+-------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | [p] or [P] represents a turned p or P. | | [T] represents a turned T. | | | +-------------------------------------------+ OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY CONTENTS Page Introductory note 269 Dwellings 269 Earth lodges 269 Lodges of bark or mats 271 Skin lodges or tents 271 Furniture and implements 275 Fireplaces 275 Beds and bedding 275 Cradles 275 Children's swings 276 Brooms 276 Pottery 276 Mortars and pestles 276 Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels 277 Water vessels 277 Other vessels 278 Hoes and axes 278 Knives 278 Implements connected with fire 279 Smoking paraphernalia 279 Equipage for horses 280 Traveling gear 281 Boats 281 Musical instruments 281 Weapons 283 Clubs 283 Tomahawks 284 Spears 284 Bows 285 Arrows 286 Quivers 287 Shields and armor 287 Firearms 288 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge 270 307. Ground plan of Osage lodge 271 308. Omaha tent 272 309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent 273 310. [P]ejequde's tent 274 311. Omaha cradle--plan 276 312. Omaha cradle--side view 276 313. Omaha mortar 277 314. Omaha pestle 277 315. Omaha calumet 279 316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions 280 317. Skin drum 282 318. Box drum 282 319. Omaha large flute 283 320. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna) 283 321. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna) 284 322. Omaha club (weaq¢ade) 284 323. Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ) 285 324. Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ) 285 325. Omaha hunting arrow 286 326. Omaha war arrow 286 327. Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce 286 OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigationsamong the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in1878 and continued from time to time during late years. While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said isapplicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similarenvironments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats werealmost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe hasbeen dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara, Nebraska. Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestionsearly in the progress of the work. DWELLINGS. The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earthor, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It maybe observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earthlodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka. Earth Lodges. When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribalcircle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindredcommonly built near one another. The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principallyfor summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt. Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the followingmanner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forkedat the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of eachseries. The number in each series varied according to the size of thelodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the innerseries, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generallyconstituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, heoccupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circleformed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the innerseries, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting uprightslabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference ofthe lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their topsmet the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hardwillow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops ofthe upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to thesummit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another andextending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof likerafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; andover the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled froma foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twentyyears. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke. [Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountainsin 1819-'20. ] [Illustration: Fig. 306. --Yellow Smoke's earth lodge. ] In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feetlong and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned ordried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging sideby side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastenedto the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose atthe bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a personentering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end ofthe passageway. Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed ofearth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku′de, a village near the agency; (2)Windja′ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission house;and (3) Jaⁿ¢a′te ("Wood Eaters, ") named after an insect found under thebark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of Decatur, Nebraska. Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts, councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the centerof the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inchesdeep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deepnotches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency Ifound the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on thesouthern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet indiameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feetdeep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge. Lodges of Bark or Mats. The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did theIowa and Sak. [T]iu′¢ipu jiñ′ga, or low lodges covered with mats, wereused by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still common among theWinnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan of such a lodgeforms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from the ground. Thetent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end planted in theground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the poleimmediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs formedboth wall posts and rafters. [Illustration: Fig. 307. --Ground plan of Osage lodge. ] Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; butwhen I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with twofireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance, each fireplace having its smokehole. Skin Lodges or Tents. The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when theywere traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abodeof a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge wasgenerally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account ofcomfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush, or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep. Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into theirtents, even when they were of canvas. [Illustration: Fig. 308. --Omaha tent (from a photograph by W. H. Jackson). ] The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffaloskins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feethigh, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and ahalf in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole (ʇihuʞaⁿ). Besides the interior tent poles (ʇici--3, figure 309) and the tent skin(ʇiha--1), the tent had the ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ, or the place where the skinswere fastened together above the entrance (4). The ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ wasfastened with the ʇihu¢ubaxaⁿ(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces ofhide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom ofthe tent was secured to the ground by pins (ʇihu¢ugadaⁿ--6) driventhrough holes (ʇihugaq¢uge) in the bottom of the skins, made when thelatter were tanned and before they had become hard. The entrance(ʇijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the wind wasblowing. A door flap (ʇijebeg¢aⁿ--7) hung over the entrance; it was madeof skin with the hair outside, so as to turn water, and was held taut bya stick fastened to it transversely. The bottom of the door flap wasloose, but the top was fastened to the tent. [Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent. ] The smokehole was formed by the two ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a(9), or triangular endsof tent skins, immediately above the entrance and ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ. When therewas no wind both of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a were kept open by means of theʇihu¢ubajiⁿ(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust through theujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a. When the windblew one of the ʇihu¢ubajiⁿ was raised to the windward and the other waslowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening forthe escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against theentrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to preventthe wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people usednandi¢agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. Theseconsisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects. Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners orstandards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a partygoing on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of stripsof red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamentedwith feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in fourwar expeditions. No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principalman of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge, which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back ofthe tent. [1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of theordinary ones. Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles orthread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deeror buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elkhorn. [Illustration: Fig. 310. --[P]ejequde's tent. ] Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structuresof this description, each household stored away its own grain and otherprovisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; butsometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When acouncil was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the headchiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one largeone. [2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, andthey could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses wereimprovised either of earth lodges or skin tents. Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents (ʇiu¢ipu). [3] Stones were notboiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called iⁿߵĕbasi¢aⁿ, and then water from the kettle was poured on them, creating steam. Cedarfronds were dropped on the stones, causing a perfume to arise. [Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also"A Study of Siouan Cults, " in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology, 1889-'90, p. 351. ] [Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep. , op. Cit. , p. 294. ] [Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. Vi, 1890, pp. 152, 169, and 234. ] FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS. Fireplaces. Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une¢ĕ), formed byexcavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post(isag¢ĕ), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle overthe fire. This apparatus was called ¢exe u¢ugacke by the Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung. " The Omaha havetwo names for it, uhaⁿ u¢ugacke, and u¢ugackeg¢e, the last syllable ofthe latter name referring to the attitude of the post. Around thefireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as they satabout the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were arrangedoutside of and all around this circular space. Beds and Bedding. A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried withthe hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safedistance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Flèche, the Omahaused sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of theWinnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hairon them, and covered themselves with similar hides. For pillows they used ibehiⁿ or iⁿbehiⁿ. When the vegetation was about 3inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and pulled off thehair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling parchment. It wasused for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for pillows the casewas filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer until it wasabout 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and whenever therewas occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could be had, thepeople sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches. [1] Back of thecouches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties. The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake′ya, " the plural ofwhich, "wake′yapi, " undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick′iup" ofthe plains, and also to "wä-ka′-yo" of Morgan. [2] Cradles. A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide, was selected to form a cradle or u¢uhe. No pillow was needed. A softskin ([p]aq¢uqaha ¢aⁿ) covered with plenty of thick hair was laid on theboard, and on it was placed the infant. [Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to theirintroduction by the traders and other white people. ] [Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. Iv. , 1881, p. 114. ] [Illustration: Fig. 311. --Omaha cradle--plan. ] In the annexed figures, a is the ĭndua¢isiⁿkaⁿhe, the object paintedon the board at the end where the infant's head is laid; b is theĭndei¢idĭndiⁿ ("that which is drawn taut over the face"), the twostrings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of red calicoalone), which keep in place the fan, etc. ; the fan (ĭndeagani), which issuspended from a bow of wood, (c) is about 6 inches square, and isnow made of interwoven sinew on which beads have been strung. Occasionallythimbles and other bright objects dangle from the bottom of the fan. Thei¢a¢istage (d) is the band by which the infant is fastened to thecradle. [Illustration: Fig. 312. --Omaha cradle--side view. ] Children's Swings. For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to fourtrees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanketwas thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant waslaid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling. Brooms. Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, andwas used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, andthe interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kindwas made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping thefireplace of an earth lodge. Pottery. Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. Theart of making it has been forgotten by the tribe. Mortar and Pestles. A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece ofwood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to apoint, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. Afterputting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped thewooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smallerend, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. Theoperation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he. " The mortar(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, althoughsometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of varioussizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always ofhard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches toan inch in diameter. [Illustration: Fig. 314. --Omaha pestle. ] [Illustration: Fig. 313. --Omaha mortar. ] Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels. Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made ofbuffalo horn (ʇehe sabĕ), are not used by such Omaha as belong to theBuffalo gentes (Iñkesabĕ, Ȼatada, [T]esinde, etc. ) which may not touch abuffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (jaⁿʇehe) were made of knobsor knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found among the Omahaand Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam shells (ʇihaba, inȻegiha; tcühaba, tcühuba, in Kansa), so the Kansa call a small spoon, tcühaba jiñga. Spoons of buffalo horn had their handles variouslyornamented by notches and other rude carving, often terminating in thehead of a bird, the neck or handle of each being elevated at an angle of50° or 60° with the bowl, which, was about 3 inches in width by about 5in length. As the handle of such a spoon usually terminates in a head orhook, it was impossible for it to slip into the bowl when the hookrested on the outside of the rim of the bowl. Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of varioussizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served asdrinking cups (ni′i¢átaⁿ), but now cups of tin or earthenware are usedfor that purpose. Water Vessels When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used woodenbowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter. When they went on the hunt, they used the ínijeha (or sack made of themuscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to makeit stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the ínijeha wasfilled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in theshade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days itbecame strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place. Some preferred the "ʇenăn′de uq¢a′ha ¢aⁿ" or pericardium(?) of thebuffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell unpleasant, even whenused for seven or ten days. But at the expiration of that time it isunfit for further service. Jugs have been introduced by the traders. Other Vessels. Provision sacks or parflèche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. Whenused for carrying the dried meat, they were called weábastá. After twoor three years' use they became soft and were fit only for makingmoccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimesmade in trunk fashion. Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of atree, called tawáߵaⁿhe, which is found on the old Ponka reservation inDakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not findthe tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other kinds ofbark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Naⁿ′pa ú¢isĕ, used forchokecherries; ag¢añ′kamañge ú¢isĕ, used for raspberries; and bactú¢isĕ, used for strawberries. When the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in horizontal sections, not pulling upward ordownward. In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread ofdifferent colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets. Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inchesfrom the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. Theopening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in agathering string is drawn and tied. Hoes and Axes. For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes andhatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, maⁿ′ze-pe, sharpiron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, maⁿ′hi-spe, answering to theDakota, waⁿhiⁿ′-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet is distinguished from theax by adding "jiñga, " small. Some of the stone axes and hatchets havebeen found on the Omaha reservation, but they could hardly have beenused for cutting. It is not known what tools were used for fellingtrees. Knives. Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency, Nebraska, is known as "Máhiⁿ-ʇu, " signifying blue knife, from thecharacter of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is severalmiles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month ofChoteau creek, South Dakota. Implements Connected with Fire. In former ages, the Ȼegiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick roundand round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and inthat region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the countrycalled [P]izábahéhe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grassknown as "duáduáhi, " which has about a hundred fine shoots from eachroot, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for handdrills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man putshis feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick inhis hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned itround and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a smallquantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stickanswered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the handdrill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another partof the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used, when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duáduáhi, according toMr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington, District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before theintroduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe, the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire. Spits for roasting, etc. , náqpe, or wébasnaⁿ, were made of any kind ofwood. For tongs they used the [p]edi¢a¢isande ("fire-holder"), made byslitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, jaⁿ jiñganini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes. Smoking Paraphernalia. [Illustration: Fig. 315. --Omaha calumet] The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those usedby the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawaⁿ or calumet (illustratedin figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of adoption, [1] andthe hatchet pipe or maⁿzepe niniba, introduced since the coming of thewhite man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary Tobacco pouches(niniújiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and were ornamented withporcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes buffalo bladderswere used for this purpose. The women used them as receptacles for theirporcupine quills. [Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology, " Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology, chap. Vi. ] occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, andthe stem is decorated with horsehair. [Illustration: Fig. 316. --Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions. ] Equipage for Horses. Saddles (cánakág¢e) were in use before the coming of the whites. Theywere made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still"ʇaha-nuʞa" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Flèche these saddlesdid not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian ponies), butDougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally cruelhorse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the backsof their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the friction ofthe rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish manner, beingelevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin saddle clothswithout padding. " They ride very well, and make frequent use of the whipand their heels, the latter being employed instead of spurs. For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which materialthey made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end ofwhich was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw, while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. Thisdid not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turnhim to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck, as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wishedto turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heelagainst the horse's side. Whips were of three kinds. The wahí wégasapi was attached to a bonehandle. The handle of a ja^{u}′uke¢iⁿ wégasapi was made of common wood. That of a zaⁿzí wégasapi was made of Osage orange wood, which is veryhard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band, which passedthrough a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was about 15inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been deposited inthe National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha) has a lash 2feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide. These areplaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest of thelash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends. The lasso was called maⁿ′tanah-í¢ize, i. E. , "that by which (a) wild(horse) is taken. " It was made by taking the hair from the head of abuffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's thumb. This rope was called "ʇaha-¢isaⁿ, " and was utilized by the Omaha andPonka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses innorthwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose largeenough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose weresecured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope, arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. Herode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose infront of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the headof an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated fromthe noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When thehorse was caught, the man made an ĭndú¢iciⁿ. (bridle or face cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under thechin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained uncovered. [Footnote 1: Long, S. H. ; Exp. Rocky Mts. , vol. 1, p. 291, Phila. , 1822] Trappings for the saddle (sĭn′de-ehé¢ĕ) were used. Some years ago aspecimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to theAnthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited inthe National Museum. Traveling Gear. Snow-shoes (sé-hiⁿbe) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when theytraversed a region, north of their modern, habitat. For traveling on foot a staff (hí-mañg¢e) was used when it was necessaryto pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be carried. Thisstaff differed from the crutch (í-mañg¢e). The women had mácaʞa^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads ofwood, etc. Boats. When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandéha. These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewedtogether with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate theseams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends beingbent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extendedthe whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The tenpieces were the ʇíci-íki[p]ádaⁿ. The rudder or steering oar (í¢isaⁿ′¢ĕ)was fashioned like the oars (mandú¢ugáhi), with the blade flat and ofthe breadth of two hands. The rowers (u¢úgahi aká) sat near the bow, andthe steersman (¢isaⁿ′¢a aká) took his seat at the stern. Musical Instruments. Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wataⁿ′ [p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahánuʞa [p]éxe, green-hide rattles, were of twosorts, one of which is "¢igúje, " bent a little. Specimens of this formare in the National Museum. Two kinds of rattles were called ʇa-cáge, i. E. , "deers-claws, " from thecomposition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of theelk. [Illustration: Fig. 317--Skin drum. ] [Illustration: Fig. 318--Box drum. ] The Omaha used three styles of drums. The ¢éxe-gaʞú b¢áska, or flatdrum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National Museum. The ¢éxe-gaʞú gadáje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or the skin of ahorse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the NationalMuseum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The jaⁿ′¢éxe-gaʞú, or ʞúge ¢éxe-gaʞú, is a wooden or box drum, represented bythe accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen (no. 58610) in theNational Museum. Whistles were made of elder (baʇúci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing outthe pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube. Nisúde ʇañ′ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was cutoff, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six holeswere made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck togetheragain. When one of these instruments is blown it produces quaveringnotes. The best specimens were made by [P]á¢iⁿ-ʇañ′ga, Big Pawnee. The large flute is illustrated in figure 319. [1] Wahí nisúde, or boneflutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These smallflutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, ¢íq¢e nisúde, were made of akind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably inKansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribesand made them into flutes having but one hole each. [Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews, " in theNational Museum. ] [Illustration: Fig. 319. --Omaha large flute. ] WEAPONS. Clubs. [Illustration: Fig. 320. --Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna). ] The jaⁿ-wétiⁿ, "striking-wood, " is a four-sided club. It is made of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. Theja^n-dáona, "wood with a smooth head, " is a club made of ironwood, whichis very hard. According to the late Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha form ofthis weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball. [Illustration: Fig. 321. --Omaha club (jaⁿ-dáᴐna). ] [Illustration: Fig. 322. --Omaha club (weaq¢ade). ] Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna which may be seen inthe National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq¢ade, another kind ofwar club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no. 23729). Theother has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle, with a woodenpoint (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting from the ball, making an angle of about 130° with one side of the handle. There is asteel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of about 110° withthe other side of the handle. The iⁿ′-wate-jiñ′ga is something like aslung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of hide which isfastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long. Tomahawks. The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made ofstone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashionedof iron. Spears. Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term man′dĕhi. The jaⁿ′-man'dĕhi are made of ash, and are from 6 to 8 feet long. Thereare two kinds, of one of which the handle is round, and about an inch indiameter, and the point is flat and about the width of three fingers atits juncture with the handle. Besides these there are the lances, called waq¢exe-¢áze, of which thereare two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has beenthrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewedtogether, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathersof the crow and miⁿ′xa-saⁿ, or swan, in alternate rows or bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket. About themiddle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the pole was notset into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp. [1] The othervariety, or mandĕhi ¢iguje, "bent spear, " is the weapon which the Dakotacall "wahukeza. " It is ornamented with eagle feathers placed atintevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it generallyterminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for one ofthese waq¢exe¢aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and even mountedmen have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some of thedances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant. The endfeather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser extent. Bows. [Illustration: Fig. 323. --Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ). ] [Illustration: Fig. 324. --Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ)] Bows (man-dĕ) are of two kinds. One is the man-dĕ or zaⁿzi-mandĕ(bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip to within an inchor two of each nock. [2] The other kind is the ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ, so calledbecause it has deer sinew glued on its back. [3] Bows were made ofhickory, ash, ironwood, or zaⁿzi, the last being greatly preferred. Itis a wood resembling that of the Osage orange, with which some personsconfound it; but it is black and much harder than the former, the Osageorange wood being yellow, soft, and easily cut. The zaⁿzi is probablythat which Dougherty[4] called "bow-wood (Maclura aurantiaca ofNuttall). " [Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80;1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation. "] [Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the AmericanNaturalist for July, 1886, p. 675. ] [Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned. ] [Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. Cit. , vol. I, p. 290. ] Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, asamong other tribes. Arrows. [Illustration: Fig. 325. --Omaha hunting arrow. ] The arrows (maⁿ) used in former days were of several kinds. The huntingarrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet long, ofthe usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of thearrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinewwrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread somecement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of thearrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened nearits base in the usual manner. Another kind of hunting arrow was the hidé nazí¢ĕ, which was altogetherof wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was triangular orquadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft close to afire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced it to theproper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing fish, deer, and small game. [Illustration: Fig. 326. --Omaha war arrow. ] The war arrow (b) differed from that used in hunting in having abarbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that ifit penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn withoutleaving the point in the wound. [Illustration: Fig. 327. --Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce] Children used the hidé-ʇáce, or target arrow, when they began to learnthe use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals. The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (maⁿsa) of jaⁿ-′qude-hí, "gray wood, "juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not found among theOmaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the ma^n'saqtihí, or "realarrow-wood, " (Viburnum) as that was the wood best suited for thepurpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry wood; and JosephLaFlèche informs me that he has made them of ash and hickory. Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of theworkman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one wasbent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed againstthe rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of thepolishers, or maⁿ′-¢iq¢áde, two pieces of sandstone, each of which hada groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them. War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points tothe other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it wasintended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle. Arrowheads (máhiⁿ-sí), when made of flint, as at the first, were called"iⁿ′ߵĕ mahiⁿsí, " stone arrowheads. In more recent times, they weremanufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops of pailsand barrels. Arrow cement (hiⁿ′pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, wasusually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This wasboiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinousmatter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (calledhiⁿpá-jaⁿjiñ′ga) was thrust in and turned round and round, causing thematerial to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was smoothed with thehand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity was collected onthe stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by placing either in themouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle was also used formaking cement. A set of arrows were called, collectively, "maⁿwiⁿ′daⁿ. " A set generallyconsisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes there weretwo, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his quiver, hecompared them with that which was in the slain animal. When he had noneleft, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow. There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguishedfrom another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind offeathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. TheOto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they wereinferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha. The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of theeagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk orcrow feathers were employed. Quivers. Quivers (maⁿ′jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys' quiverswere made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with thetail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin casewas attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use. Thewrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the leatherwristguard or áqande-[p]a. Shields and Armor. Shields (ʇaháwag¢e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They wereround and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows didnot penetrate them. Joseph La Flèche never heard of the use of defensivearmor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka. He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, twoforming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins wasplaced sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back ofthe head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes. When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his headforward. Firearms. Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Doughertysays that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns. " INDEX. Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha 287 of the Pawnee 288 Arrows of the Omaha 286 Axes of the Omaha 278 Bark, Omaha lodges of 269, 271 Basketry of the Omaha 278 Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha 274 Beds and bedding of the Omaha 275 Big Pawnee, Flutes made by 282 Bikúde, an Omaha village 270 Bladders used as receptacles 280 Boats of hide of the Omaha 281 Bone hoes of the Omaha 278 Bridles of the Omaha 280 Brooms of the Omaha 276 Buffalo, gents of the Omaha 277 Ȼegiha fire-making 279 Cement used by the Omaha 287 Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the 286 Clubs, War, of the Omaha 283 Couches of the Omaha 275 Cradles of the Omaha 275 Dakota, Arrows of the 287 Dance houses of the Omaha 274 Decoration of Omaha tents 274 Dorsey J. O. , on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements 263-288 Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood 285 firearms 288 horse equipage 280 Drilling, with grass-stalks 279 Drinking vessels of the Omaha 277 Drums of the Omaha 282 Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha 263-288 Equipage for horses 280 Firearms among the Omaha 288 Fire implements of the Omaha 279 Fireplace in Omaha lodge 271 of the Omaha and Ponka 275 Flute of the Omaha 282 Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha 263-288 Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows 287 Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha 274 Halters of the Omaha 280 Hammocks introduced among the Omaha 275 Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha 278 Horn spoons of the Omaha 277 Implements of the Omaha 263-278 Iowa indians, Bark lodges of 271 Jaⁿ′¢ate, an Omaha village 270 Kansa, Lodges of the 270 Knives of the Omaha 268 Ladles of the Omaha 277 La Flèche, Joseph, on Omaha armor 287 arrowshafts 286 mats 275 saddles 280 war-clubs 283 La Flesche, Francis, on grass-stalk drills 279 Lances of the Omaha 285 Lariats of the Omaha 280 Lodges of earth, Use of 271, Omaha, how constructed 269 Long, S. H. , on Kansa lodge 269 Omaha bow-wood 285 indian horsemanship 280 Mason, O. T. , Acknowledgements to 269 Mats, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago 275, Omaha lodges of, 269, 271 Mortars of the Omaha 276 Musical instruments of the Omaha 281 Omaha dwellings, furniture and implements 263-288 Osage indians, Bent spear used by 285, Lodges of, described 271 Oto, Arrows of the 287 Pawnee, Armor of the 288, Arrows of the 287, Bent spear used by the 285 [P]ejqude, Tent of 273, 274 Pestles of the Omaha 176 Pillows of the Omaha 275 Pipes of the Omaha 279 Ponka, Armor not used by the 287, Arrows of the 287 dwellings, furniture and implements 269, Ropes of the 281 Pottery, formerly made by the Omaha 276, 277 Provision sacks of the Omaha 278 Quivers of the Omaha 287 Rattles of the Omaha 281 Riding, Omaha method of 280 Sacks of the Omaha 278 Saddles of the Omaha 280 Sanssouci, Village of 271 Sauk, Bark lodges of the 271 Say, T. , on Kansa lodge 269 Sewing among the Siouan tribes 274 Shields of the Omaha 287 Skin lodge of the Omaha 269, 271 Smoke holes of Omaha lodge 273 Smoking paraphernalia, Omaha 279 Snow-shoes, Omaha and Ponka 281 Spears of the Omaha 284 Spoons of the Omaha 277 Standards, War, of the Omaha 273 Standing Hawk Village of 270 Stone arrowheads of the Omaha 287 axes of the Omaha 278 knives of the Omaha 278 Sweat-houses of the Omaha 274 Swings of Omaha children 276 Tobacco pouches of the Omaha 284 Tomahawks of the Omaha 284 Tongs of the Omaha 279 Totem posts, Absence of, among the Omaha 274 Traveling gear, Omaha and Ponka 281 Utensils of the Omaha 277 Water vessels of the Omaha 277 Weapons of the Omaha 283 Whips of the Omaha 280 Whistles of the Omaha 282 Wickiup, Origin of term 275 Winjage, an Omaha village 270 Winnebago grass mats 275 lodges described 271 Women, Omaha lodges made by 269 Wood, Spoons of, of the Omaha 277 Wristguards used by the Omaha 287 Yellow Smoke, Earth lodge of 270