benoted the process of learning the rule that to multiply the numeratorand denominator of any fraction by the same number does not alter thevalue of the fraction. 

_Conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with differentdenominators_

The teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares, eachrepresenting a square foot. These are divided by vertical lines into anumber of equal parts. One or more of these parts are shaded, and pupilsare asked to state what fraction of the whole square has been shaded. The same squares are then further divided into smaller equal parts byhorizontal lines, and the pupils are led to discover how many of thesmaller equal parts are contained in the shaded parts. 

[Illustration: 1/2=3/6 2/3=8/12 3/4=15/20 3/5=18/30]

Examine these equations one by one, treating each after some such manneras follows:

How might we obtain the numerator 18 from the numerator 3? (Multiply by6. )

The denominator 30 from the denominator 5? (Multiply by 6. )

1×3 3 2×4 8 3×5 15 3×6 18--- = -; --- = --; --- = --; --- = --. 2×3 6 3×4 12 4×5 20 5×6 30

If we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction3/5 by 6, what will be the effect upon the value of the fraction? (Itwill be unchanged. )

What have we done with the numerator and denominator in every case? Howhas the fraction been affected? What rule may we infer from theseexamples? (Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same numberdoes not alter the value of the fraction. )

THE FORMAL STEPS

In describing the process of acquiring either a general notion or ageneral truth, the psychologist and logician usually divide it into fourparts as follows:

1. The person is said to analyse a number of particular cases. In theabove examples this would mean, in the conceptual lesson, noting thevarious characteristics of the several words, John, Toronto, desk, etc. ;and in the second lesson, noting the facts involved in the several casesof shading. 

2. The mind is said to compare the characteristics of the severalparticular cases, noting any likenesses and unlikenesses. 

3. The mind is said to pick out, or abstract, any quality or quantitiescommon to all the particular cases. 

4. Finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these commoncharacteristics into a general notion, or concept, in the conceptualprocess, and into a general truth if the process is inductive. 

Thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both said to involve thesame four steps of:

1. _Analysis. _--Interpreting a number of individual cases. 

2. _Comparison. _--Noting likenesses and differences between the severalindividual examples. 

3. _Abstraction. _--Selecting the common characteristics. 

4. _Generalization. _--Synthesis of common characteristics into a generaltruth or a general notion, as the case may be. 

=Criticism. =--Here again it will be found, however, that the steps ofthe logician do not fully represent what takes place in the pupil's mindas he goes through the learning process in a conceptual or inductivelesson. It is to be noted first that the above outline does not signifythe presence of any problem to cause the child to proceed with theanalysis of the several particular cases. Assuming the existence of theproblem, unless this problem involves all the particular examples, thequestion arises whether the learner will suspend coming to anyconclusion until he has analysed and compared all the particular casesbefore him. It is here that the actual learning process is found to varysomewhat from the outline of the psychologist and logician. As will beseen below, the child really finds his problem in the first particularcase presented to him. Moreover, as he analyses out the characteristicsof this case, he does not really suspend fully the generalizing processuntil he has examined a number of other cases, but, as the teacher isfully aware, is much more likely to jump at once to a more or lesscorrect conclusion from the one example. It is true, of course, that itis only by going on to compare this with other cases that he assureshimself that this first conclusion is correct. This slight variation ofthe actual learning process from the formal outline will become evidentif one considers how a child builds up any general notion in ordinarylife. 

CONCEPTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS

=A. In Ordinary Life. =--Suppose a young child has received a vagueimpression of a cow from meeting a first and only example; we find thatby accepting this as a problem and by applying to it such experience ashe then possesses, he is able to read some meaning into it, forinstance, that it is a brown, four-footed, hairy object. This idea, onceformed, does not remain a mere particular idea, but becomes a generalmeans for interpreting other experiences. At first, indeed, the idea mayserve to read meaning, not only into another cow, but also into a horseor a buffalo. In course of time, however, as this first imperfectconcept of the animal is used in interpreting cows and perhaps otheranimals, the first crude concept may in time, by comparison, developinto a relatively true, or logical, concept, applicable to only theactual members of the class. Now here, the child did not wait togeneralize until such time as the several really essentialcharacteristics were decided upon, but in each succeeding case appliedhis present knowledge to the particular thing presented. It was, inother words, by a series of regular selecting and relating processes, that his general notion was finally clarified. 

=B. In the School. =--Practically the same conditions are noted in thechild's study of particular examples in an inductive or conceptuallesson in the school, although the process is much more rapid on accountof its being controlled by the teacher. In the lesson outlined above, the pupil finds a problem in the very first word _John_, and adjustshimself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an apperceptive processinvolving both a selecting and a relating of ideas. With this first moreor less perfect notion as a working hypothesis, the pupil goes on toexamine the next word. If he gains the true notion from the firstexample, he merely verifies this through the other particular examples. If his first notion is not correct, however, he is able to correct it bya further process of analysis and synthesis in connection with otherexamples. Throughout the formal stages, therefore, the pupil is merelyapplying his growing general knowledge in a selective, or analytic, wayto the interpreting of several particular examples, until such time as aperfect general, or class, notion is obtained and verified. It is, indeed, on account of this immediate tendency of the mind to generalize, that care must be taken to present the children with typical examples. To make them examine a sufficient number of examples is to ensure thecorrecting of crude notions that may be formed by any of the pupilsthrough their generalizing perhaps from a single particular. 

INDUCTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS

In like manner, in an inductive lesson, although the results of theprocess of the development of a general principle may for convenience bearranged logically under the above four heads, it is evident that thechild could not wholly suspend his conclusions until a number ofparticular cases had been examined and compared. In the lesson on therule for conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with differentdenominators, the pupils could not possibly apperceive, or analyse, theexamples as suggested under the head of selection, or analysis, withoutat the same time implicitly abstracting and generalizing. Also in thelesson below on the predicate adjective, the pupils could not note, inall the examples, all the features given under analysis and fail at thesame time to abstract and generalize. The fact is that in such lessons, if the selection, or analysis, is completed in only one example, abstraction and generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the sametime and constitute a relating, or synthetic, act of the mind. Thefourfold arrangement of the matter, however, may let the teacher seemore fully the children's mental attitude, and thus enable him to directthem intelligently through the apperceptive process. It will undoubtedlyalso impress on the teacher's mind the need of having the pupils compareparticular cases until a correct notion is fully organized inexperience. 

TWO PROCESSES SIMILAR

Notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psychologists betweenconception as a process of gaining a general notion, and induction as aprocess of arriving at a general truth, it is evident from the abovethat the two processes have much in common. In the development of manylesson topics, in fact, the lesson may be viewed as involving both aconceptual and an inductive process. In the subject of grammar, forinstance, a first lesson on the pronoun may be viewed as a conceptuallesson, since the child gains an idea of a class of words, as indicatedby the new general term pronoun, this term representing the result of aconceptual process. It may equally be viewed as an inductive lesson, since the child gains from the lesson a general truth, or judgment, asexpressed in his new definition--"A pronoun is a word that represents anobject without naming it, " the definition representing the result of aninductive process. This fact will be considered more fully, however, inChapter XXVIII. 

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS

As further illustrations of an inductive process, the following outlinesof lessons might be noted. The processes are outlined according to theformal steps. The student-teacher should consider how the children areto approach each problem and to what extent they are likely togeneralize as the various examples are being interpreted during theanalytic stage. 

1. THE SUBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE

_Analysis, or selection:_

 Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate:

 The man was old. 

 The weather turned cold. 

 The day grew stormy. 

 The boy became ill. 

 The concert proved successful. 

 What kind of man is referred to in the first sentence? What part of speech is "old"? What part of the sentence does it modify? In what part of the sentence does it stand? Could it be omitted? What then is its duty with reference to the verb? What are its two duties? (It completes the verb "was" and modifies the subject "man. ")

Lead the pupils to deal similarly with "cold, " "stormy, " "ill, ""successful. "

_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_

 What two duties has each of these italicized words? Each is called a "Subjective Predicate Adjective. " What is a Subjective Predicate Adjective? (A Subjective Predicate Adjective is an adjective that completes the verb and modifies the subject. )

2. CONDENSATION OF VAPOUR

_Analysis, or selection:_

The pupils should be asked to report observations they have madeconcerning some familiar occurrences like the following:

 (1) Breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass. What do you notice in each case? Where must the drops of water have come from? Can you see this water ordinarily? In what form must the water have been before it formed in drops on the cold glass?

 (2) What have you often noticed on the window of the kitchen on cool days? From where did these drops of water come? Could you see the vapour in the air? How did the temperature of the window panes compare with the temperature of the room?

 (3) When the water in a tea-kettle is boiling rapidly, what do you see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of steam? What must have come through that clear space? Is the steam then at first visible or invisible?

The pupils should be further asked to report observations and makecorrect inferences concerning such things as:

 (4) The deposit of moisture on the outside surface of a pitcher of ice-water on a warm summer day. 

 (5) The clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on coming from the cold outside air into a warm room. 

_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_

 In all these cases you have reported what there has been in the air. Was this vapour visible or invisible? Under what condition did it become visible?

The pupils should be led to sum up their observations in some such wayas the following:

Air often contains much water vapour. When this comes in contact withcooler bodies, it condenses into minute particles of water. In otherwords, the two conditions of condensation are (1) a considerablequantity of water vapour in the air, and (2) contact with coolerbodies. 

It must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an inductive lessoncare is to be taken by the teacher to see that the particulars aresufficient in number and representative in character. As already pointedout, crude notions often arise through generalizing from too fewparticulars or from particulars that are not typical of the whole class. Induction can be most frequently employed in elementary school work inthe subjects of grammar, arithmetic, and nature study. 

INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE LESSONS

Before we leave this division of general method, it should be noted thatmany lessons combine in a somewhat formal way two or more of theforegoing lesson types. 

In many inductive lessons the step of application really involves aprocess of deduction. For example, after teaching the definition of anoun by a process of induction as outlined above, we may, in the samelesson, seek to have the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing outparticular nouns in a set of given sentences. Here, however, the pupilis evidently called upon to discover the value of particular words bythe use of the newly learned general principle. When, therefore, hediscovers the grammatical value of the particular word "Provender" inthe sentence "Provender is dear, " the pupil's process of learning can berepresented in the deductive form as follows:

 All naming words are nouns. _Provender_ is a naming word. _Provender_ is a noun. 

Although in these exercises the real aim is not to have the pupil learnthe value of the individual word, but to test his mastery of the generalprinciple, such application undoubtedly corresponds with the deductivelearning process previously outlined. Any inductive lesson, therefore, which includes the above type of application may rightly be described asan inductive-deductive lesson. A great many lessons in grammar andarithmetic are of this type. 

CHAPTER XVI

THE LESSON UNIT

=What Constitutes a Lesson Problem. =--The foregoing analysis anddescription of the learning process has shown that the ordinary schoollesson is designed to lead the pupil to build up, or organize, a newexperience, or, as it is sometimes expressed, to gain control of a unitof valuable knowledge, presented as a single problem. From what has beenlearned concerning the relating activity of mind, however, it is evidentthat the teacher may face a difficulty when he is called upon to decidewhat extent of knowledge, or experience, is to be accepted as aknowledge unit. It was noted, for example, that many topics regularlytreated in a single lesson fall into quite distinct sub-divisions, eachof which represents to a certain extent a separate group of relatedideas and, therefore, a single problem. On the other hand, manydifferent lesson experiences, or topics, although taught as separateunits, are seen to stand so closely related, that in the end theynaturally organize themselves into a larger single unit of knowledge, representing a division, of the subject of study. From this it isevident that situations may arise, as in teaching the classes ofsentences in grammar, in which the teacher must ask himself whether itwill be possible to take up the whole topic with its importantsub-divisions in a single lesson, or whether each sub-division should betreated in a single lesson. 

=How to Approach Associated Problems. =--Even when it is realized thatthe related matter is too large for a single lesson, it must be decidedwhether it will be better to bring on each sub-division as a separatetopic, and later let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity; orwhether the larger topic should be taken up first in a general way, andthe sub-divisions made topics of succeeding lessons. In the study ofmood in grammar, for example, shall we introduce each mood separately, and finally have the child synthesise the separate facts; or shall webegin with a lesson on mood in general, and follow this with a study ofthe separate moods? In like manner, in the study of winds in geography, shall we study in order land and sea breezes, trade-winds, and monsoons, and have the child synthesise these facts at the end of the series; orshall we begin with a study of winds in general, and follow this with amore detailed study of the three classes of winds?

WHOLE TO PARTS

=Advantages. =--The second of these methods, which is often called themethod of proceeding from whole to parts, should, whenever possible, befollowed. For instance, in a study of such a lesson as _Dickens in theCamp_, the detailed study of the various stanzas should be preceded byan introductory lesson, bringing out the leading thought of the poem, and noting the sub-topics. When, in an introductory lesson, the pupil isable to gain control of a large topic, and see the relation to it of agiven number of sub-topics, he is selecting and relating the parts ofthe whole topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method. Moreover, inthe following lessons, he is much more likely to appreciate the relationof the various sub-topics to the central topic, and the inter-relationsbetween these various sub-topics. For this reason, in such subjects ashistory, literature, geography, etc. , pupils are often introduced tothese large divisions, or complex lesson units, and given a vagueknowledge of the whole topic, the detailed study of the parts being madein subsequent lessons. 

=Examples. =--The following outlines will further illustrate how a seriesof lessons (numbered I, II, III, etc. ) may thus proceed from a firststudy of the larger whole to a more detailed study of a number ofsubordinate parts. 

THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM

_I. Topic. --The St. Lawrence River:_

 Position, size, extent of system, other characteristics. Importance--historical, commercial, industrial. 

_II. Sub-topic 1. --Importance historically:_

 Open mouth to Europe; Open door to continent; Cartier, Champlain. System of lakes and rivers large and small gave lines of communication, inviting discovery and subsequent development and settlement. 

_III. Sub-topic 2. --Importance commercially:_

 Large tracts of valuable land, timber, etc. , made available. Highway--need of such between East and West. Difficulties to be overcome, canal, ships. Competition of railways, How? Classes of goods back and forth. Avenue to and from the wheat land. 

_IV. Sub-topic 3. --Importance industrially:_

 Great commercial centres--where located and why? Water powers, elevators, manufacturing of raw materials made available in the large areas; Immigration; Fishing. 

STUDY OF BACTERIA

_I. Topic. --Bacteria:_

 What they are; relations, comparisons; other plants in same class, or those of higher orders; size, shape; where found; conditions of growth; propagation; modes of distribution; etc. 

_II. Sub-topic 1. --Our interest in bacteria, arising out of the injuryor good they do:_

 (_a_) Injury: Decay of fruits, trees, tissues, etc. , diseases--diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis; how developed, conditions, favourable toxins. 

 (_b_) Benefits: In soil, cheese, butter, etc. ; chemical action, building new compounds and breaking up other compounds. 

_III. Sub-topic 2. --Our interest in controlling them; the methods basedon mode and conditions of growth, etc. :_

 (_a_) Prevention: Eliminating favourable conditions; low temperature, high temperatures, cleanliness; sewerage disposal; clean cow-stables, cellars, kitchens, etc. ; antiseptics--carbolic, formalin, sugar for fruit, sealing up; quarantine, vaccination, antitoxin. 

 (_b_) Cultures, --alfalfa, cheese, butter, under control. 

GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE

_I. Topic. --Europe:_

 What interest to us; why we study it; position, latitude, near water, boundaries, size; Surface features--highlands, lowlands, drainage rivers, coast-line, etc. Climate--temperature (means, Jan. , July), wind, moisture. 

_II. Sub-topic 1. --Products (based on above conditions):_

 Vegetation, animal, mineral; vary over area according to physical climatic, and geological conditions; Kinds of products of each class, in each area, etc. 

_III. Sub-topic 2. --Occupations (based on Lesson II):_

 Study of operations and conditions favourable and unfavourable under which each product is produced, gathered, and manufactured. Industries, arising from work on the raw materials. 

_IV. Sub-topic 3. --Trade and Commerce (based on Lessons II and III):_

 Transportation, producers selling and manufacturers buying raw material, distributed to homes in country and city, to factories within the region itself, to regions beyond, across oceans, etc. Manufactured products sent out, exports and imports. 

_V. Sub-topic 4. --Civil advantages (based on Lessons I, III, and IV):_

 Conditions of living--homes, dress, work and pleasure; trades, education, government, social, religious, etc. 

PARTS TO WHOLE

The method of whole to parts cannot be followed in all cases even wherea number of lesson units may possess important points of inter-relation. Although, for instance, simple and compound addition and addition offractions are only different phases of one process, no one wouldadvocate the combining of these into such a unified lesson series. InCanadian History, also, although the conditions of the Quebec Act, thecoming of the United Empire Loyalists, and the passing of theConstitutional Act, have definite points of inter-relation, it wouldnevertheless be unwise to attempt to evolve these out of a singlecomplex lesson unit. In such cases, therefore, the synthesis of thevarious parts must be made as the lessons proceed. Moreover, it is wellto ensure the complete organization of the elements by means of anoutline review at the end of the lesson series. The student-teacher willmeet an example of this process under the topical lesson in ChapterXVII. 

PRECAUTIONS

It is evident from the above considerations, that certain precautionsshould be observed in deciding upon the particular subject-matter to beincluded in each lesson topic. 

1. A just balance should be maintained between the difficulty of eachlesson unit and the ability of the class. Matter that is too easyrequires no effort in its mastery and hence is uninteresting. Matterthat is too difficult discourages effort, and is, therefore, equallyuninteresting. It should be sufficiently easy for every pupil to master, and sufficiently difficult to require real effort. 

2. The amount of matter included should be carefully adjusted to thelength of time taken for the lesson and to the attainments of the class. If too much is attempted, there will be insufficient time for adequatedrill and review, and hence there will be lack of thoroughness. If toolittle is attempted, time will be wasted in needless repetition. 

3. Each unit of instruction in any subject should, in general, grow outof the preceding unit taken in that subject, and be closely connectedwith it. It is in this way that a pupil's interest is aroused for thenew problem and his knowledge becomes organized. Neglect in this regardresults in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized facts. 

Each lesson should contain one or more central facts around which theother facts are grouped. This permits easy organization of the materialof the lesson, and ensures its retention by the pupils. Further, thepupils are by this means trained to discriminate between the essentialand the non-essential. 

CHAPTER XVII

LESSON TYPES

=The Developing Lesson. =--In the various lesson plans alreadyconsidered, the aim has always appeared as an attempt to direct thelearning process so that the pupil may both build up a new experienceand also gain such control over it as will enable him to turn it topractical use. Because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed todirect the pupils through the four steps of the learning process in sucha way that they discover for themselves some important new experience, or develop it out of their own present knowledge, the lessons are spokenof as developing lessons. Moreover, the two parts of the lesson in whichthe new experience is especially gained by the pupils, namely theselecting and relating processes, are often spoken of as a single stepand called the step of _development, _ the lesson then being treatedunder four heads: Problem, preparation, development, and application. 

=Auxiliary Lessons. =--It is evident, however, that there may be lessonsin which this direct attempt to have the pupils build up some wholly newexperience through a regularly controlled learning process, will notappear as the chief purpose of the lesson. In the previous considerationof the deductive lesson, it was pointed out that this type may be usedto give a further mastery of general rules previously learned, ratherthan a knowledge of particular examples. Such would be the case in anordinary parsing and analysis lesson in grammar. Here the primarypurpose is, evidently, not to give the pupils a grammatical knowledgeof the particular words and sentences which are being parsed andanalysed, but rather to give them better control of certain generalrules of language which they have partially mastered in previouslessons. So also a lesson in writing may seek, not to teach the form ofsome new letter, but to give skill in writing a letter form which thepupils have already learned. In an exercise in addition of fractions, also, the aim is not so much to have the pupil know these particularquestions, as to have him gain a more complete control of the previouslylearned rule. In other lessons the pupils may be left to secure newknowledge largely for themselves, and the recitation be devoted totesting whether they have been able to accomplish this successfully. Instill other lessons the teacher may merely outline a certain topic orcertain topics, preparatory to such independent study by the pupils. 

The following outlines will explain and exemplify these auxiliary lessontypes. 

THE STUDY LESSON

=Purpose of Study Lesson. =--The purpose of the Study Lesson is themastery by the pupils of a stated portion of the text-book. Ultimately, however it is the cultivation of the power of gleaning information fromthe printed page, of selecting essential features, and of arrangingthese in their proper relationships. 

The main difficulty in connection with the study lesson is theadaptation of the matter to the interests of the pupils. This difficultyis sometimes due to their inability to interpret the language of thebook, and to the difficulty of their distinguishing the salient featuresfrom the non-essential. The trouble in this regard is accentuated whenthey approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation of mind. 

The study lesson falls naturally into two parts, the assignment and theseat work. 

=The Assignment. =--The object of the assignment is to put the pupils inan attitude of inquiry toward the new matter. It corresponds to theconception of the problem and the step of preparation in the developmentlesson. The most successful assignment is one in which the interest ofthe pupils is aroused to such a pitch that they are anxious to read moreabout the subject. In general it will consist of a recall of thoseideas, or a statement of those facts upon which the interpretation ofthe new matter depends. Most of the unsuccessful study lessons are dueto insufficient care in the assignment. Often pupils are told to read somany pages of the book, without any preliminary preparation and withoutany idea of what facts they are to learn. Under such conditions, theresult is usually a very slight interest in the lesson, and consequentlyan unsatisfactory grasp of it. 

=Examples of Assignment. =--A few examples will serve to illustrate whatis meant by an adequate assignment. When a new reading lesson is to beprepared, the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning ofthe different words, and a general understanding of the passage to beread. For a new spelling lesson, the assignment should include thepronunciation and meaning of the words, and any special difficultiesthat may appear in them. In assigning a history lesson on, say, theCapture of Quebec, the teacher should discuss with the class theposition of Quebec, the difficulties that would present themselves to abesieging army, the character and personal appearance of Wolfe (makinghim stand out as vividly as possible), and the position seized by theBritish army, illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams. Then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with interest thedramatic story of the taking of the fortress. If the pupils were aboutto study the geography of British Columbia, the teacher might, in theassignment, ask them to note from the map of Canada the position of theprovince and the direction of the mountain ranges; to infer thecharacter and direction of the rivers and their value for navigation; toinfer the nature of the climate, knowing the direction of the prevailingwinds; to infer the character of the chief industries, knowing thephysical features and climate. With these facts in mind the class willbe able to read intelligently what the text-book says about BritishColumbia. 

=The Seat Work. =--However good the assignment may be, there is always adanger that there will be much waste of time in connection with the seatwork. The tendency to mind-wandering is always so great that the timedevoted to the preparation of lessons at seats may to a large extent belost, unless special precautions are taken in that regard. Unfortunatelyevery lesson cannot be made so enthralling that the pupil's mind is keptupon it in spite of distractions. To prevent this possible waste oftime, suggestions have already been made in another connection (page 112above). These will bear repetition here. Questions upon the matter to bestudied might be placed on the black-board and pupils asked to prepareanswers for these. The difficulty with this plan is, that, unless thequestions are carefully thought out by the teacher, the pupils may getfrom their reading only a few disconnected facts instead of organizedknowledge. The pupils might be asked to prepare lists of questions forthemselves, and the one who had the best list might be permitted to puthis questions to the rest of the class. The difficulty here is thatmost pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimportant andto neglect the important. In the higher classes, the pupils might berequired to make a topical outline of the lesson studied. This requiresconsiderable analytic ability, and the results at first are likely to bedisappointing. However, it is an ability worth striving for. Theindividual who can readily outline what he has read has mastered the artof reading. 

=Use of Study Lessons. =--There is a danger that the study lesson may beused too much or too little. In an ungraded school containing manyclasses, the teacher may be tempted to rely solely upon the study lessonas a means of intellectual advancement. Used exclusively it becomesmonotonous, and the pupils grow weary of the constant effort required. On the other hand, in the graded school, where a teacher has charge ofonly one class, there will be a tendency to depend entirely on the oralpresentation of lessons, to the exclusion of the text-book altogether. The result is that pupils do not cultivate the power to obtain knowledgefrom books. The study lesson should alternate with the oral lesson, sothat monotony may be avoided, and the pupils will reap the undoubtedbenefits of both methods. 

THE RECITATION LESSON

=Purpose of the Recitation Lesson. =--The recitation lesson is thecomplement of the study lesson. Its purpose is to test the pupil's graspof the facts he has read during the study period. Incidentally theteacher clears up difficulties and corrects misconceptions on the partof the pupil. The facts of the text-book may be amplified from theteacher's stock of information. Abstract facts may be illustrated in aconcrete way. The important facts may be emphasized and the unimportantones lightly passed over. The ultimate aim of the recitation lesson isto add something to the pupil's power of interpreting and organizingfacts. 

=Precautions. =--Some precautions are to be noted in connection with therecitation lesson. (1) Care must be exercised that the pupils are notreciting mere words that have no solid basis of ideas. Young childrenare particularly expert at verbalizing. (2) Care must also be taken thatthe pupils have not merely scrappy information, but have the ideasthoroughly organized. (3) The teacher must know the facts to be recitedwell enough to be independent of the text-book during the recitation. Toconduct the lesson with an open book before him is a confession ofweakness on the part of the teacher. 

CONDUCTING THE RECITATION LESSON

There are two methods of conducting the recitation lesson, namely, thequestion and answer method and the topical method. 

=A. The Question and Answer Method. =--This is the easier method for thepupil, as he is called upon to answer only in a brief form detailedquestions asked by the teacher. The onus of the analysis of the lessonrests largely upon the teacher. He must ask the questions in a propersequence so that, if the answers of the pupils were written out, theywould form a connected account of the matter. He must be able to detectfrom the pupils' answers whether they have real knowledge or are merelymasquerading with words. To be able to question well is one of the mostvaluable accomplishments that a teacher can possess. The whole problemof the art of questioning will be considered in the next Chapter. 

=B. The Topical Method. =--The topical recitation consists in the pupil'sreporting the facts of the study lesson with a minimum of questioning onthe part of the teacher. Two advantages are apparent: (1) It gives thepupil an excellent training in organizing his materials, and (2) itdevelops his language power. It is to be feared that the topicalrecitation is not so frequently used as its value warrants. The reasonis probably that it is a difficult method to follow. Poor results areusually secured at first, teachers grow discouraged, they stop tryingit, and thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answerrecitation. This is unfortunate, for however good the latter may be, itis greatly inferior to the topical recitation in helping the pupil toinstitute relations among his facts, and in improving his power to usehis mother-tongue effectively. Successful topical recitations can besecured only at the price of long, patient, and persistent effort. Theteacher can gradually work towards them from detailed questions toquestions requiring the combination of a few sentences in answer, andthence to the complete outline. In almost every lesson the pupils may becalled upon to summarize some topic after it has been gone over by meansof detailed questions. In such answers the pupils may reasonably beexpected to state the facts in their proper connection and in goodlanguage form. In reviews, also, in such subjects as history andgeography, the pupils should be frequently called upon to recitetopically. 

THE DRILL LESSON

=Purpose of Drill Lesson. =--The Drill Lesson involves the repetition ofmatter in the same form as it was originally learned, in order to fix itin the mind so firmly that its recall will eventually become automatic. In other words, the function of this type of lesson is habit-formation. It is necessary in those subjects that are more or less mechanical innature, and that can be reduced to the plane of habit. The field of thedrill lesson will, therefore, be largely restricted to spelling, writing, language, and the mechanical phases of art and arithmetic. 

=The Method. =--As the purpose of the drill lesson is the formation ofhabit, the method will involve the application of the principles thatlie at the basis of habit-formation. These are, (1) attention to thething to be done so as to obtain a vivid picture or a clearunderstanding of it, and (2) repetition with attention. For instance, ifthe writing lesson is the formation of the capital E, the class willexamine carefully a model form, note the parts of which it is composed, the relative size and position of the parts, how they are connected, etc. Then will follow the repetition of the form by the pupils, eachtime with careful attention to the method of making it, comparison withthe model, and the noting of defects in their work. This will continueuntil the letter can be made correctly without attention, that is, untilthe method of making it has been reduced to a habit. If the lesson is onthe spelling of difficult words, the first step will be to observe thepronunciation of each, the division into syllables, the difficult partof the word, and the order of the letters. Then the word will berepeated attentively until it can be spelled without effort. In alanguage lesson on the correct use, say, of "lie" and "lay, " the pupilswill first be called upon to observe the forms of each, "lie, lay, lain, lying, " and "lay, laid, laying"--as used in sentences on theblack-board, and the meaning of each group--"lie" meaning "to recline"and "lay" meaning "to place. " The pupils will then repeat attentivelythe correct forms of the words in sentences, until they finally reachthe stage when they unconsciously use the words correctly, or as habitsof speech. The same principles apply in learning the addition andmultiplication tables, and the tables of weights and measures inarithmetic; in the memorization of gems of poetry and prose; in thelearning of dates, lists of events, and important provisions of acts inhistory; and in the memorization of lists of places and products ingeography, where this is desirable. In all the cases mentioned, it mustnot be supposed that a single drill lesson will be sufficient for thefixing of the desired knowledge or skill. Before instant and unconsciousreaction can be depended upon, repetition will be needed at intervalsfor some time. 

=Danger in Mere Repetition. =--In connection with the repetitionnecessary in the second stage of the drill lesson, an importantprecaution should be noted. It is impossible for anybody to repeatanything _attentively_ many times in succession unless there is some newelement noted in each repetition. When there is no longer a new element, the repetition becomes mechanical, and hence comparatively useless sofar as acquisition of knowledge or even habit is concerned. To ask apupil who has difficulty with a combination in addition, or a product inmultiplication, or the spelling of a word, to repeat it many times insuccession, may be not only waste of time, but even worse, because atendency toward mind-wandering may be encouraged. The practice ofrequiring pupils to write out new words, or words that have beenmis-spelled in the dictation lesson, five, ten, or twenty timessuccessively, cannot be too strongly condemned. The attention cannotpossibly be concentrated upon the work beyond two or three repetitions, and the fact that pupils frequently make mistakes two or three wordsdown the column and repeat this mistake to the end, is sufficient proofof the mechanical nature of the process. The little boy who haddifficulty with the use of "went" and "gone, " and was commanded by histeacher to write "I have gone" a hundred times on his slate, illustratesthis principle exactly. He had been left to finish his task alone and, after writing "I have gone" faithfully forty or fifty times, grew tiredof the monotony of the process. Turning the slate over, he wrote on theother side, "I have went home" and left it on the desk for the teacher'sapproval. 

=How to Overcome Dangers. =--To avoid this difficulty, some device mustbe adopted to secure attention to each repetition until the knowledge isfirmly fixed. For instance, instead of asking the pupil many times oneafter the other, what seven times six are, it would be better tointroduce other combinations and come back frequently to seven timessix. In that way the pupil would have to attend to it every time it cameup. Similarly, in learning to spell a troublesome word like "separate, "the best plan would be to mix it up with other words and come back to itoften. Repetition is always necessary in the drill lesson, but it shouldalways be _repetition with attention_. 

THE REVIEW LESSON

=Purpose of Review Lesson. =--As the name implies, a review is a new viewof old knowledge. While the drill lesson repeats the matter in the sameform as it was originally learned, the review lesson repeats the matterfrom another standpoint or in new relations. The function of the reviewlesson is the organization of the material of a series of lessons intoan inter-connected whole, and incidentally the fixing of these facts inthe mind by the additional repetitions. 

=Kinds of Review. =--Almost every lesson gives opportunities forincidental reviews. The step of preparation recalls old ideas in newconnections, and may be properly considered a review. A lesson on the"gerund" in grammar would require a recall of the various relations inwhich a noun may stand, and the various ways in which a verb may becompleted. It is quite probable that the pupils have never beforebrought these facts together in an organized way. Similarly, the step ofexpression affords opportunity for review. The solution of problems insimple interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which thisprinciple can be applied. The reproduction of the matter of the historylesson requires the selection of the important facts from the mass ofdetails given and the placing of these in their proper relationship toone another. 

But besides the incidental reviews which form a part of nearly alllessons, there must be lessons which are purely reviews. Without these, the pupil, because of insufficient repetition, would rapidly forget thefacts he had once learned or would never really know the facts at all, because he had not seen them in all their connections. There are twomethods of conducting these reviews: (1) by means of the topicaloutline, (2) by means of the method of comparison. 

THE TOPICAL REVIEW

=Purpose of Topical Outlines. =--By this method the pupil gets abird's-eye view of a whole field. In learning the matter originally, hisattention was largely concentrated upon the individual facts, and it isquite probable that he has since lost sight of some of the threads ofunity running through them. The topical outline will bring these intoprominence. It will enable the pupil to keep in his mind the mostimportant headings of a subject, the sub-headings, and the individualfacts coming under these. Whatever may be said against the practice ofmemorizing topical outlines, it must be acknowledged that unless it isdone the pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy, indefinite, and disconnected. 

=Illustrations from History. =--As an illustration of the review lessonby means of the topical outline, take the history of the Hudson's BayCompany. If the pupil has followed the order of the text-book, he hasprobably learned this subject in pieces--a bit here, another some pageslater, and still another a few chapters farther on. In the multiplicityof other events, he has probably missed the connections among the facts, and a topical review will be necessary to establish these. He may berequired to go through his history text-book, reading all the partsrelating to the Hudson's Bay Company. He will thus get a grasp of therelationships among the facts, and this will be made firmer if anoutline such as the following is worked out with the assistance of theteacher. 

THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY

I. EARLY HISTORY:

 1. Groseilliers and Radisson interest Prince Rupert in possibilities of trade in North-Western Canada. Two vessels fitted out for Hudson's Bay. Report favourable. 

 2. Charter granted Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II, 1670. 

 3. Forts Nelson, Albany, Rupert, and Hayes attacked and captured by DeTroyes and D'Iberville, 1686. Restored by Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 

II. NATURE OF FUR-TRADE:

 1. Furs gathered by Indians in winter. 

 2. Conveyed to forts in summer, after incredible difficulties. 

 3. Ceremonies on arrival of Indians at forts. 

 4. Articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless, but later more useful and valuable, for example, guns, hatchets, powder, shot, blankets, etc. 

III. RIVALS OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY:

 1. Coureurs-de-bois. 

 2. Scottish traders--ranged from Michilimackinac to Saskatchewan. H. B. Co. Built Cumberland House on Saskatchewan to compete for interior trade. 

 3. North-West Company, 1783-4--at first friendly to H. B. Co. , but later bitter enemies. 

IV. THE SELKIRK SETTLEMENT:

 1. _Establishment. _--Lord Selkirk, a Scottish philanthropist, and a shareholder in the Hudson's Bay Co. , purchased from the Company 70, 000 square miles of land around Red River for Scotch colonies, 1811. About three hundred settlers came within three years. Miles Macdonell at head of the colony. 

 2. _Trouble with North-West Company. _--

 (_a_) Suspicion of N. W. Co. That colony was established by H. B. Co. To compete for fur trade. 

 (_b_) Proclamation of Macdonell that food should not be taken out of settlement. Attack on colony by Metis Indians encouraged by N. W. Co. Withdrawal of colonists to Lake Winnipeg. 

 (_c_) Return with reinforcements under Semple. Skirmish at Seven Oaks, 1816. Semple with twenty others killed. 

 (_d_) Selkirk's descent upon Fort William. Arrest of several Nor'Westers. Colony at Red River restored. 

 (_e_) Nor'Westers acquitted of murder of Semple. Selkirk convicted and heavily fined for acts of violence. Selkirk withdrew from Canada in disappointment and disgust. 

 3. _Later Progress. _--

 (_a_) Hardships of pioneer life like those of Ontario. 

 (_b_) A series of disasters--grasshoppers, floods. 

 (_c_) Prosperity finally came. 

 (_d_) Government at first administered by governor of H. B. Co. , later assisted by Council of fourteen members. 

V. AMALGAMATION OF RIVAL COMPANIES:

 1. _Union. _--

 After withdrawal of Selkirk, the H. B. Co. And the N. W. Co. United in 1821, under name of former. 

 2. _Subsequent Progress. _--

 (_a_) Governor Sir George Simpson extended posts westward to Pacific. 

 (_b_) Through his energy Britain was able to retain possession of Western Canada in spite of aggression of United States and Russia. 

VI. RELINQUISHMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS:

 1. Canadian Government claimed that the rule of the Company hindered development of Western Canada because it was interested only in trade. 

 2. _Agreement with Canadian Government. _--

 (_a_) Company sold Prince Rupert's Land and gave up its trade monopoly. 

 (_b_) In return. --

 (i) Received £300, 000. 

 (ii) Retained one twentieth of land south of the Saskatchewan. 

 (iii) Retained its posts and trading privileges. 

3. Company still exists as a trading organization with many posts in theWest and large stores in many cities. 

VII. SERVICES OF H. B. CO. TO CANADA AND THE EMPIRE:

 1. Opened up a valuable trade in Western Canada. 

 2. Explored and opened up the West for settlement. 

 3. Retained for Britain the territory west of Rockies when it was in danger of falling into other hands. 

The subjects of the Public and Separate School Course where topicalreviews are most necessary are history and geography. 

THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW

A thing always stands out most vividly in the mind when the relations ofsimilarity and difference are perceived between it and other things. When we compare and contrast two things, certain features of each thatwould otherwise escape our attention are brought to light. We get aclearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel when we compare theirvarious characteristics. Great Britain and Germany are each betterunderstood geographically, when we set up comparisons between them; Pittand Walpole stand out more clearly as statesmen when we compare andcontrast them. One of the most effective forms of review is that inwhich the relations of likeness and difference are set up betweensubjects that have already been studied. For instance, the geographicalfeatures of Manitoba and British Columbia may be effectively reviewed byinstituting comparisons between them in regard to (1) position and size, (2) physical features, (3) climate, (4) industries, (5) products, (6)commercial centres. The careers of Walpole and Pitt might be reviewed bycomparing and contrasting them with regard to (1) circumstances underwhich each became Prime Minister, (2) domestic policy, (3) foreignpolicy, (4) circumstances surrounding the resignation of each, (5)personal character. 

Whatever form the review lesson may take, the teacher should always keepin mind its two main purposes, namely, (1) the organization of knowledgewhich comes through the apprehension of new relationships, and (2) thedeeper impression of facts on the mind which comes through attentiverepetition. 

CHAPTER XVIII

QUESTIONING

=Importance. =--As a teaching device, questioning must always occupy aplace of the highest importance. While it may not be always true thatgood questioning is synonymous with good teaching, there can be no doubtthat the good teacher must have, as one of his qualifications, theability to question well. A good question is a problem to solve. Astimulating problem arouses and directs mental activity. Well-directedmental activity is the prime requisite of all learning and one of theends which all effective teaching endeavours to realize. Questioning isone of the best means of securing that desirable activity of mindwithout which intellectual progress is impossible. The teacher who wouldmaster the technique of his art must study to attain skill inquestioning. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GOOD QUESTIONER

=A. Knowledge of Subject and of Mind. =--The most obvious essentials arefamiliarity with the subject-matter and a knowledge of the mentalprocesses of the child. Without the first, the questions will bepointless, haphazard, and unsystematic; without the second, they will beill-adjusted to the interests and attainments of the pupils. A thoroughknowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen insight into theworkings of the child mind are indispensable. 

=B. Analytic Ability. =--As an accompaniment of the first of thesequalifications, the good questioner must have analytic ability. Thematerial of the lesson must be analysed into its elements and therelations of these must be clearly perceived if it is to be effectivelypresented to the pupils. The teacher must further have the power todiscriminate between the important and the unimportant. The ability toseize upon the essential features and to give due prominence to these isone of the most valuable accomplishments a teacher can have. 

=C. Knowledge of Pupils' Experiences. =--As an accompaniment of thesecond qualification, the good questioner must have a knowledge of theprevious experience and of the capacities of the pupils. Good teachingconsists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new to the old. Theteacher must ascertain what the pupils already know, what theirinterests are, and what matter they may reasonably be expected toapprehend, if he is to have them assimilate properly the facts of thelesson. He must further show sympathy and tact in order to inspire thepupils to their best effort. He must be able to detect unerringly thesymptoms of inattention, listlessness, and misbehaviour, and by awell-directed question to bring back the wandering attention to thesubject in hand. 

=Faults in Questioning. =--There are two serious weaknesses that manyyoung teachers exhibit, namely, questioning when they ought to tell andtelling when they ought to question. To tell pupils what they mighteasily discover for themselves is to deprive them of the joy of conquestand to miss an opportunity of exercising and strengthening their mentalpowers. On the other hand, to question upon matter which the pupilscannot reasonably be expected to know or discover is to discourageeffort and encourage guessing. To know just when to question and whento tell requires considerable discrimination and insight on the part ofthe teacher. 

PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING

Questioning has three main purposes, namely:

1. To determine the limits of the pupil's present knowledge in orderthat the teacher may have a definite basis upon which to build the newmaterial;

2. To direct the pupil's thought along a prescribed channel to adefinite end, to lead him to make discoveries and form conclusions onhis own account;

3. To ascertain how far he has grasped the meaning of the new materialthat has been presented. 

=A. Preparatory. =--The first of these purposes may be designated aspreparatory. Here the teacher clears the ground for the presentation ofthe new matter by recalling the old related facts necessary to theinterpretation of the new. In thus sounding the depths of the pupil'sprevious knowledge, the teacher should usually ask questions that demandfairly long answers instead of those which may be answered briefly. Theonus of the recall should be placed largely upon the pupil. The teacherwill do comparatively little talking; the pupil will do much. 

=B. Developing. =--The second purpose may be described as developing. Thepupil is led step by step to a conclusion. Each question grows naturallyout of the preceding question, the responsibility for this logicalconnection falling upon the teacher. The pupil has before him a certainset of conditions, and he is asked to infer the logical result of suchconditions. He forms inferences, makes new discoveries, sets up newrelationships, and formulates definitions and laws. It should be notedthat this form of questioning gives no entirely new information to thepupil. It merely classifies and organizes what is already in his mind ina more or less indistinct and nebulous form. New information cannot bequestioned out of a pupil; it must be given to him directly. 

=C. Recapitulation. =--The third purpose of questioning may be describedas recapitulatory. The pupil is asked to reproduce what he has learnedduring the progress of the lesson. At convenient intervals during thepresentation and at the close, he should be asked to summarize in aconnected manner the main points already covered. Thus the teacher teststhe pupil's comprehension of the facts of the lesson. The pupil, on hisside, as a result of such reproduction, has the facts more clearly fixedin his mind. As in the first stage of the lesson, the answers should beof considerable length, logically connected, and expressed in goodlanguage. The responsibility for this is again thrown largely upon thepupil. He does most of the talking; the teacher does little. 

=How Employed in Lesson. =--It will thus be recognized that questioningis employed for different purposes at the three different stages of thelesson. At the opening of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupilfor what is to follow. During the presentation it leads the pupil toform his own inferences. At the close of the lesson it tests his graspof the facts and gives these greater clearness and fixity in his mind. The first and third might both be designated as _testing_ purposes, andthe second _training_. 

SOCRATIC QUESTIONING

=Its Characteristics. =--Developing, or training, questions, aresometimes referred to as Socratic questions. The terms are, however, notaltogether synonymous. The method of Socrates had two divisions, knownas _irony_ and _maieutics_. The former consisted in leading the pupilto express an opinion on some subject of current interest, an opinionthat was apparently accepted by Socrates. Then, by a series of questionsadroitly put, he drove his pupil into a contradiction or an absurdposition, thus revealing the inadequacy of the answer. This phase of theSocratic method is rarely applicable with young children. Occasionally, in grammar or arithmetic, for instance, an incorrect answer may properlybe followed up so as to lead the pupil into a contradiction, but it isusually not desirable to embarrass him unnecessarily. It is neveragreeable to be covered with the confusion which such a situationusually brings about. The other phase of the Socratic method, the_maieutics_, consisted in leading the pupil, by a further series ofquestions, to formulate the correct opinion of which the firsthastily-given answer was only a fragment. This coincides with thedeveloping method and may sometimes be profitably employed with youngchildren. 

EXAMPLE OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONING. --As an example of Socraticquestioning may be noted the following taken from Plato's _Minos_. Socrates has questioned his companion concerning the nature of Law andhas received the answer, "Law is the decree of the city. " To show hiscompanion the inadequacy of this definition, Socrates engages with himin the following dialogue:

 _Socrates_: Justice and law, are highly honourable; injustice and lawlessness, highly dishonourable; the former preserves cities, the latter ruins them?

 _Pupil_: Yes, it does. 

 _Socrates_: Well, then! we must consider law as something honourable; and seek after it, under the assumption that it is a good thing. You defined law to be the decree of the city: Are not some decrees good, others evil?

 _Pupil_: Unquestionably. 

 _Socrates_: But we have already said that law is not evil?

 _Pupil_: I admit it. 

 _Socrates_: It is incorrect therefore to answer, as you did broadly, that law is the decree of the city. An evil decree cannot be law. 

 _Pupil_: I see that it is incorrect. 

Having shown his pupil the fallacy of his first definition, Socratesproceeds to teach him that only what is right is lawful. This part ofthe dialogue proceeds as follows:

 _Socrates_: Those who know, must of necessity hold the same opinion with each other, on matters which they know: always and everywhere?

 _Pupil_: Yes--always and everywhere. 

 _Socrates_: Physicians write respecting matters of health what they account to be true, and these writings of theirs are the medical laws?

 _Pupil_: Certainly they are. 

 _Socrates_: The like is true respecting the laws of farming, the laws of gardening, the laws of cookery. All these are the writings of persons, knowing in each of the respective pursuits?

 _Pupil_: Yes. 

 _Socrates_: In like manner, what are the laws respecting the government of a city? Are they not the writings of those who know how to govern--kings, statesmen, and men of superior excellence?

 _Pupil_: Truly so. 

 _Socrates_: Knowing men like these will not write differently from each other about the same things, nor change what they have once written. If, then, we see some doing this, are we to declare them knowing or ignorant?

 _Pupil_: Ignorant, undoubtedly. 

 _Socrates_: Whatever is right, therefore, we may pronounce to be lawful in medicine, gardening, or cookery; whatever is not right, not to be lawful but lawless. And the like in treatises respecting just and unjust, prescribing how the city is to be administered. That which is right, is the regal law; that which is not right, is not so, but only seems to be law in the eyes of the ignorant, being in truth lawless. 

 _Pupil_: Yes. 

It will be seen from the above examples, that much of the Socraticquestioning is really explanatory; the questions, though interrogativein form, being often rhetorical, and therefore assertive in value. 

THE QUESTION

=Characteristics of a Good Question. =--Good questions should seize uponthe important features and emphasize these. Unimportant details, thoughuseful in giving vividness to a narrative and enabling the pupil tobuild up a clear picture of the scene or incident, may well be ignoredin questioning. The teacher must see that the pupil grasps theessentials and must direct his questions towards the attainment of thatend. The questions should be arranged in logical sequence, so that theanswers, if written out in the order given, would form a connectedaccount of the topic under discussion. Further, the questions shouldrequire the expression of a judgment on the part of the pupil. In themain they should not be answerable by a single word or a brief phrase. One of the greatest weaknesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency_to_ extreme brevity. As a result, it is difficult to get pupils to givea connected and continuous narration, description, or exposition in anysubject. The remedy for this defect is to ask questions which demandanswers of considerable length, and to avoid those which require only ascrappy answer. 

=Form of the Question. =--It should ever be borne in mind that theteacher's language influences the language habits of his pupils. Carelessly worded, poorly constructed questions are likely to result inanswers having similar characteristics. On the other hand, correctnessin the form of the questions asked, accuracy in the use of words, simple, straightforward statements of the thing wanted, will bereflected, dimly perhaps, in the form of the pupils' answers. Care must, therefore, be exercised as to the form in which questions are asked. They should be stripped of all superfluous introductory words, such as, "Who can tell?" "How many of you know?" etc. Such prefaces are not onlyuseless and a waste of time, but they also put before pupils a bad modelif we are to expect concise and direct statements from them. Thequestions should be so clear and definite in meaning as to admit of onlyone interpretation. Questions such as, "What happened after this?" "Whatdid Cromwell become?" "What about the rivers of Germany?" "What might wesay of this word?" are objectionable on the score of indefiniteness. Many correct answers might be given for each and the pupils can onlyguess at what is required. If the question cannot be so stated as tomake what is desired unmistakable, the information had better be givenoutright. Questions should be brief and usually deal with only onepoint, except, perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been coveredin the lesson. In the latter case it is frequently desirable to put aquestion involving several points in order to ensure definiteness, conciseness, and connectedness in the answer; for example, "For what isAlexander Mackenzie noted? State his great aim and describe his two mostimportant undertakings connected therewith. " But in dealing with mattertaken up for the first time or involving original thought, this type ofquestion, demanding as it does attention to several points, would puttoo great a demand upon the powers of young children. Under suchconditions it is best to ask questions requiring only one point inanswer. 

THE ANSWER

=Form of Answers. =--The possibility of improving the pupil's languagepower through his answers has already been referred to. To secure thebest results in this regard, the teacher should insist on answers thatare grammatically correct and, usually, in complete sentences. It wouldbe pedantic, however, to insist always upon the latter condition. Forsuch questions as, "What British officer was killed at QueenstonHeights?" or "What province lies west of Manitoba?" the natural answersare "General Brock, " or "Saskatchewan. " To require pupils to say, "TheBritish officer killed at Queenston Heights was General Brock, " or "Theprovince west of Manitoba is Saskatchewan, " would be to make therecitation unnatural and formal. When answers are a mere echo of thequestion, with some slight inversion or addition, they becomeexceedingly mechanical, and useless from the point of view of languagetraining. While it is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, questionsthat admit of answers of a single word or short phrase, such questionsare sometimes necessary and are not objectionable. Questions should notbe thrown into the form of an elliptical statement in which the pupilmerely fills a blank, for example, "The capital of Ontario is. .. ?" "Thefirst English parliament was called by. .. ?" Nor should they be given ininverted form, as, "Montreal is situated where?" "The Great Charter wassigned by what king?" Alternative questions such as, "Is this a noun oran adjective?" "Was Charles I willing or unwilling to sign the Petitionof Right?" as well as those questions that are answerable by "Yes" or"No, " require little thought to answer and should be avoided ifpossible. When they are used, the pupil should at once be required togive reasons for his answer. Neither the form of the question nor theteacher's tone of voice or manner should afford any inkling as to theanswer expected. 

=Calling for Answers. =--In order that the attention of the whole classmay be maintained, the question should be proposed before the pupil whois to answer is indicated. No fixed order in calling upon the pupilsshould be adopted. If the pupils are never certain beforehand who is tobe named to answer the question, they are more likely to be keptconstantly on the alert. The questions should be carefully distributedamong the class, the duller pupils being given rather more and easierquestions than the brighter ones. One of the temptations that theteacher has to overcome is that of giving the clever and willing pupilsthe majority of the questions. The question should seldom be repeatedunless the first wording is so unfortunate that the meaning is not clearand it is found necessary to recast it. To repeat questions habituallyis to put a premium on inattention on the part of the pupils. A badhabit often noted among teachers is that of wording the question inseveral ways before any one is asked to answer it. 

=Methods of Dealing with Answers. =--As has been already indicated inanother connection, the answers of the pupils should be generally incomplete sentences and frequently should be in the form of a continuousparagraph or series of paragraphs, especially in summaries and reviews. The continuous answer should be cultivated much more than it is, as ameans of training pupils to organize their information and to expressthemselves in clear and connected discourse. On the other hand, however, children should be discouraged from giving more information than isdemanded by the question. While it is desirable that the correctness ofan answer should be indicated in some way, the teacher should guardagainst forming the habit of indicating every correct answer by astereotyped word or phrase, such as, "Yes" or "That's right. " Answersshould seldom be repeated by the teacher, unless it is desirable tore-word them for purposes of emphasis. Repetition of answers encouragescareless articulation on the part of the pupil answering and inattentionon the part of the others. One of the worst habits a teacher cancontract is the "gramophonic" repetition of pupils' answers. The answersgiven by the pupils should almost invariably be individual, notcollective. Simultaneous answering makes a noisy class-room, cultivatesa monotonous and measured method of speaking, and encourages the habitof relying on others. There are always a few leaders in the class thatare willing to take the initiative in answering, and the others merelychime in with them. The method is not suitable for the expression ofindividual opinion, for all pupils must answer alike. There is, further, the possibility that absurd blunders may pass uncorrected, because inthe general repetition the teacher cannot detect them. 

LIMITATIONS

Though questioning is the most valuable of teaching devices, it is quitesusceptible of being overworked. There is quite as much danger of usingit too extensively as there is of using it too little. Frequently, teachers try to question from pupils what they could not be expected toknow. Further, it is possible by too much questioning to cover up thepoint of the lesson rather than reveal it, and to mystify the pupilsrather than clarify their ideas. These are the two main abuses of thedevice. After all, it should be remembered that, important as goodquestioning undoubtedly is, it is not the only thing in lessontechnique. In teaching, as elsewhere, variety is the spice of life. Sympathy, sincerity, enthusiasm in the teacher will do more to securemental activity in the pupils than mere excellence in questioning. Theenergetic, enthusiastic, sympathetic teacher may secure better resultsthan the teacher whose ability in questioning is well-nigh perfect, butwho lacks these other qualities. If, however, to these qualities he addsa high degree of efficiency in questioning, his success in teaching isso much the more assured. 

PART III. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER XIX

CONSCIOUSNESS

=Data of Psychology. =--Throughout the earlier parts of the text, occasional reference has been made to various classes of mental states, and to psychology, as the science which treats of these mental states, under the assumption that such references would be understood in ageneral way by the student-teacher. At the outset of a study ofpsychology as the science of mind, however, it becomes necessary toinquire somewhat more fully into the nature of the data with which thescience is to deal. Mind is usually defined either by contrasting itwith the concrete world of matter, or by describing its activities. Itis said, for instance, that mind is that which feels and knows, whichhopes, fears, determines, etc. By some, indeed, mind is described asmerely the sum of these states of knowing and feeling and willing. Thepractical man says, however, _I_ know and feel so-and-so, and _my_ wishis so-and-so. Here an evident distinction is drawn between the knower, or conscious self, and his conscious activities. While, however, we mayagree with the practical man that there is a mind, or self, that knowsand wills and feels; yet it is evident that the self, or knower, canknow himself only through his conscious states. It must be understood, therefore, that mind in its ultimate sense cannot be studied directly, but only the conscious states, or conditions of mind. Thus psychologybecomes a study of mental states, or states of consciousness; and itis, in fact, frequently described as the science of consciousness. 

=Nature of Consciousness. =--Our previous study of the nature ofexperience has shown that various kinds of conscious states may arise inthe mind, now the smell of burning cloth, now the sound of a ringingbell, now the feeling of bodily pain, now a remembered joy, now a futureexpectation or a resolution. Such a conscious state was seen, moreover, to represent on the part of the mind, not a mere passive impressioncoming from some external source, but an active attitude resulting indefinite experience. It signifies, in other words, a power to react in afixed way toward impressions, and direct our conduct in accordance withthe resulting states of consciousness. Consciousness in the individualimplies, therefore, that he is aware of phenomena as they areexperienced, and is able to modify his behaviour accordingly. 

=Types of Consciousness. =--Although allowable, from the standpoint ofthe learning process, to describe a conscious state as an attitude ofawareness in which the individual grasps the significance of anexperience in relation to his own needs; it must be recognized that notall consciousness manifests this meaningful quality, or this relation toa felt aim, or end. While lying, for instance, in a vague, half-awakestate, although one is conscious, the mental condition is quite devoidof the meaningful quality referred to, and entirely lacks the feeling ofreaction, or of mental effort. In this case there is no distinctreference to the needs of the self, and a lack of that focusing ofattention necessary to give the consciousness a meaning and purpose inthe life of the individual. All such passive, or effortless, states ofconsciousness, which make up those portions of mental existence inwhich no definite presentation seems to hold the attention, althoughfalling within the sphere of the scientific psychologist, maynevertheless be left out of consideration in a study of educationalpsychology. Learning involves apperception, and apperception is alwaysgiving a meaning to new presentations by actively bringing old knowledgeto bear upon them. For the educator, therefore, psychology may belimited to a study of the definite states of consciousness which arisethrough an apperceiving act of attention, that is, to our states ofexperience and the processes connected therewith. For this reason, psychology is by some appropriately enough defined as the science ofexperience. 

=Consciousness a Stream. =--Although we describe the data of psychologyas facts, or states, of consciousness, a moment's reflection will showthat our conscious life is not made up of a number of mental states, orexperiences, completely separated one from the other. Our consciousnessis rather a unified whole, in which seemingly disconnected states blendinto one continuous flow of conscious life. For this reason, consciousness is frequently compared to a stream, or river, movingonward in an unbroken course. This stream of consciousness appears asdisjointed mental states, simply because the attention discriminateswithin this stream, and thus in a sense detaches different portions onefrom the other, or, as sometimes figuratively put, it creates successivewaves on the stream of consciousness. A mental state, or experience, so-called, is such a discriminated portion of this stream ofconsciousness, and is, therefore, itself a process, the differentprocesses blending in a continuous succession or relation to make up theunbroken flow of conscious life. For this reason psychology isfrequently described as a study of conscious processes. 

VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Within the school the child secures a control of experience only bypassing through a process of mental reconstruction, or of changes inconsciousness. Moreover, to bring about these mental changes, it isfound necessary for the teacher's effort to conform as far as possibleto the interests and tendencies of the child. So far, therefore, as theteacher's office is to direct and control the children's effort duringthe learning process, he must approach them primarily as mental, orconscious, beings. For this reason the educator should at least notviolate the general principles governing all mental activity. By givinghim an insight into the general principles underlying consciousprocesses, psychology should aid the teacher to control the learningprocess in the child. 

LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

=Psychology Cannot Give: A. Knowledge of Subject-matter. =--It must notbe assumed, however, that knowledge of psychology will necessarily implya corresponding ability to teach. Psychology, for instance, cannotdecide what should be taught to the child. This, as we have seen, is aproblem of social experience, and must be decided by considering thetypes of experience which will add to the social efficiency of theindividual, or which will enable him best to do his duty to himself andto others. All, therefore, that psychology can do here is to explain theprocess by which experience is acquired, leaving to social ethics theproblem of deciding what knowledge is of most worth. 

=B. Love for Children. =--Again, psychology will not necessarily furnishthat largeness of heart and sympathy for childhood, without which noteacher can be successful. Indeed, it is felt by many that makingchildren objects of psychological analysis will rather tend to destroythat more spiritual conception of their personality which shouldconstitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils. While this is nodoubt true of the teacher who looks upon children merely as subjects forpsychological analysis and experimentation, it is equally true that aknowledge of psychology will enable even the sympathetic teacher torealize more fully and deal more successfully with the difficulties ofthe pupil. 

=C. Acquaintance with the Individual Child. =--Again, the teacher'sproblem in dealing with the mental attitude of the particular childcannot always be interpreted through general principles. The generalprinciple would be supposed to have an application to every child in alarge class. It is often found, however, that the character anddisposition of the particular child demands, not general, but specialtreatment. Here, what is termed the knack of the sympathetic teacher isoften more effective than the general principle of the psychologist. Admitting so much, however, it yet may be argued that a knowledge ofpsychology will not hinder, but rather assist the sympathetic teacher indealing even with special cases. 

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

=A. Introspection. =--A unique characteristic of mind is its ability toturn attention inward and make an object of study of its own states, orprocesses. For instance, the mind is able to make its present sensation, its remembered state of anger, its idea of a triangle, etc. , stand outin consciousness as a subject of study for conscious attention. Onaccount of this ability to give attention to his own states ofconsciousness, man is said both to know and to know that he knows. Thisreflective method of studying our own mental states is known as themethod of _Introspection_. 

=B. Objective Method. =--Facts of mind may, however, be examinedobjectively. As previously noted, man, by his words, acts, and works, gives expression to his conscious states. These different forms ofexpression are accepted, therefore, as external indications ofcorresponding states of mind, and afford the psychologist certain datafor developing his science. One of the most important of these objectivemethods is known as Child Study. Here, by the method of observing theacts and language of very young children, data are obtained concerningthe native instincts of the child, concerning the genesis anddevelopment of the different mental processes, and the relation of theseto physical development. A brief statement of the leading principles ofChild Study will be found in Chapter XXXI. 

=C. Experimental Method. =--A third method of studying mind is known asthe _Experimental_ method. Here, as in the case of the ordinary physicalexperimenter, the psychologist seeks to control certain mental processesby isolating them and regulating their action. This may be effectivelydone in the study of certain processes. For instance, by passing the twopoints of a pair of compasses over different parts of the body, thetactile sensibility of the skin may be compared at these differentparts. By this means it may be shown that the tip of the finger candetect the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart, while onthe middle of the back they may require to be two and a half inchesapart to give a double impression. The experimental method is oftenused in connection with the objective method in Child Study. 

PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

=A. Knowledge. =--Although, as previously stated, the stream ofconsciousness must at all times be looked upon as a unity, it will befound upon analysis to present three more or less distinct phases. Astate of consciousness implies, in the first place, being aware ofsomething as an object of attention. In other words, something is seizedupon by consciousness as a presentation, and to the extent to which oneis aware of this object of consciousness, he is said to recognize, or toknow it. A state of consciousness is always, therefore, a state ofknowledge, or of intelligence. Thus, whether we perceive this chair, imagine a mermaid, recall the looks of an absent friend, experience thetoothache, judge the weight of this book, or become angry, our consciousstate is a state of _knowledge_. 

=B. Feeling. =--A conscious state is also a state of feeling. Everyconscious state has its feeling side, since it is a personal state, orsince the mind itself is affected toward its own state. Two men, forinstance, may know equally well the taste of a particular food, but thetaste may affect each one quite differently. To one the experience ispleasant, to the other it may be even painful. Two boys may know equallythat a point has been scored by the visiting team, but the personalattitude of each toward the experience may be quite different. The onefinds in it a quality of joy; the other a quality of sorrow. In the sameway the mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in itspresent state of consciousness. To speak of any particular experience aspainful, joyous, sorrowful, etc. , is, therefore, to refer to it as astate of _feeling_. 

=C. Will. =--Consciousness is a state of effort, or will. It wasespecially pointed out above, that the purposeful consciousness alwaysimplies a straining or focusing of consciousness in order to attain afuller control of the experience. This element of exertion manifest inconsciousness may appear as a directing of attention, as the making of achoice, as determining upon a certain action, etc. This aspect of anyconscious state is spoken of as a state of _will_, or volition. 

In the unity of the conscious life, therefore, there are three attitudesfrom which consciousness may be viewed:

1. It is a state of Knowledge, or of Intelligence. 

2. It is a state of Feeling. 

3. It is a state of Will. 

On account of this threefold aspect of mental states, consciousness hasbeen represented in the following form:

[Illustration]

The significance of comparing the threefold aspect of consciousness tothe three sides of a triangle consists in the fact that if any side of atriangle is removed no triangle remains. In like manner, none of thethree attributes of consciousness could be wanting without the consciousstate ceasing to exist as such. No one, for instance, could feel thepressure of a tight shoe without at the same time knowing it, and fixinghis attention upon it. Neither could a person at any particular timeknow that the shoe was pinching him unless he was also attending to andfeeling the experience. 

CHAPTER XX

MIND AND BODY

=Relation of Mind to Bodily Organism. =--Notwithstanding the antithesiswhich has been affirmed to exist between mind and matter, yet a veryclose relation exists between mind and the material organism known asthe body. There are many ways in which this intimate connectionmanifests itself. Mental excitement is always accompanied with agitationof the body and a disturbance of such bodily processes as breathing, thebeating of the heart, digestion, etc. Such mental processes as seeing, hearing, tasting, etc. , are found also to depend upon the use of abodily organ, as the eye, the ear, the tongue, without which it is quiteimpossible for the mind to come into relation with outside things. Moreover, disease or injury, especially to the organs of sense or to thebrain, weakens or destroys mental power. The size of the brain, also, isfound to bear a certain relation to mental capacity; the weight of theaverage brain being about 48 ounces, while the brain of an idiot oftenweighs only from 20 to 30 ounces. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

[Illustration: Brain and Spinal Cord]

=Divisions of Nervous System. =--This intimate connection between mindand body is provided for through the existence of that part of thebodily organism known as the nervous system, and it is this part, together with its associated organs of sense, that chiefly interests thestudent of psychology. A study of the character and functions of thevarious parts of the nervous system, and of the nervous substance ofwhich these parts are composed, belongs to physiology rather than topsychology. As the student-teacher is given a general knowledge of thestructure of the nervous system in his study of physiology, a briefdescription will suffice for the present purpose. The nervous systemconsists of two parts, (1) the central part, or cerebro-spinal centre, and (2) an outer part--the spinal nerves. The central part, orcerebro-spinal centre, includes the spinal cord, passing upward throughthe vertebrae of the spinal column and the brain. The brain consists ofthree parts: The cerebrum, or great brain, consisting of twohemispheres, which, though connected, are divided in great part by alongitudinal fissure; the cerebellum, or little brain; and the medullaoblongata, or bulb. The spinal nerves consist of thirty-one pairs, whichbranch out from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves contains a rightand left member, distributed to the right and the left side of the bodyrespectively. These nerves are of two kinds, sensory, or afferent, (in-carrying) nerves, which carry inward impressions from the outsideworld, and motor, or efferent, (out-carrying) nerves, which conveyimpulses outward to the muscles and cause them to contract. There arealso twelve pairs of nerves connected with the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and face, which, instead of projecting from the spinal cord, proceed atonce from the brain through openings in the cranium. These are, therefore, known as cerebral nerves. In their general character, however, they do not differ from the projection fibres. 

[Illustration: Pair of Spinal Nerves]

=Nervous Substance. =--Nervous substance is divided into two kinds--grey, or cellular, substance and white, or fibrous, substance. The greaterpart of the grey matter is situated as a layer on the outside of thecerebrum, or great brain, where it forms a rind from one twelfth to oneeighth of an inch in thickness, known as the cortex. It is also found onthe surface of the cerebellum. Diffuse masses of grey matter arelikewise met in the other parts of the brain, and extending downwardthrough the centre of the spinal cord. The function of the grey matteris to form centres to which the nerve fibres tend and carry instimulations, or from which they commence and carry out impulses. 

=The Neuron. =--The centres of grey matter are composed of aggregations, or masses, of very small nerve cells called neurons. A neuron may rangefrom 1/300 to 1/3000 of an inch in diameter, and there are severalthousand millions of these cells in the nervous system. A developedneuron consists of a cell body with numerous prolongations in the formof white, thread-like fibres. The neuron with its outgoing fibres is theunit of the nervous system. Neurons are supposed to be of three classes, sensory to receive stimulations, motor to send out impulses to themuscles, and association to connect sensory and motor centres. 

[Illustration: A Neuron in Stages of Development]

These neurons, as already noted, are collected into centres, and theoutgoing fibres give connection to the cells, the number of connectionsfor each neuron depending upon its outgoing fibres. Some of theseconnections are already established within the system at birth, whileothers, as we shall see more fully later, are formed whenever theorganism is brought into action in our thinking and doing. To speak ofsuch connections being formed between nerve centres by means of theiroutgoing fibres does not necessarily mean a direct connection, but mayimply only that the fibres of one cell approach nearly enough to thoseof another to admit of a nervous impulse passing from the one cell tothe other. This is often spoken of as the establishment of a pathbetween the centres. 

=The Nerve Fibres. =--The nerve fibres which transmit impressions to andfrom the centres of grey matter average about 1/6000 of an inch inthickness, but are often of great length, some extending perhaps halfthe length of the body. Large numbers of these fibres unite into asheath or single nerve. It is estimated that the number of fibres in asingle nerve number in most cases several thousand, those in the nerveof sight being estimated at about one hundred thousand. The fibres inthe white substance of the brain are estimated at several hundredmillion. 

=Classes of Fibres. =--These fibres are supposed to be of four classes, as follows:

1. _Sensory Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_

These have already been referred to as spreading outward from the brainand spinal cord to different parts of the body. Their office is, therefore, to carry inward to the centres of grey matter impressionsreceived from the outside world, thus setting up a connection betweenthe various senses and the cortex of the brain. 

2. _Motor Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_

These fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly with themuscles, and thus provide a means of communication between these musclesand the cortex of the brain. 

3. _Association Fibres_

These connect one part of the cortex with another within the samehemisphere. 

4. _Commissural Fibres_

These connect corresponding centres of the two hemispheres of thecerebrum. 

[Illustration]

=Function of Parts. =--Because the various cells are thus brought intorelation, the whole nervous system combines into a single organism, which is able to receive impressions and provides conditions for themind to interpret these impressions and, if necessary, react thereon. When, for instance, a stimulus is received by an end organ (the eye), itwill be transmitted by a sensory nerve directly inward to a sensorycentre, or cell, in the cortex of the brain. In such a case it may beinterpreted by the mind and a line of action decided upon. Then by meansof associating cells and fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and animpulse transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve to a muscle, whereuponthe necessary motor reaction will take place. A pupil may, for instance, receive the impression of a word through the ear or through the eye andthereupon make a motor response by writing the word. The arrows in theaccompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus and the responsein such cases. 

THE CORTEX

=Cortex the Seat of Consciousness. =--Experiments in connection with thedifferent nerve cords and centres have demonstrated that intelligentconsciousness depends upon the nerve centres situated in the cortex ofthe cerebrum. For instance, a sensory impulse may be carried inward tothe cells of the spinal cord and upward to the cerebellum without anyresulting consciousness. When, however, the stimulus reaches a highercentre in the cortex of the brain, the mind becomes conscious, orinterprets the impression, and any resulting action will be controlledby consciousness, through impulses given to the motor nerves. It is forthis reason that the cortex is called the seat of consciousness, andthat mind is said to reside in the brain. 

=Localization of Function. =--In addition, however, to placing the seatof consciousness in the cortex of the brain, psychologists also claimthat different parts of the cortex are involved in different types ofconscious activity. Sensations of sight, for instance, involve certaincentres in the cortex, sensations of sound other centres, the movementsof the organs of speech still other centres. Some go so far as to claimthat each one of the higher intellectual processes, as memory, imagination, judgment, reasoning, love, anger, etc. , involves neuralactivity in its own special section of the cortex. There seems no goodevidence, however, to support this view. The fact seems rather that inall these higher processes, quite numerous centres of the cortex may beinvolved. The following figure indicates the main conclusions of thepsychologists in reference to the localization of certain importantfunctions in distinct areas of the cortex. 

[Illustration: REFLEX ACTS]

=Nature of Reflex Action. =--While a lower nerve centre is not a seat forpurposeful consciousness, these centres may, in addition to serving astransmission points for cortical messages, perform a special functionby immediately receiving sensory impressions and transmitting motorimpulses. A person, for instance, whose mind is occupied with a problem, may move a limb to relieve a cramp, wink the eye, etc. , without anyconscious control of the action. In such a case the sensory impressionwas reported to a lower sensory centre, directly carried to a lowermotor centre, and the motor impulse given to perform the movement. Inthe same way, after one has acquired the habit of walking, although itusually requires conscious effort to initiate the movements, yet theperson may continue walking in an almost unconscious manner, his mindbeing fully occupied with other matters. Here, also, the complex actionsinvolved in walking are controlled and regulated by lower centressituated in the cerebellum. In like manner a person will unconsciouslyclose the eyelid under the stimulus of strong light. Here the impressioncaused by the light stimulus, upon reaching the medulla along anafferent nerve, is deflected to a motor nerve and, without any consciouscontrol of the movements, the muscles of the eyelid receive thenecessary impulse to close. Actions which are thus directed from a lowercentre without conscious control, are usually spoken of as reflex acts. Acts directed by consciousness are, on the other hand, known asvoluntary acts. The difference in the working of the nervous mechanismin consciously controlled and in reflex action may be illustrated bymeans of the accompanying figures. 

[Illustration: FIG 1]

[Illustration: FIG 2]

The heavy lines in Figure 1 on the opposite page show that thesensory-motor arc is made through the cortex, and that the mind is, therefore, conscious both of the sense stimulus and also of theresulting action. Figure 2 shows the same arc through a lower centre, inwhich case the mind is not directly attending to the impression or theresulting action. 

=Function of Consciousness. =--The facts set forth above serve further toillustrate the purposeful character of consciousness as man interpretsand adjusts himself to his surroundings. So long, for instance, as theindividual walks onward without disturbance, his mind is free to dwellupon other matters, cortical activity not being necessary to control theprocess of walking. If, however, he steps upon anything which perhapsthreatens him with a fall, the rhythmic interplay between sensory andmotor activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed, and amessage is flashed along the sensory nerve to the higher, or cortical, centres. This at once arouses consciousness, and the disturbing factorbecomes an object of attention. Consciousness thus appears as a means ofadaptation to the new and varying conditions with which the organism isconfronted. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER

=A. Plasticity. =--One striking characteristic of nervous matter is itsplasticity. The nature of the connections within the nervous system havealready been referred to. Mention has also been made of the fact thatnumerous connections are established within the nervous system as aresult of movements taking place within the organism during life. Inother words, the movements within the nervous system which accompanystimulations and responses bring about changes in the structure of theorganism. The cause for these changes seems to be that the neurons whichchance to work together during any experience form connections with oneanother by means of their outgrowing fibres. By this means, traces ofpast experiences are in a sense stored up within the organism, and it isfor this reason that our experiences are said to be recorded within thenervous system. 

=B. Retentiveness. =--A second characteristic of nervous matter is itsretentive power. In other words, the modifications which accompany anyexperience, besides taking on the permanent character referred to above, pre-dispose the system to transmit impulses again through the samecentres. Moreover, with each repetition of the nervous activity, theredevelops a still greater tendency for the movements to re-establishthemselves. This power possessed by nervous tissue to establish certainmodes of action carries with it also an increase in the ease andaccuracy with which the movements are performed. For example, theimpressions and impulses involved in the first attempts of the child tocontrol the clasping of an object, are performed with effort and in anineffective manner. The cause for this seems to be largely the absenceof proper connections between the centres involved, as referred toabove. This absence causes a certain resistance within the system to thenervous movements. When, however, the various centres involved in themovements establish the proper connections with one another, the actwill be performed in a much more effective and easy manner. From thisit is evident that the nervous system, as the result of formerexperiences, always retains a certain potential, or power, to repeat theact with greater ease, and thus improve conduct, or behaviour. Thisproperty of nervous matter will hereafter be referred to as its power ofretention. 

=C. Energy. =--Another quality of nervous matter is its energy. By thisis meant that the cells are endowed with a certain potential, or power, which enables them to transmit impressions and impulses and overcome anyresistance offered. Different explanations are given as to the nature ofthis energy, or force, with which nervous matter is endowed, but anystudy of these theories is unnecessary here. 

=D. Resistance. =--A fourth characteristic to be noted regarding nervousmatter is that a nervous impulse, or current, as it is transmittedthrough the system, encounters _resistance_, or consumes an amount ofnervous energy. Moreover, when the nervous current, whether sensory ormotor, involves the establishment of new connections between cells, aswhen one first learns combinations of numbers or the movements involvedin forming a new letter, a relatively greater amount of resistance ismet or, in other words, a greater amount of nervous energy is expended. On the other hand, when an impulse has been transmitted a number oftimes through a given arc, the resistance is greatly lessened, or lessenergy is expended; as indicated by the ease with which an habitual actis performed. 

=Education and Nervous Energy. =--It is evident from the foregoing, thatthe forming of new ideas or of new modes of action tends to use up alarge share of nervous energy. For this reason, the learning of new anddifficult things should not be undertaken when the body is in a tiredor exhausted condition; for the resistance which must be overcome, andthe changes which must take place in the nervous tissue during thelearning process, are not likely to be effectively accomplished undersuch conditions. Moreover, the energy thus lost must be restored throughthe blood, and therefore demands proper food, rest, and sleep on thepart of the individual. It should be noted further that nervous tissueis more plastic during the early years of life. This renders itimperative, therefore, that knowledge and skill should be gained, as faras possible, during the plastic years. The person who wishes to become agreat violinist must acquire skill to finger and handle the bow early inlife. The person who desires to become a great linguist, if he allowshis early years to pass without acquiring the necessary skill, cannotexpect in middle life to train his vocal organs to articulate a numberof different languages. 

=Cortical Habit. =--In the light of what has been seen regarding thecharacter and function of the nervous system, it will now be possible tounderstand more fully two important forms of adjustment already referredto. When nervous movements are transmitted to the cortex of the brain, they not only awaken consciousness, or make the individual aware ofsomething, but the present impression also leaves certain permanenteffects in the nervous tissue of the cortex itself. Since, however, cortical activity implies consciousness, the retention of such atendency within the cortical centres will imply, not an habitual act inthe ordinary sense, but a tendency on the part of a conscious experienceto repeat itself. This at once implies an ability to retain and recallpast experiences, or endows the individual with power of memory. Cortical habit, therefore, or the establishment of permanentconnections within the cortical centres, with their accompanying dynamictendency to repeat themselves, will furnish the physiological conditionsfor a revival of former experience in memory, or will enable theindividual to turn the past to the service of the present. 

=Physical Habits. =--The basis for the formation of physical habitsappears also in this retentive power of nervous tissue. When the youngboy, for instance, first mounts his new bicycle, he is unable, exceptwith the most attentive effort and in a most laboured and awkwardmanner, either to keep his feet on the pedals, or make the handle-barsrespond to the balancing of the wheel. In a short time, however, allthese movements take place in an effective and graceful manner withoutany apparent attention being given to them. This efficiency isconditioned by the fact that all these movements have become habitual, or take place largely as reflex acts. 

In school also, when the child learns to perform such an act as makingthe figure 2, the same changes take place. Here an impression must firstproceed from the given copy to a sensory centre in the cortex. As yet, however, there is no vital connection established between the sensorycentres and the motor centres which must direct the muscles in makingthe movement. As the movement is attempted, however, faint connectionsare set up between different centres. With each repetition theconnection is made stronger, and the formation of the figure renderedless difficult. So long, however, as the connection is establishedwithin the cortex, the movement will not take place except underconscious direction. Ultimately, however, similar connections betweensensory and motor neurons may be established in lower centres, whereuponthe action will be performed as a reflex act, or without theintervention of a directing act of consciousness. This evidently takesplace when a student, in working a problem, can form the figures, whilehis consciousness is fully occupied with the thought phases of theproblem. Thus the neural condition of physical habit is theestablishment of easy passages between sensory and motor nerves incentres lower than the cortex. 

CHAPTER XXI

INSTINCT

=Definition of Instinct. =--In a foregoing section, it was seen that ourbodily movements divide into different classes according to theirsource, or origin. Among them were noted certain inherited spontaneous, but useful, complex movements which follow, in a more or less uniformway, definite types of stimuli presented to the organism. Such aninherited tendency on the part of an organism to react in an effectivemanner, but without any definite purpose in view, whenever a particularstimulus presents itself, is known as instinct, and the resulting actionis described as an instinctive act. As an example of purely instinctiveaction may be taken the maternal instinct of insects whose larvæ requirelive prey when they are born. To provide this the mother administerssufficient poison to a spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it, and thenbears it to her nest. Placing the victim close to her eggs, she inclosesthe two together, thus providing food for her future offspring. Thiscomplex series of acts, so essential to the continuance of the species, and seemingly so full of purpose, is nevertheless conducted throughoutwithout reference to past experience, and without any future end inview. Instinct may, therefore, be defined as the ability of an organismto react upon a particular situation so as to gain a desirable end, yetwithout any purpose in view or any previous training. 

=Characteristics of Instinct. =--An instinctive act, it may be noted, isdistinguished by certain well marked characteristics:

1. The action is not brought about by experience or guided byintelligence, but is a direct reaction on the part of the organism todefinite stimulation. 

2. Although not the result of reason, instinctive action is purposefulto the extent that it shows a predisposition on the part of the organismto react in an effective manner to a particular situation. 

3. An instinctive movement is a response in which the whole organism isconcerned. It is the discomfort of the whole organism, for instance, that causes the bird to migrate or the child to seek food. In thisrespect it differs from a mere reflex action such as the winking of theeye, breathing, coughing, etc. , which involves only some particular partof the organism. 

4. Although not a consciously purposed action, instinct neverthelessinvolves consciousness. In sucking, for instance, sensation accompaniesboth the discomfort of the organism giving rise to the movements andalso the instinctive act itself. In this respect it differs from suchautomatic actions as breathing, the circulation of the blood, and thebeating of the heart. 

=Origin of Instinct. =--The various instinctive movements with which anorganism is endowed, not being a result of experience or education, aquestion at once arises as to their source, or origin. Instinct has itsorigin in the fact that certain movements which have proved beneficialin the ancestral experience of the race have become established aspermanent modes of reaction, and are transmitted to each succeedinggeneration. The explanation of this transmission of tendencies is, thatbeneficial movements are retained as permanent modifications of thenervous system of the animal, and are transmitted to the offspring as a_reactive tendency_ toward definite stimuli. The partridge family, forinstance, has preserved its offspring from the attacks of foxes, dogs, and other enemies only by the male taking flight and dragging itselfalong the ground, thus attracting the enemy away from the direction ofthe nest. The complex movements involved in such an act, becomingestablished as permanent motor connections within the system, aretransmitted to the offspring as predispositions. Instinct would thusseem a physiological habit, or hereditary tendency, within the nervoussystem to react in a fixed manner under certain conditions. In manyrespects, however, instincts seem to depend more largely upon bodilydevelopment than upon nervous structure. While the babe will at firstinstinctively suck; yet as soon as teeth appear, the sucking at oncegives way to the biting instinct. The sucking instinct then disappearsso completely that only a process of education will re-establish itlater. Birds also show no instinctive tendency to fly until their wingsare developed, while the young of even the fiercest animals will fleefrom danger, until such time as their bodily organism is properlydeveloped for attack. From this it would seem that instinctive actiondepends even more upon general bodily structure and development thanupon fixed co-ordinations within the nervous system. 

HUMAN INSTINCTS

On account of the apparently intelligent character of human actions, itis often stated that man is a creature largely devoid of instincts. Thefact is, however, that he is endowed with a large number of impulsive orinstinctive tendencies to act in definite ways, when in particularsituations. Man has a tendency, under the proper conditions, to befearful, bashful, angry, curious, sympathetic, grasping, etc. It isonly, moreover, because experience finally gives man ideas of theseinstinctive movements, that they may in time be controlled by reason, and developed into orderly habits. 

=Classification of Human Instincts. =--Various attempts have been made toclassify human instincts. For educational purposes, perhaps the mostsatisfactory method is that which classifies them according to theirrelation to the direct welfare of the individual organism. Beinginherited tendencies on the part of the organism to react in definiteways to definite stimuli, all instinctive acts should naturally tend topromote the good of the particular individual. Different instincts willbe found to differ, however, in the degree in which they involve theimmediate good of the individual organism. On this basis the varioushuman instincts may be divided into the following classes:

1. _Individualistic Instincts. _--Some instincts gain their significancebecause they tend solely to meet the needs of the individual. Examplesof these would be the instincts involved in securing food, as biting, chewing, carrying objects to the mouth; such instinctive expressions ascrying, smiling, and uttering articulate sounds; rhythmical bodilymovements; bodily expression of fear, etc. 

2. _Racial Instincts. _--These include such instinctive acts as make forthe preservation of the species, as the sexual and parental instincts, jealousy, etc. The constructive instinct in man, also, may be consideredparallel to the nesting instinct in birds and animals. 

3. _Social Instincts. _--Among these are placed such instinctivetendencies as bashfulness, sympathy, the gregarious instinct, or love ofcompanionship, anger, self-assertion, combativeness, etc. 

4. _Instincts of Adjustment. _--Included among man's native tendenciesare a number of complex responses which manifest themselves in hisefforts to adjust himself to his surroundings. These may be calledinstinctive so far as concerns their mere impulsive tendency, which isno doubt inherited. In the operation of these so-called instincts, however, there is not seen that definite mode of response to aparticular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct. Since, however, these are important human tendencies, and since they deal specificallywith the child's attitude in adapting himself to his environment, theyrank from an educational standpoint among the most important of humaninstincts. These include such tendencies as curiosity, imitation, play, constructiveness and acquisitiveness. 

=Human Instincts Modified by Experience. =--Although instinctive acts areperformed without forethought or conscious purpose, yet in man they maybe modified by experience. This is true to a degree even in the case ofthe instincts of the lower animals. Young spiders, for instance, construct their webs in a manner inferior to that of their elders. Inthe case of birds, also, the first nest is usually inferior in structureto those of later date. In certain cases, indeed, if accounts are to beaccepted, animals are able to vary considerably their instinctivemovements according to the particular conditions. It is reported that aswallow had selected a place for her nest between two walls, thesurfaces of which were so smooth that she could find no foundation forher nest. Thereupon she fixed a bit of clay to each wall, laid a pieceof light wood upon the clay supports, and with the stick as a foundationproceeded to construct her nest. On the whole, however, there seemslittle variation in animal instincts. The fish will come a second timeto take food off the hook, the moth will fly again into the flame, andthe spider will again and again build his web over the opening, only tohave it again and again torn away. But whatever may be the amount ofvariation within the instincts of the lower animals, in the case of maninstinctive action is so modified by experience that his instincts soondevelop into personal habits. The reason for this is quite evident. Aspreviously pointed out, an instinctive act, though not originallypurposeful, is in man accompanied with a consciousness of both thebodily discomfort and the resulting movements. Although, therefore, thechild instinctively sucks, grasps at objects, or is convulsed with fear, these acts cannot take place without his gradually understanding theirsignificance as states of experience. In this way he soon learns thatthe indiscriminate performance of an instinctive act may give quitedifferent results, some being much more valuable to the individual thanothers. The young child, for instance, may instinctively bite whateverenters his mouth, but the older child has learned that this is notalways desirable, and therefore exercises a voluntary control over themovement. 

=Instincts Differ in Value. =--The fact that man's instinctive tendenciesthus come within the range of experience, not only renders them amenableto reason, but also leaves the question of their ultimate outcomeextremely indefinite. For this reason many instincts may appear in manin forms that seem undesirable. The instinct to seek food is a naturalone, yet will be condemned when it causes the child to take fruit fromthe neighbour's garden. In like manner, the instinct to know hissurroundings is natural to man, but will be condemned when it causes himto place his ear to the keyhole. The tendency to imitate is not initself evil, yet the child must learn to weigh the value of what heimitates. One important reason, therefore, why the teacher shouldunderstand the native tendencies of the child is that he may directtheir development into moral habits and suppress any tendencies whichare socially undesirable. 

=Education of Instincts. =--In dealing with the moral aspects of thechild's instinctive tendencies, the educator must bear in mind that onetendency may come in conflict with another. The individualistic instinctof feeding or ownership may conflict with the social instinct ofcompanionship; the instinct of egoism, with that of imitation; and theinstinct of fear, with that of curiosity. To establish satisfactorymoral habits on the basis of instinct, therefore, it is often possibleto proceed by a method of substitution. The child who shows a tendencyto destroy school furniture can best be cured by having constructiveexercises. The boy who shows a natural tendency to destroy animal lifemay have the same arrested by being given the care of animals and thushaving his sympathy developed. In other cases, the removal of stimuli, or conditions, for awaking the instinctive tendency will be foundeffective in checking the development of an undesirable instinct into ahabit. The boy who shows a spirit of combativeness may be cured byhaving a generous and congenial boy as his chum. The pupil whose socialtendencies are so strong that he cannot refrain from talking may becured by isolation. 

=Instincts May Disappear. =--In dealing with the instinctive tendenciesof the child, it is important for the educator to remember that many ofthese are transitory in character and, if not utilized at the propertime, will perish for want of exercise. Even in the case of animals, natural instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exerciseis provided at the time. Birds shut up in a cage lose the instinct tofly; while ducks, after being kept a certain time from water, will notreadily acquire the habit of swimming. In the same way, the child whois not given opportunity to associate with others will likely grow up arecluse. All work for a few years, and it will be impossible for Jack tolearn later how to play. The girl who during her childhood has noopportunity to display any pride through neatness in dress will grow upuntidy and careless as to her personal appearance. In like manner, it isonly the child whose constructive tendency is early given an opportunityto express itself who is likely to develop into an expert workman; whileone who has no opportunity to give expression to his æsthetic instinctin early life will not later develop into an artist. 

CURIOSITY

=Curiosity as Motive. =--An important bearing of instinct upon the workof education is found in the fact that an instinctive tendency may addmuch to the force of the motive, or end, in any educative process. Thisis especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as curiosity, imitation, and play. Curiosity is the inquisitive attitude, or appetite, of the mind which causes it to seek out what is strange in itssurroundings and make it an object of attention. As an instinctivetendency, its significance consists in the fact that it leads theindividual to interpret his surroundings. A creature devoid ofcuriosity, therefore, would not discover either the benefits to bederived from his surroundings or the dangers to be avoided. In additionto its direct practical value in leading the individual to study hisenvironment in order to meet actual needs, curiosity often seeks a moretheoretic end, appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst forknowledge. 

=Use and Abuse of Curiosity. =--While curiosity is needful for thewelfare of the individual, an inordinate development of this instinct isboth intellectually and morally undesirable. Since curiosity directsattention to the novel in our surroundings, over-curiosity is likely tokeep the mind wandering from one novelty to another, and thus interferewith the fixing of attention for a sufficient time to give definitenessto particular impressions. The virtue of curiosity is, therefore, todirect attention to the novel until it is made familiar. There is a typeof curiosity, however, which craves for mere astonishment and not forunderstanding. It is such curiosity that causes children to pry intoother people's belongings, and men into other people's affairs. 

=Sensuous and Apperceptive Curiosity. =--Curiosity may be considered oftwo kinds also from the standpoint of its origin. In early life, curiosity must rest largely upon sense perception, being essentially anappetite of the senses to meet and interpret the objective surroundings. A bright light, a loud noise, a moving object, at once awakenscuriosity. At this stage, curiosity serves as a counteracting influenceto the instinct of fear, the one leading the child to use his sensesupon his surroundings, and the other causing him to use them in acareful and judicious manner. As the child grows in experience, however, his curiosity limits itself more and more in accordance with the law ofapperception. Here the object attracts attention not merely because ofits sensuous properties, but because it suggests novel relations withinthe elements of past experience. The young child's curiosity, forinstance, is aroused toward a strange plant simply because of its formand colour, that of the student of botany, because the plant presentsfeatures that do not relate themselves at once to his botanicalexperience. The first curiosity may be called objective, or sensuous, the second subjective, or apperceptive. 

=Relation of Two Types. =--The distinction between sensuous andapperceptive curiosity is, of course, one of degree rather than one ofkind. A novel object could not be an object of attention unless it boresome relation to the present mental content. The young child, however, seeks mainly to give meaning to novel sense impressions, and is notattracted to the more hidden relations in which objects may stand one toanother. He is attracted, for instance, to the colour, scent, andgeneral form of the flower, rather than to its structure. On the otherhand, it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually arousedtoward a novel problem, to the extent to which the problem finds asetting in previous experience. This is seen in the fact that the youngchild takes no interest in having lessons grow out of each other in aconnected manner, but must have his curiosity aroused to the presentsituation through its own intrinsic appeal. For this reason, youngchildren are mainly interested in a lesson which deals with particularelements in a concrete manner, such as coloured blocks, bright pictures, and stories of action; while the older pupil seeks out the new problembecause it stands in definite relation to what is already known. 

=Importance of Apperceptive Curiosity. =--Since curiosity depends uponnovelty, it is evident that sensuous should ultimately give place toapperceptive curiosity. Although objects first impress the senses with adegree of freshness and vigour, this freshness must disappear as thenovelty of the impression wears off. When sensuous curiosity thusdisappears, it is only by seeing in the world of sensuous objects otherrelations with their larger meaning, that healthy curiosity is likelyto be maintained. Thus it is that the curiosity of the student isattracted to the more hidden qualities of objects, to the tracing ofcause and effect, and to the discovery of scientific truth in general. 

=Novelty versus Variety. =--While the familiar must lose something of itsfreshness through its very familiarity, it is to be noted that to remitany experience for a time will add something to the freshness of itsrevival. Persons and places, for instance, when revisited after a periodof absence, gain something of the charm of novelty. Variety is, therefore, a means by which the effect of curiosity may be sustained, even after the original novelty has disappeared. This fact should beespecially remembered in dealing with the studies of young children. Without being constantly fed upon the novel, the child may yet avoidmonotony by having a measure of variety within a reasonable number ofinterests. It is in this way, in fact, that permanent centres ofinterest can best be established. To keep a child's attentioncontinually upon one line of experiences would destroy both curiosityand interest. To keep him ever attending to the novel would prevent thebuilding up of any centres of interest. By variety within a reasonablenumber of subjects, both depth of interest and reasonable variety ininterests will be obtained. This is, therefore, another reason why theschool curriculum should show a reasonable number of subjects andreasonable variety in the presentation of these subjects. 

IMITATION

=Nature of Imitation. =--In our study of the nervous system, attentionwas called to the close connection existing between sensory impulse andaction. It may be noted further that, whenever the young child gains anidea of an action, he tends at once to express that idea in action. Onaccount of this immediate connection between thought and expression, dueto an inability to inhibit the motor discharge, a child, as soon as heis able to form ideas of the acts of others, must necessarily show atendency to repeat, or reproduce, such acts. Granting that thisimmediate connection between sensory impulse and motor response is aninherited capacity, the tendency of the young child to imitate the actsof others may be classified as an instinct. 

=Imitation a Complex. =--On closer examination, however, it will be foundthat imitation is really a complex of several tendencies. The nervousorganism of the healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervousenergy. This energy, like a swollen stream, seems ever striving to sweepaway any resistance to the motor discharge of sensory impulses, and mustnecessarily reinforce the natural tendency to give immediate expressionto ideas of action. Moreover, the social instincts of the child, hissympathy, etc. , give him a special interest in human beings and in theiracts. These tendencies, therefore, focus his attention upon humanaction, and cause his ideas of such acts to become more vivid andinteresting. For this reason, observation of human acts is more likelyto lead to motor expression. That the social instincts of the childreinforce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the fact that hisearly imitations are of human acts especially, as yawning, smiling, crying, etc. The same is further evidenced in that, at a later stage, when ordinary objects enter into his imitative acts, the imitation islargely symbolic, and objects are endowed with living attributes. Hereblocks become men; sticks, horses, etc. 

=Kinds of. A. Spontaneous Imitation. =--In its simplest form, imitationseems to follow directly upon the perception of a given act. As thechild attends, now to the nod of the head, now to the shaking of therattle, now to an uttered sound, he spontaneously reproduces theseperceived acts. Because in such cases the imitative act follows directlyupon the perception of the copy, without the intervention of anydetermination to imitate, it is termed spontaneous, or unconscious, imitation. It is by spontaneous imitation that the child gains so muchknowledge of the world about him, and so much power over the movementsof his own body. The occupations and language of the home, theoperations of the workman, the movements and gestures of the olderchildren in their games, all these are spontaneously reproduced throughimitation. This enables the child to participate largely in the sociallife about him. It is for this reason that he should observe only goodmodels of language and conduct during his early years. 

=B. Symbolic Imitation. =--If we note the imitative acts of a child offrom four to six years of age, we may find that a new factor is oftenentering into the process. At this stage the child, instead of merelycopying the acts of others, further clothes objects and persons withfancied attributes through a process of imagination. By this means, thelittle child becomes a mother and the doll a baby; one boy becomes ateacher or captain, the others become pupils or soldiers. This form hasalready been referred to as symbolic imitation. Frequent use is made ofthis type of imitation in education, especially in the kindergarten. Through the gifts, plays, etc. , of the kindergarten, the child inimagination exemplifies numberless relations and processes of the homeand community life. The educative value of this type consists in thefact that the child, by acting out in a symbolic, or make-believe, wayvaluable social processes, though doing them only in an imaginative way, comes to know them better by the doing. 

=C. Voluntary Imitation. =--As the child's increasing power of attentiongives him larger control of his experiences, he becomes able, not onlyto distinguish between the idea of an action and its reproduction byimitation, but also to associate some further end, or purpose, with theimitative process. The little child imitates the language of his fellowsspontaneously; the mimic, for the purpose of bringing out certainpeculiarities in their speech. When first imitating his elder paintingwith a brush, the child imitates merely in a spontaneous or unconsciousway the act of brushing. When later, however, he tries to secure thedelicate touch of his art teacher, he will imitate the teacher'smovements for the definite purpose of adding to his own skill. Becausein this type the imitator first conceives in idea the particular act tobe imitated, and then consciously strives to reproduce the act in likemanner, it is classified as conscious, or voluntary, imitation. 

=Use of Voluntary Imitation. =--Teachers differ widely concerning theeducational value of voluntary imitation. It is evident, however, thatin certain cases, as learning correct forms of speech, in physical andmanual exercises, in conduct and manners, etc. , good models forimitation count for more than rules and precepts. On the other hand, toendeavour to teach a child by imitation to read intelligently could onlyresult in failure. In such a case, the pupil, by attempting to analyseout and set up as models the different features of the teachers reading, would have his attention directed from the thought of the sentence. Butwithout grasping the meaning, the pupil cannot make his readingintelligent. In like manner, to have a child learn a rule in arithmeticby merely imitating the process from type examples worked by theteacher, would be worse than useless, since it would prevent independentthinking on the child's part. The purpose here is not to gain skill in amechanical process, but to gain knowledge of an intelligent principle. 

PLAY

=Nature of Play Impulse. =--Another tendency of early childhood utilizedby the modern educator is the so-called instinct of play. According tosome, the impulse to play represents merely the tendency of the surplusenergy stored up within the nervous organism to express itself inphysical action. According to this view, play would represent, not anyinherited tendency, but a condition of the nervous organism. It is to benoted, however, that this activity spends itself largely in what seemsinstinctive tendencies. The boy, in playing hide-and-seek, in chasing, and the like, seems to express the hunting and fleeing instincts of hisancestors. Playing with the doll is evidently suggested and influencedby the parental instinct, while in all games, the activity is evidentlydetermined largely by social instincts. Like imitation, therefore, playseems a complex, involving a number of instinctive tendencies. 

=Play versus Work. =--An essential characteristic of the play impulse isits freedom. By this is meant that the acts are performed, not to gainsome further end, but merely for the sake of the activity itself. Theimpulse to play, therefore, must find its initiative within the child, and must give expression merely to some inner tendency. So long, forexample, as the boy shovels the sand or piles the stones merely toexercise his physical powers, or to satisfy an inner tendency toimitate the actions of others, the operation is one of play. When, onthe other hand, these acts are performed in order to clean up the yard, or because they have been ordered to be done by a parent, the process isone of work, for the impulse to act now lies in something outside theact itself. To compel a child to play, therefore, would be to compel himto work. 

=Value of Play: A. Physical. =--Play is one of the most effective meansfor promoting the physical development of the child. This result followsnaturally from the free character of the play activity. Since theimpulse to act is found in the activity itself, the child always has astrong motive for carrying on the activity. On the other hand, whensomewhat similar activities are carried on as a task set by others, theend is too remote from the child's present interests and tendencies tosupply him with an immediate motive for the activity. Play, therefore, causes the young child to express himself physically to a degree thattasks set by others can never do, and thus aids him largely in securingcontrol of bodily movements. 

=B. Intellectual and Moral. =--In play, however, the child not onlysecures physical development and a control of bodily movements, but alsoexercises and develops other tendencies and powers. Many plays andgames, for instance, involve the use of the senses. Whether the youngchild is shaking his rattle, rolling the ball, pounding with the spoon, piling up blocks and knocking them over, or playing his regular guessinggames in the kindergarten, he is constantly stimulating his senses, andgiving his sensory nerves their needed development. As imitation andimagination, by their co-operation, later enable the child to symbolizehis play, such games as keeping store, playing carpenter, farmer, baker, etc. , both enlarge the child's knowledge of his surroundings, and alsoawaken his interest and sympathy toward these occupations. Other games, such as beans-in-the-bag, involve counting, and thus furnish the childincidental lessons in number under most interesting conditions. In gamesinvolving co-operation and competition, as the bowing game, thewindmill, fill the gap, chase ball in ring, etc. , the social tendenciesof the child are developed, and such individual instincts as rivalry, emulation, and combativeness are brought under proper control. 

PLAY IN EDUCATION

=Assigning Play. =--In adapting play to the formal education of thechild, a difficulty seems at once to present itself. If the teacherendeavours to provide the child with games that possess an educativevalue, physical, intellectual, or moral, how can she give such games tothe children, and at the same time avoid setting the game as a task?That such a result might follow is evident from our ordinary observationof young children. To the boy interested in a game of ball, the requestto come and join his sister in playing housekeeping would, more thanlikely, be positive drudgery. May it not follow therefore, that a tradeor guessing game given by the kindergarten director will fail to callforth the free activity of the child? One of the arguments of theadvocates of the Montessori Method in favour of that system is, that thespecially prepared apparatus of that system is itself suggestive of playexercises; and that, by having access to the apparatus, the child maychoose the particular exercise which appeals to his free activity at themoment. This supposed superiority of the Montessori apparatus over thekindergarten games is, however, more apparent than real. What theskilful kindergarten teacher does is, through her knowledge of theinterests and tendencies of the children, to suggest games that will belikely to appeal to their free activity, and at the same time haveeducative value along physical, intellectual, and moral lines. In thisway, she does no more than children do among themselves, when onesuggests a suitable game to his companions. In such a case, no one wouldargue, surely, that the leader is the only child to show free activityin the play. 

=Stages in Play. =--In the selecting of games, plays, etc. , it is to benoted that these may be divided into at least three classes, accordingas they appeal to children at different ages. The very young childprefers merely to play with somewhat simple objects that can make anappeal to his senses, as the rattle, the doll, the pail and shovel, hammer, crayon, etc. This preference depends, on the one hand, upon hisearly individualistic nature, which would object to share the play withanother; and, on the other hand, upon the natural hunger of his sensesfor varied stimulations. At about five years of age, owing to the growthof the child's imagination, symbolism begins to enter largely into hisgames. At this age the children love to play church, school, soldier, scavenger man, hen and chickens, keeping store, etc. At from ten totwelve years of age, co-operative and competitive games are preferred;and with boys, those games especially which demand an amount of strengthand skill. This preference is to be accounted for through the markeddevelopment of the social instincts at this age and, in the case ofboys, through increase in strength and will power. 

=Limitations of Play. =--Notwithstanding the value of play as an agent ineducation, it is evident that its application in the school-room islimited. Social efficiency demands that the child shall learn toappreciate the joy of work even more than the joy of play. Moreover, asnoted in the early part of our work, the acquisition of race experiencedemands that its problems be presented to the child in definite andlogical order. This can be accomplished only by having them presented tothe pupil by an educative agent and therefore set as a problem or a taskto be mastered. This, of course, does not deny that the teacher shouldstrive to have the pupil express himself as freely as possible as heworks at his school problem. It does necessitate, however, that thechild should find in his lesson some conscious end, or aim, to bereached beyond the mere activity of the learning process. This in itselfstamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more than mereplay. 

CHAPTER XXII

HABIT

=Nature of Habit. =--When an action, whether performed under the fulldirection, or control, of attention and with a sense of effort, ormerely as an instinctive or impulsive act, comes by repetition to beperformed with such ease that consciousness may be largely diverted fromthe act itself and given to other matters, the action is said to havebecome habitual. For example, if a person attempts a new manner ofputting on a tie, it is first necessary for him to stand before a glassand follow attentively every movement. In a short time, however, hefinds himself able to perform the act easily and skilfully both withoutthe use of a glass and almost without conscious direction. Moreover ifthe person should chance in his first efforts to hold his arms and headin a certain way in order to watch the process more easily in the glass, it is found that when later he does the act even without the use of aglass, he must still hold his arms and head in this manner. 

=Basis of Habits. =--The ability of the organism to habituate an action, or make it a reflex is found to depend upon certain properties ofnervous matter which have already been considered. 

These facts are:

1. Nervous matter is composed of countless numbers of individual cellsbrought into relation with one another through their outgoing fibres. 

2. This tissue is so plastic that whenever it reacts upon an impressiona permanent modification is made in its structure. 

3. Not only are such modifications retained permanently, but they give atendency to repeat the act in the same way; while every such repetitionmakes the structural modification stronger, and this renders furtherrepetition of the act both easier and more effective. 

4. The connections between the various nervous centres thus become sopermanent that the action may run its course with a minimum ofresistance within the nervous system. 

5. In time the movements are so fixed within the system that connectionsare formed between sensory and motor centres at points lower than thecortex--that is, the stimulus and response become reflex. 

=An Example. =--When a child strives to acquire the movements necessaryin making a new capital letter, his eye receives an impression of theletter which passes along the sensory system to the cortex and, usuallywith much effort, finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the letter. Thus a permanent trace, or course, is established in the nervous system, which will be somewhat more easily taken on a future occasion. After anumber of repetitions, the child, by giving his attention fully to theact, is able to form the letter with relative ease. As these movementsare repeated, however, the nervous system, as already noted, may shortenthe circuit between the point of sensory impression and motor dischargeby establishing associations in centres lower than those situated in thecortex. Whenever any act is repeated a great number of times, therefore, these lower associations are established with a resulting diminution ofthe impression upward through the cortex of the brain. This results alsoin a lessening of the amount of attention given the movement, untilfinally the act can be performed in a perfectly regular way withpractically no conscious, or attentive, effort. 

=Habit and Consciousness. =--While saying that such habitual action maybe performed with facility in the absence of conscious direction, itmust not be understood that conscious attention is necessarily entirelyabsent during the performance of an habitual act. In many of these acts, as for instance, lacing and tieing a shoe, signing one's name, etc. , conscious effort usually gives the first impulse to perform the act. There may be cases, however, in which one finds himself engaged in somecustomary act without any seeming initial conscious suggestion. Thiswould be noted, for instance, where a person starts for the customaryclothes closet, perhaps to obtain something from a pocket, and suddenlyfinds himself hanging on a hook the coat he has unconsciously removedfrom his shoulders. Here the initial movement for removing the coat mayhave been suggested by the sight of the customary closet, or by themovement involved in opening the closet door, these impressions beingclosely co-ordinated through past experiences with those of removing thecoat. When, also, a woman is sewing or kneading bread, although sheseems to be able to give her attention fully to the conversation inwhich she may be engaged, yet no doubt a slight trace of consciouscontrol is still exercised over the other movements. This is seen in thefact that, whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that it takesa very strong hold on the attention, the habitual movements may ceasewithout the person being at first aware that she has ceased working. 

=Habit and Nervous Action. =--The general flow of the nervous energyduring such processes as the above, in which there is an interchangebetween conscious and habitual control, may be illustrated by thefollowing figures. In these figures the heavy lines indicate the processactually going on, while the broken lines indicate that although suchnerve courses are established, they are not being brought into activeoperation in the particular case. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1, FIG. 2, FIG. 3

A. Sensory StimulusB. Lower Sensory CentreC. Higher Sensory Centre

A' Higher Motor CentreB' Lower Motor CentreC' Motor Response]

The arrows in Figure 1 indicate the course of sensory stimulation andmotor response during the first efforts to acquire skill in anymovement. No connections are yet set up between lower centres and theacts are under conscious control. 

The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the course of sensory stimulus and motorresponse in an ordinary habitual act, as when an expert fingers thepiano keys or controls a bicycle while his mind is occupied with othermatters. 

The arrows in Figure 3 indicate how, even in performing what isordinarily an habitual act, the mind may at any time assume control ofthe movement. This is illustrated in the case of a person who, whenunconsciously directing his bicycle along the road, comes to a narrowplank over a culvert. Hereupon full attention may be given to themovements, that is, the acts may come under conscious control. 

FORMATION OF HABITS

It is evident from the nature of the structure and properties of thenervous system, that man cannot possibly avoid the formation of habits. Any act once performed will not only leave an indelible trace within thenervous system, but will also set up in the system a tendency to repeatthe act. It is this fact that always makes the first false stepexceedingly dangerous. Moreover, every repetition further breaks downthe present resistance and, therefore, in a sense further enslaves theindividual to that mode of action. The word poorly articulated for thefirst time, the letter incorrectly formed, the impatient shrug of theshoulder--these set up their various tracks, create a tendency, andsoon, through the establishment of lower connections, become unconscioushabits. Thus it is that every one soon becomes a bundle of habits. 

=Precautions to be Taken. =--A most important problem in relation to thelife of the young child is that he should at the outset form righthabits. This includes not only doing the right thing, but also doing itin the right way. For this he must have the right impression, make theright response, and continue this response until the proper paths areestablished in the nervous system, or, in other words, until practicallyall resistance within the system is overcome. It is here that teachersare often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various forms ofexpressive work. They may indeed give the child the proper impression, for example, the correct form of the letter, the correct pronunciationof the new word, the correct position for the pen and the body, but toooften they do not exercise the vigilance necessary to have the firstresponses develop into well-fixed habits. But it must be remembered thatthe child's first response is necessarily crude; for as already seen, there is always at first a certain resistance to the co-ordinatedmovements, on account of the tracks within the nervous system not yetbeing surely established. The result is that during the time thisresistance is being overcome, there is constant danger of variationscreeping into the child's responses. Unless, therefore, he is constantlywatched during this practice period, his response may fall much belowthe model, or standard, set by the teacher. Take, for instance, thechild's mode of forming a letter. At the outset he is given the correctforms for _g_ and _m_, but on account of the resistance met inperforming these movements he may, if left without proper supervision, soon fall into such movements as [symbol] and [symbol]. The chief valueof the Montessori sandpaper letters consists in the fact that theyenable the child to continue a correct movement without variation untilall resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome. Two factsshould, therefore, be kept prominently in view by the teacher concerningthe child's efforts to secure skill. First, the learner's early attemptsmust be necessarily crude, both through the resistance at first offeredby the nervous system on account of the proper paths not being laid inthe system, and also through the image of the movement not being clearlyconceived. Secondly, there is constant danger of variations from theproper standard establishing themselves during this period ofresistance. 

VALUE OF HABITS

=Habits Promote Efficiency. =--But notwithstanding the dangers which seemto attend the formation of habits, it is only through this inevitablereduction of his more customary acts to unconscious habit that manattains to proficiency. Only by relieving conscious attention from theordinary mechanical processes in any occupation, is the artist able toattend to the special features of the work. Unless, for instance, thescholar possesses as an unconscious habit the ability to hold the penand form and join the various letters, he could never devote hisattention to evolving the thoughts composing his essay. In like manner, without an habitual control of the chisel, the carver could not possiblygive an absorbing attention to the delicate outlines of the particularmodel. It is only because the rider has habituated himself to thecontrol of the handles, etc. , that he can give his attention to thestreet traffic before him and guide the bicycle or automobile throughthe ever varying passages. The first condition of efficiency, therefore, in any pursuit, is to reduce any general movements involved in theprocess to unconscious habits, and thus leave the conscious judgmentfree to deal with the changeable features of the work. 

=Habit Conserves Energy. =--Another advantage of habit is that it adds tothe individual's capacity for work. When any movements are novel andrequire our full attention, a greater nervous resistance is met onaccount of the laying down of new paths in the nerve centres. Moreoverlonger nervous currents are produced through the cortex of the brain, because conscious attention is being called into play. These conditionsnecessarily consume a greater amount of nerve energy. The result is thatman is able to continue for a longer time with less nervous exhaustionany series of activities after they have developed into habits. This canbe seen by noting the ease with which one can perform any physicalexercise after habituating himself to the movements, compared with theevident strain experienced when the exercise is first undertaken. 

=Makes the Disagreeable Easy. =--Another, though more incidental, advantage of the formation of habits, is that occupations in themselvesuninteresting or even distasteful may, through habit, be performed atleast without mental revulsion. This results largely from the fact thatthe growth of habit decreases the resistance, and thus lessens ordestroys the disagreeable feeling. Moreover, when such acts are reducedto mechanical habits, the mind is largely free to consider other things. In this way the individual, even in the midst of his drudgery, may enjoythe pleasures of memory or imagination. Although, therefore, in goingthrough some customary act, one may still dislike the occupation, thefact that he can do much of it habitually, leaves him free to enjoy acertain amount of mental pleasure in other ways. 

=Aids Morality. =--The formation of habits also has an important bearingon the moral life. By habituating ourselves to right forms of action, weno doubt make in a sense moral machines of ourselves, since the rightaction is the one that will meet the least nervous resistance, while thedoing of the wrong action would necessitate the establishing of newco-ordinations in the nervous system. It is no doubt partly owing tothis, that one whose habits are formed can so easily resist temptations;for to ask him to act other than in the old way is to ask him to make, not the easy, but the hard reaction. While this is true, however, itmust not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the right thinginvolves only a question of customary nervous reaction. When we chooseto do our duty, we make a conscious choice, and although earlier rightaction has set up certain nerve co-ordinations which render it now easyto choose the right, yet it must be remembered that _conscious judgment_is also involved. In such cases man does the right mainly because hisjudgment tells him that it is right. If, therefore, he is in a situationwhere he must act in a totally different way from what is customary, aswhen a quiet, peace-loving man sees a ruffian assaulting a helplessperson, a moral man does not hesitate to change his habitual modes ofphysical action. 

IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTIONS

=To Eliminate a Habit. =--From what has been learned concerning thepermanency of our habits, it is evident that only special effort willenable us to make any change in an habitual mode of reaction. In atleast two cases, however, changes may be necessary. The fact that manyof our early habits are formed either unconsciously, or in ignorance oftheir evil character, finds us, perhaps, as we come to years ofdiscretion, in possession of certain habits from which we would gladlybe freed. Such habits may range from relatively unimportant personalpeculiarities to impolite and even immoral modes of conduct. Inattempting to free ourselves from such acts, we must bear in mind whathas been noted concerning the basis of retention. To repeat an act atfrequent intervals is an important condition of retaining it as a habit. On the other hand, the absence of such repetition is almost sure, in duetime, to obliterate the nervous tendency to repeat the act. To freeone's self from an undesirable habit, therefore, the great essential isto avoid resolutely, for a reasonable time, any recurrence of the bannedhabit. While this can be accomplished only by conscious effort andwatchfulness, yet each day passed without the repetition of the actweakens by so much the old nerve co-ordinations. To attempt to break anold habit, gradually, however, as some would prefer, can result only instill keeping the habitual tendency relatively strong. 

=To Modify a Habit. =--At other times, however, we may desire not toeliminate an habitual co-ordination _in toto_, but rather to modify onlycertain phases of the reaction. In writing, for instance, a pupil may beholding his pen correctly and also using the proper muscular movements, but may have developed a habit of forming certain letters incorrectly, as [symbol] and [symbol]. In any attempt to correct such forms, aspecial difficulty is met in the fact that the incorrect movements arenow closely co-ordinated with a number of correct movements, which mustnecessarily be retained while the other portions of the process arebeing modified. To effect such a modification, it is necessary forattention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements, and form a clearidea of the changes desired. With this idea as a conscious aim, thepupil must have abundant practice in writing the new forms, and avoidany recurrence of the old incorrect movements. This fact emphasizes theimportance of attending to the beginning of any habit. In teachingwriting, for instance, the teacher might first give attention only tothe form of the letter and then later seek to have the child acquire themuscular movement. In the meantime, however, the child, while learningto form the letters, may have been allowed to acquire the fingermovement, and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find muchdifficulty. By limiting the child to the use of a black-board or a largepencil and tablet, and having him make only relatively large letterswhile he is learning to form them, the teacher could have the pupilavoid this early formation of the habit of writing with the fingermovement. 

=Limitations of Habit. =--From what has here been learned concerning theformation of physical habits, it becomes evident that there arelimitations to these as forms of reaction. Since any habit is largelyan unconscious reaction to a particular situation, its value will beconditional upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth thereaction. These circumstances must occur quite often under almostidentical conditions, otherwise the habit can have no value in directingour social conduct. On the contrary, it may seriously interfere withsuccessful effort. For the player to habituate his hands to fingeringthe violin is very important, because this is a case where such constantconditions are to be met. For a salesman to habituate himself to onemode of presenting goods to his customers would be fatal, since both thecharacter and the needs of the customers are so varied that no permanentform of approach could be effective in all cases. To habituate ourselvesto some narrow automatic line of action and follow it even under varyingcircumstances, therefore, might prevent the mind from properly weighingthese varying conditions, and thus deaden initiative. It is for thisreason that experience is so valuable in directing life action. By theuse of past experience, the mind is able to analyse each situationcalling for reaction and, by noting any unusual circumstances itpresents, may adapt even our habitual reactions to the particularconditions. 

The relation of habit to interest and attention is treated in ChapterXXIV. 

CHAPTER XXIII

ATTENTION

=Nature of Attention. =--In our study of the principles of generalmethod, it was noted that the mind is able to set up and hold beforeitself as a problem any partially realized experience. From what hasbeen said concerning nervous stimulation and the passing inward ofsensuous impression, it might be thought that the mind is for the mostpart a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states as they chance toarise through the stimulations of the particular moment. Furtherconsideration will show, however, that, at least after very earlychildhood, the mind usually exercises a strong selective control overwhat shall occupy consciousness at any particular time. In the case of astudent striving to unravel the mazes of his mathematical problem, countless impressions of sight, sound, touch, etc. , may be stimulatinghim from all sides, yet he refuses in a sense to attend to any of them. The singing of the maid, the chilliness of the room as the fire diesout, even the pain in the limb, all fail to make themselves known inconsciousness, until such time as the successful solution causes theperson to direct his attention from the work in hand. In like manner, the traveller at the busy station, when intent upon catching his train, is perhaps totally unconscious of the impressions being received fromthe passing throngs, the calling newsboys, the shunting engines, and themalodorous cattle cars. This ability of the mind to focus itself uponcertain experiences to the exclusion of other possible experiences isknown as _attention_. 

=Degree of Attention. =--Mention has already been made of states ofconsciousness in which the mind seems in a passive state of reverie. Although the mind, even in such sub-conscious states, would seem toexercise some slight attention, it is yet evident that it does notexercise a definite selective control during such passive states ofconsciousness. Attention proper, on the other hand, may be described asa state in which the mind focuses itself upon some particularimpression, and thus makes it stand out more clearly in consciousness asa definite experience. From this standpoint it may be assumed that, in astate of waking reverie, the attention is so scattered that noimpression is made to stand out clearly in consciousness. On the otherhand, as soon as the mind focuses itself on a certain impression, forexample, the report of a gun, the relation of two angles, or the imageof a centaur, this stands out so clearly that it occupies the wholeforeground of consciousness, while all other impressions hide themselvesin the background. This single focal state of consciousness is, therefore, pre-eminently a state of attention while the former state ofreverie, on account of its diffuse character, may be said to berelatively devoid of attention. 

=Physical Illustrations of Attention. =--To furnish a physicalillustration of the working of attention, some writers describe thestream of our conscious life as presenting a series of waves, thesuccessive waves representing the impressions or ideas upon whichattention is focused at successive moments. When attention is in adiffuse state, consciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream. The focusing of attention upon particular impressions and thus makingthem stand out as distinct states of consciousness is said to break thesurface of the stream into waves. This may be illustrated as follows:

[Illustration: FIG. 1--Consciousness in a state of passive reverie. 

FIG. 2--Active consciousness. Attention focussed on thedefinite experiences _a, b, c, d, e, f, g_. ]

By others, consciousness is described as a field of vision, in which thecentre of vision represents the focal point of attention. For instance, if the student intent upon his problem in analysis does not notice theflickering light, the playing of the piano, or the smell of the burningmeat breaking in upon him, it is because this problem occupies thecentre of the attentive field. The other impressions, on the contrary, lie so far on the outside of the field that they fail to stand out inconsciousness. This may be represented by the following diagram:

[Illustration: P represents the problem on which attention is fixed. A, B, C, D, E, represent impressions which, though stimulating theorganism, do not attract definite attention. ]

It must be understood, however, that these are merely mechanical devicesto illustrate the fact that when the mind selects, or attends to, anyimpression, this impression is made to stand out clearly as an object inconsciousness; or, in other words, the particular impression becomes aclear-cut and definite experience. 

[Illustration: Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention]

=Neural Basis of Attention. =--The neural conditions under which the mindexercises such active attention seem to be that during the attentivestate the nervous energy concentrates itself upon the paths and centresinvolved in the particular experience, the resistance being decreased inthe paths connecting the cells traversed by the impulse. Moreover, anynervous energy tending to escape in other channels is checked and themovements hindered, thus shutting off attention from other possibleexperiences. For instance, a person with little interest in horticulturemight pass a flowering shrub, the colour, form, and scent making only afaint impression upon him. If, however, his companion should say, "Whata lovely colour, " his attention will direct itself to this quality, withthe result that the colour stands out much more clearly inconsciousness, and the other features practically escape his notice. Here the suggestion of the companion focuses attention upon the colour, this being accompanied with a lessening of the resistance between thecentres involved in interpreting the colour sensations. At the same timeresistance in the arcs involving form and smell is increased, and theenergy diverted from these arcs into that of colour. 

ATTENTION SELECTIVE

=Attention and Interest. =--At this point a question naturally arises whythe mind, since it is continually subject to the influence ofimpressions from without and of reviving ideas from within, shouldselect and focus attention upon certain of these to the exclusion ofothers. The answer usually given is that the mind feels in each case, atleast vaguely, a personal interest in some change or adjustment to bewrought either in or through the impression which it makes an object ofattention. When, for instance, the reader diverts his attention from theinteresting story to the loud talking outside the window, he evidentlydesires to adjust his understanding more fully to the new and strangeimpression. So, also, when the spectator rivets his attention upon theflying ball, it is because he associates with this the interestingpossibility of a change in the score. In like manner, the student ingeometry fixes his attention upon the line joining the points ofbisection of the sides, because he desires to change his present mentalstate of uncertainty as to its parallelism with the base into one ofcertainty. He further fixes his attention upon the qualities of certainbases and triangles, because through attending to these, he hopes togain the desired experience concerning the parallelism of the twolines. 

=Attention and the Question. =--The general conditions for determiningthe course of attention will be further understood by a reference to twofacts already established in connection with general method. It has beenseen that the question and answer method is usually a successful mode ofconducting the learning process. The reason for this is that thequestion is a most effective means of directing a selective act ofattention. For instance, in an elementary science lesson on the candleflame, although the child, if left to himself, might observe the flame, he would not, in all probability, notice particularly the luminous part. Or again, if a dry glass is simply held over the flame and then removedby the demonstrator, although the pupil may have watched the experimentin a general way, it is doubtful whether he would notice particularlythe moisture deposited upon the glass. A question from the demonstrator, however, awakens interest, causes the mind to focus in a specialdirection, and banishes from consciousness features which mightotherwise occupy attention. This is because the question suggests aproblem, and thus awakens an expectant or unsatisfied state of mind, which is likely to be satisfied only by attending to what the questionsuggests as an object of attention. 

=Attention and Motive. =--It has already been noted that any process oflearning is likely to be more effective when the child realizes adistinct problem, or aim, in the lesson, or feels a need for goingthrough the learning process. The cause of this is that the aim, byawaking curiosity, etc. , is an effective means of securing attention. When, for example, the pupil, in learning that 3 × 4 = 12, begins withthe problem of finding out how many threes are contained in his twelveblocks, his curiosity can be satisfied only by grasping certainsignificant relations. In approaching the lesson, therefore, with suchan actual problem before him, the child feels a desire to change, oralter, his present mental relation to the problem. In other words, hewishes to gain something involved in the problem which he does not nowknow or is not yet able to do. His desire to bring about this change orto reach this end not only holds his attention upon the problem, butalso adjusts it to whatever ideas are likely to assist in solving theproblem. When, therefore, pupils approach a lesson with an interestingproblem in mind, the teacher finds it much easier to centre theirattention upon those factors which make for the acquisition of the newexperience. 

INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION

=Nature of Involuntary Attention. =--Attention is met in its simplestform when the mind spontaneously focuses itself upon any strong stimulusreceived through the senses, as a flashing light, a loud crash, a bittertaste, or a violent pressure. As already noted, the significance of thistype of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks to adjust itselfintelligently to a new condition in its surroundings which has beensuggested to it through the violent stimulus. The ability to attend tosuch stimuli is evidently an inherited capacity, and is possessed byanimals as well as by children. It is also the only form of attentionexercised by very young children, and for some time the child seems tohave little choice but to attend to the ever varying stimuli, theattention being drawn now to a bright light, now to a loud voice, according to the violence of the impressions. On account of the apparentlack of control over the direction of attention, this type is spoken ofas spontaneous, or involuntary, attention. 

=Place and Value. =--It is only, however, during his very early yearsthat man lacks a reasonable control even over relatively strongstimulations. As noted above, the mind acquires an ability toconcentrate itself upon a single problem in the midst of relativelyviolent stimulations. Moreover, in the midst of various strongstimulations, it is able to select the one which it desires, to theexclusion of all others. At a relatively early age, for instance, theyouth is able, in his games, to focus his attention upon the ball, andpays little attention to the shouts and movements of the spectators. Onthe other hand, however, it is also true that man never loses thischaracteristic of attending in an involuntary, or reflex, way to anystrong stimulus. Indeed, without the possession of this hereditarytendency, it is hard to see how he could escape any dangers with whichhis body might be threatened while his attention is strongly engaged ananother problem. 

=Educational Precautions. =--That young children naturally tend to givetheir attention to strong stimuli, is a matter of considerable moment tothe primary teacher. It is for this cause, among others, that reasonablequiet and order should prevail in the class-room during the recitation. When the pupil is endeavouring to fix his attention upon a selectedproblem, say the relation of the square foot to the square yard, anyundue stimulation of his senses from the school-room environment couldnot fail to distract his attention from the problem before him. For thesame reason, the external conditions should be such as are not likely tofurnish unusual stimulations, as will be the case if the class-room ison a busy street and must be ventilated by means of open windows. Finally, in the use of illustrative materials, the teacher should seethat the concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in waysforeign to the lesson topic. For example, in teaching a nature lesson onthe crow, the teacher would find great difficulty in keeping thechildren's attention on the various topics of the lesson, if he hadbefore the class a live crow that kept cawing throughout the wholelesson period. Nor would it seem a very effective method of attractingattention to the problem of a lesson, if the teacher were continuallyshouting and waving his arms at the pupils. 

NON-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION

=Nature of Non-voluntary Attention. =--On account of the part played byinterest in the focusing of attention, it is possible to distinguish asecond type of spontaneous attention in which the mind seems directlyattracted to an object of thought because of a natural satisfactiongained from contemplating the subject. The lover, apparently without anydetermination, and without any external stimulus to suggest the topic, finds his attention ever centring itself upon the image of his fairlady. The young lad, also, without any apparent cause, turns histhoughts constantly to his favourite game. Here the impulse to attend isevidently from within, rather than from without, and arises from theinterest that the mind has in the particular experience. This type ofattention is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through themind without any apparent end in view, one idea suggesting another inaccordance with the prevailing mood. The mind, in a half passive state, thinks of last evening, then of the house of a friend, then of thepersons met there, then of the game played, etc. In the same way theattention of the student turns without effort to his favourite schoolsubject, and its various aspects may pass in view before him withoutany effort or determination on his part. Because in this type ofattention the different thoughts stand out in consciousness without anyapparent choice, or selection, on the part of the mind, it is describedas non-voluntary attention. 

VOLUNTARY ATTENTION

=Nature of Voluntary Attention. =--The most important form of attention, however, is that in which the mind focuses itself upon an idea, not as aresult of outside stimulation, but with some further purpose in view. For instance, when a person enters a room in which a strange objectseems to be giving out musical notes automatically, he may at first givespontaneous attention to the sounds coming from the instrument. When, however, he approaches the object later with a desire to discover thenature of its mechanism, his attention is focused upon the object with amore remote aim, or end, in view, to discover where the music comesfrom. So also, when the lad mentioned in Chapter II fixed his attentionon the lost coin, he set this object before his attention with a furtherend in view--how to regain it. Because the person here _determines_ toattend to, or think about, a certain problem, in order that he may reacha certain consciously set end, this form of attention is described asvoluntary, or active, attention. 

=Near and Remote Ends. =--It is to be noted, however, that theinteresting end toward which the mind strives in voluntary attention maybe relatively near or remote. A child examining an automatic toy does itfor the sake of discovering what is in the toy itself; an adult in orderto see whether it is likely to interest his child. A student givesattention to the problem of the length of the hypotenuse because he isinterested in the mathematical problem itself, the contractor because hedesires to know how much material will be necessary for the roof of thebuilding. One child may apply himself to mastering a reading lessonbecause the subject itself is interesting to him, another because hedesires to take home a perfect report at the end of the week, and athird because a sense of obligation tells him that teacher and parentswill expect him to study it. 

=How we Attend to a Problem. =--Since voluntary attention implies mentalmovement directed to the attainment of some end, the mind does notsimply keep itself focused on the particular problem. For instance, inattempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of a triangleequals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles, no progresstoward the attainment of the end in view could be made by merely holdingbefore the mind the idea of their equality. It is, in fact, impossiblefor the attention to be held for any length of time on a single topic. This will be readily seen if one tries to hold his attentioncontinuously upon, say, the tip of a pencil. When this is attempted, other ideas constantly crowd out the selected idea. The only sense, therefore, in which one holds his attention upon the problem in an actof voluntary attention is, that his attention passes forward and backbetween the problem and ideas felt to be associated with it. Voluntaryattention is, therefore, a mental process in which the mind shifts fromone idea to another in attaining to a desired end, or problem. In thisshifting, or movement, of voluntary attention, however, two significantfeatures manifest themselves. First, in working forward and back fromthe problem as a controlling centre, attention brings into consciousnessideas more or less relevant to the problem. Secondly, it selects andadjusts to the problem those that actually make for its solution, andbanishes from consciousness whatever is felt to be foreign to obtainingthe desired end. 

=Example of Controlled Attention. =--To exemplify a process of voluntaryattention we may notice the action of the mind in solving such a problemas:

 Two trains started at the same moment from Toronto and Hamilton respectively, one going at the rate of thirty miles an hour and the other at the rate of forty miles an hour. Supposing the distance between Toronto and Hamilton to be forty miles, in how many minutes will the trains meet?

Here the pupil must first fix his attention upon the problem--the numberof minutes before the trains will meet. This at once forms both a centreand a standard for measuring other related ideas. In this way hisattention passes to the respective rates of the two trains, thirty andforty miles per hour. Then perhaps he fixes attention on the thoughtthat one goes a mile in two minutes and the other a mile in 1-1/2minutes. But as he recognizes that this is leading him away from theproblem, resistance is offered to the flow of attention in thisdirection, and he passes to the thought that in a _minute_ the formergoes 1/2 mile and the later 2/3 of a mile. From this he passes to thethought that in one minute they together go 1-1/6 miles. Hereuponperhaps the idea comes to his mind to see how many miles they would goin an hour. This, however, is soon felt to be foreign to the problem, and resistance being set up in this direction, the attention turns toconsider in what time the two together cover 40 miles. Now by dividing40 miles by 1-1/6, he obtains the number 34-2/7 and is satisfied thathis answer is 34-2/7 minutes. The process by which the attention hereselected and adjusted the proper ideas to the problem might beillustrated by the following Figure:

[Illustration]

Here "P" represents the problem; a, b, c, d, and e, ideas accepted asrelevant to the problem; and b', d' ideas suggested by b and d, butrejected as not adjustable to the problem. 

=Factors in Process. =--The above facts demonstrate, however, that themind can take this attitude toward any problem only if it has a certainstore of old knowledge relative to it. Two important conditions ofvoluntary attention are therefore, first, that the mind should have thenecessary ideas, or knowledge, with which to attend and, secondly, thatit would select and adjust these to the purpose in view. Here theintimate connection of voluntary attention to the normal learningprocess is apparent. The step of preparation, for instance, is merelyputting the mind in the proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an endin view, namely the lesson problem; while the so-calledanalytic-synthetic process of learning involves the selecting andadjusting movements of voluntary attention. 

=Spontaneous and Voluntary Attention Distinguished. =--In describingvoluntary attention as an active form of attention, psychologists assumethat since the mind here wills, or resolves, to attend, in order to gaina certain end in view; therefore voluntary attention must imply a muchgreater degree of effort, or strain, than other types. That such isalways the case, however, is at times not very apparent. If one mayjudge by the straining of eye or ear, the poise of the body, the holdingof the breath, etc. , when a person gives involuntary attention to anysudden impression, as a strange noise at night, it is evident that thedifference of effort, or strain, in attending to this and some selectedproblem may not, during the time it continues, be very marked. 

It is of course true that in voluntary attention the mind must chooseits own object of attention as an end, or aim, while in the involuntarytype the problem seems thrust upon us. This certainly does imply adeliberate choice in the former, and to that extent may be said toinvolve an effort not found in the latter. In like manner, when seekingto attain the end which has been set up, the mind must select therelated ideas which will solve its problem. This in turn may demand thegrasping of a number of complex relations. To say, however, that allstriving to attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary attentionwould evidently be fallacious. When the mind is startled by a strangenoise, the mind evidently does go out, though in a less formal way, tointerpret a problem involuntarily thrust upon it. When, for instance, wereceive the violent impression, the mind may be said to ask itself, "What strange impression is this?" and to that extent, even here, facesa selected problem. The distinguishing feature of voluntary attention, therefore, is the presence of a consciously conceived end, or aim, uponwhich the mind deliberately sets its attention as something to bethought _about_. 

ATTENTION IN EDUCATION

=Voluntary Attention and Learning. =--From what has been seen, it isevident that, when a pupil in his school approaches any particularproblem, the learning process will represent a process of voluntaryattention. This form of attention is, therefore, one of specialsignificance to the teacher, since a knowledge of the process will castadditional light upon the learning process. The first condition ofvoluntary attention is the power to select some idea as an end, orproblem, for attention. It was seen, however, that the focusing ofattention upon any problem depends upon some form of desirable change tobe effected in and through the set problem. For instance, unless therecovery of the coin is conceived as producing a desirable change, itwould not become a deliberately set problem for attention. It isessential, therefore, that the end which the child is to choose as anobject of attention should be one conceived as demanding a desiredchange, or adjustment. For instance, to ask a child to focus hisattention upon two pieces of wood merely as pieces of wood is not likelyto call forth an active effort of attention. To direct his attention tothem to find out how many times the one is contained in the other, onthe other hand, focuses his attention more strongly upon them; since theend to be reached will awaken his curiosity and set an interestingproblem. 

=Non-voluntary Attention in Education. =--On account of the ease withwhich attention seems to centre itself upon its object in non-voluntaryattention, it is sometimes erroneously claimed that this is the type ofattention to be aimed at in the educative process, especially with youngchildren. Such a view is, however, a fallacious one, and results from afalse notion of the real character of both non-voluntary and voluntaryattention. In a clear example of non-voluntary attention, the minddwells upon the ideas merely on account of their inherentattractiveness, and passes from one idea to its associated idea withoutany purposeful end in view. This at once shows its ineffectiveness as aprocess of learning. When the young lover's thoughts revert in anon-voluntary way to the fair one, he perhaps passes into a state ofmere reminiscence, or at best of idle fancy. Even the student whosethoughts run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject, willmerely revive old associations, or at best make a chance discovery ofsome new knowledge. In the same way, the child who delights in musicalsounds may be satisfied to drum the piano by the hour, but this islikely to give little real advance, unless definite problems are set upand their attainment striven for in a purposeful way. 

=Voluntary Attention and Interest. =--A corollary of the fallacymentioned above is the assumption that voluntary attention necessarilyimplies some conflict with the mind's present desire or interest. It issometimes said, for instance, that in voluntary attention, we compel ourmind to attend, while our interest would naturally direct our attentionelsewhere. But without a desire to effect some change in or through theproblem being attended to, the mind would not voluntarily make it anobject of attention. The misconception as to the relation of voluntaryattention to interest is seen in an illustration often given as anexample of non-voluntary attention. It is said, rightly enough, that ifa child is reading an interesting story, and is just at the point wherethe plot is about to unravel itself, there will be difficulty indiverting his attention to other matters. This, it is claimed, furnishesa good example of the power of non-voluntary attention. But quite theopposite may be the case. When called upon, say by his parent, to layaside the book and attend to some other problem, the child, it is true, shows a desire to continue reading. But this may be because he has adefinite aim of his own in view--to find out the fate of his hero. Thisis a strongly felt need on his part, and his mind refuses to besatisfied until, by further attention to the problem before him, he hasattained to this end. The only element of truth in the illustration isthat the child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intensefeeling tone associated with the selected, or determined, aim--the fateof his hero. The fact is, therefore, that a process of voluntaryattention may have associated with its problem as strong an interest asis found in the non-voluntary type. 

=Voluntary Attention Depends on Problem. =--It is evident from theforegoing that the characteristic of voluntary attention is not theabsence or the presence of any special degree of interest, but ratherthe conception of some end, or purpose, to be reached in and through theattentive process. In other words, voluntary attention is a state ofmind in which the mental movements are not drifting without a chart, butare seeking to reach a set haven. A person who is greatly interested inautomobiles, for instance, on seeing a new machine, may allow hisattention to run now to this part of the machine, now to that, as eachattracts him in turn. Here no fixed purpose is being served by theattentive process, and attention may pass from part to part in anon-voluntary way, the person's general interest in automobiles beingsufficient to keep the attention upon the subject. Suddenly, however, hemay notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the machine, anda desire arises to understand its significance. This at once becomes anend to which the mind desires to attain, and voluntary attentionproceeds to direct the mental movements toward its attainment. Tosuppose, however, that the interest, manifest in the former mentalmovements, is now absent, would evidently be fallacious. The differencelies in this, that at first the attention seemed fixed on the objectthrough a general interest only, and drifted from point to point in apurposeless way, while in the second case an interesting end, orpurpose, controlled the mental movements, and therefore made eachmovement significant in relation to the whole conscious process. 

=Attention and Knowledge. =--Mention has already been made of therelation of attention to interest. It should be noted, further, that thedifference in our attention under different circumstances is largelydependent upon our knowledge. The stonecutter, as he passes the finemansion, gives attention to the fretted cornice; the glazier, to thebeautiful windows; the gardener, to the well-kept lawn and beds. Eventhe present content of the mind has its influence upon attention. Thestudent on his way to school, if busy with his spelling lesson, isattracted to the words and letters on posters and signs. If he isreviewing his botany, he notes especially the weeds along the walk; ifcarrying to his art teacher, with a feeling of pride, the finishedlandscape drawing, his attention goes out to the shade and colour offield and sky. That such a connection must exist between knowledge andattention is apparent from what has been already noted concerning theworking of the law of apperception. 

=Physical Conditions of Attention. =--From what was learned aboveregarding the relation of nervous energy to active attention, it isevident that the ability to attend to a problem at any given time willdepend in part upon the physical condition of the organism. If, therefore, the nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness, the attention will be weakened. For this reason the teaching ofsubjects, such as arithmetic, grammar, etc. , which present difficultproblems, and therefore make large demands upon the attention of thescholars, should not be undertaken when the pupils' energy is likely tobe at a minimum. Similarly, unsatisfactory conditions in theschool-room, such as poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, excessiveheat or cold, all tend to lower the nervous energy and thus prevent aproper concentration of attention upon the regular school work. 

=Precautions Relating to Voluntary Attention. =--Although voluntaryattention is evidently the form of attention possessing real educationalvalue, certain precautions would seem necessary concerning its use. Withvery young children the aim for attending should evidently not be tooremote. In other words, the problem should involve matter in which thechildren have a direct interest. For this reason it is sometimes saidthat young children should set their own problems. This is of course aparadox so far as the regular school work is concerned, though it doesapply to the pre-school period, and also justifies the claim that withyoung children the lesson problem should be closely connected with somevital interest. It would be useless, for instance, to try to interestyoung children in the British North America Act by telling them that theknowledge will be useful when they come to write on their entranceexaminations. The story of Sir Isaac Brock, on the other hand, winsattention for itself through the child's patriotism and love of story. Again, the problem demanding attention should not, in the case of youngchildren, be too long or complex. For example, a young child mighteasily attend to the separate problems of finding out, (1) how manymarbles he must have to give four to James and three to William; (2) howmany times seven can be taken from twenty-eight; (3) how many marblesJames would have if he received four marbles four times; and (4) howmany James would have if he received three marbles three times. But ifgiven the problem "to divide twenty-eight marbles between James andWilliam, giving James four every time he gives William three, " theproblem may be too complex for his present power of attention. A youngchild has not the control over his knowledge necessary to continue anylong process of selecting attention. A relatively short period ofattention to any problem, therefore, exhausts the nervous energy in thecentres connected with a particular set of experiences. It is for thisreason that the lessons in primary classes should be short and varied. One of the objections, therefore, to a narrow curriculum is thatattention would not obtain needed variety, and that a narrowness ininterest and application may result. On the other hand, it is well tonote that the child must in time learn to concentrate his attention forlonger periods and upon topics possessing only remote, or indirect, interest. 

CHAPTER XXIV

THE FEELING OF INTEREST

=Nature of Feeling. =--Feeling has already been described (Chapter XIX)as the pleasurable or painful side of any state of consciousness. Wemay recall how it was there found that any conscious state, orexperience, for instance, being conscious of the prick of a pin, ofsuccess at an examination, or of the loss of a friend, is not merely astate of knowledge, or awareness, but is also a state of feeling. It isa state of feeling because it _affects_ us, that is, because being astate of _our_ consciousness, it appeals to us pleasurably or painfullyin a way that it can to no one else. 

=Neural Conditions of Feeling. =--It has been seen that every consciousstate, or experience, has its affective, or feeling, tone, and also thatevery experience involves the transmission of nervous energy through anumber of connected brain cells. On this basis it is thought that thefeeling side of any conscious state is conditioned by the degree of theresistance encountered as the nervous energy is transmitted. If thecentres involved in the experience are not yet properly organized, or ifthe stimulation is strong, the resistance is greater and the feelingmore intense. A new movement of the limbs in physical training, forexample, may at first prove intensely painful, because the centresinvolved in the exercise are not yet organized. So also, because a verybright light stimulates the nerves violently, it causes a painfulfeeling. That morphine deadens pain is to be explained on theassumption that it decreases nervous energy, and thus lessens theresistance being encountered between the nervous centres affected at thetime. 

=Feeling and Habit. =--That the intensity of a feeling is conditioned bythe amount of the resistance seems evident, if we note the relation offeeling to habit. The first time the nurse-in-training attends a woundedpatient, the experience is marked by intense feeling. After a number ofsuch experiences, however, this feeling becomes much less. In likemanner, the child who at first finds the physical exercise painful, ashe becomes accustomed to the movements, finds the pain becoming less andless intense. In such cases it is evident that practice, by organizingthe centres involved in the experience, decreases the resistance betweenthem, and thus gradually decreases the intensity of the feeling. Whenfinally the act becomes habitual, the nervous impulse traverses onlylower centres, and therefore all feeling and indeed all consciousnesswill disappear, as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs inwalking and of the arms during walking. 

CLASSES OF FEELINGS

=Sensuous Feeling. =--As already noted, while feelings vary in intensityaccording to the strength of the resistance, they also differ in kindaccording to the arcs traversed by the impulse. Experiencing a burn onthe hand would involve nervous impulses, or currents, other than thoseinvolved in hearing of the death of a friend. The one experience alsodiffers in feeling from the other. Our feeling states are thus able tobe divided into certain important classes with more or less distinctcharacteristics for each. In one class are placed those feelings whichaccompany sensory impulses. The sensations arising from thestimulations of the sense organs, as a sweet or bitter taste, a strongsmell, the touch of a hot, sharp, rough, or smooth object, etc. , allpresent an affective, or feeling, side. So also feeling enters into thegeneral or organic sensations arising from the conditions of the bodilyorgans; as breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestion, thetension of the muscles, hunger, thirst, etc. The feeling which thusenters as a factor into any sensation is known as sensuous feeling. 

=Ideal Feeling. =--Other feelings enter into our ideas and thoughts. Theperception or imagination of an accident is accompanied with a painfulfeeling, the memory or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy, the thought of some particular person with a thrill of love. Suchfeelings are known as ideal feelings. When a child tears his flesh on anail, he experiences sensuous feeling, when he shrinks away, as heperceives the teeth of a snarling dog, he experiences an ideal feeling, known as the emotion of fear. 

=Interest. =--A third type of feeling especially accompanies an activeprocess of attention. In our study of attention, it was seen that anyprocess of attention is accompanied by a concentration of nervous energyupon the paths or centres involved in the experience, thus organizingthe paths more completely and thereby decreasing the resistance. Theimpulse to attend to any experience is, therefore, accompanied with adesirable feeling, because a new adjustment between nerve centres istaking place and resistance being overcome. This affective, or feeling, tone which accompanies a process of attention is known as the feeling ofinterest. 

=Interest and Attention. =--In discussions upon educational method, it isusually affirmed that the attention will focus upon a problem to theextent to which the mind is interested. While this statement may beaccepted in ordinary language, it is not psychologically true that Ifirst become interested in a strange presentation, and then attend to itafterwards. In such a case it is no more true to say that I attendbecause I am interested, than to say that I am interested because Iattend. In other words, interest and attention are not successive butsimultaneous, or, as sometimes stated, they are back and front of thesame mental state. This becomes evident by noting the nervous conditionswhich must accompany interest and attention. When one is attending toany strange phenomenon, say a botanist to the structure of a rare plant, it is evident that there are not only new groupings of ideas in themind, but also new adjustments being set up between the brain centres. This implies in turn a lessening of resistance between the cells, andtherefore the presence of the feeling tone known as interest. 

=Interest, Attention, and Habit. =--Since the impulse to attend to apresentation is conditioned by a process of adjustment, or organization, between brain centres, it is evident that, while the novel presentationscall forth interest and attention, repetition, by habituating thenervous arcs, will tend to deaden interest and attention. For thisreason the story, first heard with interest and attention, becomes staleby too much repetition. The new toy fails to interest the child afterthe novelty has worn off. It must be noted, however, that whilerepetition usually lessens interest, yet when any set of experiences arerepeated many times, instead of lessening interest the repetition maydevelop a new interest known as the interest of custom. Thus it is thatby repeating the experience the man is finally compelled to visit hisclub every evening, and the boy to play his favourite game every day. This secondary interest of custom arises because repetition has finallyestablished such strong associations within the nervous system that theynow have become a part of our nature and are thus able to make a newdemand upon interest and attention. 

INTEREST IN EDUCATION

=Uses of Term: A. Subjective; B. Objective. =--That the educatordescribes interest as something that causes the mind to give attentionto what is before it, when in fact interest and attention arepsychologically merely two sides of a single process, is accounted forby the fact that the term "interest" may be used with two quitedifferent meanings. Psychologically, interest is evidently a feelingstate, that is, it represents a phase of consciousness. My _interest_ infootball, for instance, represents the _feeling_ of worth whichaccompanies attention to such experiences. In this sense interest andattention are but two sides of the single experience, interestrepresenting the feeling, and attention the effort side of theexperience. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be usedsubjectively. More, often, however, the term is applied rather to thething toward which the mind directs its attention, the object being saidto possess interest for the person. In this sense the rattle is said tohave interest for the babe; baseball, for the young boy; and the latestfashions, for the young lady. Since the interest is here assumed toreside in the object, it seems reasonable to say that our attention isattracted through interest, that is, through an interestingpresentation. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be usedobjectively. 

=Types of Objective Interest. =--The interest which various objects andoccupations thus possess for the mind may be of two somewhat differenttypes. In some cases the object possesses a direct, or intrinsic, interest for the mind. The young child, for instance, is spontaneouslyattracted to bright colours, the boy to stories of adventure, and thesentimental youth or maiden to the romance. In the case of any suchdirect interests, however, the feeling with which the mind contemplatesthe object may transfer itself at least partly to other objectsassociated more or less closely with the direct object of interest. Itis thus that the child becomes interested in the cup from which his foodis taken, and the lover in the lap dog which his fair one fondles. Asopposed to the _direct interest_ which an object may have for the mind, this transferred type is known as _indirect interest_. 

=Importance of Transference of Interest. =--The ability of the mind thusto transfer its interests to associated objects is often of greatpedagogical value. Abstract forms of knowledge become more interestingto young children through being associated with something possessingnatural interest. A pupil who seems to take little interest inarithmetic may take great delight in manual training. By associatingvarious mathematical problems with his constructive exercises, theteacher can frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree hisprimary interest in manual training to the associated work inarithmetic. In the same way the child in the primary grade may take moredelight in the alphabet when he is able to make the letters in sand orby stick-laying. It may be said, in fact, that much of man's effort is aresult of indirect interest. What is called doing a thing from a senseof duty is often a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing becausewe are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others. The child alsooften applies himself to his tasks, not so much because he takes adirect interest in them, but because he wishes to gain the approval andavoid the censure of teacher and parents. 

=Native and Acquired Interest. =--Interest may also be distinguished onthe basis of its origin. As noted above, certain impressions seem todemand a spontaneous interest from the individual. For this cause thechild finds his attention going out immediately to bright colours, toobjects which give pleasure, such as candy, etc. , or to that whichcauses personal pain. On the other hand, objects and occupations whichat first seem devoid of interest may, after a certain amount ofexperience has been gained, become important centres of interest. Ayoung child may at first show no interest in insects unless it be afeeling of revulsion. Through the visit of an entomologist to his home, however, he may gain some knowledge of insects. This knowledge, byarousing an apperceptive tendency in the direction of insect study, gradually develops in him a new interest which lasts throughout hiswhole life. It is in this way that the various school subjects widen thenarrow interests of the child. By giving him an insight into variousphases of his social environment, the school curriculum awakens in himdifferent centres of interest, and thus causes him to become in thetruest sense a part of the social life about him. This fact is one ofthe strongest arguments, also, against a narrow public school course ofstudy in a society which is itself a complex of diversified interests. 

=Interest versus Interests. =--On account of the evident connection ofinterest and attention, the teacher may easily err in dealing with theyoung pupil. It is allowable, as pointed out above, that the teachershould take advantage of any native interest to secure the attentionand effort of the child in his school work. This does not mean, however, that children are to be given only problems in which they are naturallyinterested. It must be remembered, as seen in a former paragraph, that, according to the interest of custom, any line of school work, whenintelligently followed, may soon build up a centre of interest foritself. For this reason a proper study of arithmetic should develop aninterest in arithmetic; a study of history, an interest in history; anda study of geography, an interest in geography. The saying that schoolwork should follow a child's interest might, therefore, be betterexpressed by saying that the child's interests should follow the schoolwork. It is only, in fact, as any one becomes directly interested in hispursuits, that the highest achievement can be reached. It is not theworkman who is always looking forward to pay-day, who develops into anartist, or the teacher who is waiting for the summer holiday, who is areal inspiration to her pupils. In like manner, it is only as the childforms centres of interest in connection with his school work, that hislife and character are likely to be affected permanently thereby. 

=Development of Interests. =--The problem for the educator is, therefore, not so much to follow the interest of the child, as it is to develop inhim permanent centres of interest. For this reason the following factsconcerning the origin and development of interests should be understoodby the practical educator. First among these is the fact that certaininstinctive tendencies of early childhood may be made a starting-pointfor the development of permanent valuable interest. The young child hasa tendency to collect or an instinct of ownership, which may be takenadvantage of in directing him to make collections of insects, plants, coins, stamps, and thus prove of permanent educative value. Hisconstructive tendencies, or desire to do with what comes into his hand, as well as his imitative instincts, may be turned to account in buildingup an interest in various occupations. His social instinct, also, provides a means for developing permanent emotional interests assympathy, etc. In like manner, the character of the child's surroundingstends to create in him various centres of interest. The young child, forinstance, who is surrounded with beautiful objects, is almost sure todevelop an interest in works of art, while the child who is earlyprovided with fable and story will develop an interest in history. 

=When to Develop Interests. =--It is to be noted further concerning manyof these forms of interest, that youth is the special period for theirdevelopment. The child who does not, during his early years, have anopportunity to develop his social tendencies, is not likely later inlife to acquire an interest in his fellow-men. In the same manner, ifyouth is spent in surroundings void of æsthetic elements, manhood willbe lacking in artistic interests. It is in youth also that ourintellectual interests, such as love of reading, of the study of nature, of mathematics, must be laid. 

=Interests Must be Limited. =--While emphasizing the importance ofestablishing a wide range of interests when educating a child, theteacher must remember that there is danger in a child acquiring too widea range. This can result only in a dissipation of effort over manyfields. While this prevents narrowness of vision and gives versatilityof disposition, it may prevent the attainment of efficiency in anydepartment, and make of the youth the proverbial "Jack-of-all-trades. "

A study of the feeling of interest has been made at this stage onaccount of its close connection with the problem of attention, and infact with the whole learning process. An examination of the otherclasses of feeling will be made at a later stage in the course. 

CHAPTER XXV

SENSE PERCEPTION

=Sensation and Perception Distinguished. =--Sensation and perception aretwo terms applied usually without much distinction of meaning to ourrecognition of the world of objects. When, for instance, a man drawsnear to a stove, he may say that it gives him a _sensation_ of heat, orperhaps that he _perceives_ it to be hot. In psychology, however, theterm sensation has been used in two somewhat different meanings. By somethe term is used to signify a state of consciousness conditioned merelyupon the stimulation of a sense organ, as the eye, ear, etc. , by itsappropriate stimulus. To others, however, sensation signifies rather amental image experienced by the mind as it reacts upon and interpretsany sensory impression. Perception, on the other hand, signifies therecognition of an external object as presented to the mind here and now. 

=Sensation Implies Externality. =--When, however, a sensory image, suchas smooth, yellow, cold, etc. , arises in consciousness as a result ofthe mind reacting when an external stimulus is applied to some senseorgan, it is evident that, at least after very early infancy, one neverhas the image without at once referring it to some external cause. If, for instance, a person is but half awake and receives a sound sensation, he does not ask himself, "What mental state is _this_?" but rather, "What is _that_?" This shows an evident tendency to refer our sensationsat once to an external cause, or indicates that our sensations alwayscarry with them an implicit reference to an external object. Leaving, therefore, to the scientific psychologist to consider whether it ispossible to have a pure sensation, we shall treat sensation as therecognition of a quality which is at least vaguely referred to anexternal object. In other words, sensation is a medium by which we arebrought into relation with real things existing independently of oursensations. 

=Perception Involves Sensation Element. =--Moreover, an object isperceived as present here and now only because it is revealed to usthrough one or more of the senses. When, for instance, I reach out myhand in the dark room and receive a sensation of touch, I perceive thetable as present before me. When I receive a sensation of sound as Ipass by the church, I perceive that the organ is being played. When Ireceive a colour sensation from the store window, I say that I perceiveoranges. Perception, therefore, involves the referring of the sensuousstate, or image, to an external thing, while in adult life sensation isnever accepted by our attention as satisfactory unless it is referred tosomething we regard as immediately presenting itself to us by means ofthe sensation. It is on account of this evident interrelation of the twothat we speak of a process of sense perception. 

=Perception an Acquired Power. =--On the other hand, however, investigation will show that this power to recognize explicitly theexistence of an external object through the presentation of a sensation, was not at first possessed by the mind. The ability thus to perceiveobjects represents, therefore, an acquirement on the part of theindividual. If a person, although receiving merely sensations of colourand light, is able to say, "Yonder is an orange, " he is evidentlyinterpreting, or giving meaning to, the present sensations largelythrough past experience; for the images of colour and light areaccepted by the mind as an indication of the presence of an externalthing from which could be derived other images of taste, smell, etc. , all of which go to make up the idea "orange. " An ordinary act ofperception, therefore, must involve not merely sensation, but also aninterpretation of sensation through past experience. It is, in fact, because the recognition of an external object involves this consciousinterpretation of the sensuous impressions, that people often sufferdelusion. When the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets thetall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a swaying ghost, themisconception does not arise from any fault of mere vision, but from thetype of former knowledge which the other surroundings of the moment callup, these evidently giving the mind a certain bias in its interpretationof the sensuous, or colour, impressions. 

=Perception in Adult Life. =--In our study of general method, senseperception was referred to as the most common mode of acquiringparticular knowledge. A description of the development of this power toperceive objects through the senses should, therefore, prove ofpedagogical value. But to understand how an individual acquires theability to perceive objects, it is well to notice first what takes placein an ordinary adult act of perception, as for instance, when a manreceives and interprets a colour stimulus and says that he perceives anorange. If we analyse the person's idea of an orange we find that it ismade up of a number of different quality images--colour, taste, smell, touch, etc. , organized into a single experience, or idea, and acceptedas a mental representation of an object existing in space. When, therefore, the person referred to above says that he perceives anorange, what really happens is that he accepts the immediate colour andlight sensation as a sign of the whole group of qualities which make uphis notion of the external object, orange, the other qualities essentialto the notion coming back from past experience to unite with thepresented qualities. Owing to this fact, any ordinary act of perceptionis said to contain both presentative and representative elements. In theabove example, for instance, the colour would be spoken of as apresentative element, because it is immediately presented to the mind insensuous terms, or through the senses. Anything beyond this which goesto make up the individual's notion orange, and is revived from pastexperience, is spoken of as representative. For the same reason, thesensuous elements involved in an ordinary act of perception are oftenspoken of as immediate, and the others as mediate elements of knowledge. 

=Genesis of Perception. =--To trace the development of this ability tomingle both presentative and representative elements of knowledge into amental representation, or idea, of an external object, it is necessaryto recall what has been noted regarding the relation of the nervoussystem to our conscious acts. When the young child first comes incontact with the world of strange objects with which he is surrounded, the impressions he receives therefrom will not at first have either thedefinite quality or the relation to an external thing which they latersecure. As a being, however, whose first tendencies are those ofmovement, he grasps, bites, strokes, smells, etc. , and thus goes out tomeet whatever his surroundings thrust upon him. Gradually he findshimself expand to take in the existence of a something external tohimself, and is finally able, as the necessary paths are laid down inhis nervous system, to differentiate various quality images one from theother; as, touch, weight, temperature, light, sound, etc. This will atonce involve, however, a corresponding relating, or synthetic, attitudeof mind, in which different quality images, when experienced together asqualities of some vaguely felt thing, will be organized into a more orless definite knowledge, or idea, of that object, as illustrated in thefigure below. As the child in time gains the ability to _attend_ to thesensuous presentations which come to him, and to discriminate onesensation from another, he discovers in the vaguely known thing theimages of touch, colour, taste, smell, etc. , and finally associates theminto the idea of a better known object, orange. 

[Illustration: A. Unknown thing. B. Sensory stimuli. C. Sensory images. D. Idea of object. ]

=Control of Sensory Image as Sign. =--Since the various sense impressionsare carried to the higher centres of the brain, they will not only beinterpreted as sensory images and organized into a knowledge of externalobjects, but, owing to the retentive power of the nervous tissue, willalso be subject to recall. As the child thus gains more and more theability to organize and relate various sensory images into mentalrepresentations, or ideas, of external objects, he soon acquires suchcontrol over these organized groups, that when any particular sensationimage out of a group is presented to the mind, it will be sufficient tocall up the other qualities, or will be accepted as a sign of thepresence of the object. When this stage of perceptual power is reached, an odour coming from the oven enables a person to perceive that acertain kind of meat is within, or a noise proceeding from the tower issufficient to make known the presence of a bell. To possess the abilitythus to refer one's sensations to an external object is to be able toperceive objects. 

=Fulness of Perception Based on Sensation. =--From the foregoing accountof the development of our perception of the external world, it becomesevident that our immediate knowledge, or idea, of an individual objectwill consist only of the images our senses have been able to discovereither in that or other similar objects. To the person born without thesense of sight, for instance, the flower-bed can never be known as anobject of tints and colours. To the person born deaf, the violin cannotreally be known as a _musical_ instrument. Moreover, only the personwhose senses distinguish adequately variations in colour, sound, form, etc. , is able to perceive fully the objects which present themselves tohis senses. Even when the physical senses seem equally perfect, one man, through greater power of discrimination, perceives in the world ofobjects much that totally escapes the observation of another. The resultis that few of us enter as fully as we might into the rich world ofsights, sounds, etc. , with which we are surrounded, because we fail togain the abundant images that we might through certain of our senses. 

FACTORS INVOLVED IN SENSATION

Passing to a consideration of the senses as organs through which themind is made aware of the concrete world, it is to be noted that anumber of factors precede the image, or mental interpretation, of theimpression. When, for instance, the mind becomes cognizant of a musicalnote, an analysis of the whole process reveals the following factors:

1. The concrete object, as the vibrating string of a violin. 

2. Sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to the sense organ. 

3. The organ of sense--the ear. 

[Illustration]

4. The nerves--cells and fibres involved in receiving and conveying thesense stimulus. 

5. The interpreting cells. 

6. The reacting mind, which interprets the impression as an image ofsound. 

The different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illustrated in theaccompanying diagram, the arrows indicating the physical stimulation andthe conscious response:

Of the six factors involved in the sensation, 1 and 2 are purelyphysical and belong to the science of acoustics; 3, 4, and 5 arephysiological; 6 is conscious, or psychological. It is because theyalways involve the immediate presence of some physical object, that thesensation elements involved in ordinary perception are spoken of asimmediate, or presentative, elements of knowledge. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS

Our various sensations are usually divided into three classes asfollows:

1. Sensations of the special senses, including: sight, sound, touch(including temperature), taste, and smell. 

2. Motor, or muscular, sensations. 

3. Organic sensations. 

=Sensations of the Special Senses. =--As a study of the five specialsenses has been made by the student-teacher under the heading ofphysiology, no attempt will be made to explain the structure of theseorgans. It must be noted, however, that not all senses are equallycapable of distinguishing differences in quality. For example, it seemsquite beyond our power to recall the tastes and odours of the variousdishes of which we may have partaken at a banquet, while on the otherhand we may recall distinctly the visual appearance of the room and thetable. It is worthy of note, also, that in the case of smell, animalsare usually much more discriminative than man. Certain of our sensesare, therefore, much more intellectual than others. By this is meantthat for purposes of distinguishing the objects themselves, and forproviding the mind with available images as materials for furtherthought, our senses are by no means equally effective. Under thisheading the special senses are classified as follows:

Higher Intellectual Senses: sight, hearing, touch. 

Lower Intellectual Senses: taste and smell. 

=Muscular Sensations. =--Under motor, or muscular, sensations areincluded the feelings which accompany consciousness of muscularexertion, or movement. In distinction from the other sense organs, themuscles are stimulated by having nervous energy pass outward over themotor nerves to the muscles. As the muscles are thus stimulated tomovement, sensory nerves in turn convey inward from the muscles sensoryimpressions resulting from these movements. The important sensationsconnected with muscular action are those of strain, force, andresistance, as in lifting or pushing. By means of these motorsensations, joined with the sense of touch, the individual is able todistinguish especially weight, position, and change of position. Inconnection with the muscular sense, may be recalled that portion of theMontessori apparatus known as the weight tablets. These wooden tablets, it will be noted, are designed to educate the muscular sense todistinguish slight differences in weight. The muscular sense is chieflyimportant, however, in that delicate distinctions of pressure, movement, and resistance must be made in many forms of manual expression. Theinterrelation between sensory impression and motor impulse within thenervous system, as illustrated in the figures on page 200, is alreadyunderstood by the reader. For an adequate conscious control ofmovements, especially when one is engaged in delicate handwork, aspainting, modelling, wood-work, etc. , there must be an ability toperceive slight differences in strain, pressure, and movement. Moreover, the most effective means for developing the muscular sense is throughthe expressive exercises referred to above. 

=Organic Sensations. =--The organic sensations are those states ofconsciousness that arise in connection with the processes going onwithin the organism, as circulation of the blood, digestion; breathing, or respiration; hunger; thirst; etc. The significance of thesesensations lies in the fact that they reveal to consciousness anydisturbances in connection with the vital processes, and thus enable theindividual to provide for the preservation of the organism. 

EDUCATION OF THE SENSES

=Importance. =--When it is considered that our general knowledge must bebased on a knowledge of individuals, it becomes apparent that childrenshould, through sense observation, learn as fully as possible thevarious qualities of the concrete world. Only on this basis can theybuild their more general and abstract forms of knowledge. For thisreason the child in his study of objects should, so far as safetypermits, bring all of his senses to bear upon them and distinguish asclearly as possible all their properties. By this means only can hereally know the attributes of the objects constituting his environment. Moreover, without such a full knowledge of the various properties andqualities of concrete objects, he is not in a position to turn themfully to his own service. It is by distinguishing the feeling of theflour, that the cook discovers whether it is suited for bread-making orpastry. It is by noting the texture of the wood, that the artisan candecide its suitability for the work in hand. In fine, it was only bynoting the properties of various natural objects that man discoveredtheir social uses. 

=How to be Effected. =--One of the chief defects of primary education inthe past has been a tendency to overlook the importance of giving thechild an opportunity to exercise his senses in discovering theproperties of the objects constituting his environment. The introductionof the kindergarten, objective methods of teaching, nature study, schoolgardening, and constructive occupations have done much, however, toremedy this defect. One of the chief claims in favour of the so-calledMontessori Method is that it provides especially for an education of thesenses. In doing this, however, it makes use of arbitrarily preparedmaterials instead of the ordinary objects constituting the child'snatural environment. The one advantage in this is that it enables theteacher to grade the stimulations and thus exercise the child in makingseries of discriminations, for instance, a series of colours, sounds, weights, sizes, etc. Notwithstanding this advantage, however, it seemsmore pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exercise ofthe senses by being brought into contact with the actual objectsconstituting his environment, as is done in nature study, constructiveexercises, art, etc. 

=Dangers of Neglecting the Senses. =--The former neglect of an adequateexercise of the senses during the early education of the child wasevidently unpedagogical for various reasons. As already noted, otherforms of acquiring knowledge, such as constructive imagination, induction, and deduction, must rest primarily upon the acquisitions ofsense perception. Moreover, it is during the early years of life thatthe plasticity and retentive power of the nervous system will enable thevarious sense impressions to be recorded for the future use of the mind. Further, the senses themselves during these early years show what may betermed a hunger for contact with the world of concrete objects, and acorresponding distaste for more abstract types of experience. 

=Learning Through all the Senses. =--In recognizing that the process ofsense perception constitutes a learning process, or is one of the modesby which man enters into new experience, the teacher should furtherunderstand that the same object may be interpreted through differentsenses. For example, when a child studies a new bird, he may note itsform and colour through the eye, he may recognize the feeling and theoutline through muscular and touch sensations, he may discover its songthrough the ear, and may give muscular expression to its form inpainting or modelling. In the same way, in learning a figure or letter, he may see its form through the eye, hear its sound through the ear, make the sound and trace the form by calling various muscles into play, and thus secure a number of muscular sensations relative to the figureor letter. Since all these various experiences will be co-ordinated andretained within the nervous system, the child will not only know theobject better, but will also be able to recall more easily any items ofknowledge concerning it, on account of the larger number of connectionsestablished within the nervous system. One chief fact to be kept in mindby the teacher, therefore, in using the method of sense perception, isto have the pupil study the object through as many different senses aspossible, and especially through those senses in which his power ofdiscrimination and recall seems greatest. 

=Use of Different Images in Teaching. =--The importance to the teacher ofan intimate knowledge of different types of imagery and of a furtheracquaintance with the more prevailing images of particular pupils, isevident in various ways. In the first place, different school subjectsmay appeal more especially to different types of imagery. Thus a studyof plants especially involves visual, or sight, images; a study ofbirds, visual and auditory images; oral reading and music, auditoryimages; physical training, motor images; constructive work, visual, tactile, and motor images; a knowledge of weights and measures, tactileand motor images. On account of a native difference in forming images, also, one pupil may best learn through the eye, another through the ear, a third through the muscles, etc. In learning the spelling of words, forexample, one pupil may require especially to visualize the word, anotherto hear the letters repeated in their order, and a third to articulatethe letters by the movement of the organs of speech, or to trace them inwriting. In choosing illustrations, also, the teacher will find that onepupil best appreciates a visual illustration, a second an auditoryillustration, etc. Some young pupils, for instance, might bestappreciate a pathetic situation through an appeal to such sensory imagesas hunger and thirst. 

=An Illustration. =--The wide difference in people's ability to interpretsensuous impressions is well exemplified in the case of sound stimuli. Every one whose ear is physically perfect seems able to interpret asound so far as its mere quality and quantity are concerned. In the caseof musical notes, however, the very greatest difference is found in theability of different individuals to distinguish pitch. So also thedistinguishing of distance and direction in relation to sound is anacquired ability, in which different people will greatly differ. Finally, to interpret the external relations involved in the sound, thatis, whether the cry is that of an insect or a bird, or, if it is theformer, from what kind of bird the sound is proceeding, this evidentlyis a phase of sense interpretation in which individuals differ verygreatly. Yet an adequate development of the sense of hearing might besupposed to give the individual an ability to interpret his surroundingsin all these ways. 

=Power of Sense Perception Limited: A. By Interest. =--It should benoted, however, that so far as our actual life needs are concerned, there is no large demand for an all-round ability to interpret sensuousimpressions. For practical purposes, men are interested in differentobjects in quite different ways. One is interested in the colour of acertain wood, another in its smoothness, a third in its ability towithstand strain, while a fourth may even be interested in more hiddenrelations, not visible to the ordinary sense. This will justify one inignoring entirely qualities in the object which are of the utmostimportance to others. From such a practical standpoint, it is evidentlya decided gain that a person is not compelled to see everything in anobject which its sensuous attributes might permit one to discover in it. In the case of the man with the so-called untrained sense, therefore, itis questionable whether the failure to see, hear, etc. , is in many casesso much a lack of ability to use the particular sense, as it is a lackof practical interest in this phase of the objective world. In suchprocesses as induction and deduction, also, it is often the externalrelations of objects rather than their sensory qualities that chieflyinterest us. Indeed, it is sometimes claimed that an excessive amount ofmere training in sense discrimination might interfere with a properdevelopment of the higher mental processes. 

=B. By Knowledge. =--From what has been discovered regarding the learningprocess, it is evident that the development of any sense, as sight, sound, touch, etc. , is not brought about merely by exercising theparticular organ. It has been learned, for instance, that the person whois able to observe readily the plant and animal life as he walks throughthe forest, possesses this skill, not because his physical eye, butbecause his mind, has been prepared to see these objects. In otherwords, it is because his knowledge is active along such lines that hiseye beholds these particular things. The chief reason, therefore, whythe exercise of any sense organ develops a power to perceive throughthat sense, is that the exercise tends to develop in the individual theknowledge and interest which will cause the mind to react easily andeffectively on that particular class of impressions. A sense may beconsidered trained, therefore, to the extent to which the mind acquiresknowledge of, and interest in, the objective elements. 

CHAPTER XXVI

MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION

=Nature of Memory. =--Mention has been made of the retentive power of thenervous system, and of a consequent tendency for mental images torevive, or _re-present_, themselves in consciousness. It must now benoted that such a re-presentation of former experiences is frequentlyaccompanied with a distinct recognition that the present image or imageshave a definite reference to past time. In other words, the presentmental fact is able to be placed in the midst of other events believedto make up some portion of our past experience. Such an ideal revival ofa past experience, together with a recognition of the fact that itformerly occurred within our experience, is known as an act of memory. 

=Neural Conditions of Memory. =--When any experience is thus reproduced, and recognized as a reproduction of a previous experience, there isphysiologically a transmission of nervous energy through the same braincentres as were involved in the original experience. The mentalreproduction of any image is conditioned, therefore, by the physicalreproduction of a nervous impulse through a formerly established path. That this is possible is owing to the susceptibility of nervous tissueto take on habit, or to retain as permanent modifications, allimpressions received. From this it is evident that when we say we retaincertain facts in our mind, the statement is not in a sense true; forthere is no knowledge stored up in consciousness as so many ideas. Thestatement is true, therefore, only in the sense that the mind is ableto bring into consciousness a former experience by reinstating thenecessary nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs. What isactually retained, however, is the tendency to reinstate nervousmovements through the same paths as were involved in the originalexperience. Although, therefore, retention is usually treated as afactor in memory, its basis is, in reality, physiological. 

=Memory Distinguished from Apperception. =--The distinguishingcharacteristics of memory as a re-presentation in the mind of a formerexperience is evidently the mental attitude known as recognition. Memory, in other words, always implies a belief that the present mentalstate really represents a fact, or event, which formed a part of ourpast experience. In the apperceptive process as seen in an ordinaryprocess of learning, on the other hand, although it seems to involve are-presentation of former mental images in consciousness, this distinctreference of the revived imagery to past time is evidently wanting. When, for instance, the mind interprets a strange object as apear-shaped, thin-rinded, many-seeded fruit, all these interpretingideas are, in a sense, revivals of past experience; yet none carry withthem any distinct reference to past time. In like manner, when I look atan object of a certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple, it is evidently owing to past experience that I can declare thatparticular object to be sweet. It is quite clear, however, that in sucha case there is no distinct reference of the revived image of sweetnessto any definite occurrence in one's former experience. Such anapperceptive revival, or re-presentation of past experience, because itincludes merely a representation of mental images, but fails to relatethem to the past, cannot be classed as an act of memory. 

=But Involves Apperceptive Process. =--While, however, the mere revivalof old knowledge in the apperceptive process does not constitute an actof memory, memory is itself only a special phase of the apperceptiveprocess. When I think of a particular anecdote to-day, and say Iremember having the same experience on Sunday evening last, the presentmental images cannot be the very same images as were then experienced. The former images belonged to the past, while those at present inconsciousness are a new creation, although dependent, as we have seen, upon certain physiological conditions established in the past. In an actof memory, therefore, the new presentation, like all new presentations, must be interpreted in terms of past experience, or by an apperceivingact of attention. Whenever in this apperceptive act there is, inaddition to the interpretation, a further feeling, or sense, offamiliarity, the presentation is accepted by the mind as a reproductionfrom past experience, or is recognized as belonging to the past. When, on the way down the street, for instance, impressions are received froma passing form, and a resulting act of apperceiving attention, besidesreading meaning into them, awakens a sense of familiarity, the face isrecognized as one seen on a former occasion. Memory, therefore, is aspecial mode of the apperceptive process of learning, and includes, inaddition to the interpreting of the new through the old, a belief thatthere is an identity between the old and the new. 

FACTORS OF MEMORY

In a complete example of memory the following factors may be noted:

1. The original presentation--as the first perception of an object orscene, the reading of a new story, the hearing of a particular voice, etc. 

2. Retention--this involves the permanent changes wrought in the nervoustissue as a result of the presentation or learning process and, asmentioned above, is really physiological. 

3. Recall--this implies the re-establishment of the nervous movementsinvolved in the original experiences and an accompanying revival of themental imagery. 

4. Recognition--under this heading is included the sense of familiarityexperienced in consciousness, and the consequent belief that the presentexperience actually occurred at some certain time as an element in ourpast experience. 

CONDITIONS OF MEMORY

=A. Physical Conditions. =--One of the first conditions for an effectiverecollection of any particular experience will be, evidently, thestrength of the co-ordinations set up in the nervous system during thelearning process. The permanent changes brought about in the nervoustissue as a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as thephysical basis of memory. The first consideration, therefore, relativeto the memorizing of knowledge is to decide the conditions favourable toestablishing such nervous paths during the learning process. First amongthese may be mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself. Asalready seen, the more plastic and active the condition of this tissue, the more susceptible it is to receive and retain impressions. For thisreason anything studied when the body is tired and the mind exhausted isnot likely to be remembered. It is for the same reason, also, thatknowledge acquired in youth is much more likely to be remembered thanthings learned late in life. The intensity and the clearness of thepresentation also cause it to make a stronger impression upon the systemand thus render its retention more permanent. This demands in turn thatattention should be strongly focused upon the presentations during anylearning process. By adding to the clearness and intensity of anyimpressions, attention adds to the likelihood of their retention. Theevident cause of the scholar's ability to learn even relatively late inlife is the fact that he brings a much greater concentration ofattention to the process than is usually found in others. Repetitionalso, since it tends to break down any resistance to the paths which arebeing established in the nervous system during the learning process, isa distinct aid to retention. For this reason any knowledge acquiredshould be revived at intervals. This is especially true of the schoolknowledge being acquired by young children, and their acquisitions mustbe occasionally reviewed and used in various ways, if the knowledge isto become a permanent possession. A special application of the law ofrepetition may be noted in the fact that we remember better any topiclearned, say, in four half-hours put upon it at different intervals, than we should by spending the whole two hours upon it at one time. 

Another condition favourable to recall is the recency of the originalexperience. Anything is more easily recalled, the more recently it hasbeen learned. The physiological cause for this seems to be that thenervous co-ordinations being recent, they are much more likely tore-establish themselves, not having yet been effaced or weakened throughthe lapse of time. 

=B. Mental Conditions. =--It must be noted, however, that although thereis evidently the above neural concomitant of recall, yet it is not thenervous system, but the mind, that actually recalls and remembers. Thereal condition of recall, therefore, is mental, and depends largelyupon the number of associations formed between the ideas themselves inthe original presentation. According to the law of association, different ideas arise in the mind in virtue of certain connectionsexisting between the ideas themselves. It would be quite foreign to ourpresent purpose to examine the theories held among philosophicpsychologists regarding the principle of the association of ideas. It isevident, however, that ideas often come to our minds in consequence ofthe presence in consciousness of a prior idea. When we see the name"Queenston Heights, " it suggests to us Sir Isaac Brock; when we see acertain house, it calls to mind the pleasant evening spent there; andwhen we hear the strains of solemn music, it brings to mind the memoriesof the dead. Equally evident is the fact that anything experienced inisolation is much harder to remember than one experienced in such a waythat it may enter into a larger train of ideas. If, for instance, anyone is told to call up in half an hour telephone 3827, it is more thanlikely that the number will be forgotten, if the person goes on withother work and depends only on the mere impression to recall the numberat the proper time. This would be the case also in spite of the mostvivid presentation of the number by the one giving the order or therepetition of it by the person himself. If, however, the person says, even in a casual way, "Call up 1867, " and the person addressedassociates the number with the Confederation of the Dominion, there ispractically no possibility of the number going out of his mind. Animportant mental condition for recall, therefore, is that ideas shouldbe learned in as large associations, or groups, as possible. It is forthe above reason that the logical and orderly presentation of the topicsin any subject and their thorough understanding by the pupil give morecomplete control over the subject-matter. When each lesson is taught asa disconnected item of knowledge, there seems nothing to which the ideasare anchored, and recall is relatively difficult. When, on the otherhand, points of connection are established between succeeding lessons, and the pupil understands these, one topic suggests another, and themind finds it relatively easy to recall any particular part of therelated ideas. 

TYPES OF RECALL

=A. Involuntary. =--In connection with the working of the principle ofassociation, it is interesting to note that practically two types ofrecall manifest themselves. As a result of their suggestive tendency, the ideas before consciousness at any particular time have a tendency torevive old experiences which the mind may recognize as such. Here thereis no effort on the part of the voluntary attention to recall theexperience from the past, the operation of the law of association being, as it were, sufficient to thrust the revived image into the centre ofthe field of consciousness, as when the sight of a train recalls arecent trip. 

=B. Voluntary. =--At times the mind may set out with the deliberate aim, or purpose, of reviving some forgotten experience. This is becauseattention is at the time engaged upon a definite problem, as when thestudent writing on his examination paper strives to recall theconditions of the Constitutional Act. This type is known as voluntarymemory. Such a voluntary attempt at recall is, however, of the samecharacter as the involuntary type in that both involve association. Whatthe mind really strives for is to start a train of ideas which shallsuggest the illusive ideas involved in the desired answer. Such aprocess of recall might be illustrated as follows:

[Illustration]

Here a, b, c, d, e represent the forgotten series of ideas to berecalled. A, B, C, D, E represent other better known ideas, some ofwhich are associated with the desired ones. By having the mind courseover the better known facts--A, B, C, D, E, attention may finally focusupon the relation A, a, B, and thus start up the necessary revival of a, b, c, d, e. 

=Attention May Hinder Memory. =--While active attention is thus ableunder proper conditions to reinforce memory, yet occasionally attentionseems detrimental to memory. That such is the case will become evidentfrom the preceding figure. If the experience a, b, c, d, e, is directlyassociated only with A, B, but the mind believes the association tocentre in C, D, E, attention is certain to keep focused upon thesub-group--C, D, E. At an examination in history, for example, we maydesire to recall the circumstances associated with the topic, "The GrandRemonstrance, " and feel vaguely that this is connected with arevolutionary movement. This may cause us, however, to fix attention, not upon the civil war, but upon the revolution of 1688. In this case, instead of forcing a nervous impulse into the proper centres, attentionis in reality diverting it into other channels. When, a few minuteslater, we have perhaps ceased our effort to remember, the impulse seemsof itself to stimulate the proper centres, and the necessary facts cometo us apparently without any attentive effort. 

LOCALIZATION IN TIME

It has been pointed out that in an act of memory there must be arecognition of the present experience as one which has occurred in aseries of past events. The definite reference of a memory image to apast series is sometimes spoken of as localization. The degree to whicha memory image is localized in the past differs greatly, however, indifferent cases. Your recollection of some interesting personal event inyour past school history may be very definitely located as to time, image after image reinstating themselves in memory in the order of theiractual occurrence. Such a similar series of events must have taken placewhen, by means of handling a number of objects, you learned differentnumber and quantity relations or, by drawing certain figures, discoveredcertain geometrical relations. At the present time, however, althoughyou remember clearly the general relations, you are utterly unable torecall the more incidental facts connected with their originalpresentation, or even localize the remembered knowledge at alldefinitely in past time. Nothing, in fact, remains as a permanentpossession except the general, or scientific, truth involved in theexperience. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES

=A. Mechanical. =--The above facts would indicate that in many cases themind would find it more effective to omit from conscious recall what mayappear irrelevant in the original presentation, and fix attention upononly the essential features. From this standpoint, two somewhatdifferent types of memory are to be found among individuals. With manypeople, it seems as if a past experience must be revived in everydetail. If such a one sets out to report a simple experience, such asseeing a policeman arrest a man on the street, he must bring in everycollateral circumstance, no matter how foreign to the incident. He mustmention, for example, that he himself had on a new straw hat, that hiscompanion was smoking a cigar, was accompanied by his dog, and wastalking about his crops, at the time they observed the arrest. This typeis known as a mechanical memory. Very good examples of such will be seenin the persons of "Farmer Philip" in Tennyson's _Brook_ and the"landlady" in Shakespeare's _King Henry IV_. 

=B. Logical. =--In another type of memory, the mind does not thusassociate into the memory experience every little detail of the originalexperience. The outstanding facts, especially those which are bound bysome logical sequence, are the only ones which enter into permanentassociation. Such a type of mind, therefore, in recalling the past, selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents which willconstitute a logical revival, and leaves out the trivial and incidental. This type is usually spoken of as a logical memory. This type of memorywould, in the above incident, recall only the essential facts connectedwith the arrest, as the cause, the incidents, and the result. 

MEMORY IN EDUCATION

=Value of Memory. =--It is evident that without the ability to reinstatepast experiences in our conscious life, such experiences could not serveas intelligent guides for our present conduct. Each day, in fact, weshould begin life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation, ouracquired aptitude being at best only physical. It will be understood, therefore, why the ability to recall past experiences is accepted as anessential factor in the educative process. It will be noted, indeed, inour study of the history of education, that, at certain periods, thewhole problem of education seemed to be to memorize knowledge sothoroughly that it might readily be reinstated in consciousness. Moderneducation, however, has thrown emphasis upon two additional factsregarding knowledge. These are, first, that the ability to use pastknowledge, and not the mere ability to recall it, is the mark of a trulyeducated man. The second fact is that, when any experience is clearlyunderstood at the time of its presentation, the problem of rememberingit will largely take care of itself. For these reasons, modern educationemphasizes clearness of presentation and ability to apply, rather thanthe mere memorizing of knowledge. It is a question, however, whether themodern educator may not often be too negligent concerning the directproblem of the ability to recall knowledge. For this reason, thestudent-teacher may profitably make himself acquainted with the mainconditions of retention and recall. 

=The Training of Memory. =--An important problem for the educator is toascertain whether it is possible to develop in the pupil a general powerof memory. In other words, will the memorizing of any set of factsstrengthen the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatsoever?From what has been noted regarding memory, it is evident that, leavingout of consideration the physical condition of the organism, the mostimportant conditions for memory at the time are attention to, and athorough understanding of, the facts to be remembered. From this itmust appear that a person's ability to remember any facts dependsprimarily, not upon the mere amount of memorizing he has done in thepast, but upon the extent to which his interests and old knowledge causehim to attend to, understand, and associate the facts to be remembered. There seems no justification, therefore, for the method of the teacherwho expected to strengthen the memories of her pupils for their schoolwork by having them walk quickly past the store windows and then attemptto recall at school what they had seen. In such cases the boys are foundto remember certain objects, because their interests and knowledgeenable them to notice these more distinctly at the time of thepresentation. The girls, on the other hand, remember other objects, because their interests and knowledge cause them to apprehend theserather than the others. 

APPERCEPTION

=Apperception a Law of Learning. =--In the study of the lesson process, Chapter III, attention was called to the fact that the interpretationwhich the mind places upon any presentation depends in large measureupon the mind's present content and interest. It is an essentialcharacteristic of mind that it always attempts to give meaning to anynew impression, no matter how strange that impression may be. This endis reached, however, only as the mind is able to apply to thepresentation certain elements of former experience. Even in earliestinfancy, impressions do not come to the organism as total strangers; forthe organism is already endowed with instinctive tendencies to react ina definite manner to certain stimuli. As these reactions continue torepeat themselves, however, permanent modifications, as previouslynoted, are established in the nervous system, including both sensory andmotor adjustments. Since, moreover, these sensory and motor adjustmentsgive rise to ideas, they result in corresponding associations of mentalimagery. As these neural and mental elements are thus organized intomore and more complex masses, the recurrence of any element within anassociated mass is able to reinstate the other elements. The result isthat when a certain sensation is received, as, for instance, a soundstimulus, it reinstates sensory impressions and motor reactions togetherwith their associated mental images, thus enabling the mind to assertthat a dog is barking in the distance. In such a case, the presentimpression is evidently joined with, and interpreted through, what hasalready formed a part of our experience. What is true of this particularcase is true of all cases. New presentations are always met andinterpreted by some complex experiences with which they have somethingin common, otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to at all. Thisability of the mind to interpret new presentations in terms of oldknowledge on account of some connection they bear to that content, isknown as _apperception_. In other words, apperception is the law of themind to attend to such elements in a new presentation as possess somedegree of _familiarity_ with the already assimilated experience, although there may be no distinct recognition of this familiarity. 

CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION

=A. Present Knowledge. =--Since the mind can apperceive only that forwhich it is prepared through former experience, the interpretation ofthe same presentations will be likely to differ greatly in differentindividuals. The book lying before him is to the young child a place inwhich to find pictures, to the ignorant man a source of mysteriousinformation, and to the scholar a symbolic representation of certainmathematical knowledge. In the same manner, the object outside thewindow is a noxious weed to the farmer, a flower to the naturalist, anda medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist. From this it isclear that the interpretation of the impressions must differ accordingto the character of our present knowledge. In other words, the moreimportant the aspects read into any presentation, the more valuable willbe the present experience. Although when the child apperceives a stickas a horse, and the mechanic apperceives it as a lever, eachinterpretation is valuable within its own sphere, yet there is evidentlya marked difference in the ultimate significance of the twointerpretations. Education is especially valuable, in fact, in that itso adds to the experience of the child that he may more fully apperceivehis surroundings. 

=B. Present Interests and Needs. =--But apperception is not solelydependent upon present knowledge. The interests and needs of theindividual reflect themselves largely in his apperceptive tendencies. While the boy sees a tent in the folded paper, the girl is more likelyto find in it a screen. To the little boy the lath is a horse, to theolder boy it becomes a sword. Feelings and interest, therefore, as wellas knowledge, dominate the apperceptive process. Nor should this fact beoverlooked by the teacher. The study of a poem would be very incompleteand unsatisfactory if it stopped with the apprehension of the ideas. There must be emotional appreciation as well; otherwise the study willresult in entire indifference to it. In introducing, for instance, thesonnet, "Mysterious Night" (page 394, _Ontario Reader, Book IV_), theteacher might ask: "Why can we not see the stars during the day?" Theanswer to this question would put the pupils in the proper intellectualattitude to interpret the ideas of the poem, but that is not enough. Arecall of such an experience as his contemplation of the starry sky on aclear night will put the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude. He is arare pupil who has not at some time gazed in wonder at the immensenumber and magnificence of the stars, or who has not thought with aweand reverence of the infinite power of the Creator of "such countlessorbs. " A recall of these feelings of wonder, awe, and reverence willplace the pupil in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of thepoem. It is in the teaching of literature that the importance of aproper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil is particularly great. Without it the pupil is coldly indifferent toward literature and willnever cultivate an enthusiasm for it. 

FACTORS IN APPERCEPTION

=Retention and Recall. =--The facts already noted make it plain thatapperception involves two important factors. First, apperception impliesretention and recall. Unless our various experiences left behind themthe permanent effects already noted in describing the retentive power ofthe nervous organism and the consequent possibility of recall, therecould be no adjustment to new impressions on the basis of earlierexperiences. 

=Attention. =--Secondly, apperception involves attention. Since toapperceive is to bring the results of earlier experience to bearactively upon the new impression, it must involve a reactive, orattentive, state of consciousness; for, as noted in our study of thelearning process, it is only by selecting elements out of formerexperience that the new impression is given definite meaning inconsciousness. For the child to apperceive the strange object as a"bug-in-a-basket, " demands from him therefore a process of attention inwhich the ideas "bug" and "basket" are selected from former experienceand read into the new impression, thereby giving it a meaning inconsciousness. A reference to any of the lesson topics previouslyconsidered will provide further examples of these apperceptive factors. 

CHAPTER XXVII

IMAGINATION

=Nature of. =--In our study of the various modes of acquiring individualnotions, attention was called to the fact that knowledge of a particularobject may be gained through a process of imagination. Like memory, imagination is a process of re-presentation, though differing from it incertain important regards. 

1. Although imagination depends on past experiences for its images, these images are used to build up ideal representations of objectswithout any reference to past time. 

2. In imagination the associated elements of past experience may becompletely dissociated. Thus a bird may be imagined without wings, or astone column without weight. 

3. The dissociated elements may be re-combined in various ways torepresent objects never actually experienced, as a man with wings, or ahorse with a man's head. 

Imagination is thus an apperceptive process by which we construct amental representation of an object without any necessary reference toits actual existence in time. 

=Product of Imagination, Particular. =--It is to be noted that in aprocess of imagination the mind always constructs in idea arepresentation of a _particular_ object or individual. For instance, theideal picture of the house I imagine situated on the hill before me isthat of a particular house, possessing definite qualities as to height, size, colour, etc. In like manner, the future visit to Toronto, as itis being run over ideally, is constructed of particular persons, places, and events. So also when reading such a stanza as:

 The milk-white blossoms of the thorn Are waving o'er the pool, Moved by the wind that breathes along, So sweetly and so cool;

if the mind is able to combine into a definite outline of a particularsituation the various elements depicted, then the mental process of thereader is one of imagination. It is not true, of course, that theparticular elements which enter into such an ideal representation arealways equally vivid. Yet one test of a person's power of imagination isthe definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal representation standout in consciousness as a distinct individual. 

TYPES OF IMAGINATION

=A. Passive. =--In dissociating the elements of past experience andcombining them into new particular forms, the mind may proceed in twoquite different ways. In some cases the mind seemingly allows itself todrift without purpose and almost without sense, building up fantasticrepresentations of imaginary objects or events. This happens especiallyin our periods of day-dreaming. Here various images, evidently drawnfrom past experience, come before consciousness in a spontaneous way andenter into most unusual forms of combination, with little regard even toprobability. In these moods the timid lad becomes a strong hero, and hisrustic Audrey, a fair lady, for whose sake he is ever performing untoldfeats of valour. Here the ideas, instead of being selected and combinedfor a definite purpose through an act of voluntary attention, aresuggested one after the other by the mere law of association. Becausein such fantastic products of the imagination the various images appearin consciousness and combine themselves without any apparent control orpurpose, the process is known as passive imagination, or phantasy. Sucha type, it is evident, will have little significance as an actualprocess of learning. 

=B. Active, or Constructive. =--Opposed to the above type is that form ofimagination in which the mind proceeds to build up a particular idealrepresentation with some definite purpose, or end, in view. A student, for example, who has never seen an aeroplane and has no direct knowledgeof the course to be traversed, may be called upon in his compositionwork to describe an imaginary voyage through the air from Toronto toWinnipeg. In such an act of imagination, the selecting of elements toenter into the ideal picture must be chosen with an eye to theirsuitability to the end in view. When also a child is called upon inschool to form an ideal representation of some object of which he hashad no direct experience, as for instance, a mental picture of avolcano, he must in the same way, under the guidance of the teacher, select and combine elements of his actual experience which are adaptedto the building up of a correct mental representation of an actualvolcano. This type of imagination is known as active, or constructive, imagination. 

=Factors in Constructive Imagination. =--In such a purposeful, or active, process of imagination the following factors may be noticed:

1. The purpose, end, or problem calling for the exercise of theimagination. 

2. A selective act of attention, in which the fitness or unfitness ofelements of past experience, or their adaptability to the idealcreation, is realized. 

3. A relating, or synthetic, activity combining the selected elementsinto a new ideal representation. 

USES OF IMAGINATION

=Imagination in Education. =--One important application of imagination inschool work is found in connection with the various forms ofconstructive occupation. In such exercises, it is possible to have thechild first build up ideally the picture of a particular object and thenhave him produce it through actual expression. For example, a classwhich has been taught certain principles of cutting may be called uponto conceive an original design for some object, say a valentine. Herethe child, before proceeding to produce the actual object, must selectfrom his knowledge of valentines certain elements and interpret them inrelation to his principles of cutting. This ideal representation of theintended object is, therefore, a process of active, or constructive, imagination. In composition, also, the various events and situationsdepicted may be ideal creations to which the child gives expression inlanguage. In geography and nature study likewise, constant use must bemade of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of objects which havenever come within the actual experience of the child. In science thereis a further appeal to the child's imagination. When, for instance, hestudies such topics as the law of gravity, chemical affinity, etc. , theimagination must fill in much that falls outside the sphere of actualobservation. In history and literature, also, the student can enter intothe life and action of the various scenes and events only by building upideal representations of what is depicted through the words of theauthor. 

=Imagination in Practical Life. =--In addition to the large use ofconstructive imagination in school work, this process will be foundequally important in the after affairs of life. It is by use of theimagination that the workman is able to see the changes we desire madein the decoration of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds. It isby the use of imagination, also, that the general is able to outline theplan of campaign that shall lead his army to victory. Withoutimagination, therefore, the mind could not set up those practical aimstoward the attainment of which most of life's effort is directed. In thedominion of conduct, also, imagination has its important part to play. It is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one course ofaction as compared with the other, that man finally decides whatconstitutes the proper line of conduct. Even when indifferent as to hismoral conduct, man pictures to himself what his friends may say andthink of certain lines of action. For the enjoyment of life, also, theexercise of imagination has a place. It is by filling up the presentwith ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future, that much of themonotony of our work-a-day hours is relieved. 

=Development of Imagination. =--A prime condition of a creativeimagination is evidently the possession of an abundance of mentalmaterials which may be dissociated and re-combined into new mentalproducts. These materials, of course, consist of the images and ideasretained by the mind from former experiences. One important result, therefore, of providing the young child with a rich store of images ofsight, sound, touch, movement, etc. , is that it provides his developingimagination with necessary materials. But the mere possession ofabundant materials in the form of past images will not in itself developthe imagination. Here, as elsewhere, it is only by exercisingimagination that ability to imagine can be developed. Opportunity forsuch an exercise of the imagination, moreover, may be given the child invarious ways. As already noted, a chief function of play is that itstimulates the child to use his imagination in reconstructing theobjects about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes. Insupplementary reading and story work, also, the imagination is activelyexercised in constructing the ideal situations, as they are beingpresented in words by the book or the teacher. Nature study, likewise, by bringing before the child the secret processes of nature, as noting, for instance, the life history of the butterfly, the germination ofseeds, etc. , will call upon him to use his imagination in various ways. On the other hand, to deprive a young child of all such opportunitieswill usually result in preventing a proper development of theimagination. 

CHAPTER XXVIII

THINKING

=Nature of Thinking. =--In the study of general method, as well as inthat of the foregoing mental processes, it has been taken for grantedthat our minds are capable of identifying different objects on the basisof some common feature or features. This tendency of the mind toidentify objects and group individual things into classes, depends uponits capacity to detect similarity and difference, or to makecomparisons. When the mind, in identifying objects, events, qualities, etc. , discovers certain relations between its various states, theprocess is especially known as that of thinking. In its technical sense, therefore, thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension ofrelation. 

=Thinking Involved in all Conscious States. =--It is evident, however, that every mental process must involve thinking, or a grasping ofrelations. When, by my merely touching an object, my mind perceives itis an apple, this act of perception, as already seen, takes placebecause elements of former experience come back as associated factors. This implies, evidently, that the mind is here relating elements of itspast experience with the present touch sensation. Perception of externalobjects, therefore, implies a grasping of relations. In the same way, if, in having an experience to-day, one recognizes it as identical witha former experience, he is equally grasping a relation. Every act ofmemory, therefore, implies thinking. Thus in all forms of knowledge themind is apprehending relations; for no experience could have meaningfor the mind except as it is discriminated from other experiences. Intreating thinking as a distinct mental process, however, it is assumedthat the objects of sense perception, memory, etc. , are known as such, and that the mind here deals more directly with the relations in whichideas stand one to another. As a mental process, thinking appears inthree somewhat distinct forms, known as conception, judgment, andreasoning. 

CONCEPTION

=The Abstract Notion. =--It was seen that at least in adult life, theperception of any object, as this particular orange, horse, cow, etc. , really includes a number of distinct images of quality synthesised intothe unity of a particular idea or experience. Because of this union of anumber of different sensible qualities in the notion of a singleindividual, the mind may limit its attention upon a particular quality, or characteristic, possessed by an object, and make this a distinctproblem of attention. Thus the mind is able to form such notions aslength, roundness, sweetness, heaviness, four-footedness, etc. When suchan attribute is thought of as something distinct from the object, themental image is especially known as an abstract idea, or notion, and theprocess as one of abstraction. 

=The Class Notion. =--One or more of such abstracted qualities may, moreover, be recognized as common to an indefinite number of objects. For instance, in addition to its ability to abstract from the perceptionof a dog, the abstract notions four-footedness, hairy, barking, etc. , the mind further gives them a general character by thinking of them asqualities common to an indefinite number of other possible individuals, namely, the class four-footed, hairy, barking objects. Because the idearepresenting the quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as ameans of identifying a number of objects, the idea is spoken of as aclass notion, and the process as one of classification, orgeneralization. Thus it appears that, through its ability to detectsameness and difference, or discover relations, the mind is able to formtwo somewhat different notions. By mentally abstracting any quality andregarding it as something distinct from the object, it obtains anabstract notion, as sweetness, bravery, hardness, etc. ; by synthesisingand symbolizing the images of certain qualities recognized in objects, it obtains a general, or class, notion by which it may represent anindefinite number of individual things as, triangle, horse, desert, etc. Thus abstract notions are supposed to represent qualities; classnotions, things. Because of its reference to a number of objects, theclass notion is spoken of especially as a general notion, and theprocess of forming the notion as one of generalization. These two typesof notions are technically known as concepts, and the process of theirformation as one of conception. 

=Formal Analysis of Process. =--At this point may be recalled what wasstated in Chapter XV concerning the development of a class notion. Mention was there made of the theory that in the formation of suchconcepts, or class notions, as cow, dog, desk, chair, adjective, etc. , the mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows:

 1. Comparison: The examination of a certain number of particular individuals in order to discover points of similarity and difference. 

 2. Abstraction: The distinguishing of certain characteristics common to the objects. 

 3. Generalization: The mental unification, or synthesis, of these common characteristics noted in different individuals into a class notion represented by a name, or general term. 

=But Conception is Involved in Perception. =--From what has been seen, however, it is evident that the development of our concepts does notproceed in any such formal way. If the mind perceives an individualobject with any degree of clearness, it must recognize the object aspossessing certain qualities. If, therefore, the child can perceive suchan object as a dog, it implies that he recognizes it, say, as a hairy, four-footed creature. To recognize these qualities, however, signifiesthat the mind is able to think of them as something apart from theobject, and the child thus has in a sense a general notion even whileperceiving the particular dog. Whenever he passes to the perception ofanother dog, he undoubtedly interprets this with the general ideasalready obtained from this earlier percept of a dog. To say, therefore, that to gain a concept he compares the qualities found in severalindividual things is not strictly true, for if his first percept becomesa type by which he interprets other dogs, his first experience isalready a concept. What happens is that as this concept is used tointerpret other individuals, the person becomes more conscious of thefact that his early experience is applicable to an indefinite number ofobjects. So also, when an adult first perceives an individual thing, saythe fruit of the guava, he must apprehend certain qualities in relationto the individual thing. Thereupon his idea of this particular objectbecomes in itself a copy for identifying other objects, or a symbol bywhich similar future impressions may be given meaning. In this sense theindividual idea, or percept, will serve to identify other particularexperiences. Such being the case, this early concept of the guava hasevidently required no abstraction of qualities beyond apprehending themwhile perceiving the one example of the fruit. This, however, is but tosay that the perception of the guava really implied conception. 

=Comparison of Individuals Necessary for Correct Concepts. =--It is, ofcourse, true that the correctness of the idea as a class symbol can beverified only as we apply it in interpreting a number of such individualthings. As the person meets a further number of individuals, he may evendiscover the presence of qualities not previously recognized. A child, for instance, may have a notion of the class triangle long before hediscovers that all triangles have the property of containing two rightangles. When this happens, he will later modify his first concept bysynthesising into it the newly discovered quality. Moreover, if certainfeatures supposed to be common are later found to be accidental, if, forinstance, a child's concept of the class fish includes the quality_always living in water_, his meeting with a flying fish will not resultin an utterly new concept, but rather in a modification of the presentone. Thus the young child, who on seeing the Chinese diplomat, wished toknow where he had his laundry, was not without a class concept, althoughthat concept was imperfect in at least one respect. 

=Concept and Term. =--A point often discussed in connection withconception is whether a general notion can be formed without language. By some it is argued that no concept could exist in the mind without thename, or general term. It was seen, however, that our first perceptionof any object becomes a sort of standard by which other similarexperiences are intercepted, and is, therefore, general in character. From this it is evident that a rudimentary type of conception existsprior to language. In the case of the young child, as he gains a mentalimage of his father, the experience evidently serves as a centre forinterpreting other similar individuals. We may notice that as soon as hegains control of language, other men are called by the term papa. Thisdoes not imply an actual confusion in identity, but his use of the termshows that the child interprets the new object through a crude conceptdenoted by the word papa. It is more than probable, moreover, that thiscrude concept developed as he became able to recognize his father, andhad been used in interpreting other men before he obtained the term, papa. On the other hand, it is certain that the term, or class name, isnecessary to give the notion a definite place in consciousness. 

FACTORS INVOLVED IN CONCEPT

It will appear from the foregoing that a concept presents the followingfactors for consideration:

1. The essential quality or qualities found in the individual things, and supposed to be abstracted sooner or later from the individuals. 

2. The concept itself, the mental image or idea representative of theabstracted quality; or the unification of a number of abstractedqualities, when the general notion implies a synthesis of differentqualities. 

3. The general term, or name. 

4. The objects themselves, which the mind can organize into a class, because they are identified as possessing common characteristics. When, however, a single abstracted quality is taken as a symbol of a class ofobjects, for example, when the quality bitterness becomes the symbol forthe class of bitter things, there can be no real distinction between theabstracted quality and the class concept. In other words, to fixattention upon the quality bitterness as a quality distinct from theobject in which it is found, is at the same time to give it a generalcharacter, recognizing it as something which may be found in a number ofobjects--the class bitter things. Here the abstract term is in a sensea general notion representative of a whole class of objects which agreein the possession of the quality. 

=Intension of Concepts. =--Certain of our general notions are, however, much more complex than others. When a single attribute such asfour-footedness is generalized to represent the class four-footedobjects, the notion itself is relatively simple. In other words, asingle property is representative of the objects, and in apprehendingthe members of the class all other properties they chance to possess maybe left out of account. In many cases, however, the class notion willevidently be much more complex. The notion dog, for instance, inaddition to implying the characteristic four-footedness, may includesuch qualities as hairy, barking, watchful, fearless, etc. This greateror less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of as itsintensity. The notion dog, for instance, is more intensive than thenotion four-footed animals; the notion lawyer, than the notion man. 

=Extension of Concepts. =--It is to be noted further that as a notionincreases in intension it becomes limited to a smaller class of objects. From this standpoint, notions are said to differ in extension. The classlawyer, for instance, is not so extensive as the class man; nor theclass dog, as the class four-footed objects. It will appear from theabove that an abstract notion viewed as a sign of a class of objects isdistinguished by its extension, while a class notion, so far as itimplies a synthesis of several abstracted qualities, is marked rather byits intension. 

AIMS OF CONCEPTUAL LESSONS

So far as school lessons aim to establish and develop correct classnotions in the minds of the pupils, three somewhat distinct types ofwork may be noted:

1. TO DEFINE CLASSES

In some lessons no attempt is made to develop an utterly new classnotion, or concept; the pupils in fact may already know the class ofobjects in a general way and be acquainted with many of theircharacteristics. The object of the lesson is, therefore, to render theconcept more scientific by having it include the qualities whichessentially mark it as a class and especially separate it from otherco-ordinate classes. In studying the grasshopper; for instance, inentomology, the purpose is not to give the child a notion of the insectin the ordinary sense of the term. This the pupil may already have. Thepurpose is rather to enable him to decide just what generalcharacteristics distinguish this from other insects. The lesson may, therefore, leave out of consideration features which are common to allgrasshoppers, simply because they do not enter into a scientificdifferentiation of the class. 

2. TO ENLARGE A CONCEPT

In many lessons the aim seems to be chiefly to enlarge certain conceptsby adding to their intensiveness. The pupil, for instance, has ascientific concept of a triangle, that is, one which enables him todistinguish a triangle from any other geometrical figure. He may, however, be led to see further that the three angles of every triangleequal two right angles. This is really having him discover a furtherattribute in relation to triangles, although this knowledge is notessential to the concept as a symbol of the members of the class. In thesame way, in grammar the pupil is taught certain attributes common toverbs, as mood and tense, although these are not essential attributesfrom the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special class ofwords. 

3. TO BUILD UP NEW CONCEPTS

=A. Presentation of Unknown Individuals. =--In many lessons the chiefobject seems to be, however, to build up a new concept in the mind ofthe child. This would be the case when the pupil is presented with atotally unknown object, say a platypus, and called upon to examine itscharacteristics. In such lessons two important facts should be noticed. First, the child finds seemingly little difficulty in accepting a singleindividual as a type of a class, and is able to carry away from thelesson a fairly scientific class notion through a study of the oneindividual. In this regard the pupil but illustrates what has been saidof the ability of the child to use his early percepts as standards tointerpret other individuals. The pupil is able the more easily to formthis accurate notion, because he no doubt has already a store ofabstract notions with which to interpret the presentation, and alsobecause his interest and attention is directed into the proper channelsby the teacher. 

=B. Division of Known Classes. =--A second common mode of developing newconcepts in school work is in breaking up larger classes intoco-ordinate sub-classes. This, of course, involves the developing of newconcepts to cover these sub-classes. In such cases, however, the newnotions are merely modified forms of the higher class notion. When, forexample, the pupil gains general notions representative of the classes, proper noun and common noun, the new terms merely add something to theintension of the more extensive term noun. This will be evident byconsidering the difference between the notions noun and proper noun. Both agree in possessing the attribute _used to name_. The latter ismore intensive, however, because it signifies _used to name a particularobject_. Although in such cases the lesson seems in a sense to developnew general notions, they represent merely an adding to the intensionof a notion already possessed by the child. 

=Use of the Term. =--A further problem regarding the process ofconception concerns the question of the significance of a name. When aperson uses such a term as dog, whale, hepatica, guava, etc. , to name acertain object, what is the exact sense, or meaning, in which the nameis to be applied? A class name, when applied scientifically to anobject, is evidently supposed to denote the presence in it of certainessential characteristics which belong to the class. It is clear, however, that the ordinary man rarely uses these names with anyscientific precision. A man can point to an object and say that it is ahorse, and yet be ignorant of many of the essential features of a horse. In such cases, therefore, the use of the name merely shows that theperson considers the object to belong to a certain class, but is noguarantee that he is thinking of the essential qualities of the class. It might be said, therefore, that a class term is used for two somewhatdifferent purposes, either to denote the object merely, or to signifyscientifically the attributes possessed by the object. It is in thesecond respect that danger of error in reasoning arises. So far as aname represents the attributes of a class, it will signify for us justthose attributes which we associate with that class. So long, therefore, as the word fish means to us an animal living in the water, we willinclude in the class the whale, which really does not belong to theclass, and perhaps exclude from the class the flying fish, although itis scientifically a member of the class. 

THE DEFINITION

It has been noted that, when man discovers common characteristics in anumber of objects, he tends on this basis to unite such objects into aclass. It is to be noted in addition, however, that in the same mannerhe is also able, by examining the characteristics of a large class ofobjects, to divide these into smaller sub-classes. Although, forexample, we may place all three-sided figures into one class and callthem triangles, we are further able to divide these into threesub-classes owing to certain differences that may be noted among them. Thus an important fact regarding classification is that while a classmay possess some common quality or qualities, yet its members may befurther divided into sub-classes and each of these smaller classesdistinguished from the others by points of difference. Owing to thisfact, there are two important elements entering into a scientificknowledge of any class, first, to know of what larger class it forms apart, and secondly, to know what characteristics distinguish it from theother classes which go with it to make up this larger class. To know theclass equilateral triangle, for instance, we must know, first, that itbelongs to the larger class triangle, and secondly, that it differs fromother classes of triangles by having its three sides equal. For thisreason a person is able to know a class scientifically without knowingall of its common characteristics. For instance, the large class ofobjects known as words is subdivided into smaller classes known as partsof speech. Taking one of these classes, the verb, we find that all verbsagree in possessing at least three common characteristics, they havepower to assert, to denote manner, and to express time. To distinguishthe verb, however, it is necessary to note only that it is a word usedto assert, since this is the only characteristic which distinguishes itfrom the other classes of words. When, therefore, we describe any classof objects by first naming the larger class to which it belongs, andthen stating the characteristics which distinguish it from the otherco-ordinate classes, we are said to give a definition of the class, orto define it. The statement, "A trimeter is a verse of three measures, "is a definition because it gives, first, the larger class (verse) towhich the trimeters belong, and secondly, the difference (of threemeasures) which distinguishes the trimeter from all other verses. Thestatement, "A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of twoterms, " is a definition, because it gives, first, the larger class(algebraic expression) to which binomials belong, and secondly, thedifference (consisting of two terms) which distinguishes binomials fromother algebraic expressions. 

JUDGMENT

=Nature of Judgment. =--A second form, or mode, of thinking is known asjudgment. Our different concepts were seen to vary in their intension, or meaning, according to the number of attributes suggested by each. Mynotion _triangle_ may denote the attributes three-sided andthree-angled; my notion _isosceles triangle_ will in that case includeat least these two qualities plus equality of two of the sides. Thisindicates that various relations exist between our ideas and may beapprehended by the mind. When a relation between two concepts isdistinctly apprehended in thought, or, in other words, when there is amental assertion of a union between two ideas, or objects of thought, the process is known as _judgment_. Judgment may be defined, therefore, as the apprehension, or mental affirmation, of a relation between twoideas. If the idea, or concept, _heaviness_ enters as a mental elementinto my idea _stone_, then the mind is able to affirm a relation betweenthese concepts in the form, "Stone is heavy. " In like manner when themind asserts, "Glass is transparent" or "Horses are animals, " there isa distinct apprehension of a relation between the concepts involved. 

=Judgment Distinguished from Statement. =--It should be noted thatjudgment is the mental apprehension of a relation between ideas. Whenthis relation is expressed in actual words, it is spoken of as aproposition, or a predication. A proposition is, therefore, thestatement of a judgment. The proposition is composed of two terms andthe copula, one term constituting the subject of the proposition and theother the predicate. Although a judgment may often be expressed in someother form, it can usually be converted into the above form. Theproposition, "Horses eat oats, " may be expressed in the form, "Horsesare oat-eaters"; the proposition, "The sun melts the snow, " into theform, "The sun is a-thing-which-melts-snow. "

=Relation of Judgment to Conception. =--It would appear from the aboveexamples that a judgment expresses in an explicit form the relationsinvolved within the concept, and is, therefore, merely a direct way ofindicating the state of development of any idea. If my concept of a dog, for example, is a synthesis of the qualities four-footed, hairy, fierce, and barking, then an analysis of the concept will furnish the followingjudgments:

 { A four-footed thing. { A hairy thing. A dog is { A fierce thing. { A barking thing. 

Because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an act of judgment, it is said that judgment is a more advanced form of thinking thanconception. On the other hand, however, judgment is implied in theformation of a concept. When the child apprehends the dog as afour-footed object, his mind has grasped four-footedness as a qualitypertaining to the strange object, and has, in a sense, brought the twoideas into relation. But while judgment is implied in the formation ofthe concept, the concept does not bring explicitly to the mind thejudgments it implies. The concept snow, for instance, implies theproperty of whiteness, but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinctidea and related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said tohave formed, or thought, the judgment, "Snow is white. " Judgment is aform of thinking separate from conception, therefore, because it doesthus bring into definite relief relations only implied in our generalnotions, or concepts. One value of judgment is, in fact, that it enablesus to analyse our concepts, and thus note more explicitly the relationsincluded in them. 

=Universal and Particular Judgments. =--Judgments are found to differalso as to the universality of their affirmation. In such a judgment as"Man is mortal, " since mortality is viewed as a quality always joined tomanhood, the affirmation is accepted as a universal judgment. In such ajudgment as "Men strive to subdue the air, " the two objects of thoughtare not considered as always and necessarily joined together. Thejudgment is therefore particular in character. All of our laws ofnature, as "Air has weight, " "Pressure on liquids is transmitted inevery direction, " or "Heat is conducted by metals, " are accepted asuniversal judgments. 

=Errors in Judgment due to: A. Faulty Concepts. =--It may be seen fromthe foregoing that our judgments, when explicitly grasped by the mindand predicated in language, reflect the accuracy or inaccuracy of ourconcepts. Whatever relations are, as it were, wrapped up in a conceptmay merge at any time in the form of explicit judgments. If the factthat the only Chinamen seen by a child are engaged in laundry workcauses this attribute to enter into his concept Chinaman, this will leadhim to affirm that the restaurant keeper, Wan Lee, is a laundry-man. Therepublican who finds two or three cases of corruption among democrats, may conceive corruption as a quality common to democrats and affirm thathonest John Smith is corrupt. Faulty concepts, therefore, are verylikely to lead to faulty judgments. A first duty in education isevidently to see that children are forming correct class concepts. Forthis it must be seen that they always distinguish the essential featuresof the class of objects they are studying. They must learn, also, not toconclude on account of superficial likeness that really unlike objectsbelong to the same class. The child, for instance, in parsing thesentence, "The swing broke down, " must be taught to look for essentialcharacteristics, and not call the word _swing_ a gerund because it endsin "ing"; which, though a common characteristic of gerunds, does notdifferentiate it from other classes of words. So, also, when the youngnature student notes that the head of the spider is somewhat separatedfrom the abdomen, he must not falsely conclude that the spider belongsto the class insects. In like manner, the pupil must not imagine, onaccount of superficial differences, that objects really the same belongto different classes, as for example, that a certain object is not afish, but a bird, because it is flying through the air; or that a whaleis a fish and not an animal, because it lives in water. The pupil mustalso learn to distinguish carefully between the particular and universaljudgment. To affirm that "Men strive to subdue the air, " does not implythat "John Smith strives to subdue the air. " The importance of thisdistinction will be considered more fully in our next section. 

=B. Feeling. =--Faulty concepts are not, however, the only causes forwrong judgments. It has been noted already that feeling enters largelyas a factor in our conscious life. Man, therefore, in forming hisjudgments, is always in danger of being swayed by his feelings. Ourlikes and dislikes, in other words, interfere with our thinking, andprevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should. Instead, therefore, of striving to develop true concepts concerning men andevents and basing our judgments upon these, we are inclined in manycases to allow our judgments to be swayed by mere feeling. 

=C. Laziness. =--Indifference is likewise a common source of faultyjudgments. To attend to the concept and discover its intension as ameans for correct judgment evidently demands mental effort. Many people, however, prefer either to jump at conclusions or let others do theirjudging for them. 

=Sound Judgments Based on Scientific Concepts. =--To be able to formcorrect judgments regarding the members of any class, however, the childshould know, not only its common characteristics, but also the essentialfeatures which distinguish its members from those of co-ordinateclasses. To know adequately the equilateral triangle, for instance, thepupil must know both the features which distinguish it from othertriangles and also those in which it agrees with all triangles. To knowfully the mentha family of plants, he must know both the characteristicqualities of the family and also those of the larger genus labiatae. From this it will be seen that a large share of school work must bedevoted to building up scientific class notions in the minds of thepupils. Without this, many of their judgments must necessarily befaulty. To form such scientific concepts, however, it is necessary torelate one concept with another in more indirect ways than is donethrough the formation of judgments. This brings us to a consideration of_reasoning_, the third and last form of thinking. 

REASONING

=Nature of Reasoning. =--Reasoning is defined as a mental process inwhich the mind arrives at a new judgment by comparing other judgments. The mind, for instance, is in possession of the two judgments, "Stonesare heavy" and "Flint is a stone. " By bringing these two judgments underthe eye of attention and comparing them, the mind is able to arrive atthe new judgment, "Flint is heavy. " Here the new judgment, expressing arelation between the notions, _flint_ and _heavy_, is supposed to bearrived at, neither by direct experience, nor by an immediate analysisof the concept _flint_, but more indirectly by comparing the otherjudgments. The judgment, or conclusion, is said, therefore, to bearrived at mediately, or by a process of reasoning. Reasoning is of twoforms, deductive, or syllogistic, reasoning, and inductive reasoning. 

DEDUCTION

=Nature of Deduction. =--In deduction the mind is said to start with ageneral truth, or judgment, and by a process of reasoning to arrive at amore particular truth, or judgment, thus:

 Stone is heavy; Flint is a stone;. '. Flint is heavy. 

Expressed in this form, the reasoning process, as already mentioned, isknown as a syllogism. The whole syllogism is made up of three parts, major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. The three conceptsinvolved in the syllogism are known as the major, the minor, and themiddle term. In the above syllogism, _heavy_, the predicate of the majorpremise, is the major term; _flint_, the subject of the minor premise, is the minor term; and _stone_, to which the other two are related inthe premises, is known as the middle term. Because of this previouscomparison of the major and the minor terms with the middle term, deduction is sometimes said to be a process by which the mind discoversa relation between two concepts by comparing them each with a thirdconcept. 

=Purpose of Deduction. =--It is to be noted, however, as pointed out inChapter XV, that deductive reasoning takes place normally only when themind is faced with a difficulty which demands solution. Take the case ofthe boy and his lost coin referred to in Chapter II. As he faces theproblem, different methods of solution may present themselves. It mayenter his mind, for instance, to tear up the grate, but this is rejectedon account of possible damage to the brickwork. Finally he thinks of thetar and resorts to this method of recovery. In both of the above casesthe boy based his conclusions upon known principles. As he consideredthe question of tearing up the grate, the thought came to his mind, "Lifting-a-grate is a-thing-which-may-cause-damage. " As he consideredthe use of the tar, he had in mind the judgment, "Adhesion is a propertyof tar, " and at once inferred that tar would solve his problem. In suchpractical cases, however, the mind seems to go directly from the problemin hand to a conclusion by means of a general principle. When a womanwishes to remove a stain, she at once says, "Gasoline will remove it. "Here the mind, in arriving at its conclusion, seems to apply theprinciple, "Gasoline removes spots, " directly to the particularproblem. Thus the reasoning might seem to run as follows:

 Problem: What will remove this stain? Principle: Gasoline will remove stains. Conclusion: Gasoline will remove this stain. 

Here the middle term of the syllogism seems to disappear. It is to benoted, however, that our thought changes from the universal idea"stains, " mentioned in the statement of the principle, to the particularidea "this stain" mentioned in the problem and in the conclusion. Butthis implies a middle term, which could be expressed thus:

 Gasoline will remove stains; This is a stain;. '. Gasoline will remove _this_. 

The syllogism is valuable, therefore, because it displays fully andclearly each element in the reasoning process, and thus assures thevalidity of the conclusion. 

=Deduction in School Recitation. =--It will be recalled from what wasnoted in our study of general method, that deduction usually plays animportant part during an ordinary developing lesson. In the step ofpreparation, when the pupil is given a particular example in order torecall old knowledge, the example suggests a problem which is intendedto call up certain principles which are designed to be used during thepresentation. In a lesson on the "Conjunctive Pronoun, " for instance, ifwe have the pupil recall his knowledge of the conjunction by examiningthe particular word "if" in such a sentence as, "I shall go if theycome, " he interprets the word as a conjunction simply because hepossesses a general rule applicable to it, or is able to go through aprocess of deduction. In the presentation also, when the pupil is calledon to examine the word _who_ in such a sentence as, "The man who met usis very old, " and decides that it is both a conjunction and a pronoun, he is again making deductions, since it is by his general knowledge ofconjunctions and pronouns that he is able to interpret the two functionsof the particular word _who_. Finally, as already noted, the applicationof an ordinary recitation frequently involves deductive processes. 

INDUCTION

=Nature of Induction. =--Induction is described as a process of reasoningin which the mind arrives at a conclusion by an examination ofparticular cases, or judgments. A further distinguishing feature of theinductive process is that, while the known judgments are particular incharacter, the conclusion is accepted as a general law, or truth. As indeduction, the reasoning process arises on account of some difficulty, or problem, presented to the mind, as for example:

 What is the effect of heat upon air? Will glass conduct electricity? Why do certain bodies refract light?

To satisfy itself upon the problem, the mind appeals to actualexperience either by ordinary observation or through experimentation. These observations or experiments, which necessarily deal withparticular instances, are supposed to provide a number of particularjudgments, by examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimatelyreached. 

=Example of Induction. =--As an example of induction, may be taken thesolution of such a problem as, "Does air exert pressure?" To meet thishypothesis we must evidently do more than merely abstract the manifestproperties of an object, as is done in ordinary conception, or appealdirectly to some known general principle, as is done in deduction. Thework of induction demands rather to examine the two at present known butdisconnected things, _air_ and _pressure_, and by scientific observationseek to discover a relation between them. For this purpose theinvestigator may place a card over a glass filled with water, and oninverting it find that the card is held to the glass. Taking a glasstube and putting one end in water, he may place his finger over theother end and, on raising the tube, find that water remains in the tube. Soaking a heavy piece of leather in water and pressing it upon thesmooth surface of a stone or other object, he finds the stone can belifted by means of the leather. Reflecting upon each of thesecircumstances the mind comes to the following conclusions:

 Air pressure holds this card to the glass, Air pressure keeps the water in the tube, Air pressure holds together the leather and the stone, . '. Air exerts pressure. 

=How Distinguished from, A. Deduction, and B. Conception. =--Such aprocess as the above constitutes a process of reasoning, first, becausethe conclusion gives a new affirmation, or judgment, "Air exertspressure, " and secondly, because the judgment is supposed to be arrivedat by comparing other judgments. As a process of reasoning, however, itdiffers from deduction in that the final judgment is a general judgment, or truth, which seems to be based upon a number of particular judgmentsobtained from actual experience, while in deduction the conclusion wasparticular and the major premise general. It is for this reason thatinduction is defined as a process of going from the particular to thegeneral. Moreover, since induction leads to the formation of a universaljudgment, or general truth, it differs from the generalizing processknown as conception, which leads to the formation of a concept, orgeneral idea. It is evident, however, that the process will enrich theconcept involved in the new judgment. When the mind is able to affirmthat air exerts pressure, the property, exerting-pressure, is at oncesynthesised into the notion air. This point will again be referred to incomparing induction and conception as generalizing processes. 

In speaking of induction as a process of going from the particular tothe general, this does not signify that the process deals withindividual notions. The particulars in an inductive process areparticular cases giving rise to particular judgments, and judgmentsinvolve concepts, or general ideas. When, in the inductive process, itis asserted that air holds the card to the glass, the mind is seeking toestablish a relation between the notions air and pressure, and is, therefore, thinking in concepts. For this reason, it is usually saidthat induction takes for granted ordinary relations as involved in oureveryday concepts, and concerns itself only with the more hiddenrelations of things. The significance of induction as a process of goingfrom the particular to the general, therefore, consists in the fact thatthe conclusion is held to be a wider judgment than is contained in anyof the premises. 

=Particular Truth Implies the General. =--Describing the premises of aninductive process as particular truths, and the conclusion as auniversal truth, however, involves the same fiction as was noted inseparating the percept and the concept into two distinct types ofnotions. In the first place, my particular judgment, that air pressesthe card against the glass, is itself a deduction resting upon othergeneral principles. Secondly, if the judgment that air presses the cardagainst the glass contains no element of universal truth, then athousand such judgments could give no universal truth. Moreover, if themind approaches a process of induction with a problem, or hypothesis, before it, the general truth is already apprehended hypothetically inthought even before the particular instances are examined. When we setout, for instance, to investigate whether the line joining the bisectingpoints of the sides of a triangle is parallel with the base, we haveaccepted hypothetically the general principle that such lines areparallel with the base. The fact is, therefore, that when the mindexamines the particular case and finds it to agree with the hypothesis, so far as it accepts this case as a truth, it also accepts it as auniversal truth. Although, therefore, induction may involve going fromone particular experiment or observation to another, it is in a sense aprocess of going from the general to the general. 

That accepting the truth of a particular judgment may imply a universaljudgment is very evident in the case of geometrical demonstrations. Whenit is shown, for instance, that in the case of the particular isoscelestriangle ABC, the angles at the base are equal, the mind does notrequire to examine other particular triangles for verification, but atonce asserts that in every isosceles triangle the angles at the base areequal. 

=Induction and Conception Interrelated. =--Although as a process, induction is to be distinguished from conception, it either leads to anenriching of some concept, or may in fact be the only means by whichcertain scientific concepts are formed. While the images obtained byordinary sense perception will enable a child to gain a notion of water, to add to the notion the property, boiling-at-a-certain-temperature, orable-to-be-converted-into-two-parts-hydrogen-and-one-part-oxygen, willdemand a process of induction. The development of such scientificnotions as oxide, equation, predicate adjective, etc. , is also dependentupon a regular inductive process. For this reason many lessons may beviewed both as conceptual and as inductive lessons. To teach the adverbimplies a conceptual process, because the child must synthesise certainattributes into his notion adverb. It is also an inductive lesson, because these attributes being formulated as definite judgments are, therefore, obtained inductively. The double character of such a lessonis fully indicated by the two results obtained. The lesson ends with theacquisition of a new term, adverb, which represents the result of theconceptual process. It also ends with the definition: "An adverb is aword which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb, " which indicatesthe general truth or truths resulting from the inductive process. 

=Deduction and Induction Interrelated. =--In our actual teachingprocesses there is a very close inter-relation between the two processesof reasoning. We have already noted on page 322 that, in such inductivelessons as teaching the definition of a noun or the rule for theaddition of fractions, both the preparatory step and the applicationinvolve deduction. It is to be noted further, however, that even in thedevelopment of an inductive lesson there is a continual interplaybetween induction and deduction. This will be readily seen in the caseof a pupil seeking to discover the rule for determining the number ofrepeaters in the addition of recurring decimals. When he notes thatadding three numbers with one, one, and two repeaters respectively, gives him two repeaters in his answer, he is more than likely to inferthat the rule is to have in the answer the highest number found amongthe addenda. So far as he makes this inference, he undoubtedly willapply it in interpreting the next problem, and if the next numbers haveone, one, and three repeaters respectively, he will likely be quiteconvinced that his former inference is correct. When, however, he meetsa question with one, two, and three repeaters respectively, he finds hisformer inference is incorrect, and may, thereupon, draw a new inference, which he will now proceed to apply to further examples. The general factto be noted here, however, is that, so far as the mind during theexamination of the particular examples reaches any conclusion in aninductive lesson, it evidently applies this conclusion to some degree inthe study of the further examples, or thinks deductively, even duringthe inductive process. 

=Development of Reasoning Power. =--Since reasoning is essentially apurposive form of thinking, it is evident that any reasoning processwill depend largely upon the presence of some problem which shallstimulate the mind to seek out relations necessary to its solution. Power to reason, therefore, is conditioned by the ability to attendvoluntarily to the problem and discover the necessary relations. It isfurther evident that the accuracy of any reasoning process must bedependent upon the accuracy of the judgments upon which the conclusionsare based. But these judgments in turn depend for their accuracy uponthe accuracy of the concepts involved. Correct reasoning, therefore, must depend largely upon the accuracy of our concepts, or, in otherwords, upon the old knowledge at our command. On the other hand, however, it has been seen that both deductive and inductive reasoningfollow to some degree a systematic form. For this reason it may beassumed that the practice of these forms should have some effect ingiving control of the processes. The child, for instance, who habituateshimself to such thought processes as AB equals BC, and AC equals BC, therefore AB equals AC, no doubt becomes able thereby to grasp suchrelations more easily. Granting so much, however, it is still evidentthat close attention to, and accurate knowledge of, the various termsinvolved in the reasoning process is the sure foundation of correctreasoning. 

CHAPTER XXIX

FEELING

=Sensuous and Ideal Feeling. =--We have noted (Chapter XXIV), that inaddition to the general feeling tone accompanying an act of attention, and already described as a feeling of interest, there are two importantclasses of feeling known respectively as sensuous and ideal feeling. When a person says: "I feel tired" or "I feel hungry, " he is referringto the feeling side of certain organic sensations. When he says: "Theair feels cold" or "The paper feels smooth, " he is referring to thefeeling side of temperature and touch sensations. These are, therefore, examples of sensuous feeling. On the other hand, to say "I feel angry"or "I feel afraid, " is to refer to a feeling state which accompaniesperhaps the perception of some object, the recollection or anticipationof some act, or the inference that something is sure to happen, etc. These latter states are therefore known as ideal feelings. 

=Quality of Feeling States. =--The qualities of our various feelingstates are distinguished under two heads, pleasure and pain. It mightseem at first sight that our feeling states will fall into a much largernumber of classes distinguished by differences in quality, or tone. Thetaste of an orange, the smell of lavender, the touch of a hot stove, theappreciation of a fine piece of music, and the appreciation of a loftypoem, seem at first sight to yield different feelings. The supposeddifference in the quality of the feelings is due, however, to adifference in the knowledge elements accompanying the feelings, or tothe fact that they are discriminated as different experiences. The ideaof the music or the poem is of a higher grade than the sensory image oftaste, and accordingly the feelings _appear_ to be different. Thefeelings may, of course, differ in intensity, but in _quality_ they areeither pleasant or unpleasant. 

CONDITIONS OF FEELING TONE

=A. Neural. =--The quality, or tone, of a feeling will vary according tothe intensity of the impression. Great heat stimulates the nervesviolently and the resultant feeling state is painful; warmth gives amoderate stimulation and the resultant tone is pleasant. Excessive coldalso, because it stimulates violently, produces a painful feeling. Sincethe intensity of a stimulus varies according to the resistanceencountered in the nervous arc, the quality of a feeling state must, therefore, vary according to the resistance. It is for this reason thatan experience, at first very painful, may lose much of its tone byrepetition. By repetition the nerve centres are adapted to theexperience, resistance is lessened, and the accompanying paindiminished. In this way, some work or exercise, which is at firstpositively unpleasant, may at least become endurable as the organismbecomes adapted to the occupation. From this point of view, it issometimes said that any impressions to which we are perfectly adaptedgive pleasurable feelings, while, in other cases the resultant tone willbe painful. 

=B. Mental. =--The law of perfect adaptation also explains why idealfeelings may at one time result in a pleasant, and at another time in apainful, feeling tone. According to the principle of apperception, thenew experience must organize itself with whatever thoughts and feelingsare now occupying consciousness. It necessarily happens that a givenexperience does not always equally harmonize with our present thoughtsand feelings. The recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstancesis agreeable, but amid certain associations or in a certain environment, such recognition would be disagreeable. So, too, while an originalexperience may have been agreeable, the memory of it may now bedisagreeable; and vice versa. For instance, the memory of a formersuccess or prosperity may, in the midst of present failure and poverty, be disagreeable; while the recollection of former failure and defeat maynow, in the midst of success and prosperity, be agreeable. What is itthat makes a sensation, a perception, a memory, or an apprehendedrelation pleasant under some circumstances and unpleasant under others?The rule appears to be that when the experience harmonizes with ourpresent train of thought, when it promotes our present interests andintentions, it is pleasant; but when, on the other hand, it does notharmonize with our train of thought or thwarts or impedes our interestsand purposes, it is unpleasant. 

=Function of Pleasure and Pain. =--From what has been noted concerningco-ordination between the adaptation of the organism to impression andthe quality of the accompanying feeling, it is evident that pleasure andpain each have their part to play in promoting the ultimate good of theindividual. Pain is beneficial, because it lets us know that there issome misadjustment to our environment, and thereby warns us to remove orcease doing what is proving injurious. In this connection, it may benoted that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails to make itspresence known through pain. Pleasure also is valuable in so far as itresults from perfect adaptation to a perfect environment, since itinduces the individual to continue beneficial acts. It must beremembered, however, that so far as heredity or education has adaptedour organism to improper stimuli, pleasure is no proof that the good ofthe organism is being advanced. In such cases, redemption can come tothe fallen world only through suffering. 

=Feeling and Knowing. =--Since the intensity of a feeling state isconditioned by the amount of resistance, an intense state of feeling islikely to be accompanied by a lowering of intellectual activity. Forthis reason excessive hunger, heat or cold, intense joy, anger orsorrow, are usually antagonistic to intellectual work. The explanationfor this seems to be that so much of our nervous energy is consumed inovercoming the resistance in the centres affected, that little is leftfor ordinary intellectual processes. This does not, of course, implythat no one can do intellectual work under such conditions; nor that theintellectual man is always devoid of strong feelings, although such isoften the case. Occasionally, however, a man is so strongly endowed withnervous energy, that even after overcoming the resistance beingencountered, he still has a residue of energy to devote to ordinaryintellectual processes. 

=Feeling and Will. =--Although, as pointed out in the last paragraph, there is a certain antagonism between knowing and feeling, it has alsobeen seen that every experience has its knowing as well as its feelingside. Because of this co-ordination, the qualities of our feeling statesbecome known to us, or are able to be distinguished by the mind. As aresult of this recognition of a difference in our feeling states, welearn to seek states of pleasure and to avoid states of pain or, inother words, our mere states of feeling become desires. This means thatwe become able to contrast a present feeling with other rememberedstates, and seek either to continue the present desired state or tosubstitute another for the present undesirable feeling. In the form ofdesire, therefore, our feelings become strong motives, which mayinfluence the will to certain lines of action. 

SENSUOUS FEELINGS

While the sensations of the special senses, namely, sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell, have each their affective, or feeling, side, a minutestudy of these feelings is not necessary for our present purpose. It maybe noted, however, that in the more intellectual senses, namely, sight, hearing, and touch, feeling tone is less marked, although strong feelingmay accompany certain tactile sensations. In the lower senses of tasteand smell, the feeling tone is more pronounced. Under muscular sensationwe meet such marked feeling tones as fatigue, exertion, and strain, while associated with the organic sensations are such feelings as hungerand thirst, and the various pains which usually accompany derangementand disease of the bodily organs. Some of these feelings are important, because they are likely to influence the will by developing into desiresin the form of appetites. Many sensuous feelings are important alsobecause they especially warn the mind regarding the condition of theorganism. 

EMOTION

=Nature of Emotion. =--An emotion differs from sensuous feeling, not inits content, but in its higher intensity, its greater complexity, andits more elaborate motor response. It may be defined as a succession ofinterconnected feelings with a more complex physical expression than asimple feeling. On reading an account of a battle, one may feel sad andexpress this sadness only in a gloomy appearance of the face. But ifone finds that in this battle a friend has been killed, the feeling ismuch intensified and may become an emotion of grief, expressing itselfin some complex way, perhaps in tears, in sobbing, in wringing thehands. Similarly, a feeling of slight irritation expressed in a frowningface, if intensified, becomes the emotion of anger, expressed in tensemuscles, rapidly beating heart, laboured breathing, perhaps a torrent ofwords or a hasty blow. 

=Emotion and Instinct. =--Feeling and instinct are closely related. Everyinstinct has its affective phase, that is, its satisfaction alwaysinvolves an element of pleasure or pain. The satisfaction of theinstincts of curiosity or physical activity illustrates this fact. Onthe other hand, every emotion has its characteristic instinctiveresponse. Fear expresses itself in all persons alike in certaincharacteristic ways inherited from a remote ancestry; anger expressesitself in other instinctive reactions; grief in still others. 

CONDITIONS OF EMOTION

An analysis of a typical emotion will serve to show the conditions underwhich it makes its appearance. Let us take first the emotion of fear. Suppose a person is walking alone on a dark night along a desertedstreet. His nervous currents are discharging themselves uninterruptedlyover their wonted channels, his current of thought is unimpeded. Suddenly there appears a strange and frightful object in his pathway. His train of thought is violently checked. His nervous currents, which amoment ago were passing out smoothly and without undue resistance intomuscles of legs, arms, body, and face, are now suddenly obstructed, orin other words encounter violent resistance. He stands still. His heartmomentarily stops beating. A temporary paralysis seizes him. As thenervous currents thus encounter resistance, the feeling tone known asfear is experienced. At the same time the currents burst their barriersand overflow into new channels that are easy of access, the motorcentres being especially of this character. Some of the currents, therefore, run to the involuntary muscles, and in consequence the heartbeats faster, the breathing becomes heavier, the face grows pale, a coldsweat breaks forth, the hair "stands on end. " Other currents, throughhereditary influences, pass to the voluntary muscles, and the personshrieks, and turns and flees. 

Or take the emotion of anger. Some fine morning in school everything isin good order, everybody is industriously at work, the lessons areproceeding satisfactorily. The current of the teacher's experience isflowing smoothly and unobstructedly. Presently a troublesome boy, whohas been repeatedly reproved for misconduct, again shows symptoms ofidleness and misbehaviour. The smooth current of experience beingchecked, here also both a new feeling tone is experienced and the wontednerve currents flow out into other brain centres. The teacher stops hiswork and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil. His heart beats rapidly, the blood surges to his face, his breathing becomes heavy, his musclesgrow tense. In these reactions we have the nervous currents passing outover involuntary channels. Then, perhaps, the teacher unfortunatelybreaks forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon theoffender. Here the nervous currents are passing outward over thevoluntary system. 

These illustrations indicate that three important conditions are presentat the appearance of the emotion, namely, (1) the presence of anunusual object in consciousness, (2) the consequent disturbance of thesmooth flow of experience or, in physiological terms, the temporaryobstruction of the ordinary pathways of nervous discharge through thegreat resistance encountered, and (3) the new feeling state with itsconcomitant overflow of the impulses into new motor channels, some ofwhich lead to the involuntary muscles and others to the voluntary. Theemotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as a result ofthe resistance encountered by the nervous impulses as the smooth flow ofexperience is checked. The idea that I shall die some day arouses noemotion in me, because it in no way affects my ordinary thoughtprocesses, and therefore it in no way disturbs my nervous equilibrium. The perception of a wild animal about to kill me, because it suddenlythwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my experience through asuggestion of danger, produces an intense feeling and a diffused andintense derangement of the nervous equilibrium. 

=Development of Emotions. =--The question of paramount importancein connection with emotion is how to arouse and develop desirableemotions. The close connection of the three phases of the mind'smanifestation--knowing, feeling, and willing, gives the key to thequestion. Feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing andwilling. In fact, if we attend carefully to the knowing and willingactivities, the feelings, in one sense, take care of themselves. Twoprinciples, therefore, lie at the basis of proper emotional development:

1. The mind must be allowed to dwell upon only those ideas to whichworthy emotions are attached. We must refuse to think those thoughtsthat are tinged with unworthy feelings. The Apostle Paul has expressedthis very eloquently when he says in his Epistle to the Philippians:"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things arehonest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; ifthere be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things. "

2. The teacher's main duty in the above regard is to provide the pupilwith a rich fund of ideas to which desirable feelings cling. Animpressive manner, an enthusiastic attitude toward subjects of study, anevident interest in them, and apparent appreciation of them, will alsoaid much in inspiring pupils with proper feelings, for feelings areoften contagious in the absence of very definite ideas. How often havewe been deeply moved by hearing a poem impressively read even though wehave very imperfectly grasped its meaning. The feelings of the readerhave been communicated to us through the principle of contagion. Similarly, in history, art, and nature study, emotions may be stirred, not only through the medium of the ideas presented, but also by theimpressiveness, the enthusiasm, and the interest exhibited by theteacher in presenting them. 

3. We must give expression to these emotions we wish to develop. Expression means the probability of the recurrence of the emotion, andgradually an emotional habit is formed. An unselfish disposition iscultivated by performing little acts of kindness and self-denialwhenever the opportunity offers. The expression of a desirable emotion, moreover, should not stop merely with an experience of the organicsensations or the reflex reactions accompanying the emotion. To listento a sermon and react only by an emotional thrill, a quickened heartbeat, or a few tears, is a very ineffective kind of expression. Theonly kind of emotional expression that is of much consequence either toourselves or others is conduct. Only in so far as our emotionalexperiences issue in action that is beneficial to those about us, arethey of any practical value. 

=Elimination of Emotions. =--Since certain of our emotions, such as angerand fear, are, in general, undesirable states of feeling, a questionarises how such emotions may be prevented. It is sometimes said that, ifwe can inhibit the expression, the emotion will disappear, that is, if Ican prevent the trembling, I will cease to be afraid. From what has justbeen learned, however, the emotion and its expression being reallyconcomitant results of the antecedent obstruction of ordinary nervousdischarges, emotion cannot be checked by checking the expression, butboth will be checked if the nervous impulses can be made to continue intheir wonted courses in spite of the disturbing presentations. The realsecret of emotional control lies, therefore, in the power of voluntaryattention. The effect of attention is to cause the nervous energy to bedirected without undue resistance into its wonted channels, this, inturn, preventing its overflow into new channels. By thus directing theenergy into wonted and open channels, attention prevents both themovements and the feeling that are concomitants of a disturbance ofnervous equilibrium. By meeting the attack of the dog in a purposefuland attentive manner, we cause the otherwise damming-up nervous energyto continue flowing into ordinary channels, and in this way prevent boththe feeling of fear and also the flow of the energy into the motorcentres associated with the particular emotion. But while it is notscientifically correct in a particular case to say that we may inhibitthe feeling by inhibiting the movements, it is of course true that, byavoiding a present emotional outburst, we are less likely in the futureto respond to situations which tend to arouse the emotional state. Onthe other hand, to give way frequently to any emotional state will makeit more difficult to avoid yielding to the emotion under similarconditions. 

OTHER TYPES OF FEELING

=Mood. =--Our feelings and emotions become organized and developed invarious ways. The sum total of all the feeling tones of our sensory andideational processes at any particular time gives us our _mood_ at thattime. If, for instance, our organic sensations are prevailinglypleasant, if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with agreeable feeling, our mood is cheerful. We can to a large extent control our current ofthought, and can as we will, except in case of serious bodilydisturbances, attend, or not attend, to our organic sensations. Consequently we are ourselves largely responsible for the moods weindulge. 

=Disposition. =--A particular kind of mood frequently indulged inproduces a type of emotional habit, our _disposition_. For instance, theteacher who permits the occurrences of the class-room to trouble himunnecessarily, and who broods over these afterwards, soon develops aworrying disposition. As we have it in our power to determine whathabits, emotional and otherwise, we form, we alone are responsible forthe dispositions we cultivate. 

=Temperament. =--Some of us are provided with nervous systems that arepredisposed to particular moods. This predisposition, together withfrequent indulgence in particular types of mood, gives us our_temperament_. The responsibility for this we share with our ancestors, but, even though predisposed through heredity to unfortunate moods, wecan ourselves decide whether we shall give way to them. Temperamentshave been classified as _sanguine_, _melancholic_, _choleric_, and_phlegmatic_. The sanguine type is inclined to look on the bright sideof things, to be optimistic; the melancholic tends to moodiness andgloom; the choleric is easily irritated, quick to anger; the phlegmaticis not easily aroused to emotion, is cold and sluggish. An individualseldom belongs exclusively to one type. 

=Sentiments. =--Certain emotional tendencies become organized about anobject and constitute a _sentiment_. The sentiment of love for ourmother had its basis in our childhood in the perception of her as thesource of numberless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones. As wegrew older, we understood better her solicitude for our welfare and hersacrifices for our sake--further experiences involving a large feelingelement. Thus there grew up about our mother an organized system ofemotional tendencies, our sentiment of filial love. Such sentiments aspatriotism, religious faith, selfishness, sympathy, arise and develop inthe same way. Compared with moods, sentiments are more permanent incharacter and involve more complex knowledge elements. Moreover, they donot depend upon physiological conditions as do moods. One's organicsensations may affect one's mood to a considerable extent, but willscarcely influence one's patriotism or filial love. 

CHAPTER XXX

THE WILL

VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF ACTION

=Types of Movement. =--Closely associated with the problem of voluntaryattention is that of voluntary movement, or control of action. It is anevident fact that the infant can at first exercise no conscious controlover his bodily movements. He has, it is true, certain reflex andinstinctive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way tocertain special stimuli. In such cases, however, there is no consciouscontrol of the movements, the bodily organs merely responding in adefinite way whenever the proper stimulus is present. The eye, forinstance, must wink when any foreign matter affects it; wry movements ofthe face must accompany the bitter taste; and the body must start at asudden noise. At other times, bodily movements may be produced in a morespontaneous way. Here the physical energy stored within the system givesrise to bodily activity and causes those random impulsive movements soevident during infancy and early childhood. When these movements, whichare the only ones possible to very early childhood, are compared withthe movements of a workman placing the brick in the wall or of an artistexecuting a delicate piece of carving, there is found in the lattermovements the conscious idea of a definite end, or object, to bereached. To gain control of one's movements is, therefore, to acquire anability to direct bodily actions toward the attainment of a given end. Thus a question arises as to the process by which a child attains tothis bodily control. 

=Ideas of Movements Acquired. =--Although, as pointed out above, achild's early instinctive and impulsive movements are not underconscious control, they nevertheless become conscious acts, in the sensethat the movements are soon realized in idea. The movements, in otherwords, give rise to conscious states, and these in turn are retained asportions of past experience. For instance, although the child at firstgrasps the object only impulsively, he nevertheless soon obtains anidea, or experience, of what it means to grasp with the hand. So, also, although he may first stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry facereflexively, he secures, in a short time, ideas representative of thesemovements. As the child thus obtains ideas representative of differentbodily movements, he is able ultimately, by fixing his attention uponany movement, to produce it in a voluntary way. 

=Development of Control: A. Ideo-motor Action. =--At first, on account ofthe close association between the thought centres and the motor centrescausing the act, the child seems to have little ability to check theact, whenever its representative idea enters consciousness. It is forthis reason that young children often perform such seeminglyunreasonable acts as, for instance, slapping another person, kicking andthrowing objects, etc. In such cases, however, it must not be assumedthat these are always deliberate acts. More often the act is performedsimply because the image of the act arises in the child's mind, and hiscontrol of the motor discharge is so weak that the act followsimmediately upon the idea. This same tendency frequently manifestsitself even in the adult. As one thinks intently of some favourite game, he may suddenly find himself taking a bodily position used in playingthat game. It is by the same law also that the impulsive man tends toact out in gesture any act that he may be describing in words. Such atype of action is described as ideo-motor action. 

=B. Deliberate Action. =--Because the child in time gains ideas ofvarious movements and an ability to fix his attention upon them, he thusbecomes able to set one motor image against another as possible lines ofaction. One image may suggest to slap; the other to caress; the one topull the weeds in the flower bed; the other, to lie down in the hammock. But attention is ultimately able, as noted in the last Chapter, so tocontrol the impulse and resistance in the proper nervous centres thatthe acts themselves may be indefinitely suspended. Thus the mind becomesable to conceive lines of action and, by controlling bodily movement, gain time to consider the effectiveness of these toward the attainmentof any end. When a bodily movement thus takes place in relation to someconscious end in view, it is termed a deliberate act. One importantresult of physical exercises with the young child is that they developin him this deliberate control of bodily movements. The same may be saidalso of any orderly modes of action employed in the general managementof the school. Regular forms of assembly and dismissal, of moving aboutthe class-room, etc. , all tend to give the child this same control overhis acts. 

=Action versus Result. =--As already noted, however, most of ourmovements soon develop into fixed habits. For this reason our bodilyacts are usually performed more or less unconsciously, that is, withoutany deliberation as to the mere act itself. For this reason, we findthat when bodily movements are held in check, or inhibited, in order toallow time for deliberation, attention usually fixes itself, not uponthe acts themselves, but rather upon the results of these acts. Forinstance, a person having an axe and a saw may wish to divide a smallboard into two parts. Although the axe may be in his hand, he isthinking, not how he is to use the axe, but how it will result if heuses this to accomplish the end. In the same way he considers, not howto use the saw, but the result of using the saw. By inhibiting the motorimpulses which would lead to the use of either of these, the individualis able to note, say, that to use the axe is a quick, but inaccurate, way of gaining the end; to use the saw, a slow, but accurate, way. Thepresent need being interpreted as one where only an approximate divisionis necessary, attention is thereupon given wholly to the images tendingto promote this action; resistance is thus overcome in these centres, and the necessary motor discharges for using the axe are given freeplay. Here, however, the mind evidently does not deliberate on how thehands are to use the axe or the saw, but rather upon the resultsfollowing the use of these. 

VOLITION

=Nature of Will. =--When voluntary attention is fixed, as above, upon theresults of conflicting lines of action, the mind is said to experience aconflict of desires, or motives. So long as this conflict lasts, physical expression is inhibited, the mind deliberating upon andcomparing the conflicting motives. For instance, a pupil on his way toschool may be thrown into a conflict of motives. On the one side is adesire to remain under the trees near the bank of the stream; on theother a desire to obey his parents, and go to school. So long as thesedesires each press themselves upon the attention, there results aninhibiting of the nervous motor discharge with an accompanying mentalstate of conflict, or indecision. This prevents, for the time being, anyaction, and the youth deliberates between the two possible lines ofconduct. As he weighs the various elements of pleasure on the one handand of duty on the other, the one desire will finally appear thestronger. This constitutes the person's choice, or decision, and a lineof action follows in accordance with the end, or motive, chosen. Thismental choice, or decision, is usually termed an act of will. 

=Attention in Will. =--Such a choice between motives, however, evidentlyinvolves an act of voluntary attention. What really goes on inconsciousness in such a conflict of motives is that voluntary attentionmakes a single problem of the twofold situation--school versus play. Tothis problem the attention marshals relative ideas and selects andadjusts them to the complex problem. Finally these are built into anorganized experience which solves the problem as one, say, of going toschool. The so-called choice is, therefore, merely the mental solutionof the situation; the necessary bodily action follows in an habitualmanner, once the attention lessens the resistance in the appropriatecentres. 

=Factors in Volitional Act. =--Such an act of volition, or will, isusually analysed in the following steps:

1. Conflicting desires

2. Deliberation--weighing of motives

3. Choice--solving the problem

4. Expression. 

As a mental process, however, an act of will does not include the fourthstep--expression. The mind has evidently willed, the moment aconclusion, or choice, is reached in reference to the end in view. If, therefore, I stand undecided whether to paint the house white or green, an act of will has taken place when the conclusion, or mental decision, has been reached to paint the house green. On the other hand, however, only the man who forms a decision and then resolutely works out hisdecision through actual expression, will be credited with a strong willby the ordinary observer. 

=Physical Conditions of Will. =--Deliberation being but a special case ofgiving voluntary attention to a selected problem, it involves the sameexpenditure of nervous energy in overcoming resistance within the braincentres as was seen to accompany any act of voluntary attention. Suchbeing the case, our power of will at any given time is likely to vary inaccordance with our bodily condition. The will is relatively weak duringsickness, for instance, because the normal amount of nervous energywhich must accompany the mental processes of deliberation and choice isnot able to be supplied. For the same reason, lack of food and sleep, working in bad air, etc. , are found to weaken the will for facing adifficulty, though we may nevertheless feel that it is something thatought to be done. An added reason, therefore, why the victim of alcoholand narcotics finds it difficult to break his habit is that the use ofthese may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organism. Infacing the difficult task of breaking an old habit, therefore, thisperson has rendered the task doubly difficult, because the indulgencehas weakened his will for undertaking the struggle of breaking an oldhabit. On the other hand, good food, sleep, exercise in the fresh air, by quickening the blood and generating nervous energy, in a sensestrengthens the will in undertaking the duties and responsibilitiesbefore it. 

ABNORMAL TYPES OF WILL

=The Impulsive Will. =--One important problem in the education of thewill is found in the relation of deliberation to choice. As is the casein a process of learning, the mind in deliberating must draw upon pastexperiences, must select and weigh conflicting ideas in a more or lessintelligent manner, and upon this basis finally make its choice. A firstcharacteristic of a person of will, therefore, is to be able todeliberate intelligently upon any different lines of action which maypresent themselves. But in the case of many individuals, there seems alack of this power of deliberation. On every hand they display almost achildlike impulsiveness, rushing blindly into action, and alwaysfollowing up the word with the blow. This type, which is spoken of as animpulsive will, is likely to prevail more or less among young children. It is essential, therefore, that the teacher should take this intoaccount in dealing with the moral and the practical actions of thesechildren. It should be seen that such children in their variousexercises are made to inhibit their actions sufficiently to allow themto deliberate and choose between alternative modes of action. For thispurpose typical forms of constructive work will be found of educationalvalue. In such exercises situations may be continually created in whichthe pupil must deliberate upon alternative lines of action and make hischoice accordingly. 

=The Retarded Will. =--In some cases a type of will is met in which theattention seems unable to lead deliberation into a state of choice. LikeHamlet, the person keeps ever weighing whether _to be or not to be_ isthe better course. Such people are necessarily lacking in achievement, although always intending to do great things in the future. This type ofwill is not so prevalent among young children; but if met, the teachershould, as far as possible, encourage the pupil to pass more rapidlyfrom thought to action. 

=The Sluggish Will. =--A third and quite common defect of will is seenwhere the mind is either too ignorant or too lazy to do the work ofdeliberating. While such characters are not impulsive, they tend tofollow lines of action merely by habit, or in accordance with thedirection of others, and do little thinking for themselves. The onlyremedy for such people is, of course, to quicken their intellectuallife. Unless this can be done, the goodness of their character mustdepend largely upon the nobility of those who direct the formation oftheir habits and do their thinking for them. 

=Development of Will. =--By recalling what has been establishedconcerning the learning process, we may learn that most schoolexercises, when properly conducted, involve the essential facts of anact of will. In an ordinary school exercise, the child first has beforehim a certain aim, or problem, and then must select from formerexperience the related ideas which will enable him to solve thisproblem. So far, however, as the child is led to select and reject forhimself these interpreting ideas, he must evidently go through a processsimilar to that of an ordinary act of will. When, for example, the childfaces the problem of finding out how many yards of carpet of a certainwidth will cover the floor of a room, he must first decide how to findthe number of strips required. Having come to a decision on this point, he must next give expression to his decision by actually working outthis part of the problem. In like manner, he must now decide how toproceed with the next step in his problem and, having come to aconclusion on this point, must also give it expression by performingthe necessary mathematical processes. It is for this reason, that theordinary lessons and exercises of the school, when presented to thechildren as actual problems, constitute an excellent means fordeveloping will power. 

=The Essentials of Moral Character. =--It must be noted finally, thatwill power is a third essential factor in the attainment of real moralcharacter, or social efficiency. We have learned that man, through thepossession of an intelligent nature, is able to grasp the significanceof his experience and thus form comprehensive plans and purposes for theregulation of his conduct. We have noted further that, through thedevelopment of right feeling, he may come to desire and plan for theattainment of only such ends as make for righteousness. Yet, howevernoble his desires, and however intelligent and comprehensive his plansand purposes, it is only as he develops a volitional personality, ordetermination of character which impels toward the attainment of thesenoble ends through intelligent plans, that man can be said to live thetruly efficient life. 

 Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control, These three alone lead life to sovereign power. 

In this connection, also, we cannot do better than quote Huxley'sdescription of an educated man, as given in his essay on _A LiberalEducation_, a description which may be considered to crystallize thetrue conception of an efficient citizen:

 That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. 

CHAPTER XXXI

CHILD STUDY

=Scope and Purpose of Child Study. =--By child study is meant theobservation of the general characteristics and the leading individualdifferences exhibited by children during the periods of infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Its purpose is to gather facts regardingchildhood and formulate them into principles that are applicable ineducation. From the teacher's standpoint, the purpose is to be able toadapt intelligently his methods in each subject to the child's mind atthe different stages of its development. 

In the education of the child we have our eyes fixed, at least partly, upon his future. The aim of education is usually stated in terms of whatthe child is to _become_. He is to become a socially efficientindividual, to be fitted to live completely, to develop a good moralcharacter, to have his powers of mind and body harmoniously developed. All these aims look toward the future. But what the child _becomes_depends upon what he _is_. Education, in its broadest sense, meanstaking the individual's present equipment of mind and body and so usingit as to enable him to become something else in the future. The teachermust be concerned, therefore, not only with what he wishes the child to_become_ in the future, but also with what he _is_, here and now. 

=Importance to the Teacher. =--The adaptation of matter and method to thechild's tendencies, capacities, and interests, which all good teachingdemands, is possible only through an understanding of his nature. Theteacher must have regard, not only to the materials and the method usedin training, but also to the being who is to be trained. A knowledge ofchild nature will prevent expensive mistakes and needless waste. 

A few typical examples will serve to illustrate the immense importance aknowledge of child nature is to his teacher. 

1. As has been already explained, when the teacher knows something aboutthe instincts of children, he will utilize these tendencies in histeaching and work with them, not against them. He will, whereverpossible, make use of the play instinct in his lessons, as for example, when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climbing a stairwaywithout stumbling or crossing a stream on stones without falling in. Hewill use the instinct of physical activity in having children learnnumber combinations by manipulating blocks, or square measure byactually measuring surfaces, or fractions by using scissors and stripsof cardboard, or geographical features by modelling in sand and clay. Hewill use the imitative instinct in cultivating desirable personalhabits, such as neatness, cleanliness, and order, and in modifyingconduct through the inspiring presentation of history and literature. Hewill provide exercise for the instinct of curiosity by suggestinginteresting problems in geography and nature study. 

2. When the teacher understands the principle of eliminating undesirabletendencies by substitution, he will not regard as cardinal sins thepushing, pinching, and kicking in which boys give vent to their excessenergy, but will set about directing this purposeless activity into moreprofitable channels. He will thus substitute another means ofexpression for the present undesirable means. He will, for instance, give opportunity for physical exercises, paper-folding and cutting, cardboard work, wood-work, drawing, colour work, modelling, etc. , so faras possible in all school subjects. He will try to transform the boy whoteases and bullies the smaller boys into a guardian and protector. Hewill try to utilize the boy's tendency to collect useless odds and endsby turning it into the systematic and purposeful collection of plants, insects, specimens of soils, specimens illustrating phases ofmanufactures, postage stamps, coins, etc. 

3. When the teacher knows that the interests of pupils have much to dowith determining their effort, he will endeavour to seize upon theseinterests when most active. He will thus be saved such blunders asteaching in December a literature lesson on _An Apple Orchard in theSpring_, or assigning a composition on "Tobogganing" in June, because herealizes that the interest in these topics is not then active. Eachseason, each month of the year, each festival and holiday has its ownparticular interests, which may be effectively utilized by thepresentation of appropriate materials in literature, in composition, innature study, and in history. A current event may be taken advantage ofto teach an important lesson in history or civics. For instance, anelection may be made the occasion of a lesson on voting by ballot, aminiature election being conducted for that purpose. 

4. When the teacher appreciates the extent of the capacities ofchildren, he will not make too heavy demands upon their powers oflogical reasoning by introducing too soon the study of formal grammar orthe solution of difficult arithmetical problems. When he knows that theperiod from eight to twelve is the habit-forming period, he willstress, during these years such things as mechanical accuracy in thefundamental rules in arithmetic, the memorization of gems of poetry, andthe cultivation of right physical and moral habits. When he knows theinfluence of motor expression in giving definiteness, vividness, andpermanency to ideas, he will have much work in drawing, modelling, constructive work, dramatization, and oral and written expression. 

METHODS OF CHILD STUDY

=A. Observation. =--From the teacher's standpoint the method ofobservation of individual children is the most practicable. He has thematerial for his observations constantly before him. He soon discoversthat one pupil is clever, another dull; that one excels in arithmetic, another in history; that one is inclined to jump to conclusions, anotheris slow and deliberate. He is thus able to adapt his methods to meetindividual requirements. But however advantageous this may be from thepractical point of view, it must be noted that the facts thus securedare individual and not universal. Such child study does not in itselfcarry one very far. To be of real value to the teacher, these particularfacts must be recognized as illustrative of a general law. When theteacher discovers, for instance, that nobody in his class responds veryheartily to an abstract discussion of the rabbit, but that everybody isintensely interested when the actual rabbit is observed, he may regardthe facts as illustrating the general principle that children need to beappealed to through the senses. Likewise when he obtains poor results incomposition on the topic, "How I Spent My Summer Holidays, " butexcellent results on "How to Plant Bulbs, " especially after the pupilshave planted a bed of tulips on the front lawn, he may infer the law, that the best work is obtained when the matter is closely associatedwith the active interests of pupils. By watching the children when theyare on the school grounds, the teacher may observe how far theoccupations of the home, or a current event, such as a circus, anelection, or a war, influences the play of the children. Thus the methodof observation requires that not only individual facts should beobtained, but also that general principles should be inferred on thebasis of these. Care must be taken, however, that the facts observedjustify the inference. 

=B. Experiment. =--An experiment in any branch of science means theobservation of results under controlled conditions. Experimental childstudy must, to a large extent, therefore, be relegated to thepsychological laboratory. Such experiments as the localization ofcutaneous impressions, the influence of certain operations on fatigue, or the discovery of the length of time necessary for a consciousreaction, can be successfully carried out only with more or lesselaborate equipment and under favourable conditions. However, the schooloffers opportunity for some simple yet practical experiments in childstudy. The teacher may discover experimentally what is the mostfavourable period at which to place a certain subject on the schoolprogramme, whether, for instance, it is best to take mechanicalarithmetic when the minds of the pupils are fresh or when they areweary, or whether the writing lesson had better be taught immediatelyafter the strenuous play at recess or at a time when the muscles arerested. He may find out the response of the pupils to problems inarithmetic closely connected with their lives (for example, in a ruralcommunity problems relating to farm activities), as compared with theirresponse to problems involving more or less remote ideas. He maydiscover to what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in onesubject, composition for instance, affects the exercises in othersubjects in which neatness has not been explicitly demanded. This latterexperiment might throw some light upon the much debated question offormal discipline. In all these cases the teacher must be on his guardnot to accept as universal principles what he has found to be true of asmall group of pupils, until at least he has found his conclusionsverified by other experimenters. 

=C. Direct Questions. =--This method involves the submission of questionsto pupils of a particular age or grade, collecting and classifying theiranswers, and basing conclusions upon these. Much work in this directionhas been done in recent years by certain educators, and muchilluminating and more or less useful material has been collected. A gooddeal of light has been thrown upon the apperceptive material thatchildren have possession of by noting their answers to such questionsas: "Have you ever seen the stars? A robin? A pig? Where does milk comefrom? Where do potatoes come from?" etc. , etc. The practical value ofthis method lies in the insight it gives into the interests of children, the kind of imagery they use, and the relationships they have set upamong their ideas. Every teacher has been surprised at times at theabsurd answers given by children. These absurdities are usually due tothe teacher's taking for granted that the pupils have possession ofcertain old knowledge that is actually absent. The moral of suchoccurrences is that he should examine very carefully what "mind stuff"the pupils have for interpreting the new material. 

=D. Biographical Studies of Individual Children. =--Many books have beenwritten describing the development of individual children. Thesedescriptions doubtless contain much that is typical of all children, butone must be careful not to argue too much from an individual case. Suchrecords are valuable as confirmatory evidence of what has already beenobserved in connection with other children, or as suggestive of what maybe looked for in them. 

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

The period covered by child study may be roughly divided into threeparts, namely, (1) infancy, extending from birth to three years of age, (2) childhood, from three to twelve, and (3) adolescence, from twelve toeighteen. While children during each of these periods exhibit strikingdissimilarities one from another, there are nevertheless manycharacteristics that are fairly universal during each period. 

1. INFANCY

=A. Physical Characteristics. =--One of the striking features of infancyis the rapidity with which command of the bodily organs is secured. Starting with a few inherited reflexes, the child at three years of agehas attained fairly complete control of his sense organs and bodilymovements, though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by whichcertain delicate effects of hand and voice are produced. The relativegrowth is greater at this than at any subsequent period. Anotherprominent characteristic is the tendency to incessant movement. Theconstant handling, exploring, and analysing of objects enhances thechild's natural thirst for knowledge, and he probably obtains a largerstock of ideas during the first three years of his life than during anyequal period subsequently. 

=B. Mental Characteristics. =--A conspicuous feature of infancy is theimitative tendency, which early manifests itself. Through this meansthe child acquires many of his movements, his language power, and thesimple games he plays. Sense impressions begin to lose their fleetingcharacter and to become more permanent. As evidence of this, fewchildren remember events farther back than their third year, while manycan distinctly recall events of the third and fourth years even afterthe lapse of a long period of time. The child at this period begins tocompare, classify, and generalize in an elementary way, though his ideasare still largely of the concrete variety. His attention is almostentirely non-voluntary; he is interested in objects and activities forthemselves alone, and not for the sake of an end. He is, as yet, unableto conceive remote ends, the prime condition of voluntary attention. Hisideas of right and wrong conduct are associated with the approval anddisapproval of those about him. 

2. CHILDHOOD

=A. Physical Characteristics. =--In the earlier period of childhood, fromthree to seven years, bodily growth is very rapid. Much of the vitalforce is thus consumed, and less energy is available for physicalactivity. The child has also less power of resistance and is thussusceptible to the diseases of childhood. His movements are for the samereason lacking in co-ordination. In the later period, from seven totwelve years, the bodily growth is less rapid, more energy is availablefor physical activity, and the co-ordination of muscles is greater. Thebrain has now reached its maximum size and weight, any further changesbeing due to the formation of associative pathways along nerve centres. This is, therefore, pre-eminently the habit-forming period. From thephysical standpoint this means that those activities that areessentially habitual must have their genesis during the period betweenseven and twelve if they are to function perfectly in later life. Themastery of a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is everto be perfect. If a foreign language is to be acquired, it should bebegun in this period, or there will always be inaccuracies inpronunciation and articulation. 

=B. Mental Characteristics. =--The instinct of curiosity is very activein the earlier period of childhood, and this, combined with greaterlanguage power, leads to incessant questionings on the part of thechild. He wants to know what, where, why, and how, in regard toeverything that comes under his notice, and fortunate indeed is thatchild whose parent or teacher is sufficiently long-suffering to givesatisfactory answers to his many and varied questions. To ignore theinquiries of the child, or to return impatient or grudging answers mayinhibit the instinct and lead later to a lack of interest in the worldabout him. The imitative instinct is also still active and revealsitself particularly in the child's play, which in the main reflects theactivities of those about him. He plays horse, policeman, school, Indian, in imitation of the occupations of others. Parents and teachersshould depend largely upon this imitative tendency to secure desirablephysical habits, such as erect and graceful carriage, cleanliness ofperson, orderly arrangement of personal belongings, neatness in dress, etc. The imagination is exceedingly active during childhood, fantasticand unregulated in the earlier period, under better control anddirection in the later. It reveals itself in the love of hearing, reading, or inventing stories. The imitative play mentioned above is onephase of imaginative activity. The child's ideas of conduct, in thisearlier stage of childhood, are derived from the pleasure or pain oftheir consequences. He has as yet little power of subordinating hislower impulses to an ideal end, and hence is not properly a moral being. Good conduct must, therefore, be secured principally through theexercise of arbitrary authority from without. 

In the later period of childhood, acquired interests begin to be formedand, coincident with this, active attention appears. The child begins tobe interested in the product, not merely in the process. The mind atthis period is most retentive of sense impressions. This is consequentlythe time to bring the child into immediate contact with his environmentthrough his senses, in such departments as nature study and field workin geography. Thus is laid the basis of future potentialities ofimagery, and through it appreciation of literature. On account of theacuteness of sense activity at this period, this is also the time formemorization of fine passages of prose and poetry. The child's thinkingis still of the pictorial rather than of the abstract order, though thepowers of generalization and language are considerably extended. Thesocial interests are not yet strong, and hence co-operation for a commonpurpose is largely absent. His games show a tendency towardindividualism. When co-operative games are indulged in, he is usuallywilling to sacrifice the interests of his team to his own personalglorification. 

3. ADOLESCENCE

=A. Physical Characteristics. =--In early adolescence the characteristicphysical accompaniments of early childhood are repeated, namely, rapidgrowth and lack of muscular co-ordination. From twelve to fifteen, girlsgrow more rapidly than boys and are actually taller and heavier thanboys at corresponding ages. From fifteen onward, however, the boysrapidly outstrip the girls in growth. Lack of muscular co-ordination isresponsible for the awkward movements, ungainly appearance, ungracefulcarriage, with their attendant self-consciousness, so characteristic ofboth boys and girls in early adolescence. 

=B. Mental Characteristics. =--Ideas are gradually freed from theirsensory accompaniments. The child thinks in symbols rather than insensory images. Consequently there is a greater power of abstraction andreflective thought. This is therefore the period for emphasizing thosesubjects requiring logical reasoning, for example, mathematics, science, and the reflective aspects of grammar, history, and geography. 

From association with others or from literature and history, idealsbegin to be formed which influence conduct. This is brought aboutlargely through the principle of suggestion. In the early years ofadolescence children are very susceptible to suggestions, but thesuggestive ideas must be introduced by a person who is trusted, admired, or loved, or under circumstances inspiring these feelings; hence theimportance to the adolescent of having teachers of strong and inspiringpersonality. However, if the suggestive idea is to influence action, itmust be introduced in such a way as not to set up a reaction against it. Reaction will be set up if the idea is antagonistic to the presentideas, feelings, or aims, or if it is so persistently thrust upon thechild that he begins to suspect that he is being unduly influenced. Toavoid reaction the parent or teacher should introduce suggestive ideasindirectly. For instance, while the mind is concentrated upon one set ofideas, a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful may betolerated. It may lie latent for a time, and when it recurs it may beregarded as original, under which condition it is likely to issue inaction. 

The adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional development, and care should therefore be exercised to have the child's mind dwellupon only those ideas with which worthy emotions are associated. Theemotional bent, whether good or bad, is determined to a large extentduring this period of adolescence. So far as morality is thesubordination of primitive instincts to higher ideas, the child nowbecomes a moral being. His conduct is now determined by reason and byideals, and the primitive pleasure-pain motives disappear. It followsthat coercion and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline atthis period. Social interests are prominent, evidenced by the tendencyto co-operate with others for a common end. The games of the period aremainly of the co-operative variety and are marked by a willingness tosacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team, or side. 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

While, as noted above, all children have certain common characteristicsat each of the three periods of development, it is even more apparentthat every child is in many respects different from every other child. He has certain peculiarities that demand particular treatment. It isevident that it would be impossible to enumerate all the individualdifferences in children. The most that can be done is to classify themost striking differences and endeavour to place individual children inone or other of these classes. 

=A. Differences in Thought. =--One of the obvious classifications ofpupils is that of "quick" and "slow. " The former learns easily, butoften forgets quickly; the latter learns slowly, but usually retainswell. The former is keen and alert; the latter, dull and passive. Theformer frequently lacks perseverance; the latter is often tenacious andpersistent. The former unjustly wins applause for his cleverness; thelatter, equally unjustly, wins contempt for his dulness. The teachermust not be unfair to the dull plodder, who in later years mayfrequently outstrip his brilliant competitor in the race of life. 

Some pupils think better in the abstract, others, in the concrete. Theformer will analyse and parse well in grammar, distinguish fine shadesof meaning in language, manage numbers skilfully, or work out chemicalequations accurately. The latter will be more successful in doingthings, for instance, measuring boards, planning and planting a gardenplot, making toys, designing dolls' clothes, and cooking. The schools ofthe past have all emphasized the ability to think in the abstract, andto a large extent ignored the ability to think in the concrete. This isunfair to the one class of thinkers. From the ranks of those who thinkin the abstract have come the great statesmen, poets, and philosophers;from the ranks of those who think in the concrete have come thecarpenters, builders, and inventors. It will be admitted that the worldowes as great a debt from the practical standpoint to the latter classas to the former. Let the school not despise or ignore the pupil who, though unable to think well in abstract studies, is able to do things. 

=B. Differences in Action. =--There is a marked difference among childrenin the ability to connect an abstract direction with the required act. This is particularly seen in writing, art, and constructive work, subjects in which the aim is the formation of habit, and in whichsuccess depends upon following explicitly the direction given. Theteacher will find it economical to give very definite instruction as towhat is to be done in work in these subjects. It is equally importantthat instructions regarding conduct should be definite and unmistakable. 

As explained in the last Chapter, there are two extreme and contrastingtypes of will exhibited by children, namely, the impulsive type and theobstructed type. In the former, action occurs without deliberationimmediately upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness. This typeis illustrated in the case of the pupil who, as soon as he hears aquestion, thoughtlessly blurts out an answer without any reflectionwhatever. In the adult, we find a similar illustration when, immediatelyupon hearing a pitiable story from a beggar, he hands out a dollarwithout stopping to investigate whether or not the action iswell-advised. It is useless to plead in extenuation of such actions thatthe answer may be correct or the act noble and generous. The probabilityis equally great that the opposite may be the case. The remedy forimpulsive action is patiently and persistently to encourage the pupil toreflect a moment before acting. In the case of the obstructed type ofwill, the individual ponders long over a course of action before he isable to bring himself to a decision. Such is the child whom it is hardto persuade to answer even easy questions, because he is unable todecide in just what form to put his answer. On an examination paper heproceeds slowly, not because he does not know the matter, but because hefinds it hard to decide just what facts to select and how to expressthem. The bashful child belongs to this type. He would like to answerquestions asked him, to talk freely with others, to act without anyfeeling of restraint, but is unable to bring himself to do so. Theobstinate child is also of this type. He knows what he ought to do, butthe opposing motives are strong enough to inhibit action in the rightdirection. As already shown, the remedy for the obstructed will is toencourage rapid deliberation and choice and then immediate action, thrusting aside all opposing motives. Show such pupils that in caseswhere the motives for and against a certain course of action are ofequal strength, it often does not matter which course is selected. Onemay safely choose either and thus end the indecision. The "quick" childusually belongs to the impulsive type; the "slow" child, to theobstructed type. The former is apt to decide and act hastily andfrequently unwisely; the latter is more guarded and, on the whole, moresound in his decision and action. 

=C. Differences in Temperament. =--All four types of temperament given inthe formal classification are represented among children in school. The_choleric_ type is energetic, impulsive, quick-tempered, yet forgiving, interested in outward events. The _phlegmatic_ type is impassive, unemotional, slow to anger, but not of great kindness, persistent inpursuing his purposes. The _sanguine_ type is optimistic, impressionable, enthusiastic, but unsteady. The _melancholic_ type ispessimistic, introspective, moody, suspicious of the motives of others. Most pupils belong to more than one class. Perhaps the two mostprominent types represented in school are (1) that variety of thesanguine temperament which leads the individual to think himself, hispossessions, and his work superior to all others, and (2) that varietyof the melancholic temperament which leads the individual to fancyhimself constantly the victim of injustice on the part of the teacher orthe other pupils. A pupil of the first type always believes that hiswork is perfectly done; he boasts that he is sure he made a hundred percent. On his examinations; what he has is always, in his own estimation, better than that of others. When the teacher suggests that his workmight be better done, the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved. Such achild should be shown that he is right in not being discouraged over hisown efforts, but wrong in thinking that his work does not admit ofimprovement. A pupil of the second type is continually imagining thatthe teacher treats him unjustly, that the other pupils slight or injurehim, that, in short, he is an object of persecution. Such a pupil shouldbe shown that nobody has a grudge against him, that the so-calledslights are entirely imaginary, and that he should take a sane view ofthese things, depending more upon judgment than on feeling to estimatethe action of others toward him. 

=D. Sex Differences. =--Boys differ from girls in the predominance ofcertain instincts, interests, and mental powers. In boys the fightinginstinct, and capacities of leadership, initiative, and mastery areprominent. In girls the instinct of nursing and fondling, and thecapacities to comfort and relieve are prominent. These are revealed inthe games of the playground. The interests of the two sexes aredifferent, since their games and later pursuits are different. In asystem of co-education it is impossible to take full cognizance of thisfact in the work of the school. Yet it is possible to make somedifferentiation between the work assigned to boys and that assigned togirls. For instance, arithmetical problems given to boys might deal withactivities interesting to boys, and those to girls might deal withactivities interesting to girls. In composition the differentiation willbe easier. Such a topic as "A Game of Baseball" would be more suitablefor boys, and on the other hand "How to Bake Bread" would make astronger appeal to girls. Similarly in literature, such a poem as _HowThey Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix_ would be particularlyinteresting to boys, while _The Romance of a Swan's Nest_ would be ofgreater interest to girls. As to mental capacities, boys are usuallysuperior in those fields where logical reasoning is demanded, whilegirls usually surpass boys in those fields involving perceptive powersand verbal memory. For instance, boys succeed better in mathematics, science, and the reflective phases of history; girls succeed better inspelling, in harmonizing colours in art work, in distinguishing fineshades of meaning in language, and in memorizing poetry. The averageintellectual ability of each sex is nearly the same, but boys deviatefrom the average more than girls. Thus while the most brilliant pupilsare likely to be boys, the dullest are also likely to be boys. It is ascientific fact that there are more individuals of conspicuously clevermind, but also more of weak intellect, among men than there are amongwomen. 

=A Caution. =--While it has been stated that the teacher should takenotice of individual differences in his pupils, it may be advisable alsoto warn the student-teacher against any extravagant tendency in thedirection of such a study. A teacher is occasionally met who seems toact on the assumption that his chief function is not to educate but tostudy children. Too much of his time may therefore be spent in theconducting of experiments and the making of observations to that end. While the data thus secured may be of some value, it must not beforgotten that control of the subject-matter of education and of themethod of presenting that subject-matter to the normal child, togetherwith an earnest, enthusiastic, and sympathetic manner, are the primequalifications of the teacher as an instructor. 

APPENDIX

SUGGESTED READINGS FROM BOOKS OF REFERENCE

CHAPTER I

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapter I. Colvin The Learning Process, Chapter II. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapter I. 

CHAPTER II

Bagley Educational Values, Chapters I, II, III. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter III. Thorndike Elements of Psychology, Chapter I. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter VI. 

CHAPTER III

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XIV. Colvin The Learning Process, Chapter I. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter XI. 

CHAPTER IV

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters II, XV. Dewey The School and Society, Part I. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapters VI, VII. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XVIII. 

CHAPTER V

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapter I. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter III. 

CHAPTER VI

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapter III. Dewey The School and Society, Part II. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapters I, IV. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter XIII. 

CHAPTER VII

Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I. 

CHAPTER VIII

Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER IX

Kirkpatrick Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV. Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VII. Dewey The School and Society, Part II. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter II. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapter III. 

CHAPTER X

Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VII. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VI. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapters IV, IX. 

CHAPTER XI

Angell Psychology, Chapter VI. Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters IV, V, IX. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XII

Betts Psychology, Chapter XVI. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIII. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter IX. 

CHAPTER XIII

Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VII. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter XII. 

CHAPTER XIV

McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapter III. 

CHAPTER XV

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters XIX, XX. Colvin The Learning Process, Chapter XXII. McMurry The Method of the Recitation, Chapters VIII, X. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters V, VI. 

CHAPTER XVI

Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter III. 

CHAPTER XVII

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters XXI, XXII. Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter IV. Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IV, VIII, X. 

CHAPTER XVIII

Landon The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter XII. Strayer A Brief Course in the Educative Process, Chapter XI. 

CHAPTER XIX

Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter I. Pillsbury Essentials of Education, Chapter I. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter II. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter I. 

CHAPTER XX

Angell Psychology, Chapter II. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter III. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II. Halleck Education of the Central Nervous System. 

CHAPTER XXI

Colvin The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV. Kirkpatrick Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapter III. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter IV. 

CHAPTER XXII

Angell Psychology, Chapter III. Bagley The Educative Process, Chapter VII. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter V. Colvin The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV. Thorndike Principles of Teaching, Chapter VIII. Thorndike Elements of Psychology, Chapter XIII. 

CHAPTER XXIII

Angell Psychology, Chapter IV. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter II. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XXIV

Angell Psychology, Chapter XXI. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XIII. James Talks to Teachers, Chapter X. Welton The Psychology of Education, Chapter VII. 

CHAPTER XXV

Angell Psychology, Chapters V, VI. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VI. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapters IV, VII. 

CHAPTER XXVI

Angell Psychology, Chapter IX. Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XI. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIII. Thorndike Elements of Psychology, Chapter III. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XXVII

Angell Psychology, Chapter VIII. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter IX. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XXVIII

Angell Psychology, Chapters X, XII. Bagley The Educative Process, Chapters IX, X. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter X. Colvin The Learning Process, Chapter XXII. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX. Thorndike Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI. 

CHAPTER XXIX

Angell Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapters XII, XIV. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI, XII. 

CHAPTER XXX

Angell Psychology, Chapters XX, XXII. Betts The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XV. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology, Chapter XIII. Thorndike Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI. 

CHAPTER XXXI

Bagley The Educative Process, Chapter XII. Raymont The Principles of Education, Chapter V. Kirkpatrick Fundamentals of Child Study.